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TRANSACTIONS
F THE
ENTUCKY
\CADEMY OF SCIENCE
ffical Publication of the Academy
Lx one Volume 35
( MLLHSONI AG Numbers |-2
“ty “1074 June 1974
| LIBRARIES
The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914
OFFICERS FOR 1974
President: Donald L. Batch, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
President Elect: Ellis V. Brown, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506
Past President: Marvin Russell, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101
Vice President: Frederick M. Brown, Centre College, Danville 40422
Secretary: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101
Treasurer: Wayne Hoffman, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101
Representative to AAAS Council: Branley Branson, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond 40475
BoArRD OF DIRECTORS
Ernest Beal 1974 Charles Payne 1976
J. Hill Hamon 1974 Morris Taylor 1976
Thomas B. Calhoon 1975 Fletcher Gabbard 1977
Charles E. Kupchella 1975 John C. Philley 1977
EDITORIAL OFFICE
Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40208
Associate Editors: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louis-
ville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of Louisville, eet
Kentucky 40208
William E. Dennen, Department of Geology, University of Kentucky, Lexington,
Kentucky 40506
All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed
to the Editor.
The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT.
Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon nomina-
tion, payment of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from the
Secretary. The Transactions are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are $6.00.
Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $7.00; foreign, $8.00; back issues are $8.00
per volume.
The Transactions are issued semiannually. Four numbers comprise a volume.
Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary.
Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Librarian, Uni-
versity of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208, who is the exchange agent for the Academy.
TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE
JewlOTA
VOLUME 35
NUMBERS 1-2
Thomas Hunt Morgan
HERBERT PARKES RILEY
Thomas Hunt Morgan School of Biological Sciences
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506
The Hunt-Morgan House is associated
with two nationally or internationally
famous Americans. It was the home of
General John Hunt Morgan, a Confederate
general and cavalry leader whose exploits
as head of “Morgan’s Men” placed him high
on the Union’s “most wanted” list. Probably
better known, and certainly better known
outside the United States is his nephew,
Dr. Thomas Hunt Morgan, a professor of
biological sciences whose pioneer studies in
the field of classical genetics opened up a
new and exciting area of biological research,
and laid the foundations for the vast
amount of work in biochemical and molec-
ular genetics that has developed since the
end of World War II.
Dr. Morgan’s father was Captain Charlton
Hunt Morgan who rode with the general’s
band during the War Between the States,
and his mother was Ellen Key Howard
whose grandfather, Francis Scott Key, was
the author of “The Star-Spangled Banner.”
Dr. Morgan was descended from the early
Anglo-Saxon stock who founded and built
up the country during colonial days, and
in height, appearance, and manners he was
very much a southern gentleman. In his
ancestral lines were several old, aristocratic
families of Pennsylvania and Maryland. He
was born on 25 September 1866 in the
Hunt-Morgan House, which has sometimes
been called Hopemont. Apparently, he was
named for his uncle, Lieutenant Thomas
Hunt Morgan, a member of Morgan's
Raiders, who had been killed in a skirmish
at Lebanon, Kentucky, in 1863.
In 1880, Dr. Morgan entered the
Agricultural and Mechanical College of
Kentucky (now the University of Kentucky )
as a student in the preparatory department.
Two years later he became an_ under-
graduate and received his Bachelor of
Science degree, with highest class honors,
in 1886.
Dr. Morgan had shown an early interest
in natural history, and was an avid collector
of birds, birds’ eggs, and fossils before he
was 10 years old, so it was only natural
that as an undergraduate his chief interest
would be in that subject. He was fortunate
to study under A. R. Crandall, a professor in
the Department of Natural History, from
1878 to 1888. Apparently, Professor Cran-
dall maintained high academic standards,
for Dr. Morgan had to take a year of
organic and inorganic chemistry as a
prerequisite to a major in the department.
He later wrote of Professor Crandall (letter
to President Frank L. McVey at the time of
a University of Kentucky Convocation on
25 September 1936 in honor of Dr. Morgan)
“I have never met with a finer character or
better teacher. I realize the very great debt
I owe to these earlier experiences.”
During his student days, the college,
including the preparatory school, had an
enrollment of a little more than 300 students
2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
and about 20 faculty members. Lexington
was a very small town in a distinctly rural
environment and was not then ringed, as it
is today, by residential suburbs and _ shop-
ping centers. It was a paradise for the
student of natural history. Dr. Morgan was
an excellent student and was valedictorian
of his class at the graduation exercises, but
he had a lighter side as well, and accumu-
lated a number of demerits for tardiness at
chapel and for disorder in class and in the
halls. His only low mark was in French,
and for a most unusual reason. Professor
Francois M. Helveti, the instructor in
French, had been a soldier in the Union
army during the War Between the States
and had been captured by General
Morgan’s men and forced to ride back-
wards on a mule from Cincinnati to
Lexington. Such an indignity provoked a
hatred for the Morgan family that pre-
vented him from being objective when it
came to Dr. Morgan’s grade in French.
In the autumn of 1886, Dr. Morgan
entered The Johns Hopkins University for
graduate work in biology. This was a
fortunate choice, as The Hopkins was,
under the leadership of Daniel Coit Gilman,
one of the superior graduate schools in the
United States and one of the few institu-
tions in the country that offered the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy. It was a fortunate
choice, too, because it had an excellent
faculty in biology which included Professor
William Keith Brooks and several others of
note, and a group of fellow students, such
as H. V. Wilson, E. G. Conklin, S. Watase,
and R. G. Harrison, who became leaders in
the biological sciences at the turn of the
century. Professor E. B. Wilson, later a
colleague of Dr. Morgan at Columbia
University, had preceded him as a graduate
student at The Hopkins by just a few years.
In 1888, the State College of Kentucky
awarded Dr. Morgan the degree of Master
of Science on the basis of work done there
during his senior year plus work done for
two years in absentia while he was a
graduate student at The Johns Hopkins
University. On 5 June 1889, the Board of
Trustees of Kentucky elected him to a
professorship, and the Annual Register of
the State College of Kentucky for 1888-1889,
with the announcements for 1889-1890,
listed Thomas Hunt Morgan as Professor of
Natural History. However, on 13 June
1889, Dr. Morgan wrote to President James
K. Patterson declining the appointment as
he had just accepted an appointment as
Fellow in Morphology at The Hopkins and
hoped to apply for his degree of Doctor of
Philosophy at the end of the year. He
wrote that the fellowship generally led to
the Bruce Fellowship for one or more years
and that by accepting it he could devote
himself for one or two years entirely to
research in zoology. He received his
doctoral degree in 1890 and remained for
one postdoctoral year as a Bruce Fellow.
At that time he had no thought of being a
geneticist. His field was experimental
embryology, and his doctoral dissertation
was entitled “Embryology and Phylogeny
of the Pycnogonids (sea _ spiders).”
Bryn Mawr College in Philadelphia
offered him a professorship in 1891 and he
accepted it. He taught there for 13 years
and, as in his graduate studies at The Johns
Hopkins University, was preceded there by
Professor E. B. Wilson, who left the year
Dr. Morgan joined the faculty. His Bryn
Mawr experience was a very significant
one, as during his later years he became
engaged to Miss Lilian Vaughan Sampson,
a graduate student in biology and an
excellent violinist. She was a first-class
biologist in her own right and published a
number of articles in technical scientific
journals after she was married. Their
marriage took place in June 1904 and they
became the parents of four children.
In 1904, Dr. Morgan was called to the
new Chair of Experimental Zoology at
Columbia University in the City of New
York. In a sense, this appointment was the
turning point of his professional career
because it gave him facilities that he could
never have had at Bryn Mawr. His teach-
ing load was lighter, the library was much
better, and he had many first-class graduate
THOMAS HUNT
students. In addition, there was a much
larger group of stimulating biologists in
the faculty, including Professor E. B.
Wilson, whose field was closely allied to
Morgan’s. The inclusion of both men in
the same department was mutually very
beneficial.
One of the great benefits that Dr. Morgan
derived from his Columbia professorship
was access to three unusually brilliant
graduate students who were there at the
same time, and who, along with their
professor, formed a harmonious team which,
in a sense, was the forerunner of the
numerous scientific teams of the present
day. They were H. J. Muller, C. B. Bridges,
and A. H. Sturtevant. In recognition of
their assistance, Dr. Morgan shared his
Nobel Prize money with the two who were
still with him in 1933 when he received it.
In 1920, the California Institute of
Technology was formed from a smaller and
less renowned technical school near Los
Angeles. In 1928, it expanded to include
biology, and Thomas Hunt Morgan was
appointed Chairman of the Division of
Biology, Director of the Wm. G. Kerckhoff
Laboratories, and a member of the Execu-
tive Council of the Institute. There, he
had an even greater opportunity to develop
the science of genetics than he had as a
professor at Columbia University. Natu-
rally, the Division of Biology tended to
emphasize genetics as he added his former
students Dr. Bridges and Dr. Sturtevant to
the staff as well as several other geneticists
from other institutions. He remained as
Chairman of the Division and Director of
the Kerckhoff Laboratories until 1941, when
he retired at almost 75 years of age.
“Retirement, however, is a relative word,
and Dr. Morgan continued his biological
research after he gave up his more formal
duties, and until a short time before his
death, which occurred 4 December 1945, at
the age of 79 years.
Dr. Morgan was one of a group of
biologists responsible for establishing the
well-known Marine Biological Laboratory
at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Especially
Morcan—Riley 3
during the early part of this century it was
a tremendously active research laboratory
for aquatic biology, and many famous
biologists of that period spent their summers
there. Dr. Morgan built a home at Woods
Hole in 1907 which he maintained until
1944, and he spent every summer there
during that period with two exceptions.
The house had a double living room 80 feet
long and 25 feet wide, and a large dining
room and kitchen. On the second floor
were six bedrooms, two sleeping porches,
and one household bathroom. The third
floor had four huge unfinished rooms for
the maids. No architect was used, and the
total cost for lumber and labor was $3,000.
While there, he entertained many of the
famous biologists of Europe. In addition to
his periodic visits to the Marine Biological
Laboratory, he made other trips to collect
material and to consult with investigators in
other laboratories. They included the West
Indian island of Jamaica, the Stazione
Zoologica in Naples, and the Universities
of Berlin, Zurich, Helgoland, and other
places.
During his academic career, Dr. Morgan
published 14 books with a total of almost
5,000 pages. His first, published in 1897,
was on the development of the frog’s egg,
and his last, in 1934, was on embryology
and genetics. Perhaps the one that had the
greatest impact on biology was “The
Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity” au-
thored by T. H. Morgan, A. H. Sturtevant,
H. J. Muller, and C. B. Bridges. It was
originally published in 1915 and was revised
in 1923. It brought together and sum-
marized the evidence which that team had
been accumulating in support of Mendelism
and the chromosome theory of heredity,
and from then on the chromosome theory
was well accepted and no longer under
suspicion except by a few diehard biologists.
In addition to the books, Dr. Morgan
published more than 300 articles in
technical biological journals.
Experimental embryology was a fashion-
able biological subject in the 1880's and
1890’s and Dr. Morgan was one of its
+ TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 30( 1-2)
leaders. According to Muller (1946), he
was “an outstanding member of what may
be called the heroic generation of American
biologists—those whose work raised Ameri-
can biology to a position second to none
among the countries of the world.” During
that period, biology was in a very unsettled
state. In many ways it had not attained
the status of a science, and it tended to be
confounded and obfuscated by philosoph-
ical or pseudophilosophical speculations
that all too frequently were substituted
for experimentation and the _ objective
procurement of facts.
One of the big controversial problems
was the fundamental one of the essence and
substance of life. The two principal theses
were mechanism and vitalism and they were
mutually antagonistic. The former hypoth-
esized that living things were fundamen-
tally the same as nonliving, that that they
were composed of the same kinds of mole-
cules, and that they operated according to
the same laws that controlled the reactions
of inanimate objects. The vitalists, on the
other hand, assumed that life is partly
self-determining, that it cannot be explained
by the laws of chemistry and physics alone,
and that its functions and behavior are not
purely mechanistically determined. The
vitalists refused to explain life in concrete
terms with the result that subjects such as
embryology, heredity, regeneration, organi-
zation, and evolution frequently seemed to
be enshrouded in an air of mystery.
Dr. Morgan was an experimentalist who
believed in exact observation. He was one
of a group of biologists of that period who
detested and scorned speculation and all
generalization based on inadequate infor-
mation, and who felt that the important
need was for more data, more information,
before conclusions could be drawn or
generalizations made. This attitude was
frequently called “mechanistic,” especially
by those not in rapport with it. Morgan's
philosophy on that subject can be readily
understood from a biographical note he
published in Science (Morgan 1912) about
Miss N. M. Stevens, a former student of
his at Bryn Mawr College; she was a first-
class cytologist who made some significant
observations on chromosomes and_ the
inheritance of sex in animals. He wrote
“She was a trained expert in the modern
sense—in the sense in which biology has
ceased to be a playground for the amateur
and a plaything for the mystic.”
Early work of Dr. Morgan involved,
among other problems, the importance of
the structure of the egg to the development
of the individual. It was a problem that
interested him all his life. In the preface
to his “Experimental Embryology” (Morgan
1927), he wrote “A transparent egg as it
develops is one of the most fascinating
objects in the world of living things. The
continuous change in form that takes place
from hour to hour puzzles us by its very
simplicity. The geometric patterns that
present themselves at every turn invite
mathematical analyses. The constancy and
orderliness of the whole series of events,
repeating themselves a thousandfold in
every batch of eggs, assures us of a causal
sequence conspiring to create an object
whose parts are adjusted to make a machine
of extraordinary complexity.”
Some of the early embryological studies
were fascinating because of the meticulous-
ness of the observations and the ingenious-
ness of the methods used to devise critical
experiments. During the early stages of the
development of the embryo, the first cell
to be formed, the zygote, divides into 2,
those 2 divide into 4, then into 8, 16, 32,
and finally into a mature individual that
consists of hundreds of thousands or mil-
lions of cells. A study of this development
requires great patience and keen observa-
tion, for growth and differentiation are very
precise and follow a rigid pattern, any
deviation from which would result in an
abnormal individual. The pattern, however,
may differ with different species or kinds
of animals.
Those most frequently studied are
lower marine invertebrates because their
eggs are readily obtainable in tremendous
quantities and are not too difficult to study
Tuomas Hunt Morcan—Riley 5
under the microscope. Various zoologists
in Europe and the United States studied
different organisms; Morgan’s main obser-
vations were on the frog, and culminated in
1897 in a small book on “The Development
of the Frog’s Egg.” He traced the normal
development of the egg, cell by cell, from
its beginning until late in the development
of the tadpole.
During that period of biological research,
many zoologists were studying the egg
under abnormal conditions to determine
whether they could learn more about
normal development by studying the ab-
normal rather than the normal. Various
means were used to produce unusual
conditions. Eggs were kept compressed
in certain planes, cells or parts of cells
were destroyed with hot needles, develop-
ing embryos were raised in sea water
lacking or containing too much of certain
salts, eggs were subjected to violent
centrifugal force before or during develop-
ment, nuclei were removed from cells,
pieces of the egg were sliced off, and both
nucleate and enucleate egg fragments were
fertilized and allowed to develop as they
would. Morgan tried all these methods on
frogs and other animals, such as sea urchins
and marine polychaete worms, and from
these studies many valuable principles of
development were discovered and under-
stood. Morgan’s interests in the field of
experimental embryology were extensive
throughout his life, and the problems he
attacked were many and _ varied.
Early in the twentieth century, Morgan
turned from his study of experimental
embryology to the newly emerging field of
genetics or the science of heredity. In
1865, Gregor Mendel, living in a monastery
in Brunn, a town then in Austria, now in
Czechoslovakia, presented a talk before
the natural history society of that town in
which he explained in considerable detail
the results of a series of experiments he had
conducted on the breeding of peas; he also
suggested a theoretical explanation of his
results. His talk was published the follow-
ing year in the transactions of that society,
but did not attract the attention of the
biological world.
At the end of the century, similar experi-
ments were being carried on independently
by Hugo de Vries in Holland, Carl Correns
in Germany, and Eric von Tschermak in
Austria. They all obtained the same results
and came to the same conclusions, and in
1900 each published his own data and
conclusions. In the meantime, they came
across Mendel’s original work and realized
that their conclusions had been anticipated
by 35 years.
When the rediscovery of the principles
that Mendel had originally discovered be-
came known to the biological world, there
was a mixed reaction. Some biologists saw
in them the answer to all problems of he-
redity and evolution, but others were very
skeptical or even hostile to their acceptance.
Some people thought they were not true
and some thought that even if they were
true they were not universal, but applied
only to the garden pea or to just a few
organisms.
It is very interesting to note that Dr.
Morgan was one of a group of biologists
who were critical of parts of Mendel’s
scheme. Morgan started his work in
genetics in 1908 (Stubbe 1933), and in
1909 he gave a talk at a meeting of the
American Breeder's Association in Colum-
bia, Missouri, in which he expressed a
doubt that the hereditary factors, which we
now know as “genes” existed at all. He
proposed instead, that the condition of
two contrasting characters, such as round or
wrinkled peas, might be the result of
alternative states of stability or conditions
which determine the traits of which an
individual is composed, rather than the
result of the clean and absolute segregation
of material bodies such as genes.
The principal event that changed Mor-
gan’s attitude towards genetics was the
discovery of a white-eyed fly. Within three
years of the rediscovery of Mendel’s laws, a
graduate student by the name of W. S.
Sutton, who was studying at Columbia
University, observed the striking parallelism
6 TRANS. KeENTucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
in the behavior of chromosomes during cell
division and the formation of germ cells
and the hereditary factors that Mendel
had hypothesized. He emphasized that it
could not be purely coincidental, and
maintained that these hereditary factors
must be located in the chromosomes, thus
laying the foundations for the chromosome
theory of heredity. Not all biologists
accepted such a revolutionary doctrine.
At about the same time, several zoologists
were concerned with the problem of the
determination of sex. It had been shown by
some that females in many animals appar-
ently had two members of a certain chromo-
some, now designated the “X chromosome’,
whereas the males had only one, and it was
suggested that this difference determined
whether the animal was a male or a female.
However, other zoologists found that in
other animals the reverse condition seemed
to be true, the male having two such
chromosomes and the female only one.
Confusion reigned, and the problem of sex
determination seemed to be a very baffling
one.
Most of Dr. Morgan’s work in genetics
was done with a tiny two-winged fly
called Drosophila melanogaster; its popular
names are pomace fly, fruit fly, or vinegar
fly. If a person should put some bananas
outdoors in the spring or summer, he
would probably soon find some of these
flies flitting around them. If he collected
and examined them, he would find that
they would invariably have eyes of a
certain shade of red. Such flies, collected
under natural or “wild” conditions are
said to have “wild-type” characteristics or
traits. This peculiar shade of red is then
called the wild-type eye color. Morgan
had had a number of such wild-type flies
in his laboratory for many generations. It
was, therefore, a great and pleasant shock
when one morning he found a white-eyed
male in a laboratory stock bottle. Of course,
there was only one thing to do with such
a fly—mate it immediately to a wild-type-
eyed virgin female to see what would hap-
pen. Probably to his surprise, Dr. Morgan
found that wild-type and white eyes be-
haved exactly as they should if they were
determined by a pair of those hereditary
factors or genes at the basis of the Mende-
lian laws of heredity. Furthermore, not
only did they behave according to Mendel's
laws, but they also followed a pattern that
would indicate that they were located on
the X chromosome, or were “sex-linked,” to
use the technical expression. Their pattern
of transmission from one generation to an-
other was the same as the pattern that Miss
Stevens had observed for the X chromo- —
some of Drosophila. |
It was then finally recognized that birds
and butterflies show one type of sex inheri-
tance and sex-linkage, and the Diptera,
mammals, and other animals show another,
and that these two types are fundamentally
the same except that in one the female has
the odd chromosome, and in the other, the
male has. It was also seen that Morgan’s
example of white eye inheritance in the
fruit fly follows the same pattern of heredity
as do certain sex-linked traits in human
beings, such as hemophilia and a certain
kind of color blindness.
Very soon after the discovery of the
white-eyed male, a male appeared with
short wings. This trait happened, by
chance, also to be sex-linked and thus to
follow the same pattern of transmission that
was followed by the white-eyed character.
Experiments soon showed that these two
genes, white eyes and short wings, were
linked together, which is just what they
should have been if they were on the same
chromosome. Dr. Morgan then crossed
these two types together and found that
although they were linked and therefore
tended to be inherited together, they would
sometimes show recombinations. Such
recombinations of otherwise linked genes
had been found in other organisms by other
biologists but had never been satisfactorily
explained.
Morgan reasoned that the chromosomes
must break and interchange similar pieces
at some time early in the divisions that
produce the germ cells in animals. This
THOMAS HUNT
theory of crossing over was supported by
observations that had been made by F. A.
Janssens, a Belgian cytologist, in 1909. He
had shown that in a very early stage of
these divisions, cross-shaped chromosome
configurations could be seen under the
microscope that were exactly what one
would expect to find if the chromosome
broke and crossed over as Morgan hypoth-
esized (Morgan 19lla, 191lb). Recent
observations have substantiated these ideas
and have shown that crossing over involves
exchanges of pieces of half chromosomes, as
Janssens had originally suggested, and not
whole ones, a very minor point.
The crucial point is that these observa-
tions caused Dr. Morgan to reverse some of
his former ideas about Mendel’s laws. In-
stead of being skeptical of them, he now
accepted them wholeheartedly and spent
most of the rest of his life confirming and
expanding them. Only a great man would
have done so, as many people, confronted
with evidence opposed to their hypotheses
would tend to find ways to look for con-
firmatory evidence, rather than give up
their cherished hypotheses.
After demonstrating sex-linkage and
showing that two sex-linked genes are
linked to one another, Morgan extended
his genetic studies. From 1909 to 1912, he
and his group found many new mutations
in Drosophila. After 1910, they attacked
the problem of crossing over with great
vigor, and published the first edition of
their masterful “The Mechanism of Mende-
lian Heredity” in 1915. Morgan’s greatest
contribution was the study of linkage and
crossing over. He demonstrated beyond
doubt that genes located on the same
chromosome sometimes separate from one
another and that they do so more frequently
if they are farther apart on the chromosome.
With this demonstration, linkage maps,
based on breeding data, could be con-
structed and the whole chromosome theory
was substantiated.
While Dr. Morgan’s earlier work was in
the field of experimental embryology, and
while the work for which he is best known
Morcan—Riley re
was the genetic study of Drosophila, it
should also be mentioned that he carried
on extensive research on regeneration, and
on the life cycle and cytology of the
phylloxerans, a group of plant lice. These
studies were important in influencing the
thinking of the time.
Dr. Morgan’s list of honorary degrees is
extensive. He received the Doctor of Laws
degree from The Johns Hopkins University
(1915), the University of Kentucky (1916),
McGill University (1921), the University of
Edinburgh (1922), and the University of
California (1930). The University of
Michigan awarded him the degree of
Doctor of Science in 1924, and the Univer-
sity of Heidelberg (Germany) gave him
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1931.
In 1933, he received the degree of Doctor
of Medicine from the University of Zurich
(Switzerland), and two years later the
University of Paris awarded him the degree
of Docteur Honoris Causa.
He was President of the National
Academy of Sciences from 1927 to 1931, of
the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science in 1930, and of the Sixth
International Congress of Genetics in 1932.
He was a member of the American Philo-
sophical Society, the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, the American
Society of Naturalists, and other American
scientific organizations. He was an honor-
ary member of many European societies
including the Royal Society of London, the
Paris Academy of Science, Belgian Society
of Zoology, Royal Society of Science of
Uppsala, Vienna Academy of Science, and
other scientific societies in France, Norway,
Denmark, Ireland, Finland, Brussels, Mos-
cow, St. Petersburg, and Munich. He was
one of the members of the editorial board
of GENETICS from the time it was founded
in 1916 until his death.
Of his many important scientific contri-
butions, the greatest was the work in
genetics that clinched the acceptance of
Mendel’s laws, established the chromosome
theory, and developed the concept of the
linkage and crossing over of genes on a
8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
chromosome. It was for this work that he
became the first man without a medical
degree to be awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physiology and Medicine.
LITERATURE CITED
Morcan, T. H. 19lla. The application of the
conception of pure lines to _ sex-limited
inheritance and to sexual dimorphism. Amer.
Nat. 45:65-78.
191lb. An attempt to analyze the
constitution of the chromosomes on the basis
of sex-linked inheritance in Drosophila. J.
Exp. Zool. 11:365—-411.
1912. The scientific work of Miss
N. M. Stevens. Science 36:468—470.
. 1927. Experimental Embryology. Co-
lumbia Univ. Press, New York, N.Y. 766 pp.
Mutter, H. J. 1946. Thomas Hunt Morgan
1866-1945. Science 103:550-551.
Stubbe, H. 1933. Thomas Hunt Morgan—der
Nobelpreistrager fiir Medizen. Der Ziichter
5:257-260.
A “Container Effect” on “C Primary
Production Measurements
Bruce C. PARKER AND GENE L. SAMSEL’
Department of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
ABSTRACT
Comparative data on in vitro “C rates of primary production in 6 different kinds of
containers yielded differences of more than an order of magnitude quite consistently. Experi-
ments involving light penetration through and into the various containers, chlorophyll
analyses, surface area/volume differences, etc. suggested that at suboptimal light intensities
an inexpensive, screw cap, 250-ml
(8-oz) pharmaceutical bottle produces results more
closely approaching primary production rates in nature.
INTRODUCTION
Since the introduction of the light and
dark bottle method for estimating primary
production, numerous investigators have
pointed out inherent problems in equating
the observed in situ primary production
with that of the natural environment. Such
problems include: (1) Surface/volume
ratio effects of the containers (Antia et al.
1963); (2) Injury to cells during filtration,
inducing loss of intracellular “C organic
matter (Arthur and Rigler 1967); (3) Spa-
tial heterogeneity of the plankton sampled
(Cassie 1962, Verduin 1964); (4) Precipi-
tation of CO; as FesCO3 (Goldman and
Mason 1962); and (5) Orientation of con-
tainers with respect to the light source
(Ohle 1958, Elster and Motsch 1966).
Still other problems are changes in pH,
light, temperature, circulation, nutrients,
biotoxins, and microbial communities in-
duced by the containers, some of which
were forewarned in studies reviewed by
Lund and Talling (1957) shortly after
Steemann Nielsen’s (1952) 'C method
came into widespread use.
Vollenweider (1969) provided an up-to-
date list of many problems associated with
the measurement of primary production.
One such problem, which especially con-
cerns our research, is that soft glass absorbs
more photosynthetically influential light
Present address: Dames and Moore, 1150
West 8th Street, Cincinnati, Ohio 45203
(especially ultraviolet) than does quartz;
since ultraviolet often is detrimental to the
photosynthetic system, carbon assimilation
rates in Pyrex or quartz bottles can be 50
percent less than in soft glass ones. Also,
in Vollenweider (1969), Talling and Fogg
(p. 74) noted “Some loss of light by absorp-
tion and reflection, will occur at or in the
transparent walls of the bottles or enclo-
sures. Such loss is only likely to be con-
siderable in the far ultraviolet region of
the spectrum, where normal glass absorbs
SHONGLY.. isp:
While surveying the ecology of several
freshwater ponds and meltwater pools on
the Antarctic Peninsula, we first became
aware of the striking differences in measur-
able primary production induced by dif-
ferent containers. Faced with a shortage
of typical 300-ml glass-stoppered (BOD)
bottles used extensively by limnologists, we
resorted to 8-oz (250-ml) screw cap phar-
maceutical type bottles also made of soft
glass. Consistently, these 250-ml bottles
yielded ‘'*C uptake rates significantly
above (i.e., up to 60% higher than) values
obtained with the standard 300-ml bottles.
Since it is clear from the literature that a
great variety of bottles, plastic bags, or
special chambers (e.g., domes) have been
used for estimating primary production, we
began comparisons of several of these con-
tainers in an effort to explain their differ-
ences.
10 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to Drs. Robert Schmidt,
Harold Hopkins, and Ray Tipsord, for
advice and assistance in interpreting our
data.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Our primary production studies were
conducted mainly in the field using several
aquatic environments. While the precision
of alternative laboratory experiments cannot
be discounted, the difficulties in duplicating
conditions of natural light scatter, the con-
tinuously changing angle of solar radiation
source, the complete solar spectrum, natural
spatial turbidity differences, natural plank-
ton communities, pH, etc., in our opinion,
necessitated the field approach.
The aquatic environments used were:
(1) an oligotrophic pond in Antarctica
containing Chlorella as the only detectable
phytoplankter (called C. B. Pond and
described by Parker et al. 1972); (2) a farm
pond near the Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University campus, essentially
mesotrophic in character with high turbidi-
ties, and possessing Dinobryon as the chief
phytoplankter along with several diatoms;
(3) a shallow and eutrophic duck pond on
the same campus with Spirogyra, Oedo-
gonium, Cladophora, Cymbella, Melosira,
and Navicula among the phytoplankton;
and (4) a waste oxidation pond at Sult’s
Trailer Court, Meramec, Virginia, as pic-
tured and described by Parker et al. (1971),
and containing Chlamydomonas, Pandorina,
Euglena, and other typical sewage lagoon
algae. For primary production, we used
the “C method originally described by
Steeman Nielsen (1952) and as modified
by Goldman (1963) and Strickland and
Parsons (1968). One ml of a solution of
Na2'*CO; buffered at pH 9.5 and with an
activity of 4yCi was injected into the
containers. All containers, unless otherwise
stated, were incubated in their respective
aquatic environments at a depth of 20 cm
from which the sample had been taken.
They were oriented horizontally with
convex or rounded sides facing up and with
longitudinal axes essentially corresponding
to that of the sun’s east-west path.
After incubation, 10-ml aliquots were
fixed with 40 percent formalin to make a
1:30 dilution for transport to the laboratory.
Equal aliquots were filtered through GS
0.22-1 Millipore membranes by procedures
outlined by Parker (1967) to avoid exces-
sive loss of intracellular organics. Filters
were rinsed routinely with 2 ml of 0.03 N
HCl. Periodic checks on the “C organic
matter in filtrates revealed always less than
5 percent of the total C organic matter to
be extracellular. After storage over desic-
cant for at least 24 hours, all membranes
were counted for 10 min, suspended in 0.4
percent PPO [2,5-Diphenyloxazole] and
0.01 percent POPOP [2,2-p-Phenylenebis
(5-phenyl) oxazole] in toluene on a Pac-
kard Tricarb Model 3310 Scintillation
Counter. Duplicate membranes consistently
exhibited less than 5 percent variation.
We used the anthracene method (Dore
1958, Marquis and Yelenosky 1962) as one
means of measuring the light penetrating
the various containers. Anthracene is a
photosensitive compound which has been
used as a simple chemical radiometer in
terrestrial ecology, and which Parker et al.
(1972) applied to aquatic environments.
When a tube filled with a benzene solution
of anthracene is placed in sunlight, anthra-
cene polymerizes into benzene insoluble
dianthracene; the amount of dianthracene
produced is approximately proportional to
the total visible radiation received during
the exposure period. Following exposure,
the contents of each tube is filtered to re-
move the precipitated dianthracene, and the
concentration of anthracene remaining in
the clear filtrate is determined directly on a
colorimeter against a standard curve. We
followed essentially the methods described
by Marquis and Yelenosky (1962), while
using a variety of glass containers and tubes.
Our data are expressed as percentage trans-
mittance, because we have found that not
all wavelengths of radiation apparently
cause anthracene polymerization. Conse-
quently, our anthracene data are only useful
PRIMARY PRODUCTION
Fic. 1. Six containers used in comparative
primary production experiments; top (left to right)
and bottom (left to right), they are: 125-ml
Pyrex, 150-ml BOD, 300-ml BOD, 2-0z (ca.
70-ml) pharmaceutical, 8-oz (ca. 250-ml) pharma-
ceutical, and 16-oz (ca. 500 ml) pharmaceutical
bottles.
for comparisons of relative amounts of total
radiation penetrating the various containers;
we shall discuss this point in detail sub-
sequently. Two additional points should
be included as a supplement to the direc-
tions by Marquis and Yelenosky (1962):
(1) tubes or bottles must be filled with the
benzene solution because the reaction does
not proceed normally on exposure to air;
and (2) if the solution freezes during
exposure to light (<0 C) as it did fre-
quently in Antarctica, spurious data result.
Extractable chlorophyll a was deter-
mined by the method of Strickland and
Parsons (1968:189) using the formula
11.64 E6630 — 9.16 E6450 + 0.10 E6300 as
recommended by SCOR/UNESCO. Chlo-
rophylls b and c were not calculated due to
their lower reliability with colorimetric
analysis. As with the '‘C primary produc-
tivity procedure, we used GS 0.22- Milli-
MEASUREMENT—Farker and Samsel ba:
Bre. 2.
Normalized curves of percentage trans-
mittance (vertical axis) of light between 700 and
300 mu (horizontal axis) pieces of glass obtained
from each type of container; top to bottom: 300-ml
BOD, 250-ml, and 70-ml pharmaceutical bottles.
pore membranes and procedures established
by Parker (1967) for minimum cell damage.
In addition, we have found it essential
that comparative chlorophyll determina-
tions entail (1) filtration of identical
volumes at similar pressures and (2) extrac-
tion in acetone for identical time lengths
(i.e., 20 + 1 hr at 5-8 C). For highly turbid
samples and high phytoplankton densities,
we substituted Whatman GF/C fiberglass
filters which were removed by centrifuga-
tion prior to colorimetric determinations.
The 300-ml soft glass BOD or reagent
bottles with ground glass stoppers; the
250-ml (8-oz), 70-ml (2-0z), and 500-ml
(16-oz) pharmaceutical screwcap bottles,
all of soft glass; the 125-ml spherical Pyrex
12 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
TasBLe 1.—SeLEct Data oN “C Primary PropucTioN (CALCULATED AS MG/M*/HR PHOTOFIXED),
ANTHRACENE POLYMERIZATION (AS % TRANSMISSION OF BENZENE FILTRATE) AND EXTRACTABLE
CHLOROPHYLL a (AS MG PIGMENT/M*® EXTRACTED) FOR DIFFERENT CONTAINERS AND DIFFERENT
Aguatic ENvirONMENTS (— Means No Data CoLLEcTED). NONE REFERS TO CHLOROPHYLL ANALYSIS
ON WATER SAMPLES Not INCUBATED IN CONTAINERS; L = LicHTt AND D = DARK CONTAINERS
Primary Anthracene
Experiment No. Container Production Polymerization Chlorophyll a
1: 20 January 1970, 25 hr., None _ = <10
10,760—96,840 lux, Antarctic 250L o.6o. ccar 70 =
pond. 300L 2.60, leaked STO _
2: March 1970, 6 hr., S50L, 0.20 42 Suspended solids
21,520 lux, Farm pond, bat i 0.09 20 interfered with
high turbidity. 300L 0.13 20 extraction
TOL 0.10 g
3: 10 April 1970, 8 hr., None - - 261
37,660-53,800 lux, Duck pond. 250L 34.2, 30.1 755 ie 574
250D - - 550
1251, pppoe ies AD 35 316
125D - - 544
300L DO eet 45, 38 502
300D - - 616
70L EGS 104 3495 506
70D - - 537
500L 3.6, 3.4 38, 42 486
500D - — 484
4: 12 September 1970, 6 hr., None _ — 218, 189
64,560 lux continuously, 250L SOL SH (Were! sy
Duck pond water in containers 250D il = 134
on roof of Biology Bldg., T1251. 1235 127 70, 69 59
VPI & SU 125D _ = 197
300L B10) Oe 49, 47 106
300D 1.8 - 155
70L TA, 4.3 71, 64 17
70D - - 178
500L iy bees U) 59, 49 82
500D - _ 170
150L. 4.8, 4.6 41, 29
150D - -
5A: 3 December 1970, 4 hr., 250L 16.5, 16.4
30,128—36,584 lux, Duck pond. 125. 10. LEO
300L 9.4, 9.3
OL. 100 30:0
500L bees 3 es?
5B: 3 December 1970, 4 hr., None - 820
30,128-36,584 lux, oxidation 250L 416, 414 960
pond. 250D - 920
1251, 2755 iA. 856
125D - 840
300L 245, 243 804
300D ~ 808
70L 931.228 900
70D - 860
500L 30, 29 612
500D - 876
150L 40, 38 685
150D - 840
PRIMARY PRODUCTION MEASUREMENT—Parker and Samsel 13
bottles with ground glass stoppers; and in
a few experiments only, the 150-ml soft
glass BOD or reagent bottles with ground
glass stoppers used in our comparative
studies are shown in Fig. l. The 300-,
150-, and 125-ml containers are used widely
by limnologists and oceanographers. A
frequent disadvantage of these _ glass-
stoppered bottles not emphasized in this
paper is the tendency for the stoppers to
become loose and leak during incubation.
Percentage transmittance measurements
at various wavelengths of light between
700 and 300 mp» were conducted on a
Beckman DB continuous recording spectro-
photometer. For these studies, 3 or more
pieces of glass were selected from the main
surface of each container after breakage.
In the case of the pharmaceutical bottles,
3 pieces were taken from both convex and
flat sides. Graphs of percentage transmit-
tance of each piece of glass were obtained
against air (no glass) as the spectrophotom-
eter blank. All curves reported subse-
quently represent normalized curves which
have averaged the 3 or more comparable
glass pieces. Although detectable variation
occurred, the range in variation between
curves of separate glass pieces from the
main area of the container surfaces ( except-
ing corners) differed by no more than a
few percentage points at any one wave-
length, and there was considerably less
variation over the entire visible spectrum
examined.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CO, Uptake Rates
Data for 5 experiments involving the
different kinds of containers are summa-
rized in Table 1. In the first experiment,
the CO, uptake rate was about 60 percent
higher in the 250-ml bottles than in the
300-ml BOD type bottles. Similarly,
anthracene polymerization was signifi-
cantly greater in the 250-ml bottles, as
indicated by the higher percentage trans-
mittance values which, in turn, indicate
a greater degree of anthracene conversion
to the insoluble dianthracene form caused
sit rsciaaitssecieies cutest sea
em
Pic) 3: eaves curves of percentage trans-
mittance (vertical axis) of light between 700 and
300 mu (horizontal axis) for 3 or more pieces of
glass obtained from each type of container; top
to bottom: 500-ml pharmaceutical, 125-ml Pyrex,
and 150-ml BOD bottles.
by a greater amount of light penetrating
the 250-ml bottle. Several other experi-
ments comparing photosynthetic CO. up-
take and anthracene polymerization were
performed in Antarctic ponds; all revealed
essentially the same types of results.
The data from the second experiment
reveal similarly that a higher rate of CO,
uptake occurred in the 250-ml bottle when
compared with that in the 3 other kinds
of containers. The greatest polymerization
of anthracene also occurred in the 250-ml
bottle, suggesting that more light appar-
ently penetrated that type of container.
In the third experiment, the rate of COQ,
uptake in the various containers ranged
over nearly an order of magnitude. As
14 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE 2.—LicHut TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF GLAss PrECES AND INTACT CONTAINERS,
INCLUDING SURFACE AREA/VOLUME RATIOS
A Dine G X % White
Fluorescent
Wave Length Light (via Calculated
Container Range (mz) x % T1 lux meter) S/V
250-ml 700—400 89.1
400-300 66.2 94.2 0.30
700-300 83.3
125-ml 700—400 87.0
400-300 74.6 90.4 0.23
700—300 83.6
300-ml] 700—400 79.0
400-300 59.0 86.5 0.24
700-300 74.0
70-ml 700—400 88.9
400-300 54.6 92.3 0.50
700-300 88.3
500-ml 700—400 74.3
400-300 52.2, 88.5 0.25
700-300 68.8
150-ml 700—400 81.2
400-300 61.8 88.0 0:25
700-300 76.4
1x % T = means of >3 planimeter (area) measurements on each original graph with <1% variation of areas
of percentage transmissions; expressed as areas of % T/area of 100% T X
transmission values for the designated wavelength ranges.
before, the 250-ml bottles produced the
highest fixation values and the greatest
amount of anthracene polymerization.
Extractable chlorophyll a appeared to
increase in all containers, but we discovered
subsequently that the value for the fresh
collection (261) was not valid for com-
parison with the values obtained from
incubated bottles; a larger volume of the
fresh sample had been filtered, and it was
extracted 6 hours longer than other samples.
Notable among the chlorophyll data of
Experiment 3 are the values for the 125-ml
light and the 500-ml light and dark bottles;
these values may signify some degradation
of chlorophyll @ during incubation.
In the fourth experiment (Table 1), the
250-ml bottles did not produce the highest
CO, uptake rates. Anthracene polymeriza-
tion, however, was highest in the 250-ml
bottles. Because all bottles were incubated
on the roof of the Biology Building, and
the light intensity was exceptionally high,
we suspect that light and/or temperature
might have inhibited the CO, fixation
rates and caused chlorophyll degradation,
100, thus reflecting mean percentage
which was significant, especially in the
light bottles.
In 2 other experiments (5A and 5B), the
trends in CO, uptake are consistent with
those of the first 3 experiments. Also,
Experiment 5B was repeated with similar
results. No degradation in chlorophyll ap-
pears to have occurred in this in situ
experiment although the possibility of an
increase in chlorophyll a exists for some
containers, especially 250L, 250D, and 7OL.
The data in Table 1 represent typical (not
biased) data of the type obtained in
approximately 10 additional experiments.
Optical Properties of the Containers
Data obtained on the light transmission
through the containers and glass pieces
obtained from them are shown in Table 2
and Figs. 2 and 3. Note that 94.2 percent of
the white fluorescent light (100% = ca.
5,380 lux) penetrated through both walls of
the 250-ml bottles, and this amount of
light is the greatest recorded for the 6
containers. Also, the spectral data on pieces
of glass showed that 89.1 percent of the
PRIMARY PRODUCTION MEASUREMENT—FLarker and Samsel 15
spectrum between 700 and 400 mp was
transmitted through the pieces (single wall
layer) obtained from the 250-ml bottles,
which also constitutes the highest value.
As would be expected, more of the near
ultraviolet light (300-400 mp) penetrates
the glass of the Pyrex 125-ml flask pieces.
Another parameter affecting the total
amount of radiation reaching a container
is the surface area exposed to light com-
pared to its volume, the latter of which is
an indication of mean depth and relative
phytoplankton numbers. Therefore, the
data in Table 2 are the calculated surface
area/volume ratios, based on the maximal
area of cross sections through cylindrical
and spherical containers. Note that the
70-ml bottle had the greatest S/A value,
while the 250-ml bottle has the second
highest S/A value and all others are about
equal. These calculations indicate that,
on a volume (or per cell) basis, more light
will penetrate the 70-ml and 250-ml bottles
than other containers.
CONCLUSIONS
Our studies have shown that a wide
range in CO, uptake rates occurs under a
variety of conditions when different con-
tainers are employed in light and dark
bottle measurements for primary produc-
tion. Comparisons of data collected with
different kinds of containers should be
avoided.
The fairly consistent and_ repeatable
pattern of highest CO, uptake rates using
250-ml bottles, intermediate rates using
300-, 125-, and 70-ml bottles, and low rates
using the 500-ml and 150-ml bottles may
be caused by a greater amount of light
penetrating the 250-ml bottles. The anthra-
cene data appear to support this conclusion
most strongly. The direct measurements
of light transmission also show that 250-ml
bottles are somewhat more transparent to
visible light than any of the other containers
including the 125-ml Pyrex flasks. Possibly
these small differences in optical properties
of the various glass container walls are
further increased or decreased by other
characteristics of the containers, such as,
the surface/volume ratios, ditterences in
reflectance due to curvature of the glass,
cle:
At least in some instances, the chloro-
phyll appeared to increase in the 250-ml
bottles and to decrease in the 500-ml and
150-ml bottles. These increases may be the
result or the cause of the greater photo-
synthesis and production during incubation.
Also, it is probable that the decreases ob-
served indicate some kind of deleterious
effect of enclosure of the phytoplankton
within the 500-ml and 150-ml containers.
These are matters for further study.
We recognize that this research has
left many questions unanswered. How-
ever, on the basis of data so far obtained,
we feel that the 250-ml pharmaceutical
bottle permits an in situ rate of primary
production more closely approaching that
of the natural aquatic environment than do
other containers. Furthermore, the 250-ml
bottle with screw cap prevents loss of 4C
which can occur in containers with un-
secured stoppers, and 250-ml bottles are
readily available from drug stores and
cost less than 10 percent that of BOD or
Pyrex containers. These are the containers
we use currently in studies of Kentucky
lakes (Samsel et al. 1973).
LITERATURE CITED
AnriA Nuh, Gs DD. IMcArristern,-V...R:, Parsons:
K. STEVENS, AND J. D. H. Strickuanp. 1963.
Further measurements of primary production
using a large-volume plastic sphere. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 8:166—183.
Anmion, (Gh. vAnD UF. Ho Hicnrr. 1967." .A
possible source of error in the 14C method
of measuring primary productivity. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 12:121—124.
Cassie, R. M. 1962. Microdistribution and
other error components of 14C_ primary
production estimates. Limnol. Oceanogr.
7:121-130.
Dore, W. G. 1958. A simple chemical light
meter. Ecology 39:151—152.
Evster, H. J., anp B. Morscu. 1966. Unter-
suchungen iiber das Phytoplankton und die
organische Urproduktion in einigen Seen
des Hochschwartz walds, im Schleinsee und
Bodensee. Arch. Hydrobiol. Suppl. 28:291-
376.
16 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
GotpMaAN, C. R. 1963. The measurement of
primary productivity and limiting factors
in fresh water with carbon-14. Pp. 103-113.
In: Proc. Conf. on Primary Productivity
Measurement, Marine and Freshwater. Ha-
waii, 1961. USAEC Doc. TID-7633.
GOLDMAN, C. R., anp D. T. Mason. 1962. In-
organic precipitation of carbon in productivity
experiments utilizing carbon-14. Science
136: 1049-1050.
Lunp, J. W. G., AnD J. F. Tatuinc. 1957. Bo-
tanical limnological methods with special
reference to the algae. Bot. Rev. 23:489-583.
Marquis, D. A., AND G. YELENOSKy. 1962. A
chemical light meter for forest research.
U.S. For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE No. 165,
Upper Darby, Pa., 1-24.
OnLteE, W. 1958. Diurnal production and
destruction rates of phytoplankton in lakes.
Rapp. Cons. Explor. Mer 144:129-131.
Parker, B. C. 1967. Influence of method for
removal of seston on the dissolved organic
matter. J. Phycol. 3:166—-173.
ParRKER, B. C., E. K. OBENG-ASAMOA, AND G. L.
SAMSEL, JR. 1971. Effects of detergent
protease enzymes on sewage oxidation pond
phytoplankton. Bioscience 21:1035-—1038,
1042.
Parker, B. C., G. L. SAMSEL, JR., AND G. W.
Prescotr. 1972. Freshwater algae of the
Antarctic Peninsula. I. Systematics and
ecology in the U.S. Palmer Station area.
Antarct. Res. Ser. (Amer. Geophys. Union)
20:69-81.
SAMSEL, G. L., Jr., J. R. REED, AND R. R. Daus.
1973. Preliminary investigations of a head-
water creek in Eastern Kentucky. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 34:13-21.
STEEMANN NIELSEN, E. 1952. The use of radio-
active carbon (1!4C) for measuring organic
production in the sea. J. Con. Internatl.
Explor. Mer 18:117-—140.
STRICKLAND, J. D. H., anp T. R. Parsons. 1968.
A Practical Handbook of Seawater Analysis.
Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. No. 167:1-311.
VERDUIN, J. 1964. Principles of primary produc-
tivity: Photosynthesis under completely natural
conditions. Pp. 221-238. In: Jackson, D. F.
(ed.) Algae and Man, Plenum Press, N.Y.
VOLLENWEIDER, R. A. 1969. A manual of
methods for measuring primary production in
aquatic environments, including a chapter on
bacteria. I.B.P. Handbook No. 12. Blackwell
Scientific Publications, Oxford, England,
213 pp.
The Distribution of Stoneflies (Insecta: Plecoptera)
of the Salt River, Kentucky’”
Davip S. WHITE
Department of Biology and Water Resources Laboratory,
University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
As part of a preimpoundment study for Taylorsville Lake in the Salt River, Kentucky,
2,932 adult and 1,375 nymphal stoneflies were collected from August 1970 to July 1971.
Annotations are given for the 12 species that represent 5 families and 8 genera.
Special
emphasis was placed on a study of the life history for Isoperla burksi, including stomach
analysis and fecundity.
INTRODUCTION
To understand the stream ecosystem,
the combinations of organisms and the
interactions of all communities must be
examined as to the roles they play (Krum-
holz and Neff 1970). Among the benthic
forms, the stoneflies constitute a major
component of the food web, and an ac-
curate list of the species, their abundance,
distribution, and life histories is essential
to interpreting the results of any changes
that might occur in a stream ecosystem.
In conjunction with a preimpoundment
study for Taylorsville Lake in the Salt
River Basin (Krumholz 1971, Krumholz
and Neff 1972, Neff and Krumholz 1973)
the benthic fauna of the area was surveyed
from 1968 through 1972. As part of that
survey, Woodling (1971, unpublished mas-
ters thesis, University of Louisville, Louis-
ville, Kentucky ) studied the benthic fauna
and water quality of Brashears Creek, a
major tributary to the Salt River, during
1969 and 1970. The present paper is a
summary of our information on_ the
plecopterans of both the Salt River and
Brashears Creek during the study period.
Many aspects of the life histories of
the stoneflies found in the Salt River
Basin have been reported by Needham
1 The work on which this report is based was supported
in part by funds provided by the U.S. Department of
the Interior, Office of Water Resources Research, as
authorized under the Water Resources Research Act of
1964, Contract No. B-022-KY, Agreement No. 14-31-
0001-3087.
2 Contribution No. 170 (new series) from the Depart-
ment of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville,
Kentucky 40208.
i
and Claassen (1925), Claassen (1931),
Frison (1929, 1935, 1942), and Harden
and Mickel (1952). An _ exception is
Isoperla burksi Frison, which is quite
common throughout the stream system.
Thus, special attention has been given to
food habits and fecundity for that species.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank the personnel of the
Water Resources Laboratory for assisting in
collecting the benthic samples, and espe-
cially Vincent Resh, Bruce Wilson, and
Tom Weber for their diligence in making
the blacklight collections. I am particularly
grateful to Dr. William E. Ricker, Fisheries
Research Board of Canada, and Dr. Paul
H. Freytag, University of Kentucky, for
their determinations of the stoneflies. I
also thank Dr. Louis A. Krumholz and
Dr. Stuart E. Neff, Water Resources
Laboratory, University of Louisville, for
reviewing the manuscript.
THE Stupy AREA
The study area, in central Kentucky,
extends 94 miles on the Salt River and
22 miles on Brashears Creek (Fig. 1)
and has been described in detail by Krum-
holz (1971), Krumholz and Neff (1972),
and Neff and Krumholz (1973). Station
numbers used in this paper correspond
to those listed by Krumholz (1971),
Krumholz and Neff (1972), and Neff and
Krumholz (1973) that were sampled
regularly for benthos and other materials.
18
| SHELBY
SS
SPENCER
26
40 (2.2)
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
a]
ec (0%
e3 TAYLORSVILLE
PROPOSED SITES FOR
TAYLORSVILLE
|
AND
|
CAMP GROUND
|
LAKES
——-—
SALT RIVER BASIN
|
KENTUCKY
ANDERSON
Ayansuan
Salt
ee te
COUNTY
ae"
ENS
nies % ee are aa
\ 5 sie a
Dye tate) ek Si =
-—_ e =
Ss cl” Cis) res ®
]
ax 29 ice GROUND Se \ dig = ( Boundary of
G S 3 (6yS ne SALT RIVER
60 eer ee) SO) AKE C6) BASIN
VE, | 60 tl
ue HARRODSBURG
Pare. )
SSS Po, | mn
QO < °4
Te Nea B3 80 70 is
WASHINGTON\S, 30 | (C4). FPS
; @ - | , bie
fh am F SS [
/ 2x0 ms BD
/ \ SPRINGFIELD a ae
j x
/ os 8 100) | Cay | VU:
/ > ee 2 COUNTY - BOYLE o
= Gas | Q Ce |
| 110
MARION | "4
oe COUNTY
a Op, E BANON |
Lp, sti
COUNTY ips kt —
re oe. Soe
Fic. 1. Map of portions of the Salt River and Beech Fork showing the areas to be impounded
(From Neff and Krumholz 1973).
and the locations of the permanent collecting stations.
at these stations are primarily mud on
limestone bedrock with scattered areas of
sand, gravel, and rubble supporting some
emergent vegetation. Stations 15 through
Upstream from Station 13, the Salt River
will remain much as it is today and will
not be flooded by impoundment for
Taylorsville Lake. The bottom materials
cine
STONEFLIES OF SALT RIvER, KENTUCKy—White
21 will be inundated permanently, and Sta- 4 tn Saute. oo oes
tion 14 is likely to be flooded at least part of = & = al Coe
each year. Bottom materials at those sta- & " a
tions consist of bedrock, sand, gravel, and §&
larger stones, and there are extensive beds ve Pee, tet coh Ga et caico a
of water willow Justicia americana (L.) 5 | Shee ay reyes
Vahl from late spring through fall. Stations & e
22 and 23 are below the damsite and &
the bottom materials are similar to those © MOM tana 3x K
upstream. ¢
Brashears Creek enters the Salt River : Ele| x mI ee See
below the proposed damsite approximately 4 E
0.5 mile above Station 23. The bottom of “ ||/% c Saal se xK xx
Brashears Creek is much like that in the 4% :
Salt River and also supports large stands z 2 | 2 a 52 BERLE Se
of water willow. An intermittent tributary, 2 | 2
Station T, that enters Brashears Creek from << au xxx x
the west between Stations 26 and 33, was z ie
sampled when water was present. There, z i x x
the streambed is similar to that in Brashears
Creek. ee
The beds of water willow were animpor- a| x ~KxXRKXK
tant physical feature of the study area, ¢
and particular attention was given to «& > al x x XXXxxxXxx
sampling those areas. During the summer, & 4
their growth effectively channelized many 3 B bl x 5 xX
parts of the stream, giving it a braided *§&
appearance. The massive root systems aie o| x x a
limited shifting of the sand and gravel Z E .
bars during periods of high water especially & Bila! xx xxxxX
in the winter and spring months. The § ;
submerged root masses have been shown’ § eae x xx
to provide an excellent winter refuge for 3 2 |"
many of the nymphs and larvae of the = a x wan
various aquatic insects (Woodling, unpub- 4
lished master’s thesis). © Bi nec x
METHODS < ft Y
Several hundred collections of nymphs é
were made using a Surber square-foot : cl x
sampler and a 1-m wide “qualitative seine” &
made of nylon bobbinet (#0 grit cloth). ~
The Surber sampler was used primarily in =
the riffle areas while the qualitative seine Z es
facilitated collection in the peripheral areas : sees Rs 5 %
such as mudbanks and emergent vege- E55 3 3S S-p S28 S
tation. 7 Psy ERE SS SSS
Adults were collected through extensive — S = = gs a ‘ " ES . a
weekly blacklighting from March through 3 : = 8 = SSSSSE S
: ; S. SkLRgsgvgsgesreeTse
October 1971. Examination of tree trunks, < cee Gee eeeces
1,375 2.932
10
Totals
20 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
T burks | SAAN
Z pervula wt
A vivipara CNN
A. forbesi =
&. fascia Adults
io |
Bi Ww
N. nigritta
burks
P placida
N. clymene
A. arida
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec |Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
1970 1971
Fic. 2. Seasonal distribution of nymphs and
adults of 12 species of stoneflies in the Salt River
and Brashears Creek, Kentucky.
rocks, and bridge abutments yielded many
adult specimens, and sweeping emergent
and littoral vegetation proved effective,
especially in collecting the winter and
early spring forms. Where possible, nymphs
and adults were identified and sexed using
the guides of Needham and _ Claassen
(1925), Claassen (1931), and Frison (1935,
1942).
THE STONEFLIES
During the study period, 1,375 nymphal
and 2.932 adult stoneflies were collected
from the 16 stations, and represented 5
families, 8 genera, and 12 species (Table
1). The seasonal distribution of nymphs
and adults in those collections is shown in
Fig. 2.
NEMOURIDAE
Nemoura nigritta group—Seventy nymphs
of this group were collected from March
through May in the deeper, slower riffles
from 5 stations in the lower Salt River and
from a single station at the source of
Brashears Creek just below the confluence
of Bullskin and Clear creeks (Table 1,
Fig. 2). Most were found on the larger
stones though some were taken from the
submerged water willow roots.
The adults, 1 male and 4 females, were
found under the bark of fallen trees near
the waters edge. The emergence period
was very short; it began in early March
and probably did not extend beyond 10
June.
C APNIIDAE
Allocapnia vivipara (Claassen ).—A. vivip-
ara was the most abundant winter stonefly
and the third most abundant stonefly in our
collections; 242 nymphs were collected
from 5 of the upper 6 stations in the Salt
River and from all 6 stations in Brashears
Creek (Table 1). Nymphs and adults were
taken in and near the slow, shallow riffles
in the Salt River and along the entire
length of Brashears Creek. The greatest
abundance of A. vivipara in Brashears
Creek, however, was in the uppermost 3
stations and in the intermittent tributary.
Adults were present from late February
to early April (Fig. 2). The sex ratio was
very close to 1:1. The males, however,
began emerging about 2 weeks before the
females and were taken on tree trunks as
far as 50 m from the shore. The females,
though mainly macropterous, usually were
not far from the stream’s edge.
Allocapnia forbesi Frison.—A. forbesi was
represented only by 3 adult males, and was
the least abundant of any stonefly in these
collections. All were taken in early Febru-
ary at Stations 26 and 33, near the mouth
of Brashears Creek (Table 1, Fig. 2).
T AENIOPTERYGIDAE
Brachyptera fasciata (Burmeister ).—Six
large nymphs were taken in late February
from riffles at 3 stations in Brashears Creek
where the water was deep and fairly slow
(Table 1). Both adult females were col-
lected on a gravel bar at Station 33 in
early March (Fig. 2).
Taeniopteryx burksi Ricker and Ross.—
T. burksi was the earliest of the winter
fauna and appeared in the riffles in mid-
November. Though not abundant, it was
present throughout the winter in the lower
stations of the Salt River and in the upper
reaches of Brashears Creek (Table 1).
As with Brachyptera, the nymphs were
found in the deeper, slower areas of the
STONEFLIES OF SALT RIVER, KENTUCKy—White 21
riffles especially near the beds of water
willow.
Adults, 7 males and 2 females, were
taken under stones along the streambeds,
and were collected only in November and
December; however, they probably were
present through early April (Fig. 2).
Taeniopteryx parvula Banks.—Six large
nymphs were taken in December from the
root masses of the water willows only at
Station 23 in the Salt River just downstream
from the mouth of Brashears Creek (Table
1). A single adult was taken on a sandbar
at the same station.
PERLODIDAE
Isoperla burksi Frison.—Isoperla burksi was
the fourth most abundant stonefly in our
collections. Nymphs of I. burksi were
more abundant than any other nymphs in
the collections and were collected at 10
stations, especially in the riffles of the
lower Salt River and throughout Brashears
Creek from January to April (Table 1,
Fig. 2). Of the 5 instars noted, the first
2 were found mainly among the roots of
water willow. The larger individuals were
most abundant in the open areas of the
riffles. A measurable difference in size
between males and females was noted in
the 3 larger instars with the females
becoming progressively larger until the
difference in size was no greater than
0.2 mm prior to emergence. Nymphal
females outnumbered males slightly more
fan’? 1:
Stomach analysis of 21 nymphs of
different sizes showed I. burksi to be both
carnivorous and cannibalistic, as are many
other members of the genus. No nymph
examined contained more than 1 organism
in its stomach. All prey was consumed
whole with no preference as to whether
they were ingested headfirst or tailfirst.
Of the 21 stomachs, 7 were empty, 8 con-
tained chironomid larvae, 4 contained
ephemeropteran nymphs, 1 contained a
Perlesta nymph, and 1 an I. burksi nymph.
Adults began emerging in very late April
and were present until the middle of June.
They showed virtually no attraction to the
blacklight, and only 1 was taken by that
method during the entire emergence period.
In late April and early May, adults were
found under pieces of driftwood and bark
scattered along the shore. Adults in late
May and June were taken by sweeping the
emergent water willow. The females col-
lected in that manner outnumbered the
males by slightly more than 2:1, the same
sex ratio exhibited among the nymphs in
our collections.
As indicated by the results of sweeping,
mating and egg deposition took place
during the day. Even though egg deposi-
tion was not observed, several females
taken from the water willow deposited egg
masses on the sides of the collecting jars.
Egg counts from 10 newly emerged females
ranged from 257 to 409 with an average
of 358.
Isoperla clio (Newman).—A few large
nymphs were taken in February and March
from 3 stations in the Salt River and 4 sta-
tions in Brashears Creek (Table 1, Fig. 2).
No more than | or 2 were collected in each
sample indicating that the species was
widespread but not abundant. Adults were
taken from late March through early
May by sweeping emergent vegetation.
Isoperla nana (Walsh).—Nymphs_ were
collected from the riffles in early March
through the end of April from 4 stations in
the Salt River and 1 in Brashears Creek
(Table 1, Fig. 2); but two adult males
were taken in early May from a sandbar
at that station, and a third was taken in
late April as it drifted into the bottom
sampler.
PERLIDAE
Acroneuria arida (Hagen).—A. arida was
the second most abundant stonefly in our
collections. With a 2-year life cycle, A.
arida was the only nymph present in the
riffles throughout the year (Fig. 2), and
was collected at 5 stations in the Salt River
and 4 stations in Brashears Creek (Table
1). First-year nymphs began appearing in
the riffles during April and were abundant
22. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
until October. Since only a few specimens
were taken from December through March,
it was assumed that the nymphs either
entered the submerged beds of water
willow roots or were buried in the bottom
sediments. In late March, nymphs reap-
peared at all of the lower Salt River stations
and throughout much of Brashears Creek.
Emergence began in late May and
continued through early July. A. arida
was attracted to blacklight in large
numbers.
Perlesta placida (Hagen).—P. placida was
the most abundant plecopteran taken and
made up more than half the total number
of stoneflies in the collections. Also, it was
taken at all but 2 of the stations sampled,
those being in the extreme upper reaches of
the Salt River, where the only stonefly
taken was Allocapnia vivipara. Nymphs
were present in the riffles from March
through the middle of June (Fig. 2), and
their numbers in the collections were
exceeded only by those of Isoperla burksi.
Adults of P. placida were present from
the second week in June through the
second week in July, and the individuals
of this species made up nearly three-
fourths of all adult stoneflies in the
collections.
Neoperla clymene (Newman).—Nymphs
were found at 4 stations in Brashears Creek
and at 3 stations in the Salt River (Table
1). They first appeared in the riffles in
early March and were present until the
second week in July. N. clymene was
the fifth most abundant stonefly in the
collections.
Emergence began in early June and
extended through the middle of July. A
few specimens were attracted to the black-
light but most were collected on stones
near the stream’s edge and by sweeping
littoral vegetation.
DISCUSSION
Of the species collected, all except
Acroneuria arida appeared to be univoltine,
producing a single generation per year. The
life cycle of A. arida, as has been noted
for other Acroneuria (Claassen 1931, and
Harden and Mickel 1952), requires 2 years.
All 12 species would be classified nonactive
first instar or intermediate (Hynes 1961).
Of the 12 species in the collections, no
more than 10 were collected at any station
(Station 30 at the source of Brashears
Creek), and at Stations 2 and 3 in the upper
Salt River, only a single species was col-
lected (Table 1). Nine species were col-
lected at Station 23, 8 were present in the
collections from Station 22, and there were
7 species in the collections from each of
4 stations, Station 14 in the Salt River and
Stations 28, 29, and 33 in Brashears Creek.
No more than 4 species were taken in the
collections from the other 9 stations.
No species was taken at all 16 stations
(Table 1), but specimens of Perlesta
placida were collected at 14 stations, speci-
mens of Allocapnia vivipara were taken at
11 stations, Isoperla burksi at 10 stations,
Acroneuria arida at 9 stations, Isoperla clio
and Neoperla clymene at 7 stations, and the
Nemoura nigritta group at 6 stations. None
of the others was taken at more than a
third of the stations, and Taeinopteryx
parvula was collected only at Station 23
just below the confluence of Brashears
Creek and the Salt River.
With the exception of Perlesta placida
and Allocapnia vivipara, all species were
collected only at stations containing sub-
stantial beds of water willow. The water
willow affords protection for the long
inactive stages and for the smaller instars
which were often collected by sampling
in and around the root beds. Water willow
provides a site for mating and egg deposi-
tion by adults of the late spring and
summer such as the Nemoura_ nigritta
group, Taeniopteryx burksi, and Isoperla
burksi. Water willow is not necessary for
Perlesta placida, but where this vegetation
is present, it is used as a site for mating
and egg deposition. Allocapnia vivipara
is an inhabitant of small and intermittent
streams, as often is P. placida (Frison
1929, 1935), and was found only in
Brashears Creek and the portions of the
STONEFLIES OF SALT RIVER, KENTUCKY—White pe
Salt River upstream from the proposed
Taylorsville Lake.
Since the majority of the species were
collected within or near the beds of water
willow, any changes in the distribution of
that vegetation brought about by the
impoundment of Taylorsville Lake might
have a direct effect on the abundance and
distribution of these species in the Salt
River.
As pointed out earlier, nymphs of Acro-
neuria arida were the only larvae present
throughout the year (Fig. 2), since that
species was the only one in our collections
that had a 2-year life cycle. Nymphs of all
other species were collected at different
times from early November through mid-
June (Fig. 2). Nymphs of Taeniopteryx
burksi and Isoperla burksi were taken
over periods of 6 months and the periods
of collecting nymphs of other species ranged
down to 2 months for Brachyptera fasciata,
Isoperla clio, and I. nana. The only species
for which nymphs were not collected was
Allocapnia forbesi.
LITERATURE CITED
CLAASSEN, P. W. 1931. Plecoptera nymphs of
America (north of Mexico). Vol. IJ. Thomas
Say Foundation, College Park, Md. 199 pp.
Frison, T. H. 1929. Fall and winter stoneflies,
or Plecoptera, of Illinois. Ill. Nat. Hist. Sury.
Bull. 18:340—409.
. 1935. The stoneflies or Plecoptera
of Illinois. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 20:
281-471.
1942. Studies of North American
Plecoptera with special reference to the fauna
of Illinois. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 22:
233-355.
PARDEN, P. Hann. C. FE. Micker, . 1952. The
stoneflies of Minnesota (Plecoptera). Univ.
Minn. Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 20:1-84.
Hynes, H. B. N. 1961. The invertebrate fauna
of a Welsh mountain stream. Arch. Hydro-
biol. 57:344—-388.
KruMHOoLz, L. A. 1971. A preliminary ecological
study of areas to be impounded in the Salt
River Basin of Kentucky. Univ. Ky. Water
Res. Inst., Res. Rept. No. 43:1-16.
, AND S. E. Nerr. 1970. The fresh-
water stream, a complex ecosystem. Proc.
5th Ann. Water Res. Conf. 6:163—174.
, AND —————. 1972. A preliminary
ecological study of areas to be impounded
in the Salt River Basin of Kentucky. Univ.
Ky. Water Res. Inst., Res. Rept. No. 48:1—25.
NEEDHAM, J. G., AND P. W. CLAASsEN. 1925. A
monograph of the Plecoptera or stoneflies of
America north of Mexico. Thomas Say
Foundation Bull. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 2:
1-397.
NerrF, S. E., anp L. A. Krumuouz. 1973. A
detailed investigation of the sociological,
economic, and ecological aspects of proposed
reservoir sites in the Salt River Basin of
Kentucky. Univ. Ky. Water Res. Inst., Res.
Rept. No. 67:1-64.
Helminth Parasites of the White Sucker (Pisces: Catostomidae )
in the Kentucky River Drainage
GLENN WHITE AND JOHN P. HARLEY
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475
ABSTRACT
The following helminths were recovered from 100 white suckers (Catostomus commersoni )
from the Kentucky River drainage system: Acanthocephala, Acanthocephalus jacksoni and
Octospinifer macilentus; Trematoda, Clinostomum marginatum, Neascus sp., Phyllodistomum
lysteri, Plagioporus serotinus, and Triganodistomum attenuatum; Cestoidea, Glaridacris
catostomi, Hunterella nodulosa, and Monobothrium hunteri; and Nematoda, Contracaecum sp.
and Philometra cylindracea. Octospinifer macilentus, P. serotinus, M. hunteri, Contracaecum
sp., and P. cylindracea are new state records. Philometra cylindracea is also a new host record.
INTRODUCTION
As stated in a previous paper (Bauer and
Harley 1973), the helminth parasites of
Kentucky fishes have, overall, been grossly
neglected when compared with data from
other states. A review of the literature indi-
cates that only 2 published works exist on
the parasites of the white sucker Catos-
tomus commersoni Lacépéde in Kentucky:
Aliff (1973, unpublished doctoral disserta-
tion, University of Kentucky, Lexington,
Kentucky) reported the digenetic trematode
Lissorchis attenuatum and White and Har-
ley (1973) reported the acanthocephalan
Acanthocephalus jacksoni, the trematodes
Clinostomum marginatum and Neascus sp.,
and the cestode Glaridacris catostomi.
As a result, it was felt that a more com-
plete study of the parasites should be done
on the white suckers in Kentucky. Second-
arily, C. commersoni was chosen for study
because it is considered a nonsport or
“rough” fish and thus has been neglected
in many studies.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Representative numbers of fish were col-
lected from Boone (11), Eagle (19), Otter
(14), Silver (13), and Tates creeks (14),
the main channel of the Kentucky River
(11), and Kentucky River Lock No. 3 (18).
Collections were made over a 13-month
period from May 1972 through June 1973.
Fish were either autopsied in the field or
were transported alive back to the labora-
tory for autopsy. Internal organs were
placed in separate Petri dishes of saline
and teased apart. When recovered, ces-
todes, nematodes, and trematodes were
placed in saline. Acanthocephalans were
placed in distilled water to evert the
proboscis.
Fixation and relaxation of nematodes
were accomplished by dropping them in hot
70 percent ethyl alcohol. Cestodes were
first relaxed in 4 percent chloretone (Hargis
1953) and then fixed in hot standard AFA
solution. Trematodes were placed under
a coverslip with slight pressure and flooded
with hot AFA. The acanthocephalans were
fixed in hot AFA.
Adult acanthocephalans and trematodes
were stained with both Harris’ hematoxylin
and Mayer's paracarmine. Cestodes were
stained only with Mayer's stain or placed
in polyvinyl alcohol according to Hoffman
(1954). All staining was regressive. De-
staining, dehydration, and clearing were
done by the standard techniques (Guyer
1953). Mounting, except for PVA, was
done in permount.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Catostomus commersoni, the common
white sucker of the Kentucky River drain-
age system, has a diverse parasite fauna.
Twelve species of helminths were recovered
(Table 1). These represented all the
major taxa of animal parasites in fishes.
;
:
— See
PARASITES OF WHITE SUCKER—White and Harley
25
TABLE ]1.—NuUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF PARASITES OF CATOSTOMUS COMMERSONI INCLUDING NEw Host
AND STATE RECORDS.
Mean
intensity
% of in-
infested festation
Parasite
ACANTHOCEPHALA
Acanthocephalus jacksoni 58 LZ
Octospinifer macilentus 2 6
TREMATODA
Clinostomum marginatum (Imm) 7 5
Neascus sp. (Imm) 11 59
Phyllodistomum lysteri 4 S
Plagioporus serotinus 10 ie:
Triganodistomum attenuatum 2 3
CESTOIDEA
Glaridacris catostomi 37 3
Hunterella nodulosa 8 lial
Monobothrium hunteri 2 2
NEMATODA
Contracaecum sp. 9 2,
Philometra cylindracea 2 3
ONE HUNDRED FISH WERE AUTOPSIED. IMM DESIGNATES IMMATURE WoRMS
New New
Total Location host state
parasites in fish record record
1,005 Intestine
1p Intestine x
19 Fins, musculature,
mouth, gill arches
644 External surface
19 Urinary bladder
729 Intestine x
6 Intestine
1 DA! Intestine
87 Intestine
3 Intestine x
14 Mouth (under A
epithelial layer )
6 Body cavity Xx Xx
The acanthocephalan, A. jacksoni, was
the most abundant and widespread parasite
found. Of the 5 trematodes recovered, the
adult fluke P. serotinus, as well as the
metacercaria of Neascus sp., were abun-
dant. Four cestodes were found with G.
catostomi being the one most commonly
encountered. Nematodes were scarce, with
only 2 species being found. However,
Contracaecum sp. proved unusual in having
cuticular papillae, and all were found under
the epithelial layer of the mouth.
Five of the 12 parasites recovered con-
stituted new range extensions, with Ken-
tucky being a new locality record. In addi-
tion, C. commersoni is a new host record
for P. cylindracea in the United States.
The drainage system as a whole appeared
to be relatively unpolluted if the diversity
and abundance of parasites were used as
an index. Clean water is essential for the
existence of molluscan and arthropod inter-
mediate hosts, which helminths require for
completion of their life cycles.
Two streams in this study deserve special
note. Boone Creek lies in Fayette County,
an area of rapid growth. This has led to
the construction of 4 sewage treatment
plants, 2 tertiary and 2 secondary, along
this creek. Nevertheless, 10 of the 12 spe-
cies of parasites were collected at this site.
Eagle Creek was unusual because O.
macilentus and P. cylindracea were col-
lected here, but not from the other study
areas in the Kentucky River drainage. This
possibly could be a result of the piracy of
Eagle Creek from the Ohio River during
the Pliocene Epoch (Jillson 1949).
Acknowledgments are due Dr. John S.
Mackiewicz (SUNY), Professor W. L.
Bullock (University of New Hampshire),
Dr. John V. Aliff (Georgia College), and
Dr. John C. Williams (Eastern Kentucky
University ).
26 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
LITERATURE CITED
Bauer, B. H., AnD J. P. HARLEy. 1973. Intestinal
parasites from two species of catfishes (Icta-
luridae) from Lake Wilgreen in Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 34(3,4):55-56.
Guyer, M. F. 1953. Animal Micrology. Univ.
Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill. 327 pp.
Harcis, W. J. 1953. Chloretone as a trematode
relaxer, and its use in mass collecting tech-
niques. J. Parasit. 39:224—225.
HorrMan, G. L. 1954. Polyvinyl alcohol-fixa-
small helminths and
tive adhesive for
protozoans. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc.
73:328-329.
Jmxtson, W. R. 1949. The piracy of Eagle
Creek. Roberts Printing Co., Frankfort, Ky.
16 pp.
Wurre, G. E., anp J. P. HaR.ey.
minth parasites of the common white sucker,
Catostomus commersoni, from Lake Wilgreen
in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 34(3,4):
53-54.
1973. Hel-
A New Coding System for Hardshelled Turtles
Cart H. ERNST
Department of Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia 22030
Lexington, Kentucky 40506
Mary Faitra HersHey, AND ROGER W. BARBOUR
Thomas Hunt Morgan School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky,
Several systems of marking and coding
freshwater and _ terrestrial hardshelled
turtles for further study have been pro-
posed (Bogert 1937, Cagle 1939, Kaplan
1958, Pough 1970). Unfortunately, all have
disadvantages which may make them im-
practical. Probably the best method for
marking large numbers of wild turtles for
future identification in capture—recapture
studies is by notching the shell. It is the
cheapest method and involves little time
and few tools ( Ernst 1971).
The coding system of Cagle (1939) for
notching has been used in most turtle
studies; however, it is complicated and con-
fusing. In Cagle’s system, the marginals
are numbered 1 to 12 from anterior to
posterior on each side of chelydrid, emydid,
and testudinid turtles and 1 to 11 in
kinosternid turtles. The positional number
of the notched marginal is then recorded. A
comma is used to separate those on a single
side of the carapace, and a hyphen sepa-
rates the left and right sides. For example,
turtle 1, 8-2, 9 had the first and eighth left
marginals notched and the second and
ninth on the right side. This system allowed
a total of 2,516 combinations by using up
to 4 notches.
An easier and less confusing system is
one with the notched marginals or certain
plastral scutes coded so turtles can be
numbered consecutively. This is done by
assigning numerical values to certain cara-
pacial marginals and the gulars and anals
of the plastron. In chelydrid, emydid, and
testudinid turtles marginals 1, 2, 3, 8, 9,
10, 11, and 12 on the left side of the cara-
pace may be coded as 1, 4, 10, 40, 100, 400,
1,000, and 4,000, respectively, and the same
marginals on the right side as 2, 7, 20, 70,
200, 700, 2,000, and 7,000 (Fig. 1). By
27
adding the numerical values of the notched
marginals, one arrives at the number of
the specimen. For example, a turtle with
notches on the second left marginal and
tenth right marginal is 704. This system
allows up to 999 turtles to be coded without
making more than 6 notches per turtle, and
9,999 without more than 8 notches. If
10,000 or more turtles are to be marked, the
plastron may be used; the left gular may
be coded as 10,000, the right gular as
20,000, the left anal as 40,000 and the right
anal as 70,000 (Fig. 1). It is doubtful if
an investigator could ever use up all of the
possible combinations in this system, and
it can be applied to any number of dif-
ferent species concurrently.
Kinosternid turtles have only 11 mar-
ginals on each side of the carapace and
the above system must be abbreviated for
them. The corresponding left marginals
can be coded as 1, 4, 10, 40, 100, 400, and
1,000, respectively, and those on the right
at 2, 7, 20, 70, 200, 700, 2,000. If more than
3,999 turtles are to be marked, the plastron
can again be used. Since some kinosternids
have no more than a single gular scute, the
humerals can be used instead with the left
humeral coded as 4,000, the right humeral
as 7,000, the left anal as 10,000 and the right
anal as 20,000.
If large Chelydra serpentina or Macro-
clemys temminckii are to be marked, prob-
lems will arise during the notching process.
A vicious tempered chelydrid with its
powerful jaws and long neck can be re-
strained by allowing it to bite a length of
rope and then tying the rope under the
posterior edge of the carapace so the head
is held in.
The marginals at the bridge of the cara-
pace and plastron, or at the junction of
28 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
Fic. 1.
numerical codon for each suitable marginal; B = the plastron with the numerical value for each
gular and anal).
the carapace and plastron in bridgeless spe-
cies, should not be used because of the
weakening of the shell at that point (this
usually involves the fourth to seventh
marginals ).
The proposed numerical coding system is
not difficult to memorize, requires few
tools, and simplifies handling field data for
large numbers of turtles. A field notebook
with consecutively numbered entries can
be kept with relative ease, and from it data
can later be transferred to file cards or be
computerized. The cards can be filed nu-
merically with one card per turtle, and all
entries for an individual can be entered
chronologically on its card. The proper
card is easily found for recording of addi-
tional data.
A numerical coding system for notched hardshelled turtles (A = the carapace with the
The numbers used for coding in this study
are not the only ones possible and other
systems may be worked out to allow coding
of even larger numbers of turtles.
LITERATURE CITED
Bocert, C. M. 1937. Note on the growth
rate of the desert tortoise, Gopherus agassizi.
Copeia 1937:191—-192.
Cacite, F. R. 1939. A system of marking
turtles for future identification. Copeia 1939:
170-173.
Ernst, C. H. 1971. Population dynamics and
activity cycles of Chrysemys picta in south-
eastern Pennsylvania. J. Herpetol. 5:151—-160.
Kaptan, H. M. 1958. Marking and _ banding
frogs and turtles. Herpetologica 14:131-132.
Poucu, F. H. 1970. A quick method for
permanently marking snakes and _ turtles.
Herpetologica 26:428—-430.
Decay and Its Prevention in Natural Stone
Ke Pan CxURI
Geology Department, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
In our studies on a variety of natural building stones, we have observed 2 basic types of
profiles of weathering. In highly compact rocks such as marble, the zone of weathering is
characterized by a reduced specific gravity and augmented capillarity.
Here, the texture
of the zone of weathering is quite distinct relative to the texture of the parent material. In
less compact rocks such as limestone, the pore space in the zone of weathering becomes
plugged due to the recrystallization of salts obtained by the solution of the parent rock.
The effect of continued weathering of all these stones is the surface reduction of objects
which leads to destruction of ornamentation and surface relief. Using industrial polymers,
methods of impregnation have been given which, by reducing water transport into the
stone, have greatly minimized the effect of weathering agents.
INTRODUCTION
The deterioration of natural stone due to
atmospheric attack is vividly exposed in
the ruins of the Coliseum of Rome and in
the Parthenon of Athens. Several centuries
of atmospheric attack was essential to dis-
integrate those structures. With the in-
creasing amounts of pollutant gases in the
atmosphere contributed by the burning of
fossil fuels, the deterioration of stone
objects is now continuing at an accelerated
pace. This paper is designed to present
several aspects of stone deterioration such
as modification of properties of weathered
stone, laboratory methods of studying such
properties, and decay rates of stone ex-
posed to concentrated artificial atmospheres
generated for accelerated weathering.
Finally, certain methods of treatment are
presented to retard the deterioration of
natural stone used for sculptural and struc-
tural purposes in objects of art and archi-
tecture.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper was written during my leave
of absence from the University of Louis-
ville and an engagement with Universal
Restoration Inc., Washington, D. C. The
Universal Restoration also provided the
weathered Portland limestone specimens
from the St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. I
am thankful to Universal and the Univer-
sity of Louisville for their resources and
29
facilities made available to me for research
on stone conservation.
WEATHERING OF STONE
The stone exposed to the atmosphere for
a period of time commonly develops a zone
of weathering which possesses discrete
structure developed by the alteration of
the parent rock as shown in Figs. 1A and
1B. Fig. 1A symbolizes stone types in
which the component grains of rock are
compactly packed. Marbles, granites, etc.
are examples of such rocks. The compac-
tion in these rocks has resulted from high-
pressure environment in which these rocks
were buried in earth’s interior. These rocks
commonly possess less than 2 percent
porosity. Fig. 1B symbolizes relatively
loosely packed rock varieties in which the
lithification has occurred from natural
cements. Limestones, sandstones, etc.
represent such varieties of rocks. These
rocks commonly possess a higher porosity
due to a relatively loose packing.
The zone of weathering in Fig. 1A is
characterized by an acquisition of a
thoroughly new texture relative to the
texture of the parent material. The grain
boundaries in the weathered zone have
been obliterated. Solutions and recrystal-
lizations have resulted in a reduction of
grain size and in the formation of a multi-
tude of small granules. The cleavage
planes have been widened. All these
30 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
WwW NW
h
Bae oa:
Cross sections showing physical charac-
teristics of the zone of weathering and _ its
relationship to the parent rock. A. The specimen
was obtained from a tombstone made from Carrara
marble. The tombstone had been exposed in the
Cave Hill Cemetery, Louisville, Kentucky, for
nearly 100 years. The zone of weathering in this
diagram consists of 1 + 2; 1 represents fine
grained product of deterioration; In 2, solutions
along the cleavage planes of individual grains have
resulted in the widening of these planes and the
boundaries between individual grains have become
indistinct; 3 is the unweathered portion of calcite
grains; 4 represents individual calcite grains which
have not at all experienced the effects of weather-
ing. Note that the zone of weathering is texturally
completely distinct from the unweathered stone.
B. The specimen was obtained from St. Paul’s
Cathedral where it had weathered for nearly 2
centuries. The specimen formed part of the base
of one of the now dismantled urns which were
put up in 1707. A in the diagram represents the
zone of weathering characterized by complete or
partial plugging of pores. Note the schematically
changes in texture have led to an increased
capillarity of the weathered zone as com-
pared with the capillarity of the un-
weathered rock shown in Fig. 2A.
The zone of weathering shown in Fig.
1B is characteristically different from the
zone of weathering in Fig. 1A. This zone
(Fig. 1B) is not quite distinctly separated
from the underlying unweathered rock, and
the original texture of the rock is also
maintained to a large degree. The differ-
ences that have come into existence relate
mainly to plugging of pores in the near
surface regions. This plugging is a result
of crystallization of salts from solutions
formed from chemical decay of the parent
stone. As a result of plugging of pores, the
curve of capillary rise (Fig. 2B) of water
is quite distinct from such a curve shown
in Fig. 2A. The higher capillarity towards
the exterior of stone is due to surface
roughness produced by a larger removal of
material at intergranular surfaces.
The varied textural developments of the
zone of weathering seem to generate from
the porosity and permeability characteris-
tics of the parent stone. In the case of lime-
stone, large capillaries and pores permit
an easy inward passage to solutions which
have formed by the surface weathering. A
part of these solutions is undoubtedly
washed away. But from those parts of solu-
tions which have entered the pore space,
salts are crystallized. In the case of mar-
bles, however, such inward movements of
ions in solution are restricted due to capil-
lary characteristics. Therefore, most of the
solutions produced at the surface are re-
moved by rainfall, etc. The balance of re-
distribution of materials resulting from
solution and recrystallization is, in gen-
eral, a continual reduction of surface which
follows a reduced density and strength and
an increased capillarity, porosity, and
permeability of the weathered zone.
The determination of strength of the
represented reduction in grain size in the weathered
zone. Note, also, that the texture of the weathered
zone is quite similar to the texture of the parent
rock (B).
eS eee eee
PRESERVATION OF STONE—Gauri £1
WS
U>
WLC”
SCW 4<¥— ZW
weathered zone and that of horizons within
this zone is difficult. Customarily, the com-
pressive strength of materials is determined
by simple engineering tools which are used
to crush the material with a known force.
Such strength determinations have little
significance in the context of the weathered
rock because the zone of weathering is ex-
tremely thin and because its strength is
not uniformly distributed across its thick-
ness. Therefore, indirect methods need to
be established to determine the strength
of rock at different levels within and be-
yond the zone of weathering.
Following initial studies by Miller (1965,
unpublished master’s thesis, University of
Illinois, Urbana, Illinois) to establish re-
lationship of Apparent Specific Gravity
(ASG), Shore Scleroscope Hardness (Sh)
with compressive strength (c), Ullrich (in
Ullrich unpublished master’s thesis, Uni-
versity of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky,
1971; and Gauri, Hagerty, and Ullrich
1972) determined ASG and Sh at different
levels from surface towards depth of the
stone for Carrara marble. The marble
specimens were obtained from tombstones
which had been weathered for about a cen-
tury in the Cave Hill Cemetery, Louisville.
Ullrich developed the relationship In o (ksi)
= 0.914 + 0.014 (ASG)(S). The applica-
tion of this derivation to unweathered
calcareous rock provided significantly simi-
lar values for « as compared with values
obtained by actual compression tests.
<
Fic. 2. Capillary rise of water in a weathered
stone. Fig. 2A and 2B represent specimens from
Carrara marble and Portland limestone (see
explanation of Fig. 1), respectively. Note that
the water level in the zone of weathering in Fig.
2B is lower, due to pore plugging, than in the
unweathered portion of the rock. Fig. 2A also
shows (similar in 2B, but not shown) that an
impregnation of the stone by polymer causes a
reversal of the curve both in the weathered and
the unweathered regions of the stone. SCW:
surface in contact with water, T: Treated
specimen, U: Untreated specimen, WLC: Water
level due to capillarity, WS: Weathered surface,
ZW: Zone of weathering.
32 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
On
Fic. 3. Normalized (see text) Apparent Specific
Gravity, ASG, versus Normalized Depth, Dn, in
a weathered specimen of Carrara marble. T:
Treated, U: Untreated. After Gauri, Hagerty, and
Ullrich 1972.
To obtain comparable curves for different
specimens, o and the parameters which
yielded it were normalized. For normaliza-
tion, a constant factor for a given rock
specimen, e.g., the thickness of the zone of
weathering was made the denominator
while the numerator, to determine the nor-
malized depth, was the depth from surface
at which a given value was determined.
For instance, the thickness of the zone of
weathering is 2 mm and the depth at
which a given property, say ASG, is deter-
mined is 0.56 mm. The normalized depth,
then, (D,) is 0.5/2 mm = 0.25. In another
example, say the Sh of nonweathered zone
is 30 and the Sh at a given depth in the
weathered zone is 15. The normalized Sh
(S,) at the given depth then is 15/30 =
0.5, i.e., 50 percent of the Sh of the non-
weathered stone. At D, = 1, the S,, ASG,,
and o, will be 1.
The loss of ASG, Sh, and co in the
weathered region is shown in Figs. 3-5. It
is evident that the weathered region of the
marble has suffered up to 66, 55, and 20
percent reductions, respectively, in their
compressive strength, specific gravity, and
Shore hardness as compared with the un-
weathered regions of the marble.
THE PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF STONE
There are 2 basic approaches for the
preservation of stone: those which change
Fic. 4. Normalized (see text) Shore Scleroscope
Hardness, Sn, versus Normalized Depth, Dn, in
a weathered specimen of Carrara’ marble.
T: Treated, U: Untreated. After Gauri, Hagerty,
and Ullrich 1972.
the chemistry of the stone so that the re-
sultant substance is more resistant to atmo-
spheric attack, and those which provide by
means of impregnation of synthetic organic
materials both protective coating and a
cement between dislodged grains.
In the first approach, common materials
of treatment have been solutions of hy-
droxides of calcium, barium, strontium, etc.
These solutions are introduced into the
stone. On reaction with atmospheric CO:
or the CO, obtained by dissociation of
media which accompany these solutions,
insoluble carbonates of these cations are
formed. These solutions are mostly ionic
and the penetration of ions into the stone
is only a few millimeters. Therefore, gen-
erally, they form consolidated crusts in
the weathered regions of stone. Such crusts
exfoliate due to continuing chemical and
mechanical changes behind the treated
regions.
In the second case, synthetic organic ma-
terials carrying curing agents are made to
penetrate into the rock where they poly-
merize to consolidate the rock. Several
factors impede the success of this treat-
ment. These factors include the shallow
penetration of mostly viscous organic pre-
servatives, the sealing of pores which in-
hibit essential breathing of the stone and
PRESERVATION OF STONE
1.0
ay
a
lo
0.5
a 0.5 1.0 1.5
Dp
Fic. 5. Normalized (see text) Compressive
Strength, on, versus Normalized Depth, Dn, in
a weathered specimen of Carrara marble. T:
Treated, U: Untreated. After Gauri, Hagerty, and
Ullrich 1972.
the difficulty of removing occluded im-
purities from the stone. In the following,
a technique is redescribed (Gauri 1970)
which mostly overcomes these difficulties.
The stone is first immersed in a solvent-
water mixture or in the solvent or in a low
concentration mixture of a polymer in the
solvent. It is then transferred through in-
creasing concentrations of polymer in the
solvent. The first treatment permits the
less viscous solution to penetrate to a greater
depth while denser solution of subsequent
applications remains in the shallower,
weathered, depths of the stone. In this
process of treatment, diffusion forces come
into play by means of which higher density
resin is exchanged for lower density resin
to a depth dependent upon the pore size
and the time of treatment. For diffusion,
above successive applications are made to
occur without a time lapse between the
applications. After treatment, the impreg-
nant polymerizes and thus imparts cementa-
tion between grains of both weathered and
unweathered regions of the stone. This
cementation also anchors the weathered
region with the unweathered regions of
the stone. The evaporation of the solvent
from the impregnant leaves behind porosity
which permits subsequent breathing of the
Gauri 33"
50
40
30
Output due to
combustion
20
CO, Increase in the Atmosphere (%)
0
1880 1900 1950 2000
Fic. 6. Worldwide increase of the CO. content in
the Atmosphere due to Fossil Fuel Combustion.
After Bolin and Erickson 1959.
stone. Because such resins are selected for
treatment which have a good bond with the
stone components, the films of the resin
envelope the grains rather than forming
pellets in the pore space. This is essential
because grains of treated stone must be
secluded from coming in contact with atmo-
spheric gases and water which may enter
the remaining pore space.
The result of the impregnation of the
stone is that most of its physical char-
acteristics which had altered due _ to
weathering are now revisited. Figs. 3-5
show that the specific gravity, Shore hard-
ness, and compressive strength are in-
creased. The capillarity, porosity, perme-
ability, and the water absorption on the
other hand have significantly decreased.
The restoration, rather the improvement of
these properties over the properties of the
original stone, enables the stone to resist
future atmospheric attack.
The chemically active gases which de-
compose the stone are increasing in the
atmosphere due to increments in the burn-
ing of fossil fuels. The burning of coals
which contain sulfur results in high dosages
of SO, emitted into the atmosphere. The
city of Louisville is burning more than 4
million tons of coal annually for the pro-
duction of gas and electricity only. This
generates approximately 240,000 tons of
SO,; alternatively, at least 3,000 ppm SO,
34 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
ee eae
a5
20-
oO
Nw
aw
WN
Ss 15
ep)
oO
©
3° 10
= A
(oe)
=
5
C
O
Se
e) | 2 3
Time of Exposure (weeks)
Fic. 7. SOz attack on Calcite in concentrated
dynamic atmosphere. SO, concentration 700 ppm,
Humidity > 80 percent, Flow 400 ml/min.
The specimens were obtained from Green Mont,
Vermont marble. A: control (untreated), B:
treated with an Epoxy Resin (not all epoxy resin
enhance Calcite-SO: reactivity), C: treated with
a polyvinyl containing fluorine.
is being emitted into the atmosphere of this
city. Recent studies on the rainwaters of
the Eastern United States (Johnson and
Reynolds 1972) indicate 4.3 mg/1 of sulfate
with an associated pH of 4.4. Similarly,
the quantities of CO. have also consider-
ably increased as a result of burning of
fuels. Bolin and Erickson (1959, Fig. 6)
have shown that the output of CO, due to
combustion has increased more than 25 per-
cent within the present century. As a
result of attack of, primarily, these gases
Loughlin (1931) estimated surface reduc-
tion of limestone at a rate of 1.57 mm in 50
years in New York City. The increased
industrial activity has doubtlessly increased
the surface removal rates of the carbonate
rocks exposed to the ambient.
250
504
1@) 24 48 72
Time of Exposure (hours)
Fic. 8. CO: attack on Calcite in concentrated
artificial dynamic atmosphere with a 2.27 percent
mixture of CO: in air. Note that the treated
specimen retarded the CO: attack as compared
with the untreated specimen. After Tanjaruphan
(unpublished master’s thesis ).
The following equations govern the
reactions of CO, and SO, with calcite in
the presence of moisture.
CaCO; + H2,0 + CO, = Ca** + 2 HCO;-
SOz
CaCOsz are
H,O
Oz
STs CaSO, -2 H.O
H,O
These reactions are so slow in nature that
the reaction rates are difficult to study. We
have, therefore, generated artificial con-
centrated atmospheres in the laboratory to
accelerate the rates of reaction. Presently,
we are using these gases individually for
reactivity. We plan to study the effect of
these gases when they attack stone col-
lectively in the reaction chambers. The fact
that collective reaction may be different
than individual reactions seems logical
because changes in reaction environments
caused by a given gas reaction may sup-
press the reactivity of another reactant.
Johnson and Reynolds (1972) have shown
that sulfate content in water suppresses COz
:
PRESERVATION OF STONE—Gauri ap
reactivity with calcareous materials. In
our later studies we also intend to include
the reactivity of NO» with calcareous stone.
Our artificial atmospheres consist of mix-
tures of known quantities of reactive gases
(COz, SO2) and air passed at a given rate
of flow through reaction chambers. For
SO, reactions, the specimens are hung free
in the reaction chamber and the humidity
is controlled by several ways; such as
bubbling the gas—air mixture through water
and/or placing water at the bottom of the
reaction chamber in which the specimens
are freely suspended. For COz reactions,
the specimens are completely immersed in
water through which gas—air mixture is
bubbled. The concentration of CQO, in
water is maintained at a constant level by
controlling the CO, partial pressure.
The reaction products of calcite and SOsz,
namely, calcium sulfite and calcium sul-
fate are crystalline compounds. They lend
themselves to quantitative analysis by
x-ray diffraction. In practice, the inte-
grated diffracted intensity, in counts, is
measured 10 to 11° for sulfate, 27 to 28.8°
for sulfite, and 28.8 to 30° for calcite in
2 6 values. These counts are compared with
the counts obtained for corresponding 2 6
values obtained from calibrated samples to
obtain percentages of given species of a
compound formed as a result of SO:
reaction.
The rate of reaction is determined by
SO, concentration, the level of humidity
and flow rate of the reacting atmosphere,
and the particle size of the reactant stone.
Higher humidity and SO: concentrations
accelerate the reaction, slower flow rate
and larger particle size decelerate it. In
general, however, the pattern of reactions
in any set of variable conditions remains
the same as exemplified in Fig. 7. In the
initial phase, the reaction is quite fast, but
it soon attains a steady state beyond which
the reaction ceases to proceed. The reason
for such a steady state lies in the formation
of calcium sulfite at the surface which acts
as a protective coating against continued
reaction. In nature, however, any calcium
sulfite or sulfate that forms is washed away
with the next rain. Thus, the plot of re-
action for a natural stone would be a
straight line, the slope of which is roughly
determined in the very initial phases of the
reaction.
A reaction proceeding under certain
laboratory conditions may be augmented
by the condensation of moisture on the
surface of specimens. This moisture
carrying absorbed SO, penetrates into the
deeper regions of specimen, thus exposing
larger areas to SOs attack. In specimens
which had once attained a steady state in
reaction chambers and were then wetted
with water, a 100 percent transformation of
calcite occurred at the surface as com-
pared with a 15 mole percent sulfite for-
mation in specimens which were exposed
to otherwise most rigorous reaction con-
ditions. One of the secrets of a successful
treatment of stone is thus to use materials
which are water repellant. The absence of
moisture will not only chemically protect
the stone, but also the mechanical stresses
caused by freezing and thawing of water
and the effects due to wetting and drying
will be eliminated. Further, the damage
due to increment of volume by hydration
of salts such as sulfates and chlorides of
sodium and calcium lodged as occlusions in
the pore space of stone will also be averted.
Fig. 7 shows the effect of treatment by
certain polymer species. It is obvious that
certain polymers provide more protection
than other polymers. Most interesting,
however, is the fact that certain polymers
enhance the rate of reaction as compared
with the reactivity of untreated specimens.
For the study of CO».-calcite reactions,
the specimens were submerged in water
through which a known concentration of
CO, in air was passed. Tanjaruphan (1973,
unpublished master’s thesis, University of
Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky) studied
this reactivity as a function of Ca** con-
centration of these waters determined by
EDTA titration and atomic absorption.
Fig. 8 represents the reaction rates of
treated and untreated specimens. This
study has revealed that the same polymers
36
are effective as protecting agents as those
which considerably retarded SO.-calcite
reactivity.
CONCLUSION
This study has shown that effectiveness
of protective treatments can be determined
by laboratory techniques in a very short
time. The conservators for objects of art
now do not have to take a chance or to
wait for years to see whether or not a
treatment will be effective. A judicious
selection of preservatives and proper ap-
plication techniques can considerably pro-
long the life of precious art objects and
provide greater strength to withstand the
effects of gaseous pollutants and weather
controlled mechanical stresses.
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
LITERATURE CITED
Bouin, B., AND E. Erickson. 1959. Change in
the CO: content of the atmosphere and sea
due to fossil fuel combustion. pp. 130-142.
In: B. Bolin (Ed.), “The Atmosphere and
Sea in Motion,’ Oxford University Press,
London.
Gauri, K. L. 1970. Improved
technique for the _ preservation of
statuary. Nature 228:882.
Gaunt, K. L., D. J. Hacrerty, anp C. R. ULLRICH.
1972. Comparative physical properties of
weathered impregnated and unimpregnated
marble. Eng. Geol. 6:235-250.
Jonson, N. M., anp R. C. ReEyNotps. 1972.
Atmospheric sulfur: its effect on the chemical
weathering of New England. Science 177:
515-517.
Loucuuin, G. F. 1931. Notes on the weathering
of natural building stones. Proc. Amer. Soc.
Testing Mater. 3(11):759-767.
impregnation
stone
i A A Il RE itt Sl
}
|
)
Mammals of Pulaski County, Kentucky
Davin J. FAssLER
University of Kentucky, Somerset Community College, Somerset, Kentucky 42501*
ABSTRACT
A survey of the native mammals of Pulaski County, Kentucky, was made between 15
January 1971 and 1 July 1973. During that period, 33 species of mammals were collected,
4 species were observed but not collected, and 13 species remain in questionable status.
Notes on reproduction, morphology, distribution, and ecology are given for certain species.
INTRODUCTION
Few specific areas have been thoroughly
studied to determine the status of the
native mammalian fauna in the Common-
wealth of Kentucky. The most notable
study of any location was by Barbour
(1951) on Big Black Mountain in Harlan
County. Most other studies of mammalian
distribution were aimed at a given genus
or species. This summary of information
on the mammalian fauna of Pulaski County
is based on more than 300 specimens
gathered from 15 January 1971 to 1 July
1973. The majority of those specimens are
in my personal collection, or have been
deposited at Morehead State University,
Western Kentucky University, or Eastern
Kentucky University.
Pulaski County is a politically defined
area of 243 km? in south-central Kentucky.
The Cumberland River, which bisects the
southern part of the county, was dammed
in 1951, to form Lake Cumberland. Ele-
vations above mean sea level within the
county range from 220 m at normal pool
level of Lake Cumberland to 513 m on the
summit of Green River Knob.
Geologically, the eastern portion of the
county lies on the Cumberland Plateau,
an area characterized by Pennsylvanian
shales and sandstones. The western part
of the county consists of Mississippian
limestones. The eastern portion of the
county is hilly; the western part is more
gently rolling. A more detailed analysis of
the county has been treated by Lewis
(1974).
*Current address: Prudential Insurance Com-
pany, 621 South 10th Street, Bozeman, Montana
59715.
3
ry
The county has a predominantly mixed
mesophytic forest association (Oosting
1956). The county has acidic sandstone-
derived soils in the east and alkaline
limestone-derived soils in the west. Hem-
lock (Tsuga canadensis), pines (Pinus
spp.), mountain laurel (Kalmia sp.), and
buckeye (Aesculus octandra) are pre-
dominant in the sandstone areas, and hack-
berry (Celtis occidentalis) and black locust
(Robinia pseudo-acacia) are predominant
in the limestone areas. Beech (Fagus
grandifolia), magnolia (Magnolia grandi-
flora), yellow poplar (Liriodendron tuli-
pifera), red maple (Acer rubrum), hickory
(Carya spp.), and oaks (Quercus spp.)
occur in both areas. Sycamore (Plan-
tanus occidentalis) occurs throughout the
county, but is typically hydrophytic. In
those areas where the hardwood trees have
been removed, the terrain usually is cov-
ered with stands of fescue (Festuca spp.).
Scientific nomenclature follows Barbour
and Davis (1969) for the Chiroptera and
Hall and Kelson (1959) for all other
orders.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am especially indebted to the following
people for their assistance in locating spec-
imens: Delmos Sumner, Richard Q. Lewis,
Sr., Wendell Cornett, Larry Hranicky,
Larry Adkins, Mark Eubank, Billy C.
Clark, Napier Hines, Luther Small, and
Emest Daulton. Mr. Richard Q. Lewis, Sr.
of the U.S. Geological Survey assisted on
collecting trips, provided geological in-
formation, and made critical comments
concerning the manuscript. Mr. Richard
Drabik assisted in producing Fig. 1. Dr.
38 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
Wayne H. Davis made several helpful sug-
gestions leading to the final preparation of
the manuscript.
Part of this study was funded by grant
number 102-01-5W100-00000-304 of the
University of Kentucky.
THe MAMMALS
Didelphis marsupialis (Kerr), opossum.
The opossum is found in all parts of the
county and specimens were collected from
7 locations. A female killed in Somerset on
28 June 1972 contained 9 joeys, 56 mm in
crown-rump length. A female captured
on 16 April 1973 contained 9 joeys, which
were weaned by 14 May 1973.
Sorex fumeus (Miller), smoky shrew.
A partially mutilated adult was obtained
on 27 September 1971 at the Somerside
Acres subdivision between Somerset and
Burnside, having been caught by a house
cat. The shrew presumably lived in the
open fields near the subdivision. Moist
areas such as those preferred by this shrew
are not close to the subdivision.
Cryptotis parva (Say), least shrew.
Five least shrews, caught by house cats
in the city of Somerset, were collected in
March, July, October, and December. A
female found on 3 July 1972 contained 5
embryos, 9 mm in crown-rump length.
This shrew probably is common in open
fields throughout the county.
Blarina brevicauda (Gapper), short-tailed
shrew.
This shrew is frequently the prey of house
cats. Specimens were collected during all
months except January, February, and Sep-
tember. This animal is frequently con-
fused with a young mole by the local resi-
dents.
Scalopus aquaticus (Linnaeus), eastern
mole.
The eastern mole probably is ubiquitous
in well-drained soils throughout the county.
About 10 percent of my specimens con-
tained patches of white on the venter.
Parascalops breweri (Bachman), hairy-tailed
mole.
One badly mutilated, but identifiable,
road-killed P. breweri was observed near
Plato in northeastern Pulaski County.
Plecotus rafinesquii (Leeson), Rafinesque’s
big-eared bat.
Fassler (1971) reported this bat to be
common in Pulaski County. Specimens
have been collected at Sloan’s Valley Cave,
an unnamed cave 7.7 km east-southeast of
Somerset, and at an abandoned house 3.2
km west-southwest of Ingle that was occu-
pied by a nursery colony of more than 50
females with their young.
Nycticeius humeralis (Rafinesque), eve-
ning bat.
Fassler (1973) reported collecting of an
adult male 3.2 km south-southeast of Jugor-
not on 18 April 1972.
Lasiurus borealis (Muller), red bat.
Red bats have been collected or observed
throughout the year. On warm winter days,
this animal can be seen flying about in the
late afternoon. Davis and Lidicker (1956)
reported similar winter behavior in this
bat. A male red bat was found hibernating
in an abandoned woodpecker hole near
Gregory in adjacent Wayne County, Ken-
tucky (Fassler 1974).
Lasiurus cinereus (Palisot de Beauvois),
hoary bat.
Fassler (1972) reported finding a male
hoary bat in Somerset on 13 November
1971. The specimen was unique because of
its rarity in the Commonwealth and its late
autumn arrival.
(Le
Lasionycteris noctivagans Conte ),
silver-haired bat.
Barbour and Davis (1969) stated that the
silver-haired bat is a common migrant in
Kentucky during March and April. This
species was observed in flight on 1 No-
vember 1972. On 14 March 1973, a non-
pregnant female was found in a vertical
MAMMALS OF PULASKI CouNTy, KENTUCKY—Fassler
Bie. 1.
Map of Pulaski County showing important physiographic features.
39
PULASKI COUNTY
and
adjacent counties
Plato
Sloan’s Valley Cave, Minton Hollow entrance
Ingle
Jugornot
Hail’s Cave
Faubush
Nancy
Eubank
Shafter
10. Ruth
11. Nelson Valley
12. Stab
pen an pup =
13. Green River Knob
14. Mt. Victory
15. Dumplin Cave
Scale
1:290,000
miles
The area of the
Cumberland plateau is cross hatched.
crevice just inside Hail’s Cave. On 15 April
1973, another nonpregnant female was
shot 3.2 km south-southwest of Jugornot.
The latter animal may have been a late
migrant that year due to record low tem-
peratures in early April.
Eptesicus fuscus (Palisot de Beauvois),
big brown bat.
During the summer months, I estimated
the presence of more than a million big
brown bats in nursery colonies in Somerset,
but I have been unable to find this species
in the same buildings during winter. In
the winter of 1972-1973, only 5 male and
11 female big brown bats were found in
Pulaski County caves that I examined. The
winter disappearance of this species is not
unique to Pulaski County since John
Whitaker (pers. comm.) has reported the
phenomenon in west-central Indiana.
The big brown bat begins to appear at
its nursery colonies during the latter part
of April, and the young usually are born
the first week in June. By early July, the
young are capable of fending for them-
selves. On an afternoon in early July 1972,
more than 300 juveniles were found cling-
ing to the side of a house at 124 Bourne
Avenue, Somerset. Upon observing the
phenomenon, I noticed that as the juveniles
tried crawling to the entrances leading to
the attic, they were promptly turned away
by the adults. By the next morning, most
exiled juveniles were gone.
There are several places in Somerset
where E. fuscus is found inhabiting chim-
neys; I do not know, however, if this spe-
cies coexists with the Chimney Swift
(Chaetura pelagica).
A single female big brown bat shared a
rafter with a colony of P. rafinesquii in
the abandoned house 3.2 km west-southwest
of Ingle.
40
Pipistrellus subflavus (F. Cuvier), eastern
pipistrelle.
This probably is the most common bat in
Pulaski County and is a very common
hibernator in almost all caves. Between 17
October 1972 and 7 May 1973, I banded
154 pipistrelles as follows: Sloan’s Valley
Cave, 12 males, 11 females; unnamed cave,
2.8 km east-northeast of Somerset, 1 male,
1 female; unnamed cave beneath Buck
Creek Bridge on State Hwy 192, 4 males,
4 females; unnamed cave 2.4 km northwest
of Mount Victory, 3 males, 1 female;
Dumplin Cave, 2 females; Hail’s Cave, 73
males, 42 females. These sex ratios are in
general agreement with those reported by
Davis (1959).
During the winter 1972-1973, I observed
that frequent movement took place within
the population as some pipistrelles would
leave a given cave to return at a later time.
I found no movements between caves.
On 25 May 1973, I found only 1 banded
pipistrelle in Sloan’s Valley Cave, but 50
other pipistrelles (all males) without bands
were also present. The summer distribution
of the many banded pipistrelles has not
been established.
I have shot pipistrelles on only a few
occasions. A female was shot on 20 June
1972, 3.2 km south-southeast of Jugornot.
She was pregnant with 2 embryos, 23 mm
in crown-rump length. A male was shot at
the same location on 6 September 1972. On
26 June 1972, a P. subflavus was observed
fluttering like a moth around a mercury
vapor lamp at a house 0.5 km east of Ruth.
On 4 June 1973, at least 24 pipistrelles
were seen fluttering above a mercury
vapor lamp 1.6 km north of Somerset; a
single male was shot.
On 22 February 1973, the carcass of a
pipistrelle was found at the entrance of an
unnamed cave beneath the Buck Creek
Bridge on State Hwy 192. The carcass was
on a rock ledge near the entrance of the
cave with 2 owl pellets containing the re-
mains of a Microtus nearby. I surmised
that the bat probably was killed by an owl.
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
Several pipistrelles found hibernating in
February 1971 were infested with 1 to 4
adult ticks.
Davis (1964) reported the swarming of
pipistrelles at Dixon Cave, Kentucky. This
phenomenon was observed 23 August 1972
at Sloan’s Valley Cave. Several hundred
bats swarmed at the entrance of the cave;
the predominant species was P. subflavus.
Myotis leibii (Audubon and Bachman), least
brown bat.
I have encountered the least brown bat
twice in south-central Kentucky. The first
occurrence was in Wayne County on 18
June 1973 at the Otter Creek Bridge on
State Hwy 90. On 29 June 1973, I found
2 male M. leibii in expansion joints of the
Rockcastle River Bridge on State Hwy 192.
The bridge is on the boundary between
Pulaski and Laurel counties.
Myotis sodalis (Miller and Allen), Indiana
bat.
This species has been observed on
occasion in Sloan’s Valley Cave and Hail’s
Cave. Increasing disturbances by man may
be a factor in the demise of the Indiana
bat. On several occasions, I have entered
Sloan’s Valley Cave and found vandals
throwing rocks at hibernating clusters of
bats. At other times, the smoke from spe-
lunker’s fires has so completely filled
several passages that hibernating bats have
aroused and left the caves.
Myotis keenii (Merriam), Keen’s bat.
This species is rather rare in Pulaski
County. Specimens have been collected
during March at an unnamed cave 5.6 km
south of Hail, and during June and August
at Sloan’s Valley Cave. During the winter
of 1972-1973, only 4 M. keenii were banded.
This species was most frequently en-
countered at Sloan’s Valley Cave during
the swarming activities in late summer. It
ranked second after P. subflavus in num- |
bers seen.
Myotis lucifugus (Le Conte), little brown
bat.
fit Ag a crm
MAMMALS OF PULASKI CouNTy, KENTUCKY—Fassler Al
One of our most common hibernators at
Sloan’s Valley Cave is the little brown bat;
I have estimated the winter population in
excess of 300 bats. During the winter
1972-1973, 142 male and 64 female little
brown bats were banded. Upon checking
Sloan’s Valley Cave on 25 May 1973, only
8 little brown bats were observed; 4 ex-
hibited bands, the others had left.
Only at Sloan’s Valley Cave and Hail’s
Cave have large numbers of this species
been found. The species begins to return
to the caverns about mid-September. M.
lucifugus has only rarely been taken or seen
during June and July. The bridge crossing
the Rockcastle River on State Hwy 192 is
the most favored roost of summer resident
little brown bats observed to date. No
colonies of M. lucifugus have been found in
attics of houses in Pulaski County, though
I do know of such a situation in nearby
Williamsburg, Whitley County.
Sylvilagus floridanus (J. A. Allen) eastern
cottontail.
This rabbit is rather common and wide-
spread throughout the entire county. Dur-
ing the summer of 1972, an eastern cotton-
tail that became a “pet” at Somerset Com-
munity College was observed with 4 litters.
The young were born in mid-March, early
May, late June, and mid-August.
Marmota monax (Linnaeus), woodchuck.
The woodchuck is a very common resi-
dent in all parts of Pulaski County. Juve-
nile woodchucks taken on 9 April 1972 and
5 May 1973 were having their permanent
premolars erupt though the deciduous pre-
molars were still present.
Tamias striatus (Linnaeus), eastern chip-
munk.
Both subspecies of chipmunks, T. s.
striatus and T. s. ohioensis, are found in
Pulaski County.
Sciurus carolinensis (Gmelin), gray squirrel.
The gray squirrel is a very common in-
habitant of the hickory, oak, dogwood,
maple, and walnut forests of Pulaski
County.
Sciurus niger (E. Geoffroy St. Hilaire), fox
squirrel.
The fox squirrel is rather infrequently en-
countered in Pulaski County. It is most
likely to be observed in the woods sur-
rounding Lake Cumberland or its tribu-
taries.
There appears to be about equal fre-
quency of color phases between red phase
and gray phase as reported by Hall and
Kelson (1959). A female shot near the
Lincoln—Pulaski County line on 28 Decem-
ber 1972 was a mosaic individual of the red
phase. She had a black facial wash, but
her venter was completely melanistic. Her
tail was a deep reddish-orange color. A
mass of sperm in the vagina indicated that
the squirrel had recently copulated.
Glaucomys volans (Linnaeus), southern fly-
ing squirrel.
The southern flying squirrel is a com-
mon resident inhabiting hollow snags, beech
trees, attics, and birdhouses. A female
found in a birdhouse 3.2 km east of Burn-
side on 14 May 1973 had 2 young, 172 and
165 mm in total length. The juveniles were
capable of gliding on their own and ate
limited quantities of beef liver. I suspect
the young were about to be weaned.
Castor canadensis (Kuhl), beaver.
Beavers were natives of Pulaski County
before their extermination by fur trappers.
Today, a few beaver are found in the
Beaver Creek drainage as the Fish and
Game Commission tried to reestablish the
animal in its former range.
Peromyscus leucopus (Rafinesque ), white-
footed mouse.
This species is the dominant species of
Peromyscus in Pulaski County. I have
taken it in all habitats, open fields, dense
forests, along streams, and dense brush. A
female captured on 13 February 1973 con-
tained 4 embryos, 18 mm in crown-rump
length. P. leucopus shows varying degrees
of polymorphism within the population.
42
Neotoma floridana (Ord), eastern wood rat.
Wood rats are locally abundant in Pu-
laski County. I have collected specimens
from 2.1 km southeast of Somerset. I have
also seen N. floridana in Hail’s Cave and in
an abandoned house south of Burnside.
Microtus ochrogaster (Wagner), prairie
vole.
The occurrence of the prairie vole in
Pulaski County represents a slight range
extension from that given by Hall and
Kelson (1959). This species has been
found at Mill Springs National Cemetery
in Nancy, 1.6 km east of Science Hill, and
2.1 km southeast of Somerset. A female
caught at Mill Springs National Cemetery
on 29 April 1972 had 5 embryos, 3 were
10 mm in crown-rump length while 2 were
being reabsorbed.
Microtus ( Pitymys) pinetorum (Le Conte),
pine vole.
Two subspecies of the pine vole occur in
Kentucky with the type specimen of M. p.
carbonarius being reported by Handley
(1952) from Eubank. I have collected
specimens of presumably M. p. carbonarius
from 3 locations in Pulaski County.
Ondatra zibethicus (Linnaeus), muskrat.
The muskrat is a common inhabitant of
the small rivers, streams, and ponds in
Pulaski County. Even though the amount
of fur trapping in recent years has dimin-
ished, several hundred muskrats are still
caught by the few remaining professional
trappers.
Synaptomys cooperi (Baird), southern bog
lemming.
The range map of Hall and Kelson (1959)
excludes the southern bog lemming from
Pulaski County. Barbour (1956) described
a new subspecies, S. c. kentucki, from north-
central Kentucky, the nearest record oc-
curring in Richmond, Madison County. S. c.
stonei has its closest occurrence at Goldbug,
Whitley County. I have collected 2 speci-
mens of S. cooperi from 1.6 km east of
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
Science Hill. A specimen collected on 5
November 1972 was a female containing 2
embryos, 10 mm in crown-rump length.
The animals were found on a wooded knob
with scattered areas of dense undergrowth.
Zapus hudsonicus (Zimmerman), meadow
jumping mouse.
Wallace (1971) reported the presence of
Z. hudsonicus from Lyon, Oldham, Daviess,
and Madison counties. |
In October 1971, a resident near Pitman
Creek at Ruth reported seeing a mouse that
jumped and had a long tail, but I was
unable to obtain any by trapping. On 14
May 1973, I was presented a specimen of
this species caught at Nelson Valley, 3.2
km north of Somerset on State Hwy 39. The
area is a bottomland along Pitman Creek,
7.2 km by air northwest of Ruth. I sus-
pect that additional jumping mice may be
caught between Ruth and Nelson Valley
along Pitman Creek.
Vulpes fulva (Desmarest), red fox.
The red fox is rather rare in Pulaski
County. The few animals seen usually are
present in the more heavily forested por-
tions of the county.
Urocyon cinereoargenteus (Schreber), gray
fox.
This species is very common through-
out the country. The animals prefer to hunt
in the open fields with nearby woods into
which they can retreat. Several hundred of
these mammals are killed yearly by auto-
mobiles in Pulaski County. This species
frequently is a vector for rabies, and in
adjacent Casey County, the rabies virus has
eliminated a number of these animals. There
have been no recent reports in Pulaski
County of rabid gray foxes.
Procyon lotor (Linnaeus), raccoon.
The raccoon is frequently observed at
night along the larger streams in the
county. In the summer, raccoons frequently
invade corn fields to feed on the young
succulent ears of corn.
MAMMALS OF PULASKI CouNTy, KENTucKY—Fassler 43
Mustela vison (Schreber), mink.
Local fur trappers encounter the mink
along the several tributaries to Lake Cum-
berland, and even in swampy and marshy
areas. Mink frequently are the casualty
of automobiles on major highways. I have
collected specimens from north of Somerset
and south of Eubank and have also seen
mink in the forest east of Mt. Victory.
Mephitis (Schreber ),
skunk.
This skunk lives in the flat open areas of
Pulaski County. I collected a specimen
from 1.6 km east of Somerset. I suspect
that trophic competition between the
striped skunk and the opossum may be a
restricting factor in the abundance of the
skunk.
mephitis striped
Odocoileus virginiana (Zimmerman), white-
tailed deer.
This species is hunted locally, with most
kills occurring in southern Pulaski County.
The number of animals present would be
greatly enhanced if out-of-season hunting
was reduced and if feral dog packs were
eliminated. Certain parts of the county
produce extensive browse conducive to the
well-being of white-tailed deer.
MAMMALS OF QUESTIONABLE OCCURRENCE
The presence of 13 species of mammals
in Pulaski County remains indefinite. I
found no evidence to indicate the presence
of Sorex longirostris (southeastern shrew),
Sylvilagus aquaticus (swamp _ rabbit),
Oryzomys palustris (marsh rice rat),
Reithrodontomys humulis (eastern harvest
mouse), Peromyscus maniculatus (deer
mouse ), Peromyscus (Ochrotomys) nuttalli
(golden mouse), Sigmodon hispidus (his-
pid cotton rat), Microtus pennsylvanicus
(meadow vole), and Spilogale putorius
(eastern spotted skunk).
Myotis grisescens (gray bat) lives in
nursery colonies in nearby Adair and
Garrard counties. This bat prefers caves
with a good flow of water, several of which
occur in Pulaski County.
Ursus (Euarctos) americanus (black bear)
was supposedly seen by several residents
in the Stab community in 1971. However,
a search for clues concerning the presence
of a bear proved fruitless.
Mustela frenata (long-tailed weasel). In
talking with local trappers, the last known
weasel caught was 5 or 6 years ago. Local
poultry specialists have not had recent re-
ports of weasels raiding chicken houses.
LITERATURE CITED
Barsour, R. W. 1951. The mammals of Big
Black Mountain, Harlan County, Kentucky.
J. Mammal. 32:100—110.
1956. Synaptomys cooperi in Ken-
tucky, with description of a new subspecies.
J. Mammal. 37:413-416.
. 1957. Some additional mammal rec-
ords from Kentucky. J. Mammal. 38:140-141.
, AND W. H. Davis. 1969. Bats of
America. University Press of Kentucky,
Lexington, Ky. 286 pp.
Davis, W. H. 1959. Disproportionate sex ratios
in hibernating bats. J. Mammal. 40:16—19.
1964. Fall swarming of bats at Dixon
Cave, Kentucky. Bull. Natl. Speleolog. Soc.
26:82-83.
, AND W. Z. LipickER, Jr. 1956. Win-
ter range of the red bat, Lasiurus borealis.
J. Mammal. 37:280-81.
FassterR, D. J. 1971. A _ range extension of
Rafinesque’s_ big-earred bat in Kentucky.
Bat Res. News 12:41.
1972. An additional record of the
hoary bat in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Ser. 34:36.
1973. An _ additional evening bat
from south-central Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 34:46.
1974. Red bat hibernating in a
woodpecker hole. Amer. Midl. Nat. In
press.
ERALI ep lt: Ra SAND Ke SKEESON.1959:.. The
Mammals of North America. The Ronald
Press Co., New York, N.Y. 2 vols.
HANDLEY, C. O., Jr. 1952. A new pine mouse
(Pitymys pinetorum carbonarius) from the
southern Appalachian Mountains. J. Wash.
Acad. Sci. 42:152-153.
Lewis, R. Q., Sr. 1974. Geologic map of
the Somerset quadrangle, Pulaski County,
Kentucky. U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Quad.
Map. G.Q. In press.
Oostinc, H. J. 1956. The
communities. W. H. Freeman
Francisco, Calif. 440 pp.
Wat.aceE, J. T. 1971. New records of Zapus
hudsonicus (Zimmerman) from Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 32:65-69.
plant
San
study of
Co.,
A Phytosociological Study of a Relict Hardwood Forest
in Barren County, Kentucky
CHRISTINE K. BOUGHER AND JOE E. WINSTEAD
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
ABSTRACT
Analysis of a hardwood forest at Bonayer in Barren County, Kentucky, revealed a mature
forest system with high tree species diversity and an age in excess of 150 years. The forest
may be characterized as an oak forest, primarily due to the importance of Quercus alba in -
the stand. Accessory species are Nyssa sylvatica, Carya ovata, Liquidambar styraciflua, and
Liriodendron tulipifera. Cornus florida is prevalent in the understory. A high degree of
similarity is evident between the tree composition and the younger growth in the forest
indicating a relatively stable forest system. Comparison with second and third growth
forest stands in the surrounding area reveals that the same species are dominant in the
younger developing stands. This suggests that the Bonayer Forest represents the climax
vegetation of the area. The mature forest shows a mean dbh of 7.0 inches (17.8 cm), density of
289 trees per acre (713 trees/ha), and a basal area of 138.5 square feet per acre (31.8 m*/ha).
INTRODUCTION
Although general information is readily
available concerning the structure and
composition of deciduous forests, especially
in the eastern part of the United States,
there seems to be little specific information
concerning forest composition in the
Commonwealth of Kentucky. The lack of
phytosociological studies prior to the devel-
opment of the land, and the extent of
land development of Kentucky, has led
to the paucity of information regarding
the natural forest vegetation of the
Commonwealth. To the authors’ knowl-
edge, there are few publications dealing
with the vegetational composition of relict
or virgin forests in Kentucky. It is apparent
that there is a special need for studies of
natural areas that have been relatively
undisturbed by man. A small wooded area
in Barren County, Kentucky, referred to
as Bonayer Forest, was chosen for a detailed
phytosociological analysis in 1971 after a
preliminary investigation indicated that
the forest might be representative of
the natural vegetation of south central
Kentucky.
This study was undertaken to describe
the vegetational composition of the forest,
to gain some insight into the successional
development of the stand, to compare the
tree composition of the forest with that
of representative woodlots in the surround-
ing area, and to establish a record of
Bonayer Forest as a basis for possible
future studies of a structural or functional
nature. An underlying aim of this investi-
gation was to determine whether or not
this small forest is indicative of the
vegetational composition that would be
present in the region if it were undisturbed
by man.
The study area consists of approximately
14.5 acres (5.9 hectares) of mature hard-
wood forest in Barren County, Kentucky,
25 miles (40.25 km) east of Bowling Green
and 6 miles (9.7 km) west of Glasgow
on U.S. Highway 68 at the village of
Bonayer. This woods was part of a
Revolutionary War Grant to the Read
family of Glasgow. To the knowledge of
the last 3 Read generations (approximately
125 years) there has been no_ timber
removed except for dead chestnut trees
after the epidemic of chestnut blight in
the late 1930's. Prior to 1971, the forest
covered some 30 acres (12.1 ha), but
during that year, a part of the Cumberland
Parkway was cut through the woods,
leaving less than half of the former stand.
PHytosocioLocy oF ReLicr Forest—Bougher and Winstead 45
Barren County is within the eastern and
western Pennyroyal physiographic regions
of Kentucky, which are parts of the
Mississippian plateau (McFarlan 1943).
The plateau is underlain by sedimentary
rocks primarily of Mississippian age, with
Devonian rocks in some areas. The topog-
raphy of the county is predominantly that
of a dissected plateau, and varies greatly.
Bonayer Forest is on a nearly level section
of land within an area of gently rolling
topography.
According to a soil survey of Barren
County (Latham 1969), the soils underly-
ing Bonayer Forest have been classified
as Dowellton and Taft silt loams. Both are
nearly level, poorly drained, acid soils on
upland flats. These soils were developed
in residual or alluvial material derived
chiefly from limestone and partly from
sandstone or shale. The natural fertility of
Dowellton and Taft silt loams is moderately
low; organic matter is low.
The area now known as Barren County
was settled following an order of the
Virginia Convention in 1789, which de-
clared that all the lands between the Barren
and Green rivers would be given to soldiers
of the Continental Army. Barren County
was formed from Warren and Green
counties in 1789 and originally included
all of Metcalfe County, large parts of
Hart and Monroe counties, and a part of
Allen County. The name of Barren County
was derived from the term “barrens” given
by the early settlers to a treeless grassland
roughly corresponding to the area of karst
topography in central Kentucky. According
to Shaler (1854) the early settlers con-
sidered these lands to be worthless and
unproductive since they did not support the
magnificent forests expected of fertile land.
The lack of trees may have been due to
periodic fires set by the Indians to burn
off old grass, thus providing better forage
for buffalo and other large game. When
the Indians no longer made regular hunting
expeditions into Kentucky (about 1790),
the grassland known as the Barrens was
quickly restored (Shaler 1884).
It is impossible to determine whether
the present study site was a part of what
was then the Barrens, or if it was part
of the originally forested region which
surrounded the Barrens. Franklin Gorin
(1876), commenting on the appearance
of Barren County in 1798, said:
“The country north, northwest, and
northeast of Glasgow was mostly
barrens, poorly watered and lightly
timbered, but the rest of the country
. was heavily timbered with oak,
black and white walnut, ash, sugar
maple, hackberry, cherry, poplar,
chestnut, beech, buckeye, etc.”
Bonayer Forest is west and_ slightly
north of Glasgow, so it would have been
near the borderline between the wooded
and barren regions as presented by Gorin.
However, even if the study site was within
the Barrens, it may have been reforested
following 1790 (Shaler 1884, Hussey 1876).
The history of Barren County, then indi-
cates that the study site may have been
covered with forest vegetation for 180 or
more years.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks are due Drs. Kenneth A.
Nicely and Robert D. Hoyt who helped in
confirmation of plant identification and
statistical analysis. The authors are very
grateful to Mrs. Nellie Read and her family
who allowed the study of their property.
The research was supported in part by
the 1971 Student Research Grant of the
Kentucky Academy of Science.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The quadrat method (Oosting 1956)
was used to determine species composition,
relative density, and relative frequency of
all size classes of vegetation as well as
relative dominance (based on basal area)
of tree species. At Bonayer, 23 quadrats of
10 m X 10 m dimensions were placed on
4 transect lines with a 30-m interval be-
tween each quadrat. Seven additional
100-m? quadrats were placed at random
in the remaining area. The diameter
46 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
breast height (dbh) of each tree species
greater than 2 inches (5 cm) dbh was
recorded for each 100-m* quadrat. Saplings
and shrubs less than 5 cm dbh and greater
than 1 foot (30 cm) in height were
sampled in 2 20-m? quadrats (2 x 10m)
placed within each 100-m? quadrat. Seed-
lings less than 30 cm in height were
counted and identified to genus in 4 1-m?
(1 7:8: 144
Corylus americana Se” Zar 2.6" "Grr
Lindera benzion De OL 735455
Asimina triloba GS 0245 JE Geary
Aralia spinosa 36 »dgkiyshSar BS
Vaccinium stamineum 10 oa 2.4) BA
Vitis spp. 6 2 5 i
Amelanchier arborea 5 a 5 a4
Rhamnus carolinianus 1 0 2 2
Lonicera japonica 9
When saplings and shrubs are ranked
according to relative density plus relative
frequency values, 3 genera appear as im-
portant understory trees in Bonayer Forest
(Table 3). These are Cornus florida
(11.4), Carpinus caroliniana (10.1), and
Fraxinus spp. (10.0). Euonymus ameri-
canus is by far the most important shrub
in the woods due to its high density
of 6,357 individuals per acre (15,701/ha)
and its frequency of 98.3 percent. Other
common shrubs are Smilax sp., Corylus
americana, Lindera benzion, and Asimina
triloba. It is interesting to note that a
TABLE 4.—THE NuMBER (N), RELATIVE DENsITY
(RD), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), AND RELATIVE
Density Pius RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RD&RF)
VALUES FOR TREE AND SHRUB SEEDLINGS IN Bo-
NAYER Forest. DATA GATHERED FROM 120 SQUARE
METER QUADRATS
Species N RD RF RD&RF
Tree Seedlings
Quercus spp. 238 28.9 14.1 43.0
Acer spp. 105 12:8 Tae 25
Liquidambar styraciflua 103 12.5 11.3 23.8
Liriodendron tulipifera 73 ‘69. (ee fi
Nyssa sylvatica 31 338°) eae
Carya spp. 29 3D Seana
Carpinus caroliniana 30° 3:6), gaeoeen
Sassafras albidum 30 36 4apo
Fraxinus spp. 28 3.4" 2aa ooo
Cornus florida 96. 32 a
Ulmus spp. 15 ES (aa as
Prunus serotina 14. , i, ae Aes
Amelanchier spp. 2 2 2 4
Morus rubra 2 Bs 2 A
Fagus grandifolia 1 “Tf 2, o
Unknown seedlings 6 tLe a rksy
Shrub Seedlings
Smilax sp. 43 532 70 faz
Lindera benzion 2 Sa ees
Corylus americana 10° iB en
Aralia spinosa S. “ie bsg 65
Vaccinium stamineum 2 2, Db Wi:
few Castanea dentata root sprouts are
present in the woods.
Relative density plus relative frequency
values for seedlings in Bonayer Forest
(Table 4) show that Quercus spp. (43.0),
Acer spp. (25.9), and Liquidambar styraci-
flua (23.8) are the most dominant tree
seedlings, while Smilax sp. (12.2) and
Lindera benzion (8.6) are the most com-
mon shrub seedlings.
Woody vines present at Bonayer Forest
and their frequencies in the seedling stra-
tum are Parthenocissus quinquefolia (36.7),
Lonicera japonica (10.8), Rhus radicans
(10.8), and Vitis spp. (3.3). Herbaceous
plants noted in the Bonayer woods are
Aralia racemosa, Ariseama_ triphyllum,
Athyrium thelyteroides, Boehmeria cylin-
drica, Chimaphila maculata, Commelina
communis, Desmodium sp., Houstonia sp.,
Impatiens biflora, Mitchella repens, Ono-
clea sensibilus, Osmunda regalis, Panicum
PuytTosocioLocy oF ReLicr Forest—Bougher and Winstead 49
TABLE 5.—THE NuMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY
(RD), RevLatrivE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE
DoMINANCE (RDo), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV)
oF TREES OvER 5 CM DBH IN THE SURROUNDING
AREA
N "RD BE -RDot IV
32 15.6 89 24.4 48.9
44 215 14.8 7.1 43.4
Species
Liriodendron tulipifera
Cornus florida
Quercus velutina 16 7.8 89 17.8 34.5
Nyssa sylvatica 20 98 99 9.9 29.6
Acer rubrum T 6.e, 1.0. 0.0,24.0
Liquidambar styraciflua 13 63 69 5.1 18.3
Carya ovata ths545 SOni hQth
Quercus alba 9) 44) 403.404
Sassafras albidum LO, 4.9.40. 2A Lbs
Prunus serotina revit 5 AS MewltnyS ingmare S ml 1 ) AY
Quercus borealis oe FU ADO IG 49.9
Carya tomentosa 4 20 30 44 9.4
Carya glabra Ot) b.5) -AO-S.O's FA
Fagus grandifolia 6532 Oe? Orr Gib
Carpinus caroliniana Ae ewes ox Oso
Juglans cinerea 1 Va Be 7
Cercis canadensis Dat ViOev2Ous iS CS.0
Fraxinus americana bio tae Oe lho kG
Ulmus alata iL 38 ory Oage talk. G
Acer saccharum Fl icoeetO4 2:0" Lb
Morus rubra AMD Pires es | #50) fy
Rhamnus carolinianus fete toe 20) O05
1 Basal area equals 11.85 m2.
sp., Podophyllum peltatum, Polystichum
acrostichoides, Sanicula canadensis, Smila-
cina racemosa, Thelypteris hexagonoptera,
and Uvularia perfoliata.
Tree data from 6 stands in the vicinity
of Bonayer Forest (Table 5) give the
total of 22 species which are included in
the sample of the Surrounding Area. Of
these, 17 species are common to both
Bonayer Forest and the Surrounding Area.
Surprisingly, Cornus florida, an understory
tree, has the second highest importance
value (43.4) in the Surrounding Area. This
is due to its high relative density (21.5)
and frequency (14.8) within the stands.
The most important overstory trees in the
Surrounding Area are Liriodendron tulipi-
fera (48.9), Quercus velutina (34.5), Nyssa
sylvatica (29.6) and Acer rubrum (24.0).
Liriodendron tulipifera has the greatest
relative dominance (24.4) of any species
in the Surrounding Area. In comparing the
4 most important overstory species in the
2 forest areas only Nyssa sylvatica is among
TABLE 6.—DIAMETERS (IN CENTIMETERS) OF THE
10 Most COMMON TREE SPECIES IN THE SURROUND-
ING AREA SHOWING THE NUMBER OF TREES IN
EAcH CiAss. Data BASED ON 205 TREES
-7T— 27.8— 43.0-
29 45
No
3.
8.5
=
to
bo
Or
WAWAASAANIANWDNYN I] gos
Species
Cornus florida
Lirodendron tulipifera
Quercus velutina
Nyssa sylvatica
Acer rubrum
Carya ovata
Liquidambar styraciflua
Prunus serotina
Quercus alba
Sassafras albidum
he OO
i)
=
NS)
the most important canopy species in both
Bonayer Forest and the Surrounding Area.
For the Surrounding Area, 205 individuals
with a mean dbh of 15 cm are included in
the sample quadrats. These figures give
a density of 1,025 stems per hectare and a
total basal area of 11.9 m? for trees in the
Surrounding Area. Diameter class distri-
bution of the 10 most common tree species
in the Surrounding Area (Table 6) shows
a less even distribution over the various
size classes than did the data from Bonayer
Forest. No trees are present in the 58.4 cm
or greater classification, and only 2 species,
Liriodendron tulipifera and Quercus velu-
tina are represented in 4 different size
classes. Cornus florida is represented by
44 individuals, but they are restricted to
the 2 smallest size classes, 5-12.5 and
12.5-27.7 cm dbh.
Both forest areas show high Shannonn-
Weaver diversity values for tree species.
A value of 3.685 was computed for the
Surrounding Area; a diversity of 4.057 was
found for the Bonayer Forest. Linear
regression analysis of tree species data from
Bonayer Forest yielded a regression coetfi-
cient of slope (b) of 0.0759, which is
another measure of diversity. When used
in this manner, the smaller the slope the
greater the diversity or the more species
encountered per given number of indi-
viduals.
50
TABLE 7.—GrowtTH Rinc ANALYsIS OF 18 WHITE
Oak STUMPS
Diameter (cm ) Number of Rings
26.7 69
30.5 80
34.3 71
36.8 63
39.4 147
43.2 108
50.8 163
54.6 158
61.0 81
71.2 (double trunk ) 84
72.4 132,
etal 136
76.2 184
78.7 156
88.9 139
99.1 172
104.2 181
116.9 207
The diameter and number of annual
rings counted for 18 Quercus alba cut from
Bonayer Forest during highway construc-
tion (Table 7) indicate a great variation
in the number of rings counted for similar
sized trees, but provided information as
to the age of the trees. Of the 18 white
oaks cut during highway construction, 8
had stump widths ranging from 50 to 79
cm and showed from 81 to 184 years of
growth. The largest stump analyzed was
116.8 cm in diameter with 207 annual
rings.
Among the 24 white oaks that fell within
the 10- x 10-m quadrats, the range of dbh
was 5.3-79.2 cm. Of these, 8 (33%) were
of the size class 5.3-24.0 cm; 8 (33%)
measured 25.7-47.8 cm; 7 (29%) showed
dbh’s of 52.8-71.1 cm; and 1 white oak
measured 79.2 cm. A few large white oaks
measured outside the quadrats gave dbh’s
of 83.8, 74.9, 67.3, 62.2, and 49.0 cm.
Eleven random tree height measurements
gave an average of 28.5 m for an approxi-
mation of canopy height. The dbh was
recorded for 7 of the trees, but not for
the remaining 4. The species, dbh, and
height of the 7 trees were: 1 Fagus
grandifolia dbh of 39.8 cm and a height
of 22.7 m, 2 Liquidambar styraciflua with
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
dbh’s of 53.3 and 59.2 cm corresponding
to heights of 24.8 and 24.2 m, 2 Lirio-
dendron tulipifera with dbh’s of 37.8 and
35.6 cm corresponding to heights of 28.5
and 26.5 m, and 2 Quercus alba with dbh’s
of 71.1 and 78.7 corresponding to heights
of 36.6 and 26.4 m. The 3 remaining
Liriodendron tulipifera had heights of 29.9,
30.8, and 31.7 m. One Quercus alba
measured 30.8 m in height.
The productivity of Bonayer Forest, as
determined by collection of litter, seemed
to be low, with very little organic matter
being added to the forest floor annually.
Collections from the 4 litter boxes averaged
251 g of leaves, stems, and fruits per square
meter of forest floor. Of that total, leaf
litter accounted for 229 g; stems, 15 g; and
fruit material, 8 g.
Soil analysis of 30 soil samples gave a
range of pH from 4.5 to 5.8 with a mean
of 5.1. The average sand, silt, and clay con-
tent of the first 8 cm of soil was 11.3, 59.8,
and 28.9 percent, respectively. The major-
ity of the soil samples (22) fell within the
silty clay loam texture class, 7 samples
were classified as silt loam, and 1 sample
was sandy clay loam (Foth and Jacobs
1964). There are no apparent differences
in vegetation which may be correlated with
differences in soil texture or soil pH
within the Bonayer stand.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Data in Table 1 indicate that Bonayer
Forest may be characterized as an oak
forest, primarily due to the importance of
Quercus alba in the stand. Q. alba has the
second highest density as well as the
highest frequency and dominance of any
species there. Other oaks included in data
from the Bonayer Forest are Q. velutina,
QO. coccinea, and an individual of an un-
identified species. Together, the oaks have
an importance value of 81.9 which makes
up 27.3 percent of the total importance
value (300) for all species. Accessory
species which follow oak in importance
in the Bonayer Forest stand are Nyssa
sylvatica, Carya ovata, Liquidambar §sty-
|
PuytrosocioLocy oF REeLicr Forest—Bougher and Winstead ol
TABLE 8.—COMPARISON OF THE 6 Most IMPORTANT TREE, SAPLING, AND SEEDLING GENERA _ IN
BONAYER FOREST
Trees Saplings Seedlings
Genus IV Genus RD&RF Genus RD&RF
Quercus 83.5 Acer 8.2 Quercus 43.0
Carya 31.4 Nyssa 8.1 Acer 25.9
Nyssa 29.1 Carya 79 Liquidambar 23.8
Liquidambar 22.1 Quercus Tee Liriodendron FS
Liriodendron 20.3 Liquidambar 6.0 Nyssa 9.8
Acer 18.5 Prunus 4.8 Carya 9.5
raciflua, and Liriodendron tulipifera. The
understory of the Bonayer Forest is charac-
terized by the presence of Cornus florida.
Diameter size class distribution of the
10 most common tree species in the Bonayer
Forest (Table 2) indicated that reproduc-
tion is taking place since canopy species
are also present in the smaller size classes.
The generally even distribution of trees
over several size classes is evidence that
the forest has not been disturbed in the
recent past. Cornus florida and Carpinus
caroliniana are both restricted to only the
smallest size class, but this is to be expected,
since they are typical understory species.
When ovyerstory tree species present in
in each size class (tree, saplings, seedlings )
are grouped into their respective genera
and subsequently compared, a high degree
of similarity is evident between the compo-
sition of the canopy and the younger
growth in Bonayer Forest (Table 8).
Genera which are typically restricted to the
understory (Cornus, Carpinus, Fraxinus,
and Sassafras) and would not be expected
to replace dead or dying canopy trees
have been omitted from these data. The
6 most important genera in the canopy
of Bonayer Forest are Quercus, Carya,
Nyssa, Liquidambar, Liriodendron, and
Acer. Of these genera, 5 are present in
this relative position in the sapling layer,
and all 6 are present in the seedling layer.
In the sapling stratum, Liriodendron is not
among the 6 most important genera since
both Prunus and Fagus have higher relative
density plus relative frequency values
(Table 5). It is not unusual for Lirio-
dendron to be less important in the sapling
stage than in the canopy because it is shade
intolerant and does not survive well under
a closed canopy. The relative importance
of the different genera is not the same
throughout the seedling, sapling, and tree
stages, but many factors affect the numbers,
growth, and survival of seedlings so that
the relative importance of different genera
often changes over time. Nevertheless, it
is obvious from an examination of the
seedling and sapling composition at Bon-
ayer Forest that the same genera are
present in these younger stages as in the
canopy, indicating that the tree composi-
tion of Bonayer Forest probably will be
much the same in the future.
Euonymus americanus (strawberry bush )
has a greater relative density plus relative
frequency value (67.9) than any other
sapling or shrub in Bonayer Forest (Table
3). Its unexpected density of 6,357 indi-
viduals per acre (15,701/ha) and frequency
of 98.3 percent cannot be explained by
reference to the literature, since little
research has been published on this species.
Euonymus americanus deserves further
study to determine the reason for its great
abundance in Bonayer Forest.
Tree data from the Surrounding Area
(Table 5) show both similarities and
differences in composition when compared
to that of Bonayer Forest. In the Surround-
ing Area, Liriodendron tulipifera and
Quercus velutina are the most dominant tree
species in contrast to Bonayer Forest, where
Quercus alba is the most dominant. When
all the oaks in the data of the Surrounding
Area (Q. velutina, Q. alba, and Q. borealis )
are grouped, their collective relative domi-
Ut
bo
TABLE 9.—COMPARISON OF THE IMPORTANCE
VALUES OF THE 7 Most IMPORTANT TREE GENERA
IN THE BONAYER FOREST AND THE SURROUNDING
AREA
Surrounding Area
Genus IV
Bonayer Forest
Genus IV
Quercus 83.5 Quercus 55.8
Carya 31.4 Liriodendron 48.9
Nyssa 29.1 Cornus 43.4
Liquidambar = _ 22.1 Carya 32.3
Liriodendron =. 20.3 Nyssa 29.6
Acer 28.5 Acer 25.5
i Liquidambar 18.3
Cornus
nance value (27.2) and importance value
(55.8) are higher than those of Lirio-
dendron. The Surrounding Area, then,
may be characterized as oak-tulip poplar
with Cornus florida, Nyssa sylvatica, Acer
rubrum, Liquidambar styraciflua, and Carya
ovata as accessory species. It is apparent
that oaks are dominant in both Bonayer
Forest and the Surrounding Area; Nyssa
sylvatica, Liquidambar styraciflua, and
Carya ovata are accessory species common
to both. Comparison of the 7 most impor-
tant genera in the Bonayer Forest and the
Surrounding Area (Table 9) shows that
the same 7 genera (Quercus, Carya, Nyssa,
Liquidambar, Liriodendron, Acer, Cornus )
are the most important in both areas. This
similarity in fundamental composition is to
be expected of 2 forest areas in the same
locality.
Two primary differences in composition
between Bonayer Forest and the Surround-
ing Area seem to indicate that Bonayer
Forest is a more mature and less disturbed
forest stand than any stand in the Sur-
rounding Area. One difference is that the
importance values of Quercus alba and
QO. velutina are approximately reversed in
the 2 areas. In the Bonayer Forest data,
Q. alba has an importance value of 61.3
and Q. velutina one of 12.6; in the Sur-
rounding Area Q. alba has an importance
value of 114 Q. velutina one of 34.5
(Tables 1, 2). A second difference be-
tween the areas is that Liriodendron is
much more predominant in the Surrounding
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
Area than in the Bonayer Forest. Among _
the 7 most important genera in the Bonayer
Forest data, Liriodendron ranks fifth with
an importance value of 20.3; in the data |
of the Surrounding Area, Liriodendron |
approached Quercus in status with an |
importance of 48.9 (Table 10). Both |
these differences probably are the result
of selective cutting in the Surrounding ©
Area, removing the larger Q. alba, and
opening up the canopy so that shade —
intolerant Liriodendron and Q. velutina—
Bonayer —
have become more prominent.
Forest shows no indication of previous
disturbance by cutting. The composition of
the Surrounding Area, in the absence of
further disturbance, probably will approach
that of the Bonayer Forest in time.
Distribution of diameter size classes for
the 10 most common trees in the Sur-
rounding Area provides further evidence
that the stands in the Surrounding Area are
younger and more disturbed than those
in the Bonayer Forest (Table 6). This
is obvious since no trees in the 58.4 cm
or greater size class were present as in the
data from Bonayer Forest (Table 2). The
Surrounding Area shows a less even dis-
tribution of trees over the various size
classes. In the Bonayer Forest sample,
Quercus alba was represented in all 5
size classes, but it was present in only
the first 3 classes in the sample of the
Surrounding Area. This suggests that the
larger Q. alba have been cut out of the
Surrounding Area.
Growth ring analysis of Quercus alba
trees cut during highway construction gives
an estimation of the age of Bonayer Forest.
From 81 to 184 annual growth rings were
counted for 8 white oak stumps with dbh’s
of 50-80 cm. One-third of the white oaks
included in the sample data showed dbh’s
within this same range, implying an equal
age for these living trees. It follows, then,
that Bonayer Forest has been in existence
for more than 150 years.
According to ecological theory, quality,
larger size, high diversity, and_ stability
are typical of mature systems, while the
PuytosocioLocy OF ReELIct Forest—Bougher and Winstead 53
opposite characteristics, quantity, small
individuals, low diversity, greater produc-
tion are typical of young systems. Com-
parison of trees from the Surrounding Area,
from Bonayer Forest, and from a virgin
forest in Indiana support the statement
that numbers of individuals decrease and
size of individuals increase as a system
matures. Lindsey et al. (1958) found that
in an impressive virgin forest called
Donaldson’s Woods, some trees reached
up to 132 cm (52 inches) in dbh, the mean
dbh was 29 cm (11.4 inches) there were
294 stems per hectare, and there was a
basal area of 28.7 m?/ha. Going from
younger to more mature, the Surrounding
Area, Bonayer Forest, and Donaldson's
Woods show increasing mean dbh’s of
| 15.2, 17.8, and 29.0 cm (6.0, 7.0, and 11.4
inches), respectively. Similarly, the 3 forest
areas exhibit decreasing numbers of indi-
viduals, of 1,025, 713, and 294 stems per
hectare (415, 289, and 123 stems per acre),
respectively. It seems that basal area of a
stand is not necessarily correlated with
maturity since the basal area of the Sur-
rounding Area of 29.4 m?/ha is almost
identical to that of Donaldson’s Woods,
while the basal area of Bonayer Forest is
greater than either being 31.9 m7?/ha.
This comparison of the 3 forest areas sug-
gest that although Bonayer Forest is more
mature than the Surrounding Area, it does
not exhibit a mean dbh and density which
are characteristic of a virgin forest.
In general, high species diversity is
considered characteristic of mature systems.
According to Shannonn—Weaver diversity
index, Bonayer Forest shows a slightly
higher tree species diversity (4.057) than
does the Surrounding Area (3.685). Since
an almost equal number of species was
present in both samples, the lower diversity
value for the Surrounding Area is due
primarily to less evenness in the apportion-
ment of individuals among the species.
Linear regression analysis of species data
from the Bonayer Forest gave a slope (b)
of 0.0759, where lower slope values signify
higher diversity. Monk and McGinnis
(1966), in a study of forest community
types in Florida, found that known
successional communities such as sandhills,
cypress heads, and flatwoods gave slopes
ranging from 0.1275 to 0.2262, while known
climax communities such as the southern
mixed hardwoods gave slopes of 0.0554 to
0.1160. The slope of 0.0759 calculated for
the Bonayer Forest falls within the range
of slopes which Monk and McGinnis found
characteristic of known climax types. This
indicates that Bonayer Forest has a high
diversity typical of climax communities.
The small amount of litter deposited on
the forest floor could be used to support
the idea that the Bonayer Forest is a stand
that has neared homeostasis. Although the
litter samples were limited in number, the
amount collected in the litter traps seemed
consistent with the appearance of litter on
the forest floor. The value of 251 g/m?
of litter in 1972-1973 is much less than
the 600 g/m? of litter deposition obtained
by Bray and Gorham (1964) for warm
temperate forests between 34 and 38 de-
grees North latitude. This is evidence that
the Bonayer Forest has low productivity,
or that the community energetics are such
that the gross production to biomass ratio
(P/B ratio) is low. A low P/B ratio is
typical of a mature system, one which is
approaching homeostasis.
A species list compiled by Hussey (1876 )
from collections in the western part of
Barren County, in the cave region, and
in Edmonson County contains all of the
tree species present in the Bonayer Forest
data, as well as 22 of 32 different species
of genera of shrubs, woody vines, and
herbs. Hussey stated that on the more level
parts of Barren County, trees were still
small in size and few in species, which he
felt was evidence of the recent introduction
of forest growth into the region. He noted
that the largest trees in this section of
Barren County were oaks 15 inches (38
cm) in diameter. This may be contrasted
to white oaks which attained enormous
development along the Green River, form-
ing “immense trunks, reaching to a height
o4 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2)
of eighty feet, where they still seem to
be three feet in diameter.” Most of the
species present in the Bonayer Forest, then,
are identical to those found in the region
nearly 100 years ago. The difference in
size between trees in Barren County and
elsewhere at that time may explain why
trees in the Bonayer Forest do not approach
the tremendous size expected of a virgin
forest.
Bonayer Forest is included within the
Mississippian Plateau of the Western
Mesophytic Forest Region by Braun (1964),
which she designated as a transition region
characterized by a “mosaic pattern of cli-
max vegetation types” rather than a single
climax type. Braun indicated the domi-
nance of oak forest over much of the
Mississippian Plateau. Accessory species
which vary from place to place may include
sugar maple, beech, tulip tree, chestnut,
hickories, white ash, and occasional other
species. In sampling the canopy trees at
one location in Barren County, Braun
found that oaks formed half of the canopy
with maple and beech the next most fre-
quent. If all trees greater than 30 cm dbh
in the Bonayer Forest data are considered,
oaks form 51.5 per cent of the canopy with
tulip tree as the next most frequent. The
designation of Bonayer Forest as an oak
forest is therefore consistent with generali-
zations and specific data presented by
Braun.
This study has provided evidence that
Bonayer Forest is typical of what the
vegetational composition would be in south
central Kentucky if this area were left
undisturbed by man. The composition of
the forest is oak, with black gum, shag-
bark hickory, sweetgum, and tulip poplar
as accessory species. Bonayer Forest is
similar in composition to stands in the
Surrounding Area, but is a more mature
forest system. The same genera of trees
are present in the younger growth stages
as are present in the canopy, indicating
that the canopy trees are replacing them-
selves and that the Bonayer Forest repre-
sents a climax vegetation type.
LITERATURE CITED
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mechanical analyses of soils by the hydrom-
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Braun, E. L. 1964. Deciduous forest of
Eastern North America. Hafner Publishing
Co. New York, N.Y. 596 pp.
Bray, J. R. AND E. Gornam. 1964. Litter
production in forests of the world. In:
Adv. Ecol. Res. (J. B. Cragg, ed.) 2:101—157.
Curtis, R. T., aNnD R. P. McIntrosu. 1951. An
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border region of Wisconsin. Ecology 32:
476-496.
Fotu, H. D., anp H. S. Jacogss. 1964. Labo-
ratory manual for introductory soil science.
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United States and adjacent Canada. D. Van
Nostrand Co. Princeton, N.J. 810 pp.
Gorin, F. 1876. Barren County, Kentucky.
Reprinted in 1926 entitled “Times of Long
Ago” by J. P. Morton Co. Louisville, Ky.
13ST “pp:
Hussey, J. 1876. Report of the botany of
Barren and Edmonson Counties. Ky. Geol.
Surv. 1:27-58.
LatHaM, E. E. 1969. Soil survey of Barren
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Linpsry, A. A., J. D. BARTON, JB AD oe tae
Mies. 1958. Field efficiency of forest
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McFarian, A. C. 1943. Geology of Kentucky.
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Monk, C. D., AND J. T. McGinnis. 1966. Tree
species diversity in six forest types in north
central Florida. J. Ecol. 54:341-344.
Oostinc, H. J. 1956. The study of plant
communities. W. H. R. Freeman Co. San
Francisco, Calif. 440 pp.
SHALER, N. S. 1884. Kentucky, a _ pioneer
commonwealth. Houghton Mifflin Co. New
York, N.Y. 433. pp;
WituM, J. L., anp T. C. Dorris. 1968. Biolog-
ical parameters for water and quality criteria.
Bioscience 18:477-481.
WituraMs, C. B. 1964. Pattern in the balance
of nature, and related problems in quanti-
tative ecology. Academic Press, New York,
N.Y. 324 pp.
Mussels of the Green River, Kentucky
Brtty G. Isom
Environmental Biology Branch, Division of Environmental Planning,
Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660
ABSTRACT
Seventy-seven species of unionid mussels and the Asiatic clam (Corbicula) are listed
from the Green River, Kentucky, and an additional species from a nearby pond. These
data further confirm the conclusions of Ortmann (1926) and Clench and van der Schalie
(1944) that the mussels in the Green River belong to either the Ohioan or the interior
basin fauna or are of unknown origin. No mussels of Cumberlandian origin have ever been
found in the Green River.
The Green River Basin presently has
one of the most diverse mussel faunas of
any stream in the country. Historically,
Ortmann (1926) synthesized known infor-
mation on mussel fauna of the Green
River, Kentucky, drainage. A compilation
of historical and recent collections of
mussels include those by Ortmann (1926),
Clench and van der Schalie (1944),
Stansbery (1965), Williams (1969), collec-
tions by Isom in 1970 and 1971, and
collections in 1961 and 1965 by personnel
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia in the vicinity of the Paradise
Steam Plant between Miles 82 and 108
on the Green River under contract with
the Tennessee Valley Authority (Table 1).
Subspecific designations in Table 1 were
retained for the purpose of comparing
current data with historical records; how-
ever, in the opinion of the author, sub-
specific designations noted are questionable.
The records of Isom, Stansbery, and
Williams probably represent the presently
known fauna of the Green River Basin.
These rather extensive collections include
77 species and confirm that the mussels in
the Green River belong to either the
Ohioan or the interior basin fauna or are
of unknown origin and also confirm the
absence of mussels of Cumberlandian origin
as noted by Ortmann (1926) and Clench
and van der Schalie (1944).
Recently there has been some concern
about the mussel fauna of the Green River
because of the development of oil fields.
Imlay (1971) indicated that potassium
contained in “petroleum brine waste” had
ruined the commercial mussel harvest from
Green River. Based on observations made
by Isom in 1970 and 1971 and those by
Williams (1969), it is apparent that there
is no correlation between mussel popula-
tions in the Green River and the presence
of potassium from petroleum brine waste.
Williams (1969) stated that, “Good beds
of living mussels were found just below
all dams on the river with the exception
of Dam 2 at Calhoun, Kentucky.” He
noted that the present Dam 2 was relatively
new and was relocated downstream of an
original structure that accounted, at least
in part, for lack of mussels. In addition,
some commercial mussels were harvested
on the Green River in 1965, about 5 years
after the problem of oil well brine waste
was reportedly alleviated.
Data on water quality indicate that
potassium levels do not exceed 3 mg/1
between Miles 81.8 and 108.0 on the Green
River; this is less than the lowest lethal
range of 4 to 7 mg/l reported by Imlay
(1971) for long-term exposures. However,
3 mg/l could well be exceeded elsewhere
in the drainage.
Williams (1969) included Lampsilis
cariosa in his list of mussels from _ the
Green River. This probably is an error,
because the distribution of L. cariosa is
confined to streams of the Atlantic coast
56 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE 1.—MussEL FAUNA OF THE GREEN RIVER
iN KENTUCKY, AS SHOWN BY HISTORICAL AND RE-
CENT COLLECTIONS. O = ORTMANN (1926), S =
STANSBERY (1965), C = CLENCH AND VAN DER
ScHatre (1944), W = Wiiiams (1969), AND
I = Isom (coLtiections oF 1970, 1971; AND IN
1961 sy Bates AND 1965 By FULLER OF THE
PHILADELPHIA ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES )
Species Collector
Cumberlandia monodonta ( Say )
Fusconaia undata Ort.
Fusconaia ebenus ( Lea)
Fusconaia flava ( Raf.)
Fusconaia flava trigona ( Lea)
Fusconaia subrotunda ( Lea)
Fusconaia subrotunda
kirtlandiana (Lea )
Megalonaias gigantea ( Bar. )
Amblema costata Raf.
Amblema costata peruviana (Lam. )
Quadrula quadrula ( Raf.)
Quadrula pustulosa ( Lea)
Quadrula nodulata (Raf. )
OQuadrula metanevra (Raf. )
Quadrula metanevra wardi (Lea)
Quadrula cylindrica (Say )
Tritogonia verrucosa ( Raf.)
Cyclonaias tuberculata ( Raf. )
Cyclonaias tuberculata
granifera ( Lea)
Plethobasus cooperianus ( Lea)
Plethobasus cyphyus ( Raf. )
Pleurobema clava (Lam. )
Pleurobema cordatum
cordatum ( Raf.)
Pleurobema cordatum plenum (Lea)
Pleurobema cordatum
coccineum (Con. )
Pleurobema cordatum
pyramidatum ( Lea )
Pleurobema cordatum catillus (Con. )
Elliptio crassidens (Lam. )
Elliptio dilatatus ( Raf.)
Lastena lata ( Raf.)
Arcidens confragosus (Say )
Lasmigona costata ( Raf. )
Lasmigona complanata ( Barnes )
Anodonta imbecillis (Say)
Anodonta grandis (Say )
Anodonta suborbiculata ( Say )
Anodontoides ferussacianus (Lea)
Alasmidonta calceolus (Lea)
Alasmidonta marginata (Say )
Strophitus undulatus (Say )
Simpsoniconcha ambigua (Say )
Ptychobranchus fasciolaris ( Raf. )
Obliquaria reflexa ( Raf. )
Cyprogenia irrorata ( Lea)
Obovaria olivaria ( Raf.)
|, Ga)
Oi Ge. ie]
a
—
|
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=
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TABLE 1. Continued
Collector
SC
Species
Obovaria subrotunda ( Raf. )
Obovaria subrotunda lens ( Lea)
Obovaria retusa (Lam. )
Actinonaias carinata (Bar. )
Truncilla truncata ( Raf.)
Truncilla donaciformis (Lea)
Plagiola lineolata ( Raf. )
Leptodea fragilis ( Raf. )
Leptodea leptodon ( Raf. )
Leptodea laevissima (Lea)
Proptera alata ( Say )
Proptera capax (Green )
Carunculina parva (Bar. )
Carunculina glans (Lea)
Ligumia recta (Lam. )
Ligumia subrostrata (Say )
Villosa fabalis (Lea)
Villosa nebulosa (Con. )
Villosa ortmanni ( Walker )
Villosa lienosa (Con. )
Lampsilis anodontoides ( Lea )
Lampsilis anodontoides
fallaciosa ( Smith )
Lampsilis radiata
siliquoidea ( Bar. )
Lampsilis luteola (Lam. )
Lampsilis ovata ovata (Say )
Lampsilis ovata ventricosa (Bar. )
Lampsilis fasciola ( Raf.)
Dysnomia triquetra ( Raf.)
Dysnomia sulcata (Lea)
Dysnomia torulosa ( Raf.)
Dysnomia torulosa
gubernaculum (Reeve )
Dysnomia flexuosa ( Raf.)
Corbicula manilensis Philippi
i
1 NANnNMN|
iG Goi Caren |
|
are tere OO ©
1 ee |
NANI NI NI NI NNNN!
ele
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©9369 SS OO ies OOO Ose © 4
N|_ NNMNNMN| NH
| oH
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NPYRISHS) | Mey S2e R= .ekeue!|
|
|
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| (re wOe (2:© ©:On)
drainage (Simpson 1914). Williams (1969)
listed Lampsilis fallaciosa and Actinonaias
ligamentina, but these are listed in this
paper as L. anodontoides fallaciosa and
A. carinata, respectively.
Mussels collected by Isom are deposited
at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor,
those collected by Bates and Fuller for
the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia are deposited at the Academy,
and those collected by Williams are de-
posited at The Ohio State Museum at
Columbus.
Henry van der Schalie, Curator, Mollusk
Division, University of Michigan, confirmed
MussELS OF GREEN RIVER, KENTUCKY—Isom 37
identification of some mussels collected
from the Green River by the author.
LITERATURE CITED
CLENCH, W. J., AND H. vAN DER ScHALIE. 1944.
Notes on naiades from the Green, Salt, and
Tradewater Rivers in Kentucky. Mich. Acad.
Sci., Arts, Lett., pp. 223-228.
Imuay, M. 1971. Bioassay tests with naiads.
Proceedings of a symposium on rare and
endangered mollusks (naiads) of the U.S.
U.S. Dept. Interior, pp. 38-41.
OrTMANN, A. E. 1926. V. The naiades of the
Green River drainage in Kentucky. Ann.
Carnegie Mus. 17(1):167, 188.
Simpson, C. T. 1914. A descriptive catalogue
of the naiades or pearly fresh-water mussels.
Published by Bryant Walker, Detroit, Mich.,
1,540 pp.
STANSBERY, D. H. 1965. The naiad fauna of the
Green River at Munfordville, Kentucky. Amer.
Malacol. U. Ann. Rept. 1965:13-14.
Witurams, J. C. 1969. Mussel fishery investiga-
tion, Tennessee, Ohio, and Green Rivers, final
report, Murray State University, Biological
Station, State of Ky. Proj. No. 4-19-R, 107 pp.
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58
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ee pe
inch
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I
1
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HE TNL II AME A TT
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59
1
1
1
if
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1
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1
1 pound per acre
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3.7853 liters
1.000028 cubic centi-
meters
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bol
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» .
- CONTENTS oak ?
-
.
Thomas Hunt Morgan. Herbert Parkes Riley Lr ee Oe
-A “Container Effect” on We Primary Production n Measurements Bru ce
Parker and Gene L..Samsel +. pea! Sete ee Bes
The Distribution of Stoneflies (Insecta: pscidters | of site Salt E
Kentucky. David S.. White Ta ao ae
: I
Helminth Parasites of the White Sucker (Pisces: ‘Catostomidae) in
Kentucky River Drainage. Glenn White and John P. Harley __
vg oll Ge 5h,
= et
4
A New Coding Syten for Hardshelled Turtles, Carl H. Ernst, Mary
Hershey, and Roger W. ed gia eee See se 6
Decay and: Its Prevention in | Nate Stone. K. Lal Gauri _.
Mammals of ° Pulaski County, Kentucky. David J. Fassler __ 3353
A Phytosociological Study of a Relict Hardwood F aes in Barrell 4 C unty
Kentucky. Christine K. Bougher and Joe E. Winsteels >
Mussels of the Green avek Kentucky. Billy G. Isom
News and ‘Comment’ 2... 420) 38" Sa ae eee
Baitors. Note." 2-2 Wa oe ee a Sa eee
Le a teks |
TRANSACTIONS
DF THE
ENTUCKY
\CADEMY OF SCIENCE
ye Be : :
ficial Publication of the Academy
1% a 2)
Byes
x -—? -
ee
:
Cp ¢ ‘S
EMITHSINIAD i
a MAR 11 1/ 9
: 4 CIGRAKILS Volume 35
ma 7 _ Numbers 3-4
Bo December 1974
The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914
OFFICERS FOR 1975
President: Ellis V. Brown, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506 —
President Elect: Frederick M. Brown, Centre College, Danville 40422
Past President: Donald L. Batch, Eastern Kentucky State University, Richmond
40475
Vice President: Charles Payne, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351
Secretary: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky. State University, Bowling Green
01
~
Treasurer: Wayne Hoffman, Western Kentucky State University, Bowling Green
42101
Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A. Branson, Eastern Kentucky State
University, Richmond 40475
John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky,
Lexington 40506
Boarb OF DirRECTORS
Thomas B. Calhoon 1975 Fletcher Gabbard 1977
Charles E. Kupchella “ “TORS John C. Philley (Chm) 1977
Howard Powell 1976 John G. Spanyer 1978
Morris Taylor 1976 Oliver Zandona 1978
EDITORIAL OFFICE
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TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE
December 1 OTA
VOLUME 35
NUMBERS 3-4
Substrate Preference of Benthic Macroinvertebrates
in Silver Creek, Madison County, Kentucky
CATHERINE B. Crisp AND NORMAN H. Crisp
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475
ABSTRACT
Field collections of benthic macroinvertebrates were taken with a square-foot Surber
stream bottom sampler on 3 different types of substratum during August, September, and
October 1973 on 4 occasions in order to determine the respective species diversity and per-
centage composition. The boulder substrate was the most productive, followed by the
rubble, with sand and gravel the least productive. Thirteen orders and 20 genera of
bottom organisms were identified, but a few genera made up the bulk of the standing
crops for each station. Stenonema and Isonychia formed the majority of the ephemeropteran
nymphs, Chewmatopsyche and Hydropsyche comprised over half the trichopterans, Pentaneura
larvae accounted for most dipterans, and Stenelmis made up a large percentage of the
Coleoptera. The data include prechannelization and postchannelization conditions. Standing
crop for each station was similar before channelization, but afterwards the respective mean
numbers declined.
INTRODUCTION
Substrate preference of macroinverte-
brates was studied in a portion of Silver
Creek, Madison County, near Richmond,
Kentucky. Silver Creek is a permanent
stream with a dendritic drainage pattern.
Elevation at Station 1 is 210 m above mean
sea level (msl). At Stations 2 and 3, the
elevation is 204 m msl. Average gradient
within the study area is 9.5 m/km. The 3
riffle stations selected for collection are all
within fairly close proximity (0.64 km) of
each other on Barnes Mill Road, Madison
County. Physical characteristics for each
station are shown in Table 1; the upstream
and downstream boundaries for each station
encompassed approximately 15-18 m.
Collections of aquatic macroinvertebrates
were made on 4 occasions, 13 August, 1
September, 4 October, and 21 October 1972,
at the 3 stations in an attempt to determine
species density and percentage composi-
61
tion with respect to 3 different types of
stream substrate. Substrates were con-
sidered as follows: boulders, rocks 30 cm
or more in diameter; rubble, 7.5-30 cm; and
sand and gravel, less than 7.5 cm. Other
workers (Pennak and Van Gerpen 1947)
used bedrock as a representative of the
boulder type substrate, a type not investi-
gated during this study.
During the week including 25 September,
a portion of Silver Creek, involving Stations
2 and 3 was channelized. Therefore, the
first 2 collections (13 August and 1 Septem-
ber) represent conditions prior to chan-
nelization, while the latter 2 (4 and 21
October) represent those after channeliza-
tion.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
A square-foot (0.093 m?) Surber bottom
sampler was utilized for taking quantitative
samples. Three samples were taken from
62 Trans. KentucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4)
TABLE 1.—SoME PuysICAL PARAMETERS OF COL-
LECTION STATIONS IN SILVER CREEK
Station 2
Station 1 (sand and Station 3
Parameters ( boulder ) gravel ) (rubble )
Mean Velocity 0.54 0.20 0.67
(m/sec )
Mean Depth 0.12 0.09 0.21
(m)
Mean Width 10.06 3.90 3.66
(m)
Channel Size 1.18 0.36 0.77
(m*)
each type of substrate on each visit, for a
total of 36 samples during the study period.
Sampling was random along the 15-18 m
length and over the entire width of each
station in order to minimize sampling errors
caused by differences in production po-
tential within each station. The benthos
were counted and identified following the
keys of Pennak (1953) and Ward and
Whipple (Edmonson 1959), Burks (1953),
Ross (1953), and Usinger (1956). Ephem-
eropteran nymphs in very early stages of
development were too small for positive
identification.
Channel size (Table 1) or area of cross
section of stream basin, was calculated for
each station, based on the formula A =
d. — w (Reid 1961). Mean depths and
velocity were determined with a Gurley
current meter.
RESULTS
Ephemeropteran nymphs comprised the
greatest percentage of the total number of
benthos (Table 2) and were most abundant
on the boulder substrate (53.51%), and
least abundant on sand and gravel (8.69%,
Table 4). Ephemeropteran nymphs were
by far the most abundant benthic organisms
on rubble, with an average percentage oc-
currence of 56.72 (Table 2). Stenonema
was the most abundant genus in rubble
but was scarce on sand. Isonychia, how-
ever, consistently occurred at moderate
density on each substrate but was lower
in overall abundance (Table 3). Four other
genera (Heptagenia, Caenis, Baetis, and
TABLE 2.—AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF THE FAUNA
AND TOTAL DENsITy COLLECTED AT EACH STATION
Station 2
Station 1 (sand and _ Station 3
Taxon (boulder ) gravel ) (rubble )
% No. % No. J .No:
Ephemeroptera 40.5 351 15.6 57 56.7 248
Trichoptera 17.2 149 194 7 Baas
Neuroptera 0.7 6 06 2 az
Diptera 6.1 53 33 1202
Coleoptera 10.7 938 240 83 1553-6
Plecoptera 02 2 00 8 =
Hemiptera 0.1 21 0D) 2 ee
Odonata 04 3- 00 20) eee
Gastropoda 90.1 174 32.5918) ise
Pelecypoda 06 #5 33° 222s
Isopoda 2.1 18 0:0 ORS
Decapoda 0.7 6 00° so 23.4
Turbellaria 0.7 6 00) 2
Total 867 366 49
Mean no./m° G71 3:73 4.25
Paraleptophlebia) were present in smaller
numbers at each station with the exception
of Paraleptophlebia which occurred only
on boulders.
Trichopterans, the second most abundant
insect order were taken from all 3 sub-
strates, being most abundant on boulders
(Table 4) and least abundant on sand and
gravel. At Station 3 (rubble), Trichoptera
were the second most abundant taxa, aver-
aging 23.5 percent of the total fauna (Table
2). Cheumatopsyche was the most abun-
dant caddisfly, with a decreasing relative
abundance from boulders to sand to rubble
(Table 3). Hydropsyche, however, was
most abundant on rubble, boulders, and.
sand, respectively. Chimarra, ranking third
in trichopteran abundance, was found in
fairly consistent numbers on each substrate.
Both Polycentropus and Diplectrona were
found on each substrate in small numbers
only; however, their greatest density per
square meter was on the boulder substrate.
Corydalus was the only representative of
the order Neuroptera (Megaloptera) pres-
ent, being most prevalent on boulders where
the velocity was high, and least abundant
on the sand and gravel substrate (Table
3). Corydalus accounted for only a small
percentage of the total (Table 2).
conn
SUBSTRATE PREFERENCE OF BENTHIC FAuNA—Crisp and Crisp
TABLE 3.—MEAN NUMBER OF GENERA PER SQUARE
METER ON DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUBSTRATE AT
COLLECTING STATIONS
Station 2
Station 1 (sand and _ Station 3
Taxon (boulder) gravel ) (rubble )
Ephemeroptera
Isonychia 1.07 0.38 0.51
Stenonema 1.23 0.03 0.90
Heptagenia 0.03 0 0.21
Caenis 0.16 0.03 0.22
Baetis 0.27 0.02 0.07
Paraleptophlebia 0.06 0 0
Trichoptera
Hydropsyche 0.29 0.13 0.37
Cheumatopsyche 0.62 0.55 0.26
Chimarra 0.18 0.14 0.26
Polycentropus 0.05 0.01 0.01
Diplectrona 0.03 0.01 0.01
_ Neuroptera
Corydalus 0.05 0.02 0.03
Diptera
Pentaneura 0.11 0.39 0.17
Simulium 0.01 0.02 0.01
Coleoptera
Psephenus 0.32 0.39 025
Stenelmis 0.39 0.28 0.34
Plecoptera
Acroneuria 0.02 0 0.02
Hemiptera
Platygerris 0.01 0 0
Odonata
Argia 0.03 0 0.03
Gastropoda
Pleurocera ESE 0.92 0.33
Physa 0.03 0 0.03
Pelecypoda
Sphaerium 0.04 0.10 0.01
Isopoda
Lirceus 0.14 0 0.03
Decapoda
Orconectes 0.04 0.03 0.04
Turbeliaria
Dugesia 0.04 0 0
Only 2 dipterans were found, both being
most abundant on boulders (Table 3).
Pentaneura was the most abundant, having
a mean number of 0.1, 0.4, and 0.2 per
square meter on boulders, sand and gravel,
and rubble, respectively (Table 3). Si-
63
TABLE 4.—PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF MACRO-
INVERTEBRATE ORDERS AT EACH COLLECTING STA-
TION
Station 2
Station 1 (sand and Station 3
Taxon (boulder) gravel ) (rubble )
Ephemeroptera 53.5 8.7 37.8
Trichoptera 42.7 20.3 37.0
Neuroptera 66.7 22.2 LET
Diptera 58.8 15.6 25.6
Coleoptera 34.8 33.0 32.0
Plecoptera 50.0 0 50.0
Hemiptera 100.0 0 0
Odonata 50.0 0 50.0
Gastropoda EV Ay Sone 12.0
Pelecypoda 27.0 66.7 6.3
Isopoda 78.3 0 AUT
Decapoda 33.0 16.7 50.0
Turbellaria 100.0 0 0
mulium was present on all substrates but
was most abundant on sand.
The order Coleoptera was represented by
2 genera, Psephenus and Stenelmis, both
being most abundant on boulders (Table
3). Both adults and larvae of Stenelmis
were decreasingly abundant on boulders,
rubble, and sand and gravel, respectively,
whereas larval Stenelmis were more abun-
dant than adults on sand.
Acroneuria, the only plecopteran found,
was equally abundant on boulders and
rubble, but lacking on sand and gravel.
Platygerris, the only hemipteran en-
countered, was collected at the boulder
station only on 21 October 1972.
Argia, the only representative of damsel-
flies collected, was equally distributed on
boulders and rubble, but was absent from
sand and composed only a small percentage
of the total fauna.
Gastropods represented 20.07 percent of
the fauna for the boulder substrate, 32.51
percent for sand, and 7.29 percent for
rubble. These percentages were largely a
result of the abundance of one snail, Pleu-
rocera, which averaged 1.3, 0.9, and 0.3 per
square meter on boulder, sand and gravel,
and rubble, respectively. Physa was present
on boulders and rubble in relatively low
density, but was absent from the sand and
gravel station.
The only pelecypod found, Sphaerium,
64
TABLE 5.—ToTAL AND MEAN BENTHIC STANDING Crop PER STATION (TWELVE SAMPLES WERE TAKEN |
Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4)
FroM Eacu STATION )
Before Channelization
13 Aug 1 Sep
Total Mean Total
No. No./m* No.
Station 1 132 4.09 180
( boulder )
Station 2 130 4.03 186
(sand and
gravel )
Station 3 151 4.65 170
(rubble )
was decreasingly abundant on sand and
gravel, boulders, and rubble, respectively.
Lirceus, an isopod crustacean, composed
a very minute portion of the total fauna,
being present only on boulders and rubble,
most abundant on the first (Table 3).
Lirceus appeared only in the last 2 collec-
tions following the decrease in water tem-
perature.
Orconectes was less abundant on sand
than on the boulder and rubble substrates,
with the average percentage of the fauna
being highest on the rubble substrate
(Tables 2, 3).
At the boulder station, where the velocity
was maximum, Dugesia was collected but
was present only in the last 2 collections.
DIscuSssION
Although 13 orders and 20 genera of
invertebrates were identified during this
study, a few genera composed the bulk
of the standing crops for each station.
Stenonema and Isonychia formed the
majority of the ephemeropteran nymphs.
Cheumatopsyche and Hydropsyche com-
prised over half the Trichoptera. Pen-
taneura larvae accounted for most Diptera.
Stenelmis made up a large percentage of
the Coleoptera.
Standing crop for each station did not
vary appreciably before channelization
(Table 5). However, following channeliza-
tion, the mean number of organisms per
square meter declined while the standing
crop for Station 1 (not channelized) in-
After Channelization
4 Oct 21 Oct
Mean Total Mean Total Mean
No./m2 No. No./m2 No. No./m?2
oe 239 7.Al Ho al 9.83
By be — — 44 1.36
5.39 102 3.16 124 3.84
creased (Fig. 1). A reasonable explanation
for this rise in number for Station 1 is the ©
occurrence of fall peaks in the life cycles
of many of the insects. Most of the insects
of streams have an annual turnover ( Armi-
tage 1958). Needham (1934) found the
greatest seasonal abundance in both num-
bers and weight in May and a lesser peak
of abundance in November during a mild
winter. Maciolek and Needham (1951)
reported an August low and a February
high. Stehr and Branson (1938) reported
the greatest density in the fall. This study
was too limited in duration to indicate
the seasonal course of the life cycles of the
various species.
The varied habitat preferences for re-
spective genera within reasonable sampling
errors are evident from the data in Table
3. The baetid, Isonychia, for instance, is
evidently better adapted, with its coxal gills
and fringes of hair on the forelegs, to exist
on varied substrates, while Stenonema
(Heptageniidae) is less able to maneuver
on sand, and prefers to cling to large flat
rocks. As a group, the Ephemeroptera
seemed to be adapted to a wider range of
current speed and exposure in stream habi-
tats than other insects collected. The
trichopteran, Cheumatopsyche, exhibited
an approximate 2:1 ratio in abundance over
Hydropsyche within the same habitat. In-
terspecific competition probably is present
between these species, Cheumatopsyche
being better able to compete for available
nutrients and space. Plecopteran nymphs
were collected only from the surfaces of
|
|
SUBSTRATE PREFERENCE OF BENTHIC FAUNA—Crisp and Crisp 65
rubble and boulders where they were pro-
tected from abrasion and the swiftest cur-
rent.
In viewing the total productivity of each
substrate studied, the boulder substrate was
the most productive followed by the rubble,
with sand and gravel the least productive
(Tables 2, 5, Fig. 2). The mean number of
organisms per square meter was plotted
against the median particle size of each
substrate type and the regression line found
using the criteria of Freund (1970). This
indicated a positive correlation between
mean number of organisms per square meter
and substrate type. Since the coefficient
of correlation (r) between the number of
organisms and substrate types was 0.602 and
the critical value for r is 0.611 (Freund
1970) at the 95 percent confidence level,
it can be assumed that particle size is a
determining factor in distribution of the
-benthos for the portion of Silver Creek
studied. This is reasonable since boulders
and rubble provided more space and more
diverse habitats than a sand and gravel
_ substrate.
Studies by Needham (1928, 1929, 1934),
Behney (1937), Pate (1932, 1934), Pennak
and Van Gerpen (1947), Percival and
Whitehead (1929), and Sprules (1947) all
concur with this study in indicating a higher
standing crop in numbers on rubble than on
gravel.
Following channelization of Stations 2
and 3 during the week of 25 September,
there was a marked decrease in the fauna at
those locations. This decrease can only be
attributed to channelization since Station |
did not show a similar decrease (Table 5,
Fig. 1). Station 2 was drastically affected
by channelization; however, a small-scale
t-test demonstrated that there was a signifi-
cant difference between surveys before and
after channelization at Station 3.
This reduction of the fauna following
habitat alteration is similar to that found
by Meehan (1971) in Alaskan streams.
Waters (1964), however, found that de-
nuded bottom areas were often repopulated
within 24 hours. Since he reported that drift
was the most important factor in recoloniza-
320) ——_—_———;,—— iN
280}
240}
200}
Numb!
umber 160,
120 \ IN f
80, \. SY
\
40 N\ era
8-13 a \ ay { | K
\ x cise \ | \
\ NS | \. I
\ — | \ |
ety | ‘
9-1-72 atl \U
XN \ |
Collecting WSS ‘| \
Date NWN I\\ |
| | ] ‘
10-4.72\
~™ |
10-21-72
Station
Fic. 1. Total number of benthos collected at each
station on successive collecting dates.
tion and drift is greater in fall, the com-
munities of Stations 2 and 3 should have
returned to the prechannelization level
during the study period. Since the pre-
channelization density level was not reached
in the relatively long section of the chan-
nelized stream, recolonization may have
proceeded in a gradual manner down the
length of the denuded stream. Thus, the
portions of the stream in close proximity to
the nonchannelized sections probably were
rapidly recolonized, and areas farther from
Particle
Size 254
(m)
Te Ke Kes K
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Mean Number of Organisms /m2
Fic. 2. Relationship between particle size and
number of organisms per square meter.
66
the nonaffected areas would be recolonized
last.
LITERATURE CITED
ArmiracE, K. B. 1958. Ecology of the riffle
insects of Firehole River, Wyoming. Ecology
39(4):571-580.
BeHNEYy, W. H. 1937. Food organisms of some
New Hampshire trout streams. In Biological
Survey of the Androscoggin, Saco and Coastal
watersheds. Surv. Rept. No. 2. N. H. Fish &
Game Dept., pp. 77-80.
Burks, B. D. 1953. The mayflies, or Ephem-
eroptera, of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv.
26(1):1-216.
EpmMonson, W. T. (Ed.) 1959. Ward and
Whipple’s Fresh-Water Biology. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. 1248 pp.
FREUND, J. E. 1970. Statistics, a first course.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
304 pp.
MacIo.LEK, J. A., AND P. R. NEEDHAM. 1951.
Ecological effects of winter conditions on
trout and trout foods in Convict Creek, Cali-
fornia. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 81:202—217.
MEEHAN, W. R. 1971. Effects of gravel cleaning
on bottom organisms in three southeastern
Alaskan streams. Prog. Fish. Cult. 33(2):
107-111.
NEEDHAM, P. R. 1928. Quantitative studies of
the fish food supply in selected areas. A
biological survey of the Oswego River System.
N.Y. State Cons. Dept., Suppl. 17th Ann.
Rept. pp. 220-232.
1929. Quantitative studies of fish
food supply of selected areas. A_ biological
survey of the Erie—Niagara system. Suppl.
18th Ann. Rept. N.Y. State Cons. Dept. pp.
220-232.
TrANS. KeENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4)
1934. Quantitative studies of stream
bottom foods.
238-247.
Pate, V. S. L. 1932. Studies on fish food supply
in selected areas. A biological survey of the
Oswegatchie and Black River systems. Suppl.
21st Rept. N.Y. Cons. Dept. pp. 133-149. -
1934. Studies on fish food supply |
in selected areas of the Raquette watershed. —
A biological survey of the Raquette water- —
Suppl. 23rd Ann. Rept. N.Y. State |
shed.
Cons. Dept. pp. 136—157.
PENNAK, R. W. 1953. Freshwater Invertebrates |
of the United States. Ronald Press, New York, —
N.Y. 769 pp.
, AND E. D. Van GERPEN. 1947. Bottom |
fauna production and physical nature of the
substrate in northern Colorado trout streams. |
Ecology 28:42-48.
PERCIVAL, E., AND H. WHITEHEAD. 1929. A quan- —
titative study of the fauna of some types of |
stream-bed. J. Ecol. 17:283-314.
Rew, G. K. 1961. Ecology of Inland Waters and |
Estuaries. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New
York ON. Y.. hovoppp:
Ross, H. H. 1953. The caddisflies, or Trichoptera,
of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 23:
1-326.
SpruLes, W. M. 1947. An ecological investigation
of stream insects in Algonquin Park, Ontario.
Univ. Toronto Stud. 56:1-81.
STEHR, W. C., anD J. W. Branson. 1938. An
ecological study of an intermittent stream.
Ecology 14(2):294-310.
UsINGER, ROBERT L.
California. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley, Ca.
508 pp.
Waters, T. F. 1964. Recolonization of denuded
stream bottom areas by drift. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 93:311-315.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 64:
1956. Aquatic Insects of
Synthesis of p-[N’,N’-Bis (2-chloroethy]) amino ]-N-sulfinylaniline.
WaLTeR T. SmitTH, JR. AND JAMES A. KUHLENSCHMIDT
Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506
ABSTRACT
The title compound, an analog of antitumor compounds related to nitrogen mustard, has
been synthesized by reaction of N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl )aniline with phosphorus oxychloride
followed by nitrosation of the product with nitrous acid; then reduction of the N,N-bis(2-
chloroethy] )
-p-nitrosoaniline to the corresponding amine hydrochloride, and subsequent reaction
of the dichloroamine hydrochloride with thionyl chloride to give p-[N’,N’-bis(2-chloroethy] )
amino |-N-sulfinylaniline.
INTRODUCTION
In previous work we have synthesized
sulfinylamino derivatives (Ib) of nitrogen
mustard (Ia).
(CICH2CHz2 )2N-R
a,R = CH; b,R=NSO
I
These compounds showed varying degrees
of antitumor activity. Of special interest
was N’,N’-bis(2-chloroethy] )-N-sulfinylhy-
drazine(Ib), which is active against Walker
carcinosarcoma 256 at the 1.6 mg/kg level
and in cell culture cytotoxicity tests had an
EDs of 6.6 mg/ml (Smith and Chen 1968).
As part of a program to modify this active
structure, we have synthesized p-[N’,N’-
bis (2-chloroethy]) amino ]-N-sulfinylaniline.
This structure may be thought of as com-
pound Ib in which a benzene ring has been
inserted between the nitrogens of the hy-
drazine moiety.
METHODS
The initial approach to the synthesis of
this compound was designed to keep the
number of synthetic steps to a minimum.
N,N-Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)-p-nitroaniline was
prepared by reaction of 1-chloro-4-nitroben-
zene with 2,2’-iminodiethanol. The some-
what low yield obtained in this step was
offset by the commercial availability of the
reagents. Catalytic reduction of the nitro
group readily converted the nitro group to
an amino group but considerable difficulty
was encountered in obtaining the amino
compound in a pure state, due to its very
67
rapid oxidation in air. This problem was
eventually overcome by keeping the prod-
uct as free from oxygen as possible. This
entailed the bubbling of nitrogen through
the ethanolic solution of the compound
during any pauses in the isolation pro-
cedure. It was found that N,N-bis(2-hy-
droxyethyl)-p-phenylenediamine was rela-
tively more stable in ethereal solution and
in dry crystalline form than when dissolved
in ethanol. The crystalline product is pref-
erably stored in the dark under dry nitro-
gen. Several attempts were made to con-
vert the above diamine to the desired
product in one step. This conversion should
be possible since both the conversion of
alcohols to alkyl chlorides and of aromatic
amines to N-sulfinylamines have been ac-
complished by the action of thiony] chloride.
Fae
Aaa Base
Ones Ory 2 VAG
CHCla
Hc\
After a number of oe conditions
were found unsatisfactory for conversion of
II to III in one step, it was concluded a
more feasible method would be conversion
first of IV to VI, then reaction of the latter
with thionyl chloride to convert it to the
desired N-sulfinyl compound (VII) as
shown below.
aypen pie al} cl
Toe re enol =
__S0Cla ee Ela SnCl2z O _ S$0Cle ,
“ay Hel HCe\
OO.
VL
a seen route was aiveialnued after
68 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3—4)
preparation of V using the procedure that
Degutis and Bieksa (1964) used to prepare
the meta isomer. The yield for this con-
version was low and made a multistep
synthetic route involving the p-nitro mus-
tard (V) less desirable. It was then decided
that N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)aniline (IX)
could provide a more efficient route to
the desired product.
OH Cl cl aia c\
Lo sh eer rattan
P 1G : NaNOs, NOz O Ser )SnCla _Sotla,
O O a C) Buel
NSO
% x _ _— xm
The N,N-bis(2-chloroethy]) aniline (X) was
prepared in reasonable yield by the method
of Ross (1949). The light lavender product
was reasonably stable except on long ex-
posure to light. This aromatic mustard was
then nitrosated in good yield by the method
of Everett and Ross (1949). The nitroso
mustard [N,N-bis(2-chloroethy] )-p-nitroso-
aniline] (XI) was unstable on exposure to
air and light for a period of several hours.
The nitroso mustard was then reduced by
the method of Everett and Ross (1949).
The resulting phenylenediamine mus-
tard [N,N-bis(2-chloroethy] )-p-phenylene-
diamine] (XII), was stored as the hydro-
chloride which is stable to both air and
light, but exerted powerfully vesicant ac-
tion on skin. The vesicant action of the mus-
tard is destroyed by a 5-10 percent sodium
sulfite solution. The decomposition point of
the phenylenediamine mustard hydrochlo-
ride was found to be broad, ill-defined, and
somewhat below that reported by Everett
and Ross (1949). Evidence that the struc-
ture was correct, however, was provided by
elemental analysis, nmr, and ir data.
The final, desired product, p-[N’,N’-
bis ( 2-chloroethy] ) amino ]-N-sulfinylaniline,
(XIII) was prepared by the action of a
large excess of purified thionyl chloride on
the phenylenediamine mustard hydrochlo-
ride under anhydrous, reflux conditions.
The product was found to be unstable to
atmospheric moisture and light. Nitrogen
analysis and spectral data indicated that the
desired product had formed. The Beilstein
test showed the presence of chlorine, and
a sodium fusion followed by lead acetate |
treatment indicated the presence of sulfur. |
In view of the exceedingly poor stability —
of the compound to moisture and light, no —
attempt has been made to submit the com-
pound for biological testing and efforts to
synthesize closely related analogs have been |
dropped.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
N,N-Bis(2-chloroethyl)-p-nitroaniline.—An |
adaptation of the procedure used by —
Degutis and Bieksa (1964) in preparation —
of the corresponding meta isomer was em- —
ployed.
To 5.0 g (0.022 mole) of N,N-bis(hy- —
droxyethy])-p-nitroaniline in a 250-ml sin-
gle-necked flask fitted with reflux con-
denser, magnetic stirrer, and oil bath was
added 75 ml of dry, distilled 1,2-dichloro-
ethane and 4.5 ml (0.062 mole) of purified
thionyl chloride. The mixture was refluxed —
with stirring 2 hours. The excess thionyl
chloride and solvent were removed by —
evaporation under reduced pressure. The
residue was treated with 100 ml of chloro-
form, the resulting solution was filtered, and
the filtrate evaporated to dryness yielding
3.1 g (52%) of unpurified product. The
crude crystals were slurried with hot ab-
solute ethanol and removed by filtration.
The resulting solid (1.2 g, 21%) melted at
192-195° C. From an analogous procedure ©
a melting point of 198-199° corr. was ob- —
tained on recrystallization from acetone.
N,N-Bis(2-chloroethyl)aniline—The _proce-
dure employed was a modification of the
procedure used by Ross (1949).
N,N-Bis(2-chloroethyl)-p-nitrosoaniline —A
modification of the procedure used by
Everett and Ross (1949) was employed.
N,N-Bis(2-chloroethyl)-p-phenylenediamine
hydrochloride.—A_ larger-scaled modifica-
tion of the basic procedure of Everett and
Ross (1949) was used.
To 22.4 g (0.091 mole) of N,N-bis(2-
chloroethy])-p-nitrosoaniline dissolved in
200 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid
in a 500-ml Erlenmeyer flask equipped
with stirring and cooling, 40.8 g (0.18 mole)
SYNTHESIS OF ANTITUMOR ComMPpouNp—Smith and Kuhlenschmidt
of stannous chloride dihydrate was added.
The amine stannichloride formed as a
salmon colored precipitate during the addi-
tion. The solid was removed by filtration,
dissolved in water, and the solution was
made slightly basic with 1N _ sodium
hydroxide (ca. 1 1 was required). The
aqueous soln was extracted several times
with ether and the combined ether layers
(ca. 750 ml total) dried over sodium
hydroxide pellets. Then hydrogen chloride
gas was bubbled through the unstirred
ether solution until lustrous silver crystals
separated. The crystals were collected by
filtration, and hydrogen chloride gas was
then bubbled through the filtrate using
caution that the brownish dihydrochloride
did not separate as well. The crystalline
product was dissolved in a small amount
of anhydrous methanol and reprecipitated
with ether and cooling to yield 12.7 ¢
(52%). A small portion of crystals sub-
limed for analysis had an approximate
_ decomposition range of 232-242 C (lit mp
250-260 C, decomp); ir (KBr) bands at
2880, 2950, 1610, 1510, 820, and 745 cm7};
nmr (DMSO-dg) 10.25 (s, broad), 7.03 (m),
3.75 ppm (s). It was noted that dissolution
of the N,N-bis(2-chloroethy] ) -p-phenylene-
diamine hydrochloride in tap water pro-
duced a red coloration in the water solu-
tion. Distilled water gave no noticeable
coloration with the above compound. It
was further observed that dilute solutions
of ferric nitrate in distilled water did pro-
duce a red coloration with the above com-
pound.
Analysis Caled for CyHi;Cls;N2: C,
44.55; H, 5.61; N, 10.39. Found: C, 44.44;
H, 5.68; N, 10.20.
p-/ N’, N’-Bis(2-chloroethyl) amino ]-N-sulfi-
nylaniline—To 1.0 ml (0.014 mole) of
purified thionyl chloride dissolved in 50
ml of dry benzene in a 100-ml round-bot-
tomed flask was slowly added 2.0 g (0.0074
mole) of N’,N’bis(2-chloroethy] ) -p-pheny]-
enediamine hydrochloride. The reaction
mixture was refluxed for 2 hours on a
69
steam bath until the solid starting material
was dissolved and the solution was clear
dark brown. The excess thionyl chloride
and benzene were removed by evaporation
to dryness under vacuum to yield 1.8 g
(87%) of crude brown solid product. The
product was purified by a vacuum distilla-
tion carried out in a vacuum sublimation
apparatus in oil bath at 105 C bath tem-
perature. A large amount of product is
lost during the purification procedure. The
purified crystalline product was yellow-
orange and was found to be unstable to
light and atmospheric moisture. The in-
stability of the product required that the
chemical analysis be performed on a freshly
prepared and purified product obtained by
procedures analogous to the above prepara-
tion. The best melting point range obtained
was 78-79 C corrected; ir (KBr) bands at
2966 (very weak), 1597 (aromatic ring),
1505, 1400, 1366, 1290 (NSO), 1260, 1197,
1135 (NSO), 1018, 817, and 742 cm- (C-
Cl); nmr (DMSO-d,) 7.35 (m) and 3.82
ppm (s). On a sample obtained using 1.5
g (0.0055 mole) of the phenylenediamine
mustard hydrochloride and 1.0 ml (0.014
mole) of thionyl chloride, the Beilstein test
showed the presence of chlorine (green
flame), and a sodium fusion with subse-
quent lead acetate treatment gave a brown-
black precipitate of lead sulfide.
Analysis Cale’d for CyoHi2CloaN2OS: N,
10.03. Found: N, 10.05.
LITERATURE CITED
Decutis, J., AND V. Brexsa. 1964. Synthesis
of N,N-bis(2-chloroethyl)-m-phenylenediamine
and its derivatives. Lietuvos TSR Aukstuju
Mokyklu Mokslo Darbai, Chem. ir Chem.
Technol. 4:59-64. [Chem. Abstr. 61:9417 g
(1964 )].
EvERETT, J. L., AND W. C. J. Ross. 1949. Aryl-
2-halogenoalkylamines. Part II. J. Chem. Soc.
1949:1972-1983.
Ross, W. C. J. 1949. Aryl-2-halogenoalkylamines.
Part I. J. Chem. Soc. 1949:183-191.
SmitTH, W. T., JR., AND W. Y. CHEN. 1968. Some
N-sulfinylhydrazine analogs of nitrogen mus-
tard. J. Med. Chem. 11:504.
Arthropod Ectoparasites and Their Seasonal Occurrences on
Microtus ochrogaster and Peromyscus leucopus From
Warren County, Kentucky
RicHArD L. BUCKNER’ AND LARRY N. GLEASON
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
ABSTRACT
A total of 150 Microtus ochrogaster and 155 Peromyscus leucopus was examined for arthropod
ectoparasites from November 1970 through November 1971.
on both M. ochrogaster and P. leucopus:
INTRODUCTION
Studies on the ectoparasites of the prairie
vole Microtus ochrogaster and the wood
mouse Peromyscus leucopus have been
sporadic. Most previous studies of the
parasites of these rodents have been com-
pilations of lists of parasite species. Whita-
ker (1968) brought together a literature
review for the genus Peromyscus which in-
cludes an extensive listing of both arthropod
and helminth parasites. Information con-
cerning the arthropod parasites of the
prairie vole is available from scattered
sources, the principal ones being Jameson
(1947), Verts (1961), and Whitaker and
Wilson (1968). Batson (1965), in a study
of the prairie vole, listed some of the
arthropod parasites for this species found
in central Kentucky.
The purpose of this study was to deter-
mine the species of arthropod ectoparasites
present on M. ochrogaster and P. leucopus
in south-central Kentucky, to determine if
the numbers of those parasites varied with
seasonal changes, and to determine the
extent of overlap of the parasitic species
between the host species.
* Present address: Department of Life Sciences,
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68508.
Fourteen species were found
the mites Ornithonyssus bacoti, Androlaelaps
fahrenholzi, Laelaps microti, Dermacarus hypudaei, Listrophorus leukorti, Mycoptes sp.,
Euschoengastia peromysci and Neotrombicula caviola; the tick Dermacentor variabilis; the
fleas Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes, Epitedia wenmanni, Orchopeas leucopus, Peromyscopsylla
scotti, and Stenoponia americana. The mite Radfordia lemnina and the louse Hoplopleura
acanthopus were found only on M. ochrogaster. The mite Radfordia subuliger and the louse
Hoplopleura hesperomydis were found only on P. leucopus.
70
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their sincere ap-
preciation to Dr. Nixon Wilson of the
University of Northem Iowa and Dr.
William J. Wrenn of the University of
North Dakota for their initial identification
of the arthropod ectoparasites.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study area consisted of abandoned
pastures and woodlots of approximately 121
hectares in size and was large enough to
allow variance of trapping sites to prevent
overtrapping. Located in Warren County,
Kentucky, the area was approximately 0.8
km south of Bowling Green, east of US
Highway 31W.
Attempts were made to trap and autopsy
a minimum of 10 Microtus ochrogaster and
10 Peromyscus leucopus each month from
November 1970 through November 1971.
Museum Special snap traps and Hay-a-hart
live traps were used. Traps were baited
with a mixture of peanut butter and oat-
meal. During the warm months of the
year, DDT was added to the bait to prevent
loss to ants (Coleman 1950). Traps were
set in the evenings and checked the next
morning. Dead animals were placed in
individual plastic bags after removal from
ARTHROPOD ECTOPARASITES OF SMALL MamMMmMaAts—Buckner and Gleason “1
TABLE 1.—ARTHROPOD ECTOPARASITES AND THEIR SEASONAL OCCURENCES ON MICROTUS OCHROGASTER
IN WARREN County, KENTuUCKy, FRoM NovEMBER 1970 THROUGH NOVEMBER 1971. THE NUMBERS IN
PARENTHESES BELOW EACH SEASON AND THE TOTAL INDICATE THE NUMBER OF SPECIMENS EXAMINED.
THERE WERE AT LEAST 2 KINDS OF CHIGGERS PRESENT.
Average Number Per Host
(minimum and maximum number per host )
cervical dislocation prior to being placed
in the bags.
In the laboratory, the animals were
washed in a detergent solution and the
pelage thoroughly brushed with a tooth-
brush to dislodge the ectoparasites. The
plastic bag for each animal was rinsed with
water and this was added to the detergent
Winter Spring Summer Fall Total
Parasite (32) (34) (32) (52) (150)
Mites
Ornithonyssus bacoti 0.03 4.23 (i bes-7) 15.36 pa 2
(0-1) (0-42) (0-516) (0-257 ) (0-516)
Androlaelaps fahrenholzi 0.62 5.91 5.50 3.96 4.90
(0-4) (0-50) (0-31) (0-26) (0-50)
Laelaps microti 7.84 9.47 3.81 4.78 6.31
(0-41) (0-119) (0-33) (0-34) (0-119)
Radfordia lemnina 0 0 0.06 0.11 0.05
(0-1) (0-1) (0-1)
Dermacarus hypudaei 106.43 315.26 12224 114.55 161.00
(0-1061) (0-1695) (7-769) (0-597) (0-1695)
Listrophorus leukorti 136.46 49.20 114.37 510.65 225.49
(0-1279) (0-778) (0-816) (0-2169) (0-2169)
Mycoptes sp. 1.96 2.70 0.62 0.96 1.56
(0-27) (0-27) (0-10) (0-13) (0-27)
Chiggers 11.68 18.23 25 7.07 8.33
(0-34) (0-102) (0-3) (0-94) (0-102)
_ Ticks
Dermacentor variabilis 0.06 0.50 Q.21 0.11 0.21
(0-2) (0-9) (0-5) (0-1) (0-9)
Lice
Hoplopleura acanthopus 22 8.35 0 0.32 2.62
(0-15) (0-72) (0-21) (0-72)
Fleas
Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes 0 0.32 0.25 0.59 0.32
(0-3) (0-3) (0-4) (0-4)
Epitedia wenmanni 0 0 0 0.03 0.01
(0-1) (0-1)
Orchopeas leucopus 0.03 0 0 0 0.01
(0-1) (0-1)
Peromyscopsylla scotti 0 0 0.03 0 0.01
(0-1) (0-1)
Stenopoma americana 0.03 0.35 0 0.13 0.12
(0-1) (0-7 ) (0-4) (0-7)
the traps. Live animals were killed by solution used to wash the animal. The
mixture was then filtered through coarse
filter paper. The ectoparasites were re-
moved from the filter paper and preserved
in 70 percent ethanol. Each animal was
examined under a dissecting microscope
and attached parasites were removed and
placed with those obtained from the wash.
The parasites were identified to species
72 TRANS. KeENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4)
where possible and the numbers of indi-
viduals of each species were recorded.
Whole mount preparations were made of
representative individuals of each species
by mounting the specimens in Polyvinyl
alecohol-lactophenol.
RESULTS
During the 13-month period of this study,
150 Microtus ochrogaster (77 males and 73
females) and 155 Peromyscus leucopus (77
males and 78 females) were examined for
ectoparasites. The number of M. ochro-
gaster trapped per month ranged from 9
to 17 and the number of P. leucopus ranged
from 10 to 14.
Sixteen species of arthropod ectoparasites
were found on, M. ochrogaster (Table 1).
The greatest numbers of species were mites:
Ornithonyssus bacoti, Androlaelaps fahren-
holzi, Laelaps microti, Radfordia lemnina,
Dermacarus hypudaei, Listrophorus leu-
korti, and Mycoptes sp. In addition to these
mites, at least 2 species of chiggers were
present: Euschoengastia peromysci and
Neotrombicula caviola. Other arthropods
present were the tick, Dermacentor vari-
abilis; the louse, Hoplopleura acanthopus
and 5 species of fleas: Ctenophthalmus
pseudagyrtes, Epitedia wenmanni, Orch-
opeas leucopus, Peromyscopsylla scotti, and
Stenoponia americana.
The most abundant ectoparasite on M.
ochrogaster was the mite, L. leukorti, with
an average number for the 13-month study
period of 225.49 per animal. It was found
commonly throughout the year, but was
most abundant in the fall. Dermacarus
hypudaei was also common on M. ochrogas-
ter with an average of 161.0 per animal
during the entire study period. However,
this species was most prevalent in the
spring. The mites O. bacoti, A. fahrenholzi,
L. microti, and Mycoptes sp. were also en-
countered regularly but with decreased
numbers of 23.12, 4.90, 6.31, and 1.56, re-
spectively. Ornithonyssus bacoti was found
most frequently in the spring, A. fahrenholzi
was most common in the spring and sum-
mer, and L. microti and Mycoptes sp. were
found most frequently in the winter and
spring. Radfordia lemnina was encoun-
tered rarely, with an average of 0.05 per
animal for the 13-month study period. It
was found only in the summer and fall.
Chiggers, E. peromysci and N. caviola, were
found throughout the year but were most
common in the winter and spring. For the
entire study period, the average number of
chiggers per animal was 8.33.
Ticks and lice were encountered less fre-
quently than mites. The tick D. variabilis
was most prevalent in the spring and there
was an average of 0.21 per animal for the ©
study period. Lice were most prevalent in
the spring also, and were not found on the
voles during June, July, and August. The
average number of those ectoparasites for
the study period was 2.62.
The occurrence of fleas was sporadic
(Table 1). The highest average number
for the study period was 0.32 per animal
for C. pseudagyrtes. Numerically, the fleas
were a minor component of the ectopara-
sitic fauna.
During the study, 16 species of arthropod
ectoparasites were found on P. leucopus
(Table 2). Of these, 14 were also present
on M. ochrogaster, indicating a broad over-
lap in the ectoparasite fauna. The 14 spe-
cies found on both hosts were: mites—O.
bacoti, A. fahrenholzi, L. microti, D. hy-
pudaei, L. leukorti, Mycoptes sp., and
chiggers (E. peromysci and N. caviola);
ticks—D. variabilis; and fleas—C. pseud-
agyrtes, E. wenmanni, O. leucopus, P.
scotti, and S. americana. The mite Rad-
fordia subuliger and the louse Hoplopleura
hespermydis were found on P. leucopus but
not on M. ochrogaster.
The most common ectoparasites of P.
leucopus were chiggers of which at least
2 species were present. The average num-
ber of chiggers per animal throughout the
study was 13.76. These arthropods were
most common in the winter. The mite D.
hypudaei was also common with an average
number per animal for the study period of
4.87. It was most prevalent in the spring.
Other mites were not as prevalent. Orni-
thonyssus bacoti, A. fahrenholzi, L. microti,
R. subuliger, L. leukorti, and Mycoptes sp.
ARTHROPOD ECTOPARASITES OF SMALL MAamMMALS—Buckner and Gleason
73
TABLE 2.—ARTHROPOD ECTOPARASITES AND THEIR SEASONAL OCCURRENCES ON PEROMYSCUS LEUCOPUS IN
WARREN County, KENTuCKy, FRoM NOVEMBER 1970 THRouGH NOVEMBER 1971. THE NUMBERS IN Pa-
RENTHESES BELOW EACH SEASON AND THE TOTAL INDICATE THE NUMBER OF SPECIMENS EXAMINED.
THERE WERE AT LEAST 2 KinpDs oF CHIGGERS PRESENT.
Winter
Parasite (42)
Mites
Ornithonyssus bacoti 0.18
(0-5)
Androlaelaps fahrenholzi 0.92
(0-17)
Laelaps microti 0.05
(0-1)
Radfordia subuliger 0.02
(0-1)
Dermacarus hypudaei 1.30
(0-19)
Listrophorus leukorti OU
(0-1)
Mycoptes sp. 0.19
(0-3)
Chiggers 26.83
(0-75)
Ticks
Dermacentor variabilis 0.02
(0-1)
Lice
Hoplopleura hesperomydis 225A.
(0-25)
Fleas
Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes 0.04
(0-1)
Epitedia wenmanni 0.14
(0-4)
Orchopeas leucopus 0.31
(0-4)
Peromyscopsylla scotti 0
Stenoponia americana 0.28
(0-6)
had average numbers per animal of 0.82,
0.65, 0.38, 0.03, 1.26, and 0.23, respectively,
for the entire study period. Ornithonyssus
bacoti was most prevalent in the spring and
summer, A. fahrenholzi in the winter and
spring, L. microti in the spring, L. leukorti
in the spring and fall, and Mycoptes sp. in
the fall. Radfordia subuliger was rare and
found only in the fall and winter.
Average Number Per Host
(minimum and maximum number per host )
Spring Summer Fall Total
(33) (37) (43) (155)
2.16 Lg 0.09 0.82
(0-53) (0-12) (0-1) (0-53)
0.94 0.27 0.53 0.65
(0-5) (0-2) (0-6) (0-17)
1.03 0.32 0.21 0.38
(0-19) (0-9) (0-1) (0-19)
0 0 0.09 0.03
(0-2) (0-2)
TAS 0.41 2.28 4.87
(0-424) (0-3) (0-30) (0-424)
1.81 0.27 1.90 1.26
(0-55) (0-3) (0-30) (0-55)
0.09 0.18 0.37 0.23
(0-1) (0-2) (0-8) (0-8)
12.60 2.24 13.04 13.76
(0-75) (0-22) (0-72) (0-75)
1.81 0.13 0.21 0.52
(0-12) (0-2) (0-3) (0-12)
0.63 0.73 6.21 2.98
(0-12) (0-19) (0-252) (0-252)
0.06 0.16 0 0.06
(0-1) (0-5) (0-5)
0 0.13 0.02 0.07
(0-3) (0-1) (0-4)
0.03 0 0.02 0.08
(0-1) (0-1) (0-4)
0 0 0.02 0.01
(0-1) (0-1)
0.27 0 0.04 0.15
(0-4) (0-2) (0-6)
Other ectoparasites also occurred in very
low numbers on P. leucopus. Dermacentor
variabilis occurred most frequently in the
spring with an average of 0.52 per animal
for the 13-month study period. The louse
H. hesperomydis was found most frequently
in the fall and winter with an average of
2.98 per animal for the study period. Fleas
occurred irregularly (Table 2).
DIscussION
A total of 18 species of arthropod ecto-
parasites was found on Microtus ochrogaster
and Peromyscus leucopus during the present
study. Of this total, 14 species (77.7%)
were common to both rodents, indicating
little host speciticity. Host specificity was
exhibited only by mites of the genus Rad-
fordia and by lice of the genus Hoplopleura.
There was, however, a definite host prefer-
ence. The ectoparasites were more nu-
merous on M. ochrogaster than on P.
leucopus. This difference in numbers pos-
sibly resulted from the heavier pelage on
the voles.
The average numbers of ectoparasites
obtained for M. ochrogaster and P. leucopus
were higher than those reported in the
literature. Whitaker and Wilson (1968),
in a 3-year study of mites in Indiana, re-
ported averages of 0, 0.19, and 0.17, re-
spectively, for Ornithonyssus bacoti, An-
drolaelaps fahrenholzi, and Laelaps microti
on M. ochrogaster and 0.01, 0.003, and 0.62
on P. leucopus, whereas our respective aver-
ages were 23.12, 4.90, and 6.31 on M.
ochrogaster and 0.82, 0.65, and 0.38 on P.
leucopus. Similarly, the above authors re-
ported averages of 0.02 for Radfordia
lemnina on M. ochrogaster and 0.02 for
Radfordia subuliger on P. leucopus, but our
findings show averages of 0.05 and 0.03,
respectively. Whitaker and Wilson (1968)
pointed out that their figures should be
taken as minimal because of the methods
used for finding mites. In our study, how-
ever, we attempted to collect and count all
specimens.
Seasonal variations in numbers of para-
sites were observed for some ectoparasites.
Listrophorus leukorti occurred in greater
numbers in the fall on M._ ochrogas-
ter, but showed little seasonal variation on
P. leucopus. On the latter species, the num-
bers were much lower throughout the year
than on M. ochrogaster. Dermacarus hy-
pudaei occurred on both M. ochrogaster and
P. leucopus as hypopi, a second nymphal
stage with specialized claspers. The adults
are free living in the nests of the rodents
(Drummond 1957). On both species of
TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4)
host, the mites were most prevalent in the —
spring of the year. Ornithonyssus bacoti |
showed a distinct seasonal variation on M. .
ochrogaster but not on P. leucopus, where _
it occurred in smaller numbers. The mites
were most prevalent on the vole in summer. |
This was in contrast to the report of Worth >
(1950) who found maximum numbers in |
the spring. However, his studies were con-_
ducted in Florida where the optimum tem-_
perature for the mites would likely occur
earlier.
Chiggers, Euschoengastia peromysci and —
common >
throughout the cooler months with peak
numbers during the spring. There was a
dramatic decrease in chiggers during the |
summer months. This seasonal pattern was —
Neotrombicula caviola, were
evident both on M. ochrogaster and on P.
leucopus. Chiggers are the parasitic larval
stages of free living mites, and during the
spring the larvae leave the host and molt
to the free living stages. This type of
incidence pattern has been described by
Farrell (1956).
Dermacentor variabilis occurred as im-
mature stages, larvae and nymphs, on both
hosts. These immature stages were most
prevalent during the spring, and this ob-—
servation follows the life cycle pattern re-
ported by Smith et al. (1946) who found
that the activity of the immature forms
reached a peak during March, April, and
May, after which these forms became rare
or absent.
The lice, Hoplopleura acanthopus on M.
ochrogaster and Hoplopleura hesperomydis
on P. leucopus, showed a distinct seasonal
variation. Hoplopleura acanthopus was
most prevalent in the spring and H. hespero-
mydis was most prevalent in the fall. These
results are similar to those reported by Cook
and Beer (1958) for H. acanthopus on
Microtus pennsylvanicus and H. hespero-
mydis on Peromyscus maniculatus. Batson
(1965) found H. acanthopus to be the most
abundant ectoparasite of M. ochrogaster in
central Kentucky but this was not the case
in the present study.
Insufficient numbers of each of the 5
species of fleas were taken to accurately
ARTHROPOD ECTOPARASITES OF SMALL MAammats—Buckner and Gleason 75
depict their seasonal incidence. This is true
also of many of the mites found during our
study. The interpretation of the effects of
season upon the numbers of some of the
_ species of ectoparasites present on the hosts
is severely limited by the low numbers
present. In some instances, an abundance of
individuals upon a single host dramatically
increased the average number of the para-
site for that season. Such occurrences ad-
versely affect the interpretation of the data.
Such effects could be overcome by col-
lecting larger numbers of rodents over
several years.
LITERATURE CITED
Batson, J. 1965. Studies on the prairie vole,
Microtus ochrogaster, in central Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 25:129—137,.
CoLEMAN, R. W. 1950. DDT protects baits from
ants. J. Mamm. 31:199.
Coox, E. F., anp J. R. Beer. 1958. A study of
louse populations on the meadow vole and
deer mouse. Ecology 39:645-659.
DruMMonp, R. O. 1957. Observations on fluctua-
tions of acarine populations from nests of
Peromyscus leucopus. Ecol. Monogr. 27:137—
1523
FARRELL, C. E. 1956. Chiggers of the genus
Euschoengastia (Acarina: Trombiculidae) in
North America. Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 106:
85-235.
JAMEsoN, E. W., Jr. 1947. Natural history of the
prairie vole. Univ. Kans. Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist.
1:125-151.
SmirH, C. N., M. M. CoE, anp H. K. Govuckx.
1946. Biology and control of the American
dog tick. U.S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull. 905:
1-7A.
Verts, B. J. 1961. Observations on the fleas
(Siphonaptera) of some small mammals in
northwestern Illinois. Amer. Midl. Nat. 66:
471-476.
WuitakeEr, J. O., Jr. 1968. Parasites. In Biology
of Peromyscus (Rodentia) Spec. Publ. Amer.
Soc. Mamm. 2:254—311.
, AND N. Witson. 1968. Mites of small
mammals of Vigo County, Indiana. Amer.
Midl. Nat. 80:537-542.
WortH, C. B. 1950. Observations on ectopara-
sites of some small mammals in Everglades
National Park and Hillsborough County,
Florida. J. Parasit. 36:326-335.
An Examination of Opossums and Raccoons in Kentucky
for Natural Infections with Trypanosoma cruzi
FreD H. WHITTAKER AND LENA JARECKA
Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
Fifty-nine raccoons and 24 opossums were live-trapped from 14 counties in Kentucky
and examined for the presence of Trypansoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas’ disease.
Although none of the mammals was infected with T. cruzi, reasons are stated as to why
it is believed that with the examination of additional mammals, the parasite will be found
in Kentucky.
INTRODUCTION
Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent
of American trypanosomiasis, was first de-
scribed by Carlos Chagas in 1909 from in-
fected triatomid bugs, wild mammals, and
humans in Brazil. In honor of his achieve-
ment, this disease is usually referred to as
Chagas’ disease. Later studies ( Olivier et al.
1972) showed this organism to be present
and pathogenic for humans in most areas
of South and Central America. Early work
in this country (Kofoid and McCulloch
1916, Wood 1934, Wood and Wood 1941)
indicated that the organism was present
in triatomids and various reservoir hosts in
much of the Southwest. Woody and Woody
(1955) reported the first indigenous human
infection in a child from Corpus Christi,
Texas, which was soon followed by a similar
case in Bryan, Texas (Gobel 1958). Later
work in Louisiana (Yaeger 1960), in Mary-
land (Walton et al. 1958, Herman and
Bruce 1962), in Georgia and Florida (Mc-
Keever et al. 1958) and in Alabama (Olsen
et al. 1964) has extended the known range
of this organism into 10 states. Farrar
et al. (1963) found definite serological evi-
dence of infected humans in certain regions
of Georgia, and postulated that at least
one death in the region was caused by
T. cruzi. These findings suggest that T.
cruzi may constitute a potential human
health problem in this country.
Because of the scanty knowledge of this
organism's distribution in the United States,
it is seldom considered in the differential
diagnosis of a disease. A more thorough
76
knowledge of the distribution of T. cruzi
would, in all probability, stimulate the-
medical profession to consider the potential
for human infection with this disease. With |
early diagnosis, the chances for a complete
recovery are excellent, but a satisfactory
cure for chronic Chagas’ disease has not—
been developed.
Triatomid vectors and a wide range of
known mammalian hosts (such as opossums,
raccoons, various species of rats and mice,
and gray foxes) are found in Kentucky.
There are no major geographic or environ-
mental barriers which would prevent T.
cruzi from entering this state, and based on ©
the knowledge of zoodistribution, there is
no reason to assume that it should not be
found in Kentucky. It should be mentioned
that an earlier examination of 41 opossums
from central Kentucky by Aliff (1970) was |
negative for T. cruzi.
When one considers the close proximity
certain reservoir hosts maintain with hu-
mans, as well as the fact that triatomids
are often pests in human habitations where
poor living conditions and health standards
prevail, the need for this research project |
appeared to be warranted. This report —
represents the results of an examination of
raccoons and opossums in 14 counties of ©
Kentucky for the presence of Chagas’ |
disease caused by T. cruzi.
RESULTS
From January to May 1972, 59 raccoons
and 24 opossums were live-trapped from 14
counties in Kentucky (Table 1).
TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI IN KeNTucKy—Whittaker and Jarecka 7a
The animals were brought to the labora-
tory at the University of Louisville and
maintained in cages until necropsied. Each
animal was anesthetized with sodium pento-
_ barbital, 150 mg/kg intraperitoneally, and
a 3-ml blood sample obtained by cardiac
puncture. The sample was citrated and
added to a screw-top test tube containing
7 ml of a culture medium developed by
Nakamura (1967).
The thoracic cavity was opened and a
small portion of cardiac muscle excised and
placed in a tube of Nakamura’s medium.
The abdominal cavity was then opened and
a small section of kidney tissue excised and
placed into another tube of the same
medium. To each of the culture tubes were
added 500 units of penicillin G and 1.5 pg
of streptomycin sulfate per milliliter.
All tubes of inoculated media were in-
cubated at 24-25 C for 2 weeks before the
first examination for trypanosomes. In each
case, an uninoculated tube of medium
served as a control. Each tube was ex-
amined weekly thereafter for 6 weeks.
Throughout the period of examination,
all culture tubes were negative for any
stage of T. cruzi. This suggests absence
or rarity of the parasite in those regions of
the counties from which the animals were
collected. We hesitate to say unequivocally
that T. cruzi does not occur in Kentucky.
More animals should be examined before
any definite conclusions can be reached.
Furthermore, the physical and biotic con-
ditions of Kentucky are sufficiently similar
to those of some of the other states (New
Jersey, Maryland, Alabama, and Georgia)
in which T. cruzi has been found. Probably,
there are no real barriers to prevent a more
northward extension of the parasite’s range,
provided that among other things the
reservoir hosts (raccoons, opossums, etc.)
and triatomid insect vector are present.
According to Kagan et al. (1966), the
northern range of T. cruzi would be de-
limited by the range of the insect vector
Triatoma sanguisuga. This latter range de-
scribes an arc passing from eastern New
Mexico northeastwardly through several
states, including Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and
TABLE 1.—NuUMBER OF RACCOONS AND OPpossuMS
CoLLECTED FrRoM EAacu County
Number of
County Opossums Raccoons
Allen 1 4
Bell 3
Bullitt 3 5
Christian 2: 1
Graves I 6
Jefferson 3 8
Lyon 1
McCreary 4
Oldham 4 7
Powell 6
Russell ] 5
Trimble 4 2
Warren Z 2
Whitley 3 5
Totals 24 59
Pennsylvania. This would thus include
Kentucky as a potential site for the parasite.
It is undoubtedly only a matter of time, and
the examination of additional animals before
T. cruzi is found in Kentucky.
We want to extend our sincere thanks
to the Kentucky State Department of Health
(Frankfort ), the Arts and Sciences Research
Committee of the University of Louisville,
and Dr. George Brodschi, Director, Inter-
national Center, for financing this project.
LITERATURE CITED
AuirF, J. V. 1970. A search for Trypanosoma
cruzi in Kentucky opossums. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sei. 31:104.
CuHacas, C. 1909. Trabalho do instituto de
manguinhos sobre uma nova trypanosomiase
humana. Ann. Acad. Med. Rio de Janeiro.
75:188—-190.
Farrar, W. E., I. G. Kacan, F. D. EVERTON, AND
T. G. Sextuers. 1963. Serologic evidence of
human infection with Trypanosoma cruzi in
Georgia. Amer. J. Hyg. 78:166—-172.
GoBEL, F. C. 1958. A comparison of strains of
Trypanosoma cruzi indigenous to the United
States with certain strains from South America.
Proc. 6th Internatl. Cong. Trop. Med. Malar.
3:158-166.
HERMAN, C. M., anv J. I. Bruce. 1962. Occur-
rence of Trypanosoma cruzi in Maryland.
Proc. Helminth. Soc. Wash. 29:55—-58.
Kacan, I. G., L. NoRMAN, AND D. ALLAIN. 1966.
Studies on Trypanosoma cruzi isolated in the
United States: A review. Rev. Biol. Trop.
14:57-73.
78 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4)
Koror, C. A., AnD I. McCuxttocw. 1916. On
Trypanosoma triatomae, a new flagellate from
a hemipteran bug from the nests of the wood
rat, Neotoma fuscipes. Univ. Calif. Publ.
Zool. 16:113-126.
McKeEEVER, S., G. W. GORMAN, AND L. NORMAN.
1958. Occurrence of a Trypanosoma cruzi-like
organism in some mammals from southwestern
Georgia and northwestern Florida. J. Parasit.
44:583-587.
Nakamura, M. 1967. An autoclaved medium for
routine cultivation of Trypanosoma cruzi.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 61:792—
794.
Ouivier, M., L. OLtvierR, AND D. SEGAL. 1972.
A bibliography on Chagas’ disease (1909—
1969). Special Publication No. 2, Index
Catalog of Medical and Veterinary Zoology.
U.S. Gov. Print. Off., Wash., D.C., 633 pp.
OLsEN, F. P., J. P. SHOEMAKER, H. F. TuRNER,
AND K. L. Hays. 1964. Incidence of
Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas) in wild vectors
and reservoirs in east-central Alabama. J.
Parasit. 50:599-603.
Watton, B. C., P. M. Bauman, L. S. DiaMonp, |
AND C. M. HermMaAN. 1958. The isolation and
identification of Trypanosoma cruzi from rac- |
coons in Maryland. Amer. J. Trop. Med.
Hyg. 7:603-610. ;
Woop, E. D., anp S. F. Woop.
J. Trop. Med. 21:335-345.
Woop, F. D. 1934. Natural and experimental in-
fection of Triatoma protracta Uhler and mam-
mals in California with American human
Trypanosomiasis. Amer. J. Trop. Med. 14:
497-511.
Woopy, N. C., AND H. B. Woopy. 1955. American
Trypanosomiasis (Chagas’ Disease) First in-
digenous case in the United States. J. Amer.
Med. Ass. 159:676—677.
YAEGER, R. G. 1960. A method of isolating
trypanosomes from blood. J. Parasit. 46:288.
1941. Present
knowledge of the distribution of Trypanosoma |
cruzi in reservoir animals and vectors. Amer. |
Distribution and Life History Notes on the Southeastern
Five-Lined Skink, Eumeces inexpectatus Taylor, in Kentucky
Eric M. RuNpDQuUIST AND JOSEPH T. COLLINS
Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045
Barbour and Ernst (1971) defined the
range of Eumeces inexpectatus in Kentucky
on the basis of records or literature reports
from Barren, Bell, McCreary, Powell, and
Whitley counties, mostly in the southeastern
part of the state. With the exception of the
Barren County specimen, these records are
restricted to or along the edge of the
mountainous, heavily forested area of east-
ern Kentucky. Excepting the Barren County
record, this lizard has not been known from
western Kentucky, but Barbour (1971)
speculated that it might be found as far
west in the state as Todd County. Snyder
(1972) did not find Eumeces inexpectatus
in the Land Between The Lakes (LBL) in
Trigg and Lyon counties, southwestern
Kentucky, but indicated (p. 84) that there
was a “moderate possibility” of its occur-
rence in that area.
Recent field work in the LBL region and
reexamination of specimens of Eumeces in
the herpetological collection of the Museum
of Natural History at the University of
Kansas (KU) have resulted in the discovery
of specimens of Eumeces inexpectatus from
new localities in western and southwestern
Kentucky.
During May 1973 one of us (EMR) and
Walter E. Boles spent 10 days collecting
amphibians and reptiles in southwestern
and west-central Kentucky. Six examples
of Eumeces inexpectatus were collected at
the following Kentucky localities: Epmon-
son County: W Horse cave near border
Mammoth Cave National Park (KU 154079);
Trice County: ca. 7 mi (11 km) ESE
Aurora in LBL (KU 154077-078 & KU
154080); ca. 10 mi (16 km) ESE Aurora
in LBL (KU 154081-082). In addition, 9
previously overlooked specimens of this liz-
ard were discovered from the following
Kentucky localities: Harr County: 6-7 mi
(10-11 km) NW Cave City near border
79
Mammoth Cave National Park (KU 143707-
708); Lyon County: 7 mi (11 km) N
Lyon-Trigg county line on Ky. Hwy. 453
(KU 137757); McCreary County: 6.4 mi
(10.3 km) WNW Stearns on Ky. Hwy. 92
(KU 143705-706), 0.7 mi (1.1 km) W
Cumberland Falls (KU 144580), no other
locality data (KU 144581); Trice County:
0.5 mi (0.8 km) NE jet. eastern shore
Kentucky Lake and U.S. Hwy. 68 in LBL
(KU 144576-577). The specimens from
Edmonson, Hart, and McCreary counties
supplement the records of Ernst and Bar-
bour (1971), and those from Lyon and
Trigg counties extend the range of Eumeces
inexpectatus ca. 130 miles (210 km) (air-
line) west into southwestern Kentucky
(Eig. + By.
Virtually nothing is known of the life
history in Kentucky of Eumeces inexpecta-
tus and its relationships with Eumeces
fasciatus, a more wide ranging and (evi-
dently ) more abundant species with which
it is sympatric over large areas.
Only 3 female Kentucky Eumeces inex-
pectatus (KU 137757, 143707, 144581) were
available for examination. These specimens
contained an average of 11 undeveloped
ova. This differs little from the ova counts
obtained from 4 female Eumeces fasciatus
taken in sympatry with Eumeces inexpecta-
tus in Kentucky, although our sample size
is too small to be conclusive.
Analysis of stomach contents of 12 E.
inexpectatus and 13 E. fasciatus from their
area of sympatry in Kentucky showed no
appreciable difference in the diet of these
species. Both species consumed large num-
bers of spiders compared to other inverte-
brate diet items which included (in de-
scending order of item occurrence ) crickets,
cockroaches, caterpillars, grasshoppers, ants,
beetle larvae, snails, and moths.
Although our data sample is small, these
80 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
Fic. 1. Known localities from which Eumeces inexpectatus has been collected in Kentucky. The solid
squares represent records reported by Barbour and Ernst (1971). The solid circles are new localities
based on specimens reported in this paper.
observations tentatively indicate little dif-
ference in reproductive potential or diet in
these 2 lizards. More specimens and, par-
ticularly, associated microhabitat data are
needed to determine what, if any, non-
morphological differences separate Ken-
tucky Eumeces inexpectatus and Eumeces
fasciatus in areas of sympatry.
We wish to thank Walter E. Boles and
George R. Pisani for their assistance during
field work in Kentucky. George W. Byers
of the Department of Entomology, Univer-
sity of Kansas, identified insect remains
from the stomachs of lizards cited here.
To him we are most grateful. Field work
was supported by the Museum of Natural
History, University of Kansas and the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science (J. T. Collins,
principal investigator).
LITERATURE CITED
Barsour, R. W. 1971. Amphibians and reptiles
of Kentucky. Univ. Press Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky. 334 pp.
Barsour, R. W., AnD C. H. Ernst. 1971. The
distribution of Eumeces in Kentucky. J. Herp.
5( 1-2) :71-72.
SnyDER, D. H. 1972. Amphibians and reptiles
of Land Between the Lakes. TVA Publ.
90 pp.
— SS
Additional Observations on the Effects of Strip Mining
on Small-Stream Fishes in East-Central Kentucky
BRANLEY A. BRANSON AND DONALD L. BATCH
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475
ABSTRACT
Continued siltation from strip mine operations in 2 streams tributary to the North Fork
of the Kentucky River has prevented the recovery of fish populations in those streams. All
species reported from Leatherwood Creek in 1972 have been forced downstream, and 6 of
those species are now absent from that stream. Two other species are now missing from
both streams. Populations of Semotilus atromaculatus apparently are on the increase, perhaps
because of the removal of competing species.
INTRODUCTION
This report continues the observations on
the effects of siltation from strip mines on
the fish life of 2 small streams in east-central
Kentucky commenced in an earlier paper
(Branson and Batch 1972). That work
covered a 17-month period (May 1967
through September 1969), whereas the
present contribution extends from Novem-
ber 1971 through December 1972.
Our study area, in Breathitt County, in-
cludes Leatherwood Creek (5.63 km long),
tributary to Quicksand Creek, and Bear
Branch (3.22 km long), tributary to Buck-
horn Creek, all segments of the North Fork
of the Kentucky River. These streams were
originally selected because strip mine spoil
banks in the area are very low in acid-
producing substances, making them ad-
mirable for the purpose of studying silt ef-
fects (Branson and Batch 1972). Both study
streams comprise order I and II tributaries.
Six stations, equally distributed from head-
waters to mouth, were established on each
stream. Detailed information on the bottom
conditions and water quality were presented
in the previous study. During each visit
to these stations fish were collected by 30
min of intensive seining, and were then
identified and released (Table 1).
Weekly determinations of turbidity are
here presented as averages and monthly
*Conducted in cooperation with the North-
eastern Forest Experiment Station, U.S. Forest
Service, Berea, Kentucky.
81
ranges (Fig. 1, Table 2). There were, of
course, as previously observed by us (loc.
cit.), corresponding fluctuations in sediment
loads and sulfate (SOx) concentrations,
varying with peak flow values. Sulfate
loads are never very high in either stream
during any season of the year, but they are
high enough to permit utilization for the
purpose of indexing surface disturbance.
It is apparent from the graph and the data
in Table 1 that the silt load in Bear Branch,
during the study period, was in the main
higher than that in Leatherwood Creek.
Mining operations commenced in_ the
Leatherwood drainage 15 August 1967,
ceased temporarily on 17 December 1968,
then resumed for several months in late
1970. During the latter period, a rather
massive silt retention dam (92 m long and
12-15 m deep) was constructed across the
flow channel below our Station 3, com-
pletely eliminating the upper 3 collecting
sites and effectively eliminating the head-
waters of the stream. The rejuvenated
mining operation, plus the construction dis-
turbance of dam building, dumped tons
of silt into Leatherwood Creek, reducing
by narrowing of the flow channel and by
bottom filling the main channel by 60 to
75 percent, from midway in the stream to
its mouth.
In Bear Branch, mining started in mid-
August 1969, and it was still in progress
in August 1973. By September 1972 our
Station 4 had become completely obliter-
ated by silt, including vast quantities of
82 TrANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4)
TABLE 1.—CoMPARISON OF FisH FAUNAS AT 6 SITES EACH IN LEATHERWOOD AND BEAR BRANCH CREEKS, |
BREATHITT County, Kentucky. Upper Row oF SYMBOLS, FOR EACH SPECIES, LEATHERWOOD SAMPLES;
Lower Row, BEAR BRANCH. VISITATION DATES FOR LEATHERWOOD CREEK: 3 OcTOBER 1971, 14 AucusT |
1971, AND 12 DecEMBER 1972; AND 7 NOVEMBER 1970, 4 SEPTEMBER 1971, AND 9 SEPTEMBER 1972 FoR
BEAR BrancH. + INDICATES PRESENCE; — INDICATES ABSENCE.
Species Collecting Stations
1 2 3 4
Semotilus atromaculatus
Campostoma anomalum
Ericymba buccata
Notropis ardens
Notropis chrysocephalus
Notropis photogenis
Notropis volucellus
Pimephales notatus
Nocomis micropogon
Hypentelium nigricans
Percina maculatum
Etheostoma flabellare
Etheostoma caeruleum
Etheostoma nigrum -——
Etheostoma variatum
Etheostoma Saggita ---
Etheostoma blennioides
Etheostoma species
large gravel and rocks up to boulder size.
Previous accounts of siltation in these 2
drainages were reported by us in 1972.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Comparison of the results presented in
Table 1 [in which a minus sign (-) indi-
cates the absence of a species and a plus
sign (+) indicates its presence] with those
obtained during the first study (loc. cit.)
demonstrates not only that the fish fauna
of the 2 streams has not been able to recover
to any extent, but also that some species
have been eliminated from the fauna.
Notropis photogenis, Nocomis micropogon,
Etheostoma nigrum, E. variatum, E. blen-
nioides, and the emerald darter (Etheostoma
sp.) are now missing from the Leatherwood
Creek fauna, and Hypentelium nigricans
and Percina maculata are absent from both
streams. Furthermore, with the exception
of the creek chub, Semotilus atromaculatus,
all species have been forced downstream
until only nominal populations are present
in short stretches above the mouth. In
Leatherwood Creek, this is a particularly
sad commentary, since Quicksand Creek
itself is heavily afflicted with silt, and
hence shall be unable to act as an efficient
reservoir from which fishes may reinvade
Leatherwood Creek.
Populations of Semotilus atromaculatus,
EFFECTS OF TURBIDITY ON FisHes—Branson and Batch 83
TaBLE 2.—HicH AND Low Tursibiry READINGS
(JAcKsOoN Tursipity UNITS) Iv LEATHERWOOD AND
BEAR BRANCH CREEKS, BREATHITT COUNTY, KEN-
Tucky, BasED Upon WEEKLY DETERMINATIONS
DuRING THE STuDy PERIOD
Month Leatherwood Creek Bear Branch
November 1971 16-20 22-310
December 1971 26-97 26-6r
January 1972 290-880 282-2156
February 1972 64-184 1024
March 1972 26-95 22300
April 1972 8-233 32-168
May 1972 65-140 51-193
June 1972 4—860 8-128
July 1972 A—\2, 12-629
August 1972 20-30 12-39
September 1972 20-39 20-47
October 1972 8-36 162375
however, following abatement of active silt-
ation, appear to be increasing, particularly
at downstream sites. In our judgement, this
reflects the removal of competing fish spe-
cies, but it is a problem which should be
studied in more detail for verification.
We thank Messrs. Frank Howard and
Bruce Bauer for field assistance, and par-
ticularly Mr. Willie Curtiss, U.S. Forestry
Service, for providing us with weekly water
quality determinations.
JACKSON TURBIDITY UNITS
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT
Fic. 1. Turbidity (Jackson Turbidity Units) in
Leatherwood (filled circles, solid line) and Bear
Branch (filled stars, broken line) creeks during the
last 2 months of 1971 and the first 10 months of
1972. Averages of 4 or 5 samples (1 per week)
according to the number of weeks per month. (See
text for additional discussion. )
LITERATURE CITED
BRANSON, B. A., AND D. L. Batcu. 1972. Effects
of strip mining on small-stream fishes in
east-central Kentucky. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.
84:507-517.
Floristic
Survey
Grant of
the KAS
dent who
NEWS AND COMMENT
Through the generosity of an
anonymous donor, the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE is autho-
rized periodically to award a
cash grant of $500.00 to any stu-
is a member of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE and who is enrolled in
a course of study with emphasis in botanical
science at any college or university within
the Commonwealth. The recipient of the
grant would be expected to utilize the funds
in support of research to survey and docu-
ment the flora of any county in the state
that has not had a published county flora
within the last 50 years. The following re-
quirements and/or restrictions must be met
by the grantee:
is
bo
The floristic survey of the county chosen
must be under the supervision of a quali-
fied biologist of one of the colleges or
universities in Kentucky. The super-
visor of such work would not necessarily
have to be from the same college or uni-
versity as the student chosen for the
grant.
As a general rule it would be expected
that a minimum of 500 different vascu-
lar plant species would be collected.
Prepared specimens of each species
would be made in minimums of three
with an average of five, recognizing on
occasion only one or two specimens
might be available. For each species
collected over 500, an additional $1.00
will be made available at the end of the
grant period by the donor.
To ensure documentation of the flora
for future reference, and in order to
build and stimulate botanical interest
regionally, the deposition of correctly
prepared specimens is to be made at a
national herbarium with an _ identical
group deposited in a working herbarium
of the Regional Colleges and Universi-
ties of Kentucky. The selection of both
a national herbarium and regional site
84
Ol
of deposition is to be made by the Flo-
ristic Survey Grant Committee.
Upon completion of the work (a period
not to exceed 24 months from date of
grant receipt) a written summary of the
project including a complete listing of
the county’s flora in a conventional for-
mat will be submitted to the Floristic
Survey Grant Committee.
The choice of the student to receive this
grant will be at the discretion of the:
Floristic Survey Grant Committee to be
composed of the following individuals.
The person in charge of this committee
will be designated from the following by
the President of the Kentucky Academy
of Science.
a. Chairman (or his designate ) of the
Department of Biology at Western
Kentucky University.
b. Chairman (or his designate) of
the Department of Biology at Mur-
ray State University.
c. A Biologist from any other college
or university in Kentucky to be
appointed by the President of the
Kentucky Academy of Science.
The funds provided by this grant are to
be utilized to defray travel costs and
costs of materials and supplies needed to
undertake and complete the work. The
grantee will be required to obtain and
maintain a separate checking account in
his/her name with the funds from this
grant and to provide proper records of
expenditures annually to the Floristic
Survey Grant Committee. Any excess
funds at the end of the 24-month period
will be returned by check to the Trea-
surer of the Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence for inclusion in the next Floristic
Survey Grant. If for any reason continu-
ing funding for the Floristic Survey
Grant would be terminated, any excess
funds would be added to the general
revenue of the Kentucky Academy of
Science.
ACADEMY AFFAIRS
Tue SIXTIETH ANNUAL BusINEsS MEETING OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, CENTRE COLLEGE OF KENTUCKY,
DANVILLE, KENTUCKY
1 and 2 November 1974
Host: Dr. Frederick M. Brown, Professor of Psychology
MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
The meeting was called to order by President
Donald Batch at 8:15 A.M., 2 November, in Room
101, Young Hall. About 65 members were in at-
tendance.
As the first item of business, the motion by Sec-
retary Prins and second by W. Martin, to approve
the Minutes of the 59th annual business meeting at
Transylvania University, carried. Secretary Prins
then announced that membership to date stood at
about 516 regular members and 30 institutional
subscribers. W. J. Meijer moved that the 66 new
members be formally accepted into the Academy.
H. Powell second the motion and it carried. Secre-
tary Prins then read the names of the following
deceased members: E. B. Penrod, R. C. Jett, W.
Blackburn, and Anna Hoffman. Both Drs. Penrod
and Blackburn played active roles in the Academy
affairs, including serving terms as President of the
K.A.S. President Batch requested a moment of
tribute to the deceased members.
The Treasurer's report was distributed to the
members present which was certified as accurate
by the audit committee consisting of Drs. W. H.
Strobe, E. E. Hegen, and E. O. Beal (Chm). The
committee also commended the Treasurer Hoffman
for maintaining excellent records.
Treasurers Report to the Audit Committee,
Kentucky Academy of Science, for the period
1 October 1973-8 October 1974.
Cash in Citizens National Bank
Bowilng Green, Kentucky ________ $1,378.67
RECEIPTS:
Subsidy from State $3,000.00
Membership Dues _____-- 1,581.00
LestiS 194.50
Annual Meeting 766.50
Transactions Subscriptions 214.50
University of Louisville
Purchase of Transactions 300.00
AAAS Research Grant _____ 128.00
Miscellaneous (Private
Jo!)), 2 80.00 6,264.50
$7,643.17
DISBURSEMENTS:
esearch, Grants $ 200.00
Annual Meeting 476.92
Publication of Transactions 3,757.61
Mis Dives! seen S At iy 23.75
85
Stationery, Printing _____ 115.84
HOT AS? See SER SPY, 300.00
Miscellaneous 30.54 4,904.66
$2,738.51
Check Outstanding KJAS $ 300.00
Cash in Citizens National Bank ____. $2,738.51 (a)
Savings Account—Lexington Federal
Savimesneosl Oat tel A ahi) (key oaks 1,147.00 (b)
Thomas Hunt Morgan Fund _._ 176.617
TOTATASS EES ( 20 28k. Shr 20 ace Cae 4,062.12
R. Prins moved and F. Toman seconded the motion
to approve the Audit Committee’s and Treasurer’s
reports. Motion carried.
Dr. Batch then tumed to the business of the
Standing Committees. The committees that had
reports distributed copies in writing to the mem-
bership present to facilitate action on them.
1. Committee on Membership. No report.
2. Committee on Publications. The written re-
port of Dr. Krumholz (Editor) essentially stated
that the 1975 issues of the Transactions will be dis-
tributed in April and October and that members of
all disciplines are urged to submit papers. H. Pow-
ell moved and F. Six seconded the motion to ap-
prove the report. Motion carried.
3. Committee on Legislation. The primary work
of the Committee in 1974 was directed toward fol-
low-up of the Task Force on Scientific Manpower
and Needs in Kentucky. Dr. T. George moved to
accept the report. Dr. E. Brown seconded the
motion. Motion carried.
4. Committee on Distribution of Research
Funds. The Committee, chaired by H. Powell,
announced that Mr. Steven Zeil of Thomas More
College was being recommended to receive the
total $124.00 for a research proposal entitled:
“Birefringence in Piezoelectric Crystals.” The
Committee also recommended that _ recipients
henceforth submit progress reports to the Com-
mittee upon completion of the project or by the
next annual meeting, whichever comes first. S.
Jones moved and T. Coohill seconded the motion to
adopt both the recommendations of the committee.
Motion carried. There were only six applicants for
the grant this year.
After disposing of the Standing Committee re-
ports, Dr. Batch then asked for consideration of
1 Account cancelled.
86 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4)
other reports, copies of which were submitted to
the membership present.
l. The Junior Academy. Dr. Wm. Martin sum-
marized the 1974 activities of the KJAS, and
announced that regional meetings were going to be
held at seven institutions in Kentucky this fall. He
also announced the appointment of Dr. Truman
Stevens ( University of Kentucky) to the Govern-
ing Committee of the Junior Academy, joining H.
Leopold (WKU). Dr. Batch announced that the
Junior Academy books had been audited and found
to be in order. After a motion and second by G.
Wilson and H. Powell, respectively, the report was
accepted. Dr. Batch then announced that the Exec-
utive Committee had accepted Dr. Martin’s letter
of resignation as Director of the Junior Academy,
effective in the Spring of 1975, after a replacement
is named. A tribute of appreciation was extended to
Dr. Martin for doing a fine job.
2. There were no reports from the AAAS repre-
sentatives.
Q
3. The Board of Directors was very active in
1974. Dr. C. Kupchella (Chm), distributed a
lengthy report which proposed possible activities
for the Board and constitutional changes to clarify
the intended role of the board. The Executive
Committee will consider the suggestions at a subse-
quent meeting. A motion to accept the report (W.
Martin), duly seconded by L. A. Krumholz, car-
ried.
4. The Teachers Certification Committee, T.
George (Chm), finished its work in 1974, and sub-
mitted a lengthy report on “Recommendations for
Teacher Certification.” This report has been sub-
mitted to the State Committee on Teacher Certifi-
cation and will be defended by representatives of
the K.A.S. committee this fall. Dr. Batch com-
mended Dr. George and his committee whereupon
the report was accepted after a motion and second
by C. Kupchella and L. A. Krumholz, respectively.
There was no old business to come before the
Academy.
Under new business, President Batch announced
that the Executive Committee had accepted a pro-
posal to establish a grant for Floristic Studies in the
Commonwealth of Kentucky. This grant of ap-
proximately $600.00 will be entirely funded by an
anonymous donor. Details about the grant will be
announced elsewhere (see News and Comment).
The membership endorsed the action of the Execu-
tive Committee through a motion by W. Martin
and a second by C. Covell.
The following Resolution was accepted through a
motion and second by H. Powell and L. Elliott,
respectively:
RESOLUTION
The Kentucky Academy of Science takes this
opportunity to recognize the outstanding role of
Centre College in furthering higher education and,
in particular, the sciences.
Recognition is made of the following as repre-
sentative of an illustrious history:
1. In 1819, Presbyterian leaders. decided to orga-
nize a new college and Isaac Shelby was the
first chairman of the Board.
Centre College of Kentucky opened in fall 1820,
and about ten years later natural sciences were
added to the curriculum.
3. Centre College’s alumni have made very note-
worthy contributions. Among the alumni have
been ten Vice-Presidents of the United States,
one Chief Justice of the United States, one As-
sociate Justice of the Supreme Court, and
thirteen United States Senators.
4, In more recent years, Centre College’s excellent
faculty and alumni have made noteworthy con-
tributions.
bo
The Kentucky Academy of Science recognizes
Centre College’s long and illustrious history and
its viable and significant role today.
Be it resolved that the Kentucky Academy of
Science expresses its most sincere appreciation to
Centre College for the opportunity to convene on
its fine campus and for the gracious hospitality it
has extended during this 1974 Annual Session.
The slate of officers for 1975 was submitted by
the nominations committee, M. Taylor, Chairman,
as follows:
President: Ellis V. Brown, University of Ken-
tucky
President Elect: Frederick M. Brown, Centre
College
Vice President: Charles Payne, Morehead State
University
Secretary: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky
University
Treasurer: Wayne Hoffman, Western Kentucky
University
AAAS Representatives: Branley Branson, 1974—
1975
John Carpenter, 1974—1977
Board of Directors: Howard Powell, Eastern
Kentucky University (finish the term for
Charles Payne)
John G. Spanyer, Brown Forman Distilleries,
1978
Oliver Zandona, Ashland Oil and Refineries,
1978
Dr. Batch opened the floor to additional nomina-
tions. Hearing none, W. Wagner moved that nom-
inations close and that the slate be accepted by
acclamation. R. Martin seconded the motion which
carried unanimously. The President then ordered
the Secretary to declare the nominees elected by
acclamation.
President Batch then announced that an invita-
tion from the University of Louisville Health Sci-
ence Center to hold the 61st Annual Meeting of
ACADEMY AFFAIRS 87
the Academy there was accepted by the Executive
Committee.
Dr. C. Covell expressed satisfaction and gratifica-
tion to outgoing officers. This was endorsed by
applause from the members present.
President Batch then introduced the new Presi-
dent of the Academy, Dr. Ellis V. Brown of the
University of Kentucky who, in turn, expressed
thanks to Dr. Batch for the work he did in 1974.
There being no further business, G. Wilson
moved to adjourn. The motion carried after a
second by H. Powell. The Sixtieth Annual Busi-
ness Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science
adjourned at 9:10 A.M.
Rudolph Prins, Secretary
Kentucky Academy of Science
PROGRAM
Friday, 1 November
1:00- REGISTRATION: Foyer,
7:00 PM = Arts Center
1:00 SECTIONAL MEETINGS
3:30 STANDING COMMITTEE MEET-
INGS
Membership: Room 402 Grant Hall
Legislation: Foyer of Regional Arts
Center
Distribution of AAAS Funds:
101 Grant Hall
Publications: Room 156 Young Hall
Resolutions: Room 154 Young Hall
Nominations: Room 152 Young Hall
Board of Directors: Room 101 Young
Hall
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE & SEC-
TIONAL CHAIRPERSONS: Isaac
Shelby Room Regional Arts Center
BANQUET: Cowan Dining Commons
Presiding: Dr. Donald Batch, Pres-
ident, Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence
Speaker: Dr. George Sands, Langley
Research Center, National Aero-
nautic and Space Administration
Regional
Room
4:30
7:30
Saturday, 2 November
8:00- REGISTRATION: Lobby, Young Hall
9:00 AM
8:00- CAFETERIA CONTINENTAL
9:00 BREAKFAST: Venetian Room,
Cowan Dining Commons
8:00- 60th ANNUAL BUSINESS MEET-
9:30 ING: Auditorium, Room 101 Young
Hall
9:30— GENERAL SESSION: “Research in
10:30 Kentucky” Auditorium, Room 101
Young Hall
10:30- SECTIONAL MEETINGS
12:30
11:30- CAFETERIA LUNCH: Venetian
1:30 Room, Cowan Dining Commons
ANTHROPOLOGY
Room 252 Young Hall
D. Van Gerven, Chairman, Presiding
Michael B. Collins, Secretary
Saturday, 2 November 1974
10:30 Reciprocity and the concept of being be-
holden. C. Richards, Department of Soci-
ology and Anthropology, Transylvania Uni-
versity
10:50 Quantitative cross-cultural comparison of
narrative content. R. Levy, Department of
Anthropology, University of Kentucky
11:10 Wild plant utilization, identification and
classification among selected low-income
central Kentucky families. J. D. Wyss, De-
partment of Anthropology, University of
Kentucky
11:30 Takelma generative verb morphology. M.
Britton, Western Kentucky State University
BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY
Room 101 Doherty Hall
Harold E. Eversmeyer, Chairman, Presiding
Joe E. Winstead, Secretary
Saturday, 2 November
10:30 The comparison of two methods for nitrate
determinations in Barren River and _ its
tributaries. P. Elliott and F. R. Toman,
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky
State University
A dry season (summer) count of total and
fecal coliform bacteria in Wilmore Branch
of Jessamine Creek above and below the
site for the sewage disposal plant of Wil-
more, Kentucky. E. Walker (sponsored by
H. H. Howell), Department of Biology,
Asbury College
Sterol metabolism in the fungi Pythium and
Phytophthora. J. W. Hendrix, Department
of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky
Autecology of local populations of Liquid-
ambar styraciflua L. W. R. Randel and
J. E. Winstead, Department of Biology,
Western Kentucky State University
Diameter distribution of dominant tree taxa
in a mature eastern Kentucky forest. W.
H. Martin, General Studies Science Pro-
gram, Eastern Kentucky State University
The flora of Jessamine Gorge. J. Mac-
Gregor and W. Meijer, Department of
Botany, University of Kentucky
Seasonal variations in the flora of Raven
Run, Fayette County, Kentucky. C. Andre
and W. Meijer, Department of Botany, Uni-
versity of Kentucky
Flora and vegetation of the Lexington—
Metro Area in relation to urban develop-
ment. W. Meijer, Department of Botany,
University of Kentucky
Analysis of a climax forest system and tor-
10:45
11:00
11:15
11:30
11:45
12:00
12:15
12:30
88
Friday,
1:20
1:40
2:20
3:00
3:20
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF
nado damage in northern Kentucky. M. E.
Held and J. E. Winstead, Department of
Biology, Western Kentucky State Univer-
sity
Carnes Mill, a southern Indiana outlier of
the mixed mesophytic forest. R. R. Van
Stockum, Jr. (sponsored by A. T. Hotch-
kiss ), Department of Biology, University of
Louisville
CHEMISTRY
Room 203 Grant Hall
Joseph Hendon, Chairman, Presiding
James C. Letton, Secretary
1 November
The general harmonic force field of fluoro-
form. M. Wilt, Department of Chemistry,
Centre College
Oxygen determination in Kentucky #9 coal.
L. L. Chyi, C. Hamrin, Jr., P. S. Maa, and
W. D. Ehmann, Department of Chemistry,
University of Kentucky
Transition of metal complexes of diethyl-
amino acetonitrile. F. Wells and H. M.
Smiley, Department of Chemistry, Eastern
Kentucky State University
Partial kinetic resolution of a-phenylbu-
tyric acid using chiral primary amines and
their salts. A. W. Gordon and A. F. Bridges,
Department of Chemistry, Murray State
University
Cyclic neutron activation analysis tech-
niques as applied to the elemental analysis
of lunar samples. M. S. Maa and W. D.
Ehmann, Department of Chemistry, Uni-
versity of Kentucky
Electron inpact mass spectra of bromo-
quinolines and isoquinolines, methylquino-
lines, and haloalkylquinolines. M. Gordon,
J. Butler, and P. C. Goodley. Department
of Chemistry, Murray State University
Radiation chemistry of peroxydiphosphate
anions. G. Levy, Department of Chemistry,
Berea College
Saturday, 2 November
10:40
11:00
11:20
Excess volumes of n-hexadecane and the
isomers of hexane. J. Reeder, Department
of Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky State Uni-
versity
Activity coefficients in the absorbed phase:
carbon disulfide-acetone on two carbons.
Preliminary results. M. T. Coltharp and S.
Furnish, Department of Chemistry, Ken-
tucky State University
Enhancement of atomic absorption sensi-
tivity for copper, cadmium, antimony, ar-
senic, and selenium by means of solvent
extraction. B. E. McClellan and J. C.
Chambers, Department of Chemistry, Mur-
ray State University
1:40
2:40
3:00
3:20
SCIENCE 35( 3-4)
Oxidation of tin(II) by hydrogen peroxide.
J. Niewahner, Department of Chemistry,
Northern Kentucky State College
Cobalt(I) complexes with aromatic iso-
cyanides and trialkylphosphites. C. Becker
(sponsored by J. C. Letton), Department
of Chemistry, Kentucky State University
Studies on the mechanism of the reaction
of osmium tetroxide with alkenes. R. L.
Clark, Department of Chemistry, Somerset
Community College
The phenyl proton chemical shift of para-
substituted benzenediazonium compounds
complexed with inorganic salts. C. Girard,
Department of Chemistry, Centre College
Catalytic hydrogenation in a_ series of |
3-substituted quinolines. E. V. Brown, L.
Hough, D. W. Schluter, and H. H. Bauer,
Department of Chemistry, University of
Kentucky
The long-range effects and interrelation-
ships of specific fatty acids and vitamin E
on the absorption of water. I. Ahmad, J.
C. Letton, and D. Comelius, Department
of Chemistry, Kentucky State University
GEOGRAPHY
Room 405 Grant Hall
Charles M. Dupier, Jr., Chairman, Presiding
Dennis L. Spetz, Secretary
Friday, 1 November
1:30
1:50
2:30
3220
3:40
4:00
4:20
Louisville’s black community: a preliminary
spatial investigation. J. L. Anderson, Geog-
raphy Department, University of Louisville
A socioeconomic appraisal of the substate
administrative system in Kentucky. J. V.
Panayotoff, Geography Department, East-
erm Kentucky State University
People and politics: the distribution of pop-
ulation in Kentucky and its effects on Ken-
tucky politics. J. A. Singleton, Eastern
Kentucky State University
Effective employment as a relative mea-
sure of economic development. C. M.
Dupier, Jr., Geography Department, Cum-
berland College
Means of evaluating impact of the Ohio
River on economic development within the
Louisville SMSA. D. E. Bierman, Geogra-
phy Department, University of Louisville
Kentucky’s major highway routes and corri-
dors, 1955-1974. W. A. Withington, Geog-
raphy Department, University of Kentucky
Exurban commuting and energy consump-
tion in Kentucky. P. D. Phillips, Geography
Department, University of Kentucky
Secular changes in local mean tempera-
tures: the case of Kentucky. C. M. Dupier,
Jr., Geography Department, Cumberland
College
ACADEMY AFFAIRS
Saturday, 2 November
10:30
11:00
Friday,
1:00
1:30
1:45
2:05
2:25
2:45
3:05
3225
3:45
Geography Section Business Meeting and
Election of Officers
Discussion of Special Projects in Geography
GEOLOGY
Room 409 Grant Hall
Harry P. Hoge, Chairman, Presiding
Armin L. Clark, Secretary
1 November
An earthquake history of Kentucky. G. R.
Keller, Department of Geology, University
of Kentucky, and B. R. Fish, Department
for Natural Resources and Environmental
Protection, Frankfort, Kentucky
Geologic aspects of coal mine roof control.
D. K. Hylbert (sponsored by J. C. Philley),
Department of Geology, Morehead State
University
A gravity and magnetic study of the south-
ern bluegrass region, Kentucky. J. K. Green-
berg, A. E. Bland, G. R. Keller, H. E.
Adams, and L. L. Covert (all sponsored by
G. R. Keller), Department of Geology, Uni-
versity of Kentucky
Volcano—Tectonic evolution of the north-
eastern part of the Mogollon—Datil volcanic
field, New Mexico. E. Deal (sponsored by
H. P. Hoge), Department of Geology, East-
ern Kentucky State University
Petrographic analysis of the Boyle dolomite
(Devonian) of eastern Kentucky. H. P.
Hoge, Department of Geology, Eastern
Kentucky State University, and S. W. Berk-
heiser, Atlantic Richfield, Denver, Colo-
rado
Preliminary conodont biostratigraphy of the
Boyle dolomite (Devonian) of eastern Ken-
tucky. C. T. Helfrich, Department of Ge-
ology, Eastern Kentucky State University
Holocene history of Cape Canaveral, Flor-
ida. N. C. Hester, Department of Geology,
Eastern Kentucky State University
Bedding plane conodont assemblages from
the New Albany Shale of east-central Ken-
tucky. P. B. Wigley, Department of Geol-
ogy, Eastern Kentucky State University
Conodonts from the St. Louis member of
the Newman formation of east-central Ken-
tucky. P. B. Wigley, Department of Geol-
ogy, Eastern Kentucky State University,
and R. A. MacGill, Florida Geological Sur-
vey, Tallahassee, Florida
Correlation of Kentucky coal seams. L.
Chiyi (sponsored by A. L. Clark) and G. E.
Smith, Institute for Mining and Minerals
Research, University of Kentucky
89
PHYSICS
Room 201 Doherty Hall
Frank Butler, Chairman, Presiding
William E. Maddox, Secretary
Friday, 1 November
2:50
3:00
3:10
3:20
3:30
3:40
Rapid variations in the optical brightness of
compact extragalactic radio sources of the
lacterid class. K. R. Hackney and R. L.
Hackney, Department of Physics, Western
Kentucky State University, A. G. Smith,
R. L. Scott, R. J. Leacock, B. Q. McGim-
sey, and P. L. Edwards, Rosemary Hill
Observatory, University of Florida
Anti-procrastination incentives in PSI. M.
S. Longmire, K. R. Hackney, and N. F. Six,
Department of Physics, Western Kentucky
State University
An analysis of energy consumption at
Thomas More College. L. S. Schuster and
G. K. Miner, Department of Physics,
Thomas More College
Computer simulation of expressway traffic.
D. W. Schuetz and J. E. Lang, Department
of Physics, Thomas More College
A secondary standard neutron detector. K.
K. Sekharan, H. Laumer, and F. Gabbard,
Department of Physics, University of Ken-
tucky
Millimeter wavelength galactic astronomy
at the University of Kentucky. R. A. Stokes,
Department of Physics, University of Ken-
tucky
Saturday, 2 November
11:00
E10
11:20
11:30
11:40
11:50
12:00
Antiknock additives: Cyclopentadienyl com-
pounds. M. A. Theissen and D. J. Boyle,
Department of Physics, Thomas More Col-
lege
Instrumentation for characterization of
highway traffic noise. G. E. Paptzum, T.
W. Backers, P. S. Nienaber, and D. J.
Boyle, Department of Physics, Thomas
More College
An AC apparatus for measurement of
superfluid critical velocities. B. B. Sabo,
Department of Physics, Thomas More Col-
lege
Fraunhofer’s optical glassworks. J. A.
Gwinn, Department of Physics, University
of Louisville
Experiences with purchasing a scanning
electron microscope. F. Butler and M.
McPherson, Department of Physics, North-
ern Kentucky State College
It’s all done with mirrors. O. Wilson and
S. Powell, Department of Physics, Berea
College
Building a low cost planetarium. O. Wil-
son, Department of Physics, Berea College
90 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4)
PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS, AND
PHARMACOLOGY SECTION
Room 401 Grant Hall
Sanford Jones, Chairman, Presiding
James L. Voogt, Secretary
Friday, 1 November
2:00 Interpretation of abnormal activities of
alkaline phosphatase in sera of elderly pa-
tients. M. S. Jones, Cynthiana Hospital,
Cynthiana, Kentucky
Calcitonin in the adrenalectomized rat. M.
Lineberry and L. Wiate, Department of
Pharmacology, University of Louisville
Plasma prolactin levels in ovariectomized
rats following subcutaneous and _intraca-
rotid injection of estradiol. D. Wood and
J. Vogt, Department of Physiology, Uni-
versity of Louisville
:45 Quantitating brain microtubules by elec-
tron microscopy—a progress report. F. R.
Toman, Western Kentucky State University,
and P. Filner, Michigan State University
:00 Analog estimation of whole nerve bundle
activity. J. R. Riehm and J. R. Meyer,
Department of Physiology, University of
Louisville
bo
—
Ut
bo
(oy)
S
bo
Go
Saturday, 2 November
11:00 Hormone receptors in breast carcinoma.
R. Hahnel, King Edward Memorial Hos-
pital for Women, Perth, Western Australia.
A special 60-minute “state of the art” talk
by this visiting professor at the University
of Louisville
PSYCHOLOGY
Room 106 Young Hall
Richard D. Kahoe, Chairman, Presiding
Francis H. Osborne, Secretary
Saturday, 2 November
10:30 The effects of hippocampal lesions on the
acquisition of a learned taste aversion with
CS preexposure. D. J. McFarland, K. M.
Hines, J. Kostas, and W. G. Drew, Depart-
ment of Psychiatry, University of Kentucky
Medical School
The effects of THC on the acquisition of a
learned taste aversion with CS preexposure.
D. J. McFarland, J. Kostas, K. M. Hines,
and W. G. Drew, Department of Psychiatry,
University of Kentucky Medical School
A preliminary evaluation of a contingency
contractin approach to the introductory
statistics course. F. H. Osborne, W. K.
Redmon, and J. W. Moore, Department of
Psychology, Morehead State University
Training college students as nonprofes-
sional helpers. R. W. Genthner and H.
Page (sponsored by W. Watkins), Depart-
10:45
11:00
11:15
ment of Psychology, Eastern Kentucky
State University
The psychological effects of expressway
noise pollution on learning. M. J. Schmidt,
R. J. Linz, C. L. Gabel, J. M. Cahill, and
C. E. Rolfsen (sponsored by G. W. Men-
11:30
zer), Department of Psychology, Thomas —
More College
Psychological bases of the two-child norm.
R. D. Kahoe, Department of Psychology,
Georgetown College
Business Meeting and Election of Officers
11:45
12:00
SCIENCE EDUCATION
Room 205 Doherty Hall
Betty J. Stoess, Chairwoman, Presiding
Robert J. Miller, Secretary
Saturday, 2 November
10:45 Survey of Kentucky Teachers of Science-
Analysis. G. K. Miner, Thomas More Col-
lege
11:00 Preliminary findings survey of instructional
materials utilized in Kentucky county ele-
mentary schools. B. J. Stoess, Eastern Ken-
tucky State University
Preliminary findings: Survey of inservice
science education in Kentucky county ele-
mentary schools. R. J. Miller, Eastern Ken-
tucky State University
11:30
SOCIOLOGY
Room 206 Young Hall
Alban Wheeler, Chairman, Presiding
Henry Chang, Secretary
Friday, 1 November
1:00 What is a family. J. S. Wittman, Jr., West-
ern Kentucky State University
1:25 Overcoming survey syndrome in eastern
Kentucky. V. Arnett, University of Ken-
tucky
1:50 The children of southern Appalachia. H.
Chang, Morehead State University
3:00 Panel Discussion: Developmental change in
Kentucky: The 1940’s and 1970’s com-
pared. Organizer: H. W. Beers, University
of Kentucky
Saturday, 2 November
10:30 Student evaluation of faculty: The other
side—corruption of faculty and social work
responsibility. C. P. Wilson and D. A.
Miller, University of Kentucky
Post-hospital experiences of former mental
patients and stigma in the occupational
setting. J. G. Odom, University of Ken-
tucky
Group definition through use of the obser-
vational unit act. T. T. McKinney, Eastern
Kentucky State University
10:55
11:20
ACADEMY AFFAIRS 91
ZOOLOGY
Room 102 Young Hall
Ben T. Feese, Chairman, Presiding
Robert A. Kuehne, Secretary
Friday, 1 November
1:15
1:30
1:45
2:00
2:30
2:45
3:00
Kentucky leafhoppers. P. H. Freytag, De-
partment of Entomology, University of Ken-
tucky
Leafhoppers and their allies as nematode
hosts. C. A. Sperka, Department of Ento-
mology, University of Kentucky
Studies on the immune state produced in
mice by the dwarf tapeworm, Hymenolepis
nana. S. Patton, Department of Biological
Sciences, University of Kentucky
A study of some of the ecological factors
affecting the occurrence of water willow
(Justicia americana) in Jessamine Creek.
H. H. Howell, L. Martin, and B. Christen-
sen, Department of Biology, Asbury College
Insect survey in Kentucky. D. Barnett, De-
partment of Entomology, University of
Kentucky
Response of arctic amphipods to environ-
mental stress. M. Busdosh and R. M. Atlas,
Department of Biology, University of Louis-
ville
Preliminary studies on nestling barn swal-
low energetics. B. A. Lensing, Department
of Biology, University of Louisville
Speed of recovery in a small creek after
sewage pollution abatement. R. Kuehne,
Department of Biological Sciences, Univer-
sity of Kentucky
Saturday, 2 November
10:30
10:45
11:00
SS
11:30
11:45
12:00
Surface morphology of elasmobranch ces-
todes by scanning electron microscopy. F.
H. Whittaker, Department of Biology, Uni-
versity of Louisville
Cucurbit resistance to the two-spotted
spider mite. P. A. Knipping, C. G. Patter-
son, J. G. Rodriguez, and D. E. Knavel,
Department of Entomology, University of
Kentucky
Real and potential problems from the pres-
ence of Corbicula manilensis in Kentucky.
E. Hartowicz, Department of Biology,
Western Kentucky State University
Chemical factors in tomato resistance to the
two-spotted spider mite. C. G. Patterson,
R. R. Kemp, J. G. Rodriguez, and D. E.
Knavel, Department of Entomology, Uni-
versity of Kentucky
Butterfly captures by Malaise traps in Ken-
tucky. C. V. Covell, Jr., Department of
Biology, University of Louisville
Preliminary observations on Kentucky Pso-
coptera (Insecta). L. K. Haag, Depart-
ment of Biology, University of Louisville
Ichthyophthirius multifilis Fouquet 1876
(Ciliatea, Hymenostomatida): Natural and
artificial infections. T. R. Kozel, Depart-
ment of Biology, University of Louisville
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Sectional Officers 1974—1975
Anthropology
Richard Levy (Chm)
Department of Anthropology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506
M. B. Collins (Sec)
Department of Anthropology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506
Botany and Microbiology
Harold E. Eversmeyer (Chm )
Department of Biology
Murray State University
Murray, KY 42072
Joe E. Winstead (Sec)
Department of Biology
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
Chemistry
Dr. James Letton (Chm)
Department of Chemistry
Kentucky State University
Frankfort, KY 40601
Dr. Joseph Hendon (Sec)
Department of Chemistry
Murray State University
Murray, KY 42072
Geography
Dennis L. Spetz (Chm)
Department of Geography
University of Louisville
Louisville, KY 40208
Wilford A. Bladen
Department of Geography
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506
Geology
Randy Keller (Chm)
Department of Geology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40503
Charles T. Helfrich (Sec )
Department of Geology
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475
92 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4)
Physiology, Biophysics, Pharmacology
James L. Voogt (Chm )
Department of Physiology & Biophysics
University of Louisville Medical School
Louisville, KY 40201
Sanford L. Jones (Sec)
Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475
Science Education
J. Truman Stevens (Chm)
Department of Curriculum and Instruction
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506
Ronald Atwood (Sec)
Department of Education
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506
Sociology
James S. Whittman (Chm)
Department of Sociology & Anthropology
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
Craig Taylor (Sec)
Department of Sociology & Anthropology
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
Psychology
Francis H. Osborne (Chm)
Department of Psychology
Morehead State University
Morehead, KY 40351
Brent C. White (Sec)
Department of Psychology
Centre College
Danville, KY 40422
Zoology
J. G. Rodriguez (Chm )
Department of Entomology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506
Henry H. Howell (Sec)
Biology Department
Asbury College
Wilmore, KY 40390
Acanthocephala, 24
Acanthocephalus jacksoni, 24
Acer rubrum, 37, 47
A. saccharum, 47
Acroneuria, 63
A. arida, 19
Actinonaias carinata, 56
A. ligamentina, 56
Aesculus octandra, 37
Alasmidonta calceolus, 56
A. marginata, 56
Allocapnia forbesi, 19
A. vivipara, 19
Amblema costata, 56
A. c. peruviana, 56
Amelanchier arborea, 47
Androlaelaps fahrenholzi, 70
Anodonta grandis, 56
A. imbecilis, 56
A. suborbiculata, 56
Anodontoides ferrussacianus, 56
Aralia racemosa, 48
A. spinosa, 48
Arcidens confragosus, 56
Argia, 63
Ariseama triphyllum, 48
Arthropod ectoparasites, 70
Athyrium thelyteroides, 48
Baetis, 62
BARBOUR, ROGER W., 27
Bat, big brown, 39
evening, 38
gray, 43
hoary, 38
Indiana, 40
Keen’s, 40
least brown, 40
little brown, 40
Rafinesque’s big-eared, 38
red, 38
silver-haired, 38
BATCH, DONALD L., 81
Bear, black, 43
Beaver, 41
Blarina brevicauda, 38
Boehmeria cylindrica, 48
BOUGHER, CHRISTINE K.,
44
Brachyptera fasciata, 19
BRANSON, BRANLEY A., 81
BUCKNER, RICHARD L., 70
Caenis, 62
Campostoma anomalum, 82
Capniidae, 20
Carbon 14 uptake, 9
Carpinus carolina, 47
Carunculina glans, 56
C. parva, 56
INDEX TO VOLUME 35
Carya, 37, 48
C. glabra, 47
C. ovata, 44
C. tomentosa, 47
Castanea dentata, 48
Castor canadensis, 41
Catostomidae, 24
Catostomus commersoni, 24
Celtis occidentalis, 37
Cercis canadensis, 48
Cestoidea, 39
Chaetura pelagica, 39
Chagas’ disease, 76
Chelydra serpentina, 27
Cheumatopsyche, 61
Chiggers, 71
Chimaphila maculata, 48
Chimarra, 62
Chipmunk, eastern, 41
Chlamydomonas, 10
Chlorella, 10
Chlorophyll a, 10
Cladophora, 10
Clinostomum marginatum, 24
Coleoptera, 61
COLLINS, JOSEPH T., 79
Commelina communis, 48
Containers, glass, 9
Contracaecum, 24
Cornus florida, 44
Corydalus, 62
Corylus americana, 48
Cottontail, eastern, 41
Corbicula manilensis, 56
CRISP, CATHERINE B., 61
CRISP, NORMAN H., 61
Cryptotis parva, 38
Ctenophthalmus pseudogyrtes,
70
Cumberlandia monodonta, 56
Cyclonaias tuberculata, 56
C. t. granifera, 56
Cymbella, 10
Cyprogenia irrorata, 56
Decapoda, 62
Decay in stone, 29
Deer, white-tailed, 43
Dermacentor hypudaei, 70
D. variabilis, 70
Desmodium, 48
Didelphis marsupialis, 38
Dinobryon, 14
Diplectrona, 62
Diptera, 62
Dugesia, 63
Dysnomia flexuosa, 56
D. sulcata, 56
D. torulosa, 56
D. t. gubernaculum, 56
93
D. triqueta, 56
Editor’s Note, 59
Ephemeroptera, 62
Elliptio crassidens, 56
E. dilatatus, 56
Epitedia wenmanni, 70
Eptesicus fuscus, 39
Ericymba buccata, 82
ERNST, CARL H., 27
Etheostoma blennioides, 82
E. caeruleum, 82
E. flabellare, 82
E. nigrum, 82
E. sagitta, 82
E. variatum, 82
Euglena, 10
Eumeces fasciatus, 79
E. inexpectatus, 79
Euonymus americanus, 48
Euschoengastia peromysci, 70
Fagus grandifolia, 37, 47
FASSLER, DAVID J., 37
Festuca, 37
Forest, Bonayer, 44
relict hardwood, 44
Fox, gray, 42
red, 42
Fraxinus americana, 47
F, nigra, 47
F.. pennsylvanica, 47
Fusconaia ebenus, 56
F. flava, 56
F, f. trigona, 56
F. subrotunda, 56
F. s. kirtlandiana, 56
F. undata, 56
Gastropoda, 62
GAURI, K. LAL, 29
Glaridacris catostomi, 24
Glaucomys volans, 41
GLEASON, LARRY N., 70
HARLEY, JOHN P., 25
Hemiptera, 62
Heptagenia, 62
HERSHEY, MARY FAITH, 27
Hoplopleura acanthopus, 70
H. hesperomydis, 70
Houstonia, 48
Hunterella nodulosa, 24
Hydropsyche, 61
Impatiens biflora, 48
Insecta, 17
ISOM, BILLY G., 55
Isonychia, 61
Isoperla burksi, 17
I. clio, 19
I. nana, 19
94 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4)
Isopoda, 62
JARECKA, LENA, 76
Juglans cinerea, 49
Juniperus virginiana, 48
Justicia americana, 19
Kalmia, 37
KUHLENSCHMIDT, JAMES
A., 67
Laelops microti, 70
Lampsilis anodontoides, 56
L. a. fallaciosa, 56
L. fasciola, 56
L. luteola, 56
L. ovata ovata, 56
L. o. ventricosa, 56
L. radiata siliquoidea, 56
Lasionycteris noctivagans, 38
Lasiurus borealis, 38
L. cinerea, 38
Lasmigona complanata, 56
L. costata, 56
Lastena lata, 56
Lemming, southern bog, 42
Leptodea fragilis, 56
L. laevissima, 56
L. leptodon, 56
Ligumia recta, 56
L. subrostrata, 56
Lindera benzoin, 48
Liquidambar, 51
L. styraciflua, 44, 50
Lirceus, 64
Liriodendron, 51
L. tulipifera, 37, 44, 50
Lissorchis attenuatum, 24
Listrophorus leukorti, 70
Lonicera japonica, 48
Macroclemys temminckii, 27
Magnolia grandiflora, 37
Mammals, 37
Marmota monax, 41
Megalonaias gigantea, 56
Melosira, 10
Mephitis mephitis, 43
Microtus ochrogaster, 42, 70
M. pennsylvanicus, 74
M. ( Pitymys) pinetorum, 42
Mink, 43
Mitchella repens, 48
Mole, eastern, 38
hairy-tailed, 38
Monobothrium hunteri, 24
MORGAN, THOMAS HUNT, 1
Morus rubra, 48
Mouse, deer, 43
eastern harvest, 43
meadow jumping, 42
white-footed, 41
Muskrat, 42
Mussels, 55
Mustela frenata, 43
M. vison, 43
Mycoptes, 70
Myotis griseus, 43
M. keeni, 40
M. leibi, 40
M. lucifugus, 40
M. sodalis, 40
N,N-bis(2-chloroethy] )analine,
68
N’,N’-bis( 2-chloroethy] )-N-
sulfinylhydrazine( Ib), 68
N,N-bis( 2-chloroethy] ) -p-nitro-
aniline, 68
N,N-bis( 2-chloroethy] )-p-nitro-
soaniline, 68
N,N-bis(2 chloroethy] )-p-
phenylenediamine hydro-
chloride, 68
N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethy] ) ani-
line, 67
Nawvicula, 10
Neascus, 24
Nematoda, 24
Nemoura nigritta, 20
Nemouridae, 20
Neoperla clymene, 19
Neotoma floridana, 42
Neotrombicula caviola, 70
Neuroptera, 62
News and Comment, 58, 84
Nitrogen mustard, 67
Nycticeius humeralis, 38
Nyssa, 51
N. sylvatica, 44, 50
Obliquaria reflexa, 56
Obovaria olivaria, 56
O. retusa, 56
O. subrotunda, 56
O. s. lens, 56
Ochrotomys, 43
Octospinifer macilentus, 24
Odocoileus virginiana, 43
Odonata, 62
Oedogonium, 10
Ondatra zibethicus, 42
Onoclea sensibilus, 48
Opossum, 38, 76
Orchopeas leucopus, 70
Orconectes, 63
Ornithonyssus bacoti, 70
Oryzomys palustris, 43
Osmunda regalis, 48
Ostrya virginiana, 48
Oxydendrum arboreum, 47
p-[N’,N’-bis(chloroethyl)amino]-
N-sulfinylanaline, 67
Pandorina, 10
Panicum, 48
Paraleptophlebia, 62
Parascalops breweri, 38
Parasites, arthropod, 70
helminth, 24
PARKER, BRUCE C., 9
Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 48
Pelecypoda, 62
Pentaneura, 61
Perlesta placida, 19
Perlidae, 21
Perlodidae, 21
Peromyscopsylla scotti, 70
Peromyscus leucopus, 41, 70
P. maniculatus, 43, 74
P. (Ochrotomys) nuttalli, 43
Philomena cylindracea, 24
Phosphorous oxychloride, 67
Phyllodistomum lysteri, 24
Physa, 63
Pinus, 37
Pipistrellus subflavus, 40
Pitymys, 42
Plagiola lineolata, 56
Plagiopus serotinus, 24
Platanus occidentalis, 37
Platygerris, 63
Plecoptera, 62
Plecotus rafinesquii, 38
Plethobasus cooperianus, 56
P. cyphus, 56
Pleurobema clava, 56
P. cordatum catillus, 56
P. c. coccineum, 56
P. c. cordatum, 56
P. c. plenum, 56
P. c. pyramidatum, 56
Pleurocera, 63
Podophyllum peltatum, 49
Polycentropus, 62
Polystichum acrostichoides, 49
Preservation of stone, 29
Primary production, 9
Procyon lotor, 42
Proptera alata, 56
P. capax, 56
Prunus serotina, 47
Psephenus, 63
Ptychobranchus fasciolaris, 56
Pulaski County, mammals of,
Sil
Quadrula cylindrica, 56
QO. metanevra, 56
QO. m. wardi, 56
Q. nodulata, 56
QO. quadrula, 56
Quercus, 37, 47
Q. alba, 44
QO. borealis, 47
QO. coccinea, 47
QO. velutina, 47
Rabbit, swamp, 43
Raccoon, 42, 76
Radfordia lemnina, 70
R. subuliger, 70
Rat, eastern wood, 42
hispid cotton, 43
marsh rice, 43
Reithrodontomys humilis, 43
Relict hardwood forest, 44
Rhamus carolinensis, 48
Rhus radicans, 48
RILEY, HERBERT PARKES, 1
Robinia pseudo-acacia, 37
RUNDQUIST, ERIC M., 79
Salt River, stoneflies of, 17
SAMSEL, GENE L., 9
Sanicula canadensis, 49
Sassafras albidum, 47
Scalopus aquaticus, 38
Sciurus carolinensis, 41
S. niger, 41
Semotilus atromaculatus, 81
Shrew, least, 38
short-tailed, 38
smoky, 38
southeastern, 43
Sigmodon hispidus, 43
Silver Creek, macroinvertebrates
of, 61
chemical parameters of, 62
Simpsoniconcha ambigua, 56
Simulium, 63
Skink, five-lined, 79
INDEX TO VOLUME 35
Skunk, spotted, 43
striped, 43
Smilax, 48
Smilacina racemosa, 49
SMITH, WALTER T., JR., 67
Sorex fumeus, 38
S. longirostris, 43
Sphaerium, 63
Spilogale putorius, 43
Spirogyra, 10
Squirrel, fox, 41
gray, 41
southern flying, 41
Standing crop, invertebrates, 61
Stenelmis, 61
Stenonema, 61
Stenoponia americana, 70
Stoneflies, 17
Strip mining, effects on fishes,
81
Strophitus undulatus, 56
Substrate, preference by macro-
invertebrates, 61
Sucker, white, 24
Sylvilagus aquaticus, 43
S. floridanus, 41
Synaptomys cooperi, 42
Taeniopterygidae, 20
Taeniopteryx burksi, 19
T. parvula, 19
Tamas striatus, 41
Thelepteris hexagonoptera, 49
Trematoda, 24
95
Trichoptera, 62
Triganodistomum attenuatum,
24
Truncilla donaciformis, 56
T. truncata, 56
Trypanosoma cruzi, 76
Tsuga canadensis, 37
Turbellaria, 62
Turtles, hardshelled, 27
Ulmus alata, 47
U. rubra, 47
Urocyon cinereoargenteus, 42
Ursus ( Euarctos) americanus,
43
Uvularia perfoliata, 49
Vaccinium stramineum, 48
Villosa fabalis, 56
V. lienosa, 56
V. nebulosa, 56
V. ortmanni, 56
Vitis, 48
Vole, pine, 42
Vulpes fulva, 42
Weasel, long-tailed, 43
WHITE, DAVID S., 17
WHITE, GLENN, 25
WHITTAKER, FRED H., 76
WINSTEAD, JOE E., 44
Woodchuck, 41
Zapus hudsonicus, 42
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 35, NOS. 1-4, 1974
Thomas Hunt Morgan. Herbert Parkes Riley ...2.. st eee
A “container effect” on “C primary production measurements. Bruce C. Parker and Gene
T,. Sense ee ke I eee
The distribution of stoneflies (Insecta: Plecoptera) of the Salt River, Kentucky. David S.
Willie 2? ee YE PR ene elim Nie. beso 2
Helminth parasites of the white sucker (Pisces: Catostomidae) in the Kentucky River drain-
age. Glenn White and John P. Harley _..
A new coding system for hardshelled turtles. Carl H. Ernst, Mary Faith Hershey, and
Rover W. Barbour’ ee Se eee
Decay and its prevention in natural stone. K. Lal Gauri _.—...____..__ 2 ee
Mammals of Pulaski County, Kentucky. David J. Fassler _.._- __ »__ =~
A phytosociological study of a relict hardwood forest in Barren County, Kentucky. Chris-
tine K. Bougher and Joe E. Winstead ___.
Mussels of the Green River, Kentucky. Billy G. Isom 2.2. ss ss. 3 eee
News and Corament 2022.00 ie VOR ee a pts
Editor's Note Geet ee EE ee ee ee re
Substrate preference of benthic macroinvertebrates in Silver Creek, Madison County, Ken-
tucky. Catherine B: Crisp and Norman H. Crisp st
Synthesis of p-[N’,N’-bis(2-chloroethy] )amino]-N-sulfinylaniline. Walter T. Smith, Jr., and
James A. Kuhlenschmidt 2 | EE ee
Arthropod ectoparasites and their seasonal occurrences on Microtus ochrogaster and Pero-
myscus leucopus from Warren County, Kentucky. Richard L. Buckner and Larry N.
Gleason 22 | OE Ee be
An examination of opossums and raccoons in Kentucky for natural infections with Trypano-
soma cruzi. Frederick H. Whittaker and Lena Jarecka _____.__
Distribution and life history notes on the southeastern five-lined skink, Eumeces inexpec-
tatus Taylor, in Kentucky. Eric M. Rundquist and Joseph T. Collins
Additional observations on the effects of strip mining on small-stream fishes in east-central
Kentucky. Branley A. Branson and Donald L. Batch _.____ ors
News and Comment 22 ee 2 ee eee
Acabemy Affaire: (20) A eS
Sectional Officers 1974-1975
Index to Volume 35
96
INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS
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Jounson, A. E., AnD E. V. Harretyt. 1962. An analysis of factors governing density
patterns in desert plants. J. Bot. 44(3):419-432.
Book:
DARLINGTON, P. J., JR. 1965. Biogeography of the southern end of the world. Harvard
Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 236 pp.
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CONTENTS
Substrate Preference of Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Silver Creek, Madison ==
County, Kentucky. Catherine B. Crisp and Norman H. Crisp — 61 |
Synthesis of p-[N’,N’-Bis(2 chloroethyl )amino]-N-sulfinylanaline. Walter T.
Smith, Jr. and James A. Kuhlenschmidt ncn nanan *
Arthropod Ectoparasites and Their Seasonal Occurrences on Microtus ochro-
gaster and Peromyscus leucopus from Warren County, Kentucky. Rich- a
ard L. Buckner and Larry N. Gleason __._ 4... 2 1705
An Examination of Opossums and Raccoons in Kentucky for Natural Infec
tions with Trypanosoma cruzi. Fred H. Whittaker and Lena Jarecka ___. 16
Distribution and Life History Notes on the Southeastern Five-Lined Skink, — oe
Eumeces inexpactatus Taylor, in Kentucky, Eric M. Rundquist and
Joseph T. Gollins © Sa a Brey: EE
Additional Observations on the Effects of Strip Mining on Small-Stream fe me
Fishes in East-Central Kentucky. Branley A. Branson and Donald L.
Batch 22. ose ee EE ee SL.
News and Comment —.W.20... 84
Academy Affairs 2.2 2!) 3. 2 ee
Sectional Officers 1974-1979 _.. 0 eee
Index to Volume 35 oo eS Sa ee
“7
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
basis by the Kentucky Department of Eco-
nomic Security, therefore excluding extra-
regional employment sources.
This study will use 1970 data and will
concentrate on the Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky as a base region for planning. The
data will be presented on the county level
which will permit a usable scale for intra-
state regionalization.
METHOD OF ANALYSIS
Analysis will be accomplished by the use
of a linear regression model so that the co-
variance between total personal income and
total employment can be established and
EMPLOYMENT IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT—Dupier 3
the residuals from regression analyzed for
the purpose of establishing regions of em-
ployment effectiveness.
The regionalization of employment ef-
fectiveness should help to determine the
most and least effective structural diversity
of or total reliance upon certain employ-
ment sources. This determination can be of
significant value to Area Development Dis-
tricts and local citizen groups who are en-
gaged in the recruitment of employment
sources for their areas. This method of de-
termining employment effectiveness will
not identify the quantity of impact on a
particular employment source (such as an
industrial type) on the various sectors of
the economy, but it will identify broad em-
ployment sources as potentially having
either positive or negative impact on the
effective employment of a region.
ANALYZING THE DATA
Application of the Statistical Model
Total personal income data are available
from the Office of Business Economics,
U.S. Department of Commerce, Washing-
ton, D.C. (1970). Total employment data
are available from the Kentucky Depart-
ment of Economic Security, Frankfort, Ken-
tucky (Kentucky Directory of Manufactur-
ers 1969).
The principal problems encountered in
working with these data were the skewness
of the distributions. Both distributions were
finally brought into normality by reducing
each variable to the log (log [log(x)]).
The data for Jefferson County (Louisville),
in both cases, had to be dropped because
it could not be pulled into the normalized
distributions.
A Monroe 1766 W-1 programmable cal-
culator was used to process the data. The
results of the regression model were (Fig.
it):
r=.975
est = $25,000,000
Y = -.00011177 + .732484 (X)
Where X = total employment
Y = total personal
income
Analysis of the Results
Those counties which were identified as
being either 1 standard estimate of error
above or below the trend line were exam-
ined as to their manufacturing employment
source makeup. Those above 1 standard
estimate of error have a predicted total per-
sonal income greater than normal (very ef-
fective employment); those below 1 stan-
dard estimate of error had predicted total
personal income less than normal (very in-
effective employment).
The following counties had very effective
employment sources (Kentucky Directory
of Manufacturers 1969):
Boyd County,—70 percent of all industrial
employment is in SIC 33 (primary metals).
Campbell County,—43 percent of all in-
dustrial employment is in SIC 34-38
(fabricated metals, machinery, electrical
machinery, transportation equipment, and
instruments ).
Christian County,—49 percent of all indus-
trial employment is in SIC 33-38; 15 percent
of the total labor force is in Federal Civil
Service positions at Fort Campbell.
Hardin County,—60 percent of all industrial
employment is in SIC 28 (chemicals and
allied products ), and SIC 34-38; 21 per cent
of the total labor force is in Federal Civil
Service positions at Fort Knox.
Kenton County,—60 percent of the total in-
dustrial labor force is in SIC 28 and 33-38.
Meade County,—93 percent of the total in-
dustrial labor force is in SIC 28.
The following counties had very ineffec-
tive employment sources (9):
Franklin County,—62 percent of the total
industrial labor force is in SIC 20 (food and
kindred products ) and SIC 23 (apparel and
related products); 23 percent of the total
labor force are in State Civil Service posi-
tions and custodial services contracted to
state agencies.
Warren County,—42 percent of the indus-
trial labor force is in SIC 20 and SIC 24-25
4 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
KENTUCKY
.e)
Fic. 2. Employment effectiveness surface for Kentucky, 1970.
(lumber and wood products, and furniture
and fixtures) and SIC 23. Nearly 30 per-
cent of all industrial jobs are filled by fe-
males.
The Employment Effectiveness Surface
The above counties provide peaks or de-
pressions in the total employment effective-
ness surface of Kentucky. When all the
residuals from regression are plotted and
the complete surface illustrated (Fig. 2),
4 primary regions are evident.
The most effective employment in the
state is in the region along the Ohio River
corridor from Cincinnati-Covington—New-
port to Paducah, and encompasses all but 2
counties in western Kentucky. Two other
regions of very effective employment are
(1) from Portsmouth, Ohio, to Lawrence
County, south of the Huntington—Ashland
SMSA and (2) the 6 counties comprising
the heart of the Eastern Kentucky Coal
Fields. These regions contain 71 percent
of all industrial employment, 90 percent of
all employment in SIC 28-30, 92 percent of
all employment in SIC 3, and 74 percent of
all employment in SIC 34-38.
The region of least effective employment
includes the Pennyroyal area, the Central
Bluegrass, and most of the Eastern Moun-
tain and Coal Fields. The points of least
effectiveness in this region are Bowling
Green, Somerset, Frankfort, Lexington, and
Richmond. This region has only 29 percent
of all industrial employment in the state,
26 percent of all employment in the region
is in SIC 34-38, 8 percent of all employment
in the region is in SIC 33, and 10 percent of
all regional employment is in SIC 28-30.
It has 59 percent of all employment in the
state in SIC 22, 23, and 31 (apparel, textiles,
and leather products ).
CONCLUSIONS
The method of investigation which has
been described adequately specifies, ac-
cording to these preliminary investigations,
the regions where employment most and
least effectively generates personal income
in Kentucky. The methodology can easily
be replicated in other states.
Use of this methodology does not, of
course, give us a complete analysis of the
economic base or the intersectoral flows of
income; but it does adequately set forth an
index of planning priorities between and
within regions which can be readily accom-
plished and grasped by lay interests as well
as the more sophisticated personnel in-
volved in regional economic development.
According to the case in point, the region
of least effective employment—southern,
EMPLOYMENT IN Economic DEVELOPMENT—Dupier 5
central, and eastern Kentucky—has only
one-third of all industrial employment in
the state and 59 percent of all the least ef-
fective industrial employment sources in
the state, and should, therefore, become a
focal region in state planning for the selec-
tive recruiting of more effective employ-
ment sources.
The economic needs of less effective re-
gions cannot be cured overnight or even
within a decade, under normal circum-
stances; but information concerning selec-
tive industrial recruitment can be more
clearly disseminated to the ADD districts
and local citizen groups. This is one way
to effectively orient local and regional de-
velopment interests to an economic growth
plan which will ensure greater effectiveness
in employment growth.
The need is imminent because these
areas are currently opening up by way of
new transportation routes which will be es-
pecially inviting to the more mobile and
less effective employment sources which
usually descend upon new areas of advan-
tage with many promises of quick success
and few apologies for leaving in the middle
of the night.
LITERATURE CITED
CHARLESWORTH, H. K., AnD M. O. Curtey. 1971.
Kentucky personal income study. Office of
Development Services and Business Research,
College of Business and Economics, Univer-
sity of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. 4 pp.
HANSEN, W. L., AND C. M. TiEspoutT. 1963. An
intersectoral flows analysis of the California
economy. Rev. Econ. Stat. 45:409-418.
KENTuUCKy DrRECTORY OF MANUFACTURERS. 1969.
Department of Commerce, Frankfort, Ky. Pp.
139-244.
KENTUCKY PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT OFFICE. 1970.
A guide for multi-county planning and de-
velopment. Frankfort, Ky.
Mrernyk, W. 1965. The elements of input—out-
put analysis. Random House, Inc. New York,
N.Y.
NoursE, H. O. 1968. Regional economics. Mc-
Graw-Hill Book Co. New York, N.Y.
TiEBouT, C. M. 1962. The community economic
base study. Suppl. Pap. No. 16. (Committee
for Economic Development, Dec. 1962).
UnITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE.
1970. Personal income by major sources and
earnings by broad industrial sector. Regional
Economics Information System, Office of
Business Economics. Washington, D.C. Books
I through V.
A Distributional Study of the Caddisflies of Kentucky’
Vincent H. ResH?
Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
Distributional records and range of adult capture are presented for 175 species of caddis-
flies (Trichoptera), representing 15 families and 53 genera, collected in Kentucky. Most
species belong to the families Hydropsychidae, Hydroptilidae, and Leptoceridae. Based on
particle size preference in feeding, most species of Kentucky caddisflies should be classified
either as predators or collectors, rather than as typical shredders of the family Limnephilidae.
The paucity of nontemporary pool limnephilids, mainly in the subfamily Limnephilinae, may
be related to the quality of allochthonous material in Kentucky streams. Immature and adult
stages have been associated for 40 percent of the species of caddisflies from Kentucky. Life
history features of several leptocerid and hydroptilid caddisflies are frequently characterized
by multiple cohorts and a variety of behavioral mechanisms. The use of faunal collections in
environmental assessments is recommended.
INTRODUCTION
Caddisflies have long been of interest to
naturalists because of the unusual case
building activity of the larvae and the strik-
ing color pattern of certain species in the
adult stage. To the aquatic biologist, cad-
disflies are extremely important as indi-
cators of water quality, and also as a major
component in the diet of fishes. The dis-
tribution and morphology of several species
of Trichoptera has also been used by sys-
tematists in analyzing zoogeographical pat-
terns of dispersal and mechanisms of speci-
ation.
There have been few studies of caddis-
flies that included specimens or records
from Kentucky, and Ross (1944) listed only
46 species from the state. This was ob-
viously a small percentage of the total cad-
disfly fauna when compared to the number
of species then known from nearby mid-
western states. Since then, descriptions of
new species by Ross (1959), Ross and
Yamamoto (1965), and Resh (1974) have
included specimens from Kentucky in the
type series. Etnier (1973) reported range
extensions of three species into Kentucky,
1 Contribution No. 172, (New Series) from the
Department of Biology, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40208.
* Present Address: Department of Biology, Ball
State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306.
and ecological studies by Minckley (1963)
on Doe Run, Minshall (1968) on Morgans
Creek, and Resh and Haag (1973) on the
Salt River, have supplied additional distri-
butional information.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to several people for as-
sistance through this study. Dr. Herbert
H. Ross, University of Georgia, provided
numerous distributional records, specimens,
and encouragement in completing this
study. The original impetus for developing
a faunal list for Kentucky came from the
statewide collections made by Dr. Charles
Covell, Jr., University of Louisville. Drs.
Paul Freytag, University of Kentucky, and
David Etnier, University of Tennessee, also
provided specimens that increased the com-
prehensiveness of this work. Several tax-
onomists assisted in confirming the identi-
fication of difficult species. I thank Dr.
John Unzicker, Illinois Natural History Sur-
vey, for his general assistance, particularly
with females of Hydropsyche and Drs. John
Morse and Elizabeth Ann Gordon, Univer-
sity of Georgia, for their respective assis-
tance with Nyctiophylax and Cheumato-
psyche. Drs. Stuart Neff and David White,
University of Louisville, aided in the col-
lection and sorting of specimens. I thank
Dr. Freytag, Dr. Morse, and Dr. Louis A.
CADDISFLIES OF KENTUCKY—Resh 7
Krumholz, University of Louisville, for re-
viewing the manuscript. The work on which
this report is based was supported by the
U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of
Water Resources Research, as authorized
under the Water Resources Act of 1964,
Contract No. 14-31-0001-3286, Project No.
B-022-KY.
THE CApDpDISFLY FAUNA
In this study, records are provided for
175 species that represent 15 families and
53 genera collected in Kentucky. This al-
most quadruples the number of species pre-
viously reported from the state ( Ross 1944).
The localities of these collections are indi-
cated in Fig. 1.
The largest number of species (57) was
collected in Spencer County. Although it
is one of the smallest counties in the state,
two of its streams, Brashears Creek and the
Salt River, have been the subject of de-
tailed biological investigations since 1967
(Neff and Krumholz 1973). In descending
order, the following counties had the ma-
jority of caddisfly species: Breathitt Co., 41
species; Anderson Co., 32 species; Bell Co.,
30 species; Johnson Co., 29 species; Fay-
ette Co., 26 species; Rockcastle Co., 24 spe-
cies; Jefferson Co., 20 species; Oldham,
Trigg, and McCreary Cos., 19 species each.
All other counties from which collections
are known had fewer than 19 species.
The caddisfly fauna of Kentucky is ex-
tremely diverse. In areas where detailed
studies have been made, large numbers of
species have been collected. However, sev-
eral areas in Kentucky have been entirely
overlooked by collectors. From Fig. 1, it
can be seen that the Licking River and Ty-
garts Creek drainages in Northern Ken-
tucky, and the Green River drainage in
Western Kentucky are gaps that must be
filled before the distribution of Kentucky
caddisflies can be described accurately.
In numbers of species, the present fauna
of Kentucky is comparable to that reported
from adjacent midwestern states (Ross
1944, Leonard and Leonard 1949, Etnier
1965, Unzicker et al. 1970, Longridge and
Hilsenhoff 1973). With the exception of
the Sericostomatidae, all North American
caddisfly families are represented. How-
ever, the small number of caddisfly records
in the Limnephilidae is quite unusual. In
most faunal studies, this is the dominant
caddisfly family, contributing both the
maximum number of species and a higher
percentage of individuals than most of the
other families. For example, in light trap
collections from the Salt River basin in
central Kentucky that extended from early
spring through late fall, more than 87,000
adult specimens were collected, but only a
single specimen, a Limnephilus female, be-
longed to the Limnephilidae.
The limnephilids reported in this study
are typical of the species in this family that
utilize the temporary pool and stream habi-
tat, particularly the genera Ironoquia and
Neophylax (Clifford 1966, Wiggins 1973).
It should also be noted that the largest sub-
family, the Limnephilinae, is composed
largely of shredders, that is, detritivores that
decompose particles of vascular plant tissue
larger than 1 mm (Cummins 1973). Using
this same classification scheme, the majority
of Kentucky caddisflies should not be classi-
fied as shredders but rather as predators,
such as the Rhyacophilidae and Hydropsy-
chidae, or collectors, those species that fil-
ter or scrape algal cells and decomposing
organic matter less than 1 mm in particle
size. The Limnephilinae have undergone
great speciation in the Western United
States (Nimmo 1971, Schmid 1955). It is
very likely that the quality of the leaf fall
or allochthonous input, in the woodland
streams has also affected their success in
the western states and influenced the rela-
tively sparse fauna in the midwestern and
southern states.
Faunal lists are a valuable source of base-
line data that can be used in the preparation
of an environmental assessment of an area
and in monitoring temporal changes in en-
vironmental quality (Resh and Unzicker
1975). An example of the latter appli-
cation of these lists and collections can be
seen by examining the temporal change in
the distribution of Neophylax ayanus, origi-
nally described from collections from Bear-
Baye...)
grass Creek in 1937 (Ross 1938). This ur-
ban stream that traverses Louisville has
undergone many changes due to increases
in domestic sewage and industrial dis-
charges. The absence of N. ayanus from
collections taken at the same localities 35
years later (1972) indicates the low toler-
ance of this species to the environmental
changes that have occurred.
Immature Stages and Specific Level
Identification
A critical problem in studies of aquatic
insects is the lack of association of the im-
mature aquatic stages with the taxonomi-
cally known aerial adult stage (Wiggins
1966). Since keys for identifying larval or
pupal stages to species have yet to be devel-
oped for most genera, specific level identifi-
cations must be based on either specimens
that have been reared to adults, or on adult
collections. Preserved benthic samples are
of little use in providing distributional in-
formation because of our inability to iden-
tify these larval specimens to the species
level. This is especially true in Kentucky
where such common genera as Cheumato-
psyche and Hydropsyche are very poorly
known in the larval stages.
Adult caddisflies, however, are quite
easily collected, using a variety of ultra-
violet light traps. Since most adults are
evening fliers, daytime sweeping can be
Map of Kentucky indicating localities
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
of caddisfly collections used in this study.
done in typical resting places as on the un-
dersides of bridges, and on tree trunks.
While this type of collecting can be produc-
tive, a good deal of experience and exper-
tise is required if a representative collection |
of the caddisflies in the area is to be made.
However, certain daytime fliers will not
be attracted to light, and a program of day-
time sweeping is the only way of collecting
them.
During the course of the present study,
immature and adult stages were associated
for over 40 percent of the species reported
here. In addition, detailed life history in-
formation was gathered on species of Cera-
clea (= Athripsodes) and Cheumatopsyche,
the polycentropodid Nyctiophylax affinis,
and several hydroptilids. Caddisflies rarely
have the simple life histories that have been
generalized from the few North American
species that have been previously exam-
ined. Instead, populations are often charac-
terized by multiple cohorts, and in a single
caddisfly genus a variety of casemaking,
feeding, and behavioral mechanisms may
be present. Of particular interest among the
Kentucky caddisflies are the unusual fea-
tures of the life cycle of Ceraclea transversa
and C. resurgens, as both species feed di-
rectly on freshwater sponge (Porifera:
Spongillidae). In an equally bizarre fash-
ion, larvae and pupae of the hydroptilid
caddisfly, Dibusa angata, attach their leath-
CADDISFLIES OF KENTUCKY—Resh 9
ery cases directly to the thallus of the fresh-
water red alga, Lemanea. These and other
life histories of Kentucky caddisflies will
be reported in more detail elsewhere.
THE CADDISFLIES OF KENTUCKY
The records used in this distributional
study are from the collections of the Water
Resources Laboratory (WRL) and the Har-
vey B. Lovell Memorial Insect Collection
of the University of Louisville (UL), and
the Entomology collections of the Univer-
sity of Kentucky (UK), University of Ten-
nessee (UT), and the Illinois Natural His-
tory Survey (INHS). The WRL collections
were made during preimpoundment sur-
veys, particularly in central and eastern
Kentucky.
The following list is based on collections
from light traps and larval and pupal rear-
ings (Resh 1972). As with any attempted
faunal delineation, this list is by no means
complete and is intended to serve as a basis
for other studies. The dates refer to the
range of adult capture, while those anno-
tated with “imm” refer to collections of im-
mature specimens and those species reared
in the laboratory.
For several species, “nr” has been in-
serted prior to the specific name, indicating
that the specimens examined were near or
closest to that described species. This usu-
ally represented an identification based on
a small series of specimens that did not
agree totally with diagnostic or descriptive
characters of the closest related species.
These specimens may represent undescribed
species, or variations in previously de-
scribed species. These specimens have
been examined by Trichoptera specialists
and are presented in the hope that future
collecting and analysis of a larger series of
specimens from these localities, will help
determine their correct taxonomic status.
The nomenclatural changes in the Lepto-
ceridae follow those of Flint (1974) and
Morse (1975).
RHYACOPHILIDAE
Rhyacophila appalachia Morse and Ross
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK).
Rhyacophila carolina Banks
Anderson Co., Salt R., 7-14 May (WRL);
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest (Falling Rock
Cr.), 18 May—14 June (UK); Fayette Co.,
Lexington (Tates Cr.), 8 June (UK); Jessa-
mine Co., Indian Falls, 29 April (UK); Mc-
Creary Co., Cumberland Falls State Park
(Eagle Cr.), 16 March (UK); Menifee Co.,
Murder Cave, 23 October (INHS); Powell
Co., Natural Bridge State Park, 13 July (UL);
Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May
(WRL); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears
Cr., 11-14 May (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt
R., 11 May (WRL).
Rhyacophila carpenteri Milne
Hart Co., Mammoth Cave National Park
(Good Springs), 20 May (INHS); Madison
Co., Dog Foot Springs, 6 June (UK); Meade
Co., Otter Cr. Park (Morgans Cr.), imm
(INHS).
Rhyacophila fenestra Ross
Fayette Co., Steeles Run, 24 April (UK);
Shelby Co., Shelbyville (Brashears Cr.), 20
April (WRL).
Rhyacophila glaberrima Ulmer
Hart Co., Mammoth Cave National Park, 8
April-20 May (INHS); Johnson Co., Paints-
ville (Paint Cr.), 21 June (WRL).
Rhyacophila ledra Ross
Fayette Co., Evans Mill (Raven Run), 27
May (INHS); Wayne Co., Little Fork of
Cumberland R., 18 May (UT).
Rhyacophila lobifera Betten
Fayette Co., Raven Run, 6 May (INHS) and
Boone Cr., 10 May (UK); Jefferson Co., May
(UL); Jessamine Co., Indian Falls, imm
(UK); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears
Cr., 7 May (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 30
April (WRL).
Rhyacophila minor Banks
McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May
(INHS); Menifee Co., Red R., 17 April (UK).
Rhyacophila otica Etnier and Wray
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK).
Rhyacophila parantra Ross
Fayette Co., Lexington, 9 June (UK); Gar-
rard Co., Buena Vista (Ison Cave), 31 May
(INHS); Hart Co., Mammoth Cave (Spring
Run), 20 May (INHS); Madison Co., Dog
Foot Springs, 6 June (UK); Meade Co.,
Morgans Cr., 7 June (INHS).
Rhyacophila torva Hagen
Jessamine Co., Indian Falls, 29 April (UK).
GLOSSOSOMATIDAE
Agapetus hessi Leonard and Leonard
Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R.,
18 May (Etnier 1973).
Agapetus illini Ross
Christian Co., Hopkinsville, 26 April (INHS):
Fayette Co., 24 April (UK); Jessamine Co.,
Indian Falls, imm (UK); Mercer Co., Har-
rodsburg, 10 July (INHS).
10 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
Agapetus nr rossi Denning
Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R..,
18 May (UT).
Agapetus tomus Ross
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
Green Co., 4 May (INHS).
Glossosoma intermedium
Meade Co., Morgans Cr., 15 March (INHS).
Glossosoma nigrior (Banks )
Hart Co., Hardyville (Zoo Springs), 16 June
(INHS); Meade Co., Doe Run, 7 November
(INHS).
Matrioptila jeanae (Ross)
Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.), 13 June
(INHS); McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls,
12 May—12 June (INHS); Wayne Co., Little
So. Fork of Cumberland R., 18 May (UT).
Protoptila alexanderi Ross
Union Co., Sturgis, 22 August (INHS).
Protoptila maculata (Hagen)
Anderson Co., Salt R., 30 April—21 September
(WRL); Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.),
24 June (INHS); Shelby and Spencer Cos.,
Brashears Cr., 7 May—20 September (WRL);
Spencer Co., Salt R., 31 May—1 October
(WRL).
Protoptila palina Ross
Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.), 28 Au-
gust (INHS).
PHILOPOTAMIDAE
Chimarra aterrima Hagen
Anderson Co., 3 July (UK); Fayette Co.,
Lexington, 19 May (UK), Raven Cr., May
(INHS), Steeles Run, imm (UK) and Boone
Creek, imm (UK); Harlan Co., 12 June
(INHS); Jefferson Co., Louisville (Beargrass
Cr.), 2 June (INHS); Jessamine Co., Indian
Falls (Hickman Cr.), 24 April (UK) and
Marble Cr., imm (UK); McCreary Co., Cum-
berland Falls State Park, imm (Eagle Cr.),
(UK); Oldham Co., Covered Bridge Boy
Scout Camp, 19 April (UL).
Chimarra feria Ross
Fayette Co., Lexington (Tates Cr.), 8 June
(UK).
Chimarra obscura ( Walker )
Anderson Co., Salt R., 7 May—27 September
(WRL); Breathitt Co., Quicksand, 8 May
(INHS); Fayette Co., Lexington, 13 April—
30 July (UK); Jefferson Co., Beargrass Cr.,
16 June (INHS); Jessamine Co., Kentucky R.,
imm (UK); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint
Cr.), 21 June-31 August (WRL); Powell
Co., Natural Bridge State Park, 11 August
(INHS); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears
Cr., 1 May-19 September (WRL); Spencer
Co., Salt R., 11 May—19 September (WRL);
Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24
June (UK).
Chimarra nr obscura ( Walker )
Fayette Co., Lexington, 30 June (UK).
Chimarra socia Hagen
Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.), 13 June
(INHS).
Dolophiloides distinctus (Walker )
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
Powell Co., Natural Bridge State Park, 8 Feb-
ruary—l March (UK); Wolfe Co., Mill Cr.,
2 March (UK).
Wormaldia moesta (Banks )
Jackson Co., Hicksey Cave, 5 June (INHS);
Meade Co., Otter Creek Park (Morgans Cr.),
1 February (INHS); Menifee Co., Murder
Cave, 23 October (INHS); Powell Co., Nat-
ural Bridge State Park, 1 March (UK); Wolfe
Co., Mill Creek, 2 March (UK).
Wormaldia nr moesta (Banks )
Whitely Co., Anvil Bridge (Cumberland R.),
imm (UK).
Wormaldia shawnee Ross
Christian Co., Hopkinsville, imm (INHS).
PsYCHOMYIIDAE
Cernotina nr calcea Ross
Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL); Spen-
cer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr. and Salt
R.), 9 July (WRL).
Lype diversa (Banks)
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May
(INHS); Meade Co., Doe Run, 30 April—1
June (INHS); Rockcastle Co., Horselick
Cr., 17 May (WRL); Wayne Co., Little So.
Fork of Cumberland R., 18 May (UT).
Psychomyia flavida (Hagen)
Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.), 24 June—
28 August (INHS); Breathitt Co., Robinson
Forest, 14 June (UK); Henderson Co., Hen-
derson, 27 June (INHS); Laurel Co., Living-
ston (Rockcastle R.), 16 June (INHS); Mc-
Creary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May
(INHS); Meade Co., Doe Run, 17 June-21
July (INHS, WRL, UL); Rockcastle Co.,
Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL).
POLYCENTROPODIDAE
Cyrnellus fraternus (Banks)
Anderson Co., Salt R., 10 June—20 September
(WRL); Fayette Co., Lexington, 10 June—
25 August (UL); Fulton Co., Bondurant, 27
August (INHS); Hart Co., Hardyville (Green
R.), 15 June (INHS); Johnson Co., Paints-
ville (Paint Cr.), 21 June (WRL); Lyon Co.,
Eddyville (Cumberland R.), 6 August (INHS);
Meade Co., Otter Cr. Park (Morgans Cr.),
14 September (INHS); Shelby and Spencer
Cos., Brashears Cr., 2 June—21 September
(WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 10 June—20
September (WRL); Trigg Co., Land Between
the Lakes (L. Barkley), 12-13 September
(INHS); Union Co., Caseyville, 28 August
(INHS).
CADDISFLIES OF KENTUCKY—Resh 1h
Neureclipsis crepuscularis (Walker )
Breckinridge Co., Camp Breckinridge, 10 May
(INHS); McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls,
12 May (INHS).
Neureclipsis parvulus Banks
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Lyon
Co., Eddyville (Cumberland R.), 6 August
(INHS).
Nyctiophylax affinis (Banks )
Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL);
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr. and
Salt R.), 11 May—9 September (WRL).
Nyctiophylax celta Denning
Reported by Morse (1972) from southeastern
Kentucky.
Nyctiophylax uncus Ross
Reported by Morse (1972) from southeastern
Kentucky.
Phylocentropus carolinus Carpenter
McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May
(INHS).
Phylocentropus hansoni (Root)
Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL).
Phylocentropus placidus (Banks )
Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL).
Polycentropus barri Ross and Yamomoto
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
Jackson Co., John Rogers Cave and Blowing
Springs Cave, 20: May—14 July (UK) (INHS).
Polycentropus blicklei Ross and Yamomoto
Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24
June (UK).
Polycentropus cinereus (Hagen)
Anderson Co., Salt R., 31 May—30 September
(WRL); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14
June (UK); Lyon Co., Eddyville (Cumber-
land R.), 6 August (INHS); Oldham Co.,
Harrods Cr., 20 May-30 August (WRL);
Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Creek,
6 May-—7 October (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt
R., 7 May—8 October (WRL).
Polycentropus confusus Hagen
Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL).
Polycentropus crassicornis Walker
Breckinridge Co., Camp Breckinridge, imm
(INHS).
Polycentropus elarus Ross
Barren Co., Beckton (Bryant Edmonds Cave),
14 April (INHS); Elliot Co., Gimlet (Tar
Kiln Cave), 23 May (INHS); Fayette Co.,
Lexington (Tates Cr.), 8 June (UK); Wayne
Co., Blowing Cave, 21 August (INHS).
Polycentropus maculatus Banks
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK).
Polycentropus remotus Banks
Spencer Co., Taylorsville
(WRL).
Polycentropus sp. a
Christian Co., Hopkinsville, 28 April (INHS),
cited in Ross (1944).
(Salt. RY),
imm
HyYDROPSYCHIDAE
Aphropsyche doringa Milne
Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 13 May
(WRL).
Cheumatopsyche analis (Banks )
Anderson Co., Salt R., 30 April-20 Septem-
ber (WRL); Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June
(INHS); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 18
May-—14 June (UK); Christian Co., June (UK);
Fayette Co., Steeles Run and Lexington, 25
April-8 August (UK); Gallatin Co., Warsaw,
14 June-3 August (INHS); Green Co.,
Greensburg (Camp Branch Cave), 19 April
(INHS ); Jefferson Co., Louisville, 10 April—
15 June (WRL); Jessamine Co., Indian Falls
(Hickman Cr.), 24 April (UK); Johnson Co.,
Big Sandy R. (Open Fork) and Little Paint
Cr., 9 May-—3 August (WRL); Lyon Co.,
Eddyville (Cumberland R.), 6 August (INHS);
Mercer Co., Harrodsburg, 10 June (INHS);
Metcalfe Co., Sulfur Cr. Cave, 16 April
(INHS ); Oldham Co., Horner Bird and Wild-
life Sanctuary and Covered Bridge Boy Scout
Camp, 14 April-18 August (WRL, UL);
Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL);
Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24
June (UK).
Cheumatopsyche aphanta Ross
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK).
Cheumatopsyche burksi Ross
Oldham Co., 5 August (UL).
Cheumatopsyche campyla Ross
Christian Co., 8 June (UK); Breathitt Co.,
Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Bullitt Co.,
Smithville (Salt R.), 23 May (UL) and 27
September (INHS); Fayette Co., Lexington,
3: July (UK); “Oldham Co. 25 May. (UL):
Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL);
Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 30
April-1 October (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt
R., 24 April-7 October (WRL); Trigg Co.,
Land Between the Lakes, 23-24 June (UK).
Cheumatopsyche goera Denning
Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24
June (UK).
Cheumatopsyche harwoodi harwoodi Denning
Bell Co., Pineville, (Gordon 1972 unpub-
lished doctoral dissertation, University of
Georgia, Athens, Ga.).
Cheumatopsyche helma Ross
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS).
Cheumatopsyche minuscula (Banks )
Pulaski Co., Burnside, 11 June (INHS).
Cheumatopsyche nr rossi (Gordon nn. unpub-
lished doctoral dissertation )
Fayette Co., Lexington, 20 April-1 May (UK).
Cheumatopsyche oxa Ross
Jefferson Co., 1 May (UL); Jessamine Co.,
Indian Falls, 29 April (UK); Johnson Co.,
Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June—3l August
(WRL); Leslie Co., Pine Mountain (Greasy
Cr.), 25-26 April (INHS); Powell Co., Nat-
12 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(1-2)
ural Bridge State Park, 11 August (INHS),
and Slade, 8 May (INHS); Warren Co., 18
June (UK).
Cheumatopsyche pasella Ross
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June—28 August (INHS);
McCreary Co., Cumberland 12 May (INHS);
Spencer Co., Salt R., 16 June (WRL).
Cheumatopsyche sordida (Hagen)
Bell Co., Pineville, 28 August (INHS); Mc-
Creary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May
(INHS); Rockcastle Co., Livingston (Rock-
castle R.), 15-16 June (INHS).
Diplectrona modesta Banks
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, imm (UK),
Jackson, imm (UK), and Quicksand, 8 May—
14 June (INHS); Bullitt Co., 23 May (UL);
Edmonson Co., Mammoth Cave (Good
Springs), 20 May (INHS); Johnson Co.,
Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 31 August (WRL);
Meade Co., Morgans Cr., 7 September (INHS)
and Doe Run, (Minckley 1963); Oldham Co.,
14 July-6 August (UL); Owsley Co., Boone-
ville, imm (INHS); Wolfe Co., 1-13 July
CWE).
Hydropsyche betteni Ross
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
Bullitt Co., 23 May—28 July (UL); Jessamine
Co., Indian Falls, 29 April (UK); Johnson
Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 31 August (WRL);
Oldham Co., Horner Bird and Wildlife Sanc-
tuary, 18 May—-18 August (WRL, UL); Rus-
sell Co., Jamestown, 18-25 May (UL); Shelby
and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 6 May-7
June (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 7 May—
16 July (WRL); Wolfe Co., 13 July (UL).
Hydropsyche bronta Ross
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest,
(WRL).
Hydropsyche cheilonis Ross
Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL);
Spencer Co., Salt R., 25-26 June (WRL).
Hydropsyche depravata (Hagen)
Caldwell Co., Princeton (Eddy Cr.), 20 April
(INHS); Lyon Co., Eddyville (Cumberland
R.), 3 August (INHS); Meade Co., Doe Run,
2 February—21 July (INHS, UL); Warren
Co., 18 June (UK).
Hydropsyche dicantha Ross
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Rock-
castle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL);
Spencer Co., Salt R., 21 June—14 September
(WRL).
Hydropsyche hageni Banks
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Mc-
Creary Co., Cumberland Falls, 27 April—12
May (UK, INHS).
Hydropsyche incommoda Hagen
Fayette Co., Lexington, 20 July (UK); Rock-
castle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL);
Spencer Co., Salt R., 25 June—10 July (WRL).
Hydropsyche morosa Hagen
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest,
(WRL).
14 June
14 June
Hydropsyche orris Ross
Christian Co., June (UK); Fayette Co., Lex-
ington, 26 June—3 August (UK); Fulton Co.,
Bondurant, 6 September (INHS); Lyon Co.,
Eddyville (Cumberland R.), 6 August
(INHS); Oldham Co., Horner Bird and Wild-
life Sanctuary, 18 May—5 August (WRL, UL);
Spencer Co., Salt R., 31 May (WRL); Trigg
Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24 June
(UK).
Hydropsyche phalerata Hagen
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Mc-
Creary Co., Cumberland Falls, 24 April (UK).
Hydropsyche simulans Ross
Breathitt Co., Quicksand, 6 May (INHS);
Breckinridge Co., Camp Breckinridge, imm
(INHS); Caldwell Co., Princeton (Eddy
Cr.), 3 August (INHS); Christian Co., June
(UK); Jefferson Co., 13 July (UL); Hender-
son Co., 27 June (INHS); McCreary Co.,
Cumberland Falls, 27 April (UK); Spencer
Co., Salt R., 7 June—21 September (WRL).
Hydropsyche sparna Ross
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
Leslie Co., Lilley Cornett Woods, 11-12 July
(UL); Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May
(WRL).
Hydropsyche valanis Ross
Spencer Co., Salt R., 16 July (WRL).
Hydropsyche venularis Banks
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS).
Macronemum zebratum Hagen
Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.), 24 June
(INHS), Harlan Co.; 12 June (INHS).
Potamyia flava (Hagen)
Ballard Co., 24 May (UK); Fayette Co.,
Lexington, 20 July (UK); Fulton Co., Bon-
durant, 23 August-l1 September (INHS);
Gallatin Co., Warsaw (Ohio R.), 1 July-3
August (INHS); Hart Co., Hardyville (Green
R.), 15 June (INHS); Henderson Co., Hen-
derson, 12 May (INHS); Jefferson Co., 9
May-13 July (UL); Lyon Co., Eddyville
(Cumberland R.), 6 August (INHS); Old-
ham Co., 14 June (UL); Spencer Co., Bra-
shears Cr., 9-15 July (WRL); Spencer Co.,
Salt R., 7 July-22 August (WRL); Trigg Co.,
Land Between the Lakes, 23-24 June (UK);
Union Co., Sturgis, 4 July-31 August (INHS)
and Caseyville, 28 August (INHS).
HyYDROPTILIDAE
Agraylea multipunctata Curtis
Meade Co., Doe Run (Minckley 1963).
Dibusa angata Ross
Jessamine Co., Indian Falls, 24-29 April (UK);
Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 8 May
(WRL); McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls,
12 May (INHS).
Hydroptila ajax Ross
Spencer Co., Brashears Cr.
May-9 September (WRL).
and Salt R.,
CADDISFLIES OF KENTUCKy—Resh 13
Hydroptila nr ajax Ross
Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June
(WRL).
Hydroptila amoena Ross
| Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL).
- Hydroptila angusta Ross
Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL);
Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr. and
Salt R.), 7 June—24 September (WRL).
Hydroptila armata Ross
Anderson Co., Salt R., 31 May—9 September
(WRL): Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears
Cr., 25 May—9 September (WRL); Spencer
Co., Salt R., 21 May—20 September (WRL).
Hydroptila consimilis Morton
Anderson Co., Salt R., 24 June (WRL);
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK).
Hydroptila nr consimilis Morton
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK).
Hydroptila delineata Morton
Whitley Co., Cumberland Falls, 27 April
(UK).
Hydroptila grandiosa Ross
Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June—
14 July (WRL).
Hydroptila hamata Morton
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Breathitt
Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Johnson
Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June (WRL);
Mercer Co., Harrodsburg, 10 June (INHS);
Rockcastle Co., Livingston, 16 June (INHS);
Spencer Co., Salt R., 9 September (WRL);
Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24
June (UK).
Hydroptila perdita Morton
Anderson Co., Salt R., 1 May—7 October
(WRL); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.),
14 July (WRL); Shelby and Spencer Cos.,
Brashears Cr., 30 April—1 October (WRL);
Spencer Co., Salt R., 27 April—7 October
(WRL).
Hydroptila spatulata Morton
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland
R., 18 May (Etnier 1973).
Hydroptila vala Ross
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK).
Hydroptila virgata Ross
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK).
Hydroptila waubesiana Betten
Spencer Co., Brashears Cr. and Salt R., 10
June-19 September (WRL).
Ithytrichia mazon Ross
Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Salt R.), 10-16
June (WRL).
Mayatrichia ayama Mosely
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS).
Neotrichia collata Morton
Ross (1944) cited as from Kentucky, no lo-
cality or data given.
Neotrichia minutisimella (Chambers )
Rockcastle Co., Livingston, 16 June (INHS).
Neotrichia okopa Ross
Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL);
Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr. and
Salt R.), 2 June-15 July (WRL).
Neotrichia riegeli Ross
Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June—
31 August (WRL).
Ochrotrichia anisca (Ross )
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK).
Ochrotrichia confusa (Morton)
Jessamine Co., Indian Falls, 29 April (UK).
Ochrotrichia shawnee (Ross)
Larue Co., 16 June (UK).
Ochrotrichia spinosa (Ross )
Mercer Co., Harrodsburg, 10 June (INHS);
Spencer Co., Brashears Cr., 2 June (WRL).
Ochrotrichia tarsalis (Hagen)
Spencer Co., Brashears Cr. and Salt R., 10
June—1 October (WRL).
Ochrotrichia nr unio (Ross )
Meade Co., Morgans Cr.,
1968 ).
Ochrotrichia xena (Ross)
Spencer Co., Brashears Cr., 11 May (WRL).
Orthotrichia aegerfasciella (Chambers )
Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL);
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
Fulton Co., Bondurant, 27 August (INHS);
Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June
(WRL); Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears
Cr. and Salt R.), 25 May-19 September
(WRL); Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes
(Lake Barkley), 12-13 September (INHS).
Orthotrichia cristata Morton
Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL);
Spencer Co., Brashears Cr., 9 July (WRL).
Oxyethira pallida (Banks )
Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June—9 September
(WRL); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr. ),
21 June—4 August (WRL).
Stactobiella delira (Ross )
McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 17 April—
12 May (UK, INHS); Rockcastle Co., Horse-
lick Cr., 17 May (WRL).
Stactobiella palmata (Ross)
Anderson Co., Salt R., 2 May—25 June (WRL);
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr., and Little
Paint Cr.), 31 May—21 July (WRL); McCreary
Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS);
Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 7
May-16 June (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R.,
1 May-—29 June; Wayne Co., Little So. Fork
of Cumberland R., 18 May (UT).
( Minshall
imm
PHRYGANEIDAE
Agrypnia vestita (Walker)
Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 16 July
(WRL).
Banksiola dossuaria (Say )
Pike Co., Shelby Gap, 8-9 June (UK).
Phryganea sayi Milne
Bullitt Co., 28 July-7 September (UL); Bul-
14 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
litt Co., Shepherdsville, 25 July (WRL);
Meade Co., Otter Cr. Park, 25 July (WRL);
Oldham Co., 6-18 August (UL); Spencer
Co., Salt R., 1-29 August (WRL).
Ptilostomis ocellifera (Walker )
Oldham Co., 12 May (UL).
Ptilostomis semifasciata (Say )
Bell Co., Pineville, 28 August (INHS);
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK).
LIMNEPHILIDAE
Pseudostenophylax uniformis (Betten)
Johnson Co., Paint Cr., 8 May (WRL).
Ironquia punctatissima (Walker)
Carroll Co., Butler State Park, 11 October
(WRL); Jefferson Co., 4 October (UL);
Spencer Co., Rivals, imm (WRL).
Neophylax autumnus Vorhies
Meade Co., Morgans Cr., 26 October (INHS).
Neophylax ayanus Ross
Jefferson Co., Louisville (Beargrass Cr.), 8
October (INHS).
Neophylax concinnus MacLachlan
Oldham Co., 25 November (UL); Spencer
Co., Rivals, imm (WRL).
Neophylax consimilis Betten
Pike Co., Fishtrap Lake, 10 July (WRL).
Neophylax nacatus Denning
Spencer Co., Rivals, imm (WRL).
Platycentropus radiatus (Say)
Pike Co., Fishtrap Lake, 19 June (WRL).
Pycnopsyche gentilis MacLachlan
Leslie Co., Pine Mountain, 23 October (UL);
Whitely Co., Cumberland Falls State Park
(Cumberland R.), 15 March (UK).
Pycnopsyche guttifer (Walker )
Fayette Co., Boone Cr., (UK); Jefferson Co.,
Louisville, 9 October (UL).
Pycnopsyche lepida (Hagen)
Oldham Co., Covered Bridge Boy Scout
Camp, 20 September—21 October, (WRL,
UL):
ODONTOCERIDAE
Psilotreta rufa (Hagen)
Hart Co., Mammoth Cave National Park, 20
May (INHS).
LEPTOCERIDAE
Ceraclea ( Athripsodina) ancylus (Vorhies )
Anderson Co., Salt R., 10 May—1 July (WRL);
Oldham Co., Harrods Cr., (WRL); Shelby
and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 7 May—29
June; Spencer Co., Salt R., 7 May—1 July
(WRL).
Ceraclea (C.) transversa (Hagen) (= Athripsodes
angustus (Banks) See Morse (1975).
Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 May—10 September
(WRL); Jefferson Co., Louisville (Beargrass
Cr.), 16 June (INHS); Spencer Co., Taylors-
ville (Brashears Cr. and Salt R.), 21 May—15
September (WRL).
Ceraclea (Athripsodina) nr annulicornis (Stephens)
Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24
June (UK).
Ceraclea (C.) cancellata (Betten )
Anderson Co., Salt R., 10 June—3 August
(WRL); Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS);
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
Jefferson Co., 18 August (UL); Johnson Co.,
Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June—-14 July
(WRL); Rockcastle Co., Livingston, 16 June
(INHS); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears
Cr., 13 May-6 August (WRL); Spencer Co.,
Salt R., 25 May—10 August (WRL).
Ceraclea (Athripsodina) flava (Banks )
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Rock-
castle Co., Livingston, 16 June (INHS).
Ceraclea (C.) nr fulva (Rambur)
Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr.),
imm (WRL).
Ceraclea (C.) neffi (Resh)
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., imm (WRL).
Ceraclea (C.) resurgens (Walker)
Jefferson Co., Harrods Cr., 19 May (WRL);
McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May
(INHS).
Ceraclea (Athripsodina) tarsipunctatus (Vorhies )
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Breathitt
Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Breck-
enridge Co., Camp Breckenridge, imm; Chris-
tian Co., June (UK); Fayette Co., Lexington,
9 June-20 July (INHS, UK); Johnson Co.,
Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June (WRL);
McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May
(INHS); Rockcastle Co., Livingston, 16 June
(INHS); Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears
Cr. and Salt R.), 15 June—-4 July (WRL);
Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24
June (UK).
Ceraclea (C.) maculata (Banks) (= Athripsodes
transversus (Hagen), See Morse (1975)
Anderson Co., Salt R., 21 May—9 September
(WRL); Barren Co., 3 July (UK); Fulton
Co., Bondurant, 6 September (INHS); Hen-
derson Co., Henderson, 27 June (INHS);
Jefferson Co., 10-13 July (UL); Lyon Co.,
Eddyville (Cumberland R.), 6 August (INHS);
Oldham Co., Horner Bird and Wildlife Sanc-
tuary, 18 May—5 August (UL, WRL); Shelby
and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 31 May—10
September (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 21
May-15 September (WRL); Trigg Co., Lake
Barkley, 23 June—13 September (INHS, UK).
Nectopsyche nr albida (Walker )
Anderson and Spencer Cos., Salt R., 25 June—
19 September (WRL).
Nectopsyche candida (Hagen)
Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Salt R.), 21 June—
24 September (WRL).
Nectopsyche exquisita ( Walker )
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June—28 August (INHS);
Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June
(WRL); Spencer Co., 19 June (UL); Spen-
CADDISFLIES OF KENTUCKY—Resh 15
cer and Shelby Cos., Brashears Cr., 7 May-—
10 October (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 11
May-16 August (WRL).
Nectopsyche pavida (Hagen)
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Rock-
castle Co., Livingston (Rockcastle R.), 16
June (INHS).
Mystacides sepulchralis (Walker )
Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R.,
18 May (UT).
Oecetis avara (Banks )
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June—28 August (INHS).
Oecetis cinerascens (Hagen)
Anderson Co., Salt R., 15 May—10 September
(WRL); Fayette Co., Lexington, 26 June
(UK); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.),
21 June (WRL); Oldham Co., 18 August
(UL); Spencer Co., Brashears Cr. and Salt
R., 11 May—19 September (WRL); Trigg Co.,
Lake Barkley, 12-13 September (INHS).
Oecetis ditissa Ross
Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL);
Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June
(WRL); Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears
Cr. and Salt R.), 2 June—19 September (WRL);
Trigg Co., Lake Barkley, 23 June-13 Septem-
ber (UK, INHS).
Oecetis inconspicua (Walker)
Anderson Co., Salt R., 31 May—1 October
(WRL); Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS);
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
Bullitt Co., 23 May (UL); Caldwell Co.,
Princeton (Eddy Cr.), 3 August (INHS);
Carroll Co., Gen. Butler State Park and Car-
rollton (Kentucky R.), 30 June—11 October
(UL); Christian Co., June (UK); Fayette
Co., Lexington, 10 May—25 August (UK,
INHS); Fulton Co., Bondurant, 23 August
(INHS ); Jefferson Co., 28 May—13 July (UL);
Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June-
31 August (WRL); Lyon Co., Eddyville
(Cumberland R.), 6 August (INHS); Mer-
cer Co., Harrodsburg, 10 June (INHS); Old-
ham Co., Horner Bird and Wildlife Sanctuary,
18 May—5 August (WRL, UL); Rockcastle
Co., Horselick Cr. and Livingston (Rock-
castle R.), 17 May-16 June (WRL, INHS);
Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 11
May-1 October (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt
R., 7 May—7 September (WRL); Trigg Co.,
Land Between the Lakes (Lake Barkley), 23
June-13 September (UK, INHS); Union Co.,
Sturgis, 31 August (INHS); Wolfe Co., 15
julys (GUL):
Oecetis nocturna Ross
Anderson Co., Salt R., 31 May—1 October
(WRL); Fayette Co., Lexington, 10 May-—
17 June (UK); Johnson Co., Paintsville
(Paint Cr.), 21 June-31 August (WRL);
Spencer Co., Brashears Cr. and Salt R., 25
May-7 October (WRL); Trigg Co., Land Be-
tween the Lakes,
(WRL, INHS).
Oecetis persimilis ( Banks )
Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL); Bar-
ren Co., 8 July (UK); Bell Co., Pineville, 24
June (INHS); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint
Cr. ), 21 June—4 August (WRL); Spencer Co.,
Taylorsville (Salt R.), 10 June-16 August
16 June-13 September
(WRL).
Setodes incertus (Walker)
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June-28 August
(INHS).
Triaenodes abus Milne
Jefferson Co., 20 May (UL).
Triaenodes connatus Ross
Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.), 24 June
(INHS); Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Salt R.),
1 August—14 September (WRL).
Triaenodes nr dipsius (Ross )
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK).
Triaenodes flavescens Banks
Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23 June
(UK).
Triaenodes ignitus (Walker )
Spencer Co., Salt R., 25-26 June (WRL).
Triaenodes injustus (Hagen)
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Breathitt
Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK).
Triaenodes melacus Ross
Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL); Spen-
cer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr., and Salt
R.), 31 May—16 August (WRL).
Triaenodes tardus Milne
Fayette Co., Lexington, 15 May—26 June (UK,
INHS); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.),
21 June—4 August (WRL); Oldham Co., Hor-
ner Bird and Wildlife Sanctuary, 18 May—18
August (WRL, UL); Spencer Co., Taylors-
ville (Brashears Cr. and Salt R.), 2 June—l
October (WRL); Union Co., Sturgis, 22 Au-
gust (INHS).
GOERIDAE
Goera calcerata Banks
Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK);
Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland
R., 18 May (UT).
Goera stylata Ross
McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May
(INHS).
LEPIDOSTOMATIDAE
Lepidostoma griseum (Banks )
Jackson Co., Blowing Springs Cave, 24 Sep-
tember (INHS).
Lepidostoma togatum (Hagen)
Edmonson Co., Mammoth Cave, 3-20 May
(INHS); Rockcastle Co., Livingston (Rock-
castle R.), 16 June (INHS).
Theliopsyche melas Edwards
Fayette Co., Lexington, 9 June (UK).
16 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
BRACHYCENTRIDAE
Brachycentrus lateralis (Say )
Jefferson Co., Louisville (Ohio R.), May
(INHS).
Brachycentrus numerosus (Say )
Jefferson Co., Louisville (Ohio R.), May
(INHS).
Micrasema bennetti Ross
Fayette Co., Steeles Run, 28 March (UK).
Micrasema rusticum (Hagen)
Jessamine Co., Indian Falls, imm (UK); Mc-
Creary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May
(INHS); Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17
May (WRL); Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of
Cumberland R., 18 May (UT).
Micrasema wataga Ross
McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May
(INHS ).
HELICOPSYCHIDAE
Helicopsyche borealis (Hagen)
Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Breathitt
Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Bullitt
Co., 8 July (UL); Jefferson Co., Louisville
(Beargrass Cr.), 16 June—8 October (WRL);
McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 June
(INHS); Meade Co., 21 July (UL); Menifee
Co., Wolfpen Cr., imm (UK); Nelson Co.,
Beech Fork of Salt R., imm (WRL); Oldham
Co., Covered Bridge Boy Scout Camp (Har-
rods Cr), 14 May-—8 October (UL); Wayne
Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R., 18
May (UT).
LITERATURE CITED
CuirrorpD, H. F. 1966. The ecology of inverte-
brates in an intermittent stream. Invest. Ind.
Lakes Streams. 7:57—98.
Cummins, K. W. 1973. Trophic relations of
aquatic insects. Ann. Rev. Ent. 18:183-206.
Ernier, D. A. 1965. An annotated list of the
Trichoptera of Minnesota with description of
a new species. Entomol. News 74:141-152.
. 1973. Extensions of the known ranges
of Northern Trichoptera into the Southern Ap-
palachians. J. Ga. Entomol. Soc. 8:272—274.
Fuint, O. S., Jk. 1974. The Trichoptera of Suri-
nam. In The Fauna of Suriname and Other
Guyanas, No. LV:]-151.
LEONARD, J. W., AND F. A. LEONARD. 1949. An
annotated list of Michigan Trichoptera. Occ.
Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 522:1-35.
LONGRIDGE, J. L., AND W. L. HitsENHOFF. 1973.
Annotated list of Trichoptera in Wisconsin.
Trans. Wisc. Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 61:173-183.
Mincxkxey, W. L. 1963. The ecology of a spring
stream, Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky.
Wildl. Monogr. 11:1-124.
MinsHaLL, G. W. 1968. Community dynamics
of the benthic fauna in a woodland spring-
brook. Hydrobiologia 32:305-339.
Morse, J. C. 1972. The genus Nyctiophylax in
North America. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 45:
172-181.
1975.
Fic. 1. Cross section through the giant nucleus stained with osmium tetroxide. The oblong nucleus
appears to be divided into 2 distinct regions: a dark staining lobed peripheral region (pr), and a cen-
tral region (cr) containing 1 large vesicle and an extensive fiber network. 300.
Fic. 2. Cross section through the giant nucleus stained by the Feulgen reaction. The transverse la-
cunar canal below the giant nucleus bifurcated to form a lacunar reservoir (Ir) on each side of the nu-
cleus. Many tubular structures (ts) may be noted in the central region. 400.
Fic. 3. Electron micrograph of the peripheral area and a portion of the central region. At the top is
a layer of dermal material (dm) with the outer membranous structure below it. An invagination forms a
canal (c) leading into the interior of the giant nucleus. These invaginating canals divide the peripheral
region into peripheral lobes (pl). Below the left peripheral lobe is a tubular structure typical of those
seen in the central region. 3,000.
Fic. 4. Electron micrograph of the peripheral region of the giant nucleus and lacunar reservoir. The
lacunar reservoir is separated from the dermal material by a highly convoluted membrane (cm). A lobe
of the peripheral region containing large electron dense granules may be noted below the dermal mate-
rial. 5,500.
20
Giant NucLEt oF NEOECHINORHYNCHUS—Leslie
ok ae
a |
a ie
*
‘
*
22 TRANS. KeNTuCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
Southern Biological Supply Company. Im-
mediately prior to experimentation, turtles
were sacrificed and the worms removed
from the intestine. Disposition of the
worms after removal depended upon the
specific study to be conducted.
Portions of the worms containing giant
nuclei were embedded in paraffin and sec-
tioned at 10 yw. The sections were stained
with osmium tetroxide, or the Feulgen re-
action as described by Humason (1967)
for study with the light microscope. Sec-
tions of female worms bearing eggs were
used for the Feulgen reaction, and selected
sections of the mature female worms were
designated as controls. The DNA was re-
moved by rinsing the tissue in 0.5 N per-
chloric acid for 25 min. The experimental
sections remained in distilled water for the
same time period.
For electron microscopic study, whole
worms were placed in 0.85 percent saline,
and the giant nuclei carefully excised, re-
moving as little excess dermal material as
possible. The giant nuclei were fixed in 5
percent glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M_ sodium
cacodylate buffer (pH 7.2). Postfixation
was completed in 1 percent osmium tetrox-
ide in the same buffer for 20 min and then
stained with 0.5 percent uranyl acetate for
2 hours. The giant nuclei were dehydrated
in an ethanol and propylene oxide series fol-
lowed by embedding in Epon 812. The
nuclei were sectioned on a Sorvall MT-2
microtome and examined with a Ziess elec-
tron microscope, Model 9A.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
When stained with osmium tetroxide,
the nuclei appeared oblong in shape and
varied in size depending upon location
within the worm. A gradual reduction in
size was noted from the large anteriorly
located nuclei to the smaller posterior nu-
clei. Light microscopy indicated 2 distinct
nuclear regions within the giant nuclei of
Neoechinorhynchus sp.: a dark staining
peripheral region and a lighter staining cen-
tral region (Fig. 1). The peripheral region —
consisted of large lobes around the perim-
eter of the giant nucleus. The lobes were
not always continuous around the entire
periphery and sometimes were absent ( Figs.
1, 2). This may indicate that not all of the
giant nuclei in the same worm have similar
structure due to the age, nutritional state of
the worm, or the location of the giant nu-
cleus in the worm. In many cases, fibrous
networks of the central regions were ob-
served and appeared to be continuous with
the dark peripheral region (Fig. 1). At the
level of light microscopy, numerous tubular
structures, appearing vesicular in nature,
were observed in the central region. An ex-
tensive fiber network was also observed ex-
tending throughout the region (Figs. 1, 2).
The tubular structures of the central region
varied in size, shape, and number. In most
of the nuclei observed there was a large
spherical vesicle containing a fine granular
background substance (Fig. 1). This large
vesicle may be analogous to the nucleolar
vacuole Robinson (1973) reported in the
giant nucleus of Moniliformis dubius.
Usually, there were 3 or 4 transverse la-
cunar canals in close proximity to a giant
nucleus. Serial sectioning demonstrated
that most of these transverse lacunar canals
near a giant nucleus bifurcate to form la-
cunar reservoirs above and below the giant
nucleus (Fig. 2). These extensions of the
lacunar canals encompassing the giant nu-
clei would indicate a close association
between the giant nuclei and the lacunar
system.
The controls for the Feulgen reaction
Fre, 5.
with the giant nucleus.
Fic. 6.
contain some small granules and the cortex appears fibrous.
Fic. 17
dense granules and a disrupted tubular system interlacing the granules.
>
The convoluted membrane that separates the lacunar reservoir and dermal material associated
x 12,000.
A tubular structure within the central region. The medulla of this tubular structure appears to
3,900.
This second type of tubular structure within the central region appears to contain electron
<5.200:
Fic. 8. Ultrastructure of the packed fiber network within the central region. 7,000.
S
7,
A)
W]
!
S
ee
S
=
>
rs
pe
S
=
—
ea
S
is
S)
s
z
Py
fe)
:
S
Zz
-
Z
4
OC
24 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
showed no positive reaction for DNA in
the giant nuclei, dermal material, or eggs
of the worm. The experimental sections
showed a positive reaction for the presence
of DNA in the eggs of the worm. No posi-
tive reaction could be detected within the
giant nuclei or dermal material even though
the procedure was repeated using nuclei
from several different worms. Under the
present experimental conditions, these re-
sults indicate that no DNA is present within
the giant nucleus of adult Neoechinorhyn-
chus sp. This does not preclude the possi-
bility that small quantities of DNA may be
present at a concentration too low to be de-
tected by this procedure. These results are
in contrast to previous reports. Van Cleave
(1951) reported a positive Feulgen reaction
in the giant nuclei of Neoechinorhynchus.
Marshall (1973) found the giant nuclei of
larval Moniliformis dubius to be in a poly-
ploidy state, and Robinson’s (1973) study of
the early stages of the worm support Mar-
shall’s work. The absence of DNA within
the giant nuclei of Neoechinorhynchus sp.
coupled with the complex structure present
indicate that in the adult worm the giant
nuclei have differentiated into unique or-
ganelles of unknown function.
With electron microscopy, as in light
microscopy, the peripheral region appeared
to consist of a series of lobes along the out-
side border of the nucleus (Fig. 3). The
outermost portion of the giant nucleus ap-
peared to be a membranous structure that
separates the lobes from the dermal material
of the worm. Invaginations separate the
lobes forming canals that extend deep
within the interior of the nucleus (Fig. 3).
The outer lobes contain electron dense
masses ranging from 0.7 to 3.6 mw in diam-
eter and a fibrous background substance
(Figs. 3, 4). The canals often appeared to
contain small electron dense masses similar
to those in the outer lobes.
Electron micrographs revealed an inter-
esting relationship between the giant nuclei
and the lacunar reservoirs. There appeared
to be a layer of dermal material between
the giant nucleus and the lacunar reservoir
approximately 6.0 to 10.0 u thick. Between
the edge of the dermal material and the la-
cunar reservoir is a highly convoluted mem-
brane (Figs. 4, 5). The lacunar reservoirs
appeared to be filled with a clear back-
ground substance and a few large electron
dense amorphous masses. The presence of
this convoluted membrane between the la-
cunar reservoir and the giant nucleus indi-
cates the possibility of a highly developed
transport system involving both structures.
This close relationship between the lacunar
system and the giant nuclei suggests that
they may act as storage depots for nutri-
ments.
Electron microscopy of the central region
revealed 2 types of structures tubular in
nature, and a packed fibrous network. One
type of tubular structure appeared to have
a fibrous cortex and a loosely arranged
medulla (Figs. 3, 6). These tubular struc-
tures contained dispersed electron dense
masses 0.2 to 0.6 uw in diameter. A second
type of tubular structure consisted of elec-
tron dense masses ranging from 0.2 to 1.0
w in diameter, apparently interlaced by a
network of tubules (Fig. 7). Both types of
tubular structures varied in size but were
consistent in their oblong shape. These
structures seemed to be associated with the
internal canal system that extends to the
exterior of the giant nucleus. The fiber sys-
tem of the central region appeared to be a
packed network of fibers running parallel
along a common axis (Fig. 8). Small elec-
tron dense masses and small canals were
noted among the fiber network.
LITERATURE CITED
Humason, G. L. 1967. Animal Tissue Tech-
niques. W. H. Freeman and Company, San
Francisco, Cal. 9, 309-311 pp.
MARSHALL, J., R. N. CALL, anpD W. L. NICHOLAS.
1973. A microspectrophotometric study of
the DNA of the embryonic and larval nuclei
of Moniliformis dubius (Acanthocephala). J.
Parasit. 59:130—135.
Roprnson, E. S. 1973. Growth and differentia-
tion of giant nuclei in Moniliformis (Acantho-
cephala). J. Parasit. 59:678-684.
Van Cueave. 1951. Giant nuclei in the sub-
cuticula of the thorny headed worm of the
hog (Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus).
Tr. Am. Micr. Soc. 70:37-46.
Abatement of Pollution in Hite Creek, Jefferson
and Oldham Counties, Kentucky’
Louis A. KRUMHOLZ AND STUART E. NEFF
Department of Biology and Water Resources Laboratory,
University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
Hite Creek, a spring-fed stream with a natural discharge that ranges from 0.2 to 75 cubic
feet per second (cfs) (0.056-2.1 m*/sec) depending on precipitation, was overwhelmed dur-
ing the summer of 1970 by the constant discharge of about 1.2 million gallons per day (4.542
million liters) (about 1.9 cfs, 0.055 m/sec) in combined sewage and industrial wastes from
a large industrial plant. That burden rendered the stream unsuitable for aquatic life and
caused the waters of the stream to become a hazard to public health. In September 1970, a
cease and desist order was issued against the plant, and measures were taken to divert the
discharges from the plant to a new, modern sewage treatment facility under construction in
the area. Concurrently, a detailed study of the physical, chemical, and biological character-
istics of the stream was undertaken.
At low flow (late summer), the waste materials from the plant contributed as much as 10
times the volume of flow of the stream to the stream channel. Dissolved oxygen concentrations
were extremely low, and extensive beds of sewage fungus indicated severe pollution below the
points of discharge from the plant. Above those points of discharge, levels of dissolved oxygen
were high and there was a normal abundance and diversity of benthic aquatic organisms. At
stations downstream from the discharges, gradual recovery occurred through natural processes,
and, at the mouth of Hite Creek, some 4 miles (6.4 km) downstream from the discharges,
there was ample dissolved oxygen to support aquatic life, and there was a reasonably good
abundance and diversity of bottom organisms, including larvae of beetles, caddisflies, midges,
and other aquatic insects.
In November 1970, the sewage disposal facility began to accept all waste discharges from
the plant. Winter rains flushed the stream, the sewage fungus disappeared, and the polluted
areas of Hite Creek gradually became repopulated with aquatic organisms.
Since that time, the industrial plant has made extensive efforts to control all discharges from
the plant into Hite Creek. By the summer of 1972, interceptors had been installed in all facili-
ties and parking lots so that the only material that entered Hite Creek from the plant site was
runoff from rainfall on completely vegetated areas of the plant property.
INTRODUCTION
Hite Creek, a small spring-fed stream that
rises in northeastern Jefferson County, Ken-
tucky, became a site of controversy in Sep-
tember 1970 because of pollution attributed
to waste effluents that issued from the Ken-
tucky Truck Plant of the Ford Motor Com-
pany near the source of the stream. At the
suggestion of the Governor of Kentucky, we
undertook a detailed study of the extent of
pollution and its effects, if any, on the wel-
fare of the stream. The Plant cooperated
fully and allowed laboratory personnel free
* Contribution No. 162 (New Series) from the
Department of Biology, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40208.
25
access to all parts of the stream on Plant
premises to collect samples of water, bot-
tom materials, plants, and other information
germane to the study.
In 1967, when the Ford Motor Company
decided to construct a major truck plant in
northeastern Jefferson County, the County
agreed to build a modern sewage treatment
facility to satisfy the needs of the Truck
Plant and any forseeable developments in
that area. The Ford Motor Company agreed
to pay part of the costs of construction of
the facility with the proviso that it be in full
operation by the time the Truck Plant went
into production, or no later than 1 January
1970.
26 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
However, the Truck Plant went into
limited production in August 1969 and
reached full production early the following
spring, but the sewage treatment facility
did not become fully operative until No-
vember 1970. During the interim, the Met-
ropolitan Sewer District (MSD) constructed
2 primary sewage treatment lagoons on the
property of the Truck Plant to serve as a
stopgap until the sewage treatment facility
could be completed. The effluent from
those lagoons emptied directly into Hite
Creek. The total daily discharge from the
Plant into the stream was about 1.2 million
gallons (1.86 cfs, 0.052 m/sec) of effluent
consisting of 800,000 gallons (3.028 million
liters) of industrial wastes, 150,000 gallons
(567,750 1) of domestic sewage wastes from
the MSD lagoons, and about 250,000 gallons
(946,250 1) of clean water as a diluent and
carrier for the wastes.
That situation continued until September
1970 at which time it was obvious that Hite
Creek was being overwhelmed by the dis-
charges. Formal complaints lodged by the
landowners downstream from the Plant led
the State Water Pollution Control Commis-
sion to issue an order to the Truck Plant to
“cease and desist” from polluting the stream.
At that point (10 September 1970), our
laboratory was asked to determine the ex-
tent of damage to the stream and its biota.
The Truck Plant removed the sludge from
the bottom of the industrial waste lagoons
so that the aerators could be operated more
efficiently. All industrial wastes were re-
tained in a temporary basin, and none en-
tered the stream between 0800 on 12 Sep-
tember and 1300 on 15 September.
Throughout that period, however, large
amounts of clean water were released
through the storm water system into Hite
Creek in an effort to dilute the effluent
from the sewage lagoons. On 17-19 Septem-
ber, a spring having a strong odor of hydro-
gen sulfide near the north waste lagoon was
capped and a pump installed to lift the wa-
ter into the lagoon.
By 1 October, the Ford Motor Company
had diverted all effluents from the industrial
waste lagoons through a 15-inch (38 cm)
line into the permanent 24-inch (61 cm)
line leading from the Truck Plant to the
sewage treatment facility, and also diverted —
the effluents from the sewage lagoons di-
rectly into the main line, so that no such
wastes entered Hite Creek at the Plant site.
On 2 November 1970, The Hite Creek Sew-
age Treatment Plant began to accept raw
sewage from the Truck Plant. In April 1971,
the Metropolitan Sewer District drained the
2 sewage lagoons on the Ford property and
graded and seeded the area.
During the remainder of 1971, the Ford
Motor Company made concerted efforts to
prevent any kinds of industrial or domestic
wastes from the Truck Plant from entering
Hite Creek. Curbings, interceptors, and
guard posts were installed at all appropriate
locations on the Plant property to prevent
wastes from those areas escaping into the
stream. A foam interceptor system with 3
20,000-gallon (75,700 1) holding tanks was
installed to prevent any high expansion fire
fighting foam from entering the storm water
system and being carried into the stream.
An oil interceptor adjacent to the paint and
oil house dock was constructed to prevent
spillage of oily products from entering the
storm water system. By the end of 1971, it
was obvious that the newest concepts of pol-
lution prevention available had been put
into practice.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are deeply indebted to the following
students who assisted in the field work and
laboratory analysis: Edmond J. Bacon, Jr.,
Stephen B. Crider, Jerry S. Parsons, Vincent
H. Resh, David S. White, and Bruce R. Wil-
son. We are very grateful to Mr. John Van
Vactor, Plant Manager, and Mr. Henry P.
Conn, Supervisor, Facilities Engineering
Department, Kentucky Truck Plant, Ford
Motor Company, for their excellent cooper-
ation and assistance throughout the study.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Description of Hite Creek
Hite Creek rises in northeastern Jefferson
County, Kentucky, as a spring about 3.2 km
POLLUTION OF A KENTUCKY STREAM—Krumholz and Neff 27
South Fork
Harrods Creek
Station 5
HITE CREEK
JEFFERSON AND OLDHAM COUNTIES
KENTUCKY
nity > Scale: 3 Kilomet
«Seu wae
OL RS (== SS SS SS eS ee |
. ORE
Maddox
Farm
Interstate 7| MSD Facility MS
Km 4
ee cadiidrasuillacRaad
Station 3
Km 6 Station 2
Westport Road
Collins Lane
(Km 8
Fic. 1. Hite Creek, Jefferson and Oldham counties, Kentucky, showing stream kilometers, collecting sta-
tions, and locations of the Kentucky Truck Plant and the Sewage Treatment Plant.
Station |
north of the town of Anchorage. The water through a culvert under Collins Lane, Hite
from the spring flows through a marsh liter- Creek becomes identifiable as a stream.
ally choked with watercress (Nasturtium From that point it flows in a northwesterly
officinale) and into a small impoundment. direction for about 4 km over limestone
At the outlet of the pond, where it flows bedrock and broken rubble, and then flows
28 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
s
°
il
MSD Facility
\
Maddox Farm
\
190- y
1g80-
I70- Sleepy Hollow
Meters Above Mean Sea Level
160-4
Ballardsville Road ay
T ieee
0 | 2 3 4
Collins Lane
Plant Outfall
Westport Road
x
\
\
y
EE
5 6 7 8 9
Stream Kilometers Above Mouth
Bie. 2.
due north over bedrock strata and rubble
and boulders for about 4.8 km to empty into
the South Fork of Harrods Creek just be-
low the dam of Sleepy Hollow Lake in Old-
ham County (Fig. 1). The land through
which the stream flows is gently rolling, and
gradually slopes to the west as indicated by
the numerous tributaries that enter the
stream from the east and the essential lack
of any entering from the west. In its upper
3 km the stream flows through open mead-
ows with gently sloping banks, but as it ap-
proaches Harrods Creek the valley becomes
deeply dissected with steep, heavily wooded
banks nearly 60 m high.
The spring source is at an elevation of
225 m above mean sea level (msl) and emp-
ties into the South Fork at about 146 m
above msl, a total fall of 79 m over its course
of 8.9 km, an average fall of about 8.9 m/km
(Fig. 2). Throughout its course, and par-
ticularly through its lowermost 2.4 km, the
stream traverses a series of cataracts that
range in height to about 1.5 m. In its upper
6.4 km, the average fall is about 6.6 m/km,
whereas in the lowermost 2.4 km as it passes
over the series of cataracts, the descent is
about 12.7 m/km.
Near its source (Collins Lane, Fig. 1) at
minimal flow, the stream is about 1.2 m
wide with an average depth of about 10 cm,
Longitudinal profile of Hite Creek, Jefferson and Oldham counties, Kentucky.
and has an average discharge of less than
0.055 m/sec. Along its course it receives
several spring-fed tributaries so that at its
mouth it is 3.75-4.25 m wide with pools
ranging in depth to 45 cm with a discharge
of about 0.1 m*/sec following a heavy rain-
fall.
The Kentucky Truck Plant occupies about
200 hectares (ha) near the source of Hite
Creek, entirely within the drainage basin
of the stream. Of that property, about 65
ha are either under roof or are paved as
parking lots or concrete ramps and runways
where runoff is essentially complete. In
addition, there is a test roadway about 2 km
long. The remainder of the area is in per-
manent grassy cover or trees where runoff
is minimal.
On 10, 11, 12, and 13 September 1970 the
stream was cruised, particularly within the
Truck Plant property, samples of water and
bottom sediments were collected at various
sites, and regular sampling stations were
established. Major areas of pollution were
below the outfalls of the industrial waste
lagoons and the sewage lagoons constructed
on the property by the Metropolitan Sewer
District (Fig. 1). By 18 September 1970,
it became obvious that regular sampling
near the source of the stream and at 4 loca-
tions downstream from the outfalls would
POLLUTION OF A KENTUCKY STREAM—Krumholz and Neff 29
provide adequate information on water
quality and diversity and abundance of
aquatic organisms on which to base sound
judgments on the condition of the stream.
Accordingly, each of those areas was sam-
pled at irregular intervals for the next 15
months. A description of each area from
which samples were collected follows:
Station 1—Immediately downstream from
Collins Lane (Fig. 1), the stream is about
1 m wide and 10 cm deep, the bottom is
sandy with small gravel and some silt. Al-
gal forms present were Spirogyra sp. and
Cladophora sp., and the principal vascular
plants were the rush Scirpus validus, the
cat-tail Typha latifolia, a spike-rush (FEle-
ocharis sp.), and a sedge (Carex sp.). The
station was not shaded by trees.
Station 2.—This station was near the north
edge of the Truck Plant property about 10
m downstream from the outfall of the sew-
age lagoons (Fig. 1). In this area, the
stream had been straightened and chan-
neled with the widening of Westport Road
and was about 3 m wide and 15 cm deep.
The bottom is compact clay with small slabs
of broken limestone scattered over the
streambed. Cat-tails and sedges were com-
mon, but the outstanding characteristic of
this station was the carpet of sewage fungus
(Sphaerotilus natans) several inches thick
that completely covered the bottom and ex-
tended downstream for more than 100 m.
On 3 October, this collecting site was moved
downstream about 75 m to just outside the
Truck Plant property to eliminate checking
in and out through the security gates. The
new site was just above and below West-
port Road. The banks were grassy.
Station 3.—In the vicinity of the bridge for
State Highway 22 over Hite Creek (Fig. 1),
the stream flows due north through pasture-
land and ranges in width from 3 to 4 m with
an average depth of 25 cm. The collecting
site was about 15 m south of the bridge.
The bottom was largely gravel and rubble
mixed with sand and mud. The banks were
lined with trees but there were no higher
aquatic plants. Spirogyra and Cladophora
were the dominant algae. There was no
sewage fungus at this station.
Station 4—Most samples were collected
just upstream from the bridge on the dirt
road leading to the Maddox farm. In that
vicinity, the stream was about 3-4 m wide
and 25 cm deep. The banks were heavily
forested and the streambed was flat lime-
stone bedrock with numerous small cata-
racts and low gravelly riffles. There were
no higher aquatic plants, and, as at Station
3, the dominant algae were Spirogyra and
Cladophora. Also, there was no sewage fun-
gus at this station.
Station 5.—This station was near the bridge
over Hite Creek leading to Sleepy Hollow,
about 75 m upstream from the stream’s con-
fluence with the South Fork of Harrods
Creek. The stream was 34 m wide and
20-30 cm deep with pools ranging in depth
up to 50 cm. The streambed was covered
with rubble and boulders interspersed with
sand and gravel. The banks were heavily
forested but there were no aquatic vascular
plants. The rocks in the stream were cov-
ered with diatoms (unidentified) that im-
parted colors to the rocks ranging from
bronze to deep chocolate brown. Although
the same kinds of algae were present as at
Stations 3 and 4, here, again, there was no
sewage fungus.
Physical, Chemical, and Biological Methods
Measurements of the physical and chem-
ical characteristics of the water were deter-
mined in the field or in the laboratory ac-
cording to accepted limnological methods.
Flow was measured with an Ott current
meter, type 12.053; dissolved oxygen con-
centration was measured with a YSI Model
54 oxygen meter that had been calibrated
against the azide modification of the Wink-
ler method; specific conductivity was mea-
sured with a Beckman Model RB3 Solu-
bridge portable conductivity meter; alkalin-
ity was measured titrimetrically (American
Public Health Association, Standard Meth-
ods) using mixed bromcresol green—methy]
red indicator to a pH of 4.8 and checked
potentiometrically; hardness was checked
30 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
using the EDTA titrimetric method (Stand-
ard Methods, Method B) with Hach Chemi-
cal Co., combined butfer—indicator powder;
pH was read from an IL Model 175 field
pH meter; temperatures were measured
with a Taylor mercury stem thermometer
and the above-mentioned YSI oxygen meter;
chlorides were measured by Mohr titration
(Standard Methods, Method C). A Perkin-
Elmer Model 303 Atomic Absorption Spec-
trophotometer was used to determine con-
centrations of various cations, following
procedures outlined in Perkin-Elmer Ana-
lytical Methods (1968). Concentrations of
calcium were determined _titrimetrically
with EDTA (Standard Methods, Method
C) and checked with atomic absorption.
Magnesium was taken as the difference be-
tween calcium hardness and total hardness.
Square-foot samples of the bottom mate-
rials were collected with a Surber sampler
at irregular intervals and were preserved in
ethanol and taken to the laboratory for sort-
ing and counting. All organisms were iden-
tified to species whenever possible, and
their abundance and distribution were re-
corded,
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
oF HitTE CREEK
So far as we can determine, there is no
previous information available on the physi-
cochemical characteristics of the water in
Hite Creek. We have assumed that the por-
tion of the stream above the outfalls for the
industrial and sewage wastes from the
Truck Plant was not affected by those ef-
fluents or by the construction of the plant.
Our first visit to the stream was on 10 Sep-
tember. At that time, the stream at West-
port Road was highly polluted and foul
smelling, obviously because of the constant
flow of supernatant liquids from the sewage
lagoons. Although the neutralized indus-
trial wastes also were entering the stream,
they did not appear to contribute to the
odor.
When those same wastes were diverted
to the unfinished sewage treatment facility
on 1 October, they were released into the
stream without further treatment, the net
effect being to relieve about 4 km (2.5
miles) of Hite Creek (essentially from West-
port Road to Interstate Highway 71) from
the burden of those effluents and to shift
that burden to the lowermost 3.2 km of the
stream. At the same time, it provided an
opportunity to study, even though for a very
limited time, the sequence of events in the
recovery of the stream as they took place
following the sudden and complete cessa-
tion of massive pollution.
It is well known that rainfall accelerates
the recovery of a stream from pollution by
flushing out the watercourse and removing
accumulated debris, the greater the rain-
fall, the greater the flushing action. In areas
of continuing pollution, the rainfall also
serves as a diluent, lessening the effects of
pollution and ameliorating the conditions
for aquatic life. During the early part of
the current study period, the total rainfall
was well above the average for that time of
year. At Anchorage, Kentucky, (about 3.2
km south of the Truck Plant), only 0.94 cm
of rain fell between 10 and 20 September,
but from 21 September to 20 October, there
was 17.83 cm of rain, more than twice the
average for that period. If the rainfall at
the Truck Plant was equivalent to that at
Anchorage, a total of about 117 million
liters of water fell on the 65 ha under roof
or with hard surface where complete runoff
is expected. In addition, there must have
been some runoff from other areas follow-
ing such heavy rainfall. Assuming that the
total effluent of 4.65 million liters a day
from the Truck Plant continued uninter-
ruptedly for the same period, the total ef-
fluent would have been about 135 million
liters. Thus, the total runoff into Hite Creek
from rainfall from 21 September to 20 Oc-
tober probably was at least as great as the
total contribution of effluents from the
Truck Plant. About 10 cm of that rain fell
after the effluents had been diverted from
the Truck Plant to the unfinished treatment
plant on 1 October.
There is a close correlation between the
amount of rainfall and the turbidity of wa-
ter in a stream, especially in an area where
the surface of the soil has been disturbed.
|
|
)
|
|
POLLUTION OF A KENTUCKY STREAM—Krumholz and Neff ol
TABLE 1.—WAaATER TEMPERATURES (C) aT VARI-
ous STATIONS IN HITE CREEK, JEFFERSON AND OLD-
HAM CouNTIES, KENTUCKY, SEPTEMBER 1970
THROUGH AuGusT 1971
Station Number
1 2 3 4 5
1970 11 Sep 29.0 25.9
1p; 25:06) 22.0%) 23.0 20.0
14 Past? 26a 27.6
145) 0p 23:0" 26:0 “27:0 26:0
16 ZOOetecoa lay. 626.2" 23.2
18 fo Loon Zon: Zool 22:8
pA | PAM G6 At PAG 12203 (22.2,
29 Do On L24.077 20:0 18:5" 16:0
@ Oct eons 107s 15.02.47 .2 . 15:8
8 13:08 19.02 517.5 16.8 14:0
14 NO: Sib 19.5 C1910) 118.0
20 1308 LAOR1140 T1410) 14.0
28 TAOrr 13.581 14.0 ~-15.08 14.0
7 Nov eos 12087136. 10:2
Ja One la sear i3.5 “1S. 12:5
18 9.0 10.0 9.0 9.5 9.0
24 3.0 3.0 DAS 2.0 1.0
7 Dec 5.0 Bs: 4.0 4.5 2.0
15 5.0) 10:5 7.0 7.5 5.0
DAE 8.0 6.5 6.2 7.0 1.0
HOF 1 D1. Jan 4.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
16 Feb 8.0 9.0 FAW
9 Mar 8.5 14d 7.0 6.5
16 Apr Oe I3-5e 7 21:0’ - 195 18:0
24 May Hieo) t 20:0) § 23.0..,.21:0) 20.0
23 Jun Pies, 240 84:5 695.0) 95.5
27 Jul ZERO 295 F240 23.0% 21.0
31 Aug DOO 25.50) 26:0 « (25.3: 23.0
On the north side of Westport Road imme-
diately opposite the Truck Plant property,
a new subdivision has been under construc-
tion since mid-1970. In that area, there has
been extensive disturbance of the soil sur-
face that is directly correlated with turbid-
ities in Hite Creek during and following
rainfall. As mentioned earlier, the upper
reaches of Hite Creek within the Truck
Plant property are protected by a perma-
nent grassy cover on the watershed, and
there is little siltation following even rela-
tively heavy rainfall. Turbidities of the wa-
ter in Hite Creek in that area ranged from
0.2 to 39 mg/I of silicon dioxide for an aver-
age of about 14.5 mg/l. At Station 2, just
below Westport Road, the range in turbidity
was from 0.2 to 252 mg/l with an average of
28.5 mg/l, and at Stations 3, 4, and 5, the
ranges were from 1.25 to 295, 3.1 to 178, and
TABLE 2.—DIsSOLVED OXYGEN, AS PERCENTAGE
SATURATION, AT VARIOUS STATIONS IN HITE CREEK,
JEFFERSON AND OLDHAM COouNTIES, KENTUCKY,
SEPTEMBER 1970 THROUGH Aucust 1971
Station Number
1 2 Bee A 5
1970 11 Sep 110.39 38-2
12 102-47 © 70.1° 46.1 81.3
14 110.8 81.4 De 16:01 708
15 OZ. oo-orn ou.) SLZy S02,
16 Toga UG. fi. S29, 872
18 79.0 30.1 46.9 81.6
A (2-om. oft) oL.6 ., 50.8%) 70.6
29 ISoometo.00854.9 G6GLSe 85.7
3 Oct IZ5:00M bS:SA107.4 434.3 T7.1
8 2D00tMU( Lien tio. TA Sse
14 Soule 9131 89.6. 8L.b¢ 92:5
20 OF. UGE S9 Ore 92.1 S27) 96:0
28 90.2 99.0 93.0 96.1
7 Nov 95.09 HOG. 3121.4 1944 184A
1, IT SOR TO4 91239" FI6.2)~ 86:8
18 10355102798 95:7 - 99:6; 89:6
24 173 elope. 6G. 109 55 1049
te Dec 1222 EGeel hi ktO:9 | 98%5
ibs ZA OT Feel 20:0: ELSO4 . 98:4
21 LO2Ge 7 92288 9725. 95:85 102-5
197 Zi yan 106.2" 101.6":100.8 95.4° 101-5
16 Feb 11.0 100:0 90.8
9 Mar LOL 1080 .<99.2 ~ 97.9
16 Apr L7O:S2120:07160-8 13:07 1063
24 May 130.2 122.2 165.2 113.9 96.0
23 Jun 98.9 109.5 118.6 102.4 102.4
Zi aval
31 Aug 116.0 144.5 145.7. 976 90.6
2.9 to 233 mg/I, respectively, with respective
averages of 30.3, 24.6, and 26.2 mg/l. From
this information, it appears that the primary
cause of turbidity in Hite Creek originated
from construction taking place outside the
Truck Plant property.
Water temperatures in Hite Creek mir-
rored the seasonal air temperatures through-
out the study (Table 1). Although the
principal source of the stream is a spring,
a small impoundment near the source has
an ameliorating effect on water tempera-
ture. In this study, we considered the out-
let of that pond at Collins Lane as the
source of Hite Creek (Station 1, Fig. 1).
As in most streams, temperature was not a
limiting factor; the range for all measure-
ments recorded during the study was from
1.0 C in late November 1970 to 29.5 C in
July sLOZ.
32 TRANS. KeENntucKyY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
TABLE 3.—ConpbucTiviry (MHOS) OF WATER AT
Various STATIONS IN HirE CREEK, JEFERSON AND
OLDHAM CouNTIES, KENTUCKY, SEPTEMBER 1970
THROUGH AvuGustT 1971
Station Number
1 2, 3 4 5
1970 11 Sep 250
12 370 510 720 880
14 260 430 320
15 355 620 190 420 220
16 330 750 700 520 400
18 360 890 820 750
21 100 750 570 680 780
29 230 920 450 540 720
3 Oct 380 500 490 950 850
8 245 190 310 740 1100
14 315. 340) 975 . 275) 4360
20 350 118 220 350 410
28 385 250 295 580 450
7 Nov 395 450 425 600 620
12 400 360 440 575 725
18 395 405 410 615 570
24 385 375 370 415 420
7 Dec 390 380 340 750 520
15 380 390 420 750 690
21 355 290.0) 180°. 235) 235
1971 21 Jan 350 350 325 510 550
16 Feb 725 550 440
9 Mar 330 335 520 470
16 Apr 310 370 295 850 750
294 May 340 425 265 675 590
23 Jun 370 350 395 675 575
27 Jul 400 400 360 590 680
31 Aug 370 280 360 900 775
Even though temperature itself was not
a limiting factor, the influence of tempera-
ture on dissolved oxygen in water is impor-
tant. The solubility of atmospheric oxygen
in fresh waters ranges from 14.6 mg/] at
0 C to about 8 mg/I at 30 C. Still, the salu-
brious effect of lower stream temperatures,
the continuing agitation and mixing of the
water by the current, and the turbulence
provided by the many small cataracts in
Hite Creek tend to assure dissolved oxygen
values close to or in excess of saturation
(Table 2). Our observations in Hite Creek
indicate that there were satisfactory con-
centrations of oxygen at all times in the
stream above the Truck Plant. However, in
the area below the discharges of sewage
and industrial wastes prior to 1 October,
there was a marked depletion of dissolved
oxygen to as little as 19 percent saturation
TABLE 4.—BICARBONATE ALKALINITY (MG/1) OF
WATER AT VARIOUS STATIONS IN HITE CREEK, JEF-
FERSON AND OLDHAM CouNTIES, KENTUCKY, SEP-
TEMBER 1970 THROUGH AucusT 1971
Station Number
1 2 3 +4 5
1970 11 Sep 108 82
12 147-129’ 106 136
14 156." T18"* 128
15 96 128); alain 2s
16 178. 1290°-186 4255243
18 168 134. 72 148
on 196.106 “152 7 16a eae
29 175 140 ~152)° 9 efeea e2
SOG 112. 172) (146 ae
8 160 62. 114., Be ao
14 184 122 . 124) 130
20 167 42 12 TOUS Tg
28 188 11S 12d See
7 Nov 190 180 S182 ayes
12; 190 168 ~ 182) ister
18 192 177 \ Yi sist os
24 164. 151.” 155 eee
7 Dec 170 145. 142° 94677 a0
15 186 172 166° Siiseeeas
21 164 80 62 74 84
1971.21) Jan 156 147, 138 )aSGetiss
16 Feb 87 160 129
9 Mar 123 122) Wea
16 Apr 138 = 120° "1 Waste taG
24 May 143 11% =102) sates
23 Jun
27 Fal 175~— 155. ~ 162) See
31 Aug 169 +100: > 34 98 122
(1.6 mg/l) on 29 September (Table 2).
Once those wastes were diverted, there was
a marked resurgence of dissolved oxygen at
Stations 2 and 3, between the Truck Plant
and the new facility, with a continued de-
pression at Stations 4 and 5 below the new
facility where the untreated wastes entered
the stream. Again, as soon as the new sew-
age treatment facility began to process the
wastes early in November, there was a dra-
matic increase in dissolved oxygen at Sta-
tions 4 and 5, and those high levels per-
sisted at all stations for the remainder of
the study.
Hydrogen ion concentrations (pH) were
slightly alkaline at all stations and ranged
from 7.2 to 8.9 throughout the study.
Conductivities (total electrolytes or total
ions ) showed expected values for streams of
the region (Table 3). The increase in elec-
POLLUTION OF A KENTUCKY STREAM—Krumholz and Neff 33
TABLE 5.—RANGES AND AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS OF MAjyoR CATIONS AND CHLORIDES AT VARIOUS
STATIONS IN HITE CREEK, JEFFERSON AND OLDHAM COUNTIES, KENTUCKY
Station Number
it)
Calcium
Range 8.6—-17.7 18.2—52.5
Average 14.8 Sane
Magnesium
Range 10.9-20.9 10.6—22.3
Average 15.4 14.9
Iron
Range 0.00-0.78 0.04—5.26
Average 0.24 0.64
Manganese
Range 0.02—0.44 0.00—1.41
Average 0.19 0.37
Potassium
Range 1.01-3.32
Average 1.68
Copper
Range 0.00—0.07
Average 0.02
Chloride
Range 3.6—-175.3
Average Pale)
3 4 5
19.2-64.9 22.1-67.9 18.8-62.5
37.5 45.6 44.7
9.2-24.] 5.8-20.7 11.0-23.1
15.2 14.0 15.1
0.05-10.18 0.02-4.65 0.05-5.35
0.93 0.58 0.52
0.00—2.05 0.00—2.44 0.01-0.18
0.44 0.35 0.07
1.22-3.44 2.40-6.33 2.01-7.88
2.12 4.03 3.87
0.00-0.10 0.00—0.10 0.00-0.14
0.03 0.04 0.04
4,2-90.9 8.5-290.0 9.7-231.5
19.5 106.9 90.2
trolytes below the outfalls of the Truck
Plant during September 1970 is not surpris-
ing, particularly in light of the fact that the
effluents from the industrial waste lagoons
comprised more than two-thirds of the total
discharge of the stream at that time. Those
wastes contained many electrolytes that had
been brought to neutral hydrogen ion con-
centration by buffering prior to discharge.
As with dissolved oxygen, the diversion of
all wastes to the sewage treatment facility
on 1 October merely transferred the burden
downstream, and the high values at Station
2 in September became manifest at Station
4 thereafter (Table 3). The high value for
conductivity at Station 2 on 16 February
1971 was traceable to a special incident.
Following a heavy snowfall, the Truck
Plant used about 20 tons of salt (sodium
chloride) to aid in snow and ice removal
from some ramps and roadways. As the
snow melted, it carried the salt into the
stream.
Bicarbonate alkalinity at the source of
Hite Creek (Station 1, Table 4) ranged
from 112 to 217 mg/1] during the study pe-
riod, with an average value of 169 mg/l.
These values are within the normal range of
alkalinity for streams in the region. The
values for stations farther downstream
showed rather wide variations, and re-
flected the influence of effluents from the
Truck Plant. On some occasions, those ef-
fluents contained rather concentrated chem-
ical wastes, at other times, they were pri-
marily large discharges of clean water used
as a diluent. After the new treatment plant
became operative early in November 1970
and began processing all waste materials
from the Truck Plant, the fluctuations be-
came of lesser magnitude (Table 4).
Since Hite Creek is a limestone stream,
it was expected that the calcium carbonate
hardness was moderately high and within
the usual range for other streams in the re-
gion. As with the other chemical parame-
ters, the effects of dilution following rain-
fall were readily manifest. The relatively
34 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
low values for hardness on 8 and 20 Octo-
ber, along with those on 21 December, were
directly correlated with heavy rainfalls at
those times.
Each of the major cations, calcium, mag-
nesium, iron, manganese, and potassium
were present in amounts comparable to
those of other limestone streams in the re-
gion (Table 5). Total iron was most abun-
dant during periods of high discharge and
retlected the iron suspended in sediments,
particularly in samples collected on 8 and
20 October. Samples analyzed for zine
revealed that concentrations ranged from
0 to 0.12 mg/l, but in most samples the
amounts were so small as to be barely de-
tectable.
Among the anions, chlorides showed the
greatest range of concentration (Table 5).
As mentioned earlier, the single high value
at Stations 2 and 3 resulted from salting
ramps and runways following a heavy snow-
fall in February 1971. The high values at
Stations 4 and 5 did not become manifest
until the sewage treatment plant became
operative and began chlorination of wastes
in November 1970. Prior to that time, chlo-
rides were relatively low throughout the
stream. Sulfates were fairly high early in
the study period probably because of the
industrial wastes issuing from the Truck
Plant, but dropped markedly as soon as the
treatment plant was in full operation. Ni-
trates, nitrites, and phosphates were within
the expected ranges for limestone streams
of the region throughout the study period.
BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF HITE CREEK
The numbers and kinds of organisms in
a stream community usually indicate the
quality of living conditions, and provide a
sound basis for assessing the extent of deg-
radation of the environment long after the
physical and chemical causes of the degra-
dation have disappeared (Hynes 1960,
1970). These organisms can also document
the recovery of the stream from environ-
mental insult. Some organisms are quite
tolerant to low concentrations of dissolved
oxygen while others may require levels near
saturation. Some insect larvae are quite
tolerant to relatively high levels of organic |
pollution, others may feed clean waters |
for their livelihood. Accordingly, much |
time and effort was expended in obtaining
adequate samples of the different organisms
at all stations in Hite Creek so that changes _
in the populations could be documented.
From the beginning of the study, it was
readily obvious that the upper reaches of |
the stream were not polluted. There may |
have been minimal effluents from the farm |
property near the spring source, but any |
untoward effects would have been amelio-
rated as the water passed through the small
impoundment just outside the property of
the Truck Plant. Below the effluents from |
the industrial waste and sewage lagoons,
it was obvious that there was gross pollution |
of the stream.
On 11 and 12 September, 2 square-foot
bottom samples were collected at Stations
1, 2, 3, and 5 and just below the outfall from
the industrial waste lagoons. In those collec-
tions, the kinds and numbers of aquatic ani-
mals present upstream from the point where
the first effluents from the Truck Plant en-
tered the stream were about as expected ©
for that size stream at that time of year (Ta-
ble 6).
the stream below the outfall of the indus-
trial waste lagoons, and only relatively few
at Station 2. At Station 3, however, the ef-
fects of the effluents had been ameliorated |
to some extent and the stream had recoy-
ered sufficiently to support large numbers
of midges and black flies that feed primar-
ily on detritus or particulate matter, an in-
dication that the stream was beginning to
to assimilate the materials that entered some
distance upstream. The numbers and kinds
of organisms collected at Station 5 reflect
the more diverse nature of the stream sub-
strate made up of stones and rubble and a
much more stable community of aquatic
organisms.
At Station 1, all but one of the 10 major
groups of organisms listed in Table 6 were
represented, and in addition there was an
abundance of freshwater sponges, an indi-
cation of relatively high quality water. Also
There were no such organisms in |
|
|
|
POLLUTION OF A KENTUCKY STREAM—Krumholz and Neff 35
TABLE 6.—NUMBERS OF SPECIES AND INDIVIDUALS OF BOTTOM ORGANISMS TAKEN IN BOTTOM SAMPLES
AT DIFFERENT STATIONS IN HITE CREEK, JEFFERSON AND OLDHAM CouNTIES, KENTuUCKy, 11 ANpD 12
SEPTEMBER 1970. STraTION 1-D Was IMMEDIATELY BELOW THE OUTFALL OF THE SEWAGE LAGOONS
Station 1 Station 1-D Station 2 Station 3 Station 5
No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of
Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms
Diptera 2 195 0 0 3 8 2, 48 B, 23
Trichoptera 3 253 0 0 ih 6 0 0 1 1
Ephemeroptera 1 143 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0
Megaloptera i il 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Odonata ik li 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hemiptera il il 0 0 1 1 0 0 I 1
Coleoptera 1 12 0 0 0 0 if 2 1 1
Mollusca 1 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Other il 10 0 0 0 0 0) 0 1 3
Totals 1, 632 0 0 5 15 4 53 vf 29
at that station there were more different verted on 1 October, the bacterial carpet
species of organisms than at any other sta- began to disintegrate and had completely
tion indicating a relatively high diversity disappeared within 2 weeks. At Station 2,
and a well-balanced community. Just be- 5 of the 10 major groups were represented
low the outfall of the sewage lagoons, the by 7 species and a total of 30 individuals.
unbroken carpet of sewage fungus showed The most numerous were members of the
beyond doubt that the materials issuing more tolerant midges. At Station 3, 7 of
from those lagoons was the primary source the 10 major groups were represented by
of organic pollution in Hite Creek. That 11 species among which the midges and
kind of bacterial growth develops best in blackflies were most numerous, but there
running waters where it feeds principally were relatively large numbers of snails and
on organic matter, particularly carbohy- some dragonfly larvae. At Station 4, only
drates. But it also requires large quantities 6 of the 10 groups were represented by 8
of nitrogen that it obtains from both or- species, but as mentioned previously, the
ganic and inorganic sources. As soon as the gradient of the stream and the resulting
effluents from the sewage lagoons were di- substrate at that station precluded the oc-
TABLE 7.—NUMBERS OF SPECIES AND INDIVIDUALS OF BOTTOM ORGANISMS TAKEN IN BOTTOM SAMPLES
IN Hire CREEK, JEFFERSON AND OLDHAM COouNTIES, KENTuCKy, DuRING OcTOBER 1970
Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5
No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of
Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms
Diptera 3 43 1. 130 5 106 4 725 3 1069
Trichoptera 1 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 108
Ephemeroptera 2 2, 0 0 0 0 1 i 9. 36
Megaloptera 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Odonata 0 0 0 0 1 f 0 0 0 0
Hemiptera 2, 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 i 1
Coleoptera 1 10 0 0 1 i 0 0 1 1
Plecoptera 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Oligochaeta 1 18 1 540 1 126 1 11 0 0
Mollusca 3 60 0 0 2 69 2 258 1 1
Crustacea 4 151 0 0 1 GE 4 146 1 Z
Other iE i! 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 18 293 p) 670 6
ioe)
=
_
—
bo
—
| —_
—
"|
—
©
p—_
bo
—"
36
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
TABLE 8.—SurRvEY OF HITE CREEK, JEFFERSON AND OLDHAM CouNTIES, KENTUCKY. NUMBERS OF SPE-
CIES AND INDIVIDUALS TAKEN IN BOTTOM SAMPLES FROM NOVEMBER 1970 TO SEPTEMBER 1971
Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5
No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of
Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms
Diptera 5 835 7 826 7 241 8 955 6 581
Trichoptera 1 20 1 1 Li 5 2 Tas: 1 116
Ephemeroptera 2 28 2 3 2 | 1 10 2 18
Megaloptera 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 | 1 3
Odonata 2 2, 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
Hemiptera 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Coleoptera 3 6 2 4 2, 2 4 5 5 14
Plecoptera 0 0 0 0 ih if 0 0 2 3
Oligochaeta 1 89 if ar 1 1018 1 64 1 10
Mollusca 3 5 1 i: 3 86 3 236 1 i
Crustacea 4 132 0 0 1 2 0 0 4 7
Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 z 0 0
Total 21 1117 14 2012 18 1362 Dap 1288 23 ips
currence of organisms adapted to living in
silty, sandy, or gravelly bottoms.
It is well documented in the literature
that streams rapidly regain populations of
bottom dwelling organisms when pollution
is abated, thereby reestablishing the com-
plex foodwebs that make up a healthy
stream community. It is also well known
that rainfall accelerates the recovery of a
stream from pollution by flushing out the
watercourse and removing accumulated de-
bris and making the stream more amenable
to occupancy by the bottom fauna. How-
ever, the establishment of populations of
bottom organisms depends to a great extent
on a favorable reproductive season. With
the diversion of waste effluents from the
Truck Plant to the sewage treatment facil-
ity on 1 October followed by heavy rain-
fall, that portion of Hite Creek between
Stations 2 and 4 began to recover. Although
there are no great differences in the kinds
or organisms collected in September and
October from various stations in Hite Creek
(Tables 6, 7), the stage had been set for
the rejuvenation of the populations of bot-
tom organisms.
Collections of bottom organisms were
continued until September 1971 and there
was a dramatic resurgence of the numbers
and kinds of animals, especially in the area
immediately below the Truck Plant (Station
2. Table 8), following the diversion of the
waste discharges. In October 1970 (Table
7), only 2 of the most tolerant forms were
found whereas in the following 10 months
there were indications that at least 14 kinds
of organisms were establishing colonies.
The abundance of oligochaetes at Station 2
were indicative of the lingering effects of
the earlier pollution, but by September
1971, most of those had disappeared.
Preliminary sorting of our collections
from Hite Creek included at least 57 differ-
ent kinds of bottom organisms as follows:
1 planarian, 1 or more tubificids, 1 leech,
2 isopods, 2 amphipods, 1 crayfish, 4 snails,
1 fingernail clam, and 44 different kinds of
insects ( 2 stoneflies, 4 mayflies, 2 damsel-
flies, 6 dragonflies, 3 hemipterans, 1 mega-
lopteran, 4 caddisflies, 14 true flies, and 8
beetles). In all likelihood, other kinds of
invertebrates are present in the stream or
will become established as environmental
conditions continue to improve.
Streams as small as Hite Creek do not or-
dinarily support extensive fish populations,
but during the course of our investigation
we collected 3 kinds of minnows, the stone-
roller Campostoma anomalum, the river
shiner Notropis blennius, and the common
shiner Notropis cornutus; 3 kinds of sun-
fishes, the bluegill Lepomis macrochirus,
the longear sunfish Lepomis megalotis, and
the largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides;
the blackstripe topminnow Fundulus no-
PoLLUTION OF A Kentucky STREAM—Krumholz and Neff 37
tatus, and the black bullhead Ictalurus
melas.
DISCUSSION
This study provided an opportunity to
document the sequence of events in Hite
Creek while the stream was overwhelmed
by industrial and domestic wastes and fol-
lowing the abatement of that pollution. The
changes in the physical and chemical char-
acteristics of the water as soon as the wastes
from the Truck Plant were diverted to the
sewage treatment facility provided an early
indication that the quality of the water un-
derwent a sudden and dramatic improve-
ment. Populations of aquatic insects be-
came reestablished very quickly when
enviromental conditions became suitable.
Even though aquatic insects contribute
a major portion to the assemblage of bot-
tom organisms, there are a great many other
invertebrates that perform a relatively im-
portant role in the functioning of the stream
ecosystem as outlined by Krumholz and
Neff (1970), Macan (1963), Coker (1954),
Hynes (1960, 1970), and many others. In
a stream like Hite Creek where there has
been a gross insult to the environment fol-
lowed by an abrupt cessation of that insult,
it is difficult to evaluate the changes as
they occur and to predict the time required
for the reestablishment of all segments of
the biota. Many workers have pointed out
the difficulties in adequately sampling bot-
tom fauna (Macan 1958, 1961; Hynes 1960;
Cummins 1962; Armitage 1961; Elliott
1967; Minshall 1968; Minckley 1963; Niel-
sen 1950, and others ). In the present study,
only selected sites were sampled routinely
and it is quite likely that many kinds of or-
ganisms not reported here live and thrive
in Hite Creek, and will continue to do so as
long as conditions remain favorable.
In spite of the paucity of data gathered
from the limited number of sampling sites,
it is obvious from the data in Tables 6, 7,
and 8 that Hite Creek was well on its way to
recovery within a year following the abate-
ment of pollution. In many ways, Hite
Creek is typical of small streams throughout
the nation that have been the recipients of
noxious wastes. We believe that most such
streams can recover, at least partially, to
their former states when pollution is abated.
LITERATURE CITED
AMERICAN Pusiic HEALTH ASSOCIATION. 1971.
Standard methods for the examination of wa-
ter and wastewater. Thirteenth edition. Wash-
ington, D.C. 874 pp.
ARMITAGE, K. 1961. Distribution of riffle insects
of the Firehole River, Wyoming. Hydrobio-
logia 17:152-174.
Coxer, R. E. 1954. Lakes, Streams, Ponds.
Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, N.C.
347 pp.
Cummins, K. W. 1962. An evaluation of some
techniques for the collection and analysis of
benthic samples with special emphasis on lotic
waters. Amer. Midl. Nat. 67(2):477—504.
Exuiotr, J. M. 1967. Invertebrate drift in a
Dartmoor stream. Arch. Hydrobiol. 63:202—
Dots
Hynes, H. B. N. 1960. The biology of polluted
waters. Liverpool Univ. Press, Liverpool, En-
gland. 202 pp.
1970. The biology of running waters.
Liverpool Univ. Press, Liverpool, England.
55D pp:
KruMuHoiz, L. A., AND S. E. Nerr. 1970. The
freshwater stream, a complex ecosystem.
Water Resources Bull. 6(2):163—174.
Macan, T. T. 1958. Methods of sampling the
bottom fauna in stony streams. Mitt. int. Ass.
theor. appl. Limnol. 8:1—21.
1961. A review of running water
Verh. int. ver. Limnol. 14:587—602.
. 1963. Freshwater Ecology. John
Wiley & Sons Inc. New York, N.Y. 338 pp.
MinckieEy, W. L. 1963. The ecology of a spring
stream, Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky.
Wildl. Monogr. No. 11:1—124.
MinsHALL, G. W. 1968. Community dynamics
of the benthic fauna of a woodland spring-
brook community. Hydrobiologia 32:305-339.
NIELSEN, A. 1950. The torrential invertebrate
fauna. Oikos 2:176-196.
PERKIN-ELMER CoRPORATION. 1968. Analytical
methods for atomic absorption spectrophotem-
etry. Lombard, Illinois. Looseleaf manual.
studies.
NEWS AND COMMENT
The In 1974, The Kentucky Junior
Kentucky Academy of Science spon-
Junior sored 3 major events for the
Academy student membership: a state-
of Science wide talent search, the second
1974—1975 KJAS Spring Symposium, and
a series of regional seminars
that met concurrently in the late fall.
The symposium was held in April at
Transylvania University, Lexington. Fifty-
one papers were presented in areas of the
biological and physical sciences. The nat-
ural sciences were divided into 8 sections
for the symposium: animal physiology, be-
havioral science, biochemistry and medi-
cine, botany, chemistry, ecology and earth
science, microbiology, and physics. The
physics section had the most participation
with 10 papers presented.
Students in each section presented their
papers before a panel of judges, and a cash
award of $30.00 was presented to the author
of the best paper in each section; second
and third prizes received $10.00 each. The
first prize winners in each section were:
P. C. Wagner, Wag-
gener High,
Louisville
Animal Physiology
John Meisenheimer,
Jr., Model Labora-
tory, Richmond
Joy Arnold, Owen
Behavioral Science
Biochemistry and
Medicine County, Owenton
Botany Suzie Yaste, Marion
County, Lebanon
Chemistry Evelyn Goodin,
Marion County,
Lebanon
Ecology and Earth Connie Mitchell,
Science Augusta High,
Augusta
Microbiology James Harris, Model
Laboratory,
Richmond
38
Physics Terry Rogelstad,
Warren East,
Bowling Green
Francis Ballard, Marion County High
School, won the state science talent search
award of $75.00. Her paper, entitled “Noise
Pollution,’ was entered in the nationwide
Westinghouse Science Talent Search. The
winner of the 1975 State Talent Search will |
be announced at the spring meeting in
April.
This was the second consecutive year
that KJAS sponsored a spring symposium.
Hopefully, attendance and_ participation
will continue to increase along with an im-
provement in quality of papers.
Clubs belonging to KJAS now receive a
cash award of $40.00 for the best scrapbook
of club activities with the award going to
the club with the best presentation and the
most activities. Evarts High School’s club
(Harlan County) received the 1974 award
at the spring meeting.
For the academic year 1974-1975, KJAS
awarded $248.00 in research grants to stu-
dents from 7 senior high schools. In the
fall, KJAS members submitted research pro-
posals to a selection committee of KAS
members. A total of 18 proposals was sub-
mitted with 7 students receiving individual
grants ranging from $19 to $50. This finan-
cial support will be used to purchase equip-
ment, travel to college libraries and labora-
tories, and as travel funds for field work.
Recipients are expected to report their re-
sults or make a progress report in the 1975
symposium.
In December 1974, KJAS sponsored a
one-day seminar with the theme, “Natural
Resources of Our Kentucky.” The seminar
was held at 7 institutions over Kentucky,
viz., Alice Lloyd College, Eastern Kentucky
University, University of Louisville, More-
head State University, Murray State Uni-
versity, Thomas More College, and Western
Kentucky University. Students and teachers
from all secondary schools in the state were
invited to participate with the KJAS mem-
NEws AND COMMENT 39
bership. Each seminar dealt with regional
problems on land use, endangered habitats
and species, and the use and abuse of other
regional resources. At each _ institution,
KAS members presented talks or led dis-
cussions to provide general information in
these problem areas and point out possible
research projects that could be conducted
by individual students, teachers, or science
clubs. A total of 40 schools and more than
380 students and teachers attended these
programs. This attendance figure is one of
the largest ever for a KJAS-sponsored ac-
tivity. Hopefully, the meetings generated
interest and enthusiasm that will be trans-
lated into activities designed to investigate
our natural resources at a regional level.
The 1975 symposium will be held Satur-
day, 26 April at The Centre College of Ken-
tucky, Danville. KAS members are urged
to participate as judges if they are con-
tacted by a KJAS representative.
Present membership in the Junior Acad-
emy stands at 38 clubs and 4 individual
members. Four new clubs added this year
are Russellville High School in Russellville,
Madison ( Co.) Central in Richmond, Lloyd
Memorial in Erlanger, and St. Mary’s in
Paducah. In recent years, club membership
has been increasing at an annual rate of 10
percent. For the ecologists, geographers,
and demographers, this rate represents a
doubling time of 7 years! In this case,
growth is slow when one realizes that there
are over 300 senior high schools in the state!
The elected officers of KJAS are an asset
to the organization and they have been
quite active in its activities. The officers
for 1974-1975 are:
President—Ray Hislope, Marion County
High School
Vice-President—Joy Arnold, Owen
County High School
Secretary—Connie Mitchell, Augusta
High School
William H. Martin, Director
Eastern Kentucky University
Report Background and Aims
from the In 1973, the Kentucky Sci-
Kentucky ence and Technology Com-
Task Force
mission joined with the Ken-
on Public — tucky Academy of Science
Science and jn a statewide study of the
Technology status of science and tech-
nology. This study has been
carried out principally by 2 task forces.
The Task Force on Private Science and
Technology, under the direction of Mr.
Charles Hoertz of Ashland Oil, has under-
taken a study of the private sector. This is
a summary report of the second task force,
the Task Force on Public Science and Tech-
nology concerned with public sector as-
pects, under the direction of Dr. William
G. Lloyd, Department of Chemistry, West-
ern Kentucky University.
Our general mandate was described by
Damon Harrison, Commissioner of Com-
merce and Chairman of the Science and
Technology Commission, in these words:
“As a starter, we need to document Ken-
tucky’s current scientific and technological
resources and to find ways to better utilize
these resources to solve problems and stimu-
late growth.” Our efforts have been coor-
dinated by Dr. Marvin W. Russell, Past
President of the Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence and a member of the Kentucky Science
and Technology Commission.
The Main Projects
Four main projects have been undertaken
by groups of task force members:
Kentucky's Needs in the Area of Public
Science and Technology. This study, con-
ducted in 1973, required development of a
questionnaire in which the questions were
nondirective. Each respondent was also
asked to spell out ‘the one or two most im-
portant problem areas which might be
helped by the better application of science
and technology in the public sector’. About
600 questionnaires were sent out to 6 groups
of respondents: members of the Kentucky
legislature, state agency supervisors and
technical people (drawn mainly from de-
40 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2)
partments with responsibilities of a techno-
logical nature ), municipal and county tech-
nical people (engineers, agricultural agents,
public health official), academic scientists
and engineers (every thirtieth name on an
alphabetical list), scientists and engineers
in private industry (a list provided by our
sister task force), and a group representing
the general public. Responses have been
analyzed in detail in a 42-page report en-
titled “Kentucky Needs in the Area of Pub-
lic Science and Technology. This study
was carried out by Donald Rowe and Wil-
liam Lloyd.
The 1974 Kentucky Scientific Manpower
Registry. A simple questionnaire identify-
ing areas of scientific and technological ex-
pertise was developed and sent to every
academic scientist and engineer in the
state. Instead of making our own analysis
of what seemed important to us from these
returns, the task force has done something
we hope will be of greater value: it has
placed this information in the state com-
puter system and has developed a simple
search system (the SMART system, Scien-
tific Manpower Access—Retrieval) which
permits fast searches for individuals pos-
sessing any particular scientific of engineer-
ing expertise, or expertise in any combina-
tion of fields, or any combination of
expertise with geographic area, institu-
tional affiliation, degrees held, research
activity, or any of several other character-
istics. Searches can be run from any ter-
minal of the state computer system. A 33-
page manual has been written, explaining
in detail how to use this system: The 1974
Kentucky Scientific Manpower Registry:
Manual for the SMART Access—Retrieval
System. This manual was prepared by
Michael Furlong and William Lloyd.
Scientific Dissertations and Theses in Ken-
tucky Since 1950. The most neglected of
all the scientific resources in this or any
state has been the academic dissertation.
In Kentucky alone, since 1950, thousands
of man-years have been spent in painstak-
ing observation and interpretation of scien-
tific and engineering data. The reason for
ignoring this mine of information is easy |
to grasp: those involved in research and |
development studies, whether in the public ;
or the private sectors, have no quick and —
easy way to find out if and where there
may be dissertations in areas of relevance
to present problems. Borrowing heavily —
from the programming of the manpower |
registry described above, the task force has —
created a START (Scientific Thesis Access— _
Retrieval) index which now contains over |
4700 scientific and engineering disserta- |
tions and theses, from 1950 through 1973.
Dissertation titles can be located by a sim- —
ple computer search query, according to |
specialty or a combination of specialties, —
using other optional criteria such as insti-
tution, author name, degree level, or year
of degree. These searches can be made
from any terminal of the state computer
system. A 30-page manual has been writ-
ten, explaining what can be gotten from the
START index and how to do it: Scientific
Dissertations and Theses in Kentucky,
1950-74: Manual for the START Access-
Retrieval System. The manual was pre-
pared by Michael Furlong and William
Lloyd.
Federal R&D Funding in Kentucky. The
bulk of research and development funding
of academic institutions and nonprofit in-
stitutes, and an important part of industrial
R&D funding, comes from 9 departments
and agencies of the federal government. A
study of Kentucky’s general scientific and
technological capabilities, vis a vis those of
neighboring states and those elsewhere in
the nation, has been made with special ref-
erence to federal R&D funding in recent
years. All data used are from federal
agency reports. Kentucky, according to a
number of criteria, ranks as ‘adequate’ to
‘very good’. The one area in which, year
after year, Kentucky has ranked very low,
is in the share of federal R&D dollars spent
here. A 45-page report of this study has
been prepared: Federal R&D Funding in
Kentucky. This study was made by William
Lloyd.
NEws AND COMMENT 4]
Reports Available
The 4 major reports of the task force,
noted above, have been published. Persons
desiring a copy of any of these reports
should write or call:
Mrs. Ann M. Badham
Kentucky Department of Commerce
Capitol Plaza Building
Frankfort, KY 40601
(606) 564-4270
In addition to these reports, Mr. Russell
Powell of the University of Kentucky, un-
der the joint sponsorship of both task forces,
has prepared a detailed report on scientific
and technological book and journal hold-
ings in public and private libraries through-
out the state. Copies of this report may
also be obtained through Mrs. Badham at
the above address.
The Task Force on Public Science and
Technology has now completed its mission.
It is our hope that these studies will prove
useful to Kentucky’s growing research and
development community, and to others
concerned with the development of our
state’s scientific and technological potential.
William G. Lloyd
Task Force Director
The following persons have
been appointed to Standing
Committees of the Academy
by President Ellis V. Brown:
Standing
Committees
Membership
Joseph Hendon 1977 Murray State
University—
Chairman
Frank Butler 1975 Northern
Kentucky
University
Amiya Mohanty 1976 Eastern Ken-
tucky Univer-
sity
Legislation
Marvin Russell 1975 Western
Kentucky
University—
Chairman
Harold Eversmeyer 1976 Murray State
University
1977 Western
Kentucky
University
and Univer-
sity of Ken-
tucky
William Lloyd
Distribution of Research Funds
William Dixon 1976 Kentucky
State Uni-
versity—
Chairman
Patricia Malik
(Pearson )
1975
Bowling
Green
Morehead
State
University
Jerry Howell, Jr. Lone
Publications
Louis A. Krumholz ( Editor-Chairman )
Varley E. Wiedeman ( Assoc. Editor )
William F. Wagner 1975 University
of Kentucky
J. Hill Hamon 1975 Transylvania
University
G. E. McClellan 1977 Murray State
University
Annual
Meeting
The Annual Meeting of the
Academy is scheduled for 7-8
November 1975 at the Health
Sciences Center of the University of Louis-
ville. Charles E. Kupchella and John R.
Meyer will serve as co-hosts.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS
Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub-
lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and
announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received.
Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be re-
viewed by one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and, once accepted,
an attempt will be made to publish papers in the order of their acceptance. Manuscripts
should be typed, double spaced throughout, on good quality white paper 8% x 11 inches
(216 x 279 mm). The original and one copy should be sent to the Editor and the author
should retain a copy for his own use in correcting proof. Metric and Celsius units are to
be used for all measurements instead of, or in addition to, English and Fahrenheit units.
Format and style may vary somewhat depending on the scientific discipline, but the basic
pattern of presentation will be consistent for all manuscripts. The Style Manual of the
Council of Biological Editors (CBE Style Manual), the Handbook for Authors of papers
in the Journals of the American Chemical Society, the Handbook for Authors of the Amer-
ican Institute of Physics, Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, and A Manual of
Style (Chicago University Press) are most useful guides in matters of style, form, and
spelling. Only those words intended to be italicized in the final publication should be
underlined.
The sequence of material in the manuscript should be: titie page, abstract, body of
the manuscript, literature cited, tables with table headings, and figure legends and figures.
l. The title page should include the title of the paper, the author’s name and address, and
any footnote material concerning credits, changes of address, and so forth.
2. The abstract should be concise and descriptive of the information contained in the
paper. It should be complete in itself without reference to the body of the paper.
3. The body of the manuscript should include the following sections: Introduction; Ac-
knowledgments (if applicable), Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, Summary,
and Literature Cited. In manuscripts of only a few pages, there is no need to break it up
- into sections, except for the Literature Cited. All tables and figures, as well as all litera-
ture cited must be referred to in the text.
4. All references in the Literature Cited must be typewritten, double spaced, and should
provide complete information on the material referred to, as in the following examples:
Article:
Jounson, A. E., anp E. V. Harrety. 1962. An analysis of factors governing density
patterns in desert plants. J. Bot. 44(3):419-432.
Book:
Dar.incTON, P. J., Jr. 1965. Biogeography of the southern end of the world. Harvard
Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 236 pp.
5. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in arabic
numerals, and set on a separate page. The heading of the table should be informative of
its contents.
Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print about 5 X 7 inches. Line draw-
ings in India ink on white paper are acceptable. Photographs should have good contrast
so that they can be reproduced satisfactorily. Figures should be numbered in arabic
numerals.
The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for
checking all literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly
Extensive alterations on the galley proofs are expensive and such costs are to be borne by
the author. Reprints are to be ordered when the galley proofs are returned to the Editor.
CONTENTS
Effective Employment as a Relative Measure of Regional Economic De
ment, Ci M,»-Dupter, Jf.) 2 3) Ma Se ee ee .
A Distributional Study of the Caddisflies of Kentucky. Vincent H. R esh
Unusual Behavior of the Eastern Chipmunk. Pierre N. Allaire -
The Leech Piscicolaria reducta Parasitizing some Percid Fishes. ° ee
Bauer and Branley A. Branson So ee ee a
A Micrographic Study of the Giant Nuclei of Necechinorhynchas 9 © Ly (Ae
thocephala). Byaotd. H. ULeste ». fea eee |
Abatement of Pollution in Hite Creek, jackin” and Oldham Cot ti
tucky. Louis A. Krumholz and Stuart E. Neff _ ee
a
?
News and Comment... os a Se ae
4
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
CENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
4 Micial Publication of the Academy
aa
a 3
A
fal i
a ’ x j
a -
a.
A FNTASONT SS
\ NOV -3 wy5
LBRAK
(Temeyte olume 36
Numbers 3-4
September 1975
The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914
OFFICERS FOR 1975
President: Ellis V. Brown, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506
President Elect: Frederick M. Brown, Centre College, Danville 40422
Past President: Donald L. Batch, Eastern Kentucky State University, Richmond
40475
Vice President: Charles Payne, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351
Secretary: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky State University, Bowling Green
42101
Treasurer: Wayne Hoffman, Western Kentucky State University, Bowling Green
2101 |
Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A. Branson, Bustos Kentucky State
University, Richmond 40475
John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky,
Lexington 40506
Boarp OF DIRECTORS
Thomas B. Calhoon 1975 Fletcher Gabbard 1977
Charles E. Kupchella 1975 John C. Philley (Chm) IS?7 am
Howard Powell 1976 John G. Spanyer 1978 5
Morris Taylor 1976° . Oliver Zandona 1978
EDITORIAL OFFICE
Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louis- —
ville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
Associate Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of
Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
Editorial Board: William E. Dennen, Department of Geology, University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506
Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of Louisville, Louis-
ville, Kentucky 40208 we
William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, eh of Kentucky, Lex- »
ington, Kentucky 40506 ‘
All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be ad-—
lressed to the Editor. |
The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT.
Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon nomi- __
nation, payment of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from __
the Secretary. The Transactiias are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual oor are de .
$6.00 for Active Members; Student Membership is $4.00.
Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $7.00; foreign, $8.00; back issues ee!
$8.00 per volume.
tail
tng
The Transactions are issued semiannually.- Four numbers comprise a volume.
Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Sena 20
tary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Librarian, o
University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208, who is the exchange agent for the Academy. __
TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE
September 1075
VOLUME 36
NUMBERS 3-4
Some Ecological Factors Affecting the Occurrence of Water Willow
Justicia americana in Jessamine Creek, Kentucky
Henry H. HOWELL
Department of Biology, Asbury College, Wilmore, Kentucky 40390
ABSTRACT
Efforts were made to determine what environmental conditions are conducive to the occur-
rence of water willow Justicia (= Dianthera) americana beds along the course of Jessamine
Creek, which had been receiving about 650,000 gal/day (2,460 m*/day) of secondary sewage
effluent through 2 tributaries. There were no beds of water willow in the upper or lower
extremities of the stream; beds were present only in a 12.7-km stretch downstream from the
point where the sewage effluent first entered the main stream, and more than half the dense
stands occurred within the uppermost 3.2 km of that stretch. Elevations in that stretch fell
70.1 m, yet the size of the beds did not seem affected by elevational changes. East or west
flow seemed conducive to development of more extensive and dense beds. NPK did not appear
limiting. Depth of gorge and length of available sunlight did seem to affect size and density
of beds. Minor flooding seemed to increase riffle and patch size where beds already occurred;
however, heavy flooding may have had an adverse effect on some stands. From 1971 to 1974,
species composition and diversity of benthos and other animals more than doubled at one
station where samples were taken both years.
Sewage disposal plants release effluents
into 2 tributaries of the stream, Town Fork
and Wilmore Branch (Fig. 1). In the last 5
years, a number of industries have moved
into the drainage basin.
For the past 18 years, I have been in-
terested in the water quality and biota
of Jessamine Creek. I have seen darter
(Etheostoma) and stonefly (Plecoptera )
populations eliminated from parts of the
stream, and the bottom become extremely
INTRODUCTION
Jessamine Creek flows through one of the
outstanding scenic gorges within the Blue
Grass Physiographic Region of Kentucky
(Dearinger 1968). Its course lies entirely
within the Inner Blue Grass Subregion, cen-
tered around the city of Lexington in Fay-
ette County. The stream originates 6.4 km
south of the Fayette County line in Jessa-
mine County, and empties into the Ken-
tucky River without ever leaving Jessamine
County. Jessamine Creek is a fifth-class
stream (Kuehne 1962), and has cut its way
through nearly 122 m of limestone to main-
tain its flow into the river. It is 30.9 km
long, and for the last 9.7 km the stream
flows through a narrow, heavily wooded
valley with high cliffs on one or both sides.
43
slippery in riffles; yet, in the last 5 years,
stream conditions have improved with ref-
erence to desirable fauna, and it appears
that the changing flora may have been
related to the improvement, since there has
been a rapid extension of beds of water
willow Justicia (= Dianthera) americana in
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4)
tt ee
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JESSAMINE CREEK < <—
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WATERSHED 2
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/ 2
| 2 a 4 / A
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Kilometers
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( ‘ =.
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Ne
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if NICHOLASVILLE
oe WILMORE eo Ai
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Fic. 1. Map of Jessamine Creek watershed showing the locations of the sampling stations (indicated
by numbers ), Town Fork, and other principal tributaries. |
WATER WILLOW IN JESSAMINE CREEK—Howell
spring and summer along the course of the
stream, and the presence of huge mats of
filamentous algae during the winter. This
paper discusses the results of data gathered
largely from 1 July through 15 October
1974, in what was an effort to determine the
ecological role of the extensive patches of
water willow in Jessamine Creek, and to see
if they could possibly be contributing to the
improvement of water quality.
Water willow is one of the most com-
monly occurring angiosperms in the shallow
waters of lakes, ponds, and streams in east-
ern United States and southern Canada
(Fassett 1969). It is an emergent perennial
herb, rather frequently found in dense and
extensive stands. Numerous workers have
studied the production, mineral nutrient ab-
sorption, and assimilation of aquatic flower-
ing plants. Westlake (1963) and Boyd
(1968, 1969) have summarized the rather
extensive literature. Boyd (1969), in par-
ticular, found that stands of water willow in
lentic and lotic situations in Alabama had
high biomass productivities and mineral up-
take during spring and early summer, with
standing crops that averaged 3.75 times
higher in the 2 lakes studied than in the 3
streams. Krumholz (1971), Krumholz and
Neff (1972), White (1974), and Woodling
(1970, unpublished master’s thesis, Univer-
sity of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky) all
sensed the need for an intensive study of the
large Justicia beds in the Salt River, Ken-
tucky, to ascertain their contribution to the
overall economy of the river.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was made possible by a
grant from the Asbury College Alumni
Foundation. Dr. L. A. Krumholz, Univer-
sity of Louisville, rendered valuable pro-
fessional advice. I am also very grateful to
the many students who have helped in the
studies on Jessamine Creek, particularly
those whose research was germane to this
study: D. K. Irish, C. W. Spencer, E. O.
Walker, K. A. Vaughn, C. J. Kusche, R. L.
Noland, L. W. Martin, and B. S. Christen-
sen. The last 2 students compiled much of
the raw data.
45
RECENT INVESTIGATIONS IN THE STupy AREA
Since 1963, 18 undergraduate students at
Asbury College have conducted brief inde-
pendent investigations on Jessamine Creek,
most work being done since 1970. One of
the chief conclusions gathered from those
reports is that total and fecal coliform
counts increased below the Wilmore and
Nicholasville sewage outfalls, with more
rapid recovery in Wilmore Branch than in
Town Fork, even though a higher count had
been present below the Wilmore plant. In
all reports, the total coliforms usually were
higher than 5,000/100 ml.
In 2 unpublished reports by M. W. Jones,
chemical analyses were run on water sam-
ples from selected stations; other than be-
low the outfalls, orthophosphate ranged
from 1.12 to 4.25 mg/I, and nitrate nitrogen
from 4.25 to 7.08 mg/l. Other parameters
determined were pH, sulfate, metaphos-
phate, conductivity, alkalinity, hardness,
total dissolved solids, and dissolved oxygen.
None of those factors were considered criti-
cal.
One of the most comprehensive studies
was done in the fall of 1973 by Barcelo,
who used stationary periphyton samplers to
study the extent of colonization on glass
slides placed in riffles for 4 exposure peri-
ods. She identified 46 genera in the sam-
ples, mostly diatoms. The dry weight per
slide ranged from 0.5 to 13.3 mg, and the
ash-free weights ranged from 0.1 to 9.6 mg.
The ash-free weights averaged 57.5 percent
of the dry weight, and at the station below
the sewage outfalls, the weights were more
than double those upstream from the out-
falls.
In the summer of 1971, I had the assis-
tance of 2 college seniors and 2 high school
students under the National Youth Corps
Program, and a paper entitled “Some of the
effects of domestic sewage discharged into
Hickman and Jessamine Creeks in Jessa-
mine County, Kentucky” by Howell and
Jones was presented to the Kentucky Acad-
emy of Science that fall, and again in March
1972 to the Midwest Benthological Society.
The information used came from § riffle
stations on Hickman Creek and 13 on Jessa-
46
TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4)
TABLE 1.—RELATIVE ABUNDANCE, NUMBER OF STEMS PER SQUARE METER, PATCH SIZE (M’*), DIRECTION |
oF STREAM FLOw, AND TyPE OF VEGETATIONAL COVERAGE OF SURROUNDING SHORES, FOR WATER WILLOW
BED AT EACH STATION IN JESSAMINE CREEK, KENTUCKY
Station Relative Number
Number Abundance of Stems
1 Sparse to very thick 64-334 |
2 Thick to very thick 360-476
3 Medium thick 256"
4 Medium thick D2,
5 Sparse -
6 Sparse 60°
Size of Direction Shoreline
Patch of Flow Vegetation
367 W & NW Open field
1800 W. Open field
232 S Open field
203 W Woods with little overhang
900 SW Partial canopy |
200 W Partial canopy
1 Floods made accurate count difficult.
2 Too much flood damage to estimate.
mine Creek, and included data on water
chemistry, coliforms, benthos, and fishes.
Hickman Creek was judged more polluted
than Tessamine Creek largely on the basis
of the diversity of benthos and fishes. Hick-
man Creek was receiving about 1.3 million
gal/day (4,920 m?/day) of sewage efflu-
ent from the Lexington area, and Jessamine
Creek was receiving about 650,000 gal/day
(2,460 m?/day) from Nicholasville and Wil-
more.
In addition to the above-mentioned inves-
tigations, studies on the flora of the county
have been made by members of the Depart-
ment of Botany at the University of Ken-
tucky. A master’s thesis entitled “Vascular
plants of Jessamine County, Kentucky” was
written in 1941 by MacFarland, who listed
661 species including a number of rare spe-
cies from the gorge. In 1974, MacGregor,
a graduate student, presented a paper to
the Academy on “The flora of Jessamine
Gorge.” He listed 344 species as occurring
in the gorge, with 68 species being consid-
ered rare or near rare. The U. S. Army
Corps of Engineers (1974) compiled a thor-
ough study of the environmental resources
of the Lexington Urban Area, and in the
section dealing with flora, some special
notes from Meijer (1974) were included,
with comments on 15 rare species from the
gorge.
METHODS
To determine the extent of water willow
and other angiosperm beds in Jessamine
Creek, the creek bed was cruised for its
entire length, including Town Fork and |
Wilmore Branch. Whenever a patch of |
plants or an algal mat was found, its location |
was plotted on a 7.5-min topographic map. |
The size of each patch in square meters was —
determined from the length and average —
width. Relative density of the emergent
stalks was recorded as very thick, thick, me- _
dium, or sparse. The direction of stream —
flow was recorded as N, S, E, W, NW or
SE, NE or SW, along with the extent of
overhead cover, whether there were open
fields along banks, partial canopy, or full ©
canopy. The presence or absence of notice- —
able current, the depth of water, and the
type of substrate were also recorded. |
After cruising the stream, 6 collecting —
stations were established (Fig. 1) at which ©
detailed studies of water willow communi- |
ties were made using 0.25-m? square metal |
frames to determine the average numbers —
of emergent stems per square meter and the
average wet and dry weights of harvested
stems. When collecting stems, an effort was
made to collect benthos from around the
roots. In addition, total dissolved solids
using a Hach meter, total coliforms using
the Millipore technique, and other chemical
tests were determined as time permitted.
Efforts were made to determine the size and
composition of the fish, snake, and crayfish
populations in and around the water willow
beds.
RESULTS
By the end of July, 59 vegetational
patches had been mapped. Extremely
WATER WILLOW IN JESSAMINE CREEK—Howell
AT
TABLE 2.—NUMBERS AND SIZES OF PATCHES OF WATER WILLOW BETWEEN STATIONS IN JESSAMINE
CREEK, TOGETHER WITH DISTANCES AND DIFFERENCES IN ELEVATION (MSL) BETWEEN STATIONS
Distance Between
Stations Stations mi km (m7?) (meters ) m/km Ft/mi
1-2 19 0.74 1.20 4,330 241.1-237.4 3.04 16.1
2-3 10 0.89 1.43 3,910 237.4-225.6 8.29 43.9
3-4 20 2.74 AAI 3,154 225.6-199.7 5.86 30.9
4-5 9 1.83 2.95 1,768 199.7-183.9 5.36 28.4
5-6 5 2.31 3.72 202 183.9-164.2 5.31 28.1
Totals 63 S5r as 71 13,364 241.1-164.2
heavy rains fell on the watershed the first
2 weeks in August, and by the end of the
month there was an excess of 7.95 inches
(20.19 cm) over the average rainfall of 3.50
inches (8.89 cm). September had one of
the highest rainfalls on record, with an ex-
cess of 6.47 inches (16.43 cm). The lower
4.83 km of the creek was not visited until
late August and September; flood damage
had been extensive. Station 6 was selected
on 22 September. The upper reaches of
Jessamine Creek above Town Fork were
not visited until October.
There were no beds of water willow in
Town Fork, Wilmore Branch, or in Jessa-
mine Creek above the mouth of Town
Fork even though there were suitable riffle
sites for such beds. There were occasional
patches of lizard’s tail Saururus cernuus up-
stream from the mouth of Town Fork, pri-
marily along the margins of pools. Although
there were no beds of water willow in Jessa-
mine Creek upstream from the mouth of
Town Fork, there were 63 beds downstream
from that point. The extremely high flood-
waters could have eliminated a few small
beds before the lower reaches of the stream
were surveyed.
The 6 stations for intensive study were
selected because of the sizes of water willow
beds and ease of access. At Station 1,
5 small beds were lumped together. The
densest and largest beds were at or near
Station 2, and although it cannot be stated
conclusively because of the severe flooding,
the density of the stands appeared to dimin-
ish downstream. The abundance, coverage,
direction of flow, and adjoining riparian
vegetation at each station are shown in Ta-
ble 1. At Station 2, driftage was found
almost 2 m above normal pool level, and at
Station 4 it was nearly 3 m above normal
pool level. The abundance and distribution
of water willow beds in relation to declivity
in Jessamine Creek are shown in Table 2,
and Fig. 2 shows the profile of the stream
and the relationship between station loca-
tions and declivity. Assuming that the por-
tion of the stream that contains water wil-
low beds is 13,720 m (8.52 miles) long and
the average width is 10 m, the beds cov-
ered nearly 10 percent of the total stream-
bed. Those beds covered 36 percent of the
streambed between Stations 1 and 2, 27
percent between Stations 2 and 3, and only
7 percent between Stations 3 and 4. At the
first 4 stations, the beds covered 60-95 per-
cent of the streambed. The declivity of the
streambed did not appear to influence the
location of the beds.
At Station 1 and in several vegetational
beds downstream, there was a mixture of
water willow and lizard’s tail. In 4 of 8
mixed beds, lizard’s tail comprised 50 per-
cent of the total coverage, in 3 other beds,
lizard’s tail was the only plant. Seven of the
11 beds of lizard’s tail were along the stream
bank.
An east or west flow may be conducive to
enlarging the size of beds, since nearly 60
percent of all beds occurred in such loca-
tions (Table 3). Flow in either of those
directions normally allows greater exposure
to direct sunlight, especially in the gorge
48 TRANS. KeNTuCcKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4)
300
200
Elevation Above Mean Sea Level, Meters
te) 3) 10
Owilmore Branch
Town Fork
15 20 25 30
Distance Above Mouth, Kilometers
Fic. 2. Profile of Jessamine Creek showing the locations of the sampling stations and the points of
confluence of Town Fork and Wilmore Branch.
portion. Only 23 percent of the water wil-
low coverage was in areas of north-south
flow.
In all larger beds, the water willow grew
in riffle areas where the water was 2.5-7.5
cm deep. Of the 63 beds recorded, only 14
(22 %) were in shallow water along the
banks of pools; the remaining 49 beds were
in riffles and the coverage ranged from 2 to
1,800 m?. The pattern of flow within each
bed varied greatly. In a few beds it was
almost impossible to see any flowing water
without separating the dense willow shoots.
Usually, in naturally occurring separations,
larger volumes of water imparted a braided
appearance to the stream. Horizontal run-
ners attached the plants to the substrate,
and almost any combination of boulders,
rubble, gravel, sand, and silt was found |
associated with the beds. |
The wet weight of the standing crop on |
1 August in a medium dense bed at Station
4 was 2,917 g/m’; the dry weight was 522 |
g/m?. The latter figure falls within the |
range cited by Boyd (1969) in 3 Alabama |
streams (322-802 g/m? dry wt). Produc- —
tion from a dense stand in Jessamine Creek —
was not determined.
High waters had a very adverse effect on —
beds of water willow. All stems were bent —
TABLE 3.—SUMMARIES OF WATER WILLOW COVERAGES IN SQUARE METERS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO
DIRECTION OF STREAM FLOW. NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE NUMBERS OF PATCHES
No. of
Stations Patches E or W
1-2 19 3689 (8)
2-3 10 3213 (4)
3-4 20 180 (6)
4—5 9 593 (5)
5-6 5 198 (3)
63 7873 (26)
Totals
NorS NE or SW NW or SE
266 (3) 876 (8)
97 (3) 5 (2) 600 (1)
2528 (8) 214 (5) 232.( 0)
15542) 900 (1) 120°(4)
1541) 4 (1)
3061 (17) 1119 (7) 1332412.)
WATER WILLOW IN JESSAMINE CREEK—Howell 49
double with the exception of those at the
upper ends of large beds where the stems
brought about retardation of the current
and rapid deposition of sediment that held
the stems upright. Stems not broken, fre-
~ quently became upright after flow receded
to near normal for a few days. At the upper
end of Station 2, 30.48 cm of sediment was
deposited on top of the earlier exposed hori-
zontal runners; at the lower end of the same
bed, 10.16 cm of sediment had been depos-
ited. The smaller volume of floodwater at
Stations 1 and 2 allowed the beds there to
survive the floods with less destruction.
Only 2 quadrat samples for benthos were
taken, and only a small part of the known
fauna was collected. In the associated
riffles, 3 species of darters, a sculpin, 2
cyprinids, a sucker, and a smallmouth bass
were taken by agitating the rubble. In the
pools below, 2 species of crayfish, Orco-
nectes rusticus and O. juvenilis, were col-
lected. Prior to the flooding, large numbers
of crayfish were seen in the pools below the
water willow beds. Below Station 2, 96
adult crayfish were collected with a 10-foot
seine. In the 0.25-m? benthos quadrat in the
water willow bed at Station 2, 4 small cray-
fish (16/m?) were taken. The water willow
beds possibly served as nurseries for small
crayfish. Those same riffles, with their
many rocks and rubble, may also serve as
hiding places during winter, since no cray-
fish were found in any of the pools after the
first frost.
In the gorge area between Stations 4 and
5 where water funneled quite rapidly over
a bedrock strip, large crayfish were arrayed
in a military spacing 20-25 cm apart, all
facing upstream and remaining motionless.
Were they waiting drift organisms, filter
feeding, or carrying on some unknown phys-
iological activity?
In May 1974, 3 Natrix sipedon sipedon
were taken in a seine from a riffle at Station
3. Subsequent effort to census the Natrix
population at 4 collecting stations was un-
successful. About a dozen were seen during
the season, most of them in pools.
From the 49 water samples collected from
Stations 1 through 4 from 17 July through
TABLE 4.—MEAN ToTraL COLIFORM COUNTS PER
100 ML FoR JESSAMINE CREEK ABOVE AND BELOW
CONFLUENCE WITH TOWN BRANCH, AND BETWEEN
CoLLECTING STATIONS, 15 JuLy—5 Aucustr 1974
Station Count
Jessamine Creek (above confluence ) 7,962
Town Branch (above confluence ) 31,928
Between Stations
1-9 9,575
2-3 10,575
3-4 7,811
6 August 1974, conductivity ranged from
452 to 616 wmhos/cm, with the higher fig-
ure at Town Branch just above its conflu-
ence with Jessamine Creek and the lower
one from Jessamine Creek just above its
confluence with the Kentucky River. Total
and fecal coliform counts from the same
samples are listed in Table 4.
DISCUSSION
The occurrence of water willow in Jessa-
mine Creek may be related directly to the
increased urbanization within the county,
particularly in and around Nicholasville
where increased amounts of water are being
shunted directly into the stream, thereby
increasing its silt carrying capacity. Simi-
larly, the increased sewage load has resulted
in a higher BOD in the discharge (pers.
comm. from operator). It appears that the
existing beds are being extended at both
ends of the area they now occupy. In the
lower gorge, the larger volume of water
tended to retard the extension of the beds
because of the narrower floodplains and the
increasingly scouring action of the current,
and, perhaps, less exposure to direct sun-
light.
No reasons could be found for the ab-
sence of water willow plants in the waters
of Town Fork which carried the sewage
effluent from Nicholasville, or in the rela-
tively clean waters of Jessamine Creek
above the mouth of Town Fork since there
were many locations that appeared suitable
so far as substrate is concerned. Chemical
analyses provided no clues, but it may be
50 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4)
that data on BOD, and more specifically on
dissolved organic materials would provide
insight.
In many pool areas, the bottom is bedrock
and establishment of water willow beds or
other plant communities would be difficult;
still, some of the smaller beds were found
in cracks and fissures within the shallow
pools less than 30 cm deep. As with several
other streams in the Inner Blue Grass, the
entire flow goes underground during the
late summer and early fall, so that only dry
riffles and occasional pools remain. Jessa-
mine Creek disappears 0.8 km below Station
3 and remains underground for about 1.4
km.
It is not known how effective water wil-
low plants are in removing the nutrients
from sewage having undergone secondary
treatment. Law and Kerr (1969), over a
60-week period in Oklahoma, used fescue
and rye grasses in hydroponic culture tanks
with nutrient rates of 8,664, 4,560, and 4,833
Ib NPK/acre (1,590, 837, and 887 kg/ha),
respectively, with gravel beds to ascertain
the effectiveness of mineral removal. They
reported that grasses were minor contribu-
tors to nutrient removal from wastes when
compared to the total quantity of nutrients
that passed through the tanks. They also
concluded that there was greater reduction
of COD (50%), BOD (85%), and total
nitrogen (55%) than the NPK by passage
through the tanks. Interestingly, removal in
the control tanks on organic materials and
total nitrogen was about the same as in the
experimental tanks with the grasses. Such
information allows for the possibility that
an indirect benefit of the increasing sizes
of the water willow beds may be the fur-
nishing of increased size to the gravel beds
where flora and fauna would tend to reduce
COD, BOD, and total nitrogen as well as
total bacterial counts.
LITERATURE CITED
Boyp, C. E. 1968. Some aspects of aquatic plant
ecology. Pp. 114-129. In Reservoir Fishery
Resources Symposium, Amer. Fish. Soc.,
Washington, D. C.
1969. Production, mineral nutrient
absorption, and biochemical assimilation by
Justicia americana and Alternanthera philox-
eroides. Arch. Hydrobiol. 67:78-85.
DEARINGER, J. A. 1968. Esthetic and recrea-
tional potential of small naturalistic streams
near urban areas. Univ. Ky. Water Res. Inst.,
Res. Rept. No. 13. 260 pp.
Fassett, N. C. 1957. A manual of aquatic
plants. Univ. Wis. Press, Madison, Wis. 405
pp.
KruMuotz, L. A. 1971. A preliminary ecologi-
cal study of areas to be impounded in the
Salt River Basin of Kentucky. Univ. Ky.
Water Res. Inst., Res. Rept. No. 43. 35 pp.
, AND S. E. Nerr. 1972. A preliminary
ecological study of areas to be impounded in
the Salt River Basin of Kentucky. Univ. Ky.
Water Res. Inst., Res. Rept. No. 48. 25 pp.
KuEHNE, R. A. 1962. A classification of streams
illustrated by fish distribution in an eastern
Kentucky creek. Ecology 43:608-614.
Law, J. P., Jn., AnD R. S. Kerr. 1969. Nutrient
removal from enriched waste effluent by the
hydroponic culture of cool season grasses.
Water Res. Cent., Ada, Okla., Fed. Water
Qual. Admin. Prog. No. 16080.
Meijer, W. 1974. Some notes on flora and
vegetation of the Lexington, Kentucky, urban
area. P. 49. In Environmental resources in-
ventory of the Lexington area. U. S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Louisville District, Louis-
ville, Ky.
U. S. ArMy Corps oF ENGINEERS. 1974. Envi-
ronmental resources inventory of the Lexing-
ton, Kentucky, urban area. U. S. Army Corps
of Engineers, Louisville District, Louisville.
Kentucky. Pp. 48-56.
WestLakeE, D. F. 1963. Comparisons of plant
productivity. Biol. Rev. 38:385-—425.
Wuire, D. S. 1974. The distribution of stone-
flies (Insecta: Plecoptera) of the Salt River.
Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35:17—23.
Why Mature Women Return to School: ‘Reasons’ and “Motives”
CAROLINE F. MARTIN
Department of Sociology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
This paper, written by a mature woman student as her senior thesis in Sociology, investigates
the levels of rationalization employed by a sample of 51 mature women students at the Univer-
sity of Louisville in explaining their decision to return to school. The hypothesis, based on con-
cepts of behavior and reasoning by past theorists, that these explanations would fall into two
distinct levels, superficial ‘reasons’ and latent ‘motives, is supported by the research. The
results suggest that disruptive conditions or events are important factors in the decision of older
women to go back to school, and that education serves an important function in their lives.
INTRODUCTION
Individuals exhibit multiple levels of ra-
tionalization in explaining important deci-
sions. This research investigates two of
these levels through analysis of the experi-
ence of mature women who return to school.
In the past, many theorists have remarked
upon the ways in which any human behav-
ior is influenced. They noted that actions
are affected by both reasoning and emo-
tions; that behavior is not always con-
sciously determined and recognized; and,
that justifications of actions often cover
motivations.
Pareto (1935:88), for instance, felt that
logical actions are in large part the result of
processes of reasoning, whereas actions
which originate chiefly in psychic states,
subconscious feelings, and the like are non-
logical. Timasheff (1967:163) summarized
this in the following statement: “According
to Pareto, an action is logical if its end is
objectively attainable and if the means used
are objectively united with the end in the
framework of the best knowledge available;
all other actions are nonlogical.” Pareto
(1935:104) also said that the human being
has a weakness for adding logical develop-
ment to nonlogical behavior and, according
to Timasheff (1967:163), some men “justify
their actions by formulating nonlogical the-
ories which their advocates consider to be
highly logical.” Every social phenomenon,
therefore, may be considered under two
aspects: as it is in reality, and as it presents
itself to the mind of the human being
(Pareto 1935:76). Thus, it cannot always
51
be counted on that what people say about
their actions is entirely factual or enlight-
ening. Timasheff (1967:164) agreed that
“,.. to explain actions by accepting at face
value what men say about their behavior is,
of course, a procedure void of scientific
validity—a principle long recognized by stu-
dents of human life.”
Merton (1957:24) also believed that it
need not be assumed that the reasons ad-
vanced by people for their behavior are
one and the same as the observed conse-
quences of these patterns of behavior. Mer-
ton (1957:51) used the terms manifest and
latent; manifest being the intended and rec-
ognized form of behavior, and latent being
neither intended nor recognized. Timasheff
(1967:225) phrased it this way: “Manifest
functions refer to the objective consequences
of a specific social cultural unit which con-
tribute to its adoption or adjustment and
were so intended by the participants; latent
functions refer to unintended and unrecog-
nized consequences.”
Another theorist, Weber (in Timasheft
1967:178), acknowledged that considerable
social conduct is marked by the person's
inarticulate half-consciousness or even un-
awareness of its meaning. This usually
occurs, he felt, when the conduct is a social
habit or when it involves personal feelings.
“Lack of awareness of meaning is quite
common, in fact, when behavior is tradi-
tional, that is, determined by social custom,
or when it is affective, that is determined by
emotion.”
In studying decision making, it has been
o2
found that ‘stereotype’ questions often bring
stereotyped or superficial answers. Accord-
ing to Goode and Hatt (1952:167-168), a
question that begins “Why did you—?’ in
an attempt to find out why the respondent
made a certain choice, usually elicits that
which comes to the respondent’s mind most
quickly, and is likely to be a justification of
the decision, rather than a true disclosure of
the circumstances that led to it. Cliches
come quickly to mind as they are a large
part of social communication and they are
no exception in the interview. “In the
interview, as in daily conversation, the re-
spondent’s verbal habits are likely to be in
cliche form” (Goode and Hatt 1952:163). It
is necessary to probe more deeply if the
cliches which are used to cover motivations
are to be avoided (Goode and Hatt 1952:
200).
In view of the concepts regarding behav-
ior and reasoning already discussed, it is to
be anticipated that the accounts given by
individuals of important events and deci-
sions in their lives will be found to have two
more or less distinct aspects: a superficial
one containing ‘reasons or ‘explanations’
easily given in response to questionnaire or
interview items, and a latent one involving
‘motives (distinctively different from the
superficial material) linked to important
needs, tensions, and issues in their personal
lives. To evaluate this supposition, the
present study focuses upon an important
life decision of the mature woman—that of
going back to school.
Little research has been done in the area
of the mature female student. Feldman’s
(1972:993) study concerning graduate stu-
dents and marital status found that the most
committed and active students were the
divorced women. “It is almost as if they
were making up for lost time by becoming
fully immersed in the student role.” Clem-
ents (1974:23) reported that older women
were more effective academically and had
more emotional equanimity and compe-
tence than the younger students.
It was expected that the reasons for
returning to school given by the mature
students on first contact would be the super-
TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4)
ficial-manifest or rationalized reasons, and
the latent reasons or actual motives would
have to be probed for.
That these motives would involve impor-
tant needs, tensions, and issues in the per-
sonal lives of these mature women students
is based on the observation that people more
or less consciously attempt to attain some
basic routine, as a normal state of affairs,
in their daily living. This routine lends
equilibrium to their lives and, once it is
achieved, they seldom voluntarily disrupt —
it. To deliberately change the routine is to
invite disequilibrium and its accompanying
costs in anxiety, confusion, and readjust-
ment. Of course, disequilibrium can also
occur involuntarily, due to unforeseen or |
uncontrollable events which yield new |
issues, needs, and tensions. A new routine
then becomes necessary in order to regain
the desired equilibrium and sense of well-
being.
It is the presumption of this study that the
mature woman student’s decision to return
to school after a gap of years represents a
characteristic reaction to some sort of dis-
ruption in her life. In other words, some
disruptive condition or event upset her
routine thereby threatening her equilibrium.
The decision to go back to school is a form
of adaptive response to these changed cir-
cumstances.
Not all change, of course, is disruptive.
For the woman whose children grow up and
leave home, there is change but it is natural,
gradual, expected, and usually prepared for
through the years. Unexpected and un-
planned for change, however, can violently
disrupt routine and cause considerable dis-
equilibrium. A woman does not, presum-
ably, anticipate marital problems, for ex-
ample, when she promises to be a wife ‘until
death do us part.’ Yet, when these problems
threaten her wifely routine, her equilibrium
is adversely affected. Perhaps some diffi-
culties with children in their teenage years
might be expected, but these become dis-
ruptive problems when they involve delin-
quent behavior. Illness may be natural and
death inevitable but when loved ones are
stricken, the life and routine of every
{
MATURE WOMEN IN CoLLEGE—Martin
woman is disrupted. Being uprooted from
her home is also an upsetting experience for
a woman. She leaves behind her established
routine, her familiar neighborhood, and old
friends and acquaintances. This can be
gradual and eased by frequent visits and
telephone calls if the move was not too
distant. A major shift in residence, however,
results in an abrupt change in secure sur-
roundings, associations, and daily routine.
In her search for a new routine and restored
equilibrium, the mature woman may be
forced to seek a new role. For the women
in this study, that new role is the role of a
student.
The hypothesis to be tested in this study,
therefore, is that mature women students,
when asked why they returned to college (a
major life decision), will typically offer rea-
sons that could be classified as superficial.
However, when interviewed in depth, their
answers will contain a large proportion of
reasons classified as latent, involving dis-
ruptive conditions or events in their per-
sonal lives.
METHODS
The research was carried out in Louis-
ville, Kentucky, at the Belknap Campus of
the University of Louisville during the fall
semester 1974. At the beginning of the
semester, a list of names and addresses of
143 women over 30 years of age who had
been registered in the University during the
spring of 1974 was obtained from the office
of the Dean of Students. However, because
of the time limit of one semester, it was
decided to contact only those women on the
list who were enrolled in the College of Arts
and Sciences, a total of 85 persons.
In order to test the hypothesis, it was
decided that the first contact would be by
telephone, followed by a personal interview
with a random subsample of the telephone
respondents. The responses received in both
telephone and personal interviews were
expected to fall into two categories, swper-
ficial reasons and latent reasons. Those rea-
sons classified as superficial included: intel-
lectual stimulation, a desire to upgrade or
change jobs, to increase skills or effective-
a3
ness, looking for independent alternatives,
and such phrases as ‘ had time on my
hands, ‘I just wanted to, ‘I always planned
to continue, ‘I didn’t like to work, ‘I didn’t
want to stay at home, and ‘It gave me
an interest in common with my husband.’
Those circumstances classified as latent in-
cluded: marital problems, problems with
teenagers, family illness, death in the fam-
ily, and a major shift in residence.
Telephone numbers of the 85 students in
the sample were obtained, but of those, 14
were unavailable and were dropped from
the roster, leaving a total of 71 names with
telephone numbers. Of that 71, 1 had mar-
ried and moved away, 9 numbers were
either wrong or had been reassigned, 7 were
no longer in service, and 3 were never
answered during the time allotted for data
collection, even though calls were made at
varying hours of the day throughout the
week. A final total of 51 mature women
students were successfully contacted by
telephone. When calling, I explained how
I had secured the respondent's name and
identified myself as a fellow mature student
working on my senior thesis in sociology.
Each respondent was asked why she had
decided to return to school, and all re-
sponses were noted.
From those 51 students, a subsample was
drawn at random and consisted of 21 num-
bers (41 % of the total). Of that 21, 3 re-
fused to be interviewed personally, pleading
lack of time in their busy schedules. Two
more pleaded lack of time at the present,
but offered to accommodate me at a later
date, but the time limit on data collection
precluded accepting their offers. Sixteen of
the subsample agreed to be interviewed per-
sonally and appointments were made with
each one. Of that 16, only 1 failed to keep
her appointment. The rest, 29 percent of
the total sample, were interviewed as sched-
uled. Questions in the interview were de-
signed to remind the respondent of the
conditions in her life at the time she decided
to return to school, such as her marital
status, the ages of her children, and her
place of residence at the time of her deci-
sion, not at the time of the interview. She
54 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4)
TABLE 1.—ToraL NUMBER AND PERCENTAGES OF
SUPERFICIAL AND LATENT REASONS BY TELEPHONE
AND IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS, 51 MatTuRE WOMEN
STUDENTS, UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE, FALL, 1974
Phone Interview In-depth Interview
Reasons N % N %
Superficial 46 90 1. oet
Latent 5 10 oS a5
Totals 5b, :-160 15 200
was then asked to tell me how it happened
that she decided to return to school. All
responses were recorded, and both the
telephone and personal interviews were
tabulated and summarized according to the
previously established criteria.
RESULTS
The contact by telephone elicited the
largest number (46) and the largest per-
centage (90 %) of superficial reasons (Ta-
ble 1). Not only were the majority of re-
sponses superficial, but many respondents
(15 of 51, 29 % of the total) offered more
than 1 superficial reason for returning to
school, giving a total of 67 superficial re-
sponses (Table 2). Only 1 respondent, after
giving an initial superficial reason, followed
it with one classified as latent. Of the 4 who
responded initially in the latent category,
only 1 gave more than 1 reason, and that,
too, was classified as latent. The majority of
students interviewed personally, however,
gave latent reasons for their decision to
return to school (Table 1). Of the 15 stu-
dents interviewed personally, 7 (47 7%)
gave reasons classified as superficial and 8
(53 %) gave reasons classified as latent.
All of the 7 responding superficially gave
more than 1 superficial reason. Of the 8
who gave latent responses, 2 gave initial
responses that were superficial but their
secondary responses, as the interview pro-
gressed, fell into the latent category. One
of these asked for further reassurance of
confidentiality before emitting her latent
response. Her request came abruptly, near
the middle of the interview. She had been
asked about the timing of her return to
TABLE 2.—SUPERFICIAL AND LATENT REASONS RE-
CEIVED IN TELEPHONE AND PERSONAL INTERVIEWS,
51 Mature WoMEN STUDENTS, UNIVERSITY OF
LOUISVILLE, FALL, 1974
Responses
Telephone Personal
Interview Interview
Beeane Ist 2nd 3rd Ist 2nd
Superficial
Intellectual stimulation i |
Always planned to continue 12 2 1 4
Increase skills or effective-
ness 10 4
Desire to upgrade or change
job 8, tage
Search for independent al-
ternative 2 > 2
Time on my hands 5 et Soule
Just wanted to 5 uaa
Didn’t want to stay athome 3 1 en |
Didn't like to work 1 1
Need common interest with
husband 3 2
Totals 47, 1S5igb 9
Latent
Marital problems 2 Lek
Problems with teenagers 1
Illness in the family 2 1
Death in the family 1 Uk 444!
Major shift in residence 1 Bo ie
Totals A 12. 6
school; “Why then, not sooner or later?’ She
began to answer, citing the extra time on
her hands that her child’s entrance into
school allowed, when suddenly she stopped.
With lowered voice she questioned whether
her answers would, indeed, be kept in con-
fidence. When this was confirmed, she ad-
mitted to having a personal problem and
talked for some time about its effect on her
life. Later she commented on feeling better
about the personal interview than she had
about the telephone interview because, she
said, she had been more truthful. The other
case of a secondary latent response was less
dramatic, evolving quite naturally through
the respondent’s reflecting back over time.
Of the remaining 6 latent responders, 3 gave
|
MATURE WOMEN IN COLLEGE—Martin 55
only 1 response and 3 gave 2 responses.
Thus, a total of 16 superficial reasons and
11 latent reasons were given by the respon-
dents during the personal interviews.
It must be acknowledged here that I, a
student, was an inexperienced interviewer.
It is felt in retrospect that the first few inter-
views (which elicited superficial responses )
suffered from that lack of experience and
that had they been conducted either at a
later time or by a more experienced inter-
viewer the results might have been even
more decisive. The loss from the sample of
6 women, 5 who lacked the time for the
interview and 1 who failed to keep her ap-
pointment, might also have biased these re-
sults. Their loss leaves in question whether
the remaining 15 were actually representa-
tive of the total population. The results are
also limited in terms of the small size of the
sample available. Allowing for these pos-
sible limitations, a chi-square test of signifi-
cance was performed on the data in Table
1. The test yielded a chi-square value of
11.6578 which is significant at beyond the
.001 level of confidence.
CONCLUSION
The above results indicate that disrup-
tive conditions or events in her personal life
are often important factors in the mature
woman's decision to return to school. Not
only are these factors important, but the
research also suggests that the woman her-
self is either not aware of their influence
or suppresses them as reasons, feeling, per-
haps, that they are either illogical or socially
unacceptable. The number of cliches elicited
on first contact illustrates the woman’s un-
awareness or rationalization through stereo-
typed answers or justifications. The con-
centration of superficiality in the phrase,
‘I always planned to continue, implies an
unawareness of the decision making process
itself. If it had always been planned, no
decision or any explanation would have
been necessary. Increasing skills and effec-
tiveness, the category which had the next
most responses, is certainly a socially ac-
ceptable reason for returning to school for
anyone, especially in this culture where self
improvement is so highly regarded. On the
other hand, those who gave latent reasons
when called were those who appeared to
recognize and find logical the relationship
between their return to school and the dis-
ruptive conditions or events in their per-
sonal lives. They seem to have had no need
for repression or self-justification, but their
number was few.
The fact that the personal interview
brought out latent reasons in a majority of
subjects is not surprising. Different meth-
odologies can result in different responses.
The relaxed atmosphere of face-to-face con-
tact with a fellow mature student who has
‘been there’ might be expected to be more
conducive to openness, requiring less self-
justification and defensiveness than the con-
tact by an unknown voice on the telephone.
Several respondents commented on their
lack of honesty when they were first con-
tacted, saying that they didn’t even remem-
ber what they had said on the telephone or
that they wondered after they hung up why
they had said what they did.
Not all of those interviewed personally
gave latent reasons, however. This may
have been due to unawareness of their be-
havior as a consequence of disruptive con-
ditions or events or, if aware, an inability or
unwillingness to admit it to others. There
is a possibility that in some cases none of
these disruptive conditions did exist. There
is also the possibility that some women had
many reasons for returning to school and
some were expressed in the telephone inter-
view and others in the personal interview.
In the majority of the personal interview
cases, however, there were disruptive condi-
tions or events. This study supports the
conclusion that their occurrence influenced
the return to school of these older women.
It suggests that intellectual activity in the
form of continuing education may act as a
balm for emotional distress. A mind busy
acquiring new knowledge cannot dwell on
painful experience or memories. There may
be security in the student role with its regu-
larity of routine. Scheduled classes, assign-
ments, and deadlines direct the mind and
body outward, away from the emotions,
56 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(34)
while healing time passes. It might also
mean that emotional stress is a major ele-
ment in motivating people to change their
roles. In the case of the mature woman,
education would appear to serve a transi-
tional or adaptive function in that change.
Being a student for a time not only increases
her skills and enhances her self-confidence,
but also makes the role change a more grad-
ual process. She may move, for example,
from the security of home to the secure
but competitive campus to the competitive
world of employment. Thus, she adapts by
stages and over a period of time.
These older women who return to school
have so far been virtually ignored in current
research literature. Many aspects of the
situation of the mature women students
appear worthy of investigation. It might
prove fruitful, for example, to study their
goals. What are they and are they achieved?
Also of interest would be a comparison of
the students cited in this study with others
enrolled in other universities and colleges.
Do older women who choose a community
or church affiliated college have the same
reasons and motives as those enrolled in a
state university? Another interesting topic
of investigation would be the socioeconomic
background of the women who go back to
school. Does one class predominate? How
important is income? A study of the aca-
demic achievement of mature women stu-
dents might also prove interesting. How
do they compare academically with their
younger counterparts and/or with their past
school performance? It is hoped that in the
future more will be learned about these
mature women students.
LITERATURE CITED
CLEMENTS, K. 1974. Emotional characteristics
of mature women students in education. Res.
Educ. 9(7):23.
FELDMAN, S. D. 1972. Impediment or stimu-
lant? Marital status and graduate education.
Amer. J. Sociol. 78:982—994.
Goong, W. J., AND P. K. Hatr. 1952. Methods
in social research. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, N. Y. 376 pp.
Merton, R. K. 1957. Social theory and social
structure. Free Press, Glencoe, Ill. 645 pp.
Pareto, V. 1935. The mind and society. Har-
court, Brace, and Co., New York, N. Y. 4
Vol., 2033 pp.
TiMASHEFF, N. S. 1967. Sociological theory.
Random House, New York, N. Y. 335 pp.
Auchenorrhynchus’ Hosts of Mermithid Nematodes in Kentucky”
CHRISTINA SPERKA AND PAuL H. FREYTAG
Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506
ABSTRACT
About 60,000 specimens of auchenorrhynchus Homoptera collected from various habitats in
Kentucky during 1972-1974 were examined for parasites. More than 200 specimens of uniden-
tified larval mermithid nematodes were dissected out from auchenorrhynchs representing at
least 37 species in 7 families. Overall rate of parasitism was about 0.3 percent. Mermithids did
not appear host specific, and collection site and date appeared more important in determining
rate of parasitism than species of auchenorrhynchs present. Mermithid parasites did not produce
measurable effects in genitalia or other external structures; however, abdominal distention, color
changes, and absence of internal organs were observed. Dryinid (Hymenoptera) larvae and
halictophagid (Strepsiptera) adults and larvae were sometimes found coexisting with mermithid
parasites.
INTRODUCTION
Insects are the commonly reported hosts of
the nematode family Mermithidae (Nickle
1972). Although there are more than 23,000
species of Homoptera belonging to the sub-
order Auchenorrhyncha (cicadas, leafhop-
pers, spittlebugs, and planthoppers), few
members of this group are recorded as hosts
for mermithids. Zwaluwenberg (1928) re-
ported Aenolamia varia saccharina Distant
(Cercopidae) from Trinidad as parasitized
by Mermis sp. LaRivers (1949) discussed
Agamermis unka Kaburaki and Inamura
from Japan and its araeopid (delphacid)
hosts, Nilaparvata oryzae Matsumura and
Liburnia furcifera Horvath. Weaver and
King (1954) stated that the grasshopper
mermithid, Agamermis decaudata Cobb,
Steiner, and Christie, was found in the
meadow spittlebug, Philaenus spumarius
(L.) in Ohio. In this paper, we report the
results of a study conducted in Kentucky
from 1972 to 1974 which yielded data con-
cerning the incidence of mermithid nema-
todes in auchenorrhynchus hosts.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank J. P. Kramer, Systematic Ento-
mology Laboratory, Agric. Res. Ser., Wash-
* Homoptera: Auchenorrhyncha.
* The investigation reported in this paper (No.
75-7-77) is in connection with a project of the
Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station and is
published with approval of the Director.
o7
ington, D.C.; F. W. Mead, Florida Dept.
Agric., Gainesville, Fla.; and Lois O’Brien,
Florida A & M Univ., Tallahassee, Fla. for
aid in the identification of fulgoroid speci-
mens, and R. A. Chapman, Dept. Plant
Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky. for the identification of the nema-
tode parasites. Suggestions and literature
provided by W. R. Nickle, Plant Nematol-
ogy Laboratory, Agric. Res. Ser., Beltsville,
Md., were appreciated. Gratitude also is
expressed to D. E. Barnett and V. Johnson,
graduate students in the department, for
collection data.
Travel expenses of the senior author were
defrayed by a Dissertation Research Travel
Grant (1972-1973) awarded by the Univer-
sity of Kentucky Graduate School.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
About 60,000 specimens of adult and
nymphal auchenorrhynchus Homoptera (ex-
cluding Cicadidae) were collected, mainly
from grassy pastures and old field habitats,
from 81 Kentucky counties during 1972-
1974 (Mar—Dec). Samples usually were
obtained by sweep net collection, although
hand, shrub beating, and blacklight collect-
ing methods were also used. All specimens
were preserved in 80 percent ethanol. Sam-
ples were sorted to species or higher groups,
and all specimens in each group were dis-
sected and examined for parasites.
TABLE 1.—AUCHENORRHYNCHUS Hosts
Host
Cercopidae
Clastoptera sp.
Philaenus spumarius (L.)
Cicadellidae
Acertagallia sanguinolenta (Provancher )
Agallia constricta Van Duzee
Agallia quadripunctata ( Provancher )
Alebra albostriella (Fallen )
Amblysellus curtisi ( Fitch)
Balclutha abdominalis (Van Duzee )
Chlorotettix unicolor (Fitch)
Coelidia olitoria (Say )
Cuerna costalis ( F.)
Draeculacephala antica ( Walker )
D. mollipes (Say)
Draeculacephala spp. (undetermined
females and nymphs )
Empoasca sp.
Forcipata loca DeLong & Caldwell
Graminella nigrifrons ( Forbes )
Graphocephala versuta (Say )
Idiocerus pallidus Fitch
Laevicephalus orientalis DeLong &
Davidson
Latalus sayi (Fitch)
Macrosteles fascifrons Dorst
Paraphlepsius irroratus (Say )
P. tenessa (DeLong )
Polyamia weedi (Say )
Psammotettix striatus (L.)
Stirellus bicolor (Van Duzee)
Tylozygus bifidus (Say)
Cixiidae
Oliarus ecologus Caldwell
O. sablensis Caldwell
Delphacidae
Delphacodes lutulenta (Van Duzee )
Delphacodes spp.
Delphacidae (undetermined species )
Dictyopharidae
Scolops sulcipes Say
Issidae
Thionia simplex (Germar )
Membracidae
Campylenchia latipes (Say )
Stictocephala bubalus ( F.)
S. lutea (Walker )
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3—4)
Counties in Which Hosts with
Mermithids Were Collected
Wayne
Grayson
Fayette
Barren, Breathitt, Fayette, Green, Jeffer-
son, Mercer, Monroe, Oldham, Taylor
Anderson
Breathitt
Fayette
Breathitt
Grant
Fayette
Fayette
Boyle, Fayette, Grant, Green, Hart, Henry,
Marion, Meade, Mercer, Metcalfe, Old-
ham, Shelby, Spencer, Taylor, Warren
Fayette
Breathitt, Fayette, Henry, Jefferson,
Meade, Oldham, Shelby, Spencer,
Trimble, Warren, Wayne, Woodford
Boyle, Fayette, Mercer, Oldham, Rock-
castle
Breathitt, Fayette, Henry
Fayette, Hancock
Boyle, Fayette, Mercer
Fayette
Larue
Fayette, Henry
Breathitt, Fayette
Fayette, Spencer
Boyle
Fayette
Boone, Breathitt, Fayette, Warren
Fayette
Pendleton, Shelby
Boone, Shelby
Boone
Boone
Boone, Fayette
Fayette
Wayne
Oldham
Scott
Gallatin
Jefferson, Spencer
OF MERMITHID NEMATODES IN KENTUCKY
Range of
Collection Dates
18 Jul
13 Jun
13 May
13 May—15 Aug
13 Jun
6 Jul
7 Jul
29 Jun
15 Aug
23 Jul
23 Jul
19 May—29 Oct
1-9 Aug
10 May—14 Sep
17 Jun—-15 Aug
22 Jun—9 Oct
3 Jun—10 Oct
9-12 Aug
24 Jun
17 May
13 May-15 Aug
19 May—14 Jun
4 Jun—-15 Aug
12 Aug
22 Jun-9 Oct
10 May—29 Oct
6 Jun
27 Jun—15 Aug
27 Jun—15 Aug
27 Jun
27 Jun
27 Jun—29 Oct
22 Jun—24 Aug
22 Jul
15 Aug
19 Jul
19 Jul
15 Aug
Hosts oF MermituHip NeMatopes—Sperka and Freytag a9
RATKES
Seumege
ENS
Fic. 1. Distribution of auchenorrhynchus specimens parasitized by mermithid nematodes in Kentucky.
Stippled areas represent counties sampled for auchenorrhynchs. Filled circles indicate counties from
which mermithids were collected.
During 1973-1974 about 8,000 specimens
of living auchenorrhynchs were collected
for parasite rearing studies. Mermithids
which emerged from their hosts were incu-
bated at 27 + 3 C on damp sand. Adult
mermithids, necessary for identification,
were not obtained.
RESULTs AND DISCUSSION
Hosts
More than 200 specimens of larval mer-
mithid nematodes were dissected out from
NUMBER PER 100 SWEEPS
MAK 24 JUN JUN JUN JUN JUN JUL Jut JUL JUL AUG
29 2
18 22 30 7 16 20
SAMPLING DATE
JUNI 3 10
auchenorrhynchus specimens representing
at least 37 species in the Cercopidae, Cica-
dellidae, Cixiidae, Delphacidae, Dictyoph-
aridae, Issidae, and Membracidae (Table
1).
Distribution
Mermithid parasites were found in collec-
tions from 31 counties, primarily in the cen-
tral third of the state (Fig. 1). Although
the western third of the state was well sam-
pled and collections usually yielded auche-
BEE HOSTS
HOST SPECIES
Fic. 2. Trend of abundance of mermithid parasitized hosts and number of host species involved. Fayette
County, 1973.
“-prseydoyorey apeutay Jo xexoyjoreydeo (FI) ‘soxrquie prseydoyorey Jo syodseko (9) :piseydozorey opeutoyz pravss YY voYUD DpDYdaov)ndaDIqq
jo A}IAvo [eurTULOpge sulieys pryyutoyy “g “OIg ‘ds vospodwiy fo (v) snuv oY} BIA SUIS1OUIO OpO}VUION ‘G ‘OI *(9) APAVO [eUTWIOpge pue ‘(q) A}AvO
o1ovioyy “(v) peoy OFUL SuIpUs}xe pryyuttout YA ‘ds yjpydaopjnoapug jo yduiAN ‘fF “OLY ‘APAVO [RUILUOPAe Ul PIYULIoUL YYIM xajdwis muoIyYT, “E ‘OL
ANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4)
TR
60
Hosts or MermitHip NeMatopes—Sperka and Freytag 61
norrhynchus specimens similar to those in
the central portion of the state, few mermi-
thids were found in that area. A visual
inspection of these data indicate that this
distributional pattern is not correlated with
maps of mean annual rainfall, generalized
geology, or major soil areas.
Mermithids were found in their hosts
from 10 May until 29 October. These early
and late collection dates indicate that mer-
mithids can overwinter in their hosts. Re-
sults from weekly sampling at a Fayette
County site during 1973 indicate that mer-
mithids were most common from late June
through August (Fig. 2).
Rate of Parasitism and Host Specificity
Of the nearly 60,000 specimens examined,
only about 200 were parasitized by mermi-
thids. This represents an overall rate of
parasitism of approximately 0.3 percent.
Although more than a fourth of the mermi-
thids collected were parasitic in the leaf-
hopper genus Draeculacephala, the rate of
parasitism by mermithids in this group was
not higher than the overall rate.
Little is known of the host specificity of
most mermithid species; however, it is ap-
parent that those which attack the leafhop-
pers and their allies are not species specific.
Collection site and date appeared more im-
portant in determining rate of parasitism
than species of auchenorrhynchs present.
At most localities sampled, if more than 1
parasitized host was found in a sample,
more than 1 host species was involved usu-
ally in a ratio proportional to the number
of auchenorrhynch species collected. This
is exemplified by data from Fayette County
(Fig. 2).
Mermithids in Their Hosts
The mature larval mermithid fills the
abdominal cavity of its host (Fig. 3). Fre-
quently, coils of the nematode also extend
into the thoracic and head areas, completely
filling the body of the host (Fig. 4).
Most hosts examined could be placed in
2 size groups: those about 3 mm long and
those 7-8 mm long. The longest nema found
in the small-host group was 38 mm in length
from a female cicadellid, Psammotettix stri-
atus, which was 3.4 mm long. The average
mermithid length for the small-host group
was about 26 mm (S.E. 7.8 mm, n= 20).
The longest nema found in the larger hosts
was 84 mm long in an 8.5 mm membracid,
Stictocephala bubalus. The average mermi-
thid length in this host size class was about
45mm (5.8. 12.2 1m, nol),
Usually, only 1 mermithid was found in
each host; however, up to 4 were observed.
Nemas from superparasitized hosts fre-
quently were shorter than the average
length of a nema from the same host species
when that species was singly parasitized.
Parasitism by mermithids seldom pro-
duced measurable effects in the genitalia
or other external structures of their hosts;
however, abdominal distention and color
changes were observed in a few specimens.
Internal organs usually were absent or
greatly reduced, and “parasitic castration”
was evident.
Rearing studies showed that death of the
host occurred either shortly before or after
the emergence of the mermithid from the
body of the host. The nematode emerged
from the host usually via a hole in the
intersegmental membrane of the abdominal
sclerites or through the anus (Fig. 5) or
genital openings.
Association of Mermithids with
Other Parasites
Although the mermithid usually renders
its auchenorrhynchus host sterile, it does
coexist with certain insects which are also
parasitic in the Auchenorrhyncha. Both
larvae of the Dryinidae (Hymenoptera )
and adults and larvae of the Halictophagi-
dae (Strepsiptera) were found in hosts par-
asitized by mermithids. Several specimens
were found bearing well-developed mermi-
thids and female halictophagids which had
reproduced as evidenced by their burden of
triungulin larvae (Fig. 6). Although the
mermithids parasitize many of the same
host species as do the larvae of the Pipuncu-
62 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4)
lidae and Tachinidae (Diptera), no mermi-
thids were found in association with these
larvae.
LITERATURE CITED
LaRivers, I. 1949. Entomic nematode _litera-
ture from 1926 to 1946 exclusive of medical
and veterinary titles. Wasmann Collector
7(5):177-206.
NickLE, W. R. 1972. A _ contribution to our
knowledge of the Mermithidae (Nematoda).
J. Nematol. 4(2):113-146. !
WEAVER, C. R., AND D. R. Kinc. 1954. Meadow |
Spittlebug. Ohio Agric. Expt. Sta. Res. Bull.
741. 99 pp. |
ZWALUWENBURG, R. H. Van. 1928. The inter-
relationships of insects and roundworms. Bull.
Expt. Sta. Hawaii Sugar Planters’ Ass., Ento-
mol. Ser. 20:1-68.
The Fishes of West Kentucky.
Ill. The Fishes of Bayou de Chien
Davin H. WEBB AND MorcGAn E. Sisk
Hunter Hancock Biological Station, Department of Biological Sciences,
Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071
ABSTRACT
An annotated list of fishes representing 16 families and 53 species taken from Bayou de Chien
is presented. Numbers of 3 rare and/or endangered species from Kentucky ( Etheostoma histrio,
E. asprigene, and Percina uranidea) may be large enough to ensure their continued existence
under present conditions, but 2 other species (Lepomis symmetricus and Hybognathus hayi )
are recommended for inclusion on the state’s rare and endangered list of fishes. An observation
indicates that Bayou de Chien may serve as a nursery area for Polyodon spathula.
INTRODUCTION
Published accounts of the fishes in the
Jackson Purchase region of western Ken-
tucky are sparse. The first published collec-
tions from this area are those of Woolman
(1892), which he collected from Mayfield
and Obion creeks and Bayou de Chien dur-
ing 3 days. Those collections were limited
to 1 or 2 stations along each stream and do
not approximate total species composition
of any of the above drainage systems. A
summary of all ichthyological work done in
the Tennessee and Kentucky regions was
produced by Evermann (1918) and in-
cluded Woolman’s (1892) work. Recent
studies by Clay (1962), Sisk (1969), and
Smith and Sisk (1969) have included notes
on the ecology and distribution of fishes in
the Purchase area. The works of Forbes and
Richardson (1920), Baker (1937, 1939a,
1939b), Baker and Parker (1938), Pflieger
(1971), Resh et al. (1973) relate to fishes
from regions bordering the Jackson Pur-
chase. These studies are applicable because
western Tennessee, southeastern Missouri,
southern Illinois, and western Kentucky
are geographically similar, and historically
shared a common piscine fauna.
This study of Bayou de Chien was under-
taken as part of a regional survey to estab-
lish the extant piscine fauna of western
Kentucky. Bayou de Chien is in the south-
western portion of the Jackson Purchase
and drains 216 square miles (559 km?)
(Schwendeman 1958) in Graves, Hickman,
63
and Fulton counties. The basin is about 48
km long and 16 km wide with an east-west
orientation. The source of the stream is in
southwestern Graves County from whence
it flows some 47 km to its confluence with
the Mississippi River. All but the terminal
8-10 km of Bayou de Chien have been sub-
jected to channelization in the past. The
present mouth of the stream is about 1.6
km north of Hickman, Kentucky.
The general supposition, supported by
Loughridge (1888), is that Obion Creek
and Bayou de Chien once formed a single
stream that flowed near the base of the
bluffs at Hickman, and then continued
southwesterly into Tennessee. A change in
the channel of the Mississippi from west to
east of Island No. 6 has resulted in the
obliteration of a bottom which was present
near the Hickman bluffs in 1842 (Lough-
ridge 1888). Thus Obion Creek and Bayou
de Chien, now with separate outlets to the
Mississippi River, once coursed through the
Reelfoot Lake area and were tributaries of
the Obion River system of western Tennes-
see. An old stream channel, known as Run-
ning Slough, may today be seen along State
Highway 94 for several kilometers south-
west of Hickman. Running Slough can be
traced to Reelfoot Lake where its channel
is called the old Bayou de Chien. Sisk
(1973) suggested that the old channel
serves as a route of reinvasion for fishes
from Reelfoot Lake, following periods of
drought, into streams of southwestern Ful-
ton County, Kentucky.
64
TABLE 1.—RESULTS OF WATER ANALYSIS OF BAYOU
DE CHIEN, 1972-1973
Range
Min Max Mean
Oxygen (ppm) 5 14 8.9
pH 6.0 8.9 tel
Turbidity (JTU )* 5 800 80.3
Chlorides (ppm) 5 35 7.8
Temperature (°C) 5 32 18.4
1 Jackson turbidity units.
Basic water quality parameters were mea-
sured quarterly during this survey and are
summarized in Table 1. Tests for nitrogen
and phosphorus were omitted due to inade-
quate field methods for analysis.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Gill nets, hoop nets, fish traps, an electric
shocker, creel census, and seines were used
in sampling the fishes of Bayou de Chien.
Specimens were killed and fixed in formalin
and preserved in alcohol. Collections are
in the Murray State University Vertebrate
Museum.
Twenty major collecting sites, sampled
on a quarterly basis, were selected along the
course of Bayou de Chien and its tributaries.
The selection of sampling stations was
based primarily on accessibility and were
generally near highways or roads. Twelve
additional collections were made at various
localities during the course of the study in
an effort to sample all aquatic habitats. The
results of this study are based on a total of
103 collections.
Listed below are the sampling stations
followed by the dates on which collections
were made.
1. Bayou de Chien near its confluence
with the Mississippi River, 1.6 km NE
of Hickman, Fulton Co. 19:VIII:1972,
28:V:1973, 8:XII:1973.
. Little Mud Creek, 3.2 km E of Hickman,
Fulton Co., at Kentucky Highway 94.
24:%:1972; 19: VI:1973, 19:1X:1973.
3. Mud Creek, 6.4 km E of Hickman, Ful-
bo
Ol
9:
10.
ae
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4)
ton Co., at Kentucky Highway 94. 6:X:
1972,_19:V1:1973,- 14: VII: 1973; 72
1973.
Fulton Co., at Kentucky Highway 1129.
9:TX:1972, 11:XT:1972, Sse TSy see
VI:1973.
. Tributary of Mud Creek, 3.2 km SW of
. Samson Creek, 4.8 km NW of Cayce, |
Cayce, Fulton Co., at Kentucky High- |
way 1128. 2:IX:1972, 28:V:1973, 2:X:
1973.
. Little Bayou de Chien, 4.8 km N of
Cayce, Fulton Co., at Kentucky High-
way 239. 2:1X:1972, 6:X;19725 0-11;
1973, 21:V:1973, 28: V-1973 eee ore
. Little Bayou de Chien, 3.2 km NE of |
Cayce, Fulton Co., at Kentucky High- |
way 1907. 22:VII:1972, 16:VIII:1972, |
24:11:1973, 19: V1I:1973, 13:X1:1973:
. Little Bayou de Chien, 7.2 km SE of
Cayce, Fulton Co., at Kentucky High- |
way 1125. 7:VIII:1972, 2:1X:1972, 2A:
I1:1973, 19: VL:1973, 1320s:
Bayou de Chien, 6.4 km N of Cayce,
Fulton Co., at Kentucky Highway 239. |
9:1X:1972, 30:IX:1972, 9:111:1973.
Bayou de Chien, 0.8 km N of Moscow,
Hickman Co. 6:VIIT:1972, 13:X:1972)8
21:X:1972, 24:11:1973, 16:V1:1973, Tim
VIII:1973.
Bayou de Chien, 4.8 km SE of Clinton, —
Hickman Co., at U.S. Highway 51. 16:
VIII:1972, 23:1X:1972, 24:1T:1973, 16: —
VI:1973.
Cane Creek, 6.4 km SE of Clinton, ©
Hickman Co., at Kentucky Highway
1529. 13:X:1972, [7 stS rae
1973 TSO Aketo Te
Cane Creek, 8.0 km SE of Clinton, |
Hickman Co., at U.S. Highway 51. 16:
VI:1972, 23:1X:1972, STE TSise zy
1973.
Bayou de Chien, 4.8 km SW of Fulgham,
Hickman Co.
30:07: 1973, 7: Vili 1sie
Bayou de Chien, 4.8 km S of Fulgham,
Hickman Co., at Kentucky Highway ©
307. 16:VI:1972, 29: VITI:1972, 23:Dg
1972, 21:X:1972, 3:11:1973. 13:1VetSisae
18: VII:1973.
Sand Creek, 4.0 km S of Fulgham, Hick- |
30:IX:1972, 2:10:1973
vg
18.
19.
20.
21.
27.
28.
29.
30.
FisHes oF BAyou DE CHtEN—Webb and Sisk 65
man Co., at Kentucky Highway 307.
62121972; 23:1X: 1972, 221: V:1973.
Bayou de Chien, 4.8 km N of Water
Valley, Hickman and Graves cos., at
Kentucky Highway 1283. 7:VI:1972,
27-V11:1972, 30:1X:1972, 2:11:1973, 30:
TIT:1973.
Bayou de Chien, 1.6 km NW of Water
Valley, Graves Co., at U.S. Highway
Baee te V121972, 22:VII:1972, 23:IX:
1872, 17:11:1973, 13:1V:1973.
Bayou de Chien, 3.2 km NE of Water
Valley, Graves Co., near Bayou de
Chien Church. 30:V:1972, 6:X:1972,
P1973, 27:V:1973.
South Fork Bayou de Chien, 2.4 km E
of Water Valley, Graves Co. 30:V:1972,
aewe-1972.-2-X:1972, 17:11:1973, 27:V:
1973.
Bayou de Chien, 4.8 km W of Moscow,
Fulton Co., near the Adam’s mounds.
2tVUlT: 1973.
. Bayou de Chien, 3.2 km W of Moscow,
Fulton Co. 1:1X:1973.
. Drainage ditch, 6.1 km N of Cayce,
Hickman Co., at Kentucky Highway
mo. 21X 1972.
. Bayou de Chien, 6.4 km SW of Fulgham,
Hickman Co. 4:X1:1972.
. Slough, 4.8 km W of Moscow and S of
the Adams mounds, Fulton Co. 27:
wm 1973. 1:1X:1973.
. Jackson Creek, 2.0 km NE of Water
Valley, Graves Co., at U.S. Highway
45. 7:VII:1972.
Tributary to Bayou de Chien, 0.5 km S
of Water Valley near Illinois Central
RR, Graves Co., at Kentucky Highway
Eee 2g: VEIT: 1972.
Tributary to South Fork of Bayou de
Chien, 5.6 km S of Water Valley, Graves
Co., at Kentucky Highway 94. 30:V:
1972.
Rush Creek, 4.8 km NW of Cayce, Ful-
ton Co., at Kentucky Highway 1129.
9:1X:1972.
Slough N of Moscow, Hickman Co. 18:
VI:1973, 14:VII:1973.
RESULTS
This survey resulted in the capture of
specimens of the following fishes, repre-
senting 16 families and 53 species. The
scientific name is followed by the common
name, collecting sites, and notes on the dis-
tribution and abundance of each species.
The nomenclature and arrangement of taxa
are those of Moore (1968) and Bailey et al.
(1970).
List OF SPECIES
POLYODONTIDAE
1. Polyodon spathula (Walbaum). Pad-
dlefish. Stations 1 and 21. Rare and
confined to the extreme low-gradient
portions of the drainage.
LEPISOSTEIDAE
2. Lepisosteus oculatus (Winchell). Spot-
ted gar. Station 22. Apparently rare in
the system as only a single specimen
was collected, that being from a quiet
inlet just off the main stream.
3. L. platostomus Rafinesque. Shortnose
gar stations.) oS. G10. 11 21 aaeand
30. Fairly common in the low-gradient
portions of the drainage and were par-
ticularly abundant following the ex-
tensive flooding caused by backwaters
of the Mississippi River in the spring of
1973.
AMUDAE
4, Amia calva Linnaeus. Bowfin. Stations
2, 6, 13, and 30. Rare in streams with
flowing water and mainly confined to
the quiet waters of sloughs, borrow
ditches, and intermittent pools of the
lowlands.
CLUPEIDAE
5. Dorosoma cepedianum (Lesueur ). Giz-
Zand ‘shad. iStations 1's. 6, 10, 11, 21,
and 22. Common in the low-gradient
portions of the drainage and frequently
captured in sloughs, borrow ditches,
and main stream pools.
ESOcIDAE
6. Esox americanus vermiculatus Lesueur.
Grass pickerel. Stations 4, 7, 8, 10, 11,
13, 14, 17, 18, 20, and 25. Distributed
66
|
10.
Ee
13.
14.
. Carassius auratus (Linnaeus).
TRANs. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3—4)
throughout the drainage and frequently
seen lying in debris and vegetation bor-
dering streams and flooded areas.
CyYPRINIDAE
Gold-
fish. Station 3. Only one specimen was
taken and probably represents an intro-
duction rather than an established pop-
ulation.
. Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus. Carp. Sta-
tions 1, 3, 6, 7, 9-12, 25, and 29. Com-
mon in the low-gradient portions of the
drainage and a frequent inhabitant of
sloughs and pools of streams.
. Hybognathus hayi Jordan. Cypress min-
now. Stations 3, 4, 6, and 22. Rare, and
collected only in low-gradient streams
from pools and areas with little or no
current.
H. nuchalis Agassiz. Silvery minnow.
Stations 6, 7, 9, and 10. Uncommon,
and a lowland species which was most
often taken from side pools of the main
stream.
Notemigonus crysoleucas (Mitchill).
Golden shiner. Stations 2, 3, 5-12, 14,
15, 18, 25, and 30. Widely distributed.
. Notropis emiliae (Hay). Pugnose min-
now. Stations 4, 9, 11, 12, 14, and 15.
Most captures from the lowland areas
of the system. Although widely dis-
tributed, this species was never col-
lected in large numbers.
N. fumeus Evermann. Ribbon shiner.
Stations 6-12, 14-18, and 21-24. The
most numerous shiner in the drainage.
Prefers quiet water and pools in both
high- and low-gradient portions of
streams.
N. lutrensis (Baird and Girard). Red
shiner. Stations 9 and 17. Confined to
riffles where it is occasionally taken in
fairly large numbers. Dr. Glen Clem-
mer (pers. comm.) suspected that some
of the specimens collected during this
study are N. lutrensis x N. venustus
hybrids.
. N. spilopterus (Cope). Spotfin shiner.
Station 17. Rare. Only a few specimens
were collected from a riffle with sand
bottom.
16.
1s
18.
19:
20.
21.
22.
. Minytrema_ melanops
N. venustus (Girard). Blacktail shiner.
Stations 14 and 15. An inhabitant of
riffles in the high-gradient portions of
the stream and apparently rare.
Phenacobius mirabilis (Girard). Suck-
ermouth minnow. Stations 5, 14-18, and
24. Common in the high-gradient por-
tions of the drainage and usually taken
in or below swift riffles with sand and
gravel bottoms. Frequently taken with
Percina uranidea.
Pimephales promelas Rafinesque. Fat-
head minnow. Stations 2 and 5. An
inhabitant of intermittent pools and
quiet waters of the lowlands where it is
rare.
Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchill).
Creek chub. Stations 5, 13-20, and
25-27. Confined mainly to the high-gra-
dient portions of the system and often
the most abundant species of extreme
headwater streams with continuous
flow.
CATOSTOMIDAE
Erimyzon oblongus (Mitchill). Creek
chubsucker. Stations 4, 15, and 18-20.
A common occupant of pools in head-
waters and high-gradient portions of
the stream.
Ictiobus bubalus (Rafinesque). Small-
mouth buffalo. Stations 1, 3, 4, 6, 10,
and 25. Fairly common in the low-
gradient portions of the drainage where
most captures were from sloughs, bor-
row ditches, and pools of the main
stream.
I. cyprinellus (Valenciennes). Big-
mouth buffalo. Stations 6 and 25. Un-
common and taken only from sloughs
and borrow pits in the lowlands.
(Rafinesque).
Spotted sucker. Stations 14 and 17.
Several large individuals sighted at Sta-
tion 17 in the early spring of 1974, but
apparently rare in the drainage at other
times of the year.
ICTALURIDAE
. Ictalurus furcatus (Lesueur). Blue cat-
fish. Although no specimens were col-
lected, this species is reported by com-
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
dl.
32.
33.
FisHes OF BAyou DE CHiEN—Webb and Sisk
mercial fishermen of the area to ascend
Bayou de Chien and Little Bayou de
Chien in early spring.
I. melas (Rafinesque). Black bullhead.
Stations 1-6, 8, 9, 13, 20, 25, 29, and 30.
Common in the lowlands and seems to
prefer the same general habitat as I.
natalis.
I, natalis (Lesueur). Yellow bullhead.
Stations 1-4, 6-18, 20, 23, and 25. Com-
mon throughout the system and fre-
quently taken from pools and areas with
little or no current.
I. punctatus (Rafinesque). Channel
catfish. Stations 1, 9-11, and 22. A low-
land species that local fishermen re-
ported from several localities other than
those listed above.
Noturus gyrinus (Mitchill). Tadpole
madtom. Stations 4, 6, 9, and 10. Re-
stricted to the lowlands where it is usu-
ally found under overhanging banks or
in clumps of leaves and other debris.
N. nocturnus Jordan and Gilbert.
Freckled madtom. Stations 9, 10, 14,
and 22. Uncommon and collected from
the same general habitat as N. gyrinus.
Pylodictis olivaris (Rafinesque). Flat-
head catfish. Taken near our Station
21. Sight record of the head of a speci-
men taken by local fisherman and re-
portedly weighed 45 pounds (20.4 kg).
CYPRINODONTIDAE
Fundulus olivaceus (Storer). Black-
spotted topminnow. Stations 1-4, 6-20,
and 23-29. One of the most common
species, distributed throughout the sys-
tem and preferring quiet pools.
POECILIIDAE
Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard).
Mosquitofish. Stations 1-29. Probably
the most abundant species in the sys-
tem. An inhabitant of intermittent
pools, borrow pits, backwaters, and
pools of the main stream.
APHREDODERIDAE
Aphredoderus sayanus (Gilliams). Pi-
rate perch. Stations 2-4, 6-13, 18, 21,
22, 28, and 29. Fairly common in the
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
67
lowland portion of the drainage and
most frequently taken in vegetation and
debris along the margins of streams,
flooded areas, and sloughs.
PERCICHTHYIDAE
. Morone chrysops (Rafinesque). White
bass. Station 1. Known to ascend the
main stream in early spring during flood
periods.
CENTRARCHIDAE
Centrarchus macropterus (Lacépede).
Fier. Stations 2-4 6, 11) 25, and 30.
Fairly common in the lowlands in
sloughs and pools.
Elassoma zonatum Jordan. Banded
pigmy sunfish. Stations 4, 6, 8, 9, 11,
14, and 17. Not common although sev-
eral specimens were taken in all parts of
the drainage. This species was collected
in large numbers at Station 11 only
during the spring of 1973.
Lepomis cyanellus Rafinesque. Green
sunfish. Stations 2-5, 7-11, 13, 15-20,
and 25-27. Common throughout the
system with the largest populations oc-
curring in the high-gradient portion of
the drainage.
L. gulosus (Cuvier). Warmouth. Sta-
tions 2-4, 6-17, 21, 22, and 24. Fairly
common throughout the drainage system
except in extreme headwater streams.
L. humilis (Girard). Orangespotted
sunfish. Stations 3, 5, 6, and 10. Con-
fined to the lowlands where it is fairly
common in pools, sloughs, and ditches.
L. macrochirus Rafinesque. Bluegill.
Stations 1-20, 23, 25, and 29. Abundant
throughout the drainage system and
most frequently taken from pools.
L. symmetricus Forbes. Bantam sun-
fish. Stations 6 and 11. Rare, collected
only from borrow ditches and a flooded
area in the low gradient portion of the
stream.
. Micropterus salmoides (Lacépede).
Largemouth bass. Stations 1, 3, 4, 6, 10,
11, 14, 15, 17, and 30. Fairly common
throughout the drainage although not
in large numbers. Most specimens taken
68
43,
44,
46.
47.
48.
49.
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3—4)
with seines were small, but creel census
data showed that individuals of 2-3
pounds (4.4-6.6 kg) are not uncommon
in the lowland parts of the system.
Pomoxis annularis Rafinesque. White
crappie. Stations 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11, 22, and
30. Common and collected mainly from
pools of streams, borrow pits, sloughs,
and flooded areas.
P. nigromaculatus Lesueur. Black crap-
pie. Stations 3, 4, and 11. Not as com-
mon as P. annularis with most captures
from masses of vegetation in flooded
areas and ditches.
PERCIDAE
. Etheostoma asprigene (Forbes). Mud
darter.’ Stations) i 9:10: 21;and+ 22.
Confined to the lowland portion of the
main stream where most captures were
from riffles and matted roots along the
bank.
E. chlorosomum (Hay). Bluntnose
darter. Stations 1, 3, 4, 6, 10-15, 17, 18,
and 22-24. Common and usually found
in sloughs, pools, and other areas lacking
noticeable current. This species repre-
sents the E. nigrum reported by Wool-
man (1892), (pers. comm. R. M. Bailey
1974).
E. gracile (Girard). Slough darter.
Stations 1-20, 23, 24, 26, and 29. The
most common percid encountered in
this survey. Occurring throughout the
drainage system with the greatest con-
centration in the lowlands.
E. histrio Jordan and Gilbert. Harle-
quin darter. Stations 9, 10, 14, and 15.
Relatively rare, although common in
riffles at Station 10 during certain times
of the year.
E. squamiceps Jordan. Spottail darter.
Stations 9, 10, and 14-19. Fairly com-
mon in the high gradient portions of the
stream with occasional specimens being
taken from lowland streams with mod-
erate flow.
. Percina sciera (Swain). Dusky darter.
Stations 9 and 11. Confined to the low-
lands where it is rare and most often
found in fibrous roots bordering riffles.
O1. Percina uranidea (Jordan and Gilbert).
Stargazing darter. Stations 9, 10, 12, 14,
15, 17, and 24. Fairly common in riffles
of the high-gradient portion of the
stream where it was usually collected
over a sand and gravel substrate. Often
collected with Phenacobius mirabilis.
. Stizostedion canadense (Smith). Sau-
ger. Station 1. One specimen was taken
in a gill net and probably was a migrant
from the Mississippi River.
Ol
bo
SCIAENIDAE
53. Aplodinotus grunniens Rafinesque.
Freshwater drum. Stations 1 and 9.
Confined to the lowlands where it is
probably more abundant than is indi-
cated by this study.
DISCUSSION
The collections of Woolman (1892) from
Bayou de Chien included several species of
fishes intolerant of high turbidity. These
include Lepomis megalotis, Labidesthes
sicculus, Micropterus dolomieui, Notropis
whipplei, Percina caprodes, and P. macu-
lata. Extensive clearing of native forests
of the area and the conversion of the land
for agrarian use may account for the in-
creased silt load in the stream system. Ab-
sence of these fishes from the present study
may be the result of an increase in stream
turbidities since the 1890's. Another reason
these species are absent in our collections
may not be misidentification by Woolman
as much as an increase in taxonomic and
systematic expertise since Woolman’s time.
The absence of Centrarchus macropterus,
Lepomis humilis, Gambusia affinis, Icta-
lurus natalis, I. melas, and Etheostoma grac-
ile from Woolman’s collections is also
surprising since all are common lowland
species inhabiting the Coastal Plain. Cypri-
nus carpio, an inhabitant of all major drain-
ages of the United States and recently re-
ported from Canada, is not among the
species reported by Woolman (1892). The
appearance of C. carpio in the Jackson Pur-
chase region may postdate 1890, since Wool-
man did not report it from any part of
Kentucky west of the Tenessee River.
FisHes OF BAyYou DE CuteEN—Webb and Sisk 69
Miller (1972) placed 3 species of fishes
taken during this study on the rare and
endangered species list for Kentucky.
Etheostoma histrio and E. asprigene are re-
garded as rare and endangered while Per-
cina uranidea is listed as rare. Populations
of E. asprigene and P. uranidea in Bayou de
Chien probably are large enough to ensure
their continued existence barring major
stream changes. E. histrio is much rarer
and exhibits a more limited distribution and
narrower habitat requirements than the
other 2 percids. Any type of dredging or
channelization of Bayou de Chien would
seriously threaten existing populations of
E. histrio.
Two other fishes collected during this
study, Lepomis symmetricus and Hybogna-
thus hayi, appear in danger of extirpation
from the northern limits of their ranges.
Both are inhabitants of the Coastal Plain
(Moore 1968), and are thus restricted in the
Commonwealth to the extreme western half
of the Jackson Purchase. L. symmetricus is
on the rare and endangered species list of
Missouri and Illinois ( Miller 1972) and in
Missouri is restricted to a single locality in
the southeastern portion of the state (Pflie-
ger 1971). H. hayi has not been collected
in Missouri since the 1940's (Pflieger 1971)
and is possibly extinct in the state. Past
studies by Smith and Sisk (1969), Sisk
(1973), and the present study indicate that
H. hayi and L. symmetricus are rare in the
Jackson Purchase region of Kentucky and
that protective measures need to be insti-
tuted to ensure their existence in the state.
Little was known about the spawning
habits of Polyodon spathula until Purkett
(1961) observed the species spawning over
gravel bars in Missouri’s Osage River. The
spawning habits of P. spathula in Kentucky
are unknown (Clay 1962). In August 1973,
a 23-cm specimen was taken from Bayou de
Chien at Station 21. According to the
studies of Purkett (1961), and Houser and
Bross (1959) this juvenile was probably
spawned in May 1973. If this specimen was
not spawned over gravel and sand bars that
are 13-16 km upstream from the point of
collection, then it appears that Bayou de
Chien at least serves as a nursery for the
young paddlefish.
It should be noted that such species as
Umbra limi, Notropis maculatus, Fundulus
chrysotus, F. notti, Menidia audens, Etheo-
stoma fusiforme, and E. proeliare were ab-
sent in collections from Bayou de Chien.
All these fishes were reported by Sisk
(1973) from nearby Running Slough and
lakes of the lowlands southwest of Hick-
man, Kentucky, and may be suspected of
occurring in the Bayou de Chien drainage
system.
LITERATURE CITED
BAtmEY. Be M., J. HE. Prren, FE. S, Heratp, E. A.
LACHNER, C. C. Linpsry, C. R. RosBins, AND
W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of common and
scientific names of fishes from the United
States and Canada. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec.
Publ. No. 6:1—150.
Baker, C. L. 1937. The commercial, game and
rough fishes of Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee.
Rept. Reelfoot Lake Biological Station, J.
Tenn. Acad. Sci., 12(1):9-59.
. 1939a. Additional fishes of Reelfoot
Lake. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 14(1):6-40.
. 1939b. Key to Reelfoot Lake fishes.
J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 14(1):41—45.
, AND M. V. Parker. 1938. The fishes
of Reelfoot Lake. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 13(2):
160-163.
Cray, W.M. 1962. A field manual of Kentucky
fishes. Ky. Dept. Fish. Wildl. Resources. The
Dunne Press, Louisville, Ky. 147 pp.
EVERMANN, B. W. 1918. The fishes of Kentucky
and Tennessee: A distributional catalogue of
the known species. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 35:
293-368.
ForBEs, S. A., AND R. E. RicHARDsON. 1920. The
fishes of Illinois. 2nd ed., Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv.,
Dept. Regist. Educ., Springfield, Ill. 359 pp.
Houser, A., AND M. G. Bross. 1959. Observa-
tions on growth and reproduction of paddle-
fish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 88(1):50-52.
LoucHripcE, R. H. 1888. Report on the geo-
logic and economic features of the Jackson
Purchase Region embracing the counties of
Ballard, Calloway, Fulton, Graves, Hickman,
McCracken, and Marshall. Geol. Surv. Ky.,
Frankfort, Ky. 357 pp.
Mitter, R. R. 1972. Threatened freshwater
fishes of the United States. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 101(2) :239-252.
Moore, G. A. 1968. Fishes. 144 pp. In Verte-
brates of the United States, 2nd ed., McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y.
70 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4)
Prurecer, W. L. 1971. A distributional study of
Missouri fishes. Univ. Kans. Publ., Mus. Nat.
Hist. 20( 3) :225-570.
Reso, V. H., C. R. BAker, AND W. M. Cray.
1973. A preliminary list of fishes of the Land
Between the Lakes, Cumberland and Tennes-
see river drainages. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
33 (3-4) :73-80.
SCHWENDEMAN, J. 1958. Geography of Ken-
tucky. Harlow Publ. Co., Oklahoma City,
Okla. 213 pp.
Sisk, M. E. 1969. The fishes of west Kentucky.
I. Fishes of the Clark’s River.
Acad. Sci. 30(3-4) :54—59.
1973. Six additions to the known
piscine fauna of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 34(3-4) :49-50.
SmitH, P. L., anp M. E. Sisk. 1969. The fishes
of west Kentucky. II. The fishes of Obion
Creek. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30(3-4) :60-68.
WooLMaN, A. J. 1892. Report of an examina-
tion of the rivers of Kentucky, with lists of the
fishes obtained. Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. 10:
249-288.
Trans. Ky.
Distribution and Life History Notes on the Taillight
Shiner Notropis maculatus in Kentucky
Brooxs M. Burr AND LAWRENCE M. PAGE
Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana, Illinois 61801
ABSTRACT
Notropis maculatus is present in Ohio River oxbows in Ballard and McCracken counties,
Kentucky. Populations in these oxbows are the northernmost known of the species, and life
history characteristics are compared to those of a central Florida population.
Citing 3 localities, Sisk (1973) recorded
the presence of Notropis maculatus in ex-
treme southwestern Kentucky, and _ ex-
pressed the opinion that these localities
represented the northernmost limit in range
of the species. In fact, however, N. macu-
latus also occurs, sometimes commonly, in
the series of oxbow lakes lining the southern
edge of the Ohio River in Ballard and Mc-
Cracken counties in western Kentucky ( Fig.
1). These oxbows are deep, have cypress
swamp margins, and at least some of them
are contiguous with the Ohio River during
periods of flood.
In the Ohio River oxbows, N. maculatus
was found mainly in marginal vegetation
and in accumulations of sticks and debris in
shallow water. Specimens collected have
been deposited in the Illinois Natural His-
tory Survey (the number of specimens is
given in parentheses): KENTUCKY, Bal-
lard Co.: Mitchell Lake, 2 km NW Oscar,
29 August 1970 (6); 27 September 1973
(1); Butler Lake, 5 km NW Oscar, 14 Au-
gust 1969 (3); Fish Lake, 5 km W Barlow,
10 September 1968 (2); Prairie Lake, 5 km
W Gum Corners, 30 August 1970 (20);
slough, 5 km W Gum Corners, 31 August
1970 (43). McCracken Co.: Crawford
Lake, 3 km N Ragland, 14 August 1969 (4);
Metropolis Lake, 5 km N Grahamville, 9
September 1967 (5); 10 September 1969
(10); 28 May 1972 (83); 26 April 1975 (5).
Other fishes collected with N. maculatus in
those lakes were Polyodon spathula, Lepi-
sosteus osseus, Amia calva, Dorosoma cepe-
dianum, Esox niger, Hybognathus hayi, H.
nuchalis, Notemigonus crysoleucas, Notro-
pis emiliae, N. spilopterus, Noturus gyrinus,
fal
Fundulus notatus, F. olivaceus, Gambusia
affinis, Labidesthes sicculus, Aphredoderus
sayanus, Lepomis cyanellus, L. gulosus, L.
humilis, L. macrochirus, L. megalotis, L.
microlophus, L. punctatus, Micropterus sal-
moides, Pomoxis annularis,.P. nigromacu-
latus, Etheostoma asprigene, E. chloroso-
mum, E. gracile, E. proeliare, and Percina
caprodes.
The new localities (Fig. 1) apparently
represent the northernmost limit in range of
N. maculatus. A large amount of unsuccess-
ful effort has been expended in searching
for the species on the Illinois side of the
Ohio River. Pflieger (1971, 1974) discussed
the probable extirpation of the species from
Missouri where it has not been found in
more than 30 years. The general range of
N. maculatus is described by Cowell and
Barnett (1974).
The hiatus between the Ohio River ox-
bow records and the Mississippi River back-
water pond records in southwestern Ken-
tucky (Fig. 1) may be due to a lack of ade-
quate collecting; however, an examination
of topographic maps for the region of the
hiatus reveals an apparent lack of suitable
habitat for N. maculatus (i.e., few oxbows,
sloughs, or backwater ponds) in this region
and the species may actually be absent.
Collections of N. maculatus in the Ohio
River oxbows have been made in April (5
specimens), May (83), August (77), and
September (21), and some comparisons
with life history characteristics of the spe-
cies in central Florida as described by Cow-
ell and Barnett (1974) can be made.
In Metropolis Lake, McCracken County,
on 28 May 1972, a school of N. maculatus
—~]
bo
i,
MISSOURI
seer
-! |]
1
. ‘
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4)
Fic. 1. Known localities from which Notropis maculatus has been collected in Kentucky. The southwest-
ern records are those reported by Sisk (1973). The Ohio River oxbow localities are based on specimens
reported in this paper.
was discovered spawning beneath or adja-
cent to a large log in water 15 to 30 cm deep.
The breeding males were extremely brightly
colored, with a suffusion of red over much
of the body and head, in the iris of the eye,
and distally on the dorsal, pelvic, anal, and
caudal fins. The basicaudal black spot, the
subdistal anterior black dorsal fin blotch,
and the black midlateral band were all
prominent (Fig. 2). Except for occasional
gravid females with pale red snouts, females
lacked red pigment. Small, white tubercles
were variously present on the lateral snout,
lower head, chin, and dorsally along the
anterior rays of the pectoral fins. Breeding
females were without tubercles. Florida
breeding males were described as having
red on the dorsal and pelvic fins and tuber-
cles on the snout. Douglas’ (1974) descrip-
tion of breeding males in Louisiana, “with
much red on the head and body (especially
the tips and edges of all fins),” is much
more in agreement with the pigmentation
of the Kentucky specimens.
Cowell and Barnett (1974) stated that in
Florida, nonreproductive males larger than
30 mm total length could be distinguished
from females by the presence in males of a
“band of dusky spots along the anterior mar-
gin of the dorsal fin.” This band was rarely
evident on Kentucky specimens, being
clearly developed only on a few males col-
lected in August.
Although in Florida the species breeds
from March to early October, with mature
females and ripe males taken in every col-
lection during these months, there is no
indication of such a protracted spawning
period in Kentucky. Young of the year were
collected in April, and spawning individuals
in May, indicating a spawning period ex-
tending at least from March to May; how-
ever, none of the individuals collected in
August and September were in breeding
condition.
In Florida, the number of mature ova
(those over 0.8 mm in diameter) in 47 fe-
males ranged from 72 to 408 and averaged
163. In Kentucky, the number ranged from
25 to 431 and averaged 246 in 21 females
collected on 28 May 1972. As in the Florida
population, the largest females produced
TAILLIGHT SHINER IN KenTucky—Burr and Page 73
Fic. 2. Notropis maculatus tuberculate breeding males collected in Kentucky (Metropolis Lake, 5 km N
Grahamville, McCracken Co., 28 May 1972).
the most eggs; the higher average number
of eggs found for the Kentucky specimens
probably was primarily a result of larger
females being examined (11 of the 21 fe-
males were over 53 mm total length). The
relationship between the number of mature
ova (F) and the standard length (L) was
log F =-5.808 + 5.013 log L, with r = 0.53,
and between the number of mature ova and
the total length (T) was log F =-5.105 +
4.319 log T, with r = 0.47.
The sex ratio of the 190 N. maculatus ex-
amined from Kentucky was 0.8 females to
1 male (7 = 2.10, ns.), of the 106 speci-
mens from Metropolis Lake was 0.5 females
to 1 male (,” = 9.66, p < .005), and of the
83 specimens collected in Metropolis Lake
on 28 May 1972 (the spawning school) was
0.4 females to 1 male (x? = 18.32, p < .005).
Although females were found to outnumber
males in Florida, males were relatively more
common along the shoreline; all of our
specimens were captured near shore.
As in Florida, females averaged signifi-
cantly larger than males. The average total
length of 22 females collected in Metropolis
Lake on 28 May 1972 (range = 42.1 to 60.6
mm) was 52.7 mm, that of 61 males (range
= 40.9 to 60.3 mm) was 48.6 mm (t = 4.16,
p < .005). All were mature individuals and
apparently about 1 year old. Although these
averages are larger than those given for
mature N. maculatus in Florida (mean total
length for females = 44.4 mm, for males =
41.6 mm), younger fish may have been in-
cluded in the Florida sample. The average
standard length of the Kentucky females
was 42.0 mm (range = 33.7 to 48.1 mm), of
males was 39.6 mm (range = 32.6 to 47.8
mm). The largest specimen examined from
Kentucky was a 48.1-mm SL, 60.6-mm TL
female.
No annulus formation was discernible in
Florida. In Kentucky, a weak annulus was
visible on some individuals but aging by
this method was not feasible. However, it
74 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 3-4)
TABLE 1.—STANDARD LENGTH FREQUENCIES OF
NOTROPIS MACULATUS COLLECTED IN OxBOW
LAKES IN KENTUCKY
Month of Collection
Standard
Length, mm
48
46
45
44
43
42
=
~
om
Aug Sep Apr
oy) de
CO oS
bt
SPD BRAT B® ATER -10 WD O1W Wb
COD HE bo
hr Ol
fool
appears from the size distribution of the
specimens collected (Table 1) that the spe-
cies lives a maximum of less than 2 years in
Kentucky as well as in Florida.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank Philip W. Smith for
critically reading the manuscript, J. A. Boyd,
E. Christian, E. L. List, J. C. Marlin, P. W.
Smith, C. C. Swift, J. A. Tranquilli, and J.
Weise for their assistance in collecting speci-
mens.
LITERATURE CITED
CowEL., B. C., anp B. S. BArnetr. 1974. Life
history of the taillight shiner, Notropis macu-
latus, in central Florida. Amer. Midl. Nat.
91:282-293.
Dovucias, N. H. 1974. Freshwater fishes of
Louisiana. Claitor’s Publ. Div., Baton Rouge,
La. 443 pp.
Prurecer, W. L. 1971. A distributional study of
Missouri fishes. Univ. Kans. Publ., Mus. Nat.
Hist. 20:225—570.
. 1974. Fishes. In: EF. FT) Bole ek
Keefe, W. H. Lewis, W. L. Pflieger, and M.
H. Sullivan (eds.). Rare & endangered spe-
cies of Missouri. Mo. Dept. Cons., U. S. Dept.
Agric., Soil Cons. Service n.p.
Sisk, M. E. 1973. Six additions to the known
piscine fauna of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 34:49-50.
The Probability of Annual Extreme Winter
Temperatures in Kentucky
Jerry D. Hiti
National Weather Service, Office for Agriculture, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40506
ABSTRACT
The minimum winter temperatures were examined for several different locations in Kentucky
having long periods of record. The cumulative frequency distribution of the temperatures was
compared with the normal and the Fisher—Tippett Type I extreme value distributions to deter-
mine which provided the best approximation to the data. The Kolmogoroy—Smirnoy test for
goodness of fit did not allow either distribution to be rejected at the .10 probability level.
Further tests were made for asymmetry in the data using the coefficient of skew. Five loca-
tions tested failed to exhibit significant skew at the .10 probability level which would be
characteristic of the extreme value distribution. In the absence of significant skew, the normal
distribution was then selected for use in the estimation of temperatures to be expected for
various return periods. Observed temperatures from 33 locations were used to estimate the
parameters of the normal distribution for each and predict coldest temperatures to be expected
with return periods of once in 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 years.
INTRODUCTION
An analysis of the probability of extreme
winter temperatures has far-reaching impli-
cations for anyone involved in long-range
planning. The agriculturist must select va-
rieties of winter grain or fruit trees for their
ability to withstand a particular degree of
cold. Builders must be able to anticipate
the extent of cold their structures will have
to withstand and still provide a measure of
comfort. The coldest temperature ever re-
corded at official observing stations in Ken-
tucky, -37 C at Cynthiana and at Bonnie-
ville in Hart County, may be an extremely
rare event or it might be expected to occur
several times in a normal lifetime. A study
of the record of extreme cold temperatures
can reveal the frequency of occurrence of
any particular value.
The climate of Kentucky is characterized
by 2 factors which determine the coldest
temperatures usually experienced during
the winter season. The first is the move-
ment of cold air masses across the state
which provide the conditions necessary for
occasional frigid readings. The second is a
more local factor characterized by the state’s
irregular terrain, which allows uneven night-
time cooling and the drainage of cold air
75
into low-lying areas. Because of the local
effects, it is difficult to generalize and as-
sume the coldest temperatures will always
occur in the northern portions of the state or
in the higher elevations of the eastern sec-
tions. The probability of extreme values
must be investigated separately for each
location where temperatures have been re-
corded.
SOURCE OF DATA
Climatological weather observing stations
in Kentucky have been established by the
National Weather Service for the purpose of
gathering daily temperature data at about
80 locations and rainfall data at about 180
locations. The instruments are installed
either at the home of a volunteer observer
or at a cooperating organization such as a
water plant, radio station, etc. Maximum
and minimum thermometers are read once
a day in order to determine the extremes
during the preceding 24-hour period. These
thermometers are mounted inside a stan-
dard, ventilated instrument shelter at a
height of 5 feet above a grass surface. While
sites are selected to minimize any modify-
ing influences, the location may occasionally
be near a body of water or prone to cold air
drainage.
76 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4)
Normal
Distribution
f (x)
x
Fic.1,
A total of 33 well-distributed temperature
observing stations were chosen for this
study, all of which have periods of record
extending from 20 to more than 75 years.
The coldest single temperature reached
during each year was used to define a set
of extreme temperature observations for the
period of record at every location.
METHODS
In any study of probability, it is necessary
to find a theoretical frequency distribution
which represents the data under considera-
tion. In a study of extreme temperatures in
Ohio (Miller and Weaver 1970), the well-
known normal distribution was used to pre-
pare tables of temperatures occurring at
selected probability levels. In many design
problems where annual extremes are being
considered, the Fisher-Tippett Type I ex-
treme value distribution (Thom 1966) has
been widely used. While the normal distri-
bution is symmetrical with equal probabil-
ity on either side of the mode, the extreme
value distribution is skewed and, in the case
of minimum values, has a greater probabil-
ity of values below the mode than above
(Fig. 1). The extreme value distribution
was used to determine the probability of
TABLE 1.—RESULTS OF KOLMOGOROV—SMIRNOV
Tests AT 3 LOCATIONS
Value of D: Critical
Value of
Length of Extreme D at
Location Record Normal Value Level .10
Greensburg 75 years .07 abd .139
Murray Alyears .09 .05 .187
Beaver Dam 36 years .06 .06 .199
f (x)
Extreme-Value
Distribution
(for minimum values)
x
Comparative shape of normal and extreme value frequency distributions.
extreme winter temperature in Tennessee
(Bailey 1965).
To prepare tables of probabilities or re-
turn periods of extreme winter temperatures
for Kentucky, it is necessary to determine
which of these frequency distributions best
represents the population from which the
observed data have been drawn. As a pre-
liminary test, data from Greensburg, Beaver
Dam, and Murray were analyzed, and the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (Feller 1948)
applied to determine if either the normal
or extreme value distribution could be re-
jected. In order to reject the hypothesis
that the data are from a particular distribu-
tion under consideration the test requires
that D, the maximum deviation between the
theoretical cumulative distribution function
and the sample cumulative distribution
function, exceed a critical value. The value
depends upon the number of observations
and the level of confidence to be placed in
the test. For this investigation, a rather lib-
eral 10 percent confidence level was chosen
for all statistical tests. The results of the
test using both the normal distribution and
the extreme value distribution functions
proved inconclusive in differentiating be-
tween the two possibilities (Table 1).
Further testing was done to determine
if the samples exhibited certain qualities
unique to the assumed theoretical frequency
distributions. An obvious test is for sym-
metry since the normal distribution is sym-
metrical with the mode, mean, and the me-
dian values equal while the extreme value
distribution is asymmetrical. A useful mea-
sure of symmetry is the coefficient of skew,
sk (Panofsky 1965) defined in standard
statistical notation as:
EXTREME WINTER TEMPERATURES IN KENTUCKY—Hill be
TABLE 2.—RESULTS OF TESTS FOR SYMMETRY
Location Mean Median
- Bowling Green -17.8 C —17.8 C
Greensburg —19.6 —20.0
' Anchorage —20.8 —20.8
Richmond -18.9 -19.2
Williamsburg -17.8 —17.8
N
Sigs)?
en
No?
A sample of data with more values below
the mode than above will be skewed to the
left and have a negative coefficient of skew.
The normal distribution has a coefficient of
skew equal to 0.
Tests of symmetry were made using data
from 5 stations each with periods of record
extending over 70 years or more. All exhib-
ited a negative coefficient of skew, however,
most of the differences from 0 were small.
In order to test whether the differences
were significant, a t-test was made (Snede-
cor 1956) where the f statistic was formed
as:
oe sk —0
Standard error of sk
The standard error of sk can be estimated
(Brooks and Carruthers 1953) as approxi-
mately \/6/N. To evaluate whether the
skew is significant, the hypothesis can be
formed that the data were drawn from a
sample with a coefficient of skew equal to 0.
If the value of t exceeds the appropriate
tabled values at the selected level of signifi-
cance, the hypothesis can be rejected. Table
2 gives the results of these tests.
Critical t
Skew t at Level .10
—0.258 912 1.289
—0.335 1.184 1.289
—0.054 .190 1.289
—0.083 293 1.289
—0.015 .053 1.289
Since the ¢ values all fail to exceed the
critical limit, the hypothesis cannot be re-
jected. This would imply that the normal
distribution reasonably represents the popu-
lation although the data for Greensburg ex-
hibit a near significant skew at the 10 per-
cent level.
As a further check on the distributional
assumption, temperatures corresponding to
various return periods were estimated using
the normal and extreme value distributions,
then compared to observed data. The results
are shown in Table 3 where only Greens-
burg exhibited evidence which would ques-
tion the use of the normal distribution
function. In the data from Greensburg,
temperatures occurring with intermediate
return periods of once in 10 to 25 years
agree more closely with the normal proba-
bilities while less frequent occurrences on
the order of once in 50 to 75 years are
skewed considerably and favor the extreme-
value distribution.
DIscuUSSION
None of the data presented here provides
overwhelming conclusive proof for the se-
lection of one distribution function or the
other; however, the absence of pronounced
TABLE 3.—CoLpEsST WINTER TEMPERATURES °C PREDICTED AND OBSERVED FOR GIVEN RETURN PERIODS.
N = NorMaL, EV = ExTrREME VALUE, O = OBSERVED VALUE
Coldest
Temperature
Reached or Greensburg Bowling Green
Exceeded 9 ————______—
One Yearin: N EV O N EV O
5 -23 -23 -23 -22 -21 -21
10 -26 -26 —-25 -23 -24 -24
20 —-27 -29 —-27 —-25 -27 -26
25 -28 -30 -27 -26 -28 -27
40 -28 -32 -32 -27 -29 -29
50 —-29 -33 -33 -27 -3l -29
75 -31 -33 -34 -28 -32 -29 —2
Anchorage Richmond Williamsburg
EV O N EV O N EV O
4 -24 -24 -23 -22 -23 —22 -21 -23
—26 27 —-26 -24 -26 -24 -23 -24 -—-24
-27 -28 -28 -26 -28 -26 -25 -27 -24
-29 -29 -27 -29 -26 -26 -28 -25
-29 -32 -29 -28 -31 —-29 -27 -29 -26
-32 -30 -28 -32 -31 —-27 -31l -26
—33 ~ -29 -33 -31 -28 -32 -28
78
20
IRVINGTON
HENDERSON :
OWENSBORO
LEITCHFIELD
20
BEAVER DAM
MADISONVILLE
“19 19
LOVELACEVILLE PRINCETON GREENVILLE
18
BOWLING GREEN
19 18
HOPKINSVILLE RUSSELLVILLE
-18
MAYFIELD
-17
MURRAY
Fic. 2. Locations used in the study and their mean annual minimum temperature, °C.
skew in most sets of data favor the normal
distribution. Therefore, the normal distri-
bution has been used to estimate the coldest
annual temperature expected to occur with
frequencies ranging from once in 2 years
(the mean) to once in 100 years for the
locations shown in Fig. 2. Those tempera-
tures are presented in Table 4.
It is interesting to note that the coldest
mean annual minimum temperature among
all stations shown is at Somerset, in south-
eastern Kentucky at an elevation of approx-
imately 330 m. The weather instruments
are located about 2 km north of the city in
a broad valley favorable for cold air drain-
age. The observing station at Farmers has
a similar exposure and also shows a ten-
dency to favor cold temperatures.
Data from Ashland have been collected
since 1916 by the U.S. Corps of Engineers
at their dam on the Ohio River. The moder-
ating effect of the large body of water is
evident in reducing the temperature ex-
tremes expected at the dam. The values are
slightly more temperate than those indi-
cated for Russellville which is at approxi-
mately the same elevation but a full 2 de-
grees of latitude further south.
SUMMARY
The coldest temperature expected during
the winter at any location in Kentucky is
determined not only by the latitude but also
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF
ANCHORAGE
1
SHELBYVILLE
BARDSTOWN
)
DANVILLE
-19
GREENSBURG
COVINGTON
20
WILLIAMSTOWN
19
FRANKFORT
LEXINGTON
22
SOMERSET
TABLE 4.—CoLpEstT ANNUAL TEMPERATURE
PECTED FOR SELECTED RETURN PERIODS AT
RICHMOND
-18
WILLIAMSBURG
SCIENCE 36(3-4)
MAYSVILLE
21
HEIDELBERG
MANCHESTER
21
FARMERS
-18
MIDOLESBORO
ASHLAND
LECTED LOCATIONS IN KENTUCKY
Ex-
SE-
Coldest Temperature °C Reached
or Exceeded One Year in:
Location ® 5
Anchorage —2] -24
Ashland —18 -21
Bardstown Se Ses
Beaver Dam —20 -—24
Berea —19 ~-22
Bowling Green -18 —-22
Covington -21 -23
Danville —19 —97,
Farmers as
Frankfort =I9 9-23
Greensburg -19 -23
Greenville —19,4=93
Heidelberg Su Sk
Henderson = ea
Hopkinsville -19 -22
Irvington -20 -23
Leitchfield oa
Lexington -19 -23
Lovelaceville SS 225
Madisonville =o 5
Manchester a, ao
Mayfield -18 -21
Maysville -19 -23
Middlesboro Se
Murray -17 -20
Owensboro —19 —23
Princeton -19 -23
Richmond —19 -23
Russellville —1§ —22
Shelbyville —2] -24
Somerset —22 -26
Williamsburg —-18 -22
Williamstown —20 —23
10
—26
—23
—26
—26
—24
—23
—25
—23
—27
—24
—26
—24
—26
—24
—24
—25
—24
—24
—24
—24
—27
—23
—24
—23
—22
—24
—26
—24
—24
—26
—28
—23
-25
25
—28
—24
—28
—28
—26
—26
—27
—26
—29
—26
—28
—26
—28
—26
—27
—27
—26
—26
—27
—27
—28
—25
—27
—25
—24
—26
—28
—27
—26
—28
-30
—26
—27
50
—29
—26
—29
-30
-27
—27
—28
—27
-31
-27
—-29
—28
—29
—27
—28
—28
—28
-27
—28
—28
—29
—26
—28
—26
-25
—28
—29
-28
—27
—-29
-31
—27
—28
100
—30
—-27
-31
EXTREME WINTER TEMPERATURES IN KENTUCKY—Hill 79
the topography of the location. For most
locations the long-term weather records
show that extreme low temperatures occur
with a frequency which can be approxi-
mated by the normal distribution function.
Tables of the normal distribution can be
used to calculate the extreme winter tem-
peratures expected to occur with any given
frequency.
LITERATURE CITED
Baitey, M. H. 1965. Extreme winter tempera-
tures in Tennessee. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 40:
18-21.
Brooks, C. E. P., anp N. CarruTHERs. 1953.
Handbook of statistical methods in meteorol-
ogy. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. London,
Eng. 412 pp.
FELLER, W. 1948. On the Kolmogorov—Smirnov
limit theorems for empirical distributions.
Ann. Math. Stat. 19:279-281.
Mitier, M. E., anp C. R. Weaver. 1970. Ex-
treme monthly and annual temperatures in
Ohio. Ohio Agric. Res. Dev. Cent., Res. Bull.
1041. 35 pp.
PanoFsky, H. A., AND G. W. Brier. 1965. Some
applications of statistics to meteorology. Penn.
St. Univ., University Park, Pa. 224 pp.
SNEDECOR, G. W. 1956. Statistical methods.
Iowa St. Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 534 pp.
Tuom, H.C. S. 1966. Some methods of climato-
logical analysis. World Meteorol. Organ.,
Geneva, Switzerland. Tech. Note 81. 52 pp.
Populational Differences in Survival Patterns of Sweetgum
JoE E. WINSTEAD
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
ABSTRACT
Exposure of progeny from 6 different populations of Liquidambar styraciflua to climatic
conditions of south-central Kentucky for a 2-year period indicated different survival rates
between the populations. Populations from sites of origin outside of a general latitude range
of 34—37° N. Lat. showed very low survival values in a transplant garden near Bowling Green,
Kentucky.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, studies in the interactions
of a species to its environment have shown
that even though a species type may be
morphologically identical throughout its
geographical distribution, the species may
show different populational patterns in re-
gard to a population’s response to the condi-
tions of a selected habitat. In studies of
plants, one of the first indications of such
genetic diversity was by Turesson (1922),
where reciprocal transplanting of different
populations of several herbaceous species
led to the development of the ecotype
concept. Following his work, a multitude
of experimental ecologists have documented
the fact that ecotypes are populations of a
species genetically adapted to a given habi-
tat. The most recent review of scientific
literature by Hiesey and Milner (1965),
concerning experimental evidence of the
evolution of genetically different popula-
tions of a species, indicates that selection of
genetic variants of a species is the rule
rather than an exception. Academically,
such knowledge has been valuable in an-
swering questions of how an organism sur-
vives in its habitat, and has led ecologists
to move away from emphasis on studies of
what is located where. Due to man’s influ-
ence on environmental quality as well as
quantity in the last few years, serious ques-
tions have arisen about conservation prac-
tices that may require answers developed
from the knowledge of just how much
genetic diversity is present in a species
type. It is the purpose of this report to show
that experimental knowledge of ecotypes in
80
a species type may be utilized in a practical
application to show the value of retention of
populational diversity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks are due Dr. R. D. Wil-
liams, Jr., who aided in the planting of the
various populations.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
From January to March 1969, 1-year-old
seedlings of sweetgum Liquidambar styra-
ciflua were supplied by Forestry Depart-
ments of Ohio, Illinois, North Carolina,
Kentucky, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Upon
arrival in the labortory, the packaged seed-
lings were stored in the dark in a cold room
maintained at a constant temperature of
4 C to prevent bud bursting before planting.
The various forestry departments indicated
the source of the seeds from which the seed-
lings were germinated and it was found that
the material from North Carolina was grown
from seeds collected from trees at an un-
known site in Tennessee. In March 1969,
the seedlings were removed from the cold
chamber and planted in a level plot pro-
vided by the University Farm. Twenty seed-
lings of each population (with the excep-
tion of the Kentucky material where only
18 seedlings were available) were planted
in rows with a distance of 1 m separating
each row and each seedling. Upon plant-
ing, each seedling was watered and native
grasses removed in the vicinity of the plant.
Seedlings were periodically watered until
the end of April, at which time it was felt
that the seedlings were sufficiently estab-
|
'
|
SURVIVAL OF SWEETGUM SEEDLINGS—W instead 81
lished to begin the survival test. Observa-
tions were made on the test plot over the
next 2 years, and the test was terminated
when indiscriminate spraying for thistles in
the area on 19 May 1971 seriously damaged
the surviving trees.
RESULTS
By 30 September 1969, a general trend of
survival by seedling populations whose ori-
gins were between 34 and 37° N latitude
was evident (Table 1). The populations
from Mississippi and Louisiana showed the
lowest survival value during that time. A
frost on 31 March 1969 (low -6 C) caused
severe damage to the stem tips of the 2
southern populations, but the seedlings later
showed partial recovery, and leaves were
produced on the lower portions of the stems.
After a very wet June (28.2 cm rainfall),
followed by a very dry July with rainfall of
only 4.03 cm, only 2 seedlings each of these
populations survived. The Ohio population
seemed to also be affected by the dry
month. Only the Illinois, Tennessee, and
Kentucky populations showed survival pat-
terns of 50 percent or more during the first
growing season in the transplant garden. A
similar pattern was observed during 1970,
and when the program was terminated in
1971, 27 seedlings of the original 58 planted
from Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee had
survived.
Other very subtle differences between the
seedlings that survived were apparent in
the falls of 1969 and 1970. By mid-October
1969, the seedlings from Ohio, Illinois, Ten-
nessee, and Kentucky were showing some
fall coloration patterns in their leaves; but
the 4 surviving plants from Louisiana and
Mississippi were still green. The next year,
noticeable coloration differences were not
apparent, but surviving populations from
Tennessee and northward were noticed to
exhibit patterns of leaf fall in November
before the seedlings from Mississippi and
Louisiana. Also in 1970, the surviving seed-
lings from Ohio were the first to show evi-
dence of dormant terminal buds, where bud
scales had formed in those seedlings by the
last week in July. By the first week in Sep-
tember 1970, the Illinois and Tennessee
TABLE 1.—SuURVIVAL PATTERNS OF TRANSPLANTED
SWEETGUM SEEDLINGS
Percentage Survival
Latitude
of Origin Number 30Sep 30Sep 19 May
Population (°N) Planted 1969 1970 1971
Ohio 39.5 20 35 10 10
Illinois ov 20 50 50 50
Kentucky 36.5 18 94 55 50
Tennessee 34-36 20 70 45 40
Mississippi 31 20 10 10 10
Louisiana 31.5 20 10 a 5
seedlings were 65-70 percent dormant, but
the seedlings from Kentucky, Mississippi,
and Louisiana had not shown evidence of
forming dormant apical buds.
DISCUSSION
The results demonstrated by this survival
test indicate greater coherence and similar-
ity of those populations whose origins were
in similar habitats. The [linois, Kentucky,
and Tennessee populations are adapted to
growing conditions similar to those in the
Bowling Green area in relation to length of
growing season and annual climatic cycles.
Those populations from Mississippi and
Louisiana have a naturally longer growing
season (approx. 235) than the usual frost-
free period of south central Kentucky
(approx. 204). It is the adaption to such a
longer growing season that probably re-
sulted in later leaf coloration, leaf fall, and
dormant bud formation of the more south-
ern populations in this test, although the
low survival of those populations does not
allow such a statement to stand unchal-
lenged. The low survival value of the Ohio
population also poses the question of why
an organism adapted to a shorter growing
season (approx. 170 days) would not flour-
ish if subjected to a longer growing season.
Laboratory experiments of Liquidambar
under controlled and uniform growing con-
ditions by the author (1968 unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of Texas,
Austin, Texas ) and by Williams and McMil-
lan (1971), where seedling progeny from
the full range of geographical distribution
of this species was tested, showed that seed-
lings from more northern provenances were
82 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4)
more sensitive to cooler temperatures and
shorter photoperiods. This could account
for the demonstration of the surviving Ohio
seedlings showing earlier dormant bud for-
mation as the photoperiod in Kentucky
would be shorter during the growing season
than in Ohio. Although this test involved
only seedlings from 6 different locations, it
confirms the results of the previous works,
and is an indirect reflection of the effects of
natural selection upon different Liquidam-
bar populations, ensuring survival of the
species in various habitats.
Such a practical demonstration as this
would seem to be obvious when involving
populations of plant species that have been
demonstrated under laboratory conditions
to be composed of ecotypes. The question
is raised of just how important such knowl-
edge is. Recently, Odum (1970) has sug-
gested that biotic diversity of ecosystems is
important in maintaining physical stability.
It would seem that the diversity present in
different populations of the same species
type is equally important in the mainte-
nance of the species when it has widespread
distribution. An important conservation
practice could well be to ensure that suffi-
cient genotypes of a species are maintained
to assure their replacement or reestablish-
ment in areas that have been or will be dis-
turbed by man. It is evident from the sim-
ple survival test shown here that large
reserves of sweetgum in Mississippi and
Louisiana would not ensure the successful
replanting of such a species in more north-
ern areas if needed. The evolution of popu-
lations of species like Liquidambar to spe-
cific habitat requirements has required
hundreds if not thousands of years. As more
and more natural resources are removed,
there may be the danger of removing eco-
types that would not be easily replaced. It
is hoped that as more knowledge is gained
through ecological studies of species inter-
actions with environmental parameters,
logical and practical applications can be
made with such information.
LITERATURE CITED
Hresry, W. M., AND H. W. MILNER. 1965. Physi-
ology of ecological species. Ann. Rev. Plant
Physiol. 16:203-216.
Opum, E. P. 1970. The strategy of ecosystems
development. Science 164:262—270.
Turesson, G. 1922. The species and the variety
as ecological units. Hereditas 3:100-113.
WILuiaMs, G. J., AND C. McMitaAn. 1971. Phe-
nology of six United States provenances of
Liquidambar styraciflua under controlled con-
ditions. Amer. J. Bot. 58:24-31.
The Occurrence of Cotylogasteroides occidentalis
(Trematoda: Aspidobothrea) in Kentucky
FreD H. WHITTAKER AND THOMAS R. KOZEL
Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
The occurrence of a single specimen of an aspidobothrean trematode Cotylogasteroides
occidentalis in a snail Goniobasis sp. from Oldham County is the first record of occurrence of
this parasite in Kentucky.
In the fall of 1974, during the examination
of 120 specimens of the prosobranch snail
Goniobasis sp. from Harrods Creek, about
230 m east of Covered Bridge Road in Old-
ham County, a single specimen of a mature,
but nonovigerous aspidobothrean trematode
was recovered from the tissue within the
spire of one of the snails. The trematode
was studied alive for several hours in 0.6
percent saline, then heat killed, fixed in
AFA, stained with Harris’ hematoxylin,
cleared in terpineol, and mounted in Eu-
paral vert.
The specimen, 7.5 mm long and 1.5 mm
wide, has 2 testes arranged in tandem in the
posterior region of the opisthator or ventral
sucker. The latter structure consists of 34
median and 108 marginal alveoli, and is 4.5
mm long and 1.5 mm wide. A cirrus pouch
is absent, and the tubular vitellaria are pre-
dominantly lateral. These and other ob-
served characters of taxonomic importance,
as well as the specific snail host ( Dicker-
man 1948, R. M. Cable, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Ind., pers. comm.) are
considered sufficient to justify assignment
of the trematode to Cotylogasteroides occi-
dentalis Yamaguti, 1963.
C. occidentalis has been reported pre-
viously from Goniobasis sp. by Dickerman
(1948) and Cable (pers. comm.). Kelly
(1926) found several specimens in the
freshwater clam Lampsilis luteola, and Nick-
erson (1902) initially reported the species
as a parasite of the freshwater drum Aplo-
dinotus grunniens.
It is noteworthy that the examination of
more than 4,000 specimens of Goniobasis
sp. and other operculate snails from Har-
rods Creek and other streams in Jefferson,
Oldham, and Meade counties over the past
9 years has yielded only a single specimen
of C. occidentalis.
Like a few other aspidobothrean trema-
todes which can become ovigerous in cer-
tain mollusks as well as in certain poikilo-
thermic vertebrates, C. occidentalis can
become gravid in both a snail Goniobasis sp.
and a fish Aplodinotus grunniens, but pri-
marily in the latter host (Dickerman 1948).
The fish becomes infected by feeding on
infected snails, but it is not known if the
fish can acquire the parasite by ingesting
the trematode eggs.
This report represents the first occurrence
of Cotylogasteroides occidentalis in the snail
Goniobasis sp. in Kentucky.
LITERATURE CITED
DIcKERMAN, E. E. 1948. On the life cycle and
systematic position of the aspidogastrid trem-
atode, Cotylogaster occidentalis Nickerson,
1902. J. Parasit. 34:164.
Ketty, H. M. 1926. A new host for the aspido-
gastrid trematode, Cotylogaster occidentalis.
Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 33:339.
Nickerson, W. S. 1902. Cotylogaster occiden-
talis n. sp. and a revision of the family Aspido-
bothridae. Zool. Jahrb. Syst. 15:597-624.
YaAMAGUTI, S. 1963. Systema Helminthum. IV.
Monogenea and Aspidocotylea. Interscience
Publ. Div., John Wiley & Sons, New York,
N. Y. 699 pp.
A Study of the Abnormal-1 and the Poky Strains
of Neurospora crassa for Complementation
EpwaArp J. MULLANEY' AND DAN R. VARNEY
Department of Biology, Eastem Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475
ABSTRACT
An investigation to determine if 2 slow-growing cytoplasmic, respiratory deficient mutants,
poky and abnormal-1, inositol, would show complementation when mitochondria carrying these
mutant traits were brought together in the same cytoplasmon. To do this, it was first necessary
to cross poky to an auxotroph, p-aminobenzoic acid, to obtain the double mutant, poky, p-amino-
benzoic acid. Poky, p-aminobenzoic and abnormal-1, inositol were then placed on a minimal
medium on which neither would grow alone, but growth would only occur as the result of the
fusion of hyphae. This would determine whether a heteroplasm could be formed and whether
complementation could occur at the cytoplasmic level. A series of controls were established to
show if any increase in growth rate was due to heterosis between the nuclear components.
Measurement of the growth rate of the heterokaryotic homoplasmon clearly showed no
increase in the growth rate, and indicated that complementation did not occur between the
poky and abnormal-1 mitochondria.
INTRODUCTION
Bertrand and Pittenger (1972a) advanced
a scheme for the classification of all the
known extranuclear cytochrome deficient
mutants in Neurospora crassa. This classifi-
cation is partially based on the ability of
members of 3 groups in this classification
to show complementation only with mem-
bers of another group in heteroplasmosis.
This has been shown to be true in all cases
investigated to date, except one (Bertrand
and Pittenger 1972b). Two members of the
third group, abnormal-1 and abnormal-2,
have not been tested. It was the purpose of
this paper to determine if there was com-
plementation between abnormal-1 and a
member of the first group (poky).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Various media were used according to
the growth requirements and the type of
spore production desired. All cultures were
maintained in stock on BBL Neurospora
culture agar except for abnormal-1 which
was maintained on plates of BBL potato
dextrose agar. Difco Neurospora minimal
+ Present address, Department of Plant Pathology
and Plant Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens,
Georgia 30602.
medium with 2 percent BBL granulated
agar was used for measuring growth rates
and forcing heterokaryons, except where
otherwise indicated. Difco Cornmeal agar
(B 386) was the medium for all crosses.
The standard St. Lawrence strains of N.
crassa 74 A and 77 a, were obtained from
Dr. K. E. Papa of the University of Georgia.
An auxotroph for inositol with mating type
A was acquired from Colorado State Uni-
versity. The Fungal Genetics Stock Center
supplied the following strains: p-amino-
benzoic acid (pab-1) No. 1633 A and a,
inositol (inos) No. 37401 a, poky (mi-1)mi-
1-1.8 a, and abnormal-l inositol (abn-l,
inos) No. 37401 a. Strains, poky aminoben-
zoic and poky inositol, could not be obtained
from any source and were produced by
crossing (Mitchell et al., 1953). A poky
(pab-1) mutant with type a mating type
and a poky (inos) mutant with mating type
a were then isolated.
The cytoplasmic genetic determinants are
given in brackets, e.g., [poky], with the
nuclear genotype given in parentheses, e.g..
(pab-1) and therefore (pab-) [poky] would
mean the strain is a nuclear mutant for
aminobenzoic acid and also has the cyto-
plasmic poky growth trait.
A series of controls would be necessary
(Pittenger 1956, Bertrand and Pittenger
Poxy STRAINS OF NEUROSPORA CRASSA—Mullaney and Varney 85
180
mm.
ie) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Fic. 1. The growth rates of 77 a ( @ ) and (inos)
[abn-1] a + (pab-1) [poky] a (CO) on Neurospora
minimal medium at 35 C.
1972b) if complementation was observed
to prove it was due solely to cytoplasmic
interaction.
The linear growth rate for this study was
determined by growth tubes modelled after
the ones used by Ryan et al. (1943) with
slight modifications.
In measuring growth rates, the growth
tubes were inoculated with conidia and
(or) hyphae of the desired strain or strains
of N. crassa. The growth tubes were al-
lowed to incubate at 35 C for 24 hours and
then the mycelial frontier was marked on
the glass tube with a felt pen. The position
of the advancing mycelial frontier was
marked at regular time periods afterward,
and the growth rate was measured in milli-
meters per hour. The normal growth rate
of N. crassa at 35 C was determined by
measuring the growth rate of 77 a.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The growth rate for 77 a (Fig. 1) was
4.99 mm per hour on minimal medium. The
growth rate of the heterokaryotic hetero-
plasmon (pab-1) [poky] a+ (inos) [abn-1]
a (Fig. 1) averaged only 1.44 mm per hour.
This indicates that complementation oc-
curred on the nuclear level since neither of
these auxotrophs would grow on minimal
medium alone, but the slow growth rate
means that complementation has not oc-
curred on the cytoplasmic level.
These results indicate that complementa-
tion between poky and abnormal-1 does not
occur with the method applied in this study.
This indicates that each one of these muta-
tions does not represent a part of different
mitochondrial cistrons.
While poky has shown complementation
with other cytoplasmic mutants, abnormal-1
has not. The apparent failure of it to show
complementation with poky in this study
indicates the need to know if it will show
complementation with any of the other
cytoplasmic mutants.
LITERATURE CITED
BERTRAND, H., AND T.° Hi. Prrrencer. ’ 1972a.
Isolation and classification of extranuclear
mutants of Neurospora crassa. Genetics 71:
521-533.
, AND 1972b. Complemen-
tation among cytoplasmic mutants of Neuros-
pora crassa. Molec. Gen. Genet. 117:82—90.
MircHEeLL, M. B., H. K. MrrcHeELL, ANpD A. TIis-
sIeERES. 1953. Mendelian and non-Men-
delian factors affecting the cytochrome system
in Neurospora crassa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
USA 39:606-613.
PIrTENGER, T. H. 1956. Synergism of two
cytoplasmically inherited mutants in Neuros-
pora crassa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 42:
147-752.
Ryan, F. J., G. W. BEADLE, AND E. L. Tatum.
1943. The tube method of measuring the
growth rate of Neurospora. Amer. J. Bot. 30:
784-799.
NEWS AND COMMENT
The Annual Meeting of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science will
be held on 7 and 8 November
1975 at the Health Sciences Center of the
University of Louisville, Louisville, Ken-
tucky. Our Academy is virtually the only
unifying voice of Science in Kentucky, and
as such it needs the support of every indi-
vidual who believes the advancement of
science is a worthwhile pursuit. The An-
nual Meeting affords an opportunity for
scientists of a great diversity of backgrounds
and disciplines to advance their individual
specialties and to exchange ideas and dis-
cuss problems of mutual concern. In view
of this, we call your attention to two spe-
cial events to be held on Friday, 7 Novem-
ber in addition to the usual presentation of
research findings.
1. There will be a special session Friday
afternoon concerned with environmental
problems in Kentucky, to be held in the
Auditorium of the Health Sciences Center.
2. Dr. Theodore Fujita, Professor of
Meteorology and Director of Satellite and
Mesometeorology Research Projects, Uni-
versity of Chicago, will be the featured
speaker following the Annual Banquet Fri-
day evening at the Holiday Inn, Midtown.
His subject will be Tornadoes and Severe
Weather Phenomena.
In addition to these events, information
will be available at the Information Desk
regarding a wide variety of activities and
attractions in the Louisville area.
Annual
Meeting
86
We hope to make this the largest and —
most informative meeting in the history of |
the Academy. You can make a significant —
contribution through early registration, pro-_
moting the event with your colleagues, and |
active participation in the scientific ses- _
sions. Such a meeting is an ideal place for —
students to meet and mingle with each |
other and their teachers. |
The University of Louisville takes this
opportunity to offer you a warm welcome,
and we look forward to seeing you at the
Annual Meeting.
Charles Kupchella
John R. Meyer
Trimble The Louisville Gas and Electric
County Company is sponsoring an en-
Study vironmental study of Trimble
County, Kentucky, and is seek-
ing information on all aspects of the flora
and fauna of the area. If you have any such
information, and wish to release it, please
get in touch with Dr. Louis A. Krumholz,
Water Resources Laboratory, University of
Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208.
Proper acknowledgment will be given. In
cooperation with the U. S. Fish and Wild-
life Service, the Bedford Route of the Ken-
tucky Summer Breeding Bird Survey was
established and the first formal count,
sponsored by the Louisville Gas and
Electric Company, was made in June 1975.
Acanthocephala, 20
Acertagallia sanguinolenta, 58
Aenolamia varia saccharina,_ 57
Agallia constricta, 58
A. quadripunctata, 58
Agameris decaudata, 57
A. unka, 57
Agapetus hessi, 9
A. illini, 9
A. nr rossi, 10
A. tomus, 10
Agraylea multipunctata, 12
Agrypnia vestia, 13
Alebra albostriella, 58
BaeAthH, PIERRE N.; 17
Amblysellus curtisi, 58
Amia calva, 65, 71
Amiidae, 65
Annual meeting, 41, 86
Aphredoderidae, 67
Aphredoderus sayanus, 67, 71
Aphropsyche doringa, 11
Aplodinotus grunniens, 68, 83
Aspidobothrea, 83
(=Athripsodes ), 8
(=A. angustus), 14
(=A. transversus), 14
( Athripsodina), 14
Auchenorrhynchus, 57
Balclutha abdominalis, 58
Banksiola dossuaria, 13
Bass, largemouth, 67
white, 67
BAUER, BRUCE H., 18
Bayou de Chien, fishes of, 63
Bluegill, 36, 67
Bowfin, 65
Brachycentridae, 16
Brachycentrus lateralis, 16
B. numerosus, 16
BRANSON, BRANLEY A., 18
Buffalo, bigmouth, 66
smallmouth, 66
Bullhead, black, 67
yellow, 67
BURR, BROOKS M., 71
Caddisflies of Kentucky, 6
Campostoma anomalum, 36
Campylenchia latipes, 58
Carassius auratus, 66
Carp, 66
Catfish, blue, 66
channel, 67
flathead, 67
Catostomidae, 66
Centrarchidae, 67
INDEX TO VOLUME 36
Centrarchus macropterus, 67
Ceraclea, 8
C. ancylus, 14
nr annulicornis, 14
. cancellata, 14
flava, 14
. or fulva, 14
. maculata, 14
. neffi, 14
. resurgens, 14
. tarsipunctatus, 14
. transversa, 14
Cercopidae, 57
Cernotina nr calcea, 10
Cheumatopsyche, 8
. analis, 11
. aphanta, 11
burksi, 11
. campyla, 11
goera, 11
harwoodi, 11
helma, 11
minuscula, 11
nr rossi, 11
oxad, 11
. pasella, 12
. sordida, 12
Chimarra aterrima, 10
C. feria, 10
C. obscura, 10
C. nr obscura, 10
C. socia, 10
Chipmunk, eastern, 17
Chlorotettix unicolor, 58
Chub, creek, 66
Chubsucker, creek, 66
Cicadellidae, 58
Cixiidae, 58
Clastoptera sp., 58
Clupeidae, 65
Coelidia olitoria, 58
Coleoptera, 35
Committees, standing, 41
Cotylogasteroides occidenta-
lis, 83
Crappie, black, 68
white, 68
Crustacea, 35
Cuerna costalis, 58
Cyprinidae, 66
Cyprinodontidae, 67
Cyprinus carpio, 66
Cyrnellus fraternus, 10
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Darter, bluntnose, 68
dusky, 68
harlequin, 68
mud, 68
slough, 68
S7
spottail, 68
stargazing, 68
Delphacidae, 58
Delphacodes lutulenta, 58
(=Dianthera), 43
Dibusa angata, 8, 12
Dictyopharidae, 58
Diplectrona modesta, 12
Diptera, 35, 62
Dolophiloides distinctus, 10
Dorosoma cepedianum, 65, 71
Draeculacephala antica, 58
D. mollipes, 58
Drinidae, 61
Drum, freshwater, 68
DUPIER, CG: MIR, 1
Economic development, 1
Effective employment, 1
Elassoma zonatum, 67
Empoasca sp., 58
Ephemeroptera, 35
Erimyzon oblongus, 66
Esocidae, 65
Esox americanus vermicula-
tus, 65
E. niger, 71
Etheostoma, 43
E. asprigene, 63, 71
. blennioides, 18
caeruleum, 18
. chlorosomum, 68, 71
. fusiforme, 69
gracile, 68, 71
histrio, 63
proeliare, 69, 71
squamiceps, 68
. stigmaeum, 18
. virgatum, 18
. zonale, 18
Py ey oe et
Flier, 67
Forcipata loca, 58
FREYTAG, PAUL H., 57
Fundulus chrysotus, 69
F. notatus, 36, 71
F. notti, 69
F. olivaceus, 67, 71
Gambusia affinis, 67, 71
Gar, shortnose, 65
spotted, 65
Glossosoma intermedium, 10
G. nigrior, 10
Glossosomatidae, 9
Goera calcerata, 15
G. stylata, 15
Goeridae, 15
Goldfish, 66
Goniobasis sp., 83
88 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3—4)
Graminella nigrifrons, 58
Graphocephala versuta, 58
Halictophagidae, 61
Helicopsyche borealis, 16
Helicopsychidae, 16
Hemiptera, 35
HILL, JERRY BP. Yo
Hite Creek, Jefferson and Old-
ham counties, 25
HOWELL, HENRY H., 43
Hybognathus hayi, 63, 71
H. nuchalis, 66, 71
Hydropsyche, 8
H. betteni, 12
H. bronta, 12
cheilonis, 12
deprawata, 12
. dicantha, 12
hageni, 12
. incommoda, 12
morosa, 12
orris, 12
phalerata, 12
. simulans, 12
. sparna, 12
valanis, 12
. venularis, 12
Hydropsychidae, 11
Hydroptila ajax, 12
nr ajax, 13
amoena, 13
angusta, 13
armata, 13
consimilis, 13
nr consimilis, 13
delineata, 13
grandiosa, 13
hamata, 13
perdita, 13
. spatulata, 13
vala, 13
. virgata, 13
waubesiana, 13
Hydroptilidae, 12
Hymenoptera, 61
poy a a a ys
py
Ictaluridae, 66
Ictalurus furcatus, 66
I. melas, 18, 37, 67
I. natalis, 67
I. punctatus, 18, 67
Ictiobus bubalus, 66
I. cyprinellus, 66
Idiocerus pallidus, 58
Tronoquia, 7
I. punctatissima, 14
Issidae, 58
Ithytrichia mazon, 13
Jessamine Creek, Jessamine
County, 43
Justicia americana, 43
Kentucky Junior Academy of
Science, 38
Kentucky Task Force on Public
Science and Technology,
39
KOZEL, THOMAS R., 83 .-
KRUMHOLZ, LOUIS A., 25
Labidesthes sicculus, 68, 71
Laevicephalus orientalis, 58
Lampsilis luteola, 83
Latalus sayi, 58
Leech, 18
Lemanea, 9
Lepidostoma griseum, 15
L. togatum, 15
Lepidostomatidae, 15
Lepisosteidae, 65
Lepisosteus oculatus, 65
L. osseus, 71
L. platostomus, 65
Lepomis cyanellus, 67, 71
. gulosus, 67, 71
. humilis, 67, 71
. macrochirus, 18, 36, 67, 71
. megalotis, 36, 68, 71
. microlophus, 71
. punctatus, 71
symmetricus, 63
Leptoceridae, 14
LESLIE, DAVID. He 20
Liburnia furcifera, 57
Limnephilidae, 14
Limnephilus, 7
Liquidambar styraciflua, 80
Lype diversa, 10
al oll lal
Macracanthorhynchus_ hirudina-
ceus, 20
Macronemum zebratum, 12
Macrosteles fascifrons, 58
Madtom, freckled, 67
tadpole, 67
MARTIN, CAROLINE F., 51
Matrioptila jeanae, 10
Mayatrichia ayama, 13
Megaloptera, 35
Membracidae, 58
Menidia audens, 69
Mermis sp., 57
Micrasema bennetti, 16
M. rusticum, 16
M. wataga, 16
Micropterus dolomieui, 68
M. salmoides, 36, 67, 71
Minnow, cypress, 66
fathead, 66
pugnose, 66
silvery, 66
suckermouth, 66
Minytrema melanops, 66
Mollusca, 35
Moniliformis dubius, 20
Morone chrysops, 67
Mosquitofish, 67
MULLANEY, EDWARD J., 84
Mystacides selpuchralis, 15
Natrix sipedon sipedon, 49
Nectopsyche nr albida, 14
N. candida, 14
N. exquisita, 14
N. pavida, 15
NEFF, STUART E., 25
Nematodes, mermithid, 57
Neoechinorhynchus, 20
Neophylax, 7
. autumnus, 14
. ayanus, 7
. concinnus, 14
. consimilis, 14
. nacatus, 14
Neotrichia collata, 13
N. minutisimella, 13
N. okapa, 13
N. riegeli, 13
Neureclipsis crepuscularis, 11
N. parvulus, 11
Neurospora crassa, abnormal-1
and poky strains, 84
News and Comment, 38, 85
Nilaparvata oryzae, 57
Notemigonus crysoleucas, 18,
66, 71
Notropis blennius, 36
N. cornutus, 36
N. emiliae, 66, 71
N. fumeus, 66
N. lutrensis, 66
N. maculatus, 69, 71
N. spilopterus, 66, 71
N. venustus, 66
N. whipplei, 68
Noturus gyrinus, 67, 71
N. nocturnus, 67
Nyctiophylax affinis, 8
N. celta, 11
N. uncus, 11
ZZ 22S
Ochrotrichia anisca, 13
. confusa, 13
. shawnee, 13
. spinosa, 13
. tarsalis, 13
.nr unio, 13
. xena, 13
Odonata, 35
Odontoceridae, 14
Oecetes avara, 15
O. cinerascens, 15
O. ditissa, 15
O. inconspicua, 15
SES YO eho xe)
O. nocturna, 15
O. persimilis, 15
Oliarus ecologus, 58
O. sablensis, 58
Oligochaeta, 35
Orconectes rusticus, 49
O. juvenilis, 49
Orthotrichia aegerfasciella, 13
O. cristata, 13
Oxyethira pallida, 13
Paddlefish, 65
PAGE, LAWRENCE M., 71
Paraphlepsius irroratus, 58
_ P. tenessa, 58
Perch, pirate, 67
Percichthyidae, 67
Percid fishes, 18
Percidae, 68
Percina caprodes, 18, 68, 71
P. evides, 18
P. maculata, 18, 68
P. phoxocephala, 18
P. sciera, 68
P. uranidea, 63
Phenacobius mirabilis, 66
Philaenus spumarius, 57
Philopotamidae, 10
Phryganea sayi, 13
Phryganeidae, 13
Phylocentropus carolinus, 11
P. hansoni, 11
P. placidus, 11
Pickerel, grass, 65
Pimephales promelas, 66
Pipunculidae, 61
Piscicolaria reducta, 18
Platycentropus radiatus, 14
Plecoptera, 35, 43
Poeciliidae, 67
Pollution abatement, 25
Polyamia weedi, 58
Polycentropidae, 10
Polycentropus barri, 11
P. blicklei, 11
P. cinereus, 11
P. confusus, 11
P. crassicornis, 11
P. elarus, 11
INDEX TO VOLUME 36
P. maculatus, 11
P. remotus, 11
Pe sp. a, 11
Polyodon spathula, 63, 71
Polyodontidae, 65
Pomoxis annularis, 68, 71
P. nigromaculatus, 68, 71
Potamyia flava, 12
Protoptila alexanderi, 10
P. maculata, 10
P. palina, 10
Psammotettix striatus, 58
Pseudostenophylax uniformis, 14
Psilotreta rufa, 14
Psychomyia flavida, 10
Psychomyiidae, 10
Ptilostomis ocellifera, 14
P. semifasciata, 14
Pycnopsyche gentilis, 14
P. guttifer, 14
P. lepida, 14
Pylodictis olivaris, 67
RESH, VINCENT H., 6
Rhyacophila appalachia, 9
R. carolina, 9
R. carpenteri, 9
R. fenestra, 9
R. glaberrima, 9
R. ledra, 9
R. lobifera, 9
R. minor, 9
R. otica, 9
R. parantra, 9
R. torva, 9
Rhyacophilidae, 9
Saururus cernuus, 47
Sciaenidae, 68
Scolops sulcipes, 58
Semotilus atromaculatus, 66
Setodes incertus, 15
Shad, gizzard, 65
Shiner, blacktail, 66
golden, 66
red, 66
ribbon, 66
spotfin, 66
taillight, 71
89
SISK, MORGAN E., 63
SPERKA, CHRISTINA, 57
Stactobiella delira, 13
S. palmata, 13
Stictocephala bubalus, 58
S. lutea, 58
Stirellus bicolor, 58
Stizostedion canadense, 68
Strepsiptera, 61
Sucker, spotted, 66
Sunfish, banded pigmy, 67
bantam, 67
green, 67
longear, 67
orangespotted, 67
Sweetgum, survival patterns, 80
Tachinidae, 62
Tamias striatus, 17
Temperatures,
extreme winter, 75
Theliopsyche melas, 15
Thionia simplex, 58
Topminnow, blackspotted, 67
Trematoda, 83
Triaenodes abus, 15
T. connatus, 15
T. nr dipsius, 15
T. flavescens, 15
T. ignitus, 15
T. injustus, 15
T. melacus, 15
T. tardus, 15
Trichoptera, 35
Tylozygus bifidus, 58
Umbra limi, 69
VARNEY, DAN R., 84
Warmmouth, 67
WEBB, DAVID H.., 63
WHITTAKER, FRED H., 83
Willow, water, 43
Women, mature, in school, 51
Wormaldia moesta, 10
W. nr moesta, 10
W. shawnee, 10
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 36, NOS. 1-4, 1975
Effective employment as a relative measure of regional economic development. C. M.
Dumier, Jt. cn a ee ee eee
A distributional study of the caddisflies of Kentucky. Vincent H. Resh
Unusual behavior of the eastern chipmunk. Pierre N. Allaire
The leech Piscicolaria reducta parasitizing some percid fishes. Bruce H. Bauer and Branley
A. Branson 4.22 BA ee eee ae
A micrographic study of the giant nuclei of Neoechinorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala).
David H:Geslieones! Ee ee
Abatement of pollution in Hite Creek, Jefferson and Oldham counties, Kentucky. Louis
A. Krumholz and Stuart E. Neff 2222 es eee
News’ and).Commentijq228 2 eee n
Some ecological factors affecting the occurrence of water willow Justicia americana in
Jessamine Creek, Kentucky. Henry H. Howell 2 EEE
Why mature women return to school: “Reasons” and “Motives.” Caroline F. Martin _
Auchenorrhynchus hosts of mermithid nematodes in Kentucky. Christina Sperka and Paul
HH. Freytag 222 ee Se eee
The fishes of west Kentucky. III. The fishes of Bayou de Chien. David H. Webb and
Morgan EF: Sisk, 20 -.. Ladiri 0. ere Re Se ee ee
Distribution and life history notes on the taillight shiner Notropis maculatus in Kentucky.
Brooks M. Burr and Lawrence M. Page _...._») S38) Sw. eee
The probability of annual extreme winter temperatures in Kentucky. Jerry D. Hill ——
Populational differences in survival patterns of sweetgum. Joe E. Winstead __.......___
The occurrence of Cotylogasteroides occidentalis (Trematoda: Aspidobothrea) in Ken-
tucky. Ered H. Whittaker and Thomas R. Kozel 22°20.) a eee
A study of the abnormal-1 and the poky strains of Neurospora crassa for complementation.
Edward J; Mullaney and Dan R. Varney 2-2 2 EEE
News ‘and ‘Gomment 12°). fachoslo 20) lethal pea 2
Index to Volume 36 — eee eee
90
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CONTENTS
Some Ecological Factors Affecting the Occurrence of Water Willow Justicia 7
americana in Jessamine Creek, Kentucky. Henry H. Howell —____ . 43
Why Mature Women Return to School: “Reasons” and “Motives.” Caroline
F. Martin
Auchenorrhynchus Hosts of Mermithid Nematodes in Kentucky. Christina
Sperka and Paul H. Freytag _. _.. 2 at
The Fishes of West Kentucky. III. The Fishes of Bayou de Chien. David H.
Webb and Morgan E. Sisk ss ee Ee =
71
|
Distribution and Life History Notes on the Taillight Shiner Notropis macula-
tus in Kentucky. Brooks M. Burr and Lawrence M. Page ________-__
The Probability of Annual Extreme Winter Temperatures in Kentucky. Jerry
D. Hall 2) 8
Populational Differences in Survival Patterns of Sweetgum. Joe E. Winstead 80
The Occurrence of Cotylogasteroides occidentalis (Trematoda: Aspidobo-
threa) in Kentucky. Fred H. Whittaker and Thomas R. Kozel —______ b> 8ay
4)
A Study of the Abnormal-1 and the Poky Strains of Neurospora crassa for ;.
Complementation. Edward J. Mullaney and Dan R. Varney _____ 5 OA
News and -Comment 2. 2 ei ee ee ee eee $ one ee
U
Index to Volume 36 _-.___.. 4 ee 87 :
Oa LN at
ANSACTIONS
F THE
-NTUCKY
CADEMY OF SCIENCE
*.
IC ficial Publication of the Academy
i ss
ip
aM
Volume 37
Numbers |-2
March 1976
The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914
OFFICERS FOR 1976
President: Frederick M. Brown, Kentucky State Hospital, Danville 40422 ,
President Elect: Charles Payne, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351 —
Past President: Ellis V. Brown, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506 S,
Vice President: Charles E. Kupchella, Cancer Center Planning Office, apis!
of Louisville 40208
Secretary: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101 ¢
Treasurer: Wayne Hoffman, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101
Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky Uni- —
versity, Bowling Green 42101
Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A. Branson, Eastern Kentucky Uni- —
versity, Richmond 40475
John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky, —
Lexington 40506
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Howard Powell 1976 John G. Spanyer 1978
Morris Taylor 1976 Oliver Zandona 1978
Fletcher Gabbard 1977 Thomas B. Calhoon 1979
John C. Philley 1977 Harold Eversmeyer 7 1979
EDITORIAL OFFICE
Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louis-
ville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
Associate Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of
Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
Editorial Board: William E. Dennen, Department of Geology, University of Ken- —
tucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ;
Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of Louisville, Louis- —
ville, Kentucky 40208 :
William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lex. re
ington, Kentucky 40506 | 3
All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be ade a
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in i
ry ae
TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE
March 1076
VOLUME 37
NUMBERS 1-2
Age Structure, Growth Patterns, and Food Habits of the Southern
Redbelly Dace Chrosomus erythrogaster in Kentucky
WituiaAM H. SETTLES’ AND ROBERT D. Hoyt
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
ABSTRACT
Various aspects of the biology of the southern redbelly dace Chrosomus erythrogaster
were intensively studied on a population in Ivy Creek, Warren County, Kentucky from
1971 to 1972. The normal life span of the southern redbelly dace was about 2 years with
a few individuals living into the autumn of their third year (26-30 months). Males disappeared
from the population slightly earlier than females. Age Group 0, or individuals in their first
year, constituted 76.8 percent of the total catch.
Growth in length was greatest during the first year of life while growth in weight was
greatest during the second and third years. No statistically significant deviation was ob-
served between the theoretical cubic response of growth in weight to length and that observed
among the specimens in Ivy Creek.
Coefficient of condition values were greater for males than females when gonad weight was
excluded, but converse results were observed when the gonads of both sexes were included
in the determinations. Seasonally, condition coefficients for both sexes combined were greatest
during the spawning season, lower during the warmwater months, and lowest during the cold-
water months.
Food habits were generally nonspecific with combinations of algal forms (filamentous
chlorophytes and diatoms), and organic detritus constituing the major gut contents. Aquatic
insects were commonly found in the digestive tracts of larger specimens.
INTRODUCTION
_ The southern redbelly dace Chrosomus
erythrogaster was first described in 1820 by
Rafinesque from specimens collected from
the Kentucky River drainage. However,
since that time, little information has been
reported on the biology of the species, es-
pecially in Kentucky. This paper represents
an attempt to describe the age structure,
growth patterns, and food habits of an iso-
lated population of southern redbelly dace
in Ivy Creek, a small springfed stream in
Warren County, Kentucky.
*Present Address: Science Department, Saint
Mary’s College, Saint Mary’s, Kentucky 40063.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the
assistance of David Abel, David Bell, Don-
ald Hall, Leslie Lovett, Arthur Searcy,
and John Wright in the collection of speci-
mens. Special thanks go to Mr. Rodney
McCurry for photographing the figures.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Taxonomy
The taxonomy of the genus Chrosomus
has been subject to much revision since
Rafinesque’s 1820 description. Confusion
over the generic status of this group con-
tinues with the suggestion by Banarescu
2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37( 1-2)
(1964) that Chrosomus and Phoxinus are
congeneric, and, since Phoxinus held page
priority over Chrosomus, it should be re-
tained. In 1970, the American Fisheries So-
ciety followed suit by formally adopting
Phoxinus as the generic name for those spe-
cies previously listed under Chrosomus and
Pfrille (Bailey et al. 1970).
However, McPhail and Lindsey (1970)
referred to the Canadian species as Chro-
somus eos and Pfrille neogaea, and asserted
that the merger of Chrosomus into Phoxinus
was not warranted by existing evidence.
This view is shared by G. L. Phillips, based
on extensive work on both the northern and
southern redbelly daces in Minnesota, who
believes (pers. comm.) that Chrosomus
should be retained until substantial data
can be amassed which will cast more light
upon the taxonomic status of this complex.
However, because the finescale dace is
somewhat different from the other species
of Chrosomus, Phillips suggests that it be
reassigned to Pfrille, as done by McPhail
and Lindsey (1970), or possibly to Phoxi-
nus.
It is our opinion that the usage of Phoxi-
nus as opposed to Chrosomus, at least for
the 3 closely related species Chrosomus
erythrogaster, C. eos, and C. oreas, is argu-
mentative, and that further study is needed
before absolute assertions can be made re-
garding the North American species. In
this light, the genus Chrosomus is retained
in this study, and the southern redbelly
dace shall be referred to as Chrosomus
erythrogaster.
Habitat and Study Area
The habitat specificity of the southern
redbelly dace requiring cold, springwater
habitats or permanent, clear headwater
streams (Forbes and Richardson 1920,
Trautman 1957), has a direct influence on
the distribution of the species in Kentucky.
Branson (1973) stated that the redbelly
dace “inhabits clear, springfed creeks in
Eastern Kentucky and to a lesser extent
similar streams elsewhere in the state.” The
species does not occur in the Tennessee
River drainage in the extreme western part
of Kentucky and is quite rare in tributaries"
of the Cumberland River in that area ( Mor- |
gan Sisk 1971 pers. comm.).
Ivy Creek is a small, springfed tributary
of the Green River, originating in northern
Warren County, Kentucky (37°09’N, 86°25’
W). It flows northwest for 7.1 km before
entering the Green River. Ivy Creek is fed
primarily by 2 small source streams which
converge approximately 1.1 km from their
origins. Numerous seepage streams also |
flow into Ivy Creek along its course. The
stream flows through mildly karstic topog-
raphy, which characterizes the region, at
elevations from 160 to 164.5 m above mean >
sea level at its sources, to 131 m at its |
mouth. The average gradient is 4.73 m/km.
The study area extended downstream from >
just below the confluence of the source
streams for about | km.
Within the study area, Ivy Creek ranged
in width from 0.9 to 3.7 m. Depths varied
from 5 cm at riffles to 1 m in deeper pools.
The study area was characterized by fre-—
quent riffles separating long pools of mov-
ing water, generally from 0.3 to 0.6 m deep.
During the study period, stream dis-
charge ranged from less than 1.7 m?/min_
to an observed maximum of 24.5 m?/min. |
Monthly averages ranged from 0.8 m?/min
in September and October to 24.5 in Feb-
ruary. Observed extremes in stream tem-
perature were 5 C in December and 25 C
in September. Dissolved oxygen concentra- |
tions averaged from 8 to 12 mg/1, but fell
to 6.2 and 5.0 mg/1 during September and
October, respectively, when the stream
was choked with decaying leaf litter. pH
was relatively stable with values ranging
from 7.5 to 8.1. Total alkalinity and total
hardness ranged from 75 to 148 mg/1 and
101 to 190 mg/1, respectively.
The Collections
The study was initiated in November
1970, with intensive sampling carried out
from 5 February 1971 through 8 January
1972, and included 27 collections of red-_
belly dace. All collections were made by |
seining. A 0.3-cm mesh nylon seine was |
used to capture adults and a fine-meshed
)
THE SOUTHERN REDBELLY Dace IN KENTUCKy—Settles and Hoyt 3
=
February
] n=I13 fish
2 7
_| March
cf a mm n=165
° ——
=
J April
n=lI9
May
n=122
June
n=*77
July
neli7
|e
Frequency
oo 8
]
September
n=l06
Percentage
October
ne{3I
‘November
nell5S
December
n=|00
January
n=88
oh
~ 10 20' 30 40 50 60 70
Standard Length, Millimeters
Fic. 1. Length—frequency distribution at monthly
intervals for southern redbelly dace from Ivy Creek,
Warren County, Kentucky, February 1971 to Jan-
uary 1972.
seine was used in collecting young of the
year. A total of 814 specimens was col-
lected and fixed in 10 percent formalin
while 534 additional dace were measured
in the field and returned to the stream.
All length and weight measurements
were made within 3 hours after capture.
Specimens were blotted to remove excess
water, weighed to the nearest 0.01 g on an
electric, single-pan balance, and total (TL)
and standard (SL) lengths measured using
methods described by Hubbs and Lagler
(1964). Standard length was used consis-
tently throughout the study. A total to
standard length conversion factor based on
225 specimens may be expressed as TL/SL
el.
Length frequencies, verified by the scale
method, were used to determine the age
groups of 1,348 redbelly dace. Scales ex-
amined for annuli were taken between the
70
: [I6R'*. off
= 60 _°
= nea
E ES aa 2 1 dal
Ss I Age Gro II
am 50 g up
io)
= Age Group |
, -40
=
1970
30 O
—
‘o}
UO
c 20 Age Group O
\e)
_—
Y)
Months
Fic. 2. Average monthly standard lengths of 3
year classes of southern redbelly dace based on
measurements of 1,348 specimens from Ivy Creek,
Warren County, Kentucky, February 1971 to Jan-
uary 1972.
anterior base of the dorsal fin and the lat-
eral line series on the left side of the fish.
The relationship of standard length to total
body weight was determined for 864 speci-
mens using the formula of Lagler (1956)
Wal or loc W—loe a+n lor die
Length-weight data were also arranged
according to sex (328 males and 350 fe-
males), and according to season of capture
(spawning season, March through June,
N = 405; warmwater season, July through
October, N = 176; and coldwater season,
November through February, N = 283).
Methods outlined by Lagler (1956) were
used to test length-weight regressions to
determine the degree of adherence to the
theoretical cubic response of growth in
weight to growth in length. Analysis of co-
variance, patterned after Snedecor (1962),
was used to determine any statistical differ-
ences among sexes or among specimens
taken during different seasons.
The coefficient of condition (K) was cal-
culated for each of 269 male and 322 female
dace using the equation K = W X 10°/L’.
+ TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37( 1-2)
TABLE 1.—EsTIMATED AGE GROUP COMPOSITION AT MONTHLY INTERVALS FOR SOUTHERN
DACE FROM Ivy CREEK, WARREN COUNTY, KENTUCKY, FEBRUARY 1971 To JANUARY 1972
1971
Age @ Age
Group N Sample Group
Feb - - - 0
Mar - - ~ 0
Apr — - - 0
May - - - 0
Jun — - - 0
Jul 0 44 37.6 I
Aug 0 37 38.9 I
Sep 0 70 66.0 I
Oct 0 114 87.0 I
Nov 0 93 80.9 I
Dec 0 65 65.0 I
Jan 0 fs) 83.0 I
1JIn March, 2 specimens of Age Group II, Year Class 1968, were collected and represented 1.2% of the total sample. |
To determine the effects of the gonadal
component of the total weight on the con-
dition coefficient, the K value of each speci-
men was calculated with gonads intact and
with gonads excised.
Specimens examined for gut contents
were selected randomly from collections
taken throughout the study period. The
entire alimentary tract was excised and the
contents examined microscopically in a wet
mount.
TABLE 2,.—AVERAGE MONTHLY STANDARD LENGTHS AND RANGES FOR 3 YEAR CLASSES OF SOUTHERN
REDBELLY DACE, BASED ON 1,348 SPECIMENS FROM Ivy CREEK, WAREN CouNTy, KENTUCKY, FROM
FEBRUARY 1971 To JANUARY 1972
Year Spawned
1971
Age Range Mean Age
Group (mm ) (mm ) Group
Feb - - - 0
Mar - — — 0
Apr — - ~ 0
May - — — 0
Jun - ~ - 0
Jul 0 14-25 18 I
Aug 0 14-36 23 I
Sep 0 18—35 26 I
Oct 0 21-41 OL I
Nov 0 25-43 o2 I
Dec 0 26-44 34 I
Jan 0 25-44 33 I
1In March, 2 female dace of Age Group II, Year Class 1968, were captured. Their standard lengths were 63 and |
65 mm, respectively.
Year Spawned
REDBELLY 9
1970. 1969 |
Jo Age Jo
N Sample Group N Sample
102 90.3 I ab 9.7
135 81.8 I 28 17.05
114 95.8 I 5 4.2
1 Pe) 92.6 I 9 7.4
15 97.4 I 2 2.6
12 61.5 II 1 0.9
50 52.6 II 8 8.4
33 oil II 3 2.8
7 13.0 — - -
22, 19.1 = - -
oD 35.0 - - —- |
15 17.0 ~ - - |
RESULTS
An evaluation of length frequency dis-
tributions indicated the presence of 2 dis--
tinct age groups in Ivy Creek, with isolated
individuals representing a third age group:
0 (spawned in 1970) represented the domi-.
nant age group in Ivy Creek and comprised |
81.8 to 97.4 percent of each sample (Table.
1). During the same period, Age Group I
1970 1969
Range Mean Age Range Mean
(mm ) (mm ) Group (mm) (mm )
20-43 32 I 45-58 bz,
22-43 Sy I 46-60 53"
22—45 32 I 52-60 56
23—45 36 I 48-57 52
29-44 37 I 50-53 a2
37-52 44 DE P56 56
40-53 45 II 56-58 57
40-54 48 II 57-61 60
45-52 48 - - =
45-53 50 - - =
45-56 50 - - -
46-57 51 - - -
THE SOUTHERN REDBELLY Dace IN KeNntucky—Settles and Hoyt 5
dace declined rapidly in relative numbers
and most had disappeared by June. The
tonly Age Group II specimens represented
+ during that time period were 2 females, 63
mm and 65 mm SL, captured in March.
In July, age group composition was al-
}tered as a result of recruitment of young-
| of-the-year individuals into the general pop-
ulation. From July through September,
Age Groups 0 (recruited young of the year )
and I, with very few individuals of Age
Group IJ, were found in Ivy Creek. By
October, only Age Groups 0 and I were
collected. It was likely that some Age
Group II individuals were present, but were
so rare that none were taken.
| Young-of-the-year redbelly dace were
| first collected in July and had a SL range
of 14 to 25 mm, with a mean SL of 18 mm
(Table 2). Growth among Age Group 0
individuals was rapid through October at
which time lengths ranged from 21 to 41 and
averaged 31 mm. Some growth occurred
during the winter, but did not resume ap-
preciably until April (Fig. 2). At the end of
their first year of life (ie., in June), red-
belly dace ranged from 29 to 44 mm SL
and averaged 37 mm.
Age Group I dace grew slowly and av-
eraged over 50 mm SL at the end of the
second year. Insufficient numbers of Age
Group I specimens prevented an accurate
determination of their mean _ standard
length. Age Group II dace collected in
September ranged from 57 to 61 mm SL
and averaged about 60 mm, while a single
individual 60 mm long was collected in No-
vember. The oldest Age Group II specimens
were collected in March and averaged 64
mm.
The greatest absolute growth in length
occurred during the first year of life with a
gradual decline in the growth rate in the
second and third years.
The length-weight equation yielded the
following data for 3 seasonal periods in Ivy
Creek
Spawning Period (March-June)
W =1.177 X 10-°L?-°%*, or log
W =-4.9293 + 3.096 log L
Standard
Length, mm.
Fic. 3. Relationship between standard length and
body weight of southern redbelly dace during three
seasonal periods in Ivy Creek, Warren County,
Kentucky, February 1971 to January 1972. A.
Spawning season (March—June); B. Warmwater
period (July—October); C. Coldwater period ( No-
vember—February ).
Warmwater Period (July—October)
W = 1.360 X 10°L?-°, or log
W =-+4.8665 + 3.045 log L
Coldwater Period (November—February )
W = 1.457 < 10°L3-S, or log
W =-4.8356 + 3.006 log L.
An analysis of covariance revealed no
significant deviation from the theoretical
cubic response of increase in weight to the
increase in length (P = 0.05) for any of the
seasonal equations. However, some visu-
ally discernible differences among the 3
seasonal periods were apparent with the
highest length-weight values. being re-
corded during the spawning period and the
lowest during the coldwater period (Fig.
3).
6 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(1-2)
4.00
Females
3.00
grams
2.00
Welght,
Total
1.00
Females = eo
An
emales Males = A
AE
30 40
Standard Length, mm.
Fic. 4. Relationship between standard length and body weight in male and female southern redbelly
dace from Ivy Creek, Warren County, Kentucky, February 1971 to January 1972.
Length-weight equations for each sex Females W = 2.220 x 10°L?-°!® or log
were as follows: W = -4.6537 + 2.916 log L.
Males W=3.332 x 10°°L?-5, or log An analysis of covariance revealed no
W =-4.4774 + 2.809 log L significant deviation from the cubic re-
|
|
TABLE 3.—MONTHLY AVERAGES OF COEFFICIENTS
OF CONDITION (K) FOR MALE AND FEMALE SOUTH-
ERN REDBELLY DACE WITH GONADS INTACT AND
WITH GONADS EXCISED
Males Females
Gonads Gonads Gonads Gonads
Month in situ excised in situ excised
Feb 1.21 120 1.25 1.24
Mar 1.43 1.42 1.49 1.46
Apr eo 1.80 Cie
May 180 1.78 meat eS
Jun R15 1.74 FO 1.59
Jul 1.56 1.56 1.51 1.49
Aug 1.69 1.69 1.64 1.61
Sep 157 1.56 157 1.55
Oct IGS 1.64 1.60 1.56
Nov 1.61 1.60 1.64 1.59
Dec ey! 1353 Lon 1.45
Jan 1.58 ey 1.57 1.52
sponse at the 0.05 level of probability.
-However, calculated values indicated male
southern redbelly dace in Ivy Creek to be
proportionally heavier than females until
approximately 46 mm in standard length
(Fig. 4). At that length, a reversal of the
trend occurred as illustrated by the crossing
_ of the regression line in Fig. 4.
_ The overall length-weight relationship
for 864 southern redbelly dace from Ivy
Creek was:
ee 10° L933, or log
W =-4.8502 + 3.033 log L.
Coefficients of condition calculated from
empirical data indicated that body condi-
tion was lowest during coldwater months
and immediately after spawning (Table 3).
Highest K values were recorded directly
prior to spawning and during the warm-
water period following recovery from the
spawn.
With the exceptions of February and
March, males were generally more robust
than females (Fig. 5). During May, fe-
males had higher overall coefficients of con-
dition, but much of the weight component
used to calculate their K values was due to
the gonadal component. Condition coeffi-
cients calculated with gonads excised indi-
cated that males were more robust than
females (Fig. 5).
THE SOUTHERN REDBELLY Dace IN KENTUCKy—Settles and Hoyt 7
1.90
Z
a moles Y
1.80 gems:
BY Females
1.70 4|Aa| B
Al\|Al| wa fs
= Ai\GiA\ Ba GF
a lige Z\A\ g g Oo
° A\4\4\. Al enw G Z
= ZAl\4A\|4A\B Bl BA 2 Z
AiG Gia Bibl al dia @
= Z | Z Zam
= 1.50 A|\A|A| 4a Ala Al 4| BG
741414|\|43 4@14|14164) Bi Ge
© saZ Alaig|B4@latreal gig
° 1/4|4|4141 4! 4! Gl Gl al
6 4\4\4\4\4|\4\ Al al eG
AlAaAl| AIlYg| algal ali aionga
SALA Alia ALaAl al AlaAarsg
B14\414|4\ al @i ai al @l a
AA
° Z Zama A Ai 6 g
= A\A\A4\4A4\4\4@\4@\4a@\4\4aleg
= A\4\4\|414|14|4!l 4l 4! 4l a
= 4A\4\|\4\|4\4141|4!|4!1 641614
ZC 4\4\|4|4|4\14!14!|4!1 42 g
c A\4\4\4a\4al\4l 4i | Bl al 4
e130 Al\4|\4\4\4\4|\4\4\4l\alea
A\A\4\|\414@14141414161 6
o A\4\4\414\414\4|14!1 ale
A\A\|4\14|14\| 41414! G4! GI e
Alg4a|4|\|4|\4|\4|\4|4!|4!141 4
aAaYg|Aal\g|4\4\4\14|14!1464141 4
A|4\|\4\4|14|141641464!1614! 4
AlalAalia|l|4l\eal!l Baie ez ZS
IAalAatialaltalaltlartay Alea 4
1200, Fl A|Al|A4@la4l|4l14ig!e24ia4aig4i gz
A\/4|\|4\14|41416414146416!1 62142
Alg|A4@l4lea4iga!s Baie! Bi eB Z
4A414\|4\141414161614614! 4! 2
AMA AINAllaA Ala Ala An!) 4
4A14\|414\1414141464!16!14!/ 214
41|4\|4\|4141416416414146!1 816
41|4\|4\41414|1424164!\414'1612
414|4|414! 2 Al\a| Bl Bl @
oAl\4\4| 414! Al 4! Al Al AI | 2
Bea Mie Se AVe IM) peeves ol eA 8 Si OS SiN & De oa
Fic. 5. Monthly averages of coefficients of con-
dition (K) for male and female southern redbelly
dace from Ivy Creek, Warren County, Kentucky,
February 1971 to January 1972. Stippled bar seg-
ments represent gonadal components of total con-
dition values.
Absolute growth in weight proceeded
very slowly during the first year of life, but
accelerated during the second and _ third
years. Redbelly dace in Ivy Creek attained
only 18 percent of their total weight poten-
tial during their first year of life and 34
and 48 percent during the second and third
years, respectively.
Sand, silt, and detritus represented the
only consistently ingested materials for
southern redbelly dace in Ivy Creek. Bi-
otic components were represented chiefly
by the diatoms Navicula spp., Cocconeis
spp., Gomphonema spp., Nitzschia spp.,
Cymbella spp., and Melosira spp. Among
the specimens smaller than 35 mm SL, dia-
toms apparently provided the major com-
ponent of the diet.
Medium-sized dace (35 to 50 mm SL)
also depended heavily on microscopic
foods, but midge larvae (Chironomidae )
often were found in the gut contents.
Larger dace, those longer than 50 mm SL,
frequently ingested immature mayflies,
stoneflies, and caddisflies.
8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37( 1-2) |
From May through August, specimens
of all sizes ingested large quantities of the
filamentous green alga Spirogyra, and in
some specimens, large masses of that alga
filled most of the alimentary tract.
DISCUSSION
At the time of this writing, no extensive
reports concerned with the age and growth
of C. erythrogaster could be found in the
literature. Trautman (1957) reported that
young-of-the-year redbelly dace in Ohio
ranged from 18 to 36 mm in October.
Using the calculated factor of 1.23 (TL/
SL), it was concluded that redbelly dace
reported by Trautman (1957) ranged from
15 to 31 mm SL in October. During the
present study, young-of-the-year southern
redbelly dace ranged from 21 to 41 mm
in October.
Trautman (1957) also reported that
dace in Ohio ranged from 25 to 46 mm
at the end of about a year, with standard
length calculated to be 20-37 mm. Stan-
dard lengths ranged from 29 to 44 mm for
year-old dace in Ivy Creek.
In regard to older dace, Trautman (1957)
reported that “adults” ranged in length from
38 to 76 mm with standard length equiv-
alents from 31 to 62 mm. Ivy Creek speci-
mens ranged from 37 to 65 mm SL during
their second and third years.
It appeared that southern redbelly dace
in Ivy Creek grew somewhat faster during
their first year than did their Ohio counter-
parts. Barlow (1961) reported that “dif-
ferences between populations of a fish spe-
cies are environmentally induced, unless a
genetic basis can be established experi-
mentally.” He further stated that “northern
representatives of a species grow slower...
than do their southern counterparts.” It is
feasible then that differences in environ-
mental factors may have resulted in vari-
ations in growth rates between dace in Ohio
and those in Ivy Creek. Since length ranges
for adults reported by Trautman (1957)
were relatively consistent with those of Ivy
Creek, it was also assumed that length max-
ima were comparable, though they may
have been reached earlier in life among Ivy
Creek representatives. |
Age groups were assigned to 900 southern |
redbelly dace, collected on 2 occasions in.
Oklahoma during July by Hill and Jenssen §
(1968). Specimens up to 24 mm SL were |
assigned to Age Group 0, from 30.0 to 39.5_
mm to Age Group I, and individuals 40 to”
55 mm SL to Age Group IJ. Assignments
of the Age Group 0 specimens appeared
valid since they were distinct on the length.
frequency distribution. This range closely
coincided with the 14 to 25 mm range ob-.
served for Age Group 0 specimens collected” |
from Ivy Creek in July.
However, Hill and Jenssen (1968) used
the acquisition of secondary sexual char- |
acteristics to separate Age Groups I and II,
stating that dace 30.0 to 39.5 mm lacked
such characteristics and were thus repre-
sentatives of Age Group I. Individuals 40!
mm SL and longer were sexually mature
and were thus designated to Age Group II.
This criterion was invalid for dace in Ivy
Creek because most Age Group I fish were
sexually mature and ranged to 50 mm in
July. This might also have been applied to—
specimens studied by Hill and Jenssen be- |
cause they lacked long-range length fre-.
quency data on which to base their conclu-
sions. |
It was observed that Oklahoma and Ivy
Creek representatives of C. erythrogaster
acquired secondary sexual characteristics
at approximately the same lengths (39-40
mm SL) and had comparable size ranges
for young-of-the-year specimens. It was.
thus concluded that rates of growth and_
maturation followed the same chronological
sequence for Oklahoma and Ivy Creek
southern redbelly dace.
Length-weight data revealed that south-
ern redbelly dace in Ivy Creek adhered
statistically to the cube law, or the tendency
to acquire weight in proportion to the cube
of length. There were no statistical dif-_
ferences in cubic regressions among the 3
designated seasonal periods, or between the.
sexes. However, it was observed that speci- |
mens were generally more robust during |
the spawning period due to gonadal de- |
velopment. Specimens collected during the
warmwater period were proportionally
heavier than those collected during the
coldwater period. That difference may be
attributed to the availability and acquisition
of food, which varied greatly between the
2 latter seasonal periods.
Coefficients of condition reflected the
length-weight relationships. Values were
highest during the spawning season for both
sexes and for both somatic and overall
condition. Condition declined sharply im-
mediately after spawning and then re-
covered during the warmwater period.
Somewhat lower conditions were observed
during the coldwater period.
Though the length-weight relationships
between males and females were basically
similar, it was observed that males were
slightly heavier bodied until standard
lengths greater than about 40 mm were at-
tained. At such lengths, females tended to
overtake the males and become heavier pro-
portionally. Because sexual maturity oc-
curred at approximately 39 mm SL, it was
concluded that increase in ovarian devel-
opment accounted for the apparent reversal
in the length-weight relationships between
males and females. With few exceptions,
males were more robust than females.
Feeding behavior among dace in Ivy
Creek appeared to have been a nonselective
ingestion of sand and silt which contained
algae and nondescript bits of organic ma-
terial, as well as some predation on insects.
This was consistent with the findings of
Forbes and Richardson (1920) who stated
that, among specimens collected in Illinois,
food “...is evidently obtained by nibbling
or sucking the surface slime from stones
and other objects on the bottom. It con-
sists ... mainly of mud containing algae...”
Similar observations were recorded by
Phillips (1969).
Because of the tendency toward random,
nonselective feeding behavior, it might be
expected that materials ingested by dace
should have reflected that which was avail-
able in the stream at the time of capture.
Our collections indicated that algal forms
most frequently found among the gut con-
THE SOUTHERN REDBELLY Dace IN KENtTUcKy—Settles and Hoyt 9
tents of southern redbelly dace in Ivy Creek
were also most abundant in the stream.
Phillips (1969) reported that Navicula
was the most abundant dietary component
for redbelly dace in Minnesota. This was
also the case for specimens from Ivy Creek.
Similarly, Phillips (1969) reported Gom-
phonema and Nitzschia to be frequently
found in the diets of dace, as was the case
for Ivy Creek specimens.
From May through August, Spirogyra
was used extensively as food by southern
redbelly dace in Ivy Creek. Records for
that period indicated that the appearance
of that alga in the diet coincided with its
profuse growth along the stream’s edge. In
regard to the utilization of Spirogyra as
food, Phillips (1969) found it to be “nutri-
tionally unimportant to C. erythrogaster in
the stream” but that it was “readily eaten
in aquarium experiments.” During periods
of abundance, Spirogyra formed a signifi-
cant component of the diet for redbelly
dace in Ivy Creek.
Cladophora, another green alga, grew
abundantly in Ivy Creek, but was rarely
found in the diet of redbelly dace. Phillips
(1969) stated that this alga was eaten by
C. erythrogaster in Minnesota “... only
when starved and when no other food was
present.” This he attributed to the rough
texture of Cladophora and its thick-walled
cells.
Faunal components of the diet of dace
in Ivy Creek included immature forms of
various aquatic insects. When only frag-
ments of such forms were observed in the
guts of specimens, it was difficult to tell
whether the entire insect had been eaten
or if those fragments had been passively in-
gested with silt and sand. However, on
some occasions, entire bodies of aquatic
insects were found partially digested in the
alimentary tracts of dace. The size of the
fish appeared to dictate the size of the food
item consumed. It was assumed that such
insects were actively pursued and ingested.
Needham (1908) reported that C. erythro-
gaster in New York actively preyed upon
midge larvae.
10 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37( 1-2)
LITERATURE CITED
BAiery..R.. MM... EB. Frres. ES. Herartp._E. A.
LACHNER, C. C. LINDsEy, C. R. ROBINS, AND
W. B. Scorr. 1970. * 006255005
Juglans sp. 1 0010" 200620012
Morus rubra 1 .0010 O0G2. 220072
Totals 951 .9981 .9746 1.9727
difficult to make positive identifications
of saplings and seedlings of such complex §
genera as Acer and Quercus and others,
no attempt was made to differentiate be-_
tween species of several taxa. Thus, in |
tabulating and discussing the data above |
and elsewhere, all individuals of several |
genera are treated collectively. |
The 5 important genera in all 3 size classes |
in the complete forest are compared in—
Table 4. There were 3 dominant genera —
in each size class; Acer, ranked first in |
all size classes, Ulmus, and Fraxinus. Cel-
tis was an important genus in the tree and ©
sapling classes.
In the disturbed area of Dinsmore’s —
Woods, 10 tree species were recorded in |
an area of 4 circular plots and were in- —
cluded in the analysis of the complete |
forest. The tree species of the disturbed
area are ranked according to their impor- |
tance values in Table 5, where the 5 pre-
dominant species were: Celtis occidentalis, |
Juglans nigra, Ulmus rubra, Fraxinus amer-
icana, and Cercis canadensis.
CuiMAx Forest SystremM—Held and Winstead 61
TABLE 4.—COMPARISON OF THE 5 DOMINANT TREE SPECIES, SAPLING, AND SEEDLING GENERA, WITH
THEIR IMPORTANCE OR RELATIVE DENSITY PLUS RELATIVE FREQUENCY VALUES, AT DINSMORE’s Woops,
BoonE County, KENTUCKY
Tree IV Sapling RD + RF Seedling RD-+ RF
Acer saccharum 9194 Acer saccharum 4856 Acer spp. 0395
Fraxinus americana 4448 Ulmus rubra 3916 Ulmus rubra R351 be
Quercus spp. 3314 Asimina triloba 2084 Fraxinus americana 2241
Celtis occidentalis 2988 Fraxinus americana .1954 Prunus serotina .1228
Ulmus rubra 2293 Celtis occidentalis STS Carya sp. .1134
Among saplings of the disturbed area,
listed according to their relative density
plus relative frequency values in Table 6,
the 5 leading genera were Ulmus, Acer,
Celtis, Fraxinus, and Prunus. In the seed-
ling size class of the disturbed area (Table
7), the 5 dominant genera, ranked accord-
ing to their relative density plus relative
frequency values, were Fraxinus, Acer,
Prunus, Celtis, and Gleditsia.
The leading individuals of the disturbed
area in all 3 vegetational size classes are
compared in Table 8. Celtis and Fraxinus
occurred in all 3 classes, and Acer, Prunus,
and Ulmus were found in 2.
Comparison of Tables 4 and 8 shows that
Fraxinus was the dominant genus in all
6 size classes of both the complete forest
and the disturbed area. Acer, Ulmus, and
Celtis occurred as leading genera in 5
size classes.
TABLE 5.—THE NUMBER
In the tornado damaged area, 12 tree
species occurred in 5 circular plots. Of
those, 7 were damaged to some extent by
the high winds. All trees of the tornado
area and their importance values are pre-
sented in Table 9, and the 5 leading species
were Acer saccharum, Ulmus rubra, Celtis
occidentalis, Tilia americana, and Fagus
grandifolia. The trees damaged by the
tornado and their importance values are
listed in Table 10. The 5 leading species
were Acer saccharum, Fraxinus americana,
Cercis canadensis, Celtis occidentalis, and
Tilia americana. Only 3 dominant species
of all trees in the damaged area were rep-
resented among the important damaged
trees, Acer saccharum, Celtis occidentalis,
and Tilia americana.
The lengths of all trees uprooted were
recorded to give an approximation of can-
opy height. The average height was 20
(N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDO), RELATIVE
FREQUENCY (RF'), AND THE IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) FOR TREES OVER 10 CM DBH IN THE DISTURBED
AREA AT DINSMORE’S Woops, BOONE County, KENTUCKY
Species N RD
Celtis occidentalis 12 3243
Juglans nigra 4 1081
Ulmus rubra 5 aol
Fraxinus americana 3 .0810
Cercis canadensis 3 .0810
Gleditsia triacanthos 3 .0810
Acer negundo 3 .0810
A. saccharum 2 .0540
Maclura pomifera 1 .0270
Robinia pseudo-acacia 1 .0270
Totals 37 9995
RDo RF LY,
.2975 .0714 .6933
-1031 .1428 3041
.0470 .1428 3250
.1705 .0714 3230
.1282 .0714 .2807
.0638 0714 .2163
.0626 .0714 .2151
0159 .1428 .2128
.0924 0714 .1908
.0184 .1428 .1883
9994 .9996 2.9994
62 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4)
TABLE 6.—THE NUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY
(RD), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE DEN-
SITY PLUS RELATIVE FREQUENCY VALUE (RD +
RF), FOR THE SAPLINGS OF THE DISTURBED AREA
AT DinsMoRE’s Woops, BOONE County, KENTUCKY
Species N RD RF RD-+ RF
Ulmus rubra OY 1nd002 4 l500 Oo 53802
Acer saccharum 13.1830) =.2500 ~=—«.4300
Celtis occidentalis 7,.0985 \ .1500 ».|.2485
Fraxinus americana 6 .0845 .1000 .1845
Prunus serotina S L126 0500 \\\*
ON
NES aN YAS
4 Sr 6 eel
rN
rc} GE ]
oO YY, \
£ 4 a
Sey oo =r
Sn unl ye ax
= equational line
>
oO
© A
= B
Qa
~o
= \ SENS NANN an - Wand Ss ~
| TINESNINWN SST LENT NaS
ra \ \ 8 N TN 4N EES \ RRR Yd EER
a SL N
£
Le)
5 4 3 7 1
“ovata phenotypic ratings
Fic. 4. A-—D, specimens of Justicia from North Carolina plotted according to their double index.
Shaded areas indicate those specimens in which all 5 characteristics are within the published ranges
of either species. The number of specimens plotted at each point is recorded at that point. The
equational line is an arbitrary line defined by “americana—ovata” phenotypic ratings of equal mag-
nitude. A, all specimens from North Carolina. B, specimens from the southern half of the Coastal
Plain. C, specimens from the northern half of the Coastal Plain. D, specimens from areas west of
the Coastal Plain.
representatives in northeastern North Car- LITERATURE CITED
olina, would be an excellent subject for ENDLER, J. A. 1973. Gene flow and population
experimental analysis and that the species Gar eabiaiion, Science 179-243-950.
herein discussed might fit the theoretical Euruicu, P. R., anp P. H. Raven. 1969. Dif-
pattern discussed by Ehrlich and Raven ferentiation of populations. Science 165:
1228-1232.
(1969 ) and modelled by Endler (1973) FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray’s Manual of Botany.
very closely. Amer. Book Co. New York, N.Y. 1632
76 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4)
Gieason, H. A. 1952. The New Britton and Raprorp, A. E., H. E. AHLEs, AND C, R. BELL.
Brown Illustrated Flora. Vol. 3. Lancaster 1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the }
Press, Inc., Lancaster, Pa. 595 pp. Carolinas. Univ. N. Carolina Press. Chapel |
KLEexowskl, E. J., AND E. O. Beau. 1965. A study Hill, N.C. 1183 pp. |
of variation in the Potamogeton capillaceus— SMaA.Lu, J. K. 1933. Manual of the Southeastern
diversifolius complex (Potamogetonaceae). Flora. Univ. N. Carolina Press. Chapel Hill,
Brittonia 17(2):175—181. N.C. 1554 pp.
Notes on the Flora of the Sinking Creek System and
Elkhorn Source Areas in the Inner Blue
Grass Region of Kentucky
WILLEM MEIJER
Thomas Hunt Morgan School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40506
ABSTRACT
Little known relict plant communities investigated in the Inner Blue Grass Region along
Sinking Creek between Jessamine Creek and Roaring Springs and along outliers of South
and North Elkhorn creeks suggest that before the arrival of the first white settlers the
area was partly covered by swamp forests possibly still in connection with those along
the lower Ohio and Mississippi rivers.
Three localities of Taxodiuwm distichum, 2 with trees over 200 years old, 6 localities
of Quercus bicolor, 1 with about 200 trees, and 1 locality of Quercus lyrata were discovered
in the area.
The orchid Spiranthes cernua var. odorata is locally common along Sinking Creek, in
association with Chelone glabra and Carex hyalinolepis. The mimosoid legume Desmanthes
illinoensis has its most eastern locality along Sinking Creek in Woodford County.
INTRODUCTION
This paper is a preliminary floristic note
on the relict flora of the Inner Blue Grass
Region investigated in cooperation with
members of the Buckley Hills Audubon
Wildlife Society and Woodford County
Save the Land Association, especially along
a series of sinkholes and sinking creeks
that stretches from Ashgrove Pike near the
Lexington—Nicholasville road west of the
Hickman Creek sewage disposal plant
through the northern part of Jessamine
County, along Versailles and towards Mid-
way in Woodford County, and ending in
Roaring Springs in northeastern Franklin
County. Part of this system was described
by Jillson (1945).
Increased interest in this area has been
shown by landowners who benefit from
clearwater springs from caves and under-
ground streams, feeding creeks and natural
ponds.
Problems of land use and zoning and the
great lack of open space for nature rec-
reation in the Inner Blue Grass Region
have raised new interest in the geology,
flora, and fauna of this karst landscape.
Encroaching housing developments, trailer
parks, and industrial development threaten
tf
the last remains of the once rich swamp
flora of the creeks and sinkholes along
this system.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Field work was done during the spring
and summer of 1974 in cooperation with
Mr. Ellwood Carr, Mr. Van Ship, Mrs.
Alex Bowen, Mrs. El. Jones, and Mrs. Pa-
tricia DeCamp of the Buckley Hills Audu-
bon Society who acted as guides and com-
panions in the area and who introduced the
author to landowners on the farms around
Sinking Creek. My former students John
MacGregor and Max Leach, the latter now
forester in Madisonville, directed me to
localities of Taxodium distichum in Jessa-
mine and Fayette counties. Mr. Harold R.
Wallace, District Conservationist for Jes-
samine and Fayette counties, joined me in
exploration of the Delaney Ferry Road
section of Sinking Creek.
METHODS
The study area was divided into sections
on the basis of topography, and separate
lists of floristic notes and herbarium col-
lections were kept for each area. Identi-
78 Trans. KENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4)
oy, eae
ta tz a ES ett
Fic. 1. Taxodium distichum near Old Frankfort
Pike, Mr. Proctor’s home, Lexington, Kentucky.
fications of specimens were made in the
field or later in the herbarium.
The project stimulated renewed studies
of the difficult genus Carex of which
around 85 species are known from Ken-
tucky. A combination of an unpublished
key for this genus for Kentucky (Meijer
unpublished), text and _ illustrations by
Mackenzie (1931, 1940) for the Flora of
North America, and authentic specimens in
the herbarium made it possible to identify
species in a reliable way.
RESULTS
Bryophyta
Fissidens grandifrons Brid.—This is an
aquatic moss observed in Cogar Springs
south of Midway, in Gay Spring, and in
the Alexander Spring and along a creek
near Parkers Mill Road, Lexington. Crum
(1973) mentioned it from the Great Lakes
forest in Michigan and referred to it as
widespread in North America south to
Guatemala. No specimens were reported
from Kentucky by Fulford and Shacklette
(1942). This moss seems to be typical
for clear water in cold springs in limestone.
According to Dr. A. J. Sharp (Univ. Ten-
nessee, pers. comm.) it has been found at
similar locations in Tennessee. The range
given by Grout (1936) is southern Can-
ada, Alberta to Ontario, Washington to
California, east to New York, West Vir-
ginia, and Tennessee.
Gymnosperms
Taxodiaceae
Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich, Bald Cy-
press.—A population of 5 trees was discoy-
ered along Beals Branch on the Crosbey’s
farm just south of the Old Frankfort Pike
southwest of Midway in Woodford County.
Measurements of trees at breast height
were:
Girth Diameter
feet inches cm inches cm
No. 1 16 8 510 63 160
No. 2 12 366 45.8 116
No. 3 10 305 38 96
No. 4 ) 2 279 35 89
No. 5 7 Ay 225 28 a
According to Fowells (1965), second
growth stands of Taxodium distichum in
Maryland have trees 100 years of age with
diameter of 21.3 inches (54 cm) and a
diameter increase of about 2 inches (5 cm)
every 10-year period.
Fowells (1965) stated that there is good
evidence that diameter growth in Louisi-
ana also is 2 inches (5 cm) in 10 years.
Even if we assume that on the fertile soils
of the Inner Blue Grass Region this tree
would grow 0.25 inch (6 mm) per year
instead of 0.20 inch (5 mm) as in Mary-
land and Louisiana, the estimated age of
the tree with 63 inches diameter would
be more than 200 years. At an increase in
diameter of 2 inches in 10 years, the age
would be around 300 years.
A second relict locality of Taxodium
distichum was discovered by John Mac-
FLORA OF SINKING CREEKS AND ELKHORN SOURCE AREAS—Meijer ia
Gregor along Linden Lane in Jessamine
County in southern Nicholasville just west
of Highway 27 near a former pond still
shown at the northern margin of Little
Hickman Topographic Quadrangle, 1952
edition. Two trees measuring 91 and 86.5
inches (227.5 and 215 cm, respectively )
in girth, approximately 120-140 years old,
grew here in company of Platanus occi-
dentalis, Quercus macrocarpa (girth, 10
feet; 3.05 m), Juglans nigra, and Carya
laciniosa in a former farmland without any
trace of planted trees around them.
The third locality of bald cypress (Fig.
1) discovered by Max Leach is in Fayette
County along the Old Paris Pike west of
Interstate 75 northwest of Bryan Station
High School on the land of Mr. Proctor.
The girths of the trees were:
No. 1—21 feet 6 inches at base
ca 15 feet at main bole 655 cm
No. 2—9 feet, 2 inches 279 cm
No. 3—6 feet, 9 inches 206 cm
No. 4—7 feet 213 cm
No. 5—9 feet 274 cm
No. 6—17 feet 518 cm
No. 7—4 feet, 5 inches 122 cm
No. 8—6 inches 15 cm
Several trees grow around a natural
pond fed by a spring. The young tree of
6-inch (15-cm) girth shows that the spe-
cies is still regenerating at this locality.
On the adjacent property of Mr. Owen
Hitt, the girths of the following trees were:
Feet Inches cm
No. 1 8 Ek ie
No. 2 bi 4 345
No. 3 a re) 236
No. 4 12 7 383
No. 5 13 8) 419
If we assume that trees of about 12 feet
(366 cm) girth are about 200 years old
at the growth rate of 2 inches per 10
years then there are at least 4 out of a
population of 13 trees older than 200 years.
From these data it seems well established
that bald cypress grew in the Inner Blue
Grass Region before the arrival of the
Fic. 2. The historical specimen of Heteranthera
limosa collected by C. W. Short in 1838 near
Cole’s Tavern on the Frankfort Road in
Woodford County.
first white settlers. The localities in the
Inner Blue Grass Region are disjunct from
the main range of this species. (See map
S4E in Little 1971.)
Monocotyledons
Pontederiaceae
Heteranthera limosa (Sw.) Willd., Smaller
Mud Plantain—A specimen in the Her-
barium of the School of Biological Sciences,
University of Kentucky collected by C. W.
Short in 1838 (Fig. 2) is labeled “A Pond
near Cole’s Tavern on the Frankfort Road,
never seen elsewhere.” This is the only
locality of this plant reported from Ken-
tucky. Lucy Braun (1943) reported it as
being in the University of Cincinnati Her-
barium without locality. The genus ranges
from the tropics to North America. Fer-
nald (1950) reported the range of this
species as Florida to New Mexico, north
80 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4)
Fic. 3. Spiranthes cernua var. odorata Correll
in swamp along Lees Branch, Woodford County,
28 September 1974.
to Kentucky, southern Illinois, Minnesota,
Nebraska, and Colorado. A good illustra-
tion is given by Mohlenbrock (1970). The
map in Muenscher (1944) is incomplete
though it added Virginia to the range.
Through the kind assistance of Mr. and
Mrs. Richard DeCamp, Lexington, I con-
tacted Mr. W. Julian Walden, Versailles
Pike near Nugents Cross Roads at the
junction of the Old Frankfort Pike with
the Versailles-Midway Road, who informed
me that Cole’s Tavern was the Black Horse
Tavern at the stage stop near the cross-
roads. There is a pond along Lees Branch
just east of this place but I could not find
any specimens of Heteranthera there. A
more systematic search of natural farm
ponds or old oxbow lakes in Kentucky
might well turn up new localities of this
rare water plant.
Orchidaceae
Spiranthes cernua (L.) Richard.—This or-
chid (Fig. 3) occurs abundantly in wet
. | f # q § 3
<_< F nd dea
SS fat x ” §
Fic. 4. Chelone glabra turtlehead. In swamp
along Lees Branch, Woodford County.
meadows, around swamps filled with tur-
tle head Chelone glabra (Fig. 4), Lobelia
cardinalis, Asclepias incarnata, and Leersia
oryzoides along the margin of the swampy
valley along Lees Branch just south of the
Old Frankfort Pike in Woodford County.
It formed impressive colorful vegetation
in September 1974 in places full of blue
flowering Lobelia siphilitica. Lucy Braun
(1943) only mentioned it in Laurel,
Letcher, Menifee, Montgomery, and Rowan
counties. Recent discoveries were made of
this orchid near Clay City in Powell County
and along Chimney Creek in Wolfe County
in the Red River Gorge. As a consequence
of mowing in the locality in October 1974,
or the dry summer of 1975 or too much
grazing, no flowering plants could be found
along Lees Branch in September 1975. It
is unlikely that the flora at this locality,
unique for Woodford County, will survive
with continued heavy grazing.
Cyperaceae
The Sinking Creek System is the best |
place in the Blue Grass Region to study ©
FLORA OF SINKING CREEKS AND ELKHORN SOURCE AREAS—Meijer 81
genera and species of this much neglected
family. The greatest concentration of spe-
cies can be found along Lees Branch
where the cool, clear, running creek is
lined with a swamp community of Scirpus
lineatus, Scirpus atrovirens, Scirpus validus,
Cyperus strigosus, Eleocharis palustris (pos-
sibly new for Kentucky, at the southern
boundary of its range, see Map 162 in
Muenscher [1944] ), Eleocharis obtusa, and
species of Carex.
The latter genus contains at least 85
species in Kentucky (Braun 1943). It is
one of the most suitable genera to indicate
species diversity of natural areas.
The distribution of species of Carex in
the 2 most swampy sections of the Sinking
Creek system is as follows (+ only one
colony, X fairly common, XX common):
Lees Branch Delaney Ferry
C. blanda x _
C. stipata xX xX
C. shortiana x x
C. granularis xx box
C. lurida x x
C. lupulina xX <
C. hyalinolepis + 7
(= C. riparia var. lacustris )
C. normalis xx Ke
C. vulpinoidea xx eX
C. frankii = *
C. leavenworthii — x
C. amphibola == x
C.cephalophora — x
C. jamesii x
Carex lupulina has also been recorded in
the Brannon—Catnip section which needs
further investigation of its Carex flora
during spring.
The rarest Carex among these species is
C. hyalinolepis Steudel syn. C. riparia var.
lacustris (Willd.) Kiikenth.
This form is so far only known from
western Kentucky where it was collected
by Jim Conrad and Amy Boyarsky, Coll.
No. 1660, 16 June 1971 in Marshall County,
2 miles (5.2 km) south-southwest of Ken-
tucky Dam Village State Park, in Muehlen-
berg County (Jim Conrad Coll. No. 635),
and from a swamp in the Backbone old
bend of the Elkhorn Creek northeast of
Frankfort.
This species is closely related to, if not
identical with, the European Carex riparia,
well known to the present author from
swamps in the Netherlands.
Dicotyledons
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculus, section Batrachium, Water
Crowfoot.—From records in Muenscher
(1944) and Fernald (1950), it appears
that only 1 species of white flowering water
crowfoot Ranunculus longirostris Godron
is known from Kentucky. It has flowers
with about 16 pistils which may carry 8
achenes with wrinkled more or less glob-
ular base and a curved beaked apex. The
leaves have stipular sheaths which are
from one-half or, more generally, three-
fourths to entirely adnate to the petiole.
Submerged leaves stay firm when lifted
from the water. On 10 May 1974, we col-
lected flowering and fruiting material of
this species in Lees Branch quite near the
Old Frankfort Pike in clear running cool
water. Later on we discovered extensive
patches of this species further south, some
in quite shallow water on very muddy
blackish soil.
Muenscher (1944) mapped this species
only for western Kentucky. Lucy Braun
(1943) did not mention it for the state.
Short (1829) mentioned river crowfoot
from the Elkhorn Creek on the Georgetown
Road under the obsolete name Ranunculus
fluviatilis (syn. R. pantothrix Elliott). Ap-
parently, R. fluviatilis Pursh, Flora Am.
Sept. 2:395, is a synonym of R. aquatilis
Linn. Since Lees Branch is part of the
Elkhorn Creek catchment area, this record
may refer to R. longirostris also.
Fagaceae
Quercus bicolor, Swamp White Oak.—The
main distribution area of this species is
from western Kentucky along the lower
Ohio River towards Missouri, Iowa, south-
eastern Minnesota, Wisconsin, southern
82 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4)
Fic. 5. One of the largest trees of Quercus bi-
color swamp white oak along Lees Branch,
Woodford County.
Michigan, southern Ontario and Quebec,
and New England. Localities in Tennessee,
North Carolina, and Virginia are rather
scattered. The map of the distribution
given by Little (1971) shows the absence
of this species in the Eastern Coal Fields
(Cumberland Plateau) in Kentucky, ex-
cept in Laurel and Whitley counties and
in parts of the Inner Blue Grass Region.
However, Anderson County, where Dr.
William Bryant showed me this tree in
swamp forests along an old course of the
Kentucky River, has to be added, and a
new locality was discovered by the author
with John MacGregor and Charles Andre
in the Broadhead Quadrangle, Rockcastle
County; to this can be added a locality
in Trumbo Bottom south of Frankfort,
Franklin County, a collection by Dr. Mary
Wharton along the Kentucky River in
Henry County (University of Kentucky,
School of Biological Sciences Herbarium),
and a locality west of Georgetown dis-
covered by Mr. J. W. Singer of Singer’s |
Garden, Stamping Ground and others along -
Elkhorn Creeks and the Kentucky River
north of Frankfort surveyed by me in Au-
gust-September 1975. Swamp white oak
occurs in Kentucky as far south as the —
lower Licking River flats, in Fleming and —
Bath counties, Little Laurel River in Laurel —
County, Caney Creek in Lincoln County, }
the headwaters of the Dix River near Crab
Orchard, and the headwaters of the Green
River in Casey and Adair counties. The
Sinking Creek system of the Inner Blue
Grass Region contains Quercus bicolor in
all sections where there is a rather wide
valley developed: Ashbrook Pike, Brannon- —
Catnip, Delaney Ferry, and Lees Branch. |
A rather well preserved locality is the
Delaney Ferry section where this species —
occurs scattered through forest dominated
by Fraxinus americana. Along Lees Branch,
1 large tree (Fig. 5) was found in the north- —
ern part a few minutes walk from the Old |
Frankfort Pike, and a much larger stand of
about 200 trees in the southern part of the
forested area.
In the Brannon—Catnip section, the spe- —
cies might be hybridizing with Quercus —
lyrata, and in the very small forest along |
Ashbrook Pike, 1 tree is a probable hybrid —
with nearby Quercus muehlenbergii and —
another with Quercus macrocarpa. The
largest sized tree among a population of
10 trees is here about 13 feet (4 m) girth. |
The species occurs in Woodford County
also in the company of Nyssa sylvatica —
and Acer rubrum in the abandoned War- ©
wick channel of the Kentucky River near —
Cloverbottom, mapped by Jillson (1947b, —
1948) and along Clear Creek north of |
Stonehedge Farm 2 miles (3.2 km) south-
west of Pinckard, Keene Top Quadrangle,
only 3 miles (4.8 km) west-southwest from —
the Delaney Ferry section of the Sinking —
Creek in Jessamine County. |
The suspected hybrids of swamp white |
oak along Ashgrove Pike and south of |
Brannon Road would suggest that fruits
are not dispersed very far from the mother |
trees by water or rodents. However, long-
distance dispersal of this species over the
FLORA OF SINKING CREEKS AND ELKHORN SOURCE AREAS—Meijer 83
Fic. 6. Quercus lyrata overcup oak, from swamp
forest near Brannon Road, Jessamine County.
postglacial plains north of the Ohio River
might well be done by wood ducks (Fow-
ells 1965). Seeds float in the water below
the trees in the fall.
Quercus lyrata, Overcup Oak.—A colony
of 3 trees (Fig. 6) was discovered 20 Au-
gust 1974 in a swamp forest with per-
manently stagnant water with Alisma
subcordata, Boehmeria cylindrica, Lysi-
machia ciliata, Carex lupulina, Lobelia
cardinalis, and Scutellaria lateriflora, 1
mile (16 km) south of the middle of
Brannon Road in Jessamine County.
The tree flora at and around this site
consisted of Carya laciniosa, Fraxinus amer-
icana, Acer rubrum, A. saccharinum, A.
negundo, Asimina triloba, Tilia americana,
Quercus macrocarpa, Q. muehlenbergii,
Platanus occidentalis, Ulmus americana,
and Celtis occidentalis.
This locality of Quercus lyrata, a coastal
plain species, similar in distribution to Tax-
odium distichum, is 150 miles (250 km)
east of the main range of this species in
western Kentucky and 80 miles (130 km)
from a locality mapped by Little (1971)
in Jefferson County, apparently in the
Scottsburg lowlands.
» It is remarkable how little the distribu-
tional areas of swamp Q. bicolor and Q.
lyrata overlap; mainly in the lower Ohio
River drainage and near the junction with
the Mississippi Valley. From a close study
of individual trees and leaf shapes it would
appear that hybridization with Q. bicolor
has taken place at this locality.
Leguminosae
Subfamily Mimosoideae
Desmanthus illinoensis, Illinois Mimosa.—
Lucy Braun (1943) reported this species
from river banks in Boone, Fulton, Gallatin,
Hickman, and Oldham counties. The lo-
cality along Lees Branch, south of Old
Frankfort Pike along the old Versailles
Georgetown railways track is at the eastern
margin of the range of this species (Isely
1973, with map).
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
A floristic survey of the Sinking Creek
System, more or less parallel with the
South Elkhorn Creek would suggest that
it is part of what was once a continuous
river drainage system similar to the former
Mesozoic course of the Kentucky River
across the Blue Grass Region as delineated
by Jillson (1963). Further hydrological
and geological work is needed to test this
assumption. The streams which run at
present through the Sinking Creek System
are far too small to explain the extensive
accumulation of alluvium and colluvium
in Lees Branch and at other places. A
soil depth of 12 feet (365 cm) has been
established by me in a recent sinkhole on a
side branch of Lees Branch south of Mid-
way. Mr. Walden picked up a rounded
granite boulder at his farm near Nugents
Crossroads which must have been trans-
ported by ariver. This suggests the possible
existence of sandy alluvium and gravels in
underground water courses with good con-
sequences for filtration of water. A search
84 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4)
can be made for alluvial deposits in nearby
caves which could supply pollen samples
which could give clues to the vegetational
history of the area. Out of a pure floristic
research there might arise a combined
study of landforms and vegetational history
of the Blue Grass which could lend support
to land use efforts to prevent the Sinking
Creeks from becoming stinking creeks.
LITERATURE CITED
1943. An Annotated Catalog of
the Spermatophytes of Kentucky. Swift
Printing Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. 161 pp.
Crum, H. 1973. Mosses of the Great Lake Forest.
Univ. Herbarium, Univ. Mich., Ann Arbor,
Mich. 404 pp.
FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray’s Manual of Botany.
American Book Co., New York, N. Y. 1632 pp.
Fowe tts, H. A. 1965. Silvics of Forest Trees of
the United States. Agriculture Handbook
971. US. Govt. Punt “OF. Washineton:
D.C: 162; pp.
FuLForpD, M., anpD H. T. SHackLETTE. 1942. A
list of Kentucky Mosses. Bryologist 45:125-—
134.
Grout, A. J. 1936. Moss flora of North America.
Vol. 1. Publ. by Author, Newfane, Vermont.
IseELy, D. 1973. Leguminosae of the United
Braun, E. L.
States: I. Subfamily Mimosoideae. Mem.
New York Bot. Gard. 25:1—152.
Jittson, W. R. 1945. Geology of Roaring Spring.
Roberts ‘Printing Co., Frankfort, Ky. 44 pp.
. 1947. Warwick Abandoned Channel
of the Kentucky River. Roberts Printing Co.,
Frankfort, Ky.
. 1948. Geological excursions in Ken-
tucky. Roberts Printing Co., Frankfort, Ky.
59 pp.
1963. Delineation of the Mesozoic
Course of the Kentucky River Across the
Inner Blue Grass Region of the State. Rob-
erts Printing Co., Frankfort, Ky. 24 pp.
LitrLte, E. L. 1971. Atlas of United State Trees
I. U.S. Dept. Agric. Misc. Publ. 1146.
Mackenzig, K. K. 1931. Cyperaceae. Tribe 1.
Cariceae. North American Flora Vol. 18(1):
1-478.
1940. North American Cariceae illus-
trated by Harry Charles Creutzburg. I.
Plates 1-269. II. Plates 270-539. New York
Bot. Garden, New York, N.Y. 547 pp.
Moutensrock, R. H. 1970. The Illustrated
Flora of Illinois. Flowering Rush to Rushes.
S. Ill. Univ. Press, Carbondale, Ill. 272 pp.
MueEnscuer, W. C. 1944. Aquatic Plants of the
United States. Comstock Publ. Co., Ithaca,
N.Y. © 374 spp:
Suort, E. H. 1829. Florula Lexingtoniensis.
Faciculus IV. Transylvania Journ. Med. 2:
438—453.
Fisheries Investigation of a Channelized Stream,
Big Muddy Creek Watershed, Kentucky
Martin F. GOLDEN AND CLINTON E. TWILLEY
Dames & Moore, Environmental Consultants, 1150 West Eighth Street,
Cincinnati, Ohio 45203
ABSTRACT
This preliminary survey was undertaken to broaden the data base on the fishes of the
Big Muddy Creek watershed, Butler and Logan counties, Kentucky. Fish collections and
water quality characteristics are reported for 4 stations in the watershed for August 1974.
Thirty-one species of fishes were collected during the survey, bringing the total kinds of
fishes known from the Big Muddy Creek drainage to 40. Biomass and number of species
were reduced significantly in channelized areas as compared to unchannelized areas. This
indicates full recovery has still not occurred after 33 years, since the last channel maintenance
was completed in 1941. Water quality was generally within acceptable limits established by
the state of Kentucky for all sampling stations. Therefore, habitat alteration is the likely
cause for the reductions in fish diversity and biomass.
INTRODUCTION
Data concerning the aquatic ecosystem
of the Big Muddy Creek watershed, But-
ler and Logan counties, Kentucky, appar-
ently are limited to a cooperative recon-
naissance survey conducted by the Bureau
of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and the
Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife
Resources (pers. comm. 3 April 1962, Wal-
ter A. Gresh, Bureau of Sports Fisheries
and Wildlife, Atlanta, Georgia). This
preliminary survey was undertaken to
broaden the data base by characterizing
the fish communities of the Big Muddy
Creek watershed and their relation to water
quality and past channelization (Fig. 1)
to be used in evaluating future plans for
stream alteration. Past channelization of
the main stem was initiated in 1929 and
maintained until 1941, to improve drainage
in the lower basin for agricultural purposes.
This project resulted in shortening the
stream about 16-24 km (10-15 miles)
(Butler County Soil Conservation District
et al. 1962).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This project was sponsored in part by
funds from the U.S. Soil Conservation Ser-
vice (Lexington, Kentucky) in relation to
the Big Muddy Creek Watershed Project.
85
The authors also wish to express their
thanks to the late Dr. Morgan Sisk of
Murray State University for supplying por-
tions of the data on fishes.
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA
The Big Muddy Creek watershed lies
in Butler and Logan counties, Kentucky,
within 2 physiographic regions, the West-
ern Coal Field and the Mississippian Pla-
teau. Topography varies from 224 m (735
feet) to 91 m (300 feet) in elevation and
is characterized by broad, gently rolling
slopes. Soils within the region are com-
posed of 4 principal associations, 1 upland
and 3 lowland soil types, and are formed
from limestone, sandstone, and shale (But-
ler County Soil Conservation District et
al. 1962). Floodplain usage is predom-
inantly agricultural.
Big Muddy Creek originates in north-
central Logan County about 2.7 km (1.7
miles) east-northeast of Homer, Kentucky,
and flows northward to its confluence with
the Green River near Mining City, Ken-
tucky, a distance of about 38 km (24
miles). The total watershed area of Big
Muddy Creek is 26,362 ha (65,140 acres).
The gradient of the upland 12.9 km (8
miles) of Big Muddy Creek is approxi-
mately 4.9 m/km (25.5 feet/mile); the
86 TRANS. KeNTucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4)
CTE DA
7Oet Say,
OK AI TY
saneWlietalaace
LL EoG pee
———Channelized Area
@ Sampling Station
| (0) | Mile
ee es
}
|
Fic. 1. Sampling stations in Big Muddy Creek watershed, Butler and Logan counties, Kentucky. |
Adapted from Butler County Soil Conservation District et al. (1962).
FISHERIES INVESTIGATION OF A CHANNELIZED STREAM—Golden and Twilley 87
TABLE 1.—ToOTAL FISH BIOMASS AND COMPOSITION BY FAMILY AT THE 3 STATIONS IN Bic Muppy
CrEEK, 14-15 Aucust 1974
1
0.012 ha (0.03 acre)
Family kg/ha _ I|b/acre %
Clupeidae 0.57 (0.5) 1.8
Esocidae’ = - -
Catostomidae 16.70 (14.7) 49.3
Ictaluridae’ 5.34 (4.7) 15.8
Centrarchidae 5.00 (4.4) 146
Sciaenidae 5.80 (sry 170
Other* 0.57 (0.5) 15
Total Biomass 33.97 (29.9)
1Juvenile specimens collected were reported in “‘other.”
2 Excludes the tadpole madtom, genus Noturus.
3 Includes minnows, topminnows, shiners, etc.
floodplain portion has an average gradient
of about 0.4 m/km (2.3 feet/mile). Typ-
ically, the stream morphology ranges from
shallow riffles to pools of about 1 to 2
m (3 to 6 feet) in depth. The substrate
varies from coarse gravel in the headwaters
to hard clay overlain by mud deposits in
downstream areas.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Four stations were established for fish
and water quality sampling (Fig. 1). To
determine the effects of past channel-
ization, 3 stations were established on the
main stem of Big Muddy Creek. Stations
1 and 2 were in the channelized area and
Station 3 was upstream. These stations,
along with Station 4 on Duncan Creek, are
representative of major stream habitats in
the basin. The maximum water depth at
the sampling stations ranged from 1.35 to
0.75 m (4.5-2.5 feet) from Stations 1 to 4,
respectively. Maximum stream width at
Stations 1 and 2 was approximately 6 m
(20 feet) and about 3 m (10 feet) at
Stations 3 and 4. Generally, the length of
stream sampled at each station varied from
a minimum of about 30 m (100 feet) at
Station 1 to a maximum of 60 m (200 feet)
at Stations 3 and 4. Variation in area sam-
pled (Table 1) reflects efforts to include
both pool and riffle habitats. Station 2
was the only one that did not include a
riffle area.
2
0.020 ha (0.05 acre)
Sampling Station
3
0.016 ha (0.04 acre)
kg/ha Ib/acre Ts kg/ha Ib/acre %
3.41 (3.0).7 29.1 1.14 (1.0) 2.0
- ~ - 0.91 (0.8) LZ
3.41 (3:0). 7 129-2 C20 (64), 12:4
- - - 4.66 (4.1) 7.9
3.98 (3) oo4 BAAD, (30.3) 358.9
— — — 7.16 (63),° 12:5
1.02 (0.9) 8.4 2.95 (2.6) 5.0
193" 10:5) 58.508 | (bE)
Selected water quality parameters were
determined at all stations during August
1974 (Table 2). Sediment samples 2.5 cm
(1 inch) in diameter and 46 cm (18 inches )
deep were also obtained at the stations on
Big Muddy Creek for analysis of residual
pesticides. Dissolved oxygen, temperature,
specific conductance, and pH were deter-
mined in the field. Dissolved oxygen was
measured with a Yellow Springs Instru-
ment Company polarographic oxygen meter
(Model 57), specific conductance and tem-
perature were measured with a Yellow
Springs Instrument Company S-C-T meter
(Model 33), and pH was measured with
a Fisher-Accumet pH meter (Model 120).
All other analyses were performed in the
laboratory according to Environmental
Protection Agency Guidelines Establishing
Test Procedures for Analysis of Pollutants
(Federal Register, 16 October 1973). The
sediment samples were analyzed for re-
sidual pesticides by Analytical Bio-Chem-
istry Laboratories, Incorporated, Columbia,
Missouri.
Fish collections at the 3 Big Muddy
Creek stations were quantitatively sampled
by treating a blocked area with Pro-Noxfish
(S. G. Penick Company, New York, N.Y.),
a rotenone emulsion. Potassium perman-
ganate was used to neutralize the toxicant
downstream. Each group of fishes (e.g.,
catostomids) was subsequently weighed to
estimate biomass or standing crop. The
88 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4)
TABLE 2.—WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS AT 4 LOCATIONS IN THE Bic Muppy CREEK DRAINAGE, |
Kentucky, 16 Aucust 1974. ALL VALUES ARE EXPRESSED IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER EXCEPT WHERE
NOTED
Sampling Station
1 2 3 4
Alkalinity, Total (as CaCOs) 71.3 96.7 103 164
pH 7.4 7.5 7.5 TA
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 127 17, 1.6 2:2,
Chemical Oxygen Demand ies 1.2 LS PLS
Chloride 4.52 3.90 3.74 6.33
Fecal Coliform (col/100 ml) 600 700 1100 400
Fecal Streptococci (col/100 ml) 730 560 1300 490
Dissolved Oxygen 31 6.2 6.4 5.7
Hardness, Total (as CaCOz) 105 108 tet 188
Ammonia (as N) 0.24 0.16 0.16 O72
Nitrate (as N) 0.26 0.15 0.22 0.29
Nitrite (as N ) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.02
Nitrogen, Total Organic (as N) 1.20 0.89 1.40 0.73
Nitrogen, Soluble Organic (asN) 0.31 0.29 0.29 0.28
Orthophosphate (as P ) 0.024 0.024 0.023 0.024
Phosphorus, Total (as P) 0.104 0.050 0.060 0.062
Specific Conductance 170 915 220 360
(umhos/cm )
Sulfate 21.8 123 8.6 19.3
Temperature, Air C 30 30 28 29
Temperature, Water C 25 25 pas) 24
Total Dissolved Solids 12 126 132 224
Total Suspended Solids 76 53 136 tb
Turbidity (FTU) 67 33 49 7
Iron, Total 4.5 2.0 3.) 0.5
Potassium 3.8 2.3 aa 3:3
Sodium 3.9 2.8 25) 3.9
station on Duncan Creek was sampled
qualitatively using a Smith and Root
Model VII backpack electroshocker. The
total shocking time at this station was 27.75
min. Nomenclature of fishes follows Bailey
et al. (1970).
RESULTS AND DIscCUSSION
Water Quality
Water quality standards for waters of
the Commonwealth of Kentucky have been
established by Regulation WP-41-1 of Au-
gust 1971. The only water quality param-
eter observed to be below the acceptable
limits was dissolved oxygen (4.0 mg/1)
at Station 1 (Table 2); this may be attrib-
uted to drainage from a lumber mill saw-
dust pile 2.4 km (1.5 miles) upstream.
However, agricultural runoff and domestic
wastes from floodplain residents may also
be a contributing factor to the low down-
stream dissolved oxygen. Big Muddy Creek
and Duncan Creek waters were moderately
hard, as defined by Sawyer and McCarty
(1967), ranging from 105 to 188 mg/]
total hardness. Nutrients such as _ phos-
phorus and nitrogen were high enough to
support algal blooms and indicate the
effect of agricultural runoff. Specific con-
ductance ranged from 170 to 360 pmhos/
cm and was well within limits (150 to 500
pmhos/cm) suggested by Ellis et al.
(1946) for an unpolluted freshwater eco-
system. Residual pesticide concentrations
in bottom sediments were below detection
limits (Table 3).
On the basis of the water quality param-
eters observed, the overall water quality
is good at stations upstream from the
bridge over State Highway 70 about 1.6
km (1 mile) west of Dunbar. However,
downstream (Station 1), an almost two-
FISHERIES INVESTIGATION OF A CHANNELIZED STREAM—Golden and Twilley 89
TABLE 3.—RESULTS OF SEDIMENT ANALYSIS FOR
RESIDUAL PESTICIDES AT 3 LOCATIONS IN Bic Muppy
CrEEK, Kentucky, 16 Aucust 1974. ALL VALUES
EXPRESSED AS PARTS PER MILLION
Sampling Station
1 2 3
Mirex <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
PCB's =< 02 <0.04
F. americana, 57, 59-64, 82,
83
Fundulus notatus, 41, 89
Gambusia affinis, 89
GARRETT, LINDA S., 20
Gaylussacia brachycera, 32
Gelditsia triacanthos, 59-64
Gloeocystis gigas, 20
GOLDEN, MARTIN F., 85
GOODLEY, PAULETCsnid
Goose, Canada, 91
Hutchins, 91
Todds, 91
GORDON, MARSHALL, 11
Gymnodiniales, 25
Gymnodium fuscum, 25
G. palustre, 25
Gymnosperms, 78
HELD, MICHAEL E., 57
Heteranthera limosa, 79
Heterococcales, 24
Heteropus, 38
Heterotrichales, 24
HOYT, ROBER ED. 1
Hyalotheca dissiliens, 23
H. mucosa, 23
Hymenostomatida, 41
Ichthyophthirius multifilis, 41
Ictaluridae, 87, 89
Ictalurus natalis, 89
I. punctatus, 41, 89
Ilex opaca, 31
Inner Blue Grass, 77
Insects, trapping of, 94
Isochrysidales, 25
Jack-in-the-pulpit, 68
Juglans, 60
J. nigra, 59, 63, 79
Justicia, 72
J. americana, 72-75
J. ovata, 72-15
KELLER CARE aso
Kentucky Academy of Science
Annual business meeting, 45
News and comment, 54
Program, 47
Sectional officers, 53
Kirchneriella lunaris, 22
KOZEL, THOMAS R., 41
Labidesthes sicculus, 89
LANDRY, LARRY M., 98
Leersia oryzoides, 80
Leguminosae, 83
Lepocinclis acuta, 24
L. ovum, 24
Lepomis cyanellus, 89
L. gulosus, 89
L. macrochirus, 41, 89
L. megalotis, 89
Lernaea sp., 90
Lindera benzoin, 60, 62
Liquidambar styraciflua, 104
Liriodendron tulipifera, 31, 60
LITTLE, MICHAEE E26
Lobelia cardinalis, 80, 83
L. siphilitica, 80
Lodinus, 38
Lysimachia ciliata, 83
Maclura pomifera, 59, 61
Magnolia macrophylla, 31
Mallomonas acaroides, 25
M. caudata, 25
Mecysmus, 39, 40
Megaloptera, 26
MEIJER, WILLEM, 77
Mephitis mephitis, 103
Micrasterias denticulata, 23
M. fimbriata, 23
M. laticeps, 23
M. pinnatifida, 23
M. radiata, 23
Micropterus dolomieui, 89
M. punctulatus, 89
M. salmoides, 89
Mimosa, Illinois, 83
Mimosoideae, 83
Minytrema melanops, 89
Monocotyledons, 79
MOORE, SHARON P., 20
Morus rubra, 60, 62
Moxostoma erythrurum, 89
Neohermes concolor, 26, 27
Netrium digitus, 22
NICELY, KENNETH, A., 29
Nigronia serricornis, 26
North Carolina, 72-75
Notemigonus crysoleucas, 43,
89
Notibius, 40
Notropis atherinoides, 89
N. cornutus, 89
N. emiliae, 89
Noturus gyrinus, 89
Nyssa sylvatica, 31
Oak, overcup, 83
swamp white, 81, 82
Oedogoniales, 21
Oedogonium crassiusculum, 21
O. suecicum, 21
Oocystis elliptica, 21
O. parva, 21
Ophiocytium capitatum, 24
O. parvulum, 24
Orchidaceae, 80
Organic compounds
Industrial, 11
in water and sediments, 11
Oscillatoria princeps, 25
O. splendida, 25
Oscillatoriales, 25
Ostrya virginiana, 59, 60
Oxydendron arboreum, 31
Pachycladon umbrinus, 21
Palmodictyon varium, 20
Pandorina morum, 20
Pediastrum boryanum, 21
P. duplex, 21
var. clathratum, 21
var. cohaerens, 21
P. tetras, 21
Penium margaritaceum, 22
Perca flavescens, 41
Perch, 41
Percidae, 89
Percina caprodes, 89
P. macrocephala, 89
P. maculata, 89, 90
P. sciera, 89
Peridiniales, 25
Peridinium cinctum, 25
P. willei, 25
P. wisconsinense, 25
Pfrille neogaea, 2
Phacotus lenticularis, 20
Phacus anacoelus, 24
P. brevicaudata, 24
P. helikoides, 24
P. longicauda, 24
P. orbicularis, 24
P. pleuronectes, 24
P. pseudoswirenkoi, 24
P. segretii var. ovum, 24
P. suecicus, 24
Phaeoplaca thallosa, 25
Phaeoplacales, 25
Phoxinus, 2
Pimephales notatus, 89
P. vigilax, 89
Pinus echinata, 32
Planktosphaeria gelatinosa, 21
Plantain, smaller mud
Platanus occidentalis, 79, 83
Pleurotaenium trabecula, 22
Poeciliidae, 89
Pomoxis annularis, 89
Pontederiaceae, 79
Prunus serotina, 31, 59-64
Quercus, 60-62
QO. alba, 31, 32, 59, 63, 64, 66
INDEX TO VOLUME 37
. bicolor, 77, 81-83
. lyrata, 82, 83
. macrocarpa, 79, 82, 83
montana, 31
muehlenbergii, 59, 63, 82,
83
. prinus, 59, 63
. rubra, 31, 59, 63
. stellata, 32
. velutina, 32
DOOD OOOO
RANDEL, W. R., 104
Ranunculaceae, 81
Ranunculus, 81
R. fluviatilis, 81
R. longirostris, 81
R. pantothrix, 81
RENEAU, WILLIAM J., 91
Rhipidodendron splendidum,
25
Roaring Springs, 77
Robinia pseudo-acacia, 59-62
RUDERSDORF, WARD, 91
Sassafras albidum, 60
Scenedesmus abundans, 22
S. arcuatus, 22
S. bijuga, 22
S. brasiliensis, 22
S. dimorphus, 22
S. quadricauda, 22
Schizothrix calcicola, 25
Sciaenidae, 87, 89
Scirpus lineatus, 81
S. atrovirens, 81
S. validus, 81
Scutellaria lateriflora, 83
Selenastrum minutum, 21
Semotilus atromaculatus, 89
SETTLES, WILLIAM H., 1
Shad, gizzard, 41
threadfin, 41
Shiner, golden, 43
SISK, MORGAN E., 33
Skunk, eastern spotted, 103
striped, 103
SMITH, BURTON J., 94
SMITH, WALTER T., JR., 16
Society of Kentucky Lepi-
dopterists, 56
Sorastrum spinulosum, 21
Spilogale putorius, 103
Spiranthes cernua, 80
var. odorata, 77, 80
Spirogyra cleveana, 22
S. decimina, 22
S. suecica, 22
Spirulina subsalsa, 25
Spondylomorum quaternarium,
20
109
Staurastrum alternans, 23
. crytocerum, 23
. cuspidatum, 23
. gladiosum, 23
. lunatum, 23
. margaritaceum, 23
. minnesotense, 23
. orbiculare, 23
. paradoxum, 23
. setigerum, 23
Stigeoclonium flagelliferum, 21
S. lubricum, 21
Stizostedion canadense, 89
STOLTZ, LEONARD P., 16
Sweet gum, 104
Cold treatment of, 104
Budbursting in, 104
Synura sphagnicola, 25
S. uvella, 25
RNRANNNNUHAWNWV
TARTER, DONALD C., 26
Taxodiaceae, 78
Taxodium distichum, 77, 78,
83
Tech Aqua Summer Program,
56
Tenebrionidae, 35
Tetraedron caudatum, 22
T. minimum, 22
T. muticum, 22
T. planctonicum, 22
T. regulare, 22
T. trigonum, 22
Tetragoniella gigas, 24
Tetraspora gelatinosa, 21
Tetrasporales, 20
Tetrastrum heterocanthum, 22
Tilia americana, 59, 60, 63,
64, 83
Tonibiastes, 40
Tonibius, 40
Topminnow, blackstripe, 41
Trachelomonas allia, 24
. bernardinensis, 24
. cylindrica, 24
. ensifera, 24
. hispida, 24
. playfairii, 24
. robusta, 24
. rugulosa, 24
. similis, 24
. superba, 24
. volvocina, 24
Trapping insects, 94
Tribonema minus, 24
Trichoton, 39
Tsuga canadensis, 31
TWILLEY, CLINTON E., 85
ap: ells: Bela bane ler aces ae Pa le
110
Ulmus, 60
U. americana, 83
U. rubra, 59-64
Ulus, 39
Uroglena volvox, 25
Volvocales, 20
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4)
Volvox aureus, 20
WATKINS, WILLIAM D., 26
WEBB, DAVID H., 33
Westella botryoides, 21
WIEDEMAN, VARLEY E.,
68
WINSTEAD, JOE E., 29, 57,
104
Xanthidium cristatum
var. leiodermum, 23
Xanthophyceae, 24
Zygnematales, 22
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 37, NOS. 1-4, 1976
Age structure, growth patterns, and food habits of the southern redbelly dace Chrosomus erythro-
earcmim Kentucky. Wiliam H. Settles and Robert D. Hoyt —.... 1
Characterization of industrial organic compounds in water. Paul C. Goodley and
ee, GIGI SNS SVS Se EE ke Pe a Sea es er 11
Soluble proteins in Dieffenbachia. Susamma Cherian, Walter T. Smith, and Leonard P. Stoltz _. 16
Kentucky algae. II. Gary E. Dillard, Sharon P. Moore, and Linda S. Garrett —__---_-_-_____ 20
Distribution, including new state records, of fishflies in Kentucky (Megaloptera: Corydalidae).
DonndiGtarter, Wiliam D. Watkins, and Michael L. Little .... 26
A preliminary study of a virgin forest tract of the Cumberland Plateau in Laurel County, Kentucky.
irareeasicag. and. Kenner A. Nicely 2... 29
Distribution and habitat preference of Etheostoma histrio in Kentucky. Morgan E. Sisk and David
I gu rg FP ee ec nt) Ee ee TE os I Rs 33
A review of the genus Blapstinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Jerry C. Davis 35
The occurrence of Ichthyophthirius multifilis (Ciliata: Hymenostomatida) in Kentucky waters.
a PIAA ol) arrears Ned ON Nv cis BD es BG sD a BI 4]
PEE SES ASSESS el a a a ee cee ee ae 45
arek sae) DC UMPEDSaE te M SIa tn a c 54
Structure and composition of a climax forest system in Boone County, Kentucky. Michael E. Held
aei GE MEME STC (iC gee re ee Se Fe gt ee A 57
Description and breaking of dormancy in corms of jack-in-the-pulpit Arisaema spp. Tim T. Ellis
Cente MR RemIEC IME COC TING T| yim wrth ete Yo ee en i 8 Noe es ee eee 68
The genus Justicia L. (Acanthaceae) in North Carolina. E. O. Beal and S. F. Brown __. T
Notes on the flora of the Sinking Creek System and Elkhorn source areas in the Inner Blue Grass
memmmeumicntuicky. Willem Meyer 2-8 it
Fisheries investigation of a channelized stream, Big Muddy Creek watershed, Kentucky. Martin F.
err te PEM EELOTUME el WUTC 2 a A Be ee 85
The sex, age, and weight structure of the Canada goose flock of Ballard County, Kentucky. William
RRC HCHO MILACTSGOTf 22-8 91
Eenew appication im the pitfall trapping of insects. Burton J. Smith 94
Eye lens weight as an age indicator of white-tailed deer in central Kentucky. Carl J. Keller and
Delete EA TE SeRCUHy ase 21" oS AIC NNT eI ee Ee Pench eR ne CAMO Sele et 98
Sighting of an eastern spotted skunk in Henderson County, Kentucky. Gary H. Richins and Richard
dat) aman tN nae ES a ee ee Re ee ee 103
Cold treatment and budbursting in sweet gum from south-central Kentucky. W. R. Randel and Joe
Pr ss Ree ee eek te he oe 104
See Reds OD EDEOSETC 0) Lead NN is ae ee oe oe ew 106
sas tee 8 rpg, GU ona 0 AR SR ee Sa rae eee one ne Oe enn OO 107
111
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CONTENTS
Structure and composition of a climax forest system in Boone County
tucky. Michael E. Held and Joe E. Winstead —
Notes on the flora of the Sinking Creek System and Elkhorn source a!
the Inner Blue Grass Region of Kentucky. Willem Meijer ______.
Fisheries investigation of a channelized stream, Big Muddy Creek wa
Kentucky. Martin F. Golden and Clinton E. Twilley _______
The sex, age, and weight structure of the Canada goose idlooks of
County, Kentucky. William J. Reneau and Ward Rudersdorf __
A new application in the pitfall trapping of nS Burton J. me.
Sighting of an eastern Botted skunk in Henderson County, Kentuck
H, Hac and Biplard. Panke, ee
x
Cold treatment and budbsfstiie in sweet gum. from south santa
4 ie ‘Randel and Joe E. Winstead _____- OS, Mle i ae Oa ay
News — Comment
, om gt 3
Index to Volume 37 tue A I a
.
VD 1
TRANSACTIONS
a
et
i
<= t
\
aia “7 “ale NTS.
Ys
| MAY 977
Lut NES Volume 38
Numbers I-2
March 1977
The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded § May 1914
OFFICERS FOR 1977
President: Charles Payne, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351
President Elect: Charles E. Kupchella, Cancer Center, University of Louisville,
Louisville 40202
Past President: Frederick M. Brown, Kentucky State Hospital, Danville 40422
Vice President: Sanford L. Jones, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Secretary: Thomas N. Seay, Georgetown College, Georgetown 40324
Treasurer: Bartlett G. Dickinson, Georgetown College, Georgetown 40324
Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity, Bowling Green 42101
Representative to AAAS Council: Branley A. Branson, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity, Richmond 40475
John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky,
Lexington 40506
Boarp OF DIRECTORS
Fletcher Gabbard 1977 Thomas B. Calhoon 1979
John C. Philley 1977 Harold Eversmeyer 1979
John G. Spanyer 1978 Gertrude Ridgel 1980
Oliver Zandona 1978 Ivan Potter 1980
EDITORIAL OFFICE
Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Office of Academic Affairs, University of Louis-
ville, Louisville 40208
Associate Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of
Louisville, Louisville 40208
Editorial Board: William E. Dennen, Department of Geology, University of Ken-
_ tucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506
Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of Louisville, Louis-
ville, Kentucky 40208
William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lex-
ington, Kentucky 40506
All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be ad-
dressed to the Editor.
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Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Secre-
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TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE
March 1977
VOLUME 38
NUMBERS 1-2
Digenetic Trematodes from Kentucky Fishes’
Joun V. ALIFF
Department of Biology, Georgia College, Milledgeville, Georgia 31061
ABSTRACT
In 1971-1972 and 1974, 3,059 fishes, representing 91 species, were taken from major
river drainages of Kentucky including the Big Sandy, Licking, Kentucky, Cumberland, Salt,
Tennessee, and Green rivers. Twenty-three species of adult digenetic trematodes occurred
in 16.5 percent or 538 host fishes representing 40 species. A list of parasites (new host
record ) includes (fish species in parentheses): Allocreadiidae: Allocreadium lobatum ( Notropis
whipplei, Rhinichthys atratulus); Crepidostomum cooperi; C. cornutum (Lepomis megalotis );
C. isostomum (Etheostoma blennioides); Azygiidae: Leuceruthrus micropteri (Lepomis
macrochirus, L. megalotis); Proterometra macrostoma (Ictalurus melas, Noturus gyrinus,
Lepomis gulosus, Micropterus dolomieui, M. punctulatus, M. salmoides, Cottus carolinae);
Bucephalidae: Paurorhynchus hiodontis; Rhipidocotyle septpapillata (Lepomis megalotis);
Bucephalopsis sp.; Cryptogonimidae: Acetodextra amiuri; Gorgoderidae: Phyllodistomum
caudatum (Hypentelium nigricans, Etheostoma blennioides); P. etheostomae (Ambloplites
rupestris, Etheostoma caeruleum, E. spectabile); P. lacustri (Noturus flavus); P. lysteri
(Moxostoma macrolepidotum); P. nocomis (Semotilus atromaculatus); P. staffordi; Lissor-
chiidae: Lissorchis attenuatum; L. simeri (Minytrema melanops); Macroderoididae: Allo-
glossidium corti (Micropterus salmoides); Opecoelidae: Plagioporus cooperi (Pimephales
notatus, P. promelas); P. serotinus (Pimephales notatus); P. sinitsini (Campostoma anom-
alum, Notropis ardens, Moxostoma anisurum, N. chrysocephalus, N. rubellus, N. whipplei,
Pimephales notatus, Rhinichthys atratulus, Hypentelium nigricans, Gambusia affinis); Podo-
cotyle boleosomi (Etheostoma blennioides, E. caeruleum, E. flabellare, E. spectabile); and
Paramphistomatidae: Pisciamphistoma stunkardi (Lepomis megalotis, Etheostoma blennioides ).
INTRODUCTION
The sparsity of records of trematode
fauna from Kentucky presents an imper-
ative for this and future studies. Cable
(1935) described larval trematode cercar-
iae from Madison County, Harley and
Keefe (1971) reported Crepidostomum
cooperi from Lepomis spp. in Madison
County, Patton (1973) recovered Leu-
ceruthrus micropteri from Micropterus spp.
1From a dissertation submitted to the Graduate
School, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ken-
tucky, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
in Fayette County, and recent studies by
White (1974) recorded Plagioporus ser-
otinus from Catostomus commersoni in the
Kentucky River drainage.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Dr. Robert A. Kuehne, Univer-
sity of Kentucky, and Drs. James Small, Jr.,
Rollins College, for their aid in the identi-
fication of many host fishes; Barry and
Bruce Shaffer, University of Kentucky, for
their help in seining and processing some
collections; Dr. J. H. Fischthal, SUNY at
Binghamton, for his review of trematode
bo
Fic... 1.
specimens and helpful comments, and es-
pecially Prof. J. M. Edney, University of
Kentucky, my major professor, who pro-
vided much assistance. Recognition is
made to Georgia College for a leave of
absence stipend in 1971 and to the Faculty
Research Fund of Georgia College for
grants in 1971, 1972, and 1974. Special
thanks to the survey teams of the Ken-
tucky State Division of Fisheries which
provided much cooperation.
METHODS
Most collections were made by me using
a minnow seine, under the scientific col-
lecting permit granted by the Kentucky
Department of Fish and Wildlife Re-
sources, Division of Fisheries. The Divi-
sion of Fisheries provided 709 fishes taken
by their stream survey teams in eastern
and western Kentucky. My personal air-
craft served as a means of rapid transporta-
tion from those areas. Collections were
made from June through November 1971,
August 1972, and May 1974, in 7 major
river drainages throughout Kentucky (Fig.
1).
A representative sampling of fishes was
attempted at each site. Every effort was
made to bring live fish to the laboratory,
including the adjustment of water temper-
ature in the carrying tanks by use of ice.
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
Map of Kentucky indicating the locations of collections used in this study. The Little
Sandy River site was negative and not included in the survey totals.
Fish were placed in several aerated 20-
gallon (75-liter) aquaria to await post-—
mortem examination. All fish that died
after capture were immediately placed on
ice and examined within 48 hours of reach-
ing the laboratory.
Live fish were prepared for examination
by pithing. The procedure was as follows:
(1) host weight and species data were’
taken and a specimen code number formu- —
lated and recorded, (2) fish were examined |
for external parasites, and (3) the abdom-
inal cavity was opened with dissecting:
scissors and the organs removed and exam-
ined under a dissection stereomicroscope’
capable of 30x magnification. The eyes,
gills, liver and gall bladder, ovaries, kid-
neys, ureters, urinary bladder, and intestine
were placed in separate petri dishes. In
smaller fishes, those organs were teased
apart under stereomicroscopic observation. |
Fish in excess of 100 g were dissected with
fine scissors. The body wall was examined
before carcass disposal. The worms from
each host thus found were transferred into
separate numbered holding vials with a
small amount of saline.
Most Trematoda were fixed under slight
coverslip pressure flattening with an 80 C|
solution of Bouin’s fixative. All worms
were subsequently transferred from the wet
fixing slide to a vial of Bouin’s fluid where
TREMATODES FROM KENTUCKY FIsSHEsS—ALIiff 3
TABLE 1. LOCATION, HOST—PARASITE INTENSITY, AND INCIDENCE OF DIGENETIC TREMATODE PARA-
SITES OF FISHES FROM MAJOR RIVER DRAINAGES IN KENTUCKY. NEGATIVE HOSTS ARE FISHES WITH
NO PARASITES.
Location : Intensity,
No. hosts—No. species Host, mean weight, g Trematode Incidence
BIG SANDY RIVER DRAINAGE
Beaver Creek, Floyd County
254-38 Lepomis megalotis, 41 Pisciamphistoma stunkardi P5323 ab6
Negative hosts (no.): Dorosoma cepedianum (2), Esox americanus vermiculatus (3), Campostoma
anomalum (11), Ericymba buccata (24), Notropis atherinoides (6), N. chrysocephalus (16), N.
heterolepis (2), N. spilopterus (2), N. stramineus (17), Pimephales notatus (9), P. promelas
(3), Rhinichthys atratulus (6), Semotilus atromaculatus (16), Carpiodes cyprinus (2), Catostomus
commersoni (4), Hypentelium nigricans (17), Minytrema melanops (5), Moxostoma anisurum (3),
M. erythrurum (4), Ictalurus melas (1), I. natalis (2), L. punctatus (6), Noturus miurus (2),
Pylodictis olivaris (2), Labidesthes sicculus (6), Ambloplites rupestris (15), Lepomis gibbosus
(17), L. macrochirus (6), L. microlophus (2), Micropterus dolomieui (3), M. punctulatus (8),
M. salmoides (4), Pomoxis annularis (2), Etheostoma blennioides (4), E. caeruleum (9), E.
flabellare (2), Percina caprodes (5).
LICKING RIVER DRAINAGE
Licking River, Rowan and Menifee counties
51-17 Minytrema melanops, 113 Lissorchis sp. L Torti
Micropterus punctulatus, 191 Crepidostomum cornutum 40,5 0f 5
Negative hosts (no.): Anguilla rostrata (2), Campostoma anomalum (1), Cyprinus carpio (2),
Notropis atherinoides (10), N. volucellus (1), Hypentelium nigricans (3), Ictiobus cyprinellus (1),
Moxostoma anisurum (2), M. erythrurum (7), M. macrolepidotum (1), Ictalurus punctatus (1),
Lepomis macrochirus (2), L. megalotis (1), Aplodinotus grunniens (1).
Stoner Creek, Bourbon County
45-9 Ambloplites rupestris, 232 Crepidostomum cornutum a Ford
| Lepomis macrochirus, 1 Proterometra sp. 45 Hot 1
Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (5), Notropis ardens (8), N. boops (1), N. chryso-
cephalus (12), Labidesthes sicculus (6), Etheostoma blennioides (6), E. caeruleum (4).
Fleming Creek, Nicholas County
27-10 Noturus flavus, 14 Phyllodistomum lacustri 6, 2 of 6
Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (3), Notropis rubellus (2), N. whipplei (3), Ethe-
ostoma blennioides (3), E. caeruleum (4), E. flabellare (2), E. zonale (1), Percina caprodes (2),
P. phoxocephala (1).
Licking River, Nicholas County
60-12 Micropterus dolomieui, 31 Leuceruthrus micropteri 2. Lorl
Negative hosts (no.): Dorosoma cepedianum (1), Campostoma anomalum (2), Hybopsis aesti-
valis (4), Notropis rubellus (1), N. whipplei (9), Hypentelium nigricans (1), Noturus flavus (5),
Etheostoma zonale (14), Percina caprodes (7), P. copelandi (5), P. evides (1), P. phoxocephala
(9).
KENTUCKY RIVER DRAINAGE
Line Fork, Letcher County
62-15 Notropis ardens, 2.5 Plagioporus sp. 8, 3 of 8
Semotilus atromaculatus, 34 Plagioporus sp. 2,2 0f6
Moxostoma macrolepidotum, 115 Crepidostomum cornutum* 2,1 of 4
Ambloplites rupestris, 44 Crepidostomum cornutum 4.5, 2 of 14
Etheostoma flabellare, 6 Phyllodistomum etheostomae 2,20f8
Etheostoma spectabile, 1 Phyllodistomum etheostomae 2,1o0f8
Cottus carolinae, 11 Proterometra sp. 1,lof5
Negative hosts (no.): Nocomis micropogon (1), Notropis chrysocephalus (2), Carpiodes cyprinus
(4), Ictalurus punctatus (4), Lepomis gibbosus (2), L. macrochirus (2), L. megalotis (2), Microp-
terus dolomieui (2).
Rockhouse Creek, Letcher County
27-11 Moxostoma macrolepidotum, 102. Phylodistomum lysteri 21a 2
Micropterus punctulatus, 199 Crepidostomum cornutum 2.5, 2 of 2
4 TrANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2)
TABLE 1, Continued.
tensity,
Incidence
Ambloplites rupestris, 183 Proterometra sp. 4,lof2
Negative hosts (no.): Notropis chrysocephalus (2), Moxostoma erythrurum (3), Hypentelium nig-
ricans (2), Noturus flavus (4), Pylodictis olivaris (1), Lepomis megalotis (3), Micropterus dolo-:
mieui (2).
Location
No. hosts—No. species Host, mean weight, g
Trematode
Dix River, Lincoln County
103-26 Notropis ardens, 2.5 Plagioporus sinitsini 4.5, 4 of 7
Notropis chrysocephalus, 16 Plagioporus sinitsini 1, 1 of 14:
Ictalurus melas, 2.8 Proterometra sp. 6, lofZ
Ambloplites rupestris, 159 Proterometra sp. L lof?
Lepomis cyanellus, 40 Proterometra sp. 4, lofts
Lepomis macrochirus, 70 Proterometra sp. 1, 1 of 4)
Lepomis megalotis, 61 Proterometra sp. 1,2 0f6
Micropterus salmoides, 220 Proterometra sp. 1,1 of Si
Negative hosts (no.): Dorosoma cepedianum (1), Campostoma anomalum (6), Cyprinus carpio’
(2), Notropis atherinoides (2), N. boops (1), Pimephales notatus (1), Semotilus atromaculatus (14),
Hypentelium nigricans (1), Moxostoma erythrurum (3), Morone chrysops (6), Micropterus dolo--
mieui (1), M. punctulatus (5), Etheostoma blennioides (1), E. caeruleum (2), E. flabellare (6),
Percina caprodes (5), Aplodinotus grunniens (1), Cottus carolinae (1). |
Red River, Powell County
100-30 Hiodon tergisus, 198
Hypentelium nigricans, 40
Hypentelium nigricans, 65
Moxostoma erythrurum, 71
Lepomis macrochirus, 62
Lepomis megalotis, 11
Percina caprodes, 9
Negative hosts (no.): Lepisosteus osseus (2), Anguilla rostrata (2), Dorosoma cepedianum (5),.
Campostoma anomalum (5), Cyprinus carpio (2), Nocomis effusus (1), Notropis boops (5),:
N. chrysocephalus (1), N. photogenis (3), Pimephales notatus (3), Moxostoma carinatum (8),
M. duquesnei (3), M. macrolepidotum (2), Ictalurus punctatus (1), Ambloplites rupestris (4),.
Lepomis gibbosus (1), Micropterus punctulatus (2), Pomoxis annularis (1), Etheostoma blennioides:
(6), E. caeruleum (2), E. flabellare (3), E. variatum (12), E. zonale (6), Percina maculata (2),
Aplodinotus grunniens (3).
Boone Creek, Fayette County
142-17 Notropis ardens, 2.8
Notropis chrysocephalus, 15
Notropis chrysocephalus, 12
Pimephales notatus, 12
Semotilus atromaculatus, 7.5
Catostomus commersoni, 148
Gambusia affinis, 2.5
Lepomis macrochirus, 23
Lepomis macrochirus, 27
Micropterus dolomieui, 1.3
Micropterus dolomieui, 3.3
Etheostoma blennioides, 2.1
Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (18), Hypentelium nigricans (3), Lepomis cyanellus:
(5), Etheostoma caeruleum (4), E. flabellare (11), E. nigrum (5), E. spectabile (3), Cottus car-.
olinae (3).
East Hickman Creek, Fayette County
40-12 Pimephales notatus, 3.4
Lepomis cyanellus, 17
Etheostoma blennioides, 3.1
Etheostoma caeruleum, 2.0
Etheostoma flabellare, 1.5
Paurorhynchus hiodontis 17, 1 of 1
Phyllodistomum caudatum 1.4, 5 of 7/
Plagioporus sinitsini 2. 2 of Fa
Clinostomum ( metacercariae ) 4,1 of 53
Proterometra sp.
Leuceruthrus micropteri
Crepidostomum isostomum ,
Plagioporus sinitsini 3, 3 of 17]
Allocreadium lobatum 3, 6 of 26°
Plagioporus sinitsini 2,5 of 26
Plagioporus serotinus 9,3 of 18
Phyllodistomum nocomis 2. 1 of 10)
Lissorchis attenuatum 3, ore
Plagioporus sinitsini 24, 1 of 3)
Leuceruthrus micropteri 2, 2 of 44
Proterometra sp. 5, 3 of 4
Leuceruthrus micropteri
Proterometra sp. 1, 1 of 2)
Podocotyle boleosomi
Plagioporus sinitsini 4,1 of 3
Proterometra sp. 1.5, 2 of 6
Phyllodistomum caudatum Loft Z
Proterometra sp. 8, lof 3
Proterometra sp. 2.5, 2 of 3
TREMATODES FROM KENTUCKY FisHEs—AIiff
TaBLE 1, Continued.
Location
| No. hosts—No. species Host, mean weight, g
Negative hosts (no.): Notropis ardens (
Lepomis macrochirus (1), L. megalotis (5
Jessamine Creek, Jessamine County
144-24 Notropis chrysocephalus, 34
Notropis chrysocephalus, 27
Catostomus commersoni, 223
Ictalurus melas, 40
Ambloplites rupestris, 89
Lepomis cyanellus, 28
Lepomis gulosus, 18
Lepomis macrochirus, 34
Lepomis megalotis, 54
Micropterus salmoides, 71
Etheostoma blennioides, 0.5
Trematode
Allocreadium lobatum
Plagioporus sinitsini
Lissorchis attenuatum
Phyllodistomum caudatum
Crepidostomum cornutum
Proterometra sp.
Proterometra sp.
Proterometra sp.
Proterometra sp.
Leuceruthrus micropteri
Podocotyle boleosomi
Intensity,
Incidence
5), N. chrysocephalus (6), Semotilus atromaculatus (2),
), Etheostoma nigrum (3), Cottus carolinae (1).
5, 3 of 10
6, 4 of 10
1,1 0f 4
Tl, Bots
oO. tf of 1
3.4, 7 of 10
3, lof 1
5. LE ot 12
T Zot 13
2 bor?
LP of tt
Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (3), Cyprinus carpio (1), Notropis ardens (5), N.
photogenis (7), Pimephales notatus (10), Hypentelium nigricans (6), Moxostoma erythrurum (4),
Noturus flavus (1), Micropterus punctulatus (1), Etheostoma caeruleum (20), E. flabellare (11),
Percina caprodes (1), Cottus carolinae (4).
Grier Creek, Woodford County
11-4 Notropis chrysocephalus, 53
. Notropis chrysocephalus, 52
Allocreadium lobatum
Plagioporus sinitsini
8,3 0f 5
55 ACT: we
Negative hosts (no.): Notropis ardens (2), Hypentelium nigricans (3), Catostomus commersoni (1).
South Elkhorn Creek, Fayette County
110-9 Notropis ardens, 2.6
Notropis ardens, 2.5
Notropis chrysocephalus, 13
Notropis chrysocephalus, 15
Rhinichthys atratulus, 2
Semotilus atromaculatus, 17
Lepomis macrochirus, 42
Etheostoma blennioides, 3.3
Etheostoma flabellare, 2.2
Cottus carolinae, 2.3
Negative host (no.): Pimephales notatus (5).
North Elkhorn Creek, Fayette County
722-34 Notropis ardens, 4.5
Notropis ardens, 2.4
Notropis ardens, 2.0
Notropis chrysocephalus, 16
Notropis chrysocephalus, 26
Notropis chrysocephalus, 37
Pimephales notatus, 1.7
Pimephales notatus, 3.3
Rhinichthys atratulus, 2.4
Semotilus atromaculatus, 12
Semotilus atromaculatus, |
Ictalurus melas, 112
Ambloplites rupestris, 147
Ambloplites rupestris, 87
Ambloplites rupestris, 27
Lepomis cyanellus, 18
Lepomis gulosus, 21
Lepomis macrochirus, 14
Lepomis megalotis, 50.4
Micropterus dolomieui, 6
Micropterus dolomieui, 6.9
Plagioporus sp.
Plagioporus sinitsini
Allocreadium lobatum
Phyllodistomum nocomis
Plagioporus sinitsini
Allocreadium lobatum
Proterometra sp.
Podocotyle boleosomi
Proterometra sp.
Proterometra sp.
Allocreadium lobatum
Plagioporus sp.
Plagioporus sinitsini
Allocreadium lobatum
Plagioporus sinitsini
Bucephalopsis sp.”
Plagioporus sinitsini
Allocreadium lobatum
Allocreadium lobatum
Allocreadium lobatum
Plagioporus sp.
Acetodextra amiuri
Crepidostomum cornutum
Phyllodistomum etheostomae
Proterometra macrostoma
Proterometra macrostoma
Proterometra macrostoma
Proterometra macrostoma
Proterometra macrostoma
Leuceruthrus micropteri
Proterometra macrostoma
5, 3 of 46
5, 18 of 46
2.4, 7 of 20
3, 1 of 20
12, bot2,
lL; Lot 4
20, 2 of 2
Tt hort
4.2,50f 8
1.3, 6 of 14
LA, 1S of 121
6, 29 of 121
4.4, 72 of 121
2.3. VR GEZD
7, 2 of 25
Lj1.of 25
5, 3 of 67
1.3, 4 of 67
2. Per its
3, 2 of 12
6, 1 of 12
4,lof7
21, 2 of 26
4.3, 3 of 26
8, 8 of 26
6, 11 of 45
7, 50f5D
3.4, 26 of 52
1, 1 of 28
6.5, 2 of 5
5.5, 2085
6 TrANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
TABLE 1, Continued.
Location
No. hosts—No. species Host, mean weight, g
Micropterus salmoides, 82
Micropterus salmoides, 139
Micropterus salmoides, 17
Micropterus salmoides, 139
Etheostoma sp., 1
Etheostoma caeruleum, 1
Etheostoma caeruleum, 1.7
Etheostoma flabellare, 0.9
Etheostoma flabellare, 1.1
Etheostoma flabellare, 0.9
Etheostoma nigrum, 1
Etheostoma spectabile, 1.4
Etheostoma spectabile, 1.1
Etheostoma spectabile, 1.3
Cottus carolinae, 4.1
Cottus carolinae, 1.5
Negative hosts (no.): Salmo gairdneri (3),
rubellus (4), N. photogenis (4), Pimephales promelas (2),
telium nigricans (13), Moxostoma anisurum (1),
Campostoma anomalum (41),
Trematode
Alloglossidium corti
Crepidostomum cooperi
Proterometra macrostoma
Rhipidocotyle sp.”
Proterometra sp.
Podocotyle boleosomi
Proterometra sp.
Phyllodistomum etheostomae
Podocotyle boleosomi
Proterometra sp.
Proterometra sp.
Allocreadium lobatum
Podocotyle boleosomi
Proterometra sp.
Proterometra macrostoma
Proterometra sp.
Gambusia affinis (21), Labidesthes sicculus (18), Pomoxis annularis (11),
latus (10).
North Elkhorn Creek, Scott County
335-30 Notropis ardens, 2.5
Notropis ardens, 1.2
Notropis boops, 2
Notropis chrysocephalus, 17
Pimephales notatus, 1
Pimephales notatus, 1.1
Pimephales promelas, 1.8
Rhinichthys atratulus, 1.0
Semotilus atromaculatus, 2.1
Moxostoma anisurum, 48
Ictalurus melas, 23.4
Ictalurus natalis, 0.8
Lepomis cyanellus, 29
Lepomis cyanellus, 20.5
Lepomis cyanellus, 25
Lepomis gulosus, 72.5
Lepomis gulosus, 72.5
Lepomis macrochirus, 25
Lepomis megalotis, 27
Micropterus salmoides, 4.2
Cottus carolinae, 7.2
Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (2), Notemigonus crysoleucas (1), Notropis ather-
inoides (5), N. hudsonius (5), N. whipplei (5),
rurum (2), Fundulus notatus (4), Gambusia affinis (2),
punctulatus (2), Pomoxis annularis (3), Etheostoma blennioides (
(2), E. spectabile (18).
Elkhorn River, Franklin County
96-17 Campostoma anomalum, 2
Notropis ardens, 1.9
Notropis chrysocephalus, 16
Notropis whipplei, 6.6
Notropis whipplei, 6.6
Ambloplites rupestris, 6.1
Lepomis cyanellus, 12
Lepomis gulosus, 88
Allocreadium lobatum
Plagioporus sp.
Plagioporus sinitsini
Allocreadium lobatum
Plagioporus cooperi
Plagioporus sinitsini
Plagioporus cooperi
Allocreadium lobatum
Plagioporus sp.
Plagioporus sinitsini
Acetodextra amiuri
Acetodextra amiuri
Crepidostomum cooperi
Proterometra sp.
Phyllodistomum nocomis'*
Proterometra sp.
Allocreadium lobatum'
Proterometra sp.
Proterometra sp.
Leuceruthrus micropteri
Proterometra sp.
Catostomus commersoni (3), Moxostoma eryth-~
Labidesthes sicculus (9), Micropterus
1), E. flabellare (6), E. nigrum
Plagioporus sinitsini
Plagioporus sinitsini
Allocreadium lobatum
Allocreadium lobatum
Plagioporus sinitsini
Proterometra sp.
Proterometra sp.
Proterometra sp.
Intensity,
Incidence
L.5e2of 1s
Oe tof 18
10, lof 13.
1, lof 13)
1, 1 of 4}
4.9, 7 of 28 |
1.8, 6 of 28
1, 4 of 50)
De 10 of 50)
94. 21 of SO)
2, 16 of 43)
1.6, 7 of 19
bap 2 of 43)
Notropis boops (1), N.}
Catostomus commersoni (19), Hypen-
Ictalurus natalis (4), Fundulus notatus (2),.
Micropterus punctu--
2,1 of 39:
3.1, 9 of 39)
10, 1 of 2)
2, 1 of 4!
bile ie 27)
13, 2 of OT;
6, 1 of 12)
2. Ticks
1, ok
2, lof 1
4,1 of
7: Lott
10, 2 of 60
3, 21 of 60
Tor 60
1 ofan
1, lof ll
8.8, 17 of 39:
3, 5 of 17)
1.5, 2 of 24
8, lof 4
TREMATODES FROM KENTUCKY FIsHES—AIiff 7
TaBLE 1, Continued.
Location Intensity,
No. hosts—No. species Host, mean weight, g Trematode Incidence
Lepomis macrochirus, 30 Proterometra sp. 5.4, 14 of 17
Micropterus salmoides, 20 Leuceruthrus micropteri 4,6 of 16
Negative hosts (no.): Carassius auratus (5), Cyprinus carpio (1), Notropis boops (1), N.. spil-
opterus (8), Pimephales notatus (2), Catostomus commersoni (2), Ictalurus natalis (9), Microp-
terus dolomieui (2).
_ Eagle Creek, Scott County
105-17 Notropis chrysocephalus, 22 Allocreadium lobatum 1 Dot 1,
Lepomis cyanellus, 29 Proterometra sp. 2H, OGL Ae,
Lepomis megalotis, 19 Proterometra sp. 1,2 0f6
Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (4), Notropis ardens (8), Pimephales notatus (6),
Semotilus atromaculatus (11), Catostomus commersoni (2), Hypentelium nigricans (2), Fundulus
notatus (1), Ictalurus melas (5), Labidesthes sicculus (1), Micropterus punctulatus (3), M.. sal-
moides (1), Etheostoma flabellare (16), Percina caprodes (4), P. maculata (5).
CUMBERLAND RIVER DRAINAGE
Horselick Creek, Jackson County
49-17 Notropis chrysocephalus, 21 Allocreadium lobatum 3, lof 4
Notropis rubellus, 2.9 Plagioporus sinitsini 6, 1 of 4
Micropterus dolomieui, 6.5 Leuceruthrus micropteri IAL eF2
Etheostoma caeruleum, 3.4 Proterometra sp. Le Dots
Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (1), Notropis atherinoides (1), N. galacturus (5),
Pimephales notatus (4), Ambloplites rupestris (2), Lepomis macrochirus (2), L. microlophus (2),
Etheostoma blennioides (7), E. camurum (4), E. flabellare (2), E. stigmaeum (1), Percina caprodes
(1), P. maculata (1), Cottus carolinae (1).
Rockcastle River, Rockcastle and Laurel counties
88-11 Etheostoma blennioides, 9.3 Crepidostomum isostomum be Rotel
Etheostoma blennioides, 7.1 Podocotyle boleosomi A oxo OF LE
Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (3), Nocomis micropogon (1), Notropis chryso-
cephalus (12), Pimephales notatus (2), Semotilus atromaculatus (1), Hypentelium nigricans (1),
Ambloplites rupestris (2), Lepomis megalotis (2), Etheostoma camurum (1), Percina caprodes (2).
Buck Creek, Pulaski County
55-14 Notropis chrysocephalus, 28 Allocreadium lobatum Lol of 10
Notropis chrysocephalus, 19 Plagioporus sinitsini 7,4 of 10
Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (1), Notropis boops (1), Pimephales notatus (4),
Hypentelium nigricans (1), Noturus flavus (1), Fundulus catenatus (4), Ambloplites rupestris
(2), Lepomis cyanellus (5), L. macrochirus (4), L. megalotis (4), Etheostoma caeruleum (12),
E. flabellare (4), E. virgatum (2).
Pitman Creek, Pulaski County
49-16 Ambloplites rupestris, 13 Proterometra sp. 1,1 of4
Ambloplites rupestris, 18 Rhipidocotyle sp.’ 11, lof 4
Etheostoma caeruleum, 2.1 Phyllodistomum etheostomae }, Wok kd.
Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (1), Notropis ardens (5), N. chrysocephalus (1),
N. spilopterus (5), Pimephales notatus (3), Hypentelium nigricans (1), Fundulus catenatus (1),
Lepomis macrochirus (1), L. megalotis (1), Micropterus dolomieui (1), Etheostoma blennioides
(1), E. flabellare (1), E. obeyense (8), E. rufilineatum (4).
Fishing Creek, Pulaski County
31-10 Etheostoma blennioides, 2 Pisciamphistoma stunkardi 1, lof 1
Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (1), Fundulus catenatus (2), Lepomis macrochirus
(4), L. megalotis (3), Micropterus punctulatus (2), Etheostoma caeruleum (1), E. flabellare (1),
E. rufilineatum (12), Percina caprodes (2).
Lake Barkley, Trigg County
41-11 Ictiobus bubalus, 1,341 Rhipidocotyle sp.* 6, 2 of 7
Lepomis macrochirus, 92 Crepidostomum cornutum 10, 1 of 8
Negative hosts (no.): Cyprinus carpio (8), Minytrema melanops (2), Ictalurus natalis (2), I.
nebulosus (1), I. punctatus (1), Lepomis megalotis (5), Micropterus salmoides (3), Pomoxis
annularis (4), Aplodinotus grunniens (5).
8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
TABLE 1, Continued.
Location Intensity,
No. hosts—No. species Host, mean weight, g Trematode Incidence
SALT RIVER DRAINAGE
Salt River, Anderson County
48-11 Lepomis cyanellus, 8.3 Proterometra sp. 1.8, 8 of 7
Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (4), Notropis ardens (4), N. boops (1), N. whipplei
(2), Pimephales notatus (2), Fundulus notatus (1), Ambloplites rupestris (3), Etheostoma blen-
nioides (8), E. flabellare (15), Cottus carolinae (1).
Chaplin River, Boyle County
63-9 Notropis ardens, 1.5 Plagioporus sinitsini 2,3 0f9
Pimephales notatus, 2.8 Plagioporus sinitsini 2.3, 8 of 10
Lepomis cyanellus, 3.2 Proterometra sp. 6; 50fS
Lepomis macrochirus, 2.8 Proterometra sp. 1:5; 2 of 4.
Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (2), Notropis boops (12), N. chrysocephalus (14),
Labidesthes sicculus (2), Lepomis macrochirus (5).
;
Chaplin River, Mercer County
32-12 Catostomus commersoni, 91 Rhipidocotyle sp.” 8,1lof3 |
Moxostoma erythrurum, 284 Rhipidocotyle sp.” L Lobia
Ictalurus natalis, 8 Phyllodistomum staffordi 6, lofl_
Lepomis macrochirus, 1.6 Proterometra sp. 1, 2 of 4 |
Lepomis megalotis, 48 Crepidostomum cornutum 9,lof4
Lepomis megalotis, 38 Rhipidocotyle septpapillata 12,3 0f 49
Etheostoma flabellare, 1.6 Podocotyle boleosomi 1,20£87
Etheostoma flabellare, 1.4 Phyllodistomum etheostomae 2.3 of Sal
Negative hosts (no.): Notropis atherinoides (1), N. chrysocephalus (4), Pimephales notatus (2), :
Semotilus atromaculatus (1), Micropterus punctulatus (2), Etheostoma caeruleum (1).
GREEN RIVER DRAINAGE
Green River, Casey County
148-26 Minytrema melanops, 129 Lissorchis simeri 9,lofl |
Noturus gyrinus, 5.5 Proterometra sp. 41 of Vi}
Lepomis cyanellus, 2.1 Proterometra sp. 2, 1 of 2 |
Lepomis macrochirus, 7.2 Proterometra sp. 9) oF Sa
Lepomis megalotis, 18 Proterometra sp. 2,3 of 8 |
Lepomis megalotis, 21 Rhipidocotyle sp. 10,4 0f 8 |
Micropterus punctulatus, 24.7 Proterometra sp. 2,1 of 3 |
Pomoxis annularis, 92 Proterometra sp. 3, Lof 1 |
Etheostoma blennioides, 4.4 Crepidostomum isostomum 2: 2. of 24a
Etheostoma blennioides, 3.9 Podocotyle boleosomi 2.5, 2 of 24 |
Negative hosts (no.): Dorosoma cepedianum (2), Campostoma anomalum (8), Cyprinus carpio —
(3), Notropis ardens (4), N. chrysocephalus (6), N. spilopterus (7), N. whipplei (2), Pimephales —
notatus (1), Moxostoma erythrurum (1), Fundulus catenatus (9), Labidesthes sicculus (1), Am- |
bloplites rupestris (3), Micropterus salmoides (2), Etheostoma bellum (30), E. caeruleum (9), E.
flabellare (8), E. zonale (8), Percina caprodes (2). |
Green River Reservoir, Taylor County |
18-7 Minytrema melanops, 232 Phyllodistomum sp? 21,2 0f5
Negative hosts (no.): Cyprinus carpio (1), Moxostoma anisurum (8), Lepomis cyanellus (1), L.
megalotis (2), Micropterus salmoides (5), Pomoxis annularis (1).
TENNESSEE RIVER DRAINAGE
Kentucky Lake, Marshall County |
53-17 Ictiobus bubalus, 74 Rhipidocotyle sp. 5, lof 1)
Ictalurus punctatus, 1,039 Phyllodistomum lacustri 2.8, 4 of 7.
Negative hosts (no.): Alosa chrysochloris (3), Hiodon alosoides (1), Cyprinus carpio (3), Hy- |
bopsis storeriana (5), Minytrema melanops (4), Morone mississippiensis (2), Lepomis macro- |
chirus (2), L. megalotis (4), L. microlophus (1), Micropterus punctulatus (2), M. salmoides (7), |
Pomoxis annularis (2), Percina caprodes (1), Stizostedion canadense (2), Aplodinotus grunniens (6). |
1 Probably accidental.
4 Immature specimens.
TREMATODES FROM KENTUCKY FIsHES—ALiff 9
they remained overnight, then decanted
and refilled with 70 percent ethyl alcohol
and 0.5 percent lithium carbonate to re-
move excess picric acid, finally to a solu-
tion of 70 percent ethyl alochol and 5 per-
cent glycerine for storage.
Adult trematodes were stained regres-
sively with Harris's haematoxylin. Subse-
quent destaining and neutralization, dehy-
dration, clearing, and mounting steps were
accomplished by standard technique.
All measurements are reported in milli-
meters. The sucker size ratio compares
the size of the oral sucker with that of
the acetabulum (i.e., 2-1, 0.53-1), respec-
tively. Sucker sizes were determined by
averaging length and width, therefore com-
paring the general sizes of those structures
(Manter 1969).
The term “mean intensity” refers to the
average number of adult trematode speci-
mens per infested host fish. The term “in-
cidence” (i.e., 5 of 6) refers to the number
of infested host fishes as compared to the
total number examined at each location.
Fish taxa are listed in the order and nomen-
clature of Bailey et al. (1970). Trematode
taxa are referenced in Yamaguti (1971)
and follow the order of Hoffman (1967).
RESULTS
Taxonomic information and records of
collection are presented in alphabetical
order of trematode family, genus, and spe-
cies. Total mean intensity and incidence
data (i.e., 2.6, 50 of 110) from appropriate
locations are presented for each parasite
Elable 1).
ALLOCREADIIDAE
Allocreadium lobatum.—Specimens were
recovered from Notropis chrysocephalus
(2.8, 37 of 126). New host records occur
from N. whipplei (1, 1 of 11), Rhinichthys
atratulus (2, 2 of 15), and 1 probably
accidental occurrence in Lepomis gibbosus.
Many immature (nongravid) specimens of
A. lobatum were collected from N. chryso-
cephalus. Those specimens demonstrated
testicular lobation even when sparse testic-
ular primordia were present. A. lobatum
was recovered from host fish in the Ken-
tucky and Cumberland river basins. Also,
specimens possessing an entire or slightly
indented ovary were recovered from N.
ardens (1.4, 19 of 186), Pimephales notatus
(1.3, 4 of 99), Semotilus atromaculatus
(2.3, 3 of 26), and Etheostoma spectabile
(1, 2 of 37) from North and South Elkhorn
creeks. Host induced variation may explain
the ovarian structure.
Crepidostomum cooperi.—One anatomical
variation present in smaller C. cooperi
(0.58-0.65 mm long) is a posterodorsal de-
pression. As worm length increased in fixed
specimens, the depression gradually dis-
appeared. This form occurred only at 1
site on North Elkhorn Creek, Scott County,
near Stamping Ground, 20 specimens re-
covered from 2 Lepomis cyanellus hosts.
Specimens were recovered from the intes-
tine and primarily the intestinal caeca of
L. cyanellus (10, 2 of 105) and Microp-
terus salmoides (21, 1 of 27) from North
Elkhorn Creek.
Crepidostomum cornutum.—Specimens
were recovered from the intestine of Am-
bloplites rupestris (10, 6 of 42), Lepomis
macrochirus (10, 1 of 76), L. megalotis (9,
1 of 56), and Micropterus punctulatus (30,
7 of 28). The report from L. megalotis con-
stitutes a new host record. C. cornutum
was recovered from the Licking, Kentucky,
Salt, and Tennessee river drainages.
Crepidostomum — isostomum.—Specimens
were discovered parasitizing the intestine
of Etheostoma blennioides (1, 3 of 41)
from the Red River in the Kentucky River
drainage and Percina caprodes (1, 1 of 5)
from the Cumberland River basin. E. blen-
nioides is a new host record.
AZYGIIDAE
Leuceruthrus micropteri—Specimens were
recovered from the cardiac stomach of Lep-
omis macrochirus (2, 2 of 127), L. mega-
lotis (immature, 3, 1 of 63), Micropterus
dolomieui (3.8, 5 of 12), and M. sal-
moides (3.2, 9 of 54). Fourteen M. punc-
tulatus at appropriate locations were nega-
tive. The reports from L. macrochirus and
10
L. megalotis constitute new host records.
L. micropteri was recovered from the Ken-
tucky, Licking, and Cumberland river
basins.
Proterometra sp.—Generally adult morpho-
logical characteristics of Proterometra sp.
do not provide sufficient means for identi-
fication. Anderson and Anderson (1967) and
Yamaguti (1971) suggested that morpho-
logically distinct types of cercariae pro-
vide the best criteria for identification as
differences at any phase of development
must be significant.
Proterometra macrostoma.—This form
probably is the only large Proterometra in
North Elkhorn Creek, Fayette County, as
snail hosts that produce these cercariae
have been collected by J. M. Edney (pers.
comm.), parasitology students since 1948,
and me yearly since 1971 (identity con-
firmed by M. G. Anderson, pers. comm. ).
Many other collecting sites yielded P.
macrostoma-like adults, as distinguished by
ovoid testes, vitellaria extent, sucker size
ratio, and size (about 1.4 mm after fixa-
tion). Including data from appropriate
sites, where P. macrostoma and P. macro-
stoma-like specimens were collected, the
mean intensity and incidence figures in
Table 1 could indicate a relative fitness of
the host-parasite relationship.
P. macrostoma and P. macrostoma-like
specimens demonstrated a mean intensity
of 5.1 and an incidence of 53 percent (83
of 157) in Lepomis macrochirus, L. cyanel-
lus demonstrated a mean intensity of 3 and
incidence of 38 percent (60 of 157), but
L. megalotis demonstrated a mean intensity
of 1.9 and an incidence of 15 percent (15
of 101). Those figures suggest a lower
host-parasite fitness for L. megalotis.
Other comparative figures, less significant
by reason of smaller numbers of hosts
examined, are 2.8 and 21 percent (11 of
52) for Ambloplites rupestris, 2.1 and 32
percent (24 of 76) for Cottus carolinae,
and 4.2 and 6 percent (6 of 105) in Microp-
terus (4, 3 of 17 for M. dolomieui, 2, 1 of
27 for M. punctulatus, and 5.5, 2 of 63 for
M. salmoides). Proterometra sp. was also
Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
recovered from Ictalurus melas (6, 1 of 47),
Noturus gyrinus (1, 1 of 1) L. gulosus (5.3, |
8 of 8), and Pomoxis annularis (3, 1 of 16).
The records for I. melas, N. gyrinus, L. |
gulosus, M. dolomieui, M. punctulatus, M.
salmoides, and C. carolinae designate new |
hosts for P. macrostoma. Host locations |
were the Kentucky, Licking, Cumberland, —
Salt, and Green rivers, thus placing it as
the most ubiquitous adult digenetic trema-
tode genus in Kentucky.
The Proterometra sp. from Etheostoma
caeruleum (1.8, 9 of 38), E. flabellare (2.7,
28 of 63), E. spectabile (1.6, 7 of 19), and |
Cottus carolinae (2, 2 of 59) is smaller
(0.8 mm after fixation) than the P. macro- |
stoma-like specimens and is thought to be
a new adult and cercarial form (pending
publication).
BUCEPHALIDAE
Paurorhynchus hiodontis——Specimens were
found in the body cavity of 1 Hiodon ter-
gisus (17, 1 of 1) from the Red River, Ken-
tucky River drainage.
Rhipidocotyle septpapillata—This form
was found in the intestine of Lepomis
megalotis (12, 3 of 4) from the Salt River |
drainage, a new host record. This trema-_
tode was differentiated on the basis of |
the pentagonal cap and excretory vesicle |
flexure just posterior to the rhynchus.
Rhipidocotyle sp. was recorded from the
following hosts which harbored sterile im-
mature forms: Catostomus commersoni (8,
1 of 3), Ictiobus bubalis (6, 3 of 8), Moxo-
stoma erythrurum (1, 1 of 1), Ambloplites
rupestris (11, 1 of 7), Lepomis megalotis
(12, 3 of 10), and Micropterus salmoides
(1, 1 of 26); it was chosen as generic iden-
tity for the presumed immature forms by
reason of similarity of many nonpapillate
forms recovered simultaneously with ma-
ture P. septpapillata from a single host L.
megalotis. Because of the uncertain identity |
of many specimens, no new host records ©
are claimed. Rhipidocotyle sp. was re- |
covered from the Cumberland, Salt, Green,
and Tennessee river drainages.
|
|
TREMATODES FROM KENTUCKY FisHES—ALiff il
Bucephalopsis sp.—One gravid specimen
was recovered from Notropis chrysoceph-
alus (1, 1 of 25). The specimen is a pro-
genetic metacercaria similar to that de-
scribed by Hoffman (1953).
Some discussion of bucephalid morphol-
ogy is required at this juncture. Wood-
head (1930) and Van Cleave and Mueller
(1934) reported morphological changes
due to host induced variation and age of
trematode specimens. Bucephalid genera
parasitizing fishes are differentiated ac-
cording to rhynchus structure as follows:
rhynchus without appendages, Bucephalop-
sis; rhynchus weakly developed, Pauro-
rhynchus; rhynchus with tentacular ap-
pendages, Bucephalus; and rhynchus with
pentagonal cap, Rhipidocotyle.
Metacercariae, immature, and young
gravid bucephalids generally do not exhibit
appendages and are therefore difficult to
identify. The metacercariae occur in fishes
susceptible to predation by larger fishes
such as Micropterus salmoides which serve
as definitive hosts.
CRYPTOGONIMIDAE
Acetodextra amiuri.—Specimens were ob-
tained from the gas bladder of Ictalurus
melas (4, 1 of 28) and I. natalis (7, 1 of 1)
from 2 locations in North Elkhorn Creek,
Kentucky river basin. Large numbers of
eggs frequently obscure the midposterior
organs of gravid Acetodextra.
GORGODERIDAE
Phyllodistomum caudatum.—Specimens
were recovered from the urinary bladder of
Hypentelium nigricans (1.4, 5 of 26), Icta-
lurus melas (7.5, 2 of 12), and Etheostoma
blennioides (1, 1 of 8) from the Kentucky
River drainage. New host records occur for
H. nigricans and E. blennioides.
Phyllodistomum etheostomae.—The Ken-
tucky specimens demonstrate consistent but
slight anatomical differences from those
described originally in that the testes, and
especially the ovary, exhibit a greater ex-
tent of lobation, and the sucker ratio is
somewhat larger (1.0-0.68 for specimens
from Kentucky and 1.0-0.85 for specimens
from Wisconsin). Both forms have 2 pairs
of folds on the discoidal hindbody. This
form occurred in Ambloplites rupestris (4.3,
3 of 44), Etheostoma caeruleum (1, 1 of
39), E. flabellare (6, 9 of 61), and E. spec-
tabile (2, 1 of 22) from the Kentucky and
Cumberland river drainages. The reports
for A. rupestris, E. caeruleum, and E. spec-
tabile constitute new host records.
Phyllodistomum lacustri—Specimens were
found parasitizing the urinary bladders of
Ictalurus punctatus (2.8, 4 of 7) and No-
turus flavus (6, 2 of 6) from the Licking
River and Cumberland River (Lake Bark-
ley) drainages, respectively. The occur-
rence in N. flavus is a new host record.
Phyllodistomum lysteri—Specimens were
recovered from Moxostoma macrolepido-
tum (1, 1 of 2) from Rockhouse Creek of
the Kentucky River drainage, a new host
record.
Phyllodistomum nocomis.—Adults occurred
in the urinary bladder of Notropis chryso-
cephalus (3, 1 of 46) and Semotilus atro-
maculatus (2, 1 of 10), new host records,
and a broken specimen (from ingestion
of former host?) in the intestine of Lepomis
cyanellus (1, 1 of 60). All specimens were
from the Kentucky River drainage.
Phyllodistomum _ staffordi—Specimens
were taken from the urinary bladder of an
Ictalurus natalis (1, 1 of 1) from the Salt
River.
LISSORCHIIDAE
Lissorchis (Triganodistomum) attenuatum.
—Individuals were found in the intestine
of Catostomus commersoni (3, 1 of 3) from
Boone Creek, Kentucky River drainage.
Lissorchis (Triganodistomum) — simeri.—
Specimens were recovered from the intes-
tine of Minytrema melanops (9, 1 of 1)
from the Green River, a new host record.
The Lissorchis sp. from M. melanops (1,
7 of 11) from the Licking River is thought
to be a new form.
12 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
MACRODEROIDAE
Alloglossidium corti—Adults were recov-
ered from the intestine of Micropterus
salmoides from North Elkhorn Creek, Ken-
tucky River drainage, a new host record.
OPECOELIDAE
Plagioporus cooperi—Specimens were re-
covered from the intestines of Pimephales
notatus (11, 1 of 27) and P. promelas (6,
1 of 12) from a single location on North
Elkhorn Creek in Scott County. Both hosts
are new records. One significant morpho-
logical difference occurred in P. cooperi
specimens in this study, that of 3 to 5
ovarian lobes. A second difference was a
smaller egg size of 0.067 x 0.044 mm for the
Kentucky specimens as compared to 0.086
< 0.047 in the specimens of the original
description. There was some variation in
anatomy in the 11 specimens from P. no-
tatus; they had fewer posttesticular vitel-
laria, and 8 of the 11 had caeca extending
to the posterior margin of the posterior
testis.
Plagioporus serotinus.—Adults were recov-
ered in 1971 from the gall bladder of Pi-
mephales notatus (9, 3 of 18) from Boone
Creek, Fayette County. There were curious
cuticular ridges in many of the specimens.
However, Dobrovolny (1939a) noted cu-
ticular striations similar to those ridges.
J. H. Fischthal (pers. comm.) stated that
“the projections are tegumental extensions
of unknown nature.” in reference to those
specimens.
Plagioporus sinitsini—Adults were taken
from the gall bladders of host fishes as
follows: Campostoma anomalum (2, 1 of
76), Notropis ardens (4.3, 104 of 259), N.
boops (10, 1 of 23), N. chrysocephalus (4.8,
18 of 103), N. rubellus (6, 2 of 7), N. whip-
plei (11, 1 of 16), Pimephales notatus (5.8,
6 of 124), Rhinichthys atratulus (12, 1 of
17), and Gambusia affinis (24, 1 of 26)
from the Kentucky, Cumberland, and Salt
river drainages, and all constitute new rec-
ords. Those specimens designated Plagiop-
orus sp. from N. ardens (2.8, 4 of 21) of
the Kentucky River drainage are thought
to be a new form.
Podocotyle boleosomi—Specimens were
recovered from Etheostoma_blennioides
(2.9, 10 of 54), E. caeruleum (4.9, 7 of
25), E. flabellare (4.9, 7 of 62), and E.
spectabile (3, 2 of 22) from the Kentucky,
Salt, and Green river basins.
Pearse (1924) described Allocreadium
boleosomi. Study of the type specimen
USNM #7622 shows that the esophagus of
P. boleosomi has 1 loop and therefore it —
could appear to be longer than the pharynx —
in a slightly coverslip pressed specimen.
Peters (1957) synonymized P. (Allocre-—
adium) boleosomi with Podocotyle (Plagi-—
oporus) lepomis (Dobrovolny 1939b) but
Pritchard (1966) reinstated P. lepomis and —
P. boleosomi as distinguished by ova size,
0.080-0.114 by 0.051-0.077 vs. 0.064-0.085 —
by 0.035-0.045 mm, respectively. Pritchard —
(1966) excluded P. boleosomi from the
Opecoelidae because it was spined. How-
ever, Yamaguti (1971) retained the desig- —
nation Podocotyle boleosomi. The Kentucky
specimens are aspinous. Three specimens
of Podocotyle boleosomi have been depos-
ited in the Manter Collection, University of |
Nebraska State Museum No. 20311. |
Importantly, this survey and Pearse >
(1924) recorded apparent host specificity —
of P. boleosomi from percids Etheostoma
spp. and Percina spp. Dobrovolny (1939b)
attempted experimental infestation of P.—
lepomis with cyprinid, centrarchid, and
percid hosts, succeeding only with Lepomis
spp. The survey records of Dobrovolny
(1939a, 1939b) also indicated host speci-
ficity for Lepomis spp.
PARAMPHISTOMATIDAE
Pisciamphistoma stunkardi.—Specimens
were obtained from Lepomis megalotis (1.5,
2 of 9) from the Big Sandy River drainage. |
The host constituted the only adult di-
genetic trematode found in the drainage
(254 fishes sampled). Mine acid in this |
drainage probably has reduced the mol-_
luscan (host) populations drastically. One
nongravid P. stunkardi was recovered from
Etheostoma blennioides (1, 1 of 15) from :
TREMATODES FROM KENTUCKY FIsHES—AIiff 13
Fishing Creek, Cumberland River drain-
age. Both are new host records.
DIscussiION
The apparent decrease in certain stream
fauna and the relative scarcity of parasite
records from Kentucky provided impetus
for this study to describe the adult di-
genetic trematode fauna of Kentucky fishes.
But the aquatic biologist may be faced with
a race against time when attempting to
describe the flora and fauna of many fresh-
water streams in the world. A vivid ex-
perience brings this situation into focus.
While travelling with the Kentucky De-
partment of Fisheries survey team in Au-
gust 1971, a survey was attempted on a
small mountain creek in Pike County. The
creek was adjacent to a roadside park,
and at first glance it appeared to be a
clear, free-flowing stream. Subsequent ex-
amination of 40 m of stream revealed iron
pyrite sedimentation on the bottom, a pH
of 3.8, and not a single living fish or other
aquatic organism. Furthermore, of 254
fishes collected from the Big Sandy River
drainage in eastern Kentucky, an area of
heavy strip mining, only 2 Lepomis mega-
lotis harbored adult digenetic trematodes.
Yamaguti (1971) listed approximately
5,000 species of digenetic trematodes. Of
those, 1,500 were recorded from fishes,
1,000 from marine species and 500 from
freshwater species. Manter (1969) sug-
gested that “the total number from fishes
must be very much greater, perhaps 10-
fold.”
Many large surveys have been under-
taken during the last 40 years to expand our
knowledge of fish parasites. Van Cleave
and Mueller (1932, 1934) conducted a very
thorough survey at Lake Oneida, New
York, in which 1,227 fishes of 34 species
were examined. Fischthal (1947) collected
2,059 fishes of 44 species and listed 30
species of adult Digenea. Bangham and
Adams (1954) conducted the largest fresh-
water survey in British Columbia, collect-
ing 5,456 fishes of 36 species that yielded
12 species of Digenea.
Those studies may be compared to this
survey of 3,059 fishes of 17 families and 91
species from which 23 species of adult di-
genetic trematodes comprising 8 families
have been identified. The collection rec-
ords confirm a generalization (Manter
1969) about host specificity of freshwater
Digenea which suggests that few species
are known to consistently infest fishes of
different families.
The most prevalent parasites wer Pro-
terometra spp. and Plagioporus spp. Their
prevalence is due to the widespread occur-
rence of Goniobasis and Pleurocera snails
in upland streams of Kentucky.
The well-known rule for distribution of
adult Digenea is that they parallel the
distribution of their molluscan hosts. Yama-
guti (1971) and Hoffman (1967) listed
the following molluscan hosts for the
species recovered in addition to Proterom-
etra spp. and Plagioporus spp.: Allocre-
adium lobatum in Pisidium clams, Crep-
idostomum cornutum in Musculium and
Sphaerium clams, C. isostomum in Sphae-
rium, Leuceruthrus micropteri in Gonio-
basis and Pleurocera snails, Rhipidocotyle
septpapillata in Lampsilis clams, Phylo-
distomum caudatum in Musculium clams,
and Alloglossidium corti in Helisoma snails.
LITERATURE CITED
ANDERSON, M. G., aND F. M. ANpDERSON. 1967.
The life histories of Proterometra albacauda
and Proterometra septimae, sp. n. (Trematoda:
Azygiidae) and a redescription of Proterom-
etra catenaria Smith, 1934. J. Parasitol. 53
(1):31-87.
Baimey. Bi MO JM. Pires: —&. S. Herannp, .E. A.
LaAcHNER, C. C. LinpsEy, C. R. ROBINS, AND
W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of the common
and scientific names of fishes from the United
States and Canada. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec.
Publ. 6:1—-149.
BancHaM, R. V., AND J. R. Apams. 1954. A
survey of the parasites of freshwater fishes
from the mainland of British Columbia. J.
Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 11(6):673-708.
CaBLE, R. M. 1935. Cercaria kentuckiensis n.
sp., first representative of the Vivax group
known to occur in the United States. J.
Parasitol. 21:441.
Dosrovotny, G. G. 1939a. Life history of
Plagioporus sinitsini Mueller, and embryology
of new cotylocerous cercariae (Trematoda).
Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 58(2):121—155.
. 1939b. The life history of Plagioporus
14 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
lepomis, a new trematode from fishes. J.
Parasitol. 25(6):461—470.
FISCHTHAL, J. H. 1947. Parasites of northwest
Wisconsin fishes. I. The 1944 survey. Trans.
Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 37:157—220.
Har.ey, J. P., AND T. L. KEEFE. 1971. Helminth
parasites of four species of sunfishes (Cen-
trarchidae) from Lake Wilgreen in Kentucky.
Trans: Ky. . Acad. “Se. o2(3—4 271-74.
HorrMan, G. L. 1953. Parasites of fish of Turtle
River, North Dakota. Proc. N. D. Acad. Sci.
7:12-19.
1967. Parasites of North American
freshwater fishes. Univ. California Press,
Berkeley, Cal. 485 pp.
MantTerR, H. W. 1969. Pp. 93-104. In G. D.
Schmidt (Ed.). Problems in systematics of
trematode parasites. University Park Press,
Baltimore, Md.
Patron, S. 1973. Some studies of Leuceruthrus
micropteri (Marshall and Gilbert, 1905).
Ass. Southeast. Biol. Bull. VI. 20(2):74—75.
PrearsE, A. S. 1924. Observations on parasitic
worms from Wisconsin fishes. Trans. Wis.
Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 21:147-160.
Peters, L. E. 1957. An analysis of the trema-
tode genus Allocreadium (Looss) with the
description of Allocreadium neotenicum sp.
nov. from water beetles. J. Parasitol. 48(2): —
136-142.
PrircHarp, M. H. 1966. A revision of the genus
Podocotyle (Trematoda: Opecoelidae). Zool.
Jahrb. Syst. 93:158—-172.
VAN CLEAVE, H. J., AND J. F. MUELLER. 1982..
Parasites of the Oneida Lake fishes. Part I.
Descriptions of new genera and new species.
Bull. N. Y. St. Coll. For., Roosevelt Wild
Life Ann. 3(1):5-71.
Nh . 1934. Parasites of
Oneida Lake fishes. Part III. A_ biological
and ecological survey of the worm parasites.
Bull. N. Y. St. Coll. For., Roosevelt Wild
Life Ann. 3(3-4) :161-334. |
WuitE, G. E. 1974. Parasites of the common |
white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) from |
the Kentucky River drainage. Trans. Amer. |
Microsc. Soc. 93( 2) :280-282.
WoopHEapD, A. E. 1930. Life history studies on
the trematode family Bucephalidae. II. Trans. |
Amer. Microsc. Soc. 49(1):1-17. |
YAMAcutTI, S. 1958. Systema Helminthum. Inter- —
science Publ., New York, N. Y. Vol. 1.
1,575 pp.
. 1971. Synopsis of digenetic trematodes |
of vertebrates. Keigaku, Tokyo, Japan Vol.
I O74. pp; |
spectra.
INTRODUCTION
The bromination of isoquinoline in the
gaseous phase at 450 C gives small amounts
of 1-bromoisoquinoline, as well as much
carbonized material (Jansen and Wibaut
1937). The tendency toward bromination
at the position a, rather than £, to the ring
nitrogen with increase in the reaction tem-
perature is seen to be the same with iso-
quinoline as with quinoline. It is possible
that bromine atoms are the reacting species
‘at the higher temperatures.
4-Bromoisoquinoline is obtained by heat-
ing the perbromide of isoquinoline or its
salts (Edinger and Bossung 1891, Bergstrom
and Rodda 1940, Craig and Cass 1942).
No completely satisfactory explanation of
the bromination of isoquinoline on the 4-
position has been presented. In isoquino-
line, as well as quinoline, electrophilic
substitution would be expected to take
place most readily on the 5- or 8-positions;
however, in both compounds, bromination
occurs not in the benzenoid ring but in the
pyridinoid ring, 8 to the nitrogen. An ex-
planation involving the attack of bromine
radicals rather than positively charged bro-
mine ions is not satisfactory, since a radical
attack is expected to occur more readily
at the 1-position of isoquinoline than at the
4-position. Eisch’s bridged bromonium ion
transition state cannot be extended to the
isoquinoline molecule, since substitution
occurs at the 4-position and this position
does not have adjacent carbons with low
z-electron densities (Eisch 1962).
Competitive experiments have shown
Preparation of Monobromoisoquinolines
Jerry L. BuTLer, Forrest L. BAYER, AND MARSHALL GORDON
Department of Chemistry and Geology, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071
ABSTRACT
During the course of other investigations, it became necessary to synthesize the l1-, 3-,
4-. 5-, 6-, 7-, and 8-bromoisoquinolines. 6- and 7-Bromoisoquinoline are new compounds.
Details of the preparation of each isomer include kinds and amounts of chemicals used and
the various steps taken. Each compound was purified by preparative gas chromatography.
Mass spectra were obtained using a Varian Model HC-7 single focusing spectrometer.
Structural identities of isomers were confirmed with infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance
that the 5-position in isoquinoline is 25
times more reactive than in quinoline
(Dewar and Maitlis 1957). In spite of the
fact that isoquinoline appears more reac-
tive than quinoline, very few substituted iso-
quinolines are known. The preparation of
isoquinoline compounds is somewhat stifled
because there are no ring closure proce-
dures which even come close to the use-
fulness of the Skraup synthesis in preparing
substituted quinolines.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Partial support of this research by the
Murray State University Committee on
Institutional Studies and Research is grate-
fully acknowledged.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Each compound prepared was purified
by preparative gas chromatography using
a column packed with 10 percent QF-1
coated onto Chromosorb G, AW, 60/70
mesh.
Mass spectra for purposes of identifica-
tion were obtained using a Varian, Model
HC-7 single focusing mass spectrometer.
Pure samples were injected by means of
a direct insertion probe and were suf-
ficiently volatile under 75 C (5 X 10° torr)
to produce good spectra. All spectra were
obtained using an ionization voltage of 70
ev, resolution of at least 1200, and a fila-
ment current of 1000 »A. Publication of a
detailed study of the mass spectra is
planned.
To further confirm the structural iden-
16
tities of the bromoisoquinoline isomers,
infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance
spectra were obtained. All infrared spectra
were obtained on a Perkin-Elmer, Model
137 Spectrophotometer. Spectra of all sam-
ples were obtained in the neat form. Even
though many of the compounds are solid
at room temperature, their low melting
points permitted each to be run as liquids
between heated potassium bromide plates.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectra were
obtained using a Varian A60-A and a JEOL
100 MH, nmr spectrometer.
Preparation of Monobromoisoquinoline
Isomers
Preparation of 1-Bromoisoquinoline
1-Isoquinolinol (isocarbostyril) (5.0 g,
0.034 mole) and phosphorus pentabromide
(17.2 g, 0.04 mole) were mixed by mechan-
ical stirring, heated to 120 C for 15 min,
and then to 150 C for 30 min. Upon
cooling, water was added to the solidified
mixture to hydrolyze any unreacted phos-
phorus bromides while dissolving the solid
mass. The mixture was made basic with
sodium hydroxide and filtered. The pre-
cipitate was dried and sublimed (80 C/0.05
mm) which gave 6.81 g (94.2%) of 1-
bromoisoquinoline as white crystals, mp
96-97 C.
Preparation of 3-Bromoisoquinoline
(a) Preparation of 1,3-Dibromoisoquino-
line. 1,3-Isoquinolinediol (8.05 g, 0.05 mole)
and phosphorus pentabromide (51.6 g, 0.12
mole) were refluxed with mechanical stir-
ring for 5 hours. After cooling, the black
pasty mixture was poured onto cracked ice
and made basic with sodium hydroxide.
After standing at room temperature for 13
hours, the mixture was filtered and the pre-
cipitate dried. The dried precipitate was
refluxed with absolute ethanol and filtered
to remove inorganic material. The filtrate,
upon removal of the solvent, gave crude
1,3-dibromoisoquinoline which was recrys-
tallized from methanol giving 7.2 g (50.2%)
of 1,3-dibromoisoquinoline as white crys-
tals, mp 144-146 C (Osburn et al. 1956,
mp 147-147.5 C).
Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
the method
(1948). In a 50-ml three-necked, round-
bottomed flask equipped with a reflux con-
denser, mechanical stirrer, and thermom- |
eter, 1,3-dibromoisoquinoline (3.0 g), red
phosphorus (powdered, 1.0 g), and acetic ©
acid (glacial, 14 ml) were refluxed for 6
hours. The cooled mixture was basified
with aqueous sodium hydroxide and steam |
distilled. The material, which solidified in —
the initial runnings, was collected, dissolved
in 2 N hydrochloric acid, and filtered from
the insoluble 1,3-dibromoisoquinoline. The —
filtrate was basified with aqueous sodium ©
hydroxide and filtered. The dried pre-
cipitate was sublimed (45 C/0.15 mm)
which gave 0.87 g (40.4%) of 3-bromoiso-
quinoline as colorless needles, mp 62-63 C
(Osburn et al. 1956, mp 63-64 C).
Preparation of 4-Bromoisoquinoline
Isoquinoline (38.7 g, 0.3 mole) was dis-
solved in concentrated (48% ) hydrobromic
acid (25 ml) and evaporated almost to
dryness. Liquid bromine (48 g, 0.3 mole)
was added slowly, and the mixture heated
for 7 hours at 180 C. Upon cooling, the ©
solution was made basic with aqueous so- |
dium hydroxide and steam distilled. The
distillate was extracted with benzene and
the solvent removed to leave a brown oil
which was vacuum distilled giving 2 frac-
tions. The second fraction of 16.1 g boiled
at 122-125 C (4.5 mm) and consisted
chiefly of 4-bromoisoquinoline. The crude
product was sublimed (30 C/6.0 mm)
which gave 15.2 g (24.3%) of 4-bromoiso-
quinoline as white needles, mp 39-40.5 C
(Craig and Cass 1942, mp 38-39 C).
Preparation of 5-Bromoisoquinoline
(Robinson 1947a)
(a) 5-Aminoisoquinoline (3.0 g) in concen-
trated (48%) hydrobromic acid (12 ml) and
water (10 ml) was diazotized at 0 C with
sodium nitrite (1.5 g) in water (10 ml).
The diazonium solution was slowly added
to a stirred solution of cuprous bromide —
(3.6 g) in hydrobromic acid (25 ml) at |
Sen rch sd
(b) Preparation of 3-Bromoisoquinoline.
1,3-Dibromoisoquinoline was reduced by |
of Haworth and Robinson ©
PREPARATION OF MONOBROMOISOQUINOLINES—Butler et al. 17
75 C. After 2 hours at room temperature,
the solution was basified and extracted with
diethyl ether. After removal of the solvent,
the residue was sublimed (75 C/0.10 mm)
which gave 2.78 g (64.1%) of 5-bromoiso-
quinoline as white needles, mp 83-83.5 C
(Osburn et al. 1956, mp 82-84 C).
(b) 5-Bromoisoquinoline was also pre-
pared by the method of Gordon and Pear-
son (1964). Isoquinoline (54.5 g, 0.42
mole) was added dropwise to stirred an-
hydrous aluminum chloride (113.4 g, 0.85
mole) in a three-necked flask equipped
with a stirrer, condenser, and a dropping
funnel. Considerable heat was evolved and
the mixture passed through a pasty tran-
sition phase, needing manual stirring, be-
fore the complex was formed completely.
The temperature was maintained at ap-
proximately 75 C until all of the isoquino-
ine was added. After all of the isoquino-
line was complexed, liquid bromine (44.8
g, 0.28 mole) was added in the vapor phase
over a period of 8 hours. The mixture was
heated to 100 C and stirred for an addi-
tional hour. The black fluid mixture was
allowed to cool to room temperature and
poured carefully onto hand stirred cracked
ice. The acidic aqueous solution was fil-
tered at 75 C to remove all insoluble ma-
terial. The acidic filtrate was made strongly
_ basic by adding concentrated aqueous so-
dium hydroxide. The addition was done
rapidly since aged precipitates of aluminum
hydroxide do not dissolve readily in alkali.
The basic solution was extracted with di-
ethyl ether and the solvent removed. The
residue was distilled under vacuum giving
40.46 g (57.2%) of 5-bromoisoquinoline, bp
108-112 C (0.05 mm).
Preparation of 5-, 6-, 7-, and
8-Bromoisoquinoline
All the benzenoid ring bromoisoquino-
lines were prepared according to the proce-
dure given by Tyson (1939) for a modified
Pomeranz-Fritsch reaction. No physical
constants were given by him as the com-
pounds were converted directly to the
carboxylic acids.
(a) Preparation of the Bromobenzalim-
TABLE 1.—PREPARATION OF 3 ISOMERIC BROMO-
BENZALIMINOACETALS
Bromo- Bp of Acetal
benzaldehyde Acetal Sa %
used, g Yield, g °C mm Yield
14, ortho- 18.0 118-123 0.15 81.1
14, meta- 19.3 134-139 0.45 85.7
14, para- 21.2 160-164 4.00 93.3
inoacetals. Aminoacetal (aminoacetalde-
hyde diethyl acetal) was mixed in excess
(15%) with the required amount of the
desired bromobenzaldehyde, heated for 2
hours on a steam bath and allowed to cool.
Water which formed from this condensa-
tion was removed by an alternate addition
and distillation of benzene. The crude
Schiff base was distilled under reduced
pressure giving colorless liquids in each
case. Essential information on the prepara-
tion of the 3 isomeric bromobenzalimino-
acetals is given in Table 1.
In each case the bromobenzaliminoace-
tals were sealed in ampoules under a nitro-
gen atmosphere to prevent oxidation before
use.
(b) Preparation of the Bromoisoquino-
lines. The bromobenzaliminoacetal was
added to 9 times its weight of concentrated
sulfuric acid maintained at 0-5 C. This
mixture was added with mechanical stir-
ring, during 10 min, to a mixture of 10 g
of concentrated sulfuric acid and 20 g of
phosphoric anhydride maintained at 160 C.
Stirring and heating were continued for 35
additional min. The mixture, while still
acidic, was steam distilled to remove any
aldehyde present as a result of hydrolysis
of the unreacted Schiff base. The mixture
was made basic with aqueous sodium hy-
droxide and steam distilled a second time
to remove the bromoisoquinoline. The
workup of each isomer was carried out as
given below.
(1) 6-Bromoisoquinoline (starting with
p-bromobenzaldehyde )
The distillate was cooled to 5 C and the
white solid material filtered. The crude
product was dried in a vacuum desiccator
and sublimed (45 C/0.001 mm) which
gave 6-bromoquinoline as colorless crystals
18
(37% yield), mp 81 C (Gordon 1964, un-
published doctoral dissertation, Vanderbilt
University, Nashville, Tennessee, mp 67 C).
Anal.
Caled. for CsHgNBr: C, 51.92; H, 2.88.
Found: GC, 51.84; H, 2.93.
(2) 8-Bromoisoquinoline (starting with
o-bromobenzaldehyde )
The distillate was cooled to 5 C and the
white solid material filtered. The crude
product was dried in a vacuum desiccator
and sublimed (60 C/0.2 mm) which gave
8-bromoisoquinoline as white crystals (21%
yield), mp 85-87 C.
(3) Mixture of 5- and 7-Bromoisoquino-
line (starting with m-bromobenzaldehyde )
The distillate was extracted with diethyl
ether and the ether removed leaving a
brownish oil which solidified upon stand-
ing. An attempt to separate the isomers by
fractional crystallization of the mixture of
nitrates obtained by dissolving the free
bases in I N nitric acid failed. The highest
melting fraction (mp 153-155 C) was way
short of the authentic 5-bromoisoquinoline
nitrate, mp 196-198 C.
Preparation of 7-Bromoisoquinoline
(a) Preparation of N-Formyl--phenethyl-
amine. #-Phenethylamine (100 g, 0.826
mole) was heated with formic acid (100
ml. 87%) on a steam bath for 2 hours. The
formic acid was evaporated in vacuum and
the procedure repeated. The resulting
crude formylamino compound still con-
tained some amine which was removed by
extraction with dilute acetic acid. The
crude product was distilled (bp 152-155 C,
0.5 mm) giving the N-formyl-8-phenethy]l-
amine (97 g, 77.4%) as a colorless oil.
Infrared analysis exhibited the character-
istic stretching bands for the N-H and
C=O along with the band for a monosub-
stituted benzene ring.
(b) Preparation of 3,4-Dihydroisoquino-
line (Synder and Werber 1950). N-Formy]-
B-phenethylamine (95 g, 0.638 mole) and
PPA (150 g) prepared as given by Reagents
for Organic Synthesis, Vol. I, were placed
in a 250-ml flask. The solution was heated
at 145 C with efficient stirring for 2 hours.
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
The hot reaction mixture was decomposed |
with ice; concentrated hydrochloric acid
(20 ml) was added; and the neutral com-
ponents extracted with diethyl ether. The
aqueous acidic solution was neutralized
with concentrated aqueous ammonia and |
the liberated oil extracted with benzene. |
After drying (Na 2SO,) and removal of the |
benzene, the residual oil was distilled under |
vacuum (bp 115-120 C, 0.5 mm) giving |
the 3,4-dihydroisoquinoline in 67.1 percent |
yield as a colorless oil. The picrate salt, |
after 2 recrystallizations from 95 percent
ethanol, melted at 175-176 C (Synder and —
Werber 1950, mp 176-177 C; Spith et al. ©
1930, mp 175-176 C).
(c) Preparation of 7-Nitro-3,4-Dihydro- —
isoquinoline (McCoubrey and Mathieson |
1951). 3,4-Dihydroisoquinoline (10 g) in
concentrated sulfuric acid (25 ml) was
added to potassium nitrate (10 g) in con- |
centrated sulfuric acid (20 ml), the tem- |
perature being kept at 0 C. This solution }
was allowed to attain room temperature, |
then was heated with stirring at 60 C for |
4 hours. The solution was poured onto
cracked ice and neutralized with concen-
trated aqueous ammonia. The brown pre- |
cipitate was filtered, dried, and used di- |
rectly in the next step.
(d) Preparation of 7-Nitroisoquinoline |
(McCoubrey and Mathieson 1951). 7- |
Nitro-3,4-dihydroisoquinoline, as prepared |
above, was refluxed with decalin (150 ml) |
containing palladium on charcoal (3 g, |
5% ) for 2.5 hours. After cooling, an equal
volume of chloroform was added and the
mixture extracted 3 times with 400-ml por-
tions of 2 N hydrochloric acid. The acidic
extract was evaporated to half its original
volume and neutralized with solid potas-
sium hydroxide, with ice cooling. The
brown precipitate was filtered, dried, and
sublimed (150 C/0.1 mm) giving 7-nitro-
isoquinoline (1.42 g) as pale yellow nee-
dles, mp 178 C (McCoubrey and Mathie- |
son 1951, mp 177-178 C).
(e) Preparation of 7-Aminoisoquinoline.
A solution of 7-nitroisoquinoline (1.4 g,
8.04 moles) in absolute ethanol (100 ml)
containing palladium on charcoal (2.0 g,
2 — oe 2G
i
a o_o orl! — eS
PREPARATION OF MONOBROMOISOQUINOLINES—Butler et al. 19
5% ) was reduced by hydrogen using a Parr
hydrogenator at room temperature. After
1 hour, the pressure had dropped to a con-
stant value which was 2.5 psi less than the
starting value. The calculated amount of
hydrogen for this reduction was 1.6 psi.
The solution was filtered and the ethanol
evaporated. The residue was sublimed
(150 C/0.1 mm) which gave 7-aminoiso-
quinoline (1.07 g, 92.9%) as pale yellow
prisms, mp 202-203 C (McCoubrey and
Mathieson 1951, mp 201-202 C).
(f) Preparation of 7-Bromoisoquinoline.
7-Aminoisoquinoline (1.0 g) in concen-
trated (48%) hydrobromic acid (5 ml) and
water (5 ml) was diazotized at 0 C with
sodium nitrite (0.5 g) in water (5 ml).
The resulting diazonium solution was
added slowly to a stirred solution of cu-
prous bromide (1.2 g) in concentrated
(48%) hydrobromic acid (10 ml) at 75
C. After 20 hours at room temperature,
the solution was basified and _ filtered.
The filtrate was extracted with chloro-
form and the chloroform removed. The
resulting residue was combined with the
precipitate and sublimed (45 C/0.15 mm)
which gave 7-bromoisoquinoline (0.67 g,
49.1%) as colorless crystals, mp 70 C.
Anal.
Caled. for CgHgNBr:
C, 51.92; H, 2.88; Br, 38.46.
Found: C, 51.92; H, 2.87; Br, 38.59.
Preparation of 8-Bromoisoquinoline
(a) Preparation of 5-Bromo-8-nitroiso-
quinoline (Osburn et al. 1956). Potassium
nitrate (4.8 g) in concentrated sulfuric acid
(40 ml) was added over a period of 15 min
to 5-bromoisoquinoline (8.2 g) in concen-
trated sulfuric acid (35 ml) at 20 C.
After 4 hours of stirring at room tempera-
ture, the solution was poured onto cracked
ice and made basic with aqueous ammonia.
The resulting yellow precipitate was fil-
tered and dried. Recrystallization from an
ethanol-water solvent pair gave 10.3 g
(99%) of 5-bromo-8-nitroisoquinoline as
yellow needles, mp 138.5-140 C (Osbum et
al. 1956, mp 139-141 C).
(b) Preparation of 8-Aminoisoquinoline
(Gordon and Pearson 1964). A solution of
ammonium acetate (20 g) and 5-bromo-8-
nitroisoquinoline (15.0 g) in acetic acid
(glacial, 300 ml) containing 8.0 g of 5
percent palladium on calcium carbonate
(Englehard Industries, Inc., Newark, N. J.)
was reduced by hydrogen using a Parr hy-
drogenator at room temperature. Hydrogen
was absorbed rather rapidly (45 min) but
the process was continued for 15 hours. A
total of 19.5 psi (caled. 16.5 psi) of hydro-
gen was absorbed. The solution was fil-
tered to remove the catalyst, poured onto
cracked ice, and made basic with aqueous
sodium hydroxide. The precipitate which
formed was filtered and dried. The filtrate
was extracted with chloroform and the
chloroform removed. The precipitate and
residue from the chloroform extract were
combined and sublimed (130 C/0.15 mm)
which gave 6.75 g (79.7%) of 8-aminoiso-
quinoline as pale yellow crystals, mp 173-
174 C (Osburn et al. 1956, mp 171-172 C:
Gordon and Pearson 1964, mp 170-172 C;
Robinson 1947b, mp 174 C; Ahmad and
Hey 1961, mp 173-174 C).
(c) Preparation of 8-Bromoisoquinoline.
8-Aminoisoquinoline (2.0 g) in concen-
trated (48%) hydrobromic acid (12 ml)
and water (12 ml) was diazotized at 0 C
with sodium nitrite (1.2 g) dissolved in
water (10 ml). The resulting diazonium
solution was slowly added to a stirred
solution of cuprous bromide (2.4 g) in con-
centrated hydrobromic acid (30 ml) at 75
C. After 12 hours at room temperature, the
solution was made basic with aqueous so-
dium hydroxide and filtered. The dried
precipitate was sublimed (55 C/0.1 mm)
which gave 2.43 g (84.7%) of 8-bromoiso-
quinoline as white crystals, mp 86-87 C.
RESULTS AND DiIscussION
1-Bromoisoquinoline was prepared by
the action of phosphorus pentabromide on
1-hydroxyisoquinoline. The desired prod-
uct was obtained in the pure form in a
94 percent yield. The desirability of reac-
tions of this type is that the bromo- com-
pounds are easily obtained in the pure
form. The melting points of the hydroxy-
compounds are greater than 200 C which
20 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
permits easy removal of the bromo- com-
pounds by fractional sublimation.
Isoquinolines with only a substituent in
the 3-position are rare, however, 3-bromo-
isoquinoline was prepared by first synthe-
sizing 1,3-dibromoisoquinoline from the
1,3-dihydroxy- compound. The 1,3-di-
bromo- compound was then reduced to
give the 3-bromoisoquinoline in a 40 per-
cent yield.
4-Bromoisoquinoline was prepared by
the addition of bromine to isoquinoline
hydrobromide. The reaction was lengthy
and gave the desired product in a low
yield (24%). The procedure of Kress and
Costantino (1973) gave 3-bromoquinoline
in a very high yield and would most likely
be best suited for the preparation of 4-
bromoisoquinoline.
5-Bromoisoquinoline was prepared by 3
different reactions. The ring closure reac-
tions for preparing benzenoid substituted
isoquinolines are noted for their low yields.
A ring closure reaction, starting with m-
bromobenzaldehyde, gave a mixture of 5-
and 7-bromoisoquinoline in a very low
yield. This reaction is not suited for au-
thentic sample preparation because of its
low yields and the difficulty encountered
in separating the isomeric products. 5-
Aminoisoquinoline, by the Sandmeyer reac-
tion, gave the desired product in a 64 per-
cent yield. Also, the swamping catalyst
technique employed by Gordon and Pear-
son (1964) gave 5-bromoisoquinoline in a
57 percent yield.
6-Bromoisoquinoline was prepared by a
ring closure reaction reported by Tyson
(1939). No physical constants were given
by him as the compounds were converted
directly to the corresponding carboxylic
acid. The procedure, although lengthy,
gave the desired product in a 37 percent
yield.
7-Bromoisoquinoline was prepared as
prepared as previously described giving
a mixture of 5- and 7-bromoisoquinoline.
However, the yield was very low and
attempts to separate the isomeric products
failed. Thus, 7-bromoisoquinoline was pre-
pared by a Sandmeyer reaction on 7-amino-
isoquinoline.
LITERATURE CITED
Aumap, Y., AND D. H. Hey. 1961. 8-Phenyliso-
quinolines. J. Chem. Soc. 3882-3885.
BERGSTROM, F. W., AND J. H. Roppa. 1940. The
preparation and properties of some 4-substi-
tuted isoquinolines. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 62:
3030-3032.
Craic, J. J.. AND W. E. Cass. 1942. Derivatives |
of aminoisoquinolines. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. |
64:783-784. |
Dewar, M. J. S., anp P. M. Marruis. 1957. Elec- |
trophilic substitution. Part XI. Nitration of |
some six-membered _nitrogen-heterocyclic |
compounds in sulphuric acid. J. Chem. Soc. |
9591-2528.
EDINGER, A., AND Bossunc. 1891. J. Prakt. Chem. |
43(2):190. |
E1scu, J. J. 1962. Aza-aromatic substitution. I. |
The selective bromination of the quinoline
nucleus. J. Org. Chem. 27:1318-1328. |
Gorpon, M., and D. E. Pearson. 1964. The
swamping catalyst effect. VI. The halogena-
tion of isoquinoline and quinoline. J. Org.
Chem. 29:329-332. |
Hawortu, R. D., AND S. Ropinson. 1948. Syn- |
thetic antimalarials. Part XXVII. Some de-
rivatives of phthalazine, quinoxaline, and iso-
quinoline. J. Chem. Soc. 777—782.
JANSEN, H. E., AND J. P. Wrpaur. 19387. The
bromination of quinoline, isoquinoline, thia-
zole and benzothiazole in the gaseous phase.
Rec. Trav. Chim. 56:699-708.
Kress, T. J., AND S. M. Costantino. 1978.
Selective brominations in nitrobenzene. A con- |
venient synthesis of 38-bromoquinoline, 4-
bromoisoquinoline, and 4-phenyl-5-bromo- }
pyrimidine. J. Hetero. Chem. 10:409-410. |
McCousrey, A., AND D. W. Martuieson. 1951. |
Isoquinolines. III. The nitration of 3,4-di- |
hydro- and_ 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-isoquinolines. |
J. Chem. Soc. 2851-2853. a
OsBurN, A. R., K. SCHOFIELD, AND L. N. SHORT.
1956. Studies of the aminoisoquinolines,
-cinnolines, and -quinazolines. J. Chem. Soc.
4191-4206.
RosBinson, R. A. 1947a. 5-(y-Diethylaminopro-
pylamino )-isoquinoline. J. Amer. Chem. Soc.
69:1942-1943.
1947b. 7-(y-Diethylaminopropylami-
no)-isoquinoline. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 69:
1944.
SpATH, D., F. BERGER, AND W. Kuntara. 1930.
Synthesis of isoquinoline derivatives. Ber. |
63B:134-141.
SynpDER, H. R., AND F. X. WERBER. 1950. Poly-
phosphoric acid as a dehydrating agent. I. |
The cyclodehydration of some a-acylamino- |
B-arylopropionic acids. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. }
72:2962—2965.
Tyson, F. T. 1939. Synthesis of isoquinoline
acids. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 61:183-185.
|
The Big Clifty Prairie, a Remnant Outlier of the
Prairie Peninsula, Grayson County, Kentucky
WILLIAM S. BRYANT
Department of Biology, Thomas More College, Ft. Mitchell, Kentucky 41017
ABSTRACT
The Big Clifty Prairie, an outlier of the Prairie Peninsula, contains 118 species of
plants representing 44 families. Andropogon scoparius and A. gerardi are the dominant
grasses, while forbs include members of the Compositae, Leguminosae, Labiatae, and Cyper-
aceae. Woody plants are confined to the prairie edge. Minor disturbances to the prairie
have occurred as evidenced by numerous weedy species. The overall prairie community is
maintaining itself within a forested region, partially because of local soil conditions.
INTRODUCTION
In Kentucky, a vegetational type that has
received little scientific attention is the
prairie. That prairies once occupied a sig-
nificant area of land in the state is well
‘documented. Transeau (1935) in his map
of the Prairie Peninsula, showed prairies
as occurring in a narrow band across west-
ern and west-central Kentucky (Fig. 1).
)
|
:
:
McInteer (1946) estimated that the Big
Barrens prairies ranged from 8,000 to 9,600
km?. Garman (1925) stated that the great
meadows (prairies) in Kentucky had
largely disappeared with tall grasses being
replaced by weeds. Today, only small, scat-
tered remnants of the original prairie
remain.
Previous workers in the Kentucky prai-
ries, Garman (1925), Sauer (1927), Dicken
(1935), McInteer (1942, 1946), and Braun
(1950) described certain aspects of the
prairies, however, much of those works
centered on the possible origins of the
grasslands. Except for Garman (1925),
who discussed the resemblance of the
Kentucky prairies to those in Illinois, and
MclInteer (1946), who gave a brief list of
tree species, no thorough vegetational de-
scriptions have been given.
The present paper is an attempt to de-
scribe the vegetational and floral composi-
tion of one small prairie outlier of the
Prairie Peninsula in Kentucky. Neither
Transeau (1935) nor MclInteer (1946)
showed prairies in Grayson County, but
they did show extensive prairie tracts in
21
Hardin County. The Big Clifty Prairie lies
a few hundred meters west of the Hardin
County line.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks are due Dr. Willem Mei-
jer, University of Kentucky, who aided with
plant identifications.
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA
The Big Clifty Prairie is on a nearly
level plain, approximately 4.0 km (2.5
miles) east of the village of Big Clifty,
Grayson County. The prairie, less than 1
ha in extent, occurs as a narrow strip
within the rights-of-way of US Highway
62 and the Illinois Central Railroad. Be-
cause of that protected location, the prairie
has not been broken by the plow.
The northeastern section of Grayson
County, in which Big Clifty Prairie lies, is
in the Pennyroyal physiographic area. The
underlying rock is Big Clifty Sandstone, a
member of the Golconda Formation. The
soil is Sadler Silt Loam, a loess soil under-
lain with a slowly permeable fragipan
(Whitaker et al. 1972).
The climate of Grayson County is tem-
perate; the average annual temperature is
14.4 C, and the annual precipitation is
122.7 cm (Whitaker et al. 1972).
METHODS
Twenty-five 1x<1l-m quadrats, spaced at
10-m intervals, were established along
a straight-line transect through the center
bo
bo
TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
Fic. 1. Map of Kentucky showing the approximate location of the Prairie Peninsula. The location
of the Big Clifty Prairie, an outlier, is indicated by an X.
of the prairie. The presence of plant spe-
cies in each quadrat was recorded. Fre-
quencies of occurrence were then deter-
mined.
Plants were collected on numerous occa-
sions from 1968 to 1976. Voucher speci-
mens of many of the plants are held in my
personal collection.
PLANTs OF Bic CLirry PRAIRIE
A total of 118 species of plants represent-
ing 44 families was collected from the
prairie and identified. The dominant fam-
ilies were the Compositae with 24 species;
Gramineae, 13; Leguminosae, 12; Cypera-
ceae, 8; and Labiatae, 5 (Table 1).
Andropogon scoparius and A. gerardi,
with frequencies of 100 and 44, respec-
tively, were the dominant prairie grasses
(Table 2). Native forbs Strophostyles um-
bellata (68), Solidago missouriensis (48),
Aster sp. (48), A. patens (28), Potentilla
simplex (28), Pycnanthemum flexuosum
(20), Cassia fasciculata (12), and Parthe-
nium integrifolium (12) were abundant.
Members of various genera of sedges and
rushes, Carex, Scleria, Cyperus, and Ele-
ocharis, also were abundant. Invader spe-
cies, Smilax rotundifolia, Achillea mille-
folium, Chrysanthemum — leucanthemum,
and Poa pratensis, indicated some degree of
disturbance as having occurred. Native
(Modified from Transeau 1935.)
species and noninvaders outnumbered the
invaders.
Shrubs and small trees, Corylus ameri-
cana, Salix humilis, S. nigra, Nyssa sylva-
tica, Diospyros virginiana, and Rhus co-
pallina, were abundant in a ditch at the
edge of the railroad. Oaks, Quercus stel-
lata, Q. velutina, and Q. marilandica, were
represented by a few individuals.
No analysis of soil was attempted, how-
ever, a thorough analysis of the Sadler Silt.
Loam was presented by Whitaker et al.
(1972).
DIscussION
In his discussion of the xerothermic pe-
riod, Gleason (1923) pointed to one of its
effects as being the extension of the prairie
flora to the east. He cited as evidence of
this the relict prairie colonies in the eastern
deciduous forest region. Transeau (1935)
stated that distinctive prairie flora and iso-
lated typical prairie communities occur as
far south as Kentucky and Tennessee. Mc-
Inteer (1946) noted that the prairies in
Kentucky were once extensive, but those
once extensive tracts have all but disap-
peared (Meijer 1970). |
The location and subsequent ecological |
study of those relicts is of utmost impor- |
tance since prairies have not been well
defined in Kentucky. In Wisconsin, Curtis
Bic Curry Prairie, Kentucky—Bryant 23
TABLE 1.—A PRELIMINARY LIST OF VASCULAR PLANTS COLLECTED AT Bic CLiFtTy PRAIRIE, GRAYSON
County, KeENtucky. NOMENCLATURE FOLLOWS FERNALD (1950)
ANACARDIACEAE
Rhus copallina
APOCYNACEAE
Apocynum cannabinum
ASCLEPIDACEAE
Asclepias incarnata
A. syriaca
A. verticillata
BETULACEAE
Corylus americana
CALLITRICHACEAE
Callitriche deflexa
CAMPANULACEAE
Specularia perfoliata
CAPRIFOLIACEAE
Lonicera japonica
CARYOPHYLLACEAE
Dianthus armeria
Saponaria officinalis
ASTERACEAE
Achillea millefolium
Aster patens
Aster sp.
Bidens sp.
Chrysanthemum leucanthemum
Coreopsis tripteris
Erigeron annus
Eupatorium altissimum
E. serotinum
Gnaphalium purpureum
Helenium flexuosum
Helianthus hirsutus
Helianthus mollis
Lactuca canadensis
Parthenium integrifolium
Ratibida pinnata
Rudbeckia hirta
Seriocarpus asteroides
Silphium integrifolium
S. perfoliatum
Solidago missouriensis
S. juncea
Tragopogon dubius
Vernonia missurica
CoRNACEAE
Nyssa sylvatica
CYPERACEAE
Carex complanata
C. frankii
C. vulpinoidea
Cyperus ovularis
Cyperus sp.
Eleocharis tenuis
Scirpus atrovirens
Scleria pauciflora
EBENACEAE
Diospyros virginiana
EUPHORBIACEAE
Euphorbia corollata
E. supina
FAGACEAE
Quercus marilandica
QO. stellata
QO. velutina
GENTIANACEAE
Sabatia angularis
GERANIACEAE
Geranium carolinianum
POACEAE
Andropogon gerardi
A. scoparius
Bromus tectorum
Elymus virginicus
Festuca elatior
Panicum nitidum
Paspalum sp.
Phleum pratensis
Poa compressa
P. pratensis
Secale cereale
Setaria lutescens
Sorgastrum nutans
HYPERICACEAE
Ascyrum hypericoides
Hypericum
sphaerocarpum
JUNCACEAE
Juncus sp.
LAMIACEAE
Lycopus virginicus
Prunella vulgaris
Pycnanthemum flexuosum
Salvia lyrata
Scutellaria parvula
LAURACEAE
Sassafras albidum
LEGUMINOSAE
Cassia fasciculata
Desmanthus illinoensis
Desmodium ciliare
D. laevigatum
D. sessilifolium
Lespedeza virginica
Medicago lupalina
Melilotus alba
Psoralea psoralioides
Strophostyles umbellata
Tephrosia virginiana
Trifolium procumbens
LILIACEAE
Hemerocallis fulva
Smilax rotundifolia
LINACEAE
Linum virginianum
LOBELIACEAE
Lobelia puberula
L. spicata
ONOGRACEAE
Ludwigia alternifolia
ORCHIDACEAE
Spiranthes vernalis
OXALIDACEAE
Oxalis stricta
PLANTAGINACEAE
Plantago aristata
P. lanceolata
PLATANACEAE
Platanus occidentalis
POLAMONIACEAE
Phlox maculata
POLYGALACEAE
Polygala sanguinea
P. verticillata
POLYGONACEAE
Rumex acetosella
R. conglomeratus
RANUNCULACEAE
Anemone virginiana
RHAMNACEAE
Ceanothus americanus
ROSACEAE
Potentilla simplex
Rosa setigera
Rubus flagellaris
RUBIACEAE
Diodia teres
Galium pilosum
SALICACEAE
Salix humilis
S. nigra
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Chaenorrhinum minus
Verbascum thapsus
SOLANACEAE
Physalis sp.
ULMACEAE
Ulmus alata
VERBENACEAE
Verbena simplex
VIOLACEAE
Viola sagittata
VITACEAE
Vitis cinerea
24 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
TABLE 2.—FREQUENCY OCCURRENCE OF PLANT
SPECIES AT Bic CLirry PRAIRIE, GRAYSON CouNTY,
KENTUCKY, BASED ON 25 1X1-M QUADRATS
Species Frequency
Andropogon scoparius 100
Smilax rotundifolia re
Strophostyles umbellata 68
Chrysanthemum leucanthemum 56
Achillea millefolium 56
Solidago missouriensis 48
Aster sp. 48
Andropogon gerardi 44
Panicum nitidum 36
Aster patens 32
Scleria pauciflora 28
Potentilla simplex 28
Carex complanata 24
Pycnanthemum flexuosum 20
Poa pratensis
Salix humilis
Cassia fasciculata
Eleocharis tenuis
Parthenium integrifolium
Rubus flagellaris
Anemone virginiana
Carex sp.
Scutellaria parvula
Prunella vulgaris
Apocynum cannibidum
Polygala sanguinea
Lactuca canadensis
Cyperus ovularis
Linum virginianum
Euphorbia corollata
Polygala verticillata
Desmodium sessilifolium
Elymus virginicus
Festuca elatior
Gnaphalium purpureum
Rhus copallina
Oxalis stricta
Ascelpias verticillata
Vitis cinerea
Melilotus alba
Lobelia puberula
Sassafras albidum
Salvia lyrata
Dianthus armeria
Sabatia angularis
Nyssa sylvatica
Vernonia missurica
Cyperus sp.
Se ee
LA AA RABRAKBABRAKRRWDWDMDDDOHODHDWOOWHONNNNNNNN ADDS
and Greene (1949) found that prairie
relicts were on atypical sites, so far as the
great bulk of original prairie was con-
cerned, and had persisted because of such
locations. They found the relicts that most
nearly approached the typical condition on
railroad rights-of-way where railroads were
laid out on grade through large flat areas
of high prairie. Garman (1925) stated
that probably few prairies in Kentucky
have been exterminated, but were still to
be found in bits of waste ground and
along railroads and highways. Whether
typical or not for Kentucky, the Big Clifty |
Prairie fits those descriptions.
In their extensive study, Curtis and |
Greene (1949) found low prairies on |
poorly drained flat lands to support the ©
highest numbers of species, 179. The Big |
Clifty Prairie also occupies a flat plain with |
poor internal drainage resulting from the |
shallow fragipan. The 118 plant species
at Big Clifty Prairie, considering its small
size, is quite remarkable. Of the 10 spe-
cies listed as most likely in low prairies in
Wisconsin, 4 were present here. The most
characteristic grass at Big Clifty Prairie ©
was Andropogon scoparius, but Curtis and ©
Greene listed A. gerardi as most charac- |
teristic for Wisconsin. MclInteer (1946) —
named the tall bluestem A. gerardi as the —
dominant grass of the Barrens. In southern ©
Illinois, Voigt and Mohlenbrock (1964) |
found A. scoparius to be the most common —
grass. Since no quantitative studies were >
performed by the early workers in Ken-
tucky’s prairies, and dominance was deter-
mined by observation alone, perhaps the
large size and conspicuousness of A. ger- |
ardi, as viewed by the early writers, over-_
shadowed its true place in the prairie asso-
ciation of the Barrens.
In southern Illinois, the railroad and
highway rights-of-way are dominated by
Indian grass Sorgastrum nutans that usu-
ally indicates a mild disturbance such as
frequent burning (Voigt and Mohlenbrock |
1964). Only a few scattered individuals of
S. nutans were present at Big Clifty Prai-
rie, however, that does not rule out past
burning as a type of disturbance. In fact,
burning has often been mentioned as one |
of the primary factors in maintaining prai- |
ries. The main disturbance at Big Clifty |
Prairie is the periodic mowing by highway
crews. The clippings are left on the
Bic Ciirty Prairie, KEnrucky—Bryant 25
ground, and undoubtedly produce a smoth-
ering effect on some of the more fragile
plants. Since no set schedule for mowing is
followed from year to year, the plants
have most likely been disturbed at most
stages of their life cycles. Invader species,
like Smilax rotundifolia, Achillea millefo-
lium, Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, and
Poa pratensis, take advantage of such dis-
turbances. Weaver (1968) found that the
removal of bluestem by mowing is dis-
tinctly advantageous for the growth of
bluegrass, both in fall and spring.
The abundance of sedges and rushes was
encouraged by the nature of the soil and
fragipan. There is a tendency for water to
collect in the level areas of the Sadler Silt
Loam in both winter and early spring
(Whitaker et al. 1972). Garman (1925)
also noted that rushes and sedges occurred
in wet areas of prairies.
Although several species of trees and
shrubs were present near the edge of Big
Clifty Prairie, no trees were established in
the prairie proper. Garman (1925) and
MclInteer (1946) mentioned the presence
of scattered trees including black jack oak
Quercus marilandica, dwarf willows Salix
spp., hazel Corylus sp., and sumac Rhus
spp., as well as wild grapes Vitis spp. in the
prairies of Kentucky. Those species were
primarily near the edge of Big Clifty
Prairie. Weaver (1968) reported Corylus
americana to be an invader at the edge of
many prairies in Nebraska. Seedlings of
Salix humilis were recorded in quadrats,
but there were no signs of further estab-
lishment after invasion by that species or
other woody plants.
The persistence of prairie relicts, such
as Big Clifty Prairie, in regions of high
rainfall and forest vegetation is due largely
to local soil and/or drainage conditions.
Wistendahl (1975) stated that the Buffalo
Beats Prairie in southeastern Ohio within
forest vegetation appeared to be related
to local soil characteristics. Garman (1925)
also noted the establishment of turf that
resisted the penetration of forests. At Big
Clifty Prairie, water remains on the soil
surface where it is least available, and
evaporates before it can be efficiently uti-
lized by plants. Because of this condition
and the prairie’s protected location, the
grasses and forbs have been able to main-
tain themselves with only minor distur-
bances since xerothermic times. Further
research on Kentucky’s prairies is needed
before this important ecosystem is elim-
inated from the state. An all-out effort
should be made to locate, preserve, and
study the remaining prairie remnants.
LITERATURE CITED
Braun, E. L. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern
North America. The Blakiston Co., Phila-
delphia, Pa. 596 pp.
Curtis, J. T., AND H. C. GREENE. 1949. A study
of relic Wisconsin prairies by the species—
presence method. Ecology 30:83-92.
Dicken, S. N. 1935. The Kentucky barrens.
Bull. Geogr. Soc. Phila. 43:42-51.
FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany.
Eighth Ed. American Book Co., New York,
IN? YREGS82"pp:
GarRMAN, H. 1925. The vegetation of the barrens.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 2:107—111.
GLEAson, H. 1923. The vegetational history of
the middle west. Ann. Ass. Amer. Geogr.
12:39-85.
McINnTEER, B. B. 1942. The barrens of Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 10:7-12.
1946. A change from grassland to
forest vegetation in the “Big Barrens” of
Kentucky. Amer. Midl. Nat. 35:276—-282.
Meyer, W. 1970. The flora and vegetation of
Kentucky as a field for research and teaching.
Castanea 35:161—-176.
SAUER, C. 1927. Geography of the Pennyroyal.
Ky. Geol. Surv. Ser. 6, 25. 30 pp.
TRANSEAU, E. N. 1935. The prairie peninsula.
Ecology 16:423-437.
VoictT, J.. AND R. H. MoHLENBROCK. 1964. Plant
communities of southern Illinois. Southern
Illinois Univ. Press, Carbondale, Ill. 202 pp.
WeAveER, J. E. 1968. Prairie plants and their
environment. Univ. Nebraska Press, Lincoln,
Nebr. 276 pp.
WHITAKER, O. J., F. R. Cox, Jr., H. T. Converse,
{eile Ladlaynor: yer Vsi Bente: /jr., anp
E. H. Jacoss. 1972. Soil survey of Grayson
County, Kentucky. USDA Soil Cons. Serv.,
Washington, D. C. 81 pp.
WISTENDAHL, W. A. 1975. Buffalo Beats, a relict
prairie within a southeastern Ohio forest.
Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 102:178-186.
External Morphology of Adult Leafhoppers
of the Genus Scaphoideus
Dovuc.as E. BARNETT
Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506
ABSTRACT
The external morphology of leafhoppers in the genus Scaphoideus is treated. Morphology
of the external sclerites and their terminology is discussed and illustrated. The literature
pertaining to the origin, morphology, and terminology of the head sclerites and genital
structures is treated in detail.
INTRODUCTION
Few general works treat the external
morphology and terminology of members
of the Cicadellidae (DeLong 1926; Evans
1946a, 1947b, 1957; Oman 1949), but com-
plete and intensive studies of the external
morphology are few. Further, some confu-
sion exists in the terminology applied to
various structures. Earlier, considerable
weight was placed on information drawn
from morphological studies on related fam-
ilies, especially the Cicadidae. Unfortu-
nately, the transfer of information from
related families was not always reliable
as Orian (1964) noted after completing
work on the morphology of Abricta ferru-
ginosa. (Homoptera: Cicadidae). Also,
there is considerable variation or modifi-
cation of structures within the family Cica-
dellidae.
Most authors, in trying to find a common
morphological basis among the orders of
insects and an explanation of the extremely
diversified structures present, have sug-
gested a change in the morphological no-
menclature. Hence a diverse set of ter-
minology exists. The terminology in this
paper follows that of the majority of work-
ers currently treating species of cicadellids
or favors terminology in use by morpholo-
gists. Alternate terms for many structures
are also included.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Material for study was collected in Ken-
tucky. Various combinations of water,
ethyl alcohol, and ethyl ether were tested
26
as the clearing solution. The following so-
lution was best and consisted of 5 ml of
ethyl ether, 50 ml of 70 percent ethyl al-
cohol, and 50 g of potassium hydroxide.
The specimens were placed in the clearing
solution until clear and the viscera and
muscle were soft, about 20-40 min. Then
the head and abdomen were disjointed
from the thorax. Seventy percent alcohol
was jetted into the head, thorax, and ab-
domen with a hypodermic syringe to re-
move the softened contents. The clearing
solution was withdrawn, and the cleared
material washed twice with distilled water.
Then the prepared insect material was
transferred to glycerine for study. The var-
ious structures were illustrated using a pro-
jecting microscope.
Musculature was studied by dissecting
fresh material and examining stained serial
sections.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The head in dorsal aspect exhibits the
triangular crown and posterolateral com-
pound eyes (Fig. 1). The crown may be
pointed or rather bluntly pointed, and the
anterior crown margin in lateral aspect
usually is rather sharply angled, but in
certain species in the oriental region the
anterior margin may be rounded, approach-
ing the condition in the genus Osbornellus.
In lateral view, the dorsal margin of the
head is not completely flat (Fig. 2). A
single ocellus is situated on the crown mar-
gin near each compound eye. The ocelli
may be large (0.16 mm) or small (0.04
mm). A coronal suture originates at the
MorRPHOLOGY OF ILEAFHOPPERS—Barnett oF
TINIE MUSCLE
ee PECL EEOC ECCT CCL OCELLUS
: Sc apaehy id A pees CROWN
2 Hebe x A Saar 22. EYE
Lah MANDIBLES
Ee ia CORONAL SUTURE AND
2. 0 Die SSS PRONOTUM BREE
EE, 2 oo Tn eee MESOSCUTELLUM
SMM
POST CLYPEUS
.SMM
cere e eee e eee e ence eens enanes secre sceanenas ANTECLYPEUS
Poe eer rrr rrr LABIUM
HEAD AND THORAX, LATERAL ASPECT
LABIUM, VENTRAL-LATERAL ASPECT
Saath) Ger ovswoll pect tale
6
)
LEFT MANDIBLE, LATERAL ASPECT
-25M 7
te re FLAGELLUM TIP OF MANDIBLE, LATERAL ASPECT
jf pongecee Cece Ae GSE CRCOCECECREER EEE PEDICEL
SCAPE
ANTENNAL SOCKET
ANTENNAL SUTURE |.35MM OS
8
: MAXILLA, LATERAL aspect
OCELLUS
FRONS
EYE
ANTENNA
POS® GEYPEUS
GENA
LORUM
ANTECLYPEUS =S——————_
9
APEX OF MAXILLA
-45MM
HEAD, ANTERIOR ASPECY
Fics. 1-9. General morphology of Scaphoideus ( Scaphoideus) titanus. 1. Head and thorax, dorsal
aspect. 2. Head and thorax, lateral aspect. 3. Antenna, dorsal aspect. 4. Head, anterior aspect. 5.
Labium, ventrolateral aspect. 6. Left mandible, lateral aspect. 7. Apex of mandible, lateral aspect.
8. Maxilla, lateral aspect. 9. Apex of maxilla.
28 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
posterior center of the crown and extends
about half the distance to the anterior
margin where it divides and each arm turns
laterally. The antennae are setaceous and
long (Fig. 3). The scape is cup shaped
and frequently ornamented with scale-like
sculpturing (Fig. 3). A single seta is pres-
ent on the first, second, and third flagellar
segments. Sensory structures as noted by
Hansen (1890) were not found. The face
is composed of a median frontal area,
clypeal regions, and lateral to the clypeal
regions, the “lorea” and genae (Fig. 4). The
postclypeus is separated from the ante-
clypeus by a “transclypeal suture,” a seg-
ment of the epistomal suture. The epi-
stomal suture originates at the anterior ten-
torial pits and delineates the lorae, joins
the anteclypeal sutures laterally near the
ventral portion of the anteclypeus, and
proceeds dorsally to the “transclypeal su-
ture.” In contrast, Kramer (1950) illus-
trated Aulacizes irrorata and showed the
epistomal suture as originating at the
frontal sutures. However, the lorae have
been variously interpreted. Evans (1946a,
1946b ) and Kramer (1950) interpreted the
lorae as parts of the clypeus; later Evans
(1957) called them paraclypeal lobes.
Snodgrass (1938, 1944) and Butt (1943)
interpreted the lorae as a part of the hypo-
pharynx. But Pesson (1951), using nerve
innervation and embryological evidence,
refuted that association. Arora and Singh
(1962) stated that the lorae were composite
plates formed by the fusion of clypeal, tri-
tocerebral, and mandibular parts. In the
genus Scaphoideus, the lorae are contin-
uous with the genae. The frontal sutures
extend dorsally from the lateral margins
of the transclypeal suture to near the an-
tennal sockets where they become some-
what indistinct. They appear to pass the
antennae medially and continue to the
ocelli where they divide and pass on either
side of each ocellus becoming indistinct af-
ter passing over the anterior crown margin.
Hence, the crown appears to be composed
of portions of the frons and vertex. The
most lateral areas of the face are the genae.
Cogan (1916) indicated that the area was
an amalgamation of genae and maxillary
plate. However, no exact demarkation is
visible anteriorly. The anterior tentorial pits
are low on the face. The epistomal suture
on leaving the anterior tentorial pit dips
nearly to the ventral margin before joining
the frontal suture, suggesting that most if
not all lateral portions of the face are
genae. DuPorte (1962) illustrated the
genae as being shortened as the tentorial
pit and genital suture of the Cicada rose.
However, in Scaphoideus it seems to be
lowered, considerably elongating the genae.
The proximal portion of the maxillary stylets
are associated with the maxillary lever, the
anterior tentorial pits, and hypopharyngeal
wings, and not with the lateral portions
of the face. Hence, those areas are desig-
nated genae. The maxillary stylet has 2
protractor muscles (Arora and Singh 1962)
inserted at the ventral margin of the face
and immediately adjacent to the ante-
clypeus. There is no demarkation between |
genae and maxillary plate on the face, but |
certainly the maxillary plate is reduced |
and restricted to a small area ventrally, if
present at all anteriorly. Posteriorly, a —
median suture divides the upper genal por- |
tion from what may be the maxillary plate |
ventrally. Pits on the genae are represented
internally by tube- or saclike structures
of unknown function. Those saclike struc-
tures are heavily sclerotized and appear to
bridge the anterior and posterior surfaces. |
The labium consists of 4 segments, the most
apical of which bears several distal setae —
(Fig. 5). The mandibles (bristles or sty- |
lets) are extremely long, thin, laterally
flattened, and expanded proximally (Fig. —
6). The distal tenth is dentate (Fig. 7).
The maxillae are similar to the mandibles
but are hooked distally (Figs. 8, 9). The
labrum is triangular and reduced (Fig.
10). Cogan (1916) referred to that struc-
ture as the epipharynx. However, the epi- |
pharynx probably is very reduced and —
coalesced to the posterior region of the |
labrum. |
The pronotum is sublunate in dorsal view
(Fig. 11). Laterally, the episternum is un-
divided (Fig. 12). The prosternum is
MorPHOLOGY OF LEAFHOPPERS—Barnett 29
| MM
ANTECLYPEUS
I |
NOTUM, FIRST THORACIC SEGMENT,
18MM
DORSAL ASPECT
LABRUM
.25MM
I)
STERNUM, FIRST THORACIC SEGMENT,
LABRUM AND ANTECLYPEUS
VENTRAL ASPECT
aw" PRESCUTUM
PRESCUTOSCUTAL SUTURE...”
.PREALAR ARM
PRONOTUM can, oe
SCUTAL
EPISTERNUM SUTURE, aww PARAPSIDAL SUTURE
1mm EPIMERON
Mf) ee ERIMERON NON cecartes ANTERIOR NOTAL PROCESS
TROCHONGER lb Noy fo Tet ee
cone “TRANSVERSE SUTURE
IMM ;
RIGHT PLEURON, FIRST THORACIC SEGMENT, “SCUTELLUM
, 14
EV ES Takia Sa NOTUM, SECOND THORACIC SEGMENT, DORSAL ASPECT
TERGAL POSTERIOR PREALAR SCLERITE
WING NOTAL é
AREA PROCESS
25MM. _ ie _TEGULA
TERGAL WING GROOVE bt Se PARAPSIDAL SUTURE
NR a | oy | Ona oe PREALAR BRIDGE
POST AXILLARY SCLERITE™” \ N— (ss ta Re ie
SamebeaniOne \ A. A La PLEURAL SUTURE
POINT 1MM
Pe “PLEURAL WING SUTURE
EPIMERON =” =
™ COXA
16
15 STERNUM, SECOND THORACIC SEGMENT,
RIGHT PLEURON, SECOND THORACIC SEGMENT, LATERAL ASPECT VENTRAL ASPECT
Fics. 10-16. External morphology of Scaphoideus (Scaphoideus) titanus. 10. Labrum and _ ante-
clypeus, dorsal aspect. 11. Notum, first thoracic segment, dorsal aspect. 12. Right pleuron, first
thoracic segment, lateral aspect. 13. Sternum, first thoracic segment, ventral aspect. 14. Notum,
second thoracic segment, dorsal aspect. 15. Right pleuron, second thoracic segment, lateral aspect.
16. Sternum, second thoracic segment, ventral aspect.
30 TrANS. KENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
_- PHRAGMA
: 25MM |
.« ARTICULATION PROCESS
bed.
SECOND THORACIC SEGMENT,
POSTERIOR ASPECT
FRONT WING
-25MM
META SCUTUM
---* METASCUTELLUM
[hee cee -- SCUTOSCUTELLAR
SUTURE
Ae or eee POSTNOTUM
Seen Sear FORAMEN
“ EPIMERON
C+Sc R
NOTUM AND PLEURON, THIRD THORACIC SEGMENT.
CORSO-POSTERIOR VIEW
2A
3A
HIND WING 20
Fics. 17-20. External morphology of Scaphoideus (Scaphoideus) titanus. 17. Second thoracic
segment, posterior aspect. 18. Notum and pleuron, third thoracic segment, dorsoposterior aspect.
19. Front wing. 20. Hind wing.
MorPHOLOGY OF LEAFHOPPERS—Barnett 31
deeply excavated anteriorly and much re-
duced (Fig. 13). The shape of the pro-
sternum varies considerably in cicadellid
genera and is triangular in Idioscopus
clypealis (Srivastava 1958).
The mesonotum is dorsally rhomboid
and incised anterolaterally by the parap-
sidal suture (Fig. 14). The prescutoscutal
suture is anterior to the parapsidal suture
and completely separated from it, a con-
dition known to occur in the genus Aula-
cizes (Matsuda 1970). A central median
scutal suture originates anteriorly and ex-
tends about one-third of the distance to
the posterior apex. The transverse suture
separates the scutum from the scutellum.
A depressed lateral extension of the scutel-
lum forms the tergal wing groove.
The mesothoracic segment in lateral view
exhibits the dorsal outline as 2 convex
areas (Fig. 15). The episternum is about
as large as the epimeron and is more dor-
sal. The tegula is nearly the same size and
form as the prealar sclerite and both are
long thin sclerites that are oriented verti-
cally. The mesosternum is 3 times the
size of the prosternum and is somewhat
rectangular with the lateral margins pro-
jected to points (Fig. 16). Internally, the
mesothorax is incised dorsally by the
phragma which occupies about half of the
cavity (Fig. 17). The dorsal pleural apoph-
ysis nearly joins a lateral extension of the
phragma. The ventral pleural apophysis
_ joins the well-developed Y-shaped furca.
The metathoracic segment is oriented in
a nearly vertical plane and is best seen
in caudal aspect (Fig. 18). The meta-
scutum and postnotum are subrectangular.
Many areas of the metathoracic segment
become membranous and are difficult to
distinguish. The metascutum usually has
2 caudoventral processes. The pleural
sclerites are much narrowed and somewhat
indistinguishably fused to each other and to
the metanotal sclerites.
The venation of the mesothoracic wing
(Fig. 19) and metathoracic wing (Fig. 20)
are relatively similar for all species in the
genus. In the mesothoracic wing, the costa
and subcosta are fused and have trans-
verse ridges on the distal three-fourths.
The radius divides in the distal third into
Re, Rs, Ry, and R;, or Rs may join M for a
short distance before it separates from M.
Rs; may or may not reach the wing margin.
Re, Rs, Ry, and R; are often termed re-
flexed veins. The first and second r—m
veins are present. The medius separates
from Cu, in the proximal fourth of the wing
and continues unbranched to the wing mar-
gin. Cu, parallels Cu, and divides into
Cu,. and Cuy,, in the distal fourth of the
wing. Cu,, turns anteriorly, closes the dis-
tal end of the Cu, cell, touches M, and
turns sharply to the posterior. Cu,, joins
Cu, at a right angle. Cuz (claval vein or
suture) is unbranched. There are 2 anal
veins (claval veins of some homopterists ) ;
1A may be branched, but usually neither
branch reaches the wing margin. The
appendix is well developed. The posterior
wing margin is commonly called the com-
missural vein or line. An earlier terminol-
ogy existed and is as follows: R before it
branches was designated the first sector
by some workers, and R was often called
the outer branch of the first sector after the
juncture of the r—m crossvein. M was called
the inner branch first sector after the junc-
ture of the r—m crossvein and the second
sector before the juncture of the r—m cross-
vein. The first Rs cell was known as the
outer anteapical, the first R; as the central
anteapical cell, and the second M as the
inner anteapical cell. Cu,. was known as the
first apical cell. The third M cell was
called the second anteapical cell. The
second R; cell was termed the third ante-
apical cell and the second Rgz cell, the
fourth anteapical cell. The Cu, cell was
sometimes designated the brachial cell.
In the metathoracic wing, the costa and
subcosta are fused. R_ branches in the
distal third into Rz:; which zigzags to the
anterior margin and Ry:; which proceeds
to the wing apex. The medius divides in
the midportion of the wing into M,+. and
M3,4 and both extend to the apex. Cu;
and Cup are undivided. Cuz is considerably
enlarged apically. The anal vein is divided
medially, and 1A is thickened; 3A is pos-
32 TRANS. KeNTuCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2)
PT EE FP yo so sara sentenaa bene eek gy cae FURCAL ARM
COXAL
SUTURE DG ee FEMUR sein
ee at Ae ee) eee een as (er rs me COXA
BGOMA. 10 WIR LIR™ foc re) Ca meee
Vee FEMUR
TROCHANTER TES) ARUBA OT ey tN eres TROCHANTER
Wee esto otc TIBIA
A eee TIBIA
RIGHT LEG, FIRST THORACIC SEGMENT, POSTERIOR ASPECT
-* .
a .
-
-
beg tions a
-25 MM
235
RIGHT LEG AND PLEURON, SECOND THORACIC SEGMENT ifGee ao
CATERAL sASPEGH. gfe be Boe
oot ee ts
aoe eee ee”
jee = lips leeonoe
SPIRACLE
Phas
‘GENITAL CAPSULE
"GENITAL CAPSULE
MALE ABDOMEN, DORSAL ASPECT
25
MALE ABDOMEN, VENTRAL ASPECT
Fics. 21-25. External morphology of Scaphoideus (Scaphoideus) titanus. 21. Right leg of third
thoracic segment, ventral aspect. 22. Right leg, first thoracic segment, posterior aspect. 23. Right
leg and pleuron, second thoracic segment, lateral aspect. 24. Male abdomen, dorsal aspect. 25.
Male abdomen, ventral aspect.
MorPHOLOGY OF LEAFHOPPERS—Barnett
terior to the anal fold, undivided, and does
not reach the wing margin.
The leg consists of the coxae, trochanter,
femur, tibia, 3 tarsal subsegments, pretar-
sus, pulvillus, and 2 claws (Fig. 21). The
procoxae are rather cylindrical, but the
mesocoxae and metacoxae are quadrate,
and flattened against the ventral body sur-
face (Figs. 22, 23). The trochanter is sub-
triangular and ventral to the coxae and
femur. The hind femur is long with the
hind femoral setal formula 2-2-1. The tibia
is about twice the length of the femur
and has 4 rows of setae, most of which
are sculptured. There are platellae at the
apex of the tibia and at the apices of the
3 tarsal subsegments. The numbers of
platellae are intraspecifically and_bilater-
ally variable. The tarsi may or may not
have setae. A short pretarsus is present
from which originates apically 2 simple
- unornamental claws (ungues). A bilobed
_ pulvillus without setae is present.
The abdomen joins the thorax narrowly,
then expands immediately and appears
broadly joined. The abdomen continues to
increase in width and height to a little
before the middle, where it decreases in
both height and width to the caudal apex.
A cross section has a semicircular outline.
The terga are arched and form the dorsal
and lateral sides; the laterotergites and
sterna are flat and form the ventral side
of the semicircle. The lateral edges of
the terga are bent slightly dorsad before
joining the sterna or the laterotergites. The
first and second abdominal terga are mi-
nute. In dorsal aspect, the first abdominal
tergum is divided into 2 pieces, the first
diamond shaped (Fig. 24), and the second
transversely rectangular with 2 small ante-
rior projections. The second abdominal
tergum is a close reproduction of the second
piece of the first abdominal tergum. The
third abdominal tergum is broadly rect-
angular and each successive tergum to the
eighth is progressively more quadrate ex-
cept for the female eighth tergum which
usually is triangular.
The laterotergites are absent from ab-
dominal segments 1 and 2 (Fig. 25); how-
33
ever, a pair of spiracles is present in the
membranous region where they would be
situated. The third abdominal segment
usually has an undivided laterotergite, but
segments 4 through 8 have the lateroter-
gite divided into 2 pieces. The most lateral
piece of the laterotergites is the largest
and contains the spiracle in the caudal
portion. Spiracles are present in lateroter-
gites 4 through 7.
Abdominal sterna 1 and 2 are trans-
versely oriented and extremely long and
thin. Sterna 3 through 8 in ventral aspect
follow the same form as terga 3 through
8. A cluster of small setae usually is pres-
ent on the third sternum. The female
eighth sternum usually is triangular and
fitted into a pocket dorsal to the seventh
sternum.
The male genitalia were discovered to be
of considerable taxonomic value in the
Cicadellidae in the early 1900’s. Until that
time, little morphological work had been
completed on the genitalia of the group
and only a few structures had terms as-
signed to them. Taxonomists adopted the
few terms available and/or proposed new
terms. Generally, taxonomists did not com-
plete extensive morphological, embryolog-
ical, or comparative studies. Consequently,
homologous terms did not always agree
with homologous structures. The confusion
was amplified by diverse terms applied to
the same structure, or further compounded
by designating 2 different structures by the
same name. Newell (1918) attempted to
clarify the situation for the various orders
of insects, and Kershaw and Muir (1922)
and Singh-Pruthi (1925) did the same for
the auchenorrhynchous Homoptera. Tuxen
(1970) listed the various terms applied to
genital structures. Considerable contro-
versy existed earlier as to the origin of the
genital structures and, consequently, their
terminology. Many workers argued that
the genital structures were of appendicular
origin, others that they were a combination
of appendicular and adjacent segmental
papillae. Still others believed that genital
structures were outgrowths of the sterna.
Excellent reviews of the proponents of each
34 TrANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
025MM
MALE PYGOFER, LATERAL ASPECT
O.1MM
30
O.1MM
SEVENTH STERNUM
PYGOFER
OVIPOSITOR
36
FEMALE GENITALIA, VENTRAL ASPECT
Fics. 26-36. Morphology of genital structures of several Scaphoideus species. 26. Male pygofer,
lateral aspect. 27. Right plate, ventral aspect. 28. Right plate, ventral aspect. 29. Right style,
ventral aspect. 30. Right style, ventral aspect. 31. Connective and paraphyses, ventral aspect. 32.
Connective and paraphysis, lateral aspect. 33. Aedeagus, lateral aspect. 34. Aedeagus, lateral as-
pect. 35. Aedeagus, lateral aspect. 36. Female genitalia, ventral aspect.
MorPHOLOGY OF LEAFHOPPERS—Barnett 35
theory and their individual terminologies
were given by Nel (1929), Gustafson
(1950), Matsuda (1958) and Scharov
(1966). However, application of the
proper terminology depends upon homol-
ogy which probably can best be derived
and interpreted from comparative morphol-
ogy as observed during embryology and/
or preadult development. Until recently,
most terminology inferences were drawn
from the study of adult specimens. Smith
(1969) suggested that the components of
the external genitalia of both sexes of ec-
tognathous insects are homologous in all
orders and that the genitalia consist of
presumed telopodites or for males perhaps
exites of the genital coxopodite. But Helms
(1968) determined that the genital struc-
tures of Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cic-
_ adellidae) were of sternal origin. He found
_ that primary phallic rudiments in the cen-
ter of the ninth sternum began to dif-
_ ferentiate during the third and fourth stadia
into 2 pairs of structures. The lateral struc-
tures became the style rudiments, and the
median pair of structures became fused on
their dorsal and ventral margins to form
the aedeagal rudiment. The connective
(first phallobase) was not discussed by
Helms, but from the position of the rudi-
mentary styles, aedeagus, accessory glands,
and ejaculatory duct, it seems reasonable
that the connective is of sternal origin,
perhaps formed from the rudimentary me-
dian mesomeres. The same possibly is true
of the paraphyses (= parameres of some
authors) which are paired distal structures
associated with the connective and aedea-
gus. Other studies (Kershaw and Muir
1922, Singh-pruthi 1925, George 1925, Met-
calf 1932, and Dupis 1949) showed the
same kind of development in members of
the auchenorrhynchous Homoptera. Studies
in most other orders of insects have indi-
cated that the genitalia are of sternal
origin (see Matsuda 1958, Smith 1969, and
Snodgrass 1963 for references concerning
the other orders and the exceptions that
exist ).
In members of the genus Scaphoideus,
segments 9 through 12 in the male and 8
through 12 in the female are modified into
genital or anal structures. The male external
terminalia, commonly called the genital
capsule (Fig. 26), are composed of a pygo-
fer formed of 2 large lateral pieces con-
nected by a dorsal bridge, a ventral valve
(hypandrium of Crampton 1922), and 2
apical ventral plates (hypovalves) that are
mirror images. The lateral walls of the
pygofer have a narrow membranous suture
from the anterior ventral margin to the
middle of the pygofer along an imaginary
line from the anterior ventral corner to
near the dorsal posterior margin. Setae
on the pygofer and plates frequently are
sculptured. Spines occur ventrocaudally on
the pygofer in some species. The number
of setae on structures on the right half of
the individual may differ from the left.
Frequently, the pygofer apex has 2 tufts
of large long setae. The anterior margin
of the male plate is membranously attached
to the posterior margin of the valve, and
the anterolateral apex of the plate is artic-
ulated to the lateral apex of the valve. The
plates may be bluntly rounded (Fig. 27)
or rather sharply pointed (Fig. 28). The
valve also is articulated to the pygofer
anterolaterally and is obtusely triangular.
The male internal genitalia are partially
enclosed by the pygofer, valves, and paired
plates, and are composed of the paired
styles, paraphyses, anal collar, a connective,
and an aedeagus. The anal collar may be
broad or narrow and is situated in the
caudal membrane of the pygofer. The anal
collar extends from near the dorsal margin
to a little below the middle of the pygofer.
The connective is almost entirely internal.
The styles are anteriorly internal and cau-
dally external. The aedeagus is external.
The styles may be long and attenuated or
short and bluntly pointed and broad or
narrow at the base (Figs. 29, 30). Setae
are present on the styles of some species.
The connective is always bifid anteriorly
and may be bifid posteriorly. In species
that have the connective fused to the
paraphyses, the bifid nature of the con-
nective is often indistinguishable (Fig. 31).
Dorsal apodemes usually are present on the
36
connective and sometimes are greatly ex-
tended (Fig. 32). The connective is a
sclerotized shaft articulated with the styles
anterolaterally and fused or articulated
posteriorly with the paraphyses. The pa-
raphyses may be small and membranous or
large, well sclerotized, and heavily tanned
(Fig. 31). They are almost entirely ex-
ternal. The paraphyses are the most spe-
cifically unique structures in the genus and
take numerous forms distinct for each spe-
cies. The aedeagus is free and attached
only membranously to the connective. The
caudal apex of the aedeagus usually is ex-
panded laterally sometimes into spine-like
processes. The aedeagal shaft may be long
and narrow or short and enlarged (Figs.
33, 34). The dorsal apodeme (paired or
double paired) and the preatrium may be
pronounced or reduced. A few species have
atrial rim processes (Fig. 35). The gono-
pore is apical on the aedeagus. There ap-
pears to be no endotheca or endophallus
in species of this genus.
The female external genitalia include
segments 8 and 9 (Fig. 36). Segment §
consists only of a cone-shaped tergum com-
monly called the pygofer. The ovipositor is
fitted into a small narrow ventrocaudal
slit in the pygofer. The pygofer tapers to
a caudal apex with only the ovipositor in its
circular form. The ovipositor is approxi-
mately the same width over its entire length
and narrows only at the apex.
The ovipositor consists of 3 pairs of
valvulae numbered I, II, and III. Valvulae
II are innermost and are fused to the
valvifer attached to the anterior ventral
pygofer. Valvulae I surround Valvulae II
in lock-and-key fashion and form the cylin-
drical tubelike ovipositor sheaths. Valvulae
I are membranously attached to the eighth
sternum. No valvifer is distinguishable.
Valvulae III are much broader than Val-
vulae I or II and usually bear a group of
minute setae on the caudal fifth. Valvulae
III are attached to the posterior of the trian-
gular valvifer which is articulated medially
to the pygofer and anterolaterally to Valvu-
lae II. The apical two-fifths of Valvulae II
are slightly enlarged and bear dorsally a
TRANS. KentTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
number of teeth near the apex. A single
isolated tooth is near the middle. In most
species, internal ducts are visible in the
caudal portion. The rami of Valvulae I
and II are curled dorsally. The ovipositor
usually extends beyond the pygofer.
The anal tube is composed of 3 segments,
10, 11, or 12 in both sexes near the dorsal
apex of the pygofer. The tenth segment is
tubular, and may or may not be divided dor-
sally. The eleventh segment usually is di-
vided into an anterior and posterior section.
The posterior section consists of 2 pairs of
oval pieces laterally. The twelfth segment
(the telson or anal papilla of Britton 1923 or
anopapilla of Crampton 1922) is elongate
and is called the flicker by some homop-
terists. It bears the anal opening or ano-
labii as a dorsal slit. Usually, the anal slit
is flanked laterally by small setae and bears
several long setae apically.
LITERATURE CITED
Arora, G. L., AND S. StincH. 1962. Morphology ©
and musculature of the head and mouth
parts of Idiocerus atkinsoni Leth. (Jassidae,
Homoptera). J. Morph. 110:131-140.
Britton, W. H. 1923. Papers on the leafhoppers —
(Cicadellidae) of Nova Scotia. Proc. Acadian
Entomol. Soc. 1922:57-72.
Butt, F. H. 1943. Comparative study of mouth |
parts of representative Hemiptera-Homoptera.
Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Mem. 254:3-20.
Cocan, E. S. 1916. Morphological studies of the |
16:299— |
superfamily Jassoidea. Ohio J. Sci.
325.
Crampton, G. C. 1922. The genitalia of the
males of certain Hemiptera (Heteroptera)
and Homoptera. Bull. Brooklyn Entomol. Soc.
17(2):46-65.
DeLonc, D. M. 1926. A monographic study of
the North American species of the genus
Deltocephalus. Ohio St. Univ. Univ. Studies
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Reactivity of Treated and Untreated Marble
in Carbon Dioxide Atmospheres
K. L. GaAurt, PREEYAPORN TANJARUPHAN,
Maprrayu AppA RAO, AND THORNTON LIPSCOMB
University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
Marble specimens were impregnated with certain epoxies and fluorocarbon—acrylic copoly-
mers. The treated and untreated specimens were exposed to, while immersed in deionized
water, 0.983, 6.2, 8.28, and 11.02 percent pCO, at 20 C in a dynamic system. The concen-
tration of leached Ca** in the water was determined by EDTA titrations and atomic
absorption. The values obtained by those methods were nearly identical. The rate of
reaction was based on the increment in Ca*™* concentration as a function of time. The
equilibrium constant K, calculated from the experimental data, had a value of 1.49 x 10°,
and compared well with the value of 1.58 x 10° given by Garrels and McKenzie (1971).
Specimens treated with fluorocarbon—acrylic compounds revealed only one-half reactivity
relative to untreated specimens in the initial phases of reaction. Certain epoxies provided
protection, other epoxies actually enhanced the rate of reaction. It is proposed that pertinent
data generated in the course of this study be used as a basis for quantitative performance
criteria for stone and concrete preservative treatments.
INTRODUCTION
Carbon dioxide is a prominent agent of
stone decay. When dissolved in water, car-
bon dioxide (CO,) generates hydrogen
(H*) ions that are responsible for dis-
sociation of calcareous and silicate min-
erals, essential ingredients of most building
stones.
The equilibrium concentration of COs:
in water is a function of temperature and
its partial pressure in the atmosphere. The
past 100 years have witnessed an increment
of 13 percent in the CO, budget of the
atmosphere due to an increase in the com-
bustion of fossil fuels (Bolin and Erick-
son 1959). That situation has necessitated
development of preservative materials and
methods for building stones. But, while
such materials and methods have multi-
plied, the development of criteria for their
performance has lagged behind seriously.
One of the purposes of this paper is to
present means to preservation technologists
for a rapid laboratory evaluation of pro-
posed preservative treatment against CO,
attack. Another purpose of this paper is to
show that careful laboratory testing of pre-
servative materials is necessary to deter-
mine whether a given material will provide
38
protection since it is likely that certain so-
called preservatives may enhance the re-
activity.
In our continuing studies since 1970 on
deterioration and preservation of stone, we
have reported earlier on sulfur dioxide
calcite reactivity (Gauri et al. 1973, Gauri
and Sarma 1973), on the usefulness of cer-
tain industrial resins as stone preservatives
(Gauri 1974b, Gauri et al. 1973, 1974),
on a technique for in-depth impregnation |
(Gauri 1970, U. S. Patent 1974), and on |
comparative physical properties of certain
treated and untreated calcareous stones
(Gauri 1974a, Gauri et al. 1974). This sup-
plements our earlier studies, and has
yielded data for determining the equilib-
rium constant of CO.—CaCOs; reactions.
Inferences have been drawn from this
study to show that the initial reaction rate
rather than the equilibrium concentration
is useful in predicting the CO.—CaCOs; _
reactivity in the ambient.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Dr. Louis A. Krumholz, Di- |
rector of the Water Resources Laboratory,
University of Louisville, and the Air Pollu-
tion Control Board, Jefferson County, for
|
|
|
REACTIVITY OF MARBLE IN CARBON Di0oxipbE—Gauri et al. 39
the use of their Atomic Absorption Spec-
trometers.
MATERIALS
The test samples were rectangular blocks,
4.5 X 3.2 X 0.5 cm, cut from Alabama white
and Vermont green marbles. Those marble
species were selected because of their
higher reactivity with chemically active
gases. The final grinding finish on the
blocks was obtained with 400-grit silicon
carbide powder. The specimens were
cleaned ultrasonically; the control was
cleaned before exposure to concentrated
atmosphere, and other specimens were
cleaned before treatment.
TREATMENT
The experimental specimens were treated
with epoxies such as aliphatic diepoxides
and bisphenol-A diglycidal ether. Fluoro-
carbons and acrylics also were used for
treatment. Treatment varied from surface
coatings to in-depth impregnations. While
the surface coatings were made by short-
term immersion or brushing of polymers,
the in-depth impregnations were obtained
by sequential immersion of specimens in
polymer-solvent mixtures of increasing
polymer concentration (Gauri 1970, U. S.
Patent 1974). Specifically, the treatments
for each kind of marble were:
Specimen A.—Treatment with bisphenol-A
epoxy resin: immersion in acetone, 10
min, followed by immersion in 50 per-
cent and 80 percent epoxy solution in
acetone, 20 min each.
Specimen B.—Treatment with bisphenol-A
epoxy resin: immersion in acetone, 10
min, followed by immersion in 50 percent
epoxy solution in acetone, 30 min.
Specimen C.—Treatment with bisphenol-A
epoxy resin followed by coating with a
fluorocarbon: immersion in acetone, 10
min, followed by immersion in 50 percent
epoxy; surface cleaned with acetone;
after epoxy polymerization surface coated
with 15 percent fluorocarbon in methyl
ethyl ketone (MEK).
Specimen D.—Treatment with aliphatic
diepoxide: immersion in 50 percent
epoxy in acetone, 30 min.
Specimen E.—Control.
Specimen F.—Treatment with aliphatic
diepoxide: immersion in absolute epoxy,
20 min.
Specimen G.—Treatment with fluorocar-
bon-acrylic copolymer: immersion in 2.5
percent resin in 1:1 MEK-cellusolve ace-
tate, 10 min, followed by immersion in
15 percent resin, 10 min.
The bisphenol-A epoxy and the aliphatic
diepoxide were obtained from Celanese
Speciality Coatings, P.O. Box 857, Louis-
ville, Ky. 40201; the fluorocarbon and the
acrylic were obtained from E. I. Dupont
de Nemours & Company, Inc., Wilmington,
Del. 19898.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
All specimens, both treated and un-
treated, were completely immersed in de-
ionized water for a minimum of 24 hours
to insure that they did not absorb water
when exposed to CO, atmosphere in an
immersed state. The experimental work
was conducted in 2 phases: (1) the Ver-
mont green marble was immersed in 20
ml of water in a 50-ml beaker such that
about half of the specimen was immersed
while the other half was above water, and
(2) the sample of Alabama white marble
was completely immersed in 45 ml of water.
Then specimens were placed in the reac-
tion chamber (Fig. 1). After a known
period of time, as given in respective
figures, the beakers were removed and
analyzed for Ca** ion by titrating a known
volume of sample with standard EDTA
solution using Eriochrome Black T as an
indicator. The total Ca?* ion concentration
in the case of the half-submerged specimen
for a given period of time is lower than
that of a fully immersed specimen. The
results, however, are comparable within
each phase of the work. Magnesium chlo-
ride solution was added before the titra-
tion for a better resolution of the endpoint.
The volume of EDTA required to neu-
tralize the Mg** ions was subtracted from
40) TrANs. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
pa Nbr ae
oe
Gauge
<<.
Precalibrated
COpo-inert gas
mixture
Flowmeter
Reaction |Exhaust
Chamber
Fic. 1. Schematic detail of dynamic reaction chamber.
the total titer value. The Ca?* ion concen-
tration also was determined by atomic ab-
sorption for some runs, and the results
obtained by both methods agreed to within
5 percent. The temperature throughout the
reaction was maintained at 20 C. The
experiment was repeated for various time
periods and the concentration of Ca?* ions
was plotted as a function of time (Figs.
2-6). The concentration of COs, in the
cylinder was determined by absorbing CO,
in ascarite (Hamilton and Simpson 1952:
351). The cylinders with known COs: con-
centration in air or nitrogen were provided
by Air Products and Chemicals Inc., 733
West Broad Street, Emmaus, Pa. 18049,
who determined the CO, concentration by
gas chromatography. The CO, concentra-
tion was checked both at the entrance of
the gas in the reaction chamber as well
as at the exit by the standard method of
reacting the gas with ascarite. A fairly
small concentrational difference between
the gas at the entrance and the exit was
maintained by exposing only a small num-
ber of specimens in the reaction chamber.
REACTION KINETICS
Extensive studies have been conducted
on the calcium carbonate—carbon dioxide—
water reactions. The study by Miller
(1952), though conducted for the geolog-
ical implications of this reaction, is out-
standing for several reasons; it includes a
comprehensive literature survey on the
subject, and it contains experimental work
on 3 different sources of CaCO, with dis-—
tilled water, NaCl solution, and sea water
used as solvent. It also contains data on —
CaCOs solubility as a function of tempera- —
ture and COs, pressure.
Some of the reactions taking place in —
the CaCO;-CO,:-H:O system could be
written as:
H,O == CO. — H.COs; (1)
H.COs; = ide HCO," (2)
HCO; = H*+ Co?” (3)
CaCO, + H+ = Ca2i— iG
Hougen et al. (1959:1062-1069) consid-
ered several other possible reactions and
plotted the concentration of Ca?*, HCOs,,
CO,°-, H+, OH-, and H,CO3(aq) as a func-
tion of the partial pressure of COz. They
concluded that at CO, pressures above.
10-* atmospheres the concentrations of
(OH-), (CO3?-), and (H*) were negligible |
in comparison to the Ca?*, HCOs, and
H.COs. In that range, they proposed that
REACTIVITY OF MARBLE IN CARBON Di0ox1ipE—Gauri et al. 4]
the reaction takes place according to the
stoichiometric equation:
CaCO; (s) a= H,O (1)
ar CO. (g) == @ a7" +> 2HCO.- (5)
This equation could also be obtained by
combining Equations 1, 2, and 4. Equa-
tion 3 was neglected since there was no
detectable trace of COs? as ascertained
by titrating with HCl using the double in-
dicator method.
The equilibrium constant for Equation 5
may be written as:
Ca2*) (aHCO;-)2
‘ aan (g)) : (6)
Since this deals with very dilute solu-
tions, the activities can be replaced by the
respective concentrations. Also by replac-
ing aCO? by the partial pressure of COs
c=
' the equation can be written:
(Ca?*) (HCO;-)?
er HCO;
(7)
From the stoichiometry of the equation
we have 2(Ca?*+) = (HCO3;°7). Hence, Equa-
tion 7 becomes:
4(Ca?*)3
aero pCO,
(8)
As shown in Fig. 2, the Ca** concen-
tration increased with time, asymptotically
reaching the equilibrium value. That equi-
librium value of Ca?* was substituted in
Equation 8 and the value of K was cal-
culated for each COs pressure (Table 1).
The average value of equilibrium constant,
kK, is 1.49 x 10°. Garrels and McKenzie
(1971) reported a value of 158 x 10°
for reaction at room temperature. Hougen
TABLE 1.—REACTIVITY OF CALCITE IN CO: ATMO-
SPHERES OF VARIABLE CONCENTRATIONS
Ca’ ug/ml (ae etka
pCO, at equilibrium pCO,
9.83 x 10° 62.8 oD CkOr
6.20 x 10° 1138 1.45 107
o.20)< 107 121 1.34 x 10°
f10-s< 107 141 £59 ><.107
160
Mp s M.06% Cb,
/2o = 3270,
ae
es a ea
/0
0.983% Cb,
40
20
0 20 40 60 80 loo
TIME , HRS
Fic. 2. Reaction rate for untreated Vermont green
marble specimens at different CO. partial
pressures.
et al. (1959) obtained a value of 0.6 x 10-6
from thermodynamic calculations. They
selected the following reactions:
CaCOs (s) = Ca?+ + CO,?-
K, =5 x 10°
= (Ca?*) (CO;?-)
H,0 (1) = H*+OH-
K, = 1074
= (H*) (OH-)
H2CO; (aq) = H+ + HCO,-
K; = 4.2 x 1077
= (H+) (HCO;-)/H.CO,
H.COs (aq) = H2O + COs (g)
K, = 29.6
= CO, (g)/H2CO;
HCO; = H+ + CO,?-
K; = 4.8 x 10-4
= (H*) (CO 3?-)/(HCO,-)
42 TrANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
G é My / me
0 20 40 60 80 Joo
TIME - HOURS
Fic. 3. Effect of different treatment on reaction
rate at 6.2 percent CO: concentration on Alabama
white marble. The treatments were (A) _ treat-
ment with bisphenol-A epoxy resin: immersion in
acetone, 10 min followed by immersion in
50 percent and 80 percent epoxy solution in
acetone, 20 min each; (B) treatment with bis-
phenol-A epoxy resin: immersion in acetone, 10
min, followed by immersion in 50 percent epoxy
solution in acetone, 30 min; (C) treatment with
bisphenol-A epoxy resin followed by coating with
a fluorocarbon: immersion in acetone, 10 min,
followed by immersion in 50 percent epoxy; sur-
face cleaned with acetone; after epoxy polymer-
ization surface coated with 15 percent fluoro-
carbon in methyl ethyl ketone; (D) treatment
with aliphatic diepoxide: immersion in 50 per-
cent epoxy in acetone, 30 min; (E) control.
Combining Equation 7 with the above
equations yields:
K oll (Ca?*) (HCO;-)? +3 K,Ks;
= COs (g) KAK;
= 1.48 x 10°
This value compares favorably with the
experimental value of 149 x 10°°. More
recent values for carbonate equilibria cal-
culations given by Thrailkill (1976, Table
1) yield a value of 1.6 x 10°.
TIME , HOURS
Fic. 4. Effect of different treatments at 8.28
percent COz concentration on Alabama white mar-
ble. The treatments were the same as in Fig. 3.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This study has produced the following
significant results:
1. Treatment with certain polymers, e.g.,
bisphenol A type epoxies, acrylics, and
fluorocarbons provided protection to the
marble blocks, but the treatment with ali-
phatic diepoxide increased CO.—CaCO;
reactivity in the earlier runs of reactions.
The increased CO.-CaCOs _ reactivity
for specimens treated with aliphatic di- |
epoxide is parallel to results previously re-
ported for SO.,-CaCOsz reactivity (Gauri
and Sarma 1973). The increased reactivity
may be due to absorption of COs, by the
polymer film, as in the case of SOs, or due
to the polymer film acting as a semiper-
meable film to COz permeation. We have
determined experimentally that the ali-
phatic diepoxide film does not absorb COs.
The other likely explanation then is that
CO, permeates selectively through the
polymer film and thus builds a larger con-
centration at the calcite-polymer interface.
The COs concentration outside the film
remains constant. This phenomenon, i.e., the
concentration of CO, at polymer—CaCO;
interface, must have been of a shorter
REACTIVITY OF MARBLE IN CARBON D10xIpbE—Gauri et al. 43
0 20 40 60 G0 /00
TIME - HOURS
Fic. 5. Effect of different treatments at 11.06 per-
cent CO: concentration on Alabama white marble.
The treatments were the same as in Fig. 38.
duration because the reaction equilibrium
of treated and untreated marble occurred
at the same level of Ca?* concentration.
The reduced initial CO.-CaCOs: reactivity
of other treated specimens probably is due
to the reduced rate of water absorption as
given in the following section.
2. Marble specimens treated with the same
polymer but with in-depth impregnation
initially showed lesser reaction than those
with shallow impregnation or those with
no treatment at all. The phenomenon
seems directly related to the rate of water
movement into the specimen. The impreg-
nation, by partially causing closure of cer-
tain pores and partially by being of water
repellent materials, reduces the capillary
movement of water into the stone. Yet in
the long run, so much calcite is available
that the reaction finally reaches equilib-
rium.
By corollary of the above, considerable
protection can be provided to the stone by
drastic reduction in the rate of flow of
water. In nature, other than upward mi-
gration of ground water, the water of con-
sequence for CO.—CaCOs reactivity is rain-
water. The approximate duration of the
TIME - HOURS
Fic. 6. Effect of different treatments at 0.983 per-
cent CO: concentration on Alabama white marble.
The treatments were: (E) control (F) treatment
with aliphatic diepoxide: immersion in absolute
epoxy, 20 min; (G) treatment with fluorocarbon—
acrylic copolymer: immersion in 2.5 percent resin
in 1:1 MEK-cellusolve acetate, 10 min, followed
by immersion in 15 percent resin, 10 min.
reaction is during the showers. The prod-
ucts of reaction do not accumulate. There-
fore, with each new shower, the reaction
begins anew. The actual CO.—-CaCOsz re-
activity in nature thus may be correlated
with the initial reaction rate. The treat-
ments, especially in-depth impregnation,
therefore are very useful in retarding CO.-
CaCOsz reactivity.
3. The comparisons of reaction rates in the
initial phases of reaction may form the basis
for performance criteria of treatments for
calcareous stone and concrete. For in-
stance, a performance requirement may
read as follows: a film deposited on cal-
careous substrate from 10 percent solids
of polymer in solution shall reduce the
CO.-CaCOs; reactivity by at least one-
half in the first 5 hours of reaction as com-
pared with a similar untreated specimen
exposed in the same environment for the
same duration.
LITERATURE CITED
Bouin, B., AND E. Erickson. 1959. Changes in
the COz content of the atmosphere and sea
due to fossil fuel combustion. Pp. 130-142.
In B. Bolin (Ed.). The atmosphere and sea
in motion. Oxford Univ. Press, London, Eng.
GaRRELS, R. M., AND F. T. McKEnziz. 1971. Evo-
lution of sedimentary rocks. W. W. Norton
Co., Inc. New York, N. Y. 897 pp.
44 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
Gauri, K. L. 1970. Improved impregnation tech-
nique for the preservation of stone statuary.
Nature (London) 228:882.
1972. Cleaning and impregnation of
marble. Pp. 231-237. In Treatment of stone,
Centro per la Conservazione delle Sculture
Allaperto. Bologna, Italy.
1974a. Decay and its preservation in
natural stone. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35(1-
2) :29-36.
1974b. Efficiency of epoxy resins as
stone preservatives. Stud. Cons. 197:100-101.
Amsterdam, Netherlands.
, M. V. Appa Rao, anp H. J. Gapiyar.
1974. Certain epoxies, silicones, and vinyls
as stone preservatives. P. 750. In Symposium
on preservation of stone. Geol. Soc. Amer.
1974 Ann. Meet. (abs.).
, G. C. Doprrer, N. T. Lipscoms, AnD
A. C. Sarma. Reactivity of treated and un-
treated marble specimens in an SO, atmo-
sphere. Stud. Cons. 18:25-35. Amsterdam,
Netherlands.
1972.
D. J; Hacerty, “ann G:—R.” Unies.
Comparative physical properties of
treated and untreated marble. Engin. Geol.
6:235-250.
, AND A. C. Sarma. 1978. Controlling
weathering of marble in a dynamic atmo-
sphere. Pp. 209-223. In Third Ann. Environ.
Engin. Sci. Conf., Louisville, Ky.
Hamiiton, L. F., anp S. G. Srweson. 1952.
Quantitative chemical analysis. Tenth Ed.
The Macmillan Co., New York, N. Y. 529 pp.
Hovucen, O. A., K. M. WATSON, AND R. A. RAGATZ.
1959. Chemical process principles (Part 2).
John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y. 1072 pp.
Minter, J. P. 1952. A portion of the system cal-
cium—carbon dioxide—water, with geological
implication. Amer. J. Sci. 250:161-208.
THRAILKILL, J. 1975. Carbonate equilibria in
karst waters. Pp. 745-771. In Karst hy-
drology and water resources. Proc. US-—
Yugoslav. Symp., Dubrovnik, Yugo.
U. S. Patent 3,795,533. 1974. Preservation and
strengthening of porous solids.
The Fishes of Goose Creek, Jefferson County, Kentucky:
A Stream Under the Influence of Urban Development’
Davi S. Wuite’, FrReperRicK C. Hinu®, anp Kim H. Haac?’
Department of Biology and Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
Goose Creek is a small, springfed stream beginning to show the influence of urban devel-
opment along its banks.
During the study, 63 species of fishes were collected in Goose
Creek and annotations are given for each. Although sedimentation and discharges from
sewage treatment plants are beginning to affect the distribution of fishes, the populations
were extensive and possibly even enhanced by the additional nutrients that entered the stream
during the study period. At present, Goose Creek not only has an assemblage of fishes
that inhabit small streams, but is utilized by many species from the Ohio River as a
breeding and foraging ground.
INTRODUCTION
Although much is known of the fishes
and limnology of the Ohio River and its
larger tributaries, little has been published
on the numerous small streams directly trib-
utary to the river. Krumholz et al. (1962)
examined the fish populations at the
mouths of many of the smaller streams in
the Louisville area and listed the species
inhabiting those areas. Minckley’s (1963)
study on Doe Run, a torrent spring stream
60 km downstream from Louisville, allows
- some comparisons with Goose Creek; how-
ever, Doe Run is atypical of most streams
entering the Ohio River. Other published
records of smaller streams along this sec-
tion of the Ohio are extremely limited.
Within the counties in Kentucky and
Indiana comprising the greater metropol-
itan area of Louisville, 42 first to fourth
order (Horton 1945, Kuehne 1962) trib-
utaries enter the Ohio River. In the course
of the developing city, most of those trib-
_utaries have been drastically altered as
habitats for fishes and other aquatic ani-
mals, and, unfortunately, we know little
1 Contribution No. 184 (New Series) from the De-
partment of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville,
Kentucky 40208.
2 Present address: University of Oklahoma Biological
Station, Kingston, Oklahoma 73439.
3 Present address: Department of Biology, Bloomsburg
State College, Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania 17815.
4Present address: Department of Biology,
Pertanian, Selangor, Malaysia.
Universiti
45
of the original faunas and the changes that
have occurred.
Goose Creek, although beginning to feel
the pressures of urban expansion, is one
of the few remaining streams in the Louis-
ville area along which there are relatively
undisturbed reaches. This paper provides
a detailed account of the fishes and lim-
nological data of Goose Creek so that we
may note the changes that take place
within the next few years as urbanization
continues.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our thanks to Drs. Edmond Bacon, Vin-
cent Resh, Messrs. Bruce Wilson, Tom
Weber, Daryl Jennings, Johnny Baker,
Peter Bersell, Steve Elbert, and Ms. Sabra
Noyes. Water chemistry measurements
were taken with the capable assistance of
Mr. Jerry Parsons and Dr. Andrew Miller.
Our greatest appreciation goes to Dr. Louis
A. Krumholz who provided impetus for the
study, aided and encouraged us during the
project, and critically reviewed the manu-
script. Financial assistance was provided
by the U. S. Department of the Interior
through its Office of Water Resources Re-
search, Contract Nos. 14-31-0001-3286
(B-022-KY) and 14-31-0001-3891 (B-031-
KY ) through the Water Resources Research
Institute of the University of Kentucky.
46 TRANS. KeNtucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
—— Bridge
| Stream Kilometers Brownsboro jz
Rd. 12
9 Station
ig
ee.
Ce
Fic. 1. Map of Goose Creek, Jefferson County,
METHODS
From September 1971 to July 1973, fish
were collected at least monthly from 23
stations on Goose Creek with occasional
samples from Little Goose Creek at Bar-
bour Lane (Fig. 1). A boat equipped with
an electrofisher (Larimore et al. 1950)
was used to collect fishes from the deeper
pools and backwaters. In the shallower
portions of the stream, a handheld shocker,
common sense seines, bag seines, and dip
nets were used in the collections. Both the
handheld and boat electrofishers were
powered by a Sears 1250-watt alternator.
Records and measurements were taken in
the field to prevent reduction or elimina-
tion of less abundant types; however, rep-
resentatives of each species were preserved
and deposited in the University of Louis-
ville Fish Collections, Louisville, Kentucky.
Identifications were made using Traut-
man (1957), Clay (1962), and Eddy (1969).
With the exception of Notropis cornutus
chrysocephalus (Resh et al. 1973), both
the scientific and common names follow
those given by Bailey et al. (1970).
In February, April, July, and October
1972, population estimates were made at
Stations 2, 9, and 15 using successive re-
Goose Creek
GOOSE CREEK and LITTLE GOOSE CREEK
JEFFERSON CO., KY.
Little
Goose
Creek
Simcoe Rd.
Hounz Ln, * Stone Gate Rd, al
2/,
fé ee
aaa Rd
Everiieen Ay.
Kentucky, showing locations of sampling stations.
moval (DeLury 1947). Using an IBM-360a
computer and programs developed by the
Water Resources Laboratory, University of
Louisville, weights (kg/ha) and numbers
(no/ha) were calculated for each popu-
lation estimate.
Physical and chemical parameters of
Goose Creek were analyzed following the
procedures given in Standard Methods for
the Examination of Waste and Waste
Water (American Public Health Associa-
tion 1971). Discharge, conductivity, pH, |
total alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, and chlo-
rine were measured in the field.
In addition to the data from this study,
a collection by Krumholz et al. (1962) in
June 1958, Cat. No. 9228, University of
Louisville, from the area of Station 2 was
used as a comparison. Field notes were
supplied by Krumholz.
Stupy STREAM
At its mouth, Goose Creek (Fig. 1) is a |
fourth order (Horton 1945, Kuehne 1962)
tributary to the Ohio River that drains ©
approximately 60 km? of woods, fields, and }
residential areas in northeastern Jefferson
County, Kentucky. Arising near Anchor-
age, Kentucky, the main stem flows west
FisHes OF GoosE CREEK, KENtTucKy—White et al. 47
then northwest for approximately 22 km.
The principal tributary, Little Goose Creek,
parallels Goose Creek for more than 15 km
and joins the main stem 0.8 km upstream
from the Ohio River.
Goose Creek can be divided into 4 dis-
tinct regions by physical characteristics and
by the extent of urban development. Sta-
tions 1 and 2 are in backwaters of the Ohio
River, with Station 1 extending from the
mouth to the River Road bridge. During
the summer, numerous boats are moored
along the banks and it is common to see
much of the surface covered by gasoline
and oil. The boat traffic and wakes from
passing barges on the Ohio River often
cause considerable turbulence throughout
this station. Station 2 essentially is a con-
tinuation of Station 1; however, the bridges
at River Road coupled with several large
_ log jams provide a barrier against turbu-
lence from the mouth. Station 2 extends
_ from the River Road bridges to the con-
_ fluence of Goose and Little Goose creeks.
This portion of the backwater is 10-20 m
wide and 2-7 m deep with a substrate of
deep silt to hard mud with occasional
patches of sand. The riparian lands of
Stations | and 2 are primarily pasturage.
At the confluence of the 2 streams, there
is a shallow mud riffle distinctly separating
the backwater from the continuous pool
stations. The pool, Stations 3-9, is in the
floodplain of the Ohio River, ranging from
10 to 2 m wide and from 3 to 0.5 m deep
over a substrate of hard mud with occa-
sional deposits of silt and sand. Individual
stations were created by dividing the long
pool into 7 sections, each approximately
250 m long. Station 9 consists of 7 small
pools separated by shallow sand riffles.
This station resembles the riffle pools of
Stations 10-15; however, with the slightest
high water, and for some time after each
rain, Station 9 becomes indistinguishable
from the long pool. There has been little
urban development along this portion of
the stream and it contains some very old
undisturbed stands of cottonwood, syca-
more, maple, and walnut.
The stream at Stations 10 to 15 flows
over Lower and Middle Silurian limestones
and Corydon soils (McFarlan 1943). Bot-
tom materials are gravel and rubble with
occasional outcroppings of bedrock. This
section is characterized by numerous pools
up to 5 m wide, 20 m long, and 1 m deep
connected by fast-flowing riffles. A few
small farms border the stream between
Stations 12 and 15, but, although there
are several private homes along the creek,
the area has not been developed exten-
sively.
In its upper 10 km (Stations 16-23), the
stream flows over bedrock of Middle De-
vonian limestone and Lower and Middle
Silurian shales, limestones, and shaley lime-
stones (McFarlan 1943). In most places,
the stream is no more than a few centi-
meters deep with occasional gravel bot-
tomed pools up to 0.5 m deep. Above Sta-
tion 15, urban development has increased
rapidly in the past 20 years. U. S. Geo-
logical Survey maps (corrected in 1950)
showed fewer than 100 homes and build-
ings within 1 km of Goose Creek. By
1971, the number of homes and buildings
within 1 km of the creek had increased to
more than 300 with an additional 1,000
new buildings within the drainage basin.
Although the stream bed at Stations 16-
23 had not been changed greatly, it now
flows in and around numerous apartment
complexes, back yards, schools, and small
parks. Though many of the private homes
are 20 to 30 years old, most of the schools
and apartment complexes have been con-
structed within the past 10 years. To
handle wastes from this developing area,
2 municipal sewage treatment plants and
19 package treatment plants were empty-
ing their effluents into Goose and Little
Goose creeks as of late 1972.
There is little aquatic vegetation along
most sections of Goose Creek, though many
of the pools are lined with duckweed
Lemna minor during late summer. The
major components of the benthic inverte-
brate fauna consist of Lirceus spp. and
Asellus militaris (Isopoda); Gammarus sp.
and Crangonyx sp. (Amphipoda); Baetis
spp. and Stenonema spp. (Ephemeroptera);
4§
TABLE 1.—PHyYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF GOOSE CREEK AT STATIONS 2,
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
NUMBER OF SAMPLES IN PARENTHESES
Station 2
Range Mean
Discharge (m*/sec ) aa od
Turbidity (SiO. ppm) 17—145 34 (11)
Conductivity (umho/em) 275-410 350 (8)
pH 6.2-7.8 — (8)
Total hardness ( ppm ) 132-168 150 (8)
Total alkalinity (ppm) 82-125 98 (8)
Dissolved oxygen (% sat) 56-72 —— (14)
Calcium ( ppm) 32.2-44.8 386.8 (8)
Magnesium (ppm) 9.1-18.6 12.1 (8)
Iron (ppm) — 0.0 (1)
Sulfate (ppm) 8.0=75:0) *24.0 (8)
Nitrate (ppm) 0521 ast (8)
Nitrite (ppm) 0.00-0.08 0.01 (8)
Chlorine (ppm ) 0.0-tr 0.0 (8)
Total phosphate (ppm) 1.0-5.2 3.6 (8)
5-28 13.6 (21)
Temperature (°C) t
Cheumatopsyche spp. (Trichoptera); Sim-
ulium vittatum and several genera of Chi-
ronomidae (Diptera); Stenelmis sexlineata
(Coleoptera); and Physa integra, Sphae-
rium spp., and Corbicula manilensis (Mol-
lusca). Though occasional shells of Ano-
donta grandis were noted, no live unionids
were found.
A summary of the physical and chemical
characteristics of Goose Creek is given in
Table 1. The discharges from tributaries
and effluents during 1972 were composed
primarily of ground water, with more than
half the volume coming from 18 major trib-
utary springs. In the period of lowest re-
corded flow (17 August 1972), approxi-
mately a third of the total discharge at
Station 9 was estimated to come from the
municipal and package sewage treatment
plants. Because Station 2 is in the back-
water of the Ohio River, discharge could
not be measured satisfactorily. The net
flow in the backwater is quite small and
results in stagnation during the summer.
Most chemical properties are well within
the ranges given for other streams in this
area of Kentucky (Minckley 1963, Neff
and Krumholz 1973, Krumholz and Neff
1975). Except in the backwater, oxygen
levels were at or above saturation. Levels
of nitrites, nitrates, and total phosphates
9: AND lb:
Station 9 Station 15
Range Mean Range Mean
0.14-0.68 0.30 (10) 0.06-0.38 0.12 (4)
9-140 25 (11) 15-298 145 (4)
380-475 430 (8) 380-440 400 (4)
7.0-7.6 — (8) 7.2-7.6 — (4)
140-200 175 (8) 120-183 170 (4)
129-168 152 (8) 140-168 152 (4)
100-140 — (14) 100-108 — (4)
40.5-55.0 50.2 (8) 40.2-48.1 45.2 (4)
10.2-17.9 15.6 (8) 6.1-15.3 11.5 (4)
—— 0.3 (1) — 0.6 (1)
6.0-67.0 23.0 (8) 27.3-73.2 44.5 (4)
5.0-214.3 47.6 (8) 6.5-250.0 68.7 (4)
0.00-1.60 0.31 (8) 0.038-2.19 0.77 (4)
0.0-0.5 0.2 (8) 0.2-0.8 0.5 (4)
1.8-19.5 8.3 (8) 3.7-23.7 9.1 (4)
4-25 13.0 (21) 6-22 14.0 (4)
occasionally were quite high because of
inefficient operation of one or more treat-
ment plants; however, no fish kills were
reported or observed.
The stream always is slightly turbid and
colored. After each rain, the turbidity in-
creases rapidly, particularly at Station 15
because of construction along the upper
portions of Goose Creek.
The distribution of water temperatures
for Goose Creek at Stations 2, 9, and 15
are shown in Fig. 2. The springs keep
the water temperature below air tempera-
ture in the summer and rarely is there
ice during winter. The temperatures at
Station 2 reflect the temperatures of the
Ohio River, i.e., elevated in summer as a
result of little net flow.
20
WATER TEMPERATURE °C
“T Jan Tres "mar | apr! may | un ' oul! aus ' sep ' oct ' nov bec!
1972
Fic. 2. Water temperatures of Goose Creek, Jef-
ferson County, Kentucky, during 1972: Station
2 (
), Station 9 (———) and Station 15 (x).]|
FisHes OF GoosE CREEK, KENTUCcKy—White et al. 49
ANNOTATED List OF FISHES
Sixty-three species representing 37 gen-
era and 15 families of fishes were collected.
The following list includes the species from
Goose Creek and 2 species collected only
from Little Goose Creek. Those marked
with an asterisk (*) were taken also in
the 1958 collection (UL 9228) from Sta-
tion 2, and all species taken then were
collected during this study.
LEPISOSTEIDAE
Lepisosteus osseus. Longnose gar.—Small
specimens up to 200 mm _ occasionally
taken from lower stations. Most abundant
in early fall. Adults abundant in Ohio
River but rarely enter Goose Creek.
Lepisosteus platostomus. Shortnose gar.—
One 320-mm adult taken in fall from back-
water area.
ANGUILLIDAE
Anguilla rostrata. American eel.—One large
specimen netted after being injured by
boat.
CLUPEIDAE
Alosa chrysochloris. Skipjack herring.—
Large specimens occasionally taken from
backwater area. Common in Ohio River
but rarely enters Goose Creek.
Dorosoma cepedianum. Gizzard shad*.—
Abundant from Stations 1 to 15. Both an
immigrant from the Ohio River and a per-
manent resident in Goose Creek. Large
schools containing several hundred young
of the year often seen. In fall, schools of
several hundred adults enter Goose Creek
from the Ohio River to forage in the lower
reaches of the stream.
ESOCIDAE
Esox americanus vermiculatus. Grass pick-
erel—Two small specimens taken from
backwater area.
CYPRINIDAE
Campostoma anomalum. Stoneroller.—
Present in most collections from Stations
9 to 20. Most abundant in deeper pools
from Stations 9 to 15. Breeding not ob-
served anywhere in the stream, but tuber-
culate males had freely flowing milt until
until. early June.
Carassius auratus. Goldfish—Occasionally
taken from backwater area. One large
specimen weighed over 6 kg.
Cyprinus carpio. Carp*.—Abundant in
lower reaches of stream. Large gravid fe-
males entered from the Ohio River during
early spring. Males rarely taken. A second
population of 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old fish
was present at Stations 13 to 16 in pools
below major sewage effluents.
Ericymba buccata. Silverjaw minnow.—Not
abundant. Collected from pools at Sta-
tions 9 to 15.
Hybopsis storeriana. Silver chub*.—One
specimen taken from backwater.
Notemigonus crysoleucas. Golden shiner*.
—Two specimens, one from Station 3 and
another from Station 9.
Notropis ardens. Rosefin shiner.—Occa-
sional specimens taken from Stations 10 to
15. One male with tubercles and in breed-
ing- coloration taken in early May. No
breeding observed.
Notropis atherinoides. Emerald shiner.—
Most abundant fish in stream. Schools
containing several thousand fish were pres-
ent throughout the year. Numbers de-
creased from Stations 1 to 9. Replaced at
Station 9 by the bluntnose minnow.
Notropis blennius. River shiner*.—Occa-
sional immigrants from the Ohio River
taken from backwater area.
Notropis cornutus chrysocephalus. Striped
shiner.—Occasional specimens taken from
pools at Stations 9 to 15.
Notropis spilopterus. Spotfin shiner.—
Taken with, but not as abundant as, the
rosefin or striped shiners.
Notropis stramineus. Sand shiner.—One
specimen taken from backwater area.
Pimephales notatus. Bluntnose minnow*.—
50 TRANS. KeNTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2)
Most abundant species above Station 9.
Breeding observed in early May in tribu-
tary to Station 15.
Rhinichthys atratulus. Blacknose dace.—
Abundant in riffles and tributaries at Sta-
tions 13 to 16. Breeding observed in early
June in shallow pools with sand and fine
gravel.
Semotilus atromaculatus. Creek chub.—
Occasionally taken between Stations 9 and
16. Large, tuberculate males taken in early
May but no spawning observed.
CATOSTOMIDAE
Carpiodes carpio. River carpsucker*.—
Large specimens taken from backwater
area. Very abundant in the Ohio River.
Carpiodes cyprinus. Quillback.—Four spec-
imens taken in backwater area.
Catostomus commersoni. White sucker*.—
Occasionally taken with golden redhorse
and spotted sucker from Stations 1 to 9.
Replaces those species above Station 9
where it is quite abundant. Breeding ob-
served in late May over riffles at Stations
13, 14, and 15. Very tolerant of sewage
effluents entering around those stations.
Hypentelium nigricans. Northern hog
sucker.—Very common in the riffles at Sta-
tions 9 to 15. Breeding observed in early
April. Young of the year abundant in
shallow areas of pools by first of August.
Ictiobus bubalus. Smallmouth buffalo.—
Three large specimens taken from _back-
water area.
Ictiobus niger. Black buffalo.—sSeveral
large specimens taken throughout the year
from backwater area.
Minytrema melanops. Spotted sucker*.—
Most abundant catostomid at Stations 1
to 9. Often taken in association with golden
redhorse and white sucker. Breeding ob-
served in riffles at Station 9. Young do not
leave breeding area until second or third
year.
Moxostoma anisurum. Silver redhorse.—
One small specimen taken from backwater
area.
Moxostoma carinatum. River redhorse.—
One large specimen taken from backwater
area.
Moxostoma duquesnei. Black redhorse.—
Occasional large specimens taken at Sta-
tions 1 to 5.
Moxostoma erythrurum. Golden redhorse*.
—Common in deeper pools at Stations 1
to 9. Most abundant below the log jams at
Stations 4, 5, and 6. Breeding observed in
early May in riffles at Station 9.
ICTALURIDAE
Ictalurus melas. Black bullhead*.—Com-
mon in pools at Stations 9 to 15. Occa-
sionally taken from backwater area.
Ictalurus natalis. Yellow bullhead.—One
large specimen taken from deep pool at
Station 15.
Ictalurus nebulosus. Brown bullhead.—
Two specimens, one each at Stations 9 and
15.
Ictalurus punctatus. Channel catfish.—
Specimens up to 2 kg common in early
spring at Stations 1 to 4. Most abundant
when Ohio River rises.
Noturus gyrinus. Tadpole madtom*.—Oc- |
casionally taken with the brindled mad- ©
tom at Stations 2 to 9. |
Noturus miurus. Brindled madtom.—Occa-
sionally taken at Stations 2 to 9.
Pylodictis olivaris. Flathead catfish.—One
large specimen taken from backwater area.
APHREDODERIDAE
Aphredoderus sayanus. Pirate perch—
Three specimens taken from backwater
area.
CYPRINODONTIDAE
Fundulus notatus. Blackstripe topminnow~*.
—Common from Stations 1 to 16. Most
abundant in areas of little or no flow. Spec-
imens were observed but not collected at
FisHes oF GoosE CREEK, KENTucKy—White et al. 51
Stations 1 to 9 as this species is resistant
to electrofishing gear.
POECILIIDAE
Gambusia affinis. Mosquitofish—Common
throughout length of stream. Most abun-
dant in patches of duckweed.
PERCICHTHYIDAE
Morone chrysops. White bass.—Several
small specimens taken in early spring from
backwater area.
CENTRARCHIDAE
Ambloplites rupestris. Rock bass.—Col-
lected in deeper pools at Stations 2 to 15
but never abundant.
Lepomis cyanellus. Green sunfish*.—Sev-
eral large specimens taken at Stations 2
to 15.
Lepomis gulosus. Warmouth*.—Taken in
moderate numbers from deeper pools at
Stations 2 to 15.
Lepomis humilis. Orangespotted sunfish*.
' —Four specimens taken at Stations 2 to 5.
Lepomis macrochirus. Bluegill*.—Very
abundant and taken at all stations. Young
of the year and adults present together
around stumps, log jams, and undercut
areas of the bank. Nests built and spawn-
ing observed at Stations 9 to 16 in late
June.
Lepomis megalotis. Longear sunfish*.—
Abundant and usually taken with blue-
gill. Not found above Station 16. Fish
active on nests; spawning observed at same
time and in same pools as bluegill. Young
of the year taken from backwater area in
early August.
Lepomis microlophus. Redear sunfish.—
Occasionally taken at Stations 2 to 15
with bluegill and longear sunfish.
Micropterus dolomieui. Smallmouth bass.—
Five small specimens taken at backwater
area.
Micropterus punctulatus. Spotted bass*.—
Several small specimens taken at Stations
2 to 9 with occasional specimens taken
from deep pools at Stations 11 and 15. Not
as abundant in backwater area where
largemouth bass was dominant.
Micropterus salmoides. Largemouth bass*.
—Most common of the 3 blackbasses. Sev-
eral up to 1.3 kg taken from backwater area.
Found in deeper pools at Stations 1 to 15.
Spawning observed at Stations 10 and 11
in early June.
Pomoxis annularis. White crappie.—Occa-
sional specimens taken at Stations 2 to 15.
Pomoxis nigromaculatus. Black crappie—
One large specimen taken from backwater
area.
PERCIDAE
Etheostoma blennioides. Greenside darter.
—Three specimens taken from Little Goose
Creek.
Etheostoma caeruleum. Rainbow darter.
—Abundant in riffles at Stations 9 to 15.
Breeding observed in deeper areas of riffles
during late April.
Etheostoma flabellare. Fantail darter*.—
Most abundant of the darters. Present in
the riffles at Stations 9 to 23. Males with
breeding colors and tubercles present in
April. Breeding not observed.
Etheostoma nigrum. Johnny darter.—A few
specimens taken from Little Goose Creek.
Percina caprodes. Logperch.—Three large
specimens taken from backwater area.
Stizostedion canadense. Sauger.—A few
small specimens taken from backwater area.
Common in Ohio River.
SCIAENIDAE
Aplodinotus grunniens. Freshwater drum*.
—Abundant in backwater area during
spring. Several also taken at Stations 3 to
SF
COTTIDAE
Cottus carolinae. Banded sculpin.—Five
specimens taken from Little Goose Creek.
Ot
bo
RIFFLE-POO BEDROCK
2 13 14 S/i6 I7 18 19 20 at 22 2
MA FLABELLARE
RHINICHTHYS ATRATULUS |
<=>
Fic. 3. Distribution of the common fishes in
Goose Creek, Jefferson County, Kentucky. Width
of line represents relative abundance of a species
but not relationships between species.
DISCUSSION
The fish populations of Goose Creek do
not differ notably from those of other
north-central Kentucky streams (Charles
1957, Turner 1959, Minckley 1963, Hoyt et
al. 1970). Distribution and habitats of the
species were similar to the descriptions by
Forbes and Richardson (1920), Trautman
(1957), and Minckley (1963); and all spe-
cies collected in Goose Creek had been re-
ported previously from Ohio River tribu-
taries by Gerking (1945), Trautman (1957),
Krumholz et al. (1962) and others.
Physically, the stream can be divided
into 4 distinct regions each with its charac-
teristic species. Fig. 3 depicts the range
and relative abundance of the more abun-
dant fishes in each region of Goose Creek
during 1972. Only Lepomis macrochirus
and Gambusia affinis were collected at
every station. Other than Dorosoma cepe-
dianum and Notropis atherinoides, very few
fish of any species were collected at Station
1. Boat traffic within that section of the
creek and the wakes from barges and other
boats on the Ohio River together with the
extremely silty substrate was not favorable
for either the stream or river fishes. The
Trans. KeENtucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
large log jams at the foot of Station 2 pro-
vided a good habitat for Cyprinus carpio
and the larger Centrarchidae. The only
sport fishing ever observed on Goose Creek
was at Station 2 where many people fished
from the River Road bridges and from
the banks; however, no creel census was
attempted. Of the 63 species in Goose
Creek, 46 were collected in the backwater
of Stations 1 and 2. Twenty of the 46
were recorded only from the backwater,
most of which were waifs from the Ohio
River including Morone chrysops, Pylodic-
tis olivaris, Moxostoma carinatum, Ictiobus
bubalus, and others.
Above Station 2 there was a more orderly
longitudinal succession of stream fishes.
Most species were confined to or were
most abundant in one particular region of
the stream. Minytrema melanops and Mox-
ostoma erythrurum were most numerous in
Stations 1 to 6 and were replaced in the
riffle—pool stations by Catostomus commer-
soni and Hypentelium nigricans. The major
predators of the pool stations, Micropterus
punctulatus and M. salmoides, were re-
placed in the riffle-pool region by Lepomis
megalotis and L. gulosus. The most abun-
dant species of the backwater and pool,
Dorosoma cepedianum and Notropis ather-
inoides, were replaced in the riffle—pools
by Campostoma anomalum and Pimephales
notatus. Only six of the 63 species were
taken above Station 15. At the bedrock |
stations, the water usually was too shallow —
to support any but the smallest species
(Fig. 3). The intrastream distribution of
the Goose Creek fishes closely parallels
what Minckley (1963) observed for Doe
Run.
The species collected in Goose Creek did
not utilize the stream equally but can be
divided artificially into 3 groups (Table
2): (1) fishes that completed their life
cycle in Goose Creek, not normally found
in the Ohio River except as waifs; (2)
species with permanent populations in both
Goose Creek and the Ohio River; and (3)
those using Goose Creek during only cer-
tain parts of the year or their life cycle.
Noturus and some Ictalurus (bullheads) are
FisHes OF GoosE CrEEK, KeENtucky—White et al. 53
TABLE 2.—CLASSIFICATION OF THE FISHES OF GOOSE CREEK AS INDICATED BY THEIR UTILIZATION
OF THE STREAM: (1) THOSE COMPLETING THEIR LIFE CYCLE IN GOOSE CREEK AND NOT NORMALLY
FOUND IN THE OHIO RIVER; (2) FISHES WITH PERMANENT POPULATIONS IN BOTH GOOSE CREEK AND
THE Onto RIVER; AND (3) THOSE SPECIES USING GOOSE CREEK DURING ONLY PARTS OF THE YEAR
OR OF THEIR LIFE CYCLE
i 2
Esox americanus vermiculatus
Campostoma anomalum
Ericymba buccata
Notropis ardens
N. cornutus chrysocephalus
N. spilopterus
Pimephales notatus
Rhinichthys atratulus
Semotilus atromaculatus
Catostomus commersoni
Hypentelium nigricans
Minytrema melanops
Fundulus notatus
Gambusia affinis
Ambloplites rupestris
Lepomis cyanellus
L. gulosus
Etheostoma blennioides
E. caeruleum
E. flabellare
E. nigrum
Percina caprodes
Cottus carolinae
Cyprinus carpio
L. megalotis
L. microlophus
M. salmoides
not included in the categories as we felt
our collection methods did not sample
their populations adequately.
Group (1) is the characteristic stream
fauna usually not taken in larger rivers
(Trautman 1957, Forbes and Richardson
1920, Krumholz et al. 1962). Of the 63
species collected, 22 fell into this category.
Most of them prefer the riffles or small
pools between Stations 8 and 15; although,
others such as Minytrema are backwater
and pool fishes.
Group (2) contains 11 of the 63 species.
These are river and lake species found year
round in the Ohio River and in the back-
water and pool stations of Goose Creek.
Even though they exist in great numbers
in the Ohio River, most, particularly the
Centrarchidae, return to a smaller stream
to spawn.
Group (3) is composed primarily of
those fishes that have sporadic migrations
into Goose Creek. As indicated in the
Dorosoma cepedianum
Carassius auratus
Notropis atherinoides
Moxostoma erythrurum
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropterus punctulatus
Pomoxis annularis
3
Lepisosteus osseus
L. platostomus
Anguilla rostrata
Alosa chrysochloris
Hybopsis storeriana
Notemigonus chrysoleucas
Notropis blennius
N. stramineus
Carpiodes carpio
C. cyprinus
Ictiobus bubalus
I. niger
Moxostoma anisurum
M. carinatum
M. duquesnei
Ictalurus punctatus
Pylodictis olivaris
Aphrododerus sayanus
Morone chrysops
Lepomis humilis
Micropterus dolomieui
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
Stizostedion canadense
Aplodinotus grunniens
annotations, many were represented by 1
specimen or by a single collection, usually
from the backwater; and thus, they might
not be counted as true residents of the
creek. At times, the transient species were
quite numerous at Station 2. In the win-
ter and spring, Group (3) species com-
posed as much as 90 percent by weight of
the total catch, the most abundant being
Ictalurus punctatus and Aplodinotus grun-
niens. The transient species utilized Goose
Creek for spawning, seasonal foraging, pro-
tection during periods of high water, and
as a refuge for the young. Group (3)
also includes many species that are not
common in either Goose Creek or the Ohio
River, e.g., Moxostoma anisurum and Aph-
redoderus sayanus.
With many of the species that spend
their entire life cycles in Goose Creek,
there were seasonal intrastream migrations,
especially during spawning periods. This
was most noticeable in the migrations of
o4 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2)
:
X— Station not sampled
|
Number of Specimens
ef a t
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
I9 7
May June July Aug Sep
Sige.
Fic. 4. Average number per month of adult Minytrema melanops taken in Stations 1 to 9 in Goose
Creek, Jefferson County, Kentucky.
Minytrema melanops (Fig. 4). While 1- and
2-year-old Minytrema were found through-
out the year at Station 9, adults were pres-
ent there only in the spring when they
usually were absent from the lower pool
stations. During the remainder of the year,
the adults were most abundant at Stations
2 to 4. This pattern was similar for many
Goose Creek species, though the times of
migration varied greatly.
TABLE 3.—NUMBER OF _ SPECIES, ESTIMATED
WEIGHTS (KG/HA), AND ESTIMATED POPULATIONS
AT 3 STATIONS ON GOOSE CREEK DURING 1972
Number of
Station Month species kg/ha no/ha
2 Feb 8 355 8,490
Apr 10 265 8,250
Jul 10 190 8,180
Oct 9 180 4,270
9 Feb 1d 145 5,680
Apr 14 200 7,150
jul 10 130 6,900
Oct 10 110 4,800
15 Feb 7 65 3,920
Apr 10 80 4,720
Tul 7 9 700
Oct 5 6 660
Standing crops of the fishes from Goose
Creek (Table 3) were calculated on the
basis of the DeLury (1947) type estimates.
Throughout the year, Station 2 had the
greatest populations both in terms of num-
bers and weights. The 355 and 265 kg/ha
recorded for February and April reflect
the immigration of Cyprinus carpio, Icta-
lurus punctatus, and Aplodinotus grun-
niens from the Ohio River. |
Station 9 had its greatest populations of
fishes in April and July. The high weight
in April (200 kg/ha) resulted from the
spawning migrations of Minytrema mela-
nops and Moxostoma erythrurum compared
to July when spawners were mainly cen-
trarchids.
Station 15, when sampled in February
and April, had numerous schools of min-
nows, darters, and small sunfishes. In
spring 1972, Goose Creek above Station
15 (Westport Road) was channelized and
received a tremendous amount of silt from
the construction of an apartment complex.
The pools, which originally were 0.5 to 1.0
m deep with gravel over bedrock bottoms,
had been covered completely by 25 to 30
FIsHES OF GOOSE CREEK,
cm of silt. Population estimates made in
July and October 1972 showed a tremen-
dous decrease in both the weights and
numbers, although, most species previously
collected were still present. The siltation
eliminated all darters between Stations 12
and 16.
The effects of numerous sewage treat-
ment plants on Goose Creek have not been
investigated adequately enough to allow
more than speculation on their present
role in the stream ecology. No fish kills
were seen by us or were reported during
the study period. Even though large
amounts of untreated sewage periodically
entered Goose Creek, oxygen levels except
in the backwater area were always at or
above 100 percent saturation (Table 1).
At present levels, the amount of sewage
entering Goose Creek may be aiding fish
production. For the total stream, Goose
Creek averaged 143 kg/ha of fish. This
is higher than 90 kg/ha determined for the
Salt River (Hoyt et al. 1970) and in general
is higher than other north-central Kentucky
streams cited by Charles (1957) and
Turner (1959).
LITERATURE CITED
AMERICAN PuBLIC HEALTH AsSOCIATION. 1971.
Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater. 13th ed. Amer.
Public Health Ass., Washington, D. C. 874 pp.
BaiLey, R. M., J. E. Fircu, E. S. HERAxp, E. A.
LACHNER, C. C. LinpsEy, C. R. RosBins, AND
W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of common and
scientific names of fishes from the United
States and Canada. 3rd ed. Amer. Fish. Soc.
Spec. Publ. 6:1—150.
CHARLES, J. R. 1957. Final report on population
manipulation studies in three Kentucky
streams. Proc. Southeast. Ass. Game Fish
Comm. 11:155-184.
Ciay, W. M. 1962. A field manual of Kentucky
fishes. Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frankfort,
Ky. 147 pp.
DeLury, D. B. 1947. On the estimation of bio-
logical populations. Biometrics 3:145-167.
Kentucky—White et al. 55
Eppy, S. 1969. How to know the freshwater
fishes. Wm. C. Brown, Co., Dubuque, Iowa.
253 pp.
ForBEs, S. A., AND R. E. RicHArpson. 1920.
The fishes of Illinois. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv.,
Urbana, Ill. 358 pp.
Gerkinc, S. D. 1945. The distribution of the
fishes of Indiana. Invest. Ind. Lakes Streams
3:283-309.
Horton, R. W. 1945. Erosional development of
streams and their drainage basins; hydro-
physical approach to quantitative morphol-
ogy. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 56:275-370.
Hoyt, R. D., S. E. NeErr, anp L. A. KRUMHOLZ.
1970. An annotated list of the fishes from
the upper Salt River, Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 31:51-63.
KruUMHOLZ, L. A., J. R. CHARLES, AND W. L.
MINcKLEY. 1962. The fish population of the
Ohio River. In: Aquatic life resources of the
Ohio River. Ohio River Valley Water Sanit.
Comm., Cincinnati, Ohio. 218 pp.
KrRuMHOLZz, L. A., AND S. E. Nerr. 1975. Abate-
ment of pollution in Hite Creek, Jefferson
and Oldham counties, Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 36:25-37.
KuEHNE, R. A. 1962. A classification of streams,
illustrated by fish distribution in an eastern
Kentucky creek. Ecology 43:608-614.
LarimoreE, R. W., L. DuRHAM, AND G. W. BEN-
NETT. 1950. A modification of the electric
fish shocker for lake work. J. Wildl. Manage.
14:320-323.
McFaruan, A. C. 1943. Geology of Kentucky.
Univ. Ky. Press, Lexington, Ky. 531 pp.
Minck Ey, W. L. 1963. The ecology of a spring
stream, Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky.
Wildl. Monogr. 11:1—124.
NerF, S. E., anp L. A. Krumuouz. 1973. A
detailed investigation of the sociological, eco-
nomic, and ecological aspects of proposed
reservoir sites in the Salt River Basin of Ken-
tucky. Univ. Ky. Water Res. Inst., Res.
Rept. 67. 66 pp.
ResH, V. H., R. D. Hoyt, ann S. E. Nerr. 1978.
The status of the common shiner, Notropis
cornutus chrysocephalus (Rafinesque), in
Kentucky. Proc. Southeast. Ass. Game Fish
Comm. 25:550-556.
TuRNER, W. R. 1959. Pre-impoundment surveys
of six Kentucky streams. Ky. Fish Bull. 24.
43 pp.
TRAUTMAN, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio
St. Univ. Press, Columbus, Ohio. 683 pp.
Studies on the Passive Transfer via Serum of Immunity
to Hymenolepis nana in the Mouse Mus musculus’
SHARON PATTON®
Thomas Hunt Morgan School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40506
ABSTRACT
Five experiments were conducted to investigate the passive transfer via serum of immunity
to Hymenolepis nana in the white mouse. Serum collected from mice that received 5,000
H. nana eggs by mouth 14 days before bleeding (Type I serum) was used in 3 experiments.
Serum collected on Day 28 from mice that received 1,000 eggs on Day 0 and 10,000 eggs
on Day 14 (Type I serum) was used in the fourth experiment. Serum collected on Day 42
from mice that received 1,000 eggs on Day 0, 5,000 eggs on Day 14, and 10,000 eggs on
Day 28 (Type III serum) was used in the fifth experiment.
The sera were injected intraperitoneally into 6- to 8-week-old mice, and the recipients
were challenged orally with 10,000 eggs. Control mice were challenged after the injection
of normal serum. Fewer cysticercoids developed in the mice treated with 1 ml of Type I
serum immediately prior to the administration of eggs than in controls injected with normal
serum before egg administration. The duration of the protection afforded by Type I serum
lasted less than 6 hours and was not prolonged by increasing the amount of serum injected
to 2 ml. The injection of Type II and Type III serum extended the protective period to
35 days. The extended period of resistance from Type II and Type III sera suggests an
anamnestic response following a second exposure to eggs. The transient nature of the pro-
tection indicated that the passive resistance probably was antibody mediated.
INTRODUCTION
Hymenolepis nana, the dwarf tapeworm
of man and rodents, is an exception among
cestodes in that it does not require an inter-
mediate host although it may utilize one
in an alternate indirect life cycle (see
Heyneman 1962a for a review). Eggs in-
gested directly by the vertebrate host hatch
in the duodenum and release onchospheres
that invade the mucosal lining and develop
into cysticercoids in the intestinal villi. The
cysticercoids become fully developed in 96
hours, begin leaving the villi at approx-
imately 102 hours, migrate into the ileum,
evaginate, attach, and develop into mature
worms.
When an infection is induced by eggs,
a tissue invasive stage is involved and host
resistance to reinfection is acquired. An
infection of just 200 to 500 eggs can elicit
a lasting immunity, which is first discern-
1From a dissertation submitted to the Graduate School
of the University of Kentucky in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
2Present address: Department of Veterinary Science,
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506.
36
ible 9 hours after initial infection, marked
at 12 hours, and practically absolute after
24 hours (Hearin 1941).
White mice were resistant to a challenge
of H. nana eggs after intraperitoneal in-
jections of serum from experimentally in-
fected donors (Hearin 1941). It is not
clear if this actually demonstrated passive —
transfer of immunity because the persis-
tence of the protection was not investi-
gated. Weinmann (1966) reported that
serum from infected mice had varying
degrees of protection against oral chal-
lenges of H. nana eggs. A humoral basis
for the immunity was demonstrated by
DiConza (1969) when he found that serum
from mice infected with H. nana contained
IgG (7S) immunoglobulin fraction which
had a strong antiparasitic activity against
subcutaneously injected, growing H. nana
larvae. The sera of mice that received a
single oral injection of eggs acquired sig-
nificant immune activity within 7 days; the
maximum level was reached at 14 days and
maintained until Day 28. The present
PASSIVE TRANSFER OF IMMuUNITY—Patton 504
study was conducted to evaluate further
the role of serum in the immunity to H.
nana in mice and to measure the duration
of the passively transferred protection.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank the Graduate School of the Uni-
versity of Kentucky for financial assistance
in the form of a Dissertation Year Fellow-
ship and a research grant during the last
year of this research. Special thanks and
appreciation are extended to Professor J.
M. Edney, School of Biological Sciences,
for his suggestions and encouragement
throughout the study. Also, I am grateful
to Dr. J. H. Drudge, Department of Vet-
erinary Science, for advice concerning the
preparation of the manuscript.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A breeding colony of Swiss albino mice
was purchased from Maxfield Supply, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio, established, and maintained
under Hymenolepis free conditions. Only
those animals negative for H. nana, as de-
termined by fecal examinations over a 6-
week period, were used to establish the
initial colonies. The experimental mice
were isolated from the colonies when ap-
proximately one month old.
Initial infections of mature tapeworms
were established from an exogenous source
of H. nana eggs secured from Carolina
Biological Supply Co., Burlington, N. C.;
thereafter, hosts with patent infections of
worms were killed to obtain eggs. Desired
numbers of eggs for administration to ex-
perimental animals were prepared by Hey-
nemen’s (1962a) egg dilution count. Eggs
were administered to the animals via stom-
ach tube while mice were lightly anes-
thetized with ether. Cysticercoids that
developed in the small intestine of infected
mice were counted by the method of Hun-
ninen (1935). The following nonpara-
metric statistical tests were used to deter-
mine the significance of the observed
differences in the numbers of cysticercoids
recovered from the serum treated and the
nontreated groups: (1) Wilcoxon Rank Sum
Test (Wilcoxon et al. 1963) when compar-
ing 2 groups, (2) Kruskal-Walis One-Way
Analysis of Variance for Ranks (Spence
et al. 1968) when comparing more than 2
groups, and (3) Dunn Multiple Compari-
son Test for Rank Sums (Dunn 1964).
Serum was obtained from blood drawn
from mice by cardiac extravasation. Blood
was allowed to clot at room temperature
for 1 to 3 hours and the serum separated
by centrifugation at 2,500 rpm for 10 min.
Serum from within a group of mice was
pooled and frozen at —20 C without pre-
servatives. Before inoculation the serum
was thawed and mixed thoroughly.
Serum was collected from mice 14 days
after an initial infection of eggs or 14 days
after a challenge dose of eggs was admin-
istered. Three schedules for drawing blood
were coordinated with administration of H.
nana eggs: (1) Type I serum was derived
from blood collected on Day 14 from mice
that received 5,000 eggs on Day 0, (2)
Type II serum was prepared from blood
collected on Day 28 from mice that re-
ceived 1,000 eggs on Day 0 and 10,000
eggs on Day 14, (3) Type III serum was
prepared from blood collected on Day 42
from mice that received 1,000 eggs on Day
0, 5,000 eggs on Day 14, and 10,000 eggs
on Day 28. Uninfected mice were bled to
provide normal sera.
The sera were injected intraperitoneally
into 6- to 8-week-old mice. Those mice
received an oral challenge of 10,000 eggs
at various specified times following serum
injection. Control mice were challenged
after injection of normal serum. Ninety-
six hours after the challenge doses of eggs
were administered, cysticercoids in each
group were counted as an index of the
manifestation of the immune response.
Experimental Design for Type I Serum
In Experiment A, 3 groups of 5 mice
each were used. Each mouse received 1
ml of serum. Type I serum was inoculated
into the mice of Groups 1 and 2, and normal
serum was injected into Group 3 mice.
Eggs were administered to the mice of
Groups | and 3 immediately after injection
of serum and to the mice of Group 2, 6
hours after inoculation of serum.
58 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
500
cc = Challenge Controls
400
Mean Number Of Cysticercoids
ores
oe Gace, Oe
ExperimentA
deeee
sedans
sttee
6 ce
Experiment C
0)
6
Hours Between Final Serum Inoculation And Egg Challenge
Fic. 1. Effect of intraperitoneal injection of Type I serum on the number of H. nana cysticercoids
developing in the intestinal villi of white mice following a 10,000-egg challenge.
In Experiment B, 4 groups of 5 mice each
were used. Each mouse was inoculated
with 2 ml of serum. Type I serum was ad-
ministered to the mice of Groups 1, 2, and
3, and normal serum was administered to
the mice of Group 4. Eggs were admin-
istered to the mice of Groups 1 and 4 im-
mediately after injection of serum; to the
mice of Group 2, 6 hours after injection of
serum; and to the mice of Group 3, 12
hours after injection of serum.
In Experiment C, 4 groups of 5 mice each
were used. Each mouse was injected with
0.5 ml of serum on successive days. Group
1 mice received 2 injections of Type I
serum; Group 2 mice received 3 injections of
Type I serum; Group 3 mice received 4 in-
jections of Type I serum; and Group 4 mice
received 4 injections of normal serum. Eggs
were administered 6 hours after the last
dose of serum to the mice of all groups.
Experimental Design for Type II Serum
In Experiment D, 12 groups of 10 mice
each were used. One-half of the mice
were injected with 1-ml amounts of Type
II serum and the other half were inoculated
with 1-ml amounts of normal serum. Eggs
were administered immediately, 12 hours,
1, 3, 7, 10, 12,14; 21, 28::353;eneeeays
after sera were injected.
Experimental Design for Type III Serum
In Experiment E, 3 groups of 10 mice
each were used. One-half of the mice were
injected with l-ml amounts of Type III
serum and the other half were inoculated
with 1-ml amounts of normal serum. Eggs
were administered 28, 35, or 42 days after
the sera were injected.
RESULTS
In Experiment A, there was a significant
difference in the number of cysticercoids
that developed among the 3 groups (P =
0.01). Fewer cysticercoids developed in
those treated with the Type I serum im-
mediately prior to egg inoculation (Fig.
1). The protective effect lasted less than
6 hours (P = 0.1).
PASSIVE TRANSFER OF IMMuUNITY—Patton 59
200
140 . Normal Serum
Mean Number Of Cysticercoids
3
i=]
a0 Type Ii Serum
Ont 3 7 10 12 14
21 28 35 42
Number Of Days Between Serum Injection And Egg Inoculation
Fic. 2. Effect of intraperitoneal injection of 1l-ml doses of Type II serum on the number of
H. nana cysticercoids developing in white mice after a 10,000-egg challenge at intervals during
a 42-day period after serum injection (Experiment D).
Similarly, in Experiment B there was a
significant difference in the numbers of
cysticercoids that developed among the 4
groups of mice (P = 0.01). Fewer cysti-
cercoids developed in the mice of Group
1 which were treated with Type I serum
and inoculated with eggs immediately
thereafter (P = 0.1). As shown in Fig. 1,
the number of cysticercoids was reduced
in the group of mice given eggs 6 hours
after the injection of serum; however, this
was not statistically significant (P = 0.1).
The number of cysticercoids that de-
veloped in the mice of the 4 groups of Ex-
periment C were not significantly different
(P = 0.1); therefore, the multiple injections
were not effective against the H. nana
challenge (Fig. 1).
The mean numbers of cysticercoids that
developed in each group of mice of Ex-
periment D are shown in Fig. 2. The num-
bers of cysticercoids in the animals injected
with Type II serum and inoculated with
eggs immediately to 28 days later were
significantly fewer than the numbers in the
control animals that received eggs at the
same time intervals after the injection of
normal serum (P = 0.01). Although still
detectable, that difference was not as
marked at 35 days (P = 0.1), and had
disappeared by 42 days (P = 0.1) (Fig.
ra
The mean numbers of cysticercoids that
developed in each group of mice of Ex-
periment E are shown in Fig. 3. A similar
number of cysticercoids developed in each
group that received the normal serum (P =
0.1), but there was a significant difference
among groups that received the Type III
serum (P = 0.01). Fewer cysticercoids
developed in the animals treated with Type
III serum 28 days (P = 0.01) and 35 days
(P = 0.1) prior to the administration eggs
than in the corresponding control groups.
There was not, however, a significant dif-
ference between the numbers of cysticer-
coids that developed in the 2 42-day groups
Ost.)
DISCUSSION
Type I serum collected from donor white
mice 14 days after an initial dose of eggs
and injected intraperitoneally into homol-
ogous recipients was effective for less than
6 hours in decreasing the number of cysti-
cercoids that developed following a chal-
60 TRANS. KeENTuCcKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
MEAN NUMBER OF CYSTICERCOIDS
DAYS BETWEEN SERUM INJECTION AND EGG
INOCULATION
KS NORMAL SERUM
[a TYPE II| SERUM
Fic. 3. Effect of intraperitoneal injection of 1-ml
doses of Type III serum on the number of H. nana
cysticercoids developing in white mice after a
10,000-egg challenge at intervals during a 42-day
period after serum injection (Experiment E).
lenge dose of eggs. The protective value
of Type I serum was transient and so low
that daily injection of 0.5 ml was inef-
fective. One ml of the serum was a suf-
ficient quantity to protect mice against a
challenge exposure of 10,000 eggs.
Both Type II and Type III sera, collected
after additional challenge doses of eggs,
extended the period of protection to 35
days, and the protection was dissipated
gradually. The increased efficacy of these
sera suggest an anamnestic response fol-
lowing a second exposure to eggs. The
prolonged period of protection and the
decrease in total numbers of cysticercoids
developing in the animals treated with
Type II or Type III sera as compared to
the recipients of Type I serum indicates
that the former response could occur in
naturally acquired immunity against H.
nana.
Hearin (1941) transferred resistance
against a challenge dose of H. nana eggs
to susceptible mice by prior injection of
them with multiple doses of serum from
infected white mice. The persistence of
the protection was not investigated; so it is
possible that the immunity demonstrated
was stimulated by antigen (penetration or
metabolic enzymes of the worm) trans-
ferred with the serum, rather than a pas-
sive resistance related to the antibodies
present. In the present investigations, the
rapid onset of the protection after the in-
jection of the sera and the transient nature
of the protection confirmed that immunity
against H. nana can be transferred pas-
sively with serum from infected mice.
Weinmann (1966) found the protection
afforded by serum from infected mice to
be variable in passive transfer experiments;
however, the interval between the infection
of the donor mice and the collection of
their blood varied from 2 to 6 weeks rather
than the 14-day interval indicated by Di-
Conza (1969).
Serum injected into the peritoneal cav-
ities of mice should reach the circulation by
way of lymphatics in a very short period of
time (Weiss 1972). In the present study,
it is presumed that the time necessary for
the protective factors of the immune serum
to reach the intestinal area was compatible
with the time it took the eggs to hatch and
the onchospheres to reach the intestinal
villi. In active immunity acquired by in-
fection, the majority of onchospheres in
a second dose of eggs are unable to pene-
trate the intestinal villi (Bailey 1951). Ac-
cording to Weinmann (1966), immune
serum also inhibits the onchosphere at the
mucosal surface, presumably by extravasa-
tion of passively transferred antibody into
the intestinal lumen or by adsorption of
the antibody onto the tissues of the host.
Therefore, the protective property of the
serum would have to be present within
at least the first 12 hours after the admin-
istration of eggs.
The half-life of IgG, IgA, and IgM is
on the order of 4, 1.2, and 0.5 days, re-
spectively (Fahey and Sell 1965). If,
indeed, the protection observed in the pres-
ent investigations was due to antibody, the
titer of Type I serum was low, as indicated
by the fact that the protection had dis-
PASsIvE TRANSFER OF IMMuUNITY—Patton 61
appeared in 6 hours. Shorter time periods
were not tested, so the exact duration of
the protection is unknown. Increasing the
amount of serum injected from 1 ml to 2 ml
did not prolong the period of protection;
however, a higher dose of eggs was not
tested, and it is possible that an increased
amount of serum would prevent the de-
velopment of larger doses of eggs.
In a naturally acquired infection, rein-
fection immunity may be detected by 12
hours and become very strong by 24 hours
(Hearin 1941; Bailey 1951; Weinmann
1958; Heyneman 1962a, 1962b). This
rapid onset seems to obfuscate the role of
antibody in the initial onset of naturally
acquired immunity. Twelve hours may be
insufficient time for a detectable antibody
response. Heyneman (1962b) proposed
that detection of rapid antibody production
in serum is delayed by the large dilution
factor, but in cases where the intestinal
mucosa is directly challenged in the ab-
sence of a blood borne transport mecha-
nism, a 12- to 24-hour period may be
possible.
Okamoto (1970) and Okamoto and Koi-
zumi (1972) demonstrated that the thymus
was involved in the development of ac-
quired immunity to H. nana. Levine and
Claman (1970) indicated that more than
one cell type was necessary for at least
some of the antibody responses in the
mouse. The present study shows that pro-
tective humoral factors (possibly protec-
tive antibody) are present in mice follow-
ing H. nana infection. Although antibodies
may not be the major agent working against
H. nana challenge in naturally occurring
infections, a T-cell-dependent antibody re-
sponse is possible and should be investi-
gated further.
LITERATURE CITED
BaiLey, W. S. 1951. Host—tissue reactions to ini-
tial and superimposed infections with Hyme-
nolepis nana var. fraterna. J. Parasitol. 37:
440-444,
DiConza, J. J. 1969. Protective action of pas-
sively transferred immune serum and immu-
noglobulin fractions against tissue invasive
stages of the dwarf tapeworm, Hymenolepis
nana. Exp. Parasitol. 25:368—375.
Dunn, O. J. 1964. Multiple comparisons using
rank sums. Technometrics 6:241—252.
FaHeEy, J. L., anpD S. SELL. 1965. The immuno-
globulins of mice. V. The metabolic (cata-
bolic) properties of five immunoglobulin
classes. J. Exp. Med. 122:41—58.
Hearin, J. T. 1941. Studies on the acquired
immunity to the dwarf tapeworm, Hymenol-
epis nana var. fraterna in the mouse host.
Amer. J. Hyg. 33:71-87.
HEYNEMAN, D. 1962a. Studies on helminth im-
munity: I. Comparison between lumenal and
tissue phases of infection in the white mouse
by Hymenolepis nana (Cestoda: Hymeno-
lepididae). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 11:46-
63.
1962b. Studies on helminth immu-
nity. IV. Rapid onset of resistance by the
white mouse against a challenging infection
with eggs of Hymenolepis nana (Cestoda:
Hymenolepididae). J. Immunol. 88:217—220.
HuNNINEN, A. V. 1935. A method of demon-
strating cysticercoids of Hymenolepis fraterna
(H. nana var. fraterna Stiles) in the intes-
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LEvINE, M. A., anp H. N. Cuaman. 1970. Bone
marrow and spleen: dissociation of immuno-
logic properties by cortisone. Science 167:
1515-1517.
Oxamoto, K. 1970. Hymenolepis nana: depres-
sion and restoration of acquired immunity
in neonatally thymectomized. mice. Exp.
Parasitol. 27:28-32.
, AND M. Koizumi. 1972. Hymenolepis
nana: effect of antithymocyte serum on ac-
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56-61.
SPENCE, J. T., B. J. UNDERWOOD, C. P. DUNCAN,
AND J. W. Corron. 1968. Elementary Sta-
tistics. 2nd Ed. Meredith Corporation, Edu-
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New York, N.Y. 245 pp.
WEINMANN, C. J. 1958. Rate of development of
acquired immunity to Hymenolepis nana var.
fraterna. J. Parasitol. 44:16 (Ab).
1966. Immunity mechanisms in ces-
tode infections. Pp. 301-320 In E. J. L.
Soulsby (Ed.). Biology of Parasites. Aca-
demic Press, New York, N.Y. 354 pp.
Weiss, L. 1972. The Cells and Tissues of the
Immune System. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J. 252 pp.
Wiuicoxon, F., R. A. Wincox, AND S. K. Katt.
1963. Critical Values and Probability Levels
for the Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test and the
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test. American Cy-
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New York, N. Y., and Tallahassee, Fla. 64 pp.
Pathology in Mice Resulting from Concurrent Infestations with the
Bile Duct Dwellers Fasciola hepatica (Trematoda) and
Hymenolepis microstoma (Cestoda)'
Larry N. GLEASON®
Department of Parasitology and Laboratory Practice, School of Public Health,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514
ABSTRACT
Concurrent infestations in white mice were established using infesting doses of 2 Fasciola
hepatica metacercariae and 10 Hymenolepis microstoma cysticercoids. In Sequence I, F.
hepatica were given on Day 0 and H. microstoma on Day 37. H. microstoma were given on
Day 0 in Sequence II followed by F. hepatica on Day 20. In Sequence III, the midacute
phases of both infestations coincided, F. hepatica being given on Day 0 and H. microstoma
on Day 15. Pathologies previously described for each infestation were observed in the mice
of the concurrent infestation groups and in mice of the single species control groups. In
Sequence I, 2 additional pathologies were observed in mice of the concurrent infestation group:
(1) the eggs of F. hepatica were found in the tissues of the mice and (2) the generalized
necrosis in the liver associated with the acute phase of infestation with F. hepatica (18-35
days after infestation) was reestablished on Day 60 and continued through Day 120. In
Sequence II, the generalized necrosis in the livers of mice of the concurrent infestation
group continued through Day 90, 70 days after the infestation with F. hepatica. One mouse
of the concurrent infestation group in Sequence III was observed to have the eggs of F.
hepatica in the liver and biliary tissues.
INTRODUCTION
Extensive pathology in the liver is asso-
ciated with the infestation of mice by 2 bile
duct dwellers, the trematode Fasciola he-
patica and the cestode Hymenolepis micro-
stoma. The pathology resulting from the
obligatory liver migration by the trematode
and its subsequent inhabitation of the com-
mon bile duct have been the subject of
numerous reports in the literature and have
been summarized by Lang (1966, 1967).
Lang (1966) divided the course of a pri-
mary infestation with F. hepatica in mice
resulting from a 2-worm infesting dose into
3 phases: (1) the incubation phase (0-17
days after infestation), (2) the acute phase
(18-35 days after infestation), and (3) the
chronic with repair phase (36-250 days
+A portion of a dissertation submitted to the
Faculty of the University of North Carolina in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department
of Parasitology and Laboratory Practice, 1969.
* Present address: Department of Biology, West-
ern Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky
42101
after infestation). During the incubation
phase, damage to liver tissue was a direct
result of mechanical trauma caused by the
migrating worms. Severe liver damage and
some mortality were associated with the
acute phase of the infestation. Generalized
necrosis was present in large areas of the
liver and from 30-90 percent of the liver
appeared necrotic. The necrosis was asso-
ciated with lymphocytic infiltrations that
were not, generally, located near worm
burrows. The chronic phase of the infesta-
tion was initiated by the migration of the
worms from the liver tissue into the com-
mon bile duct. Damaged liver tissue was
replaced by regenerated parenchyma and
connective tissue. However, the lympho-
cytic infiltration was maintained.
Although the life cycle of the cestode
does not involve a liver migration, the in-
habitation of the common bile duct results
in extensive liver damage through the re-
lease of a toxin by the worms (Simpson and
Gleason 1975), and published reports
dealing with the pathology associated with
the infestation of mice are numerous. These
62
PATHOLOGY IN MICE FROM PARASITIC INFESTATION—Gleason 63
oe
rs
~~
oe
«
menolepis microstoma. Fig. 1. Generalized necrosis in the liver on Day 90. Many lymphocytes are
present at the periphery of the necrotic area and in the sinusoids. 140. Fig. 2. Eggs of F. hepat-
ica trapped in serous exudate at region where the epithelial lining of the common bile duct has been
eroded away (Day 50). x140. Fig. 3. Eggs of F. hepatica in the tissue of the common bile duct on
Day 70. x140. Fig. 4. Eggs of F. hepatica in the wall of the cystic duct on Day 80. 140.
64 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2)
have been summarized by Gleason (1971).
Gleason (1971) divided the course of a
primary infestation with H. microstoma in
mice resulting from a 10-worm infesting
dose into 3 phases: (1) incubation phase
(0-6 days after infestation), (2) acute
phase (7-20 days after infestation), and
(3) chronic phase (21-150 days after in-
festation). During the incubation phase,
there was very little damage to the liver.
The acute phase was initiated by the rapid
formation of focal lesions in the paren-
chyma of the liver. Those lesions were
characterized by degenerated hepatic cells
surrounded by infiltrating leukocytes, pre-
dominantly neutrophils. During the chronic
phase of the infestation, focal lesions were
still formed, but apparently at a reduced
rate, allowing repair processes to keep pace
with lesion formation.
This study presents some _ additional
pathology in mice that results from con-
current infestation with F. hepatica and H.
microstoma and variation in the pathology
related to sequence and timing of the
infestations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I gratefully acknowledge the assistance
of the faculty of the Department of Para-
sitology and Laboratory Practice through-
out this study. Special thanks are due Dr.
James R. Hendricks for his guidance, en-
couragement, and criticism. Dr. Bruce Z.
Lang was instrumental in the selection of
the problem and his advice and encourage-
ment are gratefully acknowledged. Mr.
Merlin D. Gleason supplied the original
source of Fasciola hepatica.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The Swiss white mice used in this study
were males, 15-16 weeks old at the begin-
ning of the experiments, from a randomly
bred strain maintained in the Department
of Parasitology and Laboratory Practice,
University of North Carolina, for more than
30 years. The stock of F. hepatica was
isolated from a naturally infested. cow in
northern California and maintained in the
laboratory as described by Lang (1966).
The stock of H. microstoma was originally
obtained from Dr. Arthur Jones, University
of Tennessee, Knoxville, and maintained in
the laboratory as described by Litchford
(1963).
In Sequence I, an infestation with H.
microstoma was imposed upon a patent
infestation with F. hepatica. Each of the
64 mice of the concurrent infestation group
and the 32 mice of the F. hepatica control
group received 2 metacercariae of F. hepat-
ica by mouth on Day 0. On Day 37, each
of the mice remaining in the concurrent
infestation group and the 16 mice of the
H. microstoma single species control group
received 10 cysticercoids of H. microstoma
by mouth. One mouse from each group
was killed to obtain tissues for histologic
preparations on the days indicated: con-
current infestation group—Days 37, 44, 48,
50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, and 120; F. he-
patica single species control group—Days
20, 30, 50, 80, and 120; and H. microstoma
single species control group—Days 50 and
120. During this experimental sequence
and those reported below, some mice died
as a result of the infestations and some
mice were killed to determine worm num-
ber, size, and location, as previously re-
ported by Gleason (1974).
In Sequence II, an infestation with F.
hepatica was imposed upon a patent in-
festation with H. microstoma. The 40 mice
of the concurrent infestation group and the
24 mice of the H. microstoma single species
control group each received 10 cysticer-
coids of H. microstoma on Day 0. Two
metacercariae of F. hepatica were given to
each of the mice in the concurrent infesta-
tion group and the 32 mice in the F. hepat-
ica single species control group on Day 20.
One mouse from each group was killed to
obtain tissues for histologic preparations on
the days indicated: concurrent infestation
group—Days 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 90,
and 100; H. microstoma single species con-
trol group—Days 20, 40, 60, and 100; and
F. hepatica single species control group—
Days 40, 45, 50, 60, and 100.
The timing of the infestations in Se-
quence III was such that the acute phases
PATHOLOGY IN MICE FROM PARASITIC INFESTATION—Gleason 65
of the infestations coincided. Two metacer-
cariae of F. hepatica were given to each of
40 mice of the concurrent infestation group
and 28 mice of the F. hepatica single spe-
cies control group on Day 0. Ten cysticer-
coids of H. microstoma were given to each
mouse of the concurrent infestation group
and 18 mice of the H. microstoma single
species control group on Day 15. One
mouse from each group was killed to obtain
tissues for histologic preparations on the
days indicated: concurrent infestation
group—Days 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 45, 50, 60,
70, 80, and 100; F. hepatica single species
control group—Days 20, 25, 35, and 100;
and H. microstoma single species control
group—Days 20, 30, 40, and 100.
The tissue for histologic studies was pre-
pared for microscopic examination using a
microtome-cryostat as described by Glea-
son (1971).
RESULTS
The pathologies in the livers of the F.
hepatica and H. microstoma control mice
in the 3 experiments were similar to those
described previously for single species in-
festations resulting from the same infesting
doses (Lang 1966, Gleason 1971).
In Sequence I, the mice of the concurrent
infestation group were entering the chronic
phase of the infestation with F. hepatica at
the time the H. microstoma were given and
the pathology in the liver was in the process
of healing. The worm burrows were marked
by heavy infiltrations of neutrophils and
macrophages and the generalized necrosis
could be distinguished by the concentration
of lymphocytes in addition to the neutro-
phils and macrophages. The acute phase of
the infestation with H. microstoma, 6 to 20
days after infestation, occurred 43 to 57
days after the infestation with F. hepatica.
At that time, focal lesions from the infesta-
tion with H. microstoma could be clearly
distinguished from pathology from the F.
hepatica infestation by the predominance
of neutrophils in the lesions, even though
lymphocytes remained prevalent in the
sinusoids of the liver.
In addition to the pathology normally
observed in single species infestations with
these species of worms, 2 types of tissue
damage were observed in Sequence I. One
pathology observed only in the mice of the
concurrent infestation group was the rein-
statement of the generalized necrosis char-
acteristic of the acute phase of the infesta-
tion with F. hepatica. Small areas of the
liver were first observed to be affected on
Day 60. As the time of the concurrent in-
festation lengthened, more of the liver was
involved, until as much as 50 percent of the
organ was necrotic on Day 100. That
necrosis was associated with accumulations
of lymphocytes in the liver parenchyma
and the periphery of the necrotic zone (Fig.
1). Neutrophils were the most prevalent
cells within the necrotic areas.
A second type of pathology associated
with the concurrent infestation was the
presence of eggs of F. hepatica in the tissue
of the mouse. At Day 50, eggs were first
observed in intimate contact with the tissue
of the common bile duct in areas where the
epithelial lining had been sloughed off
(Fig. 2). By Day 70, eggs were in the tis-
sue of the wall of the common bile duct in
these exposed areas (Fig. 3). At Day 80,
eggs were observed in the tissues of the
wall of the common bile duct, the wall of
the cystic duct, the gall bladder, and in the
liver itself (Figs. 4, 5). Later, eggs were
observed in pancreatic ducts, lobular bile
ducts, throughout the liver tissue, and some
were encapsulated in the peritoneal cavity.
The eggs had various degrees of cellular
reactions around them. The infiltrating
cells were a mixture of neutrophils (the
dominant cell type), eosinophils, lympho-
cytes, and macrophages (Fig. 6).
In Sequence II, mice of the concurrent
infestation group were entering the chronic
phase of the infestation with H. microstoma
at the time F. hepatica were given. At that
time, focal lesions were common in the
parenchyma of the liver, and leukocytes
(predominantly neutrophils) were abun-
dant in the sinusoids. Those conditions did
not affect the liver migration of the F. he-
patica and there was no reaction around
the juvenile flukes. The onset of general-
66 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
Nae
pref
7”
~
pe
a : ASRS S
toss char one
> ~~ we tf *
Pa ae Ne ss rt
es © Ae 3 aAraxd
menolepis microstoma. Fig. 5. Eggs of F. hepatica in a large pocket in the tissue of the liver, Day 80.
<140. Fig. 6. Egg of F. hepatica in the wall of the common bile duct on Day 80. Note the concen-
tric whorls of leukocytes around the egg. 360.
ized necrosis in the livers of the mice of the
concurrent infestation group was similar to
that observed in the F. hepatica control
mice. There was, however, a difference in
the longevity of the necrosis. The general-
ized necrosis was present in the livers of the
mice of the concurrent infestation group on
Day 90, 90 days after infestation with F.
hepatica. The extension of generalized
necrosis occurred even though the flukes
had entered the common bile duct at the
normal time for mice, 30 to 35 days after
infestation.
In Sequence III, the infestations with F.
hepatica and H. microstoma were admin-
istered so that the midacute phase of each
infestation occurred on Day 25. At that
time, numerous neutrophils and lympho-
cytes were present in the sinusoids of the
liver and generalized necrosis was wide-
spread. The number of leukocytes ap-
peared to be, at a minimum, totally addi-
tive in response to the acute phase of each
infestation. F. hepatica were observed in
the common bile duct of the mice of the
concurrent infestation group at that time,
5-10 days earlier than in mice of the F.
hepatica control group.
Eggs of F. hepatica were observed in the
walls of lobular bile ducts and in the liver
tissue of 1 mouse on Day 50. It was the
only mouse in Sequence III in which that
condition was observed, and the occurrence
must have been irregular. The eggs were
surrounded with infiltrating leukocytes in
the same manner as previously described
for Sequence I.
DIscussION
As expected, pathologies normally ob-
served in infestations of mice with F. he-
patica and H. microstoma were observed in
concurrent infestations with those parasites
during the present experiments. Individual
pathologies occurred irrespective of the
sequence or timing of the infestations as
PATHOLOGY IN MICE FROM PaArRAsiITic INFESTATION—Gleason 67
independent functions of their initiators.
Only in Sequence III was there any indica-
tion that there might be a synergistic effect
of the 2 infestations. In that case, the enor-
mous increase in the number of leukocytes
in the sinusoids of the liver in response to
the synchronized acute phases may have
been more than additive, but quantitative
measurement of a response of that nature
is difficult.
The pathologies observed in concurrent
infestations but not in single species control
mice may have been related to a partial or
complete blockage of the bile flow resulting
from the worm mass of the combined in-
festations in the common bile duct. Glea-
son (1974) reported that when an infesta-
tion with H. microstoma was imposed upon
a patent infestation with F. hepatica, there
was a shift of attachment sites of the ces-
todes into the proximal region of the com-
mon bile duct. That shift brought the
scoleces of the cestodes and much of the
strobila into intimate contact with the F.
hepatica present in that region.
The reinstatement or prolongation of
generalized necrosis in livers of mice of the
concurrent infestation groups of Sequence
I and II was not as widespread as during
the acute phase of an initial infestation
with F. hepatica. However, it did affect
large areas of the liver. It is probable that
this pathology can be attributed to reduc-
tion or stoppage of bile flow. Under those
conditions, antigenic material present in
bile from adult F. hepatica in the lumen of
the common bile duct would back up into
the liver through the intrahepatic ducts. In
the liver, the antigenic material would
come into contact with sensitized lympho-
cytes that remain in the liver (Lang 1967).
The reaction between the antigenic material
and the sensitized lymphocytes would then
induce the generalized necrosis.
The second pathology present in livers
of mice of the concurrent infestation group
of Sequence I and one mouse of Sequence
III, but not in the single species control
mice, was the presence of eggs of F. hepat-
ica in the tissue. That condition could have
been caused by the accumulation of eggs
in the proximal region of the common bile
duct due to a decreased flow of bile. Once
trapped in the proximal region, the eggs
became entangled in the serous exudate at
breaks in the epithelial lining of the com-
mon bile duct and were later forced into
the tissues through a combination of fluid
pressure and mechanical pressure by the
worms.
Urquhart (1956) found eggs of F. hepat-
ica in the hepatic and biliary tissues of rab-
bits. He postulated that the eggs entered
the tissues through breaks in the epithelial
lining of the intrahepatic ducts caused by
adult flukes. The eggs were found singly
and in clusters, much the same as observed
during the present experiments. In the rab-
bit, however, adult F. hepatica were in the
intrahepatic bile ducts, while in the mouse
the flukes were in the proximal regions of
the common bile duct. Thus, in rabbits,
more eggs were found in the hepatic tissues.
After the eggs entered the tissue, the reac-
tion of the mouse to the eggs was similar to
that described by Urquhart (1956) for rab-
bits. The eggs were invaded by neutrophils,
eosinophils, and macrophages. Later, a
specific type of granuloma was produced
when the eggs were surrounded by concen-
tric whorls of neutrophils, macrophages,
and fibroblasts.
The failure to find eggs of F. hepatica
in tissues of F. hepatica control mice, mice
of the concurrent infestation in Sequence
II, and rarely in mice of the concurrent in-
festation in Sequence III, would indicate
that the timing and sequence of infestation
used in Sequence I provided the conditions
necessary to force the eggs into the tissues.
This probably is correlated with the find-
ings of Gleason (1974) that there was no
proximal shift in the attachment sites of
H. microstoma when an infestation with
F. hepatica was imposed upon a patent in-
festation with H. microstoma or when the
infestations were synchronized so that the
midacute phase of each infestation occurred
simultaneously.
LITERATURE CITED
GLEASON, L. N. 1971.
white mouse to
The responses of the
a primary infection with
68 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
Hymenolepis microstoma. J. Elisha Mitchell
Sci. Soc. 87:11-17.
1974. New data on the interactions
between the bile duct dwellers, Fasciola
hepatica (Trematoda) and Hymenolepis mi-
crostoma (Cestoda), in mice. J. Elisha
Mitchell Sci. Soc. 90:58-63.
Lanc, B. Z. 1966. Host-parasite relationships of
Fasciola hepatica in the white mouse. I.
Response to a primary infection. J. Elisha
Mitchell Sci. Soc. 82:195-203.
1967. Host-parasite relationships of
Fasciola hepatica in the white mouse. II.
_ Studies on acquired immunity. J. Parasit. 53:
21-30.
LircuHrorp, R. G. 1963. Observations on Hy-
menolepis microstoma in three laboratory
hosts: Mesocricetus auratus, Mus musculus
and Rattus norvegicus. J. Parasit. 49:403-410.
Simpson, G. F., anp L. N. Gueason. 1975.
Lesion formation in the livers of mice caused
by metabolic products of Hymenolepis micro-
stoma. J. Parasit. 61:152—154.
Ureunart, G. M. 1956. The pathology of ex-
perimental fascioliasis in the rabbit. J. Path.
Bact. 71:301-311.
Threatened Fishes of Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky
BRANLEY A. BRANSON
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475
ABSTRACT
Long-term field collecting, surveys of the literature, and museum holdings indicate that
at least 21 fish species within the confines of Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky, are
threatened by various human undertakings, principally surface mining. Of those, 13 species
are judged as rare or endangered. The most critical areas lie in the upper Kentucky River
drainage, lesser impacts being felt in the Cumberland and Licking river systems.
INTRODUCTION
During the last decade, there has been a
concerted attempt to understand native
American animals that are becoming rare
and endangered, particularly fishes. The
Endangered Species Preservation Act of
1966, following extensive clamoring by
various scientific societies, gave impetus to
the preservation movement. Following that,
the U.S. Department of the Interior (1968 )
printed the so-called “Red-Book of Rare
and Endangered Fish and Wildlife of the
United States” and Miller (1972) presented
a list of the threatened fishes of the entire
United States. However, the information
in both works concerning the fishes of Ken-
tucky is sparse, indeed, and has led to the
conclusion that dependence upon such
works with regard to localized fish faunas,
such as that of the Daniel Boone National
Forest in Kentucky, can be highly mislead-
ing. As suggested by Robinson et al.
(1974), a fish species may be seriously
threatened in one part of its total range and
yet be comparatively safe elsewhere. Not
only is this true from a broader geographic
vantage, it is also true from one river sys-
tem to another. Thus, among the more than
140 fish species of the Daniel Boone Na-
tional Forest, only 2 appear in the Red
Book. One, Lagochila lacera, the harelip
sucker, is doubtless extinct, and the second,
Acipenser fulvescens, the lake sturgeon, is
designated as threatened.
Because of the points made above, I
deemed it necessary to discuss the threat-
ened fishes of the Daniel Boone National
Forest. This article is extracted from a
69
longer report prepared for the U.S. Forest
Service. The results are supported by liter-
ature records, extensive field work in east-
ern Kentucky, and museum holdings of
other institutions as well as those of Eastern
Kentucky University.
In the annotated list which follows, the
scientific and common names follow Bailey
et al. (1970). The judgement terms that
describe the status of each species in the
Daniel Boone National Forest are those of
Miller (1972) except threatened, which is
used in the context explained below:
Endangered: facing extinction; contin-
ued survival unlikely without special pro-
tective measures.
Rare: not immediately faced with extinc-
tion, but present in such small numbers or
in restricted to highly specialized habitats
that could vanish. Requires careful watch-
ing.
Threatened: massive and active habitat
degradation occurring across a broad spec-
trum of the range.
It must be stressed here that these desig-
nations apply only to fishes within the con-
fines of the Daniel Boone National Forest
and not the entire Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky.
ANNOTATED List OF THREATENED FISHES
Within the confines of the Daniel Boone
National Forest, 21 species of fishes are
judged to suffer at one level or another by
way of habitat deterioration. Of those, 9
are considered rare and 4 endangered; the
remaining 8 are listed as threatened.
Polyodon spathula. Paddletish—Kentucky
70 TrANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
distribution: formerly abundant in the main
stems and principal tributaries to the Ohio
and Mississippi rivers, principally in the
lower ends of the Cumberland, Kentucky,
Licking, and Big Sandy rivers.
Remarks: Professor A. L. Whitt (pers.
comm.) has recently observed specimens at
Kentucky Lake near the dam, and I saw a
living adult at Lake Cumberland during
April 1975. Several specimens, 25-38 cm,
were secured from lock chambers at Can-
nelton, Uniontown, Newburgh, and McAlI-
pine locks and dams during 1972-1974,
indicating successful reproduction in the
Ohio River (Dr. Louis A. Krumholz, pers.
comm. ).
Status: threatened.
Acipenser fulvescens. Lake sturgeon.—
Kentucky distribution: before 1900, the
lake sturgeon was common in the Ohio
River, in portions of the Cumberland River
below the falls, and abundant in the lower
Licking River. Only a single Kentucky
record (1954) since the early 1900's.
Remarks: most of the large runs within the
state have been decimated severely, but
still persists in the Ohio and Tennessee
rivers (Clay 1975).
Status: endangered.
Scaphirhynchus. platorynchus. Shovelnose
sturgeon.—Kentucky distribution: the only
verified record is from the Licking River at
Farmer (Welter 1938) with regard to the
Daniel Boone National Forest. However,
Krumbholz et al. (1962) reported one taken
in August 1959 in a hoopnet set in the lower
reaches of the Ohio River near Mound City,
Illinois. Charles (1962) reported specimens
taken by commercial fishermen throughout
the Kentucky waters of the Ohio River.
Remarks: probably extinct in Kentucky
waters other than the Ohio River.
Status: endangered.
Amia calva. Bowfin.—Kentucky distribu-
tion: principally in the southwestern low-
lands and in the Ohio River as far eastward
as Cincinnati.
Remarks: the only specimens from Danie}
Boone National Forest waters came from
backwater pools of Tygarts Creek, Carter
County. The main reason for this species
rarity in national forest waters probably is
the lack of suitable habitat.
Status: rare.
Clinostomus funduloides. Rosyside dace.—
Kentucky distribution: published records
from the Big Sandy and Little Sandy rivers,
Tygarts and Kinniconick creeks. Eastern
Kentucky University has specimens from
the Little Licking River.
Remarks: both species of Clinostomus that
occur in Kentucky are considered as spe-
cialized relics (Clay 1975) that occupy
marginal habitats. Since the distribution of
the species under consideration barely in-
cludes Daniel Boone National Forest
streams, the species is judged as rare.
Status: rare.
Hybognathus nuchalis. Silver minnow.—
Kentucky distribution: Lower Ohio River
drainage and western portion of the state.
Remarks: earlier collectors (Woolman
1892) reported the species from more east-
erly streams, but the only recent record
from the Daniel Boone National Forest is
that of Branson and Batch (1972a), a single
specimen from Clear Creek near Wildie,
Rockcastle County. The fish has nearly
disappeared from the Upper Ohio River
basin (Clay 1975, Trautman 1957) as the
result of massive siltation.
Status: rare.
Hybopsis aestivalis. Speckled chub.—Ken-
tucky distribution: lower portions of all
main rivers.
Remarks: threatened in the uplands by
dam construction and silt and acid from
strip mines. Extirpated from the Red Bird
River and greatly reduced in numbers in
the rest of the upper Kentucky River basin.
Status: rare.
Notropis ariommus. Popeye shiner.—Ken-
tucky distribution: upper Green, Cumber-
THREATENED FISHES OF KENTUCKY—Branson Fpl
land, Laurel, Rockcastle, and Kentucky
rivers.
Remarks: now very rare in most of the
upper Kentucky River system. Extirpated
from Red Bird River and Goose Creek by
strip mining, but still relatively abundant
in Greasy Creek, although that stream’s
drainage is now involved in mining opera-
tions.
Status: threatened.
Notropis telescopus. Telescope shiner.—
Kentucky distribution: known only from
Crocus and Rock creeks, both in the Cum-
berland River system.
Remarks: because this species requires
clear, headwater streams, its habitat is now
strongly threatened by surface mining.
Status: rare.
Lagochila lacera. Harelip sucker.—Ken-
tucky distribution: apparently once con-
fined to the Cumberland River system
(Woolman 1892).
Remarks: since the species has not been
reported during the last 75 years, it is con-
sidered extinct.
Status: extinct.
Stizostedion vitreum. Walleye.—Kentucky
distribution: in most of the larger streams
before the turn of the century (Evermann
1918; Carter and Jones 1969; Small 1970,
unpublished master’s thesis, University of
Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky; Welter
1938; Woolman 1892).
Remarks: there has been a dramatic reduc-
tion in populations of the walleye in the
Daniel Boone National Forest (Clay 1975).
The Cave Run hatchery is attempting to
rear walleyes artificially for repopulating
Kentucky waters.
Status: rare (threatened? ).
Percina burtoni. Blotchside logperch.—
Kentucky distribution: formerly abundant
in the Little South Fork of the Cumberland
River in Wayne and McCreary counties
(pers. comm., Dr. David Etnier, University
of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee).
Remarks: since there are no recent records
of the species from Kentucky, and since the
headwater streams of the Cumberland
River are being assaulted by strip mining,
the species must be judged endangered.
Status: endangered.
Percina evides. Gilt darter—Kentucky dis-
tribution: Big Sandy, Green, Licking, and
Kentucky river systems.
Remarks: although comparatively safe in
parts of its total range, the gilt darter has
nearly disappeared from Ohio and Indiana
(Trautman 1957), principally because of
increased siltation and construction of
dams. Extensive collecting has not dis-
closed specimens from the upper Cumber-
land River and only rarely is the species
encountered in the Licking and upper Ken-
tucky river systems.
Status: rare.
Percina cymatotaenia. Bluestripe darter.—
Kentucky distribution: Big Sandy, Green,
Licking, and Kentucky river drainages, and
Station Camp (Jackson County) and Obion
(Hickman County) creeks.
Remarks: the epithet used above is utilized
for this species pending completion of Mr.
Bruce Thompson's research at Tulane Uni-
versity. With the exception of habitats in
the Red River of Powell and Wolfe coun-
ties, and in Station Camp Creek, much of
this species range in eastern Kentucky is
being heavily influenced by strip mining.
Status: threatened.
Ammocrypta pellucida, Eastern sand darter.
—Kentucky distribution: originally from
the sandy portions of all principal drainages
from the mouth of the Cumberland River
eastward (Clay 1975).
Remarks: Evermann (1918) reported speci-
mens from the upper Cumberland River
from a site now inundated by Lake Cum-
berland; sand darters have not been re-
ported from that drainage since. Before
72 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
impoundment of the Licking and Kentucky
rivers, sand darters were abundant in both
streams; now the species is very rare. Strip
mining is also destroying many habitats,
although sand darters are still present in
downstream sections of the Red River in
Powell and Clark counties.
Status: threatened.
Etheostoma rufilineatum. Redline darter.—
Kentucky distribution: Clark’s River (Ten-
nessee River system) and portions of the
Cumberland River drainage. In eastern
Kentucky, the species has been reported
from Cumberland, Pulaski, and Wayne
counties only (Zorach 1970).
Remarks: I also have specimens from Buck
Creek (Kentucky State Highway 192 cross-
ing )in Pulaski County. Other than that, all
records lie peripheral to the forest. Al-
though apparently healthy elsewhere, the
redline darter is scarce or rare in Daniel
Boone National Forest streams.
Status: rare.
Etheostoma tippecanoe. Tippecanoe darter.
—Kentucky distribution: middle portions
of the Kentucky and Licking river drain-
ages.
Remarks: populations in Red Bird River
and South Fork of the Kentucky River have
markedly declined following strip mining
in those drainages.
Status: threatened.
Etheostoma obeyense. Barcheek darter.—
Kentucky distribution: Cumberland and
Green river systems.
Remarks: a peripheral species which barely
enters forest waters.
Status: rare.
Etheostoma cinereum. Ashy darter.—Ken-
tucky distribution: known only from the
Little South Fork of the Cumberland River,
Rock Creek in McCreary County (Kirsch
1892) and Buck Creek near Highway 80,
Pulaski County (Clay 1975) and the Rock-
castle River below the mouth of Buck
Creek.
Remarks: the rarest darter in Kentucky;
only 3 specimens have been collected since
1892. The habitat area is now under siege
by strip mining.
Status: threatened.
Etheostoma atripinne. Cumberland snub-
nose darter.—Kentucky distribution: Cum-
berland River system.
Remarks: since much of the Cumberland
River basin is being influenced by strip
mining, there has been a marked decrease
in the abundance of snubnose darters.
Status: threatened.
Etheostoma sagitta. Arrow darter.—Ken-
tucky distribution: upper Cumberland and
upper Kentucky river basins.
Remarks: there are 2 subspecies of this
darter in Daniel Boone National Forest
waters, E. sagitta sagitta in the headwaters
of the Cumberland River (Bailey 1948),
type locality in Wolf Creek near Pleasant
View, Whitley County, Kentucky, and E.
sagitta spilotum, type locality at Travelers
Rest, Owsley County, Kentucky, in the
upper Kentucky River basin (Kuehne and
Bailey 1961). In addition to the upper Ken-
tucky River records of Kuehne and Bailey,
Gilbert (1887), and Woolman (1892), I
have specimens from Red Bird River, Mid-
dle and South forks of the Kentucky River
in Breathitt and Leslie counties, all heavily
afflicted by strip mining and acid mine
drainage (see also Branson and Batch
1972b). The fish’s habitat streams in the
upper Cumberland are also greatly dam- —
aged by surface mining.
Status: threatened.
DIscussION
At the present time, approximately 140
fish species, distributed through 22 families
and 54 genera, are known from the Daniel
Boone National Forest, Kentucky, and an
additional 16 species are “possibles” since |
they have been collected from streams |
near the forest boundaries. Twenty-one |
species are judged as threatened. Exclud-
THREATENED FISHES OF KENTUCKY—Branson ‘te
ing the extinct harelip sucker, 3 species are
endangered and 10 are rare; the remainder
are in the threatened category. Protective
measures are indicated, if this appreciable
segment of the Kentucky fish fauna is to
survive within the forest.
The principal habitat degraders in this
area are municipal sewage pollution, high-
way construction, improper farming prac-
tices, channel straightening, strip mine silt
and acid mine drainage, deforestation,
stone quarrying operations, and construc-
tion of many dams. In many areas, the
effects have been tragically destructive to
fish faunas. Because of these interacting
forces, the Daniel Boone National Forest
stands a good chance of having a sizeable
segment of its fish fauna extirpated. The
first step to prevent such a catastrophe is
recognition of the fact that various seg-
ments of the fauna and some individual
species are threatened. Logically, this type
of recognition should be followed by an
evaluation of local faunas and by legislative
action when protective measures are
deemed necessary.
LITERATURE CITED
Barty, R. M. 1948. Status, relationships, and
characters of the percid fish, Poecilichthys
sagitta Jordan and Swain. Copeia 1948:77—
85.
BaILEy, R. M., J. M. Fircu, E. S. HERAxp, E. A.
LACHNER, C. C. Linpsay, C. R. Rosins, AND
W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of the common
and scientific names of fishes from the United
States and Canada. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec.
Publ. 6:1-149.
BRANSON, B. A., AND D. L. Batcs. 1972a.
Fishes of Clear Creek, tributary to Rockcastle
River, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 33:
33-35.
, AND 1972b. Effects of
strip mining on small-stream fishes in east-
central Kentucky. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 84:
507-517.
CarTER, J. P., AND A. R. JONES.
1966. Inventory
and classification of streams in the Upper
Cumberland River drainage of Kentucky. Ky.
Fish. Bull. 52:1—70.
CHARLES, J. R. 1962. Commercial fishing activ-
ities in the Kentucky waters of the Ohio River.
Pp. 103 ff. In Aquatic-life resources of the
Ohio River. Ohio River Valley Water Sanit.
Comm., Cincinnati, Ohio 218 pp.
Citay, W. M. 1975. The Fishes of Kentucky.
Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl. Res. Frankfort, Ky.
416 pp.
EVERMANN, B. W. 1918. The fishes of Ken-
tucky and Tennessee: a distributional cata-
logue of the known species. Bur. Fish. Bull.
858 :295-368.
GrinBeRT, C. H. 1887. Descriptions of new and
little known etheostomoids. Proc. U.S. Natl.
Mus. 10:47-64.
Kirscu, P. H. 1892. Notes on the streams and
fishes of Clinton County, Kentucky, with de-
scription of a new darter. Bull. U.S. Fish.
Comm. (1890) 10:289-292.
Krumuonz L. A: J. Ro Caarntes, ann W.-L:
MinckLeEy. 1962. The fish population of
the Ohio River. Pp. 49 ff. In Aquatic-life
resources of the Ohio River. Ohio River Val-
ley Water Sanit. Comm., Cincinnati, Ohio
218 pp.
KUEHNE, R. A., AND R. M. Bartey. 1961. Stream
capture and the distribution of the percid
fish Etheostoma sagitta, with geologic and
taxonomic considerations. Copeia 1961:1-8.
Mitter, R. R. 1972. Threatened fishes of the
United States. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 101:
239-252.
Rosinson, H. W., G. A. Moore, AND R. J. MILLER.
1974. Threatened fishes of Oklahoma. Proc.
Okla. Acad. Sci. 54:139-146.
TRAUTMAN, M. B. 1957. The Fishes of Ohio.
Ohio State Univ. Press, Columbus, Ohio. 683
pp.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. 1968. Red
Book of Rare and Endangered Fish and Wild-
life of the United States. Washington, D.C.
WELTER, W. A. 1938. A list of the fishes of the
Licking River drainage. Copeia 1938:64-68.
WooLMan, A. J. 1892. Report of an examina-
tion of the rivers of Kentucky, with lists of the
fishes obtained. Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm.
(1890) 10:249-288.
ZoracH, T. 1970. The systematics of the percid
fish Etheostoma rufilineatum (Cope). Amer.
Midl. Nat. 84:208—-225.
Natural Bridges of Southern Christian County, Kentucky
JAMES X. CoRGAN AND JoHN T. Parks
Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, Tennessee 37040
ABSTRACT
This report describes and illustrates the 2 westernmost natural bridges in Kentucky:
Noah Creek Natural Bridge and Fort Campbell Arch. Both are developed in limestones of
Mississippian Age and both occur on the Fort Campbell Military Reservation. The 2 new
discoveries bring to 20 the total number of bridges and arches described from Kentucky.
INTRODUCTION
Two previously undescribed natural
bridges occur in the north-central part of
the Fort Campbell Military Reservation in
southern Christian County, Kentucky (Fig.
1). A review of the literature suggests that,
with these discoveries, a total of 20 natural
bridges have now been formally described
from Kentucky (e.g. Cleland 1905, 1910;
McFarlan 1943, 1954, 1958; McGrain 1966a,
1966b; Miller 1898; and Scott and Belknap
1926). Although natural bridges and
arches are fairly common in parts of east-
ern and central Kentucky, they apparently
are rare in Mississippian age carbonate
rocks of the south-central part of the state.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are indebted to Henry A. Post and
James E. Price of the Environmental Office,
Facility Engineers, Fort Campbell, Ken-
tucky. They aided in field measurements
and facilitated access to remote parts of the
post.
Noau CREEK NATURAL BRIDGE
Noah Creek Natural Bridge (Fig. 2) is
part of an unusual complex of topographic
features along Noah Creek in the north-
central part of the Fort Campbell Military
Reservation. Fort Campbell authorities
have recognized the extraordinary beauty
of this area by setting it aside for nonmili-
tary use. It is officially designated the
Noah Creek Recreation Area.
Within that recreation area, the natural
bridge is the most distinctive topographic
feature. Just upstream from the bridge,
Noah Creek begins to flow along a near
vertical cliff that contains Noah Cave. In
between the natural bridge and the cave,
Noah Creek disappears. Its waters pass into
subsurface drainage. The point of transi-
tion from surface to subsurface drainage
depends on the volume of water in the
creek. During low flow, the stream disap-
pears into solution widened bedding planes
beneath the bridge. At high water, the
stream moves further down its channel. At
that stage, most of the water enters the
cave where it cascades into subterranean
drainage. The combination of a cave, a
disappearing stream, a vertical cliff, and a
natural bridge forms a unique and aesthet-
ically pleasing cluster of landscape ele-
ments.
All parts of this landscape complex are
clearly interrelated. On the south, the
bridge merges with the cliff which rises
some 26 feet (7.9m) above the base of the
bridge. Most of the higher strata in the
cliff have fallen away from the bridge roof,
leaving an irregular, brush covered arch.
At its highest, the bridge is at least 9 feet
(2.7 m) below the crest of the cliff.
On the north side, the bridge blends into
alluvial deposits of Noah Creek. A small,
brush covered, rocky step, about 1.5 feet
(46 cm) high, separates the bridge from
the alluvium. Because of dense vegetation
it is difficult to measure accurately the ex-
ternal length of the bridge. At a maximum,
the bridge extends some 20 to 22 feet (6.1-
6.7 m) from the cliff. The northern bridge
pillar is thin, less than 10 feet (3 m) in
thickness.
In the east-west direction the bridge
74
NaTuRAL Bripces oF KeNtucky—Corgan and Parks 75
NOAH CREEK
NATURAL BRIDGE
FORT CAMPBELL
Prey b
rises above Noah Creek in a sheer wall. It
is tunnel shaped and extremely angular.
Internal height varies from season to season,
depending upon sediment fill in the creek
channel. In the spring of 1976, the maxi-
mum internal height was about 8.5 feet
(2.6 m). The maximum span is presently
about 12.3 feet (3.7 m) and the width down
the middle is some 31.5 feet (9.6 m).
Stateline Road
| kilometer
| mile
Locations of Noah Creek Natural Bridge and Fort Campbell Arch.
From the shape of the bridge and from
the topographic setting, it is obvious that
Noah Creek Natural Bridge was once part
of the adjacent cave. The bridge now
stands some 76 feet (23.2 m) from the cave
mouth. The separation has been produced
by collapse of the intervening section of
cave. Collapse was controlled by solution
along 2 intersecting sets of vertical joints.
76
TraANs. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
A) mi Yr by
WT hay Dard OEY ce
LS CASK Neo Nee eres )
Bar , mpi F a: AS FIO? Ay aP Y
SA COO RK Zl
OST Ca A ORS IRS ot
POR CONES
2 ie eS
ws,
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Aan
4
3
y i
Fic. 2. Noah Creek Natural Bridge, looking east with the north pillar on the left.
The dominant joint set runs parallel] to the
cliff and also appears to parallel the general
trend of Noah Cave. That joint set rather
consistently strikes N85W. Collapse in that
orientation established the north-south
limits of the bridge. A second set of less
well-developed joints strikes roughly NIOE
to N25E. That set shapes the east-west
limits of the bridge. Collapse along that
set has separated the bridge from the cave.
The interaction of 2 sets of nearly vertical
joints accounts for the boxy angularity of
the bridge.
While Noah Creek Natural Bridge is now
mechanically sound and should continue to
exist for many decades, further joint con-
trolled collapse can be anticipated. Con-
tinued collapse will, ultimately, destroy the
bridge. Both the creation and the eventual
destruction of the bridge reflect the relative
resistance to erosion of rocks that form the
bridge and the cliff. Klemic (1966)
mapped the geology of the region. His map
identifies the cliff forming and bridge form-
ing rocks as flat lying beds within the St.
Louis Limestone of Mississippian age.
Stratigraphically, the bridge forming
rocks and rocks that form the crest of the
cliff are near the contact between the St.
Louis and the overlying St. Genevieve lime-
stones. At that contact, dolomite rich and
silt rich beds of the upper St. Louis are
overlain by pure limestones of the St. Gene-
vieve. Within the Fort Campbell region,
those dolomitic and silty beds vary in thick-
ness, reaching at least 10 to 12 feet (3-3.7
NaturAaL Bripces or KeENrucky—Corgan and Parks 77
m) in the Noah Creek area. They are
underlain by purer limestones within the
St. Louis. Both mechanically and chem-
ically, the uppermost St. Louis is especially
resistant to erosion. It is the lithologic char-
acter that creates the top of Noah Creek
Natural Bridge and the crest of the adjacent
cliff.
Fort CAMPBELL ARCH
About a half mile (800 m) due south of
Noah Creek Natural Bridge and about 50
feet (15.3 m) north of the Tennessee State
Line lies the southernmost natural bridge in
Kentucky (Fig. 1). This small bridge, here
called Fort Campbell Arch, stands about
12 feet (3.7 m) high, with a 10-foot (3 m)
clearance under the arch. It occurs in the
same stratigraphic position as Noah Creek
Natural Bridge but in other ways the
smaller bridge is quite different.
Fort Campbell Arch spans a sharply de-
fined trough-like depression which trends
about N70W and has a near vertical north
wall. The bridge is near the west end of
the hollow which remains well defined for
about 40 feet (12.2 m) east and 15 feet
(4.6 m) to the west. In the vicinity of the
bridge, the depression has a width of 7-10
feet (2.1-3 m) and an average depth of
about 12 feet (3.7 m). The base of the
trough, which is also the base of the bridge,
is a nearly horizontal bedding plane within
the St. Louis Limestone. Weathering has
enlarged this plane to permit a free flow of
water. Drainage is to the south.
Proportions of Fort Campbell Arch are
shown in Fig. 3. The upper portion of the
bridge is a dolomitic unit near the top of
the St. Louis Limestone. Underlying hori-
zons are purer limestone and, thus, more
soluble. Existence of the bridge can ap-
parently be attributed to 2 factors, solution
controlled enlargement of a vertical joint
and. low solubility of the upper horizon.
While Noah Creek Natural Bridge has
been set aside for recreational use, Fort
Campbell Arch is currently left in its nat-
ural state. This seems to be a wise decision
for the arch is too small to permit access by
a large number of people.
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es
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ath
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Fort Campbell Arch.
growth makes the deck of this bridge appear
thicker than it actually is.
A dense plant
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Two natural bridges are known to exist
in southern Christian County, Kentucky.
They are here termed Noah Creek Natural
Bridge and Fort Campbell Arch, with the
former being larger.
Noah Creek Natural Bridge was created
by 2 interacting processes: joint controlled
cave collapse and differential solution of
dissimilar carbonate rock strata. Differen-
tial solubility was also an important factor
in creating Fort Campbell Arch. At that
site, solution controlled widening of a joint
is the most evident factor in bridge forma-
tion.
Noah Creek Natural Bridge and related
features are large enough for intensive
public use. This area is now officially set
aside for recreational purposes. Fort Camp-
bell Arch is too small and too fragile to
permit access by a large number of people.
Therefore, it should be left in its natural
state.
Both bridges occur in the upper part of
the St. Louis Limestone formation, close
to the contact with the overlying and more
soluble St. Genevieve Limestone. Both
78 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
bridges involve the same thin zone of rela-
tively insoluble rocks. The occurrence of 2
bridges in this stratigraphic setting suggest
that throughout south-central Kentucky
and adjacent Tennessee, natural bridges
should be anticipated in the upper St.
Louis Limestone wherever similar strati-
graphic conditions exist.
LITERATURE CITED
CLELAND, H. F. 1905. The formation of natural
bridges. Amer. J. Sci. (4) 20:119-124.
1910. North American natural
bridges, with a discussion of their origin. Bull.
Geol. Soc. Amer. 21:313-338; 765-776.
Kiemic, H. 1966. Geologic map of the Herndon
Quadrangle, Kentucky—Tennessee. U.S. Geol.
Surv. Map GQ-572.
McFaruan, A. C. 1943. Geology of Kentucky. —
Univ. Kentucky Press, Lexington, Ky. 531 pp.
1954. Geology of the Natural Bridge
State Park area. Ky. Geol. Surv. (9) Spec.
Publ. 10:1-31.
1958. Behind the scenery in Ken-
tucky. Ky. Geol. Surv. (9) Spec. Publ. 10:
1-144.
McGrain, P. 1966a. Geology of The Cumber-
land Falls State Park area. Ky. Geol. Surv.
(10) Spec. Publ. 11:1-33.
. 1966b. Geology of the Carter and
Cascade Caves area. Second Edition. Ken-
tucky Geol. Survey (10) Spec. Publ. 12:1-32.
Miiter, A. M. 1898. Natural arches of Ken-
tucky. Science 7:845-846.
Scorr; J. D.,, anp R._L. BeuxenareetSaGee he
Creelsboro Natural Bridge of Russel County,
Kentucky. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts Lett.
7:125-133.
Use of Woodchuck Burrows by Woodchucks
and Other Mammals -
L. L. SCHMELTZ AND JOHN O. WHITAKER, JR.
Department of Life Sciences, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
ABSTRACT
Live traps were set in the entrances of 94 woodchuck burrows along a flood contro] dike
in Vigo County, Indiana, in such a way as to capture large mammals inside the burrows.
Besides 35 woodchucks, 20 opossums Didelphis virginiana, 19 cottontails Sylvilagus flor-
idanus, 8 raccoons Procyon lotor, 1 red fox Vulpes vulpes, and 1 gray fox Urocyon cinereo-
argenteus were taken. Snap traps set in the same burrow entrances yielded 104 white-footed
mice Peromyscus leucopus, 32 house mice Mus musculus, 10 short-tailed shrews Blarina
brevicauda, and 2 each of the meadow jumping mouse Zapus hudsonius, the meadow vole
Microtus pennsylvanicus, and the masked shrew Sorex cinereus.
INTRODUCTION
There is scattered information on the use
of woodchuck burrows by mammals other
than woodchucks. Hamilton (1934) indi-
cated that rabbits, skunks, foxes, and
weasels frequently use woodchuck burrows,
and also related occasional use by chip-
munks and house cats. Grizzell (1955),
mentioned most of those species, and also
opossums, raccoons, squirrels, ground squir-
rels, and some small mammals including
Mus musculus, Peromyscus leucopus, Mi-
crotus pennsylvanicus, M. pinetorum, Zapus
hudsonius, and Blarina brevicauda. To our
knowledge, there has been no systematic
effort to determine usage of woodchuck
burrows by various species of mammals,
and the purpose of this study was to deter-
mine such use.
Stupy AREA
The study area was a grassy covered
flood control levee along the west side of
the Wabash River north of Terre Haute,
Vigo County, Indiana. Major grasses pres-
ent were Bromus sp. and fescue Festuca
sp. Inside the levee (away from the river)
the land consisted mostly of cornfields.
Outside was about 50 percent cultivated
land. Trees present were primarily silver
maple Acer saccharinum and cottonwood
Populus deltoides. The levee is about 8 km
long, but the portion used for this study
consisted of about 3,500 m. Levee mainte-
79
nance included yearly burning, usually
about 1 March.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A series of 94 woodchuck burrow open-
ings that appeared to have been in recent
use (as indicated by presence of cuttings,
fresh dirt, odor, tracks) was studied along
a section of dike. The dens were marked
with numbered stakes. Large Tomahawk
live traps baited with corn were used to
sample the large mammals. A trap was
placed with its door in the mouth of the
burrow in such a way that it would be
likely to capture an animal inside the bur-
row at the time the trap was set. Those
traps were used at about 1-3 month inter-
vals from October 1970 through April 1972.
The mamals were toe clipped in a consecu-
tively numbered series, sexed, weighed, and
released at the point of capture. A card
including the date of each capture, approxi-
mate age at first capture, weight in pounds,
and the burrow number for each capture
was made for each numbered animal.
Later, 199 woodchucks were trapped with
No. 2 steel and No. 220 conibear traps, or
shot with a .22 caliber rifle, many of them
beyond the limits of the trapping area.
Burrow use by small mammals was stud-
ied using 2 snapback mousetraps placed
inside the entrance of each burrow during
5 different 2-day periods during the study.
Unfortunately, no traps were used that
would sample weasels or chipmunks.
SO Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
TABLE 1.—USE OF WOODCHUCK BURROWS BY
LARGE MAMMALS ON A FLOOD CONTROL LEVEE
ALONG THE WABASH RIVER AT TERRE HAUTE, V1GO
County, INDIANA
Captures and
Animals Taken Recaptures
No. Yo No. %
Woodchuck 35 49.1 74 57.4
Opossum 20 24,1 21 16.3
Cottontail 18 PA erg 24 18.6
Raccoon 8 9.6 8 Ga
Gray Fox 1 1.2 1 0.8
Red Fox 1 ie 0.8
83 99.9 129 100.1
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Six species of large mammals were taken,
including 129 total captures and recaptures
of 83 individuals (Table 1). Mammals were
caught at 62 of the 98 burrow entrances,
thus 36 (36.7%) yielded no larger mam-
mals. Thirty-five different woodchucks
were taken a total of 74 times. This con-
stituted 42.1 percent of all large mammals
taken, and 57.4 percent of all captures and
recaptures. Ten woodchucks were cap-
tured once and never seen again, while 6
others were taken once in the burrows and
later in conibear traps in or near the study
area. Those 6 were retaken 1 to 18 months
after the first capture, an average of 1,456
m from the initial capture site (28 m to 3.6
km). The animal retaken after 18 months
was 46 m from the original burrow. Two
others were taken at sites about 2.4 km
apart with short periods between recap-
tures, 27 and 24 days, respectively. Nine-
teen individuals accounted for the 39 re-
captures. Six were taken twice, 9 were
taken 3 times, 2 were taken 4 times, 1 was
taken 5 times, and 1 was taken 6 times.
Most were taken in different traps each
time they were captured, except 1 was
taken 3 times in the same trap, and 5 were
taken twice in the same trap. One wood-
chuck, taken in a burrow on 16 October
1970 was retaken in a burrow 800 m away
on 9 December 1970, and again in the first
burrow on 29 March 1971. One individual
was taken 5 times in 5 different burrows,
all within a span of 18 days and 150 m. The
one taken 7 times was in 5 different bur-
rows within 185 m of one another over a
10-month period.
The latest fall date a woodchuck was
taken was 9 December, although one indi-
vidual appeared to be active throughout
the winter of 1970-71, feeding on a patch
of uncut corn near its burrow. Most dens
were plugged during the winter. Early
emergence was about 5 February, when 5
dens were found to have been recently re-
opened. By 25 February, a number of other
dens had been reopened.
Eighteen cottontails, captured 24 times,
comprised 21.7 percent of all mammals
taken, and 18.6 percent of the total cap-
tures. Fifteen rabbits were captured once
each, 1 was captured twice, 1 was taken
3 times, and 1 a total of 4 times. No rabbit
was captured twice in the same burrow and
only 2 burrows yielded more than 1 rabbit,
1 with 2 and 1 with 3. Cottontails used
the burrows primarily during the colder
months. There were 6 captures in October,
10 in November, 2 in December, and 4 in
February.
Twenty opossums were taken. There was
only 1 recapture seeming to indicate that
the opossums did not live in the burrows,
but simply visited them. Included were 7
males, all taken in fall, 6 females carrying
young (May to July), and 7 other females.
Eight raccoons were taken, comprising
9.6 percent of all mammals taken. Five
were females, 3 were males, and 4 were
young. Raccoons used the burrows sporad-
ically, with 1 capture each in May, July,
and August, 3 in October, and 2 in Novem-
ber.
One red fox and 1 gray fox were taken in
burrows during the study.
The most common small mammals in the
general vicinity of the burrows were Pero-
myscus leucopus, Microtus pennsylvanicus,
Mus musculus, and Peromyscus manicula-
tus. In the grassy areas of the burrows, M.
pennsylvanicus was particularly abundant. —
However, that species seldom used the
burrows (Table 2). The major user of the |
burrows among the small mammals was |
Peromyscus leucopus, 104 individuals being
Use oF Woopcuuck Burrows—Schmeltz and Whitaker 81
TABLE 2.—UsE OF WOODCHUCK BURROWS BY SMALL MAMMALS ON A FLOOD CONTROL LEVEE ALONG
THE WaBASH RIVER NEAR VIGO County, TERRE HAUTE, INDIANA. MAMMALS ARE INDICATED AS THE
TOTAL NUMBER TAKEN AND THE NUMBER TAKEN PER 100 TRAPNIGHTS. ,THE NUMBER AND PERCENT-
AGE OF BURROWS IN WHICH EACH SPECIES WAS TAKEN IS ALSO GIVEN. THE NUMBER OF TRAPNIGHTS IS
4 TIMES THE NUMBER OF BURROWS TRAPPED IN EACH CASE SINCE 2 TRAPS WERE USED IN EACH BURROW
3
32
Dates and No. ES
of Burrows SS
Trapped AS
22-24 Nov No. taken 47
1970 No./100 trapnights Losk
(78) No. burrows 32
% of burrows 41.0
28-30 March No. taken 1
1971 No./100 trapnights 0.3
Cis) No. burrows 1
% of burrows 3
30 May-1 Jun No. taken I
1971 No./100 trapnights 0.3
(94) No. burrows 1
% of burrows lee
22-24 Nov No. taken 46
1971 No./100 trapnights ao
(Weed) No. burrows 34
% of burrows 45.3
18-20 Apr No. taken 9
1972 No./100 trapnights 4.7
(48) No. burrows 9
% of burrows 18.8
(370) No. taken 104
No./100 trapnights 7.0
No. burrows ta
% of burrows 20.8
FOR 2 NIGHTS
gs E 3 & mn: E
28 : gs geise 2 ants
S “ E uaaaiay Seyi ence. =
Niet Se Sf ece tse See
1 17 D) 67
OS ws eo 21.5
i 8 D) 40
12) (408 26 512
4 3 1 2 11
te koe 03 Oy 36
3 3 1 D) 8
A WON 1B 26 10.7
17 3 2 23
450 OS 0.5 ll
16 3 2 20
17.0 32 2.6 21.3
8 7 1 62
Oy, ae 0.3 20.7
6 7 1 4A
80 93 1.3 82.7
7 1 1 18
BG. Ons 0.5 9.4
6 1 l 15
fous Dabo 2.1 31.3
29 32 10 2 2 2
2.0 2.2 G7 2038 60x 0.
26 21 10 2 2 2 127
7.0 5.6 2h Oca 005 0
taken in snap traps for a rate of 7.0 per 100
trapnights. Peromyscus maniculatus and
Mus musculus used them less, probably be-
cause they were less closely associated with
the burrows. Peromyscus leucopus lived in
the brushy areas along the dike itself, while
the other 2 species lived primarily in the
cultivated fields a few feet further away.
Overall, 181 small mammals were taken
in the burrows (12.2 per 100 trapnights).
However, the greatest utilization was in
the fall (Table 2). In November 1970, 21.5
per 100 trapnights were taken and in No-
vember 1971, 20.7 were taken. Respective
values for March 1971 and April 1972 were
3.6 and 9.4.
It is clear from these data that several
species of mammals other than woodchucks
are opportunistic users of woodchuck bur-
rows.
There would seem to be several uses that
mammals, both large and small, might
make of the burrows. First, some individ-
uals may live there permanently or over
extended periods. These would seem to in-
clude perhaps some rabbits and _ white-
footed mice in addition to the woodchucks.
Some mammals may use the burrows as
82 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2)
as temporary cover, including many of the
larger and some of the smaller mammals
taken. Some individuals, especially of the
smaller species, may simply have been ex-
ploring the burrows. This would not seem
likely in the case of most of the larger
mammals, because the large traps were set
during the day and in the burrows in such
a way as to capture animals that were in-
side, and thus presumably had spent the
night there.
Subsequent to this work a meadow jump-
ing mouse was found in a hibernating nest
in this same dike (Jones and Whitaker
1976).
LITERATURE CITED
GrizzELL, R. A. 1955. Hibernating jumping
mice in woodchuck dens. Amer. Midl. Nat.
5o251—293.
HaMILTon, W. J., JR. 1934. The life history of
the rufescent woodchuck, Marmota monax
rufescens. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 23:85-178.
Jones, G. S., AND J. O. Wurraker, Jr. 1976. The
fauna of a hibernation nest of a meadow
jumping mouse, Zapus hudsonius. Can. Field-
Nat. 90:169-170.
Seasonal Abundance of Common Phytophagous and
Predaceous Insects in Kentucky ‘Soybeans’
H. G. Raney AnD K. V. YEARGAN?
Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506
ABSTRACT
A 4-year study (1972-1975) was conducted to determine seasonal abundance of common
phytophagous insects in Kentucky soybean fields. Populations of predaceous insects were
sampled at 3 locations in 1975. Time of, and density at, peak abundance are presented
for the green cloverworm Plathypena scabra, the bean leaf beetle Cerotoma trifurcata, the
grape colaspis Colaspis brunnea, and the green stink bug Acrosternum hilare. The green
cloverworm was the dominant defoliating species, while seed pods were attacked most
frequently by the green stink bug and the bean leaf beetle. Populations of 3 prevalent
groups of predators, Orius insidiosus, Nabis spp., and Geocoris spp., peaked at different times
during the summer, with O. insidiosus being first and Geocoris last.
INTRODUCTION
Due to recent increases in soybean pro-
duction in Kentucky, insect problems of
this crop are receiving ever greater atten-
tion. Before an effective insect pest man-
agement program can be developed, the
seasonal population dynamics of potentially
important pest and beneficial species must
be determined. Faunistic surveys of soy-
bean insects in several other states have
been reported (Kretzschmar 1948, Blicken-
staff and Huggans 1962, Tugwell et al.
1973). These reports presented extensive
lists of species, including many uncommon,
and possibly transient species. Carner et
al. (1974) and Shepard et al. (1974), have
reported on the seasonal abundance of
common insect pests and arthropod pred-
ators, respectively, in South Carolina soy-
bean fields. To date, there have been no
published reports dealing specifically with
the insects of Kentucky soybeans.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Insect samples were taken at approxi-
mately 2-week intervals in variety-trial
plots planted by the Department of Agron-
+The investigation reported in this paper (No.
76-7-159) is in connection with a project of the
Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station and is
published with approval of the Director.
* Associate Extension Professor and Assistant
Professor, respectively.
83
omy, University of Kentucky, during 1972-
1974 using a ground cloth and plant shake
method similar to that of Boyer and Dumas
(1963). Analysis of variance showed only
negligible differences in insect abundance
among the varieties, so results were pooled
across varieties. The number of samples
taken varied with location depending on
the number of varieties present, but in all
cases 30 or more sample units per location
were taken on each sampling date. Each
sample unit consisted of 3 linear feet (0.91
m) of row, with 1.5 feet (0.46 m) being
taken from each of 2 adjacent rows.
During 1975, all samples were taken
from fields of “Williams variety soybeans
at approximately 7- to 10-day intervals.
Nine contiguous plots, each 75 X 75 feet
(22.85 xX 22.85 m), were established in
large fields. Three ground cloth samples as
described above were taken randomly from
each of the 9 plots. In addition, 2 sweep
net samples were taken from each of the 9
plots to provide data on those insects, such
as leafhoppers, which could not be ade-
quately sampled by the ground cloth
method. Each sweep net sample consisted
of 20 sweeps across the row, using a 15-inch
(0.38-m) diameter sweep net. Insects in
the ground cloth samples were always
counted in the field, while sweep net sam-
ples were taken to the laboratory for count-
ing. A microscope was used for counting
small insects, such as leafhoppers.
A- Green Stink Bug
B- Grape Colaspis
C- Bean Leaf Beetle
D
Cloverworm
- Green
Sep 1 Oct 1
Fic. 1. Time of occurrence of peak population
density of 4 species of phytophagous insects on
soybeans in Kentucky. County locations are: 1,
Fulton; 2, Caldwell; 3, Henderson; 4, Ohio; 5,
Fayette; 6, Hardin.
Phytophagous species were counted dur-
ing the entire study, but predaceous species
were counted only during 1975. Sampling
was begun when plants were in early bloom
and continued until after pod maturity.
Soybean insects were sampled in the fol-
lowing counties during 1 or more years of
this study: (1) Fulton, (2) Caldwell, (3)
Henderson, (4) Ohio, (5) Fayette, (6)
Hardin. The numerical designations given
those counties is used consistently through-
out this paper. The locations sampled each
year were as follows: 1972, Locations 1, 2,
3; 1973, Locations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; 1974, Loca-
tions 1, 2, 3, 4; and 1975, Locations 2, 5, 6.
Although quantitative data were col-
lected on more than 20 species of insects
during this study, we have chosen to pre-
sent data on 4 phytophagous species and 3
predaceous genera. The phytophagous spe-
cies discussed are the green cloverworm
Plathypena scabra, the bean leaf beetle
Cerotoma trifurcata, the grape colaspis
Colaspis brunnea, and the green stink
bug Acrosternum hilare. The predaceous
groups discussed are damsel bugs Nabis
TrANs. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2)
spp., big-eyed bugs Geocoris spp. (primarily
G. puntipes), and minute pirate bug Orius
insidiosus. These taxa were chosen because
of their consistent occurrence and relatively
high numbers compared to the other taxa
collected.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Data collected at 3 to 5 locations each of
the 4 years of this study provided 15 sepa-
rate seasonal population trends for several
phytophagous insect species. The time of
peak abundance and mean density at peak
abundance are given in Fig. 1 and Table
1, respectively, for green cloverworm, bean
leaf beetle, grape colaspis, and green stink
bug.
During 1973-1974, green cloverworm lar-
val populations reached peak abundance
between approximately mid-July and mid-
August. The one aberrant location (#4)
in 1974 may have been related to the late
planting of soybeans. Population peaks of
the green cloverworm in 1972 occurred
several weeks later than the average for the
other years. It is interesting to note that
Carner et al. (1974) obtained very similar
results in South Carolina. From sampling 3
locations there, they also found that green
cloverworm populations peaked approxi-
mately 1 month later in 1972 than in 1973.
This suggests that some geographically
wide-range climatic factor may have in-
fluenced green cloverworm populations
during those years.
There was considerable temporal varia-
tion in adult bean leaf beetle population
peaks (Fig. 1). In the majority of cases,
however, peaks occurred late in the season.
Studies conducted in Illinois indicated that
the bean leaf beetle, whose larvae feed on
the roots of various legumes, has 2 genera-
tions per year (Kogan et al. 1974). They
found that presumably overwintered adults
were very scarce in soybeans after late June;
first generation adults appeared in July and
August while second generation adults
emerged in September. If the life history
of this species is similar in Kentucky, our
data indicate that its peak abundance may
occur either early (first generation) or late
SOYBEAN INsECTS IN KENTUcKy—Raney and Yeargan
85
TasLeE 1.—MEAN DENSITIES PER 3-FOOT (0.91-mM) OF ROW OF 4 PHYTOPHAGOUS INSECT SPECIES AT PEAK
| ABUNDANCE ON SOYBEANS IN KENTUCKY. MEAN VALUES ARE FOLLOWED BY + STANDARD ERROR
Year
Location! 1972 1973 1974 1975
1 2A se 721 236) == Ofo 139: 06 Lyi O4
Green 2 1.6 = 0.1 $.5 = 0.7 9:8 0:9 Li 04
Cloverworm 8) Sg Ss (8) 8.4+ 0.5 LOG == O25 =
(larvae ) 4 — | ig a3 jad 8b S.a — 0:6 —
5 — 62)=210.5 — foe OF
6 — _— oo G:5:-E G5
iE 0.6 + 0.2 L203 0:83.02 —
Bean 2 BO ee D3 3.2 2 04 3.0 + 0.6 fe 0:2
Leaf Beetle 3 b= 0.2 [oNee Vey OO) —
(adults ) 4 — M622 O's LGi= 0:5 =
5 _ 0.7 ==02 — 0.8 = 0.2
6 zs. a2 = 74+ 0.3
1 JA == 0.3 | i ree Ue 1 6 hoes aed ley —
Grape 2 0.9 = 0.2 Lb eei0.2 0.5 = 0.2 =
Colaspis 3 14+ 0.2 0.6 + 0.2 14+ 0.2 —
(adults ) 4 — — O.,22.01 —
5 — 0.9 = 0.2 — 0:9 == 6.2.
6 — — — 0.22051
iL 7 OS Qo = OD (Speed eo —
Green 2, Oi == 0.1 0.3 02 12 =e O44 Os]: Gk
Stink Bug 3 TE st '0.3 O52 0:2 29 = Ol5 —
(nymphs and adults ) 4 — O2i= OF Ont 001 —
5 —_ VO 22095 — 0.2 + 0.1
6 — — — 0:2:== 2
1 County locations are: 1, Fulton; 2, Caldwell; 3, Henderson; 4, Ohio; 5, Fayette; 6, Hardin.
(second generation), depending on loca-
tion and year (Fig. 1). Soybean pods
usually are at or near maturity by Septem-
ber in Kentucky, and these pods occasion-
ally are damaged by adult bean leaf beetle
feeding. If economic damage occurs from
that species, it probably will result from
feeding of colonizing adults on young seed-
lings or from unusually large populations of
second generation adults feeding on soy-
bean pods.
Populations of grape colaspis invariably
peaked relatively early in the growing
season at all of our sampling locations (Fig.
1). Data were not included from Location
4 in 1973 and Location 2 in 1975 because
that species was virtually absent in those
plantings. The biology and ecology of that
beetle were studied in Arkansas, where it
overwintered in the larval stage with adults
emerging and ovipositing from June until
mid-August (Rolston and Rouse 1965).
Although they found that some second
brood adults emerged in late summer and
early fall, our data indicate that this does
not occur in Kentucky soybeans. If such a
second brood emerged, it occurred well
after pod maturity and after our sampling
was discontinued for the season. The rela-
tively low adult densities of this species
that we found on soybeans suggest that it
poses little threat to this crop in Kentucky
at the present time.
Because the green stink bug feeds on the
soybean pods and developing seeds rather
than foliage, it is not surprising that it is
most abundant late in the season (Fig. 1).
This insect feeds on other host plants
earlier in the year, such as dogwood, black-
berry, etc., and moves to soybeans when the
pods begin to develop (Underhill 1934,
Miner 1966). Due to its spotty distribution
pattern and piercing-sucking type feeding
damage, the insect and its feeding damage
86 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
Green Cloverworm
Green Stink Bug
Number per 3 ft. of row
Grape Colaspis
1
| ar
Jul 1 Aug 1 Sep 1
Fic. 2. Representative population trends of 4 spe-
cies of phytophagous insects on soybeans in Ken-
tucky; Fulton Co., 1974.
may go unnoticed during the growing
season. Heavy stink bug feeding can, how-
ever, result in shriveled or otherwise de-
formed beans.
Representative seasonal population trends
(Location 1, 1974) for green cloverworm,
bean leaf beetle, grape colaspis, and green
stink bug are given in Fig. 2. This illus-
trates the rates of population increase and
decrease for these species.
In addition to the species discussed
above, we collected population data on
more than a dozen other phytophagous
insect species, a few of which deserve
mention. Based on our 1975 sweep net sam-
ples, the potato leafhopper Empoasca fabae
was most abundant during the early part
of the growing season. This was the most
common leafhopper collected, reaching
densities that gave mean estimates of more
than 2 per sweep. In the same samples, all
other leafhoppers combined did not exceed
a mean of 1 per sweep. Very few aphids
or spider mites were encountered.
Certain pests found in other parts of the
country, such as the Mexican bean beetle
per 3 ft. of row
Number of Orius per 20 sweeps
Number of Nabis or Geocoris
Jul 1 Aug 1
Sep 1
Fic. 3. Seasonal abundance of 3 species of preda-
ceous insects on soybeans in Kentucky, 1975. A.
Fayette Co. B. Hardin Co.
Epilachna varivestis, were collected only in
low numbers at our sampling locations.
While other species of Lepidoptera were
collected on soybeans, none were nearly as
abundant nor as consistently present as the
green cloverworm.
Among the beneficial insects collected, 3
groups of hemipteran predators were most
prevalent. These were minute pirate bugs,
damsel bugs, and big-eyed bugs, primarily
G. punctipes. The population peaks of
those 3 groups did not occur synchronously
(Fig. 3). The earliest of the 3 was O. in-
sidiosus, commonly found in association
with large populations of thrips (S. vari-
abilis) in 1975. Populations of Nabis spp.
peaked near midseason at the time when
green cloverworm populations usually were
highest. Any predator-prey association —
between damsel bugs and green clover-
worms remains to be shown, but their pop-
ulation synchrony invites further study. The
last of these 3 predator groups to appear in
SOYBEAN INSECTS IN KENTUCKy—Raney and Yeargan 87
Kentucky soybeans were the big-eyed bugs.
At the Fayette County location, Geocoris
spp. populations peaked in late August and
began to decline in early September (Fig.
3A). At the Hardin County location, how-
ever, their populations apparently were still
increasing when the mature soybean plants
lost their leaves in late August (Fig. 3B).
Numbers of those predators collected at the
Caldwell County location in 1975 were too
low for analysis.
A comparison of our data with those pub-
lished from other states, indicates that Ken-
tucky soybean insect populations are more
similar to those of the Midwest than to
those of the Deep South. The bean leaf
beetle, the potato leafhopper, and S. vari-
abilis were the most abundant soybean in-
sects reported from Arkansas, Minnesota,
and Missouri, respectively (Blickenstaff and
Huggans 1962, Kretzschmar 1948, Tugwell
et al. 1973). In all those states, the green
cloverworm was reported as the most abun-
dant lepidopteran pest, as in the present
study. In South Carolina, however, the
green cloverworm was but one of several
lepidopteran species that commonly at-
tacked soybeans (Carner et al. 1974).
Of the pest species we collected, the
green cloverworm appears to be the domi-
nant soybean defoliator, while the seed
pods are attacked by stink bugs and, occa-
sionally, bean leaf beetles. It appears,
therefore, that soybean insect pest manage-
ment research in Kentucky should be
directed primarily toward these species.
LITERATURE CITED
BLICKENSTAFF, C. C., AND J. L. Huccans. 1962.
Soybean insects and related arthropods in
Missouri. Mo. Agric. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull.
803. 51 pp.
Boyer, W. B., anp W. A. Dumas. 1963. Soy-
bean insect survey as used in Arkansas. Coop.
Econ. Insect Rept. 13:91—92.
Carner, G. E., M. SHEPARD, AND S. G. TuRNIP-
SEED. 1974. Seasonal abundance of insect
pests of soybeans. J. Econ. Entomol. 67:487—
493.
Kocan, M., W. G. RuEsINK, AND K. McDOWELL.
1974. Spatial and temporal distribution pat-
terns of the bean leaf beetle, Cerotoma tri-
furcata, on soybeans in Illinois. Environ.
Entomol. 3:607-617.
KRETZSCHMAR, G. P. 1948. Soybean insects in
Minnesota with special references to sampling
techniques. J. Econ. Entomol. 41:586-591.
Miner, F. D. 1966. Biology and control of stink
bugs on soybeans. Arkansas Agric. Exp. Sta.
Bull. 708. 40 pp.
Rotston, L. H., anp P. Rouse. 1965. The
biology and ecology of the grape colaspis,
Colaspis flavida, in relation to rice production
in the Arkansas Grand Prairie. Arkansas Agric.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 694. 31 pp.
SHEPARD, M., G. R. CARNER, AND S. G. TuRNIP-
SEED. 1974. Seasonal abundance of preda-
ceous arthropods in soybeans. Environ. Ento-
mol. 3:985-988.
TUGWELL, P., E. P. RouszE, AND R. G. THOMPSON.
1973. Insects in soybeans and a weed host.
Arkansas Agric. Exp. Sta. Rep. Serv. 214. 18
pp.
UNDERHILL, G. W. 1934. The green stink bug.
Virginia Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 294. 26 pp.
Seasonal Molt in the White-footed Mouse Peromyscus leucopus’
BARBARA A. LENSING
Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
White-footed mice were snaptrapped in and around Louisville, Kentucky, from July 1973
to July 1974 to study seasonal molt of wild adults.
Previous investigators assumed that
these mice molt seasonally, but it has been unknown whether or not 1 or more molts
occurred each year or just how the molts coincided with the reproductive cycle.
The 94 adult specimens taken during the study indicate that there is, in fact, 1 seasonal
molt each year and that it occurs in October, November, and December.
Those months
coincide approximately with the nonbreeding period and the short photoperiod. The actual
pattern of new hair growth in adults resembles that of the juvenile molt.
INTRODUCTION
Mice of the genus Peromyscus have been
some of the most extensively studied small
mammals, and pelage and molting phenom-
ena have been described in a number of
species. Like many mammals, Peromyscus
grows and molts 2 coats of hair before
adulthood is reached. There is no standard
nomenclature to describe such pelage
changes as there is for the various avian
plumages. In order of appearance after
birth, the pelages and their subsequent
molts will hereafter be termed (1) juvenile
pelage (molt) and (2) subadult pelage
(molt). They also are commonly referred
to as maturational or developmental pelages
(molts ).
At maturity, the adult pelage must be
shed periodically and be replaced if it is to
continue to fulfill adequately its various
functions. The adult pelages and molts have
not been investigated as thoroughly in
Peromyscus as have the developmental
pelages. But it has been well shown that
many other adult mammals exhibit seasonal
moltings controlled by photoperiod through
its effect on the pituitary (Ling 1970).
It is generally assumed that adult Pero-
myscus undergo seasonal pelage changes,
but there have been few specific investiga-
tions of the subject. Since hair growth
cycles seem to be established early in life
1 Contribution No. 174 (New Series) from the
Department of Biology, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40208.
88
and subsequent cycles may in fact repeat
those early events, it is important to be
familiar with the developmental molts.
King (1968) presented a short comparative
survey of the developmental molts for the
genus, but gave no information for seasonal
molts.
Gottschang (1956:517-519) gave a spe-
cific description of juvenile molt in P. leu-
copus noveboracensis. New rufous fur first
begins to grow in a small patch or in a nar-
row line slightly dorsal and anterior to the
hind leg. This narrow line of new hair
growth moves forward, and about the time
it reaches the front legs, a small patch of
new hair appears on the shoulders. The
shoulder patch and lateral stripe then en-
large until they meet, thus forming a con-
tinuous line along the side that separates
the white ventral fur from the dark mouse
gray of the rest of the back. The lateral
rufous stripes continue to increase in width
while a cinnamon rufous patch appears on
each cheek just beneath the eye. The eye
patch enlarges to replace all the gray on the
sides of the face. By then, the lateral rufous
stripe has extended from the hind leg back
to the base of the tail. The juvenile gray fur
down the center of the back is then replaced
by rufous adult fur. The last juvenile fur to
be replaced is either that at the very base of
the tail or that across the top of the shoul-
ders and between the ears. Males and fe-
males exhibit the same molting pattern |
(Figiwd.) |
SEASONAL MoLtT IN WHITE-FOOTED Mouse—Lensing
89
Fic. 1. Typical juvenile molt pattern for Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis (after Gottschang
1956). Stippled areas represent new adult pelage.
Collins (1923) was the first to study
adult molt in the genus. He did laboratory
and field work on P. maniculatus gambeli,
and concluded that the maximum amount
of molting occurred in fall and early winter
(September through December). “The
most obvious characteristic of the seasonal
molts is the absence of sharply defined
molting periods. . . . Specimens may be
found undergoing some change of pelage
any month of the year.” (Collins 1923:64,
66).
Brown (1963) found 2 seasonal pelages
in adult P. boylii with most individuals ex-
hibiting molt in spring (April-May) and
fall (November—December). A spring and
fall molt were also characteristic of Ochro-
tomys nuttalli (Linzey and Linzey 1967).
Lynch (1973) used adult P. leucopus in
his laboratory study of the effects of chang-
ing photoperiod and temperature on the
seasonal molts and reproductive system. He
found that the seasonal molt and gonadal
regression were exhibited only by mice
90 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2)
nas / DAY
RATE OF CHANGE
DEC JAN Ft6 MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Fic. 2. Rate of change in photoperiod for Louis-
ville, Kentucky (approximately 38°N latitude).
under a short-day photoperiod (9 hours
light, 15 hours dark), and that short-day,
cold-exposed (5 C) mice molted 2 weeks
earlier than did warm (26 C) short-day
mice. Short photoperiod had a more
dramatic effect on the rate of seasonal molt
than it did on the rate of regression of the
reproductive system. Lynch assumed that
the short-day seasonal molt was a fall molt.
Thus, it seems true of adult Peromyscus,
as it seems for other wild adult mammals,
that several environmental factors control
seasonal molt, but photoperiod may be the
major one. The reproductive cycle is also
mainly under photoperiodic control, so one
would expect that individual breeding con-
dition, as well as ambient and microclimatic
temperatures and behavioral adaptations
would also have varying effects on seasonal
molt.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
One hundred forty-eight mice for the
study were snaptrapped in and around
Jefferson County, Kentucky (approximately
38° N latitude), and were prepared as flat
study skins. Standard measurements for
each animal at the time of skinning in-
cluded: lengths of tail, hind foot, and ear,
and total length, total weight, size and posi-
tion of testes, and notation of pregnancy or
lactation. The adrenal glands were mea-
sured and preserved. Most specimens were
collected between July 1973 and July 1974,
although several skins were from the Uni-
versity of Louisville collection and date |
from 1964. All skins are on deposit at the
University of Louisville. Each skin was
categorized as juvenile, subadult, or adult
on the bases of weight, breeding condition,
and color of fur. Of the 148 mice, 94 were
adult; only adults were used in assessing |
seasonal molt. |
To determine the amount of seasonal molt- |
ing, skins were placed in the following 4 —
groups based on the rate of change in photo- |
period at 38° N latitude: summer (23 May- |
24 July), fall (24 July-23 November), winter —
(23 November-21 January), and spring (21 |
January-23 May). The rate of change in ©
photoperiod for fall and spring was higher —
(between +.15 and +.20 hour per day)
than the rate of change for summer and ©
winter (between 0 and +.15 hour per day)
(Fig. 2).
Each skin was appraised for molt by in- |
specting the amount of pigment deposition ©
in the skin itself. This is seen best on the
underside of the skin. Seldom was a molt |
line visible in the fur, and, if so, only with
respect to the developmental molts. The
total area of each skin was determined by
making tracings of the underside of the
skin on clear plastic sheets of uniform thick- |
ness. The total area was then divided into |
molting and nonmolting areas on the basis —
of pigment deposition, and each area was
cut out and weighed on a balance accurate ©
to 1 mg. Weight was used to calculate the |
percentage of each skin in the process of |
molting, and from those weights, seasonal
percentages were determined for each sea-
sonal group. |
The most characteristic patterns of new
hair growth could also be seen by inspec-
tion of the underside of each skin, and
those patterns were arbitrarily divided into
5 basic groups (Fig. 3). Each skin was
categorized as Pattern I, I, HI, IV, V, No
Molt, or Diffuse Molt. The percentages of
individuals in each category then could be
calculated for summer, fall, winter, and |
spring. |
Size of adrenal glands was recorded for |
66 mice, and mean seasonal size was deter-
mined. |
SEASONAL MOLT IN WHITE-FOOTED Mouse—Lensing
TABLE 1.—PERCENTAGES OF MALE, FEMALE, AND TOTAL PEROMYSCUS LEUCOPUS SHOWING MOLT AT
DIFFERENT SEASONS, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY
91
Summer Fall Winter Spring
Males
Number 6 DD, 12 10
Mean = 2 SE Te =t.o 2 = ee TAA = IOS 6.6 = O7
sD 8.9 ob LAS ck
Range 0-25.5 0-97.9 0-52.8 0-3.4
Females
Number 0 19 13 12
Mean =+ 2 SE = DI, == MA 13.0: 1A 0.1.<0:1
sD = 27.0 20.6 0.3
Range - 0-85.6 0-68.7 0-0.9
Total
Number 6 25 22
Mean + 2 SE Or = has Oh A = So) PG S20 03-63
sD 8.9 25.9 19.2 0.8
Range ea 0-97.9 0-68.7 0-3.4
RESULTS No comparisons could be made for summer
Percentages of molt in progress in each
of the 4 seasonal groups based on rate
of change in photoperiod are shown in
Table 1. The largest mean was always
in fall, with the second largest mean
in winter, and the smallest mean in spring.
There was a significant difference between
the amount of molting in fall and the
amount in summer and spring. There
also was a significant difference be-
tween the amount of molting in winter and
spring. There was significantly more molting
in progress in fall and winter males and
females than in spring males and fe-
males. There also was significantly more
molting in fall males than in summer males.
females since none was caught during the
study.
The most common patterns of molt are
shown in Fig. 3 and are arranged in se-
quence I-V to resemble Gottschang’s
(1956) drawings (Fig. 1) which show ori-
gin and direction of the juvenile molt. Fig.
3 is not a dynamic series even though it is
probable that adult patterns of molt follow
closely the juvenile pattern. Pattern I
represents those skins that show pigment
deposition in the axillae of the fore- and/or
hindlimbs. Pattern II represents skins with
pigment deposition and a narrow band
along the lateral lines from the axillae of
the forelimbs to those of the hindlimbs. The
TABLE 2,—PERCENTAGES OF INDIVIDUAL PEROMYSCUS LEUCOPUS SHOWING DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF
MOLT, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY. (SEE TEXT FOR DESCRIPTION OF PATTERNS)
I II III
Summer 16.6 - —
Fall 9.7 9.7 19.5
Jul-Aug 9.1 9.1 -
Oct _ _ 30.0
Nov 15.0 15.0 25.0
Winter 8.0 16.0 24.0
Spring 13.6 os “a
Pattern
IV V Diffuse Total
- - 33.3 49.9
19.5 1 yea | _ 75.6
9.1 9.1 - 36.6
40.0 20.0 _ 90.0
15.0 20.0 - 90.0
16.0 8.0 - 72.0
— 4.5 _ 18.2
92 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
PATTERN |
PATTERN Il
PATTERN Ill
PATTERN IV
PATTERN V
Fic. 3. Categories of patterns of molt in adult Peromyscus leucopus. Stippled areas represent regions
of new hair growth. See text for explanation of patterns.
third pattern is the most variable in the
sequence and symbolizes skins with pig-
ment lines midway up the sides parallel to
the lateral lines. Those 2 pigment lines
may or may not be connected by pigment
deposited across the dorsum. The lines vary
greatly in width, and may extend from the
lateral line almost to the mdidle of the
back. Pattern IV depicts skins with pig-
ment laid down in a single middorsal line
from between the eyes to the base of the
tail. Pattern V represents skins with pig-
ment on the head (around and between the
eyes and ears) and/or at the base of the —
tail. The pigment deposition represented
by each of the 5 patterns is almost always |
bilaterally symmetrical. |
The highest percentage of individuals —
SEASONAL MoLtT IN WHITE-FOOTED Mouse—Lensing 93
TABLE 3.—SIZE (GREATEST LENGTH, MM) OF ADRENAL GLANDS OF ADULT MALE AND FEMALE AND
ALL PEROMYSCUS LEUCOPUS EACH SEASON, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY
Summer Fall Winter Spring
Males
Number 4 5 )
Mean = 2 SE a = OS Dy = OS Aa Mes ail |) 8 Ti OS
sD 0.4 : 0.3 0.4
Range 3.2-3.8 1.5-3.8 2.4—3.0 2.2-3.5
Females
Number 0 6 ie
Mean + 2 SE = 2G == 3S To s= 220 I = 15.0
SD — : 0.3 0.3
Range = 2.44.0 2.0—2.7 2.0-2.9
Total
Number 4 30 TE PAL
Mean =+ 2 SE Se, == Oe Die = 04 I5= 0.9 iy OF
sD 0.4 ; 0.3 0.4
Range 3.2-3.8 1.5—4.0 2.0—3.0 Pe
showed molt in fall (75.6%) and winter
(72%), while the lowest percentage was in
spring (18.2%) (Table 2). When the fall
group was broken down into 3 subgroups,
the percentages were highest in October
and November (both 90%). Winter was
represented by mice caught only in Decem-
ber. So, October, November, and Decem-
ber were the months with the highest per-
centages of individuals showing molt.
Sizes of adrenal glands for the 4 sea-
sons are shown in Table 3. Adrenal
glands in summer are significantly larger
than at any other time of year, and
the male adrenal gland is significantly
larger in summer than in fall, winter,
or spring. No females were collected
in summer during the study, but the
females did have significantly larger
adrenal glands in fall than in winter or
spring.
DISCUSSION
Although some adult P. leucopus can be
found in the process of molting at any time
of year, there is but 1 annual molt. It oc-
curs in fall and winter (specifically Octo-
ber, November, and December) when the
rate of decrease in photoperiod is greatest.
But those months do not coincide exactly
with the greatest rate of change in the fall
photoperiod between 24 July and 23 No-
vember. That time lag fits in with the
general nature of hormonal control; hor-
mone levels build up slowly in the blood-
stream and must reach a certain critical
level before stimulating any physiological
changes.
It is also known that P. leucopus, from
approximately the same locality as the
present study group, are in _ breeding
condition all months except November,
December, and January (Thane Robinson
pers. comm.). This is essentially in agree-
ment with the findings of Burt (1940) and
Whitaker (1940) at Ann Arbor, Michigan,
who reported that few young were produced
in November and none in December, Jan-
uary, or February. Most litters were pro-
duced in April, May, and June. A slump
occurred in July, but production was up
again in August, September, and October.
Since Hayward (1965) has shown that
P. maniculatus does not need to grow a
warm winter coat, the fact that the non-
breeding months overlap the months of the
annual molt probably is no coincidence.
October, November, and December must
represent the most energetically feasible
time of the year to molt with respect to the
reproductive cycle.
These findings
agree with Osgood’s
94 TRANS. KeNTuCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2)
(1909) belief that Peromyscus undergoes
only 1 seasonal molt in the fall and with
Collins’s (1923) field study which showed
a fall molt (October and November) in P.
maniculatus. Brown (1963) and Lynch
(1973) are the only investigators who at-
tempted to relate adult molting to photo-
period and the reproductive cycle. P. boylii
apparently has 2 seasonal molts (fall and
spring) that coincide with the ends of
breeding periods. Laboratory reared P.
leucopus come out of breeding condition
and exhibit molting when exposed to short
photoperiod, but the seasonal timing of the
molt in wild white-footed mice has not
been determined previously.
Adult P. leucopus do adhere to definite
patterns of new hair growth and those pat-
terns resemble those of the juvenile molt
(Table 2). Only in the summer group did
any individuals exhibit molt with a diffuse
pattern.
Just how size of adrenal glands relates to
seasonal molting is not known. But adrenal
gland size is a known indicator of the
amount of environmental stress in small
mammals, and stress probably can modify
the effects of a major environmental cue
like photoperiod.
The present study helps confirm the be-
lief that photoperiod is the major environ-
mental cue to trigger seasonal molt in wild
adult P. leucopus, as it is in many other
wild animals. Also, it shows how tightly
linked are the 2 energy costly events of
reproduction and new hair growth. Other
less important factors probably modify the
main environmental cue so that some indi-
viduals may be found molting at any time
of year. Only 1 seasonal molt was typical
of P. leucopus at 38° N latitude, but de-
pending on the latitude and the breeding
cycle, there may be 2 seasonal molts per
year, as there are in P. boylii and Ochro-
tomys nuttalli.
LITERATURE CITED
Brown, L. N. 1963. Maturational and seasonal
molts in Peromyscus boylii. Amer. Midl. Nat.
70:466—-469.
Burt, W. H. 1940. Territorial behavior and
populations of some small mammals in south-
ern Michigan. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ.
Mich. 45:1-58.
Cotuins, H. H. 1923. Studies of the pelage
phases and of the nature of color variation in
mice of the genus Peromyscus. J. Exp. Zool.
38:45-107.
GotTscHAnG, J. L. 1956. Juvenile molt in Pero-
myscus leucopus noveboracensis. J. Mammal.
37:516—520.
Haywarp, J. S. 1956. Microclimate temperature
and its adaptive significance in six geograph-
ical races of Peromyscus maniculatus. Can. J.
Zool. 43:341—350.
Kinc, J. A., Ep. 1968. Biology of Peromyscus.
Spec. Publ. No. 2, Amer. Soc. Mammal. 593
Ppp.
Linc, J. K. 1970. Pelage and molting in wild
animals with special reference to aquatic
forms. Quart. Rev. Biol. 45:16—54.
LinzEy, D. W., AND A. V. LinzEy. 1967. Mat-
urational and seasonal molts in the golden
mouse, Ochrotomys nuttalli. J. Mammal. 48:
236-241.
Lyncu, G. R. 1973. Effect of simultaneous ex-
posure to difference in photoperiod and tem-
perature on the seasonal molt and reproductive
system of the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus
leucopus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 44A:1373—
1376.
Oscoop, W. H. 1909. Revision of the mice of
the American genus Peromyscus. N. Amer.
Fauna 28:1—285.
Wuiraker, W. L. 1940. Some effects of artifi-
cial illumination on reproduction in the white-
footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus. J. Exp.
Zool. 83:33-60.
The “Lost”? Liliaceae of Kentucky: A Reevaluation’
EpwarpD T. BROWNE, JR.
Department of Biology, Memphis State University, Memphis, Tennessee 38152
AND
RAYMOND ATHEY
701 Woodland Avenue, Paducah, Kentucky 42001
ABSTRACT
Melanthium virginicum L. is reported for Kentucky the first time in more than 130 years.
Evidence of the occurrence of Maianthemum canadense Desf. in Kentucky is given, and Lilium
philippinense Baker is reported for the first time as a naturalized escape.
In an earlier article (Browne 1962), spe-
cies of Liliaceae were discussed which had
last been collected in Kentucky 100 years
or more ago or had never been collected in
the state although their distribution in ad-
jacent states indicated a likelihood of their
occurrence in Kentucky. Two species have
now been collected, and a third species, not
expected in Kentucky, has been discovered.
The acronyms F, GH, MO, NCU, NY,
PH, and US that designate the herbaria re-
‘ferred to in this paper follow the usage of
Lanjouw and Stafleu (1964) which is now
almost universally adopted in reference to
herbaria.
It has been largely through the efforts of
the second author that these records have
been established. All collections are repre-
‘sented by specimens in the Herbarium,
Memphis State University. Extra collec-
tions have been distributed to NCU and
other herbaria as permitted by the avail-
ability of material. For the sake of brevity,
the names of the collectors are abbreviated
RA and ETB followed by their collection
number.
Melanthium virginicum.—As _ reported
earlier, the only known records of this spe-
cies in Kentucky are 2 sheets in NY col-
lected by Dr. C. W. Short in 1842. No
other data are known for those collections
since the information furnished by Short
is minimal. Specimens cited: Calloway
County, RA, 2398.
‘Contribution No. 7, Kentucky Flora Project,
Memphis State University.
95
Maianthemum canadense.—Wharton and
Barbour (1971) illustrated this species, but
gave no distributional data, in the absence
of which and without voucher specimens,
their illustration cannot be considered
adequate to establish a state record. Dr.
Barbour (pers. comm.) told both of us on
separate occasions where the species was
photographed. On the basis of that in-
formation, the second author made voucher
collections. It is our understanding that M.
canadense also occurs in an adjacent county,
but we have no specimens to support that
contention. Specimens cited: Menifee
County, RA, 2378.
*Lilium philippinense —This species was
collected by the first author while on a field
trip in eastern Kentucky in 1972. It is
thoroughly established in a large field and
along roadsides in that locality. From that
authors experience with this species in
Georgia, it is clear that it must have es-
caped from some flower garden in the
vicinity. It is somewhat surprising that a
report of its occurrence in the state has not
been made previously, so great is the repro-
ductive potential and widespread its distri-
bution at that locality. Specimens cited:
McCreary County, ETB 72H14.1.
This species differs from L. formosanum
Wallace (L. philippinense Baker var. for-
mosanum [Wallace] Wilson apud Grove in
Wilson 1925) in the shorter pedicels, non-
stoloniferous bulbs (Wilson was not sure of
this), glabrous stems, shorter ovulary, non-
angular fruit, pointed (rather than de-
96 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
pressed) fruit summit, and the stamens
slightly exceeding the perianth. The peri-
anth at the base is about the diameter of an
ordinary wooden pencil in living material,
a character used by the late Dr. Samuel L.
Emsweller, USDA (pers. comm.), as a
separating characteristic. This is consider-
ably greater in L. formosanum. The leaves
of our specimens are wider (6-10 mm) than
reported by Wilson (2-4 mm), but that
might vary depending upon environmental
conditions. It seems apparent from this
study that L. philippinense and L. formos-
anum probably are not distinct species, but
the answer to that problem is beyond the
scope of this paper. L. philippinense is
here recognized as an introduced, natural-
ized taxon by the asterisk preceding the
generic name.
Appreciation is expressed to the curators
and staffs of the following herbaria whose
kindness and help to a great extent made ©
possible this publication: F, GH, MO, NY, |
PH, and US. |
LITERATURE CITED
Browne, E. T., Jr. 1962. “Lost” species of
Kentucky Liliaceae. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 23
(3-4) :51-57. |
Lanjouw, J., AND F. A. StaFLeu. 1964. Index |
Herbariorum. Ed. 5. Int. Bur. Pl. Taxon. |
Nomen., A. I. P. T., Utrecht, Netherlands.
Wuarton, M. E., anp R. W. Barsour. 1971. |
The wildflowers and ferns of Kentucky. Univ. |
Press Ky., Lexington, Ky. 344 pp.
Witson, E. H. 1925. The lilies of eastern Asia.
Dulau, London, Eng. |
A Note on the Distribution of Chrosomus erythrogaster
(Cyprinidae) in Kentucky
Tuomas M. FREEZE AND Katuy J. RAYBURN
Department of Biology, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071
ABSTRACT
The distribution of the southern redbelly dace Chrosomus erythrogaster in western Ken-
tucky includes the Gulf Coastal Plain, based on collections from the Tennessee River
drainage in Calloway County.
Clay (1975) reported that the distribu-
tion of the southern redbelly dace Chro-
somus erythrogaster is statewide in Ken-
tucky with the probable exception of the
Gulf Coastal Plain. The collections reported
by Woolman (1892), Sisk (1969), Smith
and Sisk (1969), Resh et al. (1973), Jones
(1974 unpublished master’s thesis, Murray
State University, Murray, Kentucky), and
- Webb and Sisk (1975) in or bordering the
Coastal Plain area of Kentucky did not
contain any specimens of C. erythrogaster.
Distributional records within the Coastal
Plain area of other states include an isolated
population in the Yazoo River drainage
near Vicksburg, Mississippi, documented
by Hemphill (1957), and a record from the
- Obion River system of western Tennessee
that presumably is valid (Sliger pers.
comm.). C. erythrogaster is distributed
widely in the eastern drainage of the Ten-
nessee River in Tennessee (Sliger pers.
comm.). Buchanan (1973) reported Phox-
inus (= Chrosomus) erythrogaster from the
St. Francis River drainage within the Missis-
sippi Alluvial Plain in Arkansas, but
Pflieger (1975) did not record it from the
“Lowlands” of southeastern Missouri within
the same drainage.
On 24 June 1976, 2 specimens of southern
redbelly dace (MSUMZ 744) were collected
in east-central Calloway County, Kentucky,
within the reaches of the Gulf Coastal
Plain. One was collected from Little Sugar
Creek at the Highway 732 bridge about 8
km east of Highway 94 and 13 km due
south of Kentucky Lake State Park. The
second specimen was collected from the
nearby boil of Russells Chapel Spring that
empties into Little Sugar Creek. Little
97
Sugar Creek empties into the Blood River
Embayment on the western side of Ken-
tucky Lake (Tennessee River).
These collections apparently represent
the first records of C. erythrogaster from
the Tennessee River drainage within the
Coastal Plain of western Kentucky. It is
believed that the specimens are indicative
of an established population, since both
were exhibiting breeding coloration.
We express appreciation to Dr. Andrew
Sliger and his ichthyology class for their
assistance in securing the above specimens.
LITERATURE CITED
BucHANAN, T. M. 1973. Key to the fishes of
Arkansas. Ark. Game Fish Comm., Little
Rock, Ark. 170 pp.
Cray, W. M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky. Ky.
Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frankfort, Ky. 416 pp.
Hempuitt, A. F. 1957. The southern redbelly
dace, Chrosomus erythrogaster erythrogaster,
from the lower Mississippi River drainage.
Copeia 1957(1):53.
PruiecerR, W. L. 1975. The fishes of Missouri.
Mo. Dept. Cons., Jefferson City, Mo. 343 pp.
ResH, V. H., C. R. Baker, AND W. M. Chay.
1973. A preliminary list of fishes of the Land
Between the Lakes, Cumberland and Tennes-
see river drainages. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
33 (3—4) :73-80.
Sisk, M. E. 1969. The fishes of west Kentucky.
I. Fishes of the Clark’s River. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 30(3-4 ) :54—59.
SmirH, P. L., anp M. E. Sisk. 1969. The fishes
of west Kentucky. II. The fishes of Obion
Creek. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30( 3-4) :60-68.
Wess, D. H., anp M. E. Sisk. 1975. The fishes
of west Kentucky. III. The fishes of Bayou
de Chien. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36( 3-4) :63—
70.
WootmaNn, A. J. 1892. Report of an examina-
tion of the rivers of Kentucky with lists of the
fishes obtained. Bull. U.S. Fish Comm. 1890:
249-289.
A White-flowered Form of Iris cristata from
Carter County, Kentucky’
ARLAND HOTCHKISS
Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
AND
KENNETH Ray WILSON
Box 507, R. R. #5, Olive Hill, Kentucky 41164
A white-flowered form of the dwarf,
crested iris, Iris cristata Ait. was found
among hundreds of typical blooming plants
which here segregate into light blue and
dark blue forms. It is completely white
except for the yellow crest.
A white-flowered form known as _ var.
‘Contribution No. 185 (New Series) from the
Department of Biology, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40208.
98
alba Dykes is known in the horticultural |
treatises on Iris but apparently is rare in the
field.
It was found on a steep, southwest
facing, yellow clay bank of a small wood-
land stream near U.S. Highway 60 on the ©
farm of Glendal Plummer at Gregoryville, —
Kentucky, in May 1972. It is presently -
known from this single collection and is —
maintained in cultivation by the junior |
author.
DISTINGUISHED SCIENTIST AWARD
Dr. Louis A. Krumholz
On behalf of the Academy’s Board of
Directors, I am pleased to have the privi-
lege of making known to you the name of
the Academy’s 1976 Distinguished Scientist.
The idea for such an award was spawned
during a board meeting sometime in the
past two years. This year’s Board approved
the award and also secured the approval
and financial backing of the Executive
Committee. Both groups are pleased that
the award is now finally being instituted.
Hopefully, the recipient of the award will
be honored to be selected and I know
that the Academy will be honored for being
associated with the recipient.
The person who we honor this evening
was born in the Pacific Northwest in the
State of Washington, but unlike others
who heeded the classic admonition to go
west, decided to head back east for his
fame and glory. He completed a bacca-
laureate degree at the College of St.
99
Thomas in St. Paul, Minnesota, with a
major in General Science, and a master of
science degree at the University of Illinois
with a major in Zoology.
Prior to enrolling at the University of
Michigan to pursue a doctorate, he was
employed for a while with the Illinois
Natural History Survey. Apparently the
type of research he undertook with the
Survey, not only helped him to produce
a doctoral dissertation in 1945 for the Uni-
versity of Michigan, but has been the basis
of much of his subsequent research ac-
tivities in Michigan, Indiana, Tennessee,
Kentucky, and in the Bahamas.
Upon completion of his doctorate, he
was hired by Indiana University as an in-
structor in zoology and also as a research
associate with the Indiana Lake and Stream
Survey. That employment lasted 5 years,
after which he was employed for 4 years
by TVA to be in charge of an ecological
study of White Oak Creek, a creek that
received a wide variety of effluents from
the Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Subsequently, he took an exotic position
as Resident Biologist in charge of upkeep
and all facilities and research at the Lerner
Marine Laboratory at Bimini in the Ba-
hamas.
Settling back to earth, he came to the
University of Louisville in 1957. He was
hired as an assistant professor, and by 1963
was promoted to full professorship; in
1966-1967 he served as Chairman of the
Division of Natural Sciences. He was
Director of the Water Resources Labora-
tory at the University of Louisville, a posi-
tion to which he was appointed in 1967.
During his busy career he has found
time to:
1. Direct, or at least be involved in, the
research efforts of 70 master’s and doctoral
candidates, mostly at the University of
Louisville but some at Indiana University.
2. Consult, in some way or another, for
over 14 organizations, including the Oak
Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies, the
National Academy of Sciences, the World
100
Health Organization, the President’s Sci-
entific Advisory Committee, U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, and the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers.
3. Present more than 20 scholarly papers
at meetings, conferences, and symposia of
national and international professional or-
ganizations.
4. Publish more than 90 research articles,
mostly in research publications of national
and international scope.
His teaching has apparently been rein-
forced by his research because he was
named the 1976 Distinguished Faculty Lec-
turer at the University of Louisville.
He has served the Kentucky Academy
of Science exceedingly well as its Presi-
dent and now, as the Editor of the Acad-
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
emy's official publication, the TRANSAC- |
TIONS. |
The Academy’s 1976 Distinguished Sci-
entist is Dr. Louis A. Krumholz.
John C. Philley (Chmn)
Board of Directors
Response by Dr. Krumholz
Thank you very much Dr. Philley. I |
am most gratified and highly honored to |
have been selected for this award. It is
beautiful, and certainly is a high spot in my |
career. At the same time, I am completely |
taken aback by such an honor since there >
are so many distinguished scientists in our ©
Academy. I will do my best to live up to
your confidence. Thank you, again.
ACADEMY AFFAIRS
PROGRAM
Friday, 19 November 1976
_1300— REGISTRATION, Room 137, Chem-
1700 EST _istry—Physics Building
1300- SCIENTIFIC EXHIBITS, Room 137,
1800 Chemistry—Physics Building
—1300- SECTIONAL MEETINGS (see fol-
1530 lowing pages)
1530- PLENARY SESSION, Room 189,
1730 Chemistry—Physics Building (see
below )
1700- RECEPTION HOUR, Alumni House,
1900 Rose and Euclid Streets
1900-— KAS ANNUAL BANQUET, Student
Center Ballroom (NOTE: pick up
tickets at registration desk)
Saturday, 20 November 1976
—0700- BREAKFAST SERVICE, Student Cen-
1900 EST ter Grill and elsewhere in vicinity
0800- REGISTRATION, Room 187, Chem-
1000 istry—Physics Building
0800-— ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING,
0930 Room 139, Chemistry—Physics Build-
ing
0930-— SECTIONAL MEETINGS (see fol-
lowing pages)
0930- PANEL DISCUSSION ON LIBRAR-
IES (see below)
1100- CAFETERIA SERVICE, Student Cen-
1400 ter and elsewhere
SPECIAL PROGRAMS
Friday, 19 November 1976, Room 139, Chemistry—
Physics Building
PLENARY SESSION
“Preservation and Protection of Natural Areas in
Kentucky”
William H. Martin, Moderator
1530— Preserving natural diversity. William H.
1600 Martin, Associate Professor of Biological
Science, Eastern Kentucky University.
1600-— The 1976 Kentucky Nature Preserves Act.
1630 Jon E. Rickert, Attorney-at-law, Elizabeth-
town, Kentucky.
1630— Scenic easements: protection by private
1700 ownership. Hon. Joseph C. Graves, State
Senator, Lexington, Kentucky.
1700— Community action: protection through land
1730 trust. Robert A. Kuehne, Associate Pro-
fessor of Biology, University of Kentucky.
101
Saturday, 20 November 1976, Room 139, Chem-
istry—Physics Building
“The Library—Your Best Research Ally”
Marth Rush, President, Special Libraries
Association, Kentucky Chapter, University of
Louisville Law Library, Moderator
Panel Members
0920— Trudi Belardo, Computer Based Literature
1130 Search, King Library, University of Ken-
tucky.
Ellen Baxter, Department of Chemistry
Librarian, University of Kentucky.
Mary Evelyn Minter, Medical Center Li-
brary, University of Kentucky.
Virginia Neal, Science Librarian, Western
Kentucky University.
BoTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY
Room 108-109,
T. H. Morgan Biological Science Building
Harold E. Eversmeyer, Chairman, Presiding
Joe E. Winstead, Secretary
Friday, 19 November
1315 Bacterial cell separation in the absence of
growth. A. D. Hitchins, John W. O'Donnell
II, and Charles Gilvarg. T. H. Morgan
School of Biological Sciences, University of
Kentucky, and Department of Biochemical
Sciences, Princeton University.
1330 Baseline data on the microbiota of air in
an urban area. K. E. Bewley, W. R. Ranney,
EP) Elliott; and™ EB. Lockwood. “De-
partment of Biology, Western Kentucky
University.
1345 Anticandida and anticancer therapy in Can-
dida infected AKR mice. Stephen E. Woock
and David N. Mardon. Department of Bio-
logical Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University
(Sponsored by Raymond B. Otero).
1400 Mouse marrow-thymus lymphocyte antigen:
a new differentiation heteroantigen in ro-
dents. Fernando Morgado. Department of
Biology, Western Kentucky University.
1415 Phytoplankton dynamics in the Bayou du
Chien, a stream of western Kentucky. Ed-
ward L. Johnson and Robert G. Johnson.
Department of Biology, Murray State Uni-
versity.
1430 Gel electrophoresis in the genus Tsuga. Ron-
ald R. Van Stockum, Jr. Department of
Biology, University of Louisville.
102
Saturday, 20 November
0945 The Big Clifty Prairie, a remnant outlier
of the Prairie Peninsula, Grayson County,
Kentucky. William S. Bryant. Department
of Biology, Thomas More College.
1000 Some effects of ground fire on the _her-
baceous and shrub strata in the knobs region
of Marion County, Kentucky. Les McClain.
Department of Science, Saint Catherine Col-
lege.
Rapid response to stimuli in plants. Anne
Hotchkiss, Louisville Biology Section Win-
ner of the Kentucky Junior Academy of
Science.
Information storage and retrieval system de-
signed for the herbarium for Murray State
University. Marian J. Fuller. Department
of Biology, Murray State University.
Bryophytes of the Red River Gorge. S. M.
Moyle, G. M. Cheschier, and K. Wilhelmi.
Department of Biology, Centre College of
Kentucky.
Bryophytes of Backusburg Hill, Calloway
County, Kentucky. James Perry. Depart-
ment of Biology, Murray State University
(sponsored by M. J. Fuller).
Interesting fern records from the Red River
catchment area in Kentucky. Ray Cranfill.
T. H. Morgan School of Biological Sciences,
University of Kentucky (sponsored by W. J.
Meijer).
Vascular flora of the Sandy Branch drainage
in Carlisle County, Kentucky. Larry Wilson.
Department of Biology, Murray State Uni-
versity (sponsored by M. J. Fuller).
Vascular flora of loess ravines in Carlisle,
Hickman, and Fulton counties of Kentucky.
Charlotte Bryan. Department of Biology,
Murray State University.
Election of officers for 1976-1977.
1015
1030
1045
1100
1115
1130
1145
1200
CHEMISTRY
Room 220, Chemistry—Physics Building
William R. Oliver, Chairman, Presiding
Ilyas Ahmad, Secretary
Friday, 19 November
1300
1315
Sectional business meeting.
Electrochemical carbon—halogen bond _fis-
sion: le vs. 2e mechanisms. James E.
O'Reilly. University of Kentucky.
Proton excited x-ray fluorescence analysis
of solid coal. S. Crouch Laumer and H. W.
Laumer. Department of Chemistry and De-
partment of Physics, University of Kentucky.
Application of instrumental neutron activa-
tion techniques to coal analysis. G-H. Sun,
W. D. Ehmann, and L. L. Chyi. Department
of Chemistry and Institute of Mining and
Minerals Research, University of Kentucky.
1330
1345
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
1400 Chemical studies of impact glasses and lunar —
agglutinates. W. B. Stroube, Jr. and W. D.
Ehmann. Department of Chemistry, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.
Chemical characterization of Apollo 16 lunar
core samples by INAA. T. I. M. Hossain,
M. Z. Ali, and W. D. Ehmann. Department
of Chemistry, University of Kentucky.
Photolysis of some substituted pyrroles. D.
M. Bruser and J. M. Patterson. Department
of Chemistry, University of Kentucky.
1415
1430
1445
and methyl phenylpropriolate. Chester L.
Leach and Joseph Wilson. Department of
Chemistry, University of Kentucky.
Some observations on the reaction of hydra-
zine with 3-benzylidene-phthalide. Victor
1500
I. Bendall and Beveraly Ann Phelps. De- |
partment of Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky |
University.
Saturday, 20 November
0930 Crystal structure of 4,4’-dichlorobiphenyl.
Meii-Shiow Kuo and Carolyn P. Brock. De-—
partment of Chemistry, University of Ken-
tucky.
0945
ment of Chemistry, University of Kentucky.
1000
the body chemistry. Ilyas Ahmad and Char-
lotte Dingels.
Kentucky State University.
1015
tucky State University.
Break.
Synthesis of maleic anhydride from aspartic
1030
1045
acid. Loren Braun, Walter T. Smith, Jr., and
J. M. Patterson. Department of Chemistry, —
University of Kentucky.
1100
Science.
eS
anilines. Ellis Brown. Department of Chem-
istry, University of Kentucky.
1130
structed gas chromatograms. Howard Eris-
man and Marshall Gordon. Department of.
Chemistry, Murray State University.
1145 Disproportionation equilibria for
cobalt (I) in solution.
University.
Lunch.
Investigation of mixed indicator effect in
complexometric titration of cobalt (II). Dar-
1200
1315
The reaction between diphenyldiazo methane —
Thermal behavior of ethylenetetracarboxylic |
acid. Nabeel F. Haidar, Loren Braun, J. M. |
Patterson, and Walter T. Smith, Jr. Depart-_
Effect of varying dosage of vitamin E on
Department of Chemistry, |
The adsorbed phase of CS2+acetone on a
heterogeneous carbon surface. Marcellus T.
Coltharp. Department of Chemistry, Ken- |
Morphology of lead crystals grown in gels.
Ms. Jo Reed, Kentucky Junior Academy of.
The Skraup reaction with meta-substituted —
A new criteria for the enhancement of in-
completely resolved mass spectra and recon-_
mono-
substituted pentakis (aromatic isocyanide)
C. A. LL. Beckers!
Department of Chemistry, Kentucky State.
:
1330
1345
1400
ACADEMY AFFAIRS
nell Salyer and John Thomas Newton. De-
partment of Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky
University.
Effect of heated and nonheated oils with
varying degrees of unsaturation on the body
chemistry and their relationship to vitamin
E hypervitaminosis. Ilyas Ahmad and David
S. Cornelius. Department of Chemistry, Ken-
tucky State University.
Computer simulation of the interaction of
hydrogen with aluminum metal surfaces.
Audrey L. Companion. Department of
Chemistry, University of Kentucky.
Base induced claisen rearrangement of bis-
popargyl ethers. B. Venugopalan. Depart-
ment of Chemistry, University of Louisville.
GEOGRAPHY
Room 367, Chemistry—Physics Building
Phillip Phillips, Chairman, Presiding
W. A. Franklin, Secretary
Friday, 19 November
1300
1315
1330
1345
1400
1415
1430
1445
1500
1515
The evolving Bluegrass Region of Kentucky:
a half century of change, 1920-1970. W. A.
Withington. Department of Geography, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.
A geographic analysis of Kentucky Lake sub-
divisions. W. A. Franklin. Geography De-
partment, Murray State University.
Ad hoc market structure: the yard sale.
Bill Daken. Geography Department, Uni-
versity of Louisville.
A behavioral assessment of downtown space.
Ann Dretzka. Graduate School of Public
Affairs, Kentucky State University.
Break.
The development of cross-valley natural
bridges in southeastern Ohio. Thomas C.
Kind. Geography Department, Murray State
University.
Residential developer’s locational decision
and views on suburban versus exurban land
development. Dinker Patel. Graduate
School of Public Affairs, Kentucky State
University.
A probe of design development trends in
Kentucky’s gravity center: the Louisville,
Lexington, Covington triangle. Ann Dretzka,
Mark M. Chatfield, and Gaynelle R. Trevino.
Graduate School of Public Affairs, Kentucky
State University.
Changing landuse patterns in Kentucky.
Phillip Phillips. Department of Geography,
University of Kentucky.
Election of Officers.
Saturday, 20 November
0930-1230 Field trip in Lexington area.
103
GEoLocy
Room 387, Chemistry—Physics Building
Charles T. Helfrich, Chairman, Presiding
Gary L. Kuhnhenn, Secretary
Friday, 19 November
1300
1315
1330
1345
1400
1415
1430
1445
1500
1515
Petrographic and sulfur analysis of potential
spoil from surface mining. P. W. Whaley,
H. R. Clark, and V. P. Wiram. Department
of Chemistry and Geology, Murray State
University.
Devonian to Mississippian stratigraphy and
bone beds, east and west of the Cincinnati
Arch in Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio, and Ten-
nessee. J. E. Conkin. Department of Geol-
ogy, University of Louisville, and B. M.
Conkin. Jefferson Community College.
Hydrology of the central Kentucky karst:
summary of results of dye tracing and cave
mapping. J. F. Quinlan and D. R. Rowe.
Uplands Research Laboratory and Depart-
ments of Engineering Technology and Ge-
ography—Geology, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.
Relation of the “vein minerals” of Kentucky
Mississippian, geodes to the Mississippi Val-
ley stratiform ore deposits. I. S. Fisher.
Department of Geology, University of Ken-
tucky.
Petrographic analysis of chert from the
Paoli-Beaver Bend member of the Newman
Limestone (Mississippian) of eastern Ken-
tucky. T. P. Binkley. Department of Ge-
ology, Eastern Kentucky University (spon-
sored by H. P. Hodge).
The relationship of sieve-size frequency
distribution to thin-section (point-count)
textural data. T. F. McLoughlin. Depart-
ment of Geoscience, Morehead State Uni-
versity (sponsored by J. C. Philley).
The rock cycle. R. J. Singh and J. Bushee.
Department of Geology, Northern Kentucky
University (sponsored by C. T. Helfrich).
Stratigraphic correlation with multivariate
analysis techniques. L. L. Chyi, L. Elizalde,
and G. E. Smith. Institute for Mining and
Minerals Research, University of Kentucky
(sponsored by W. H. Dennen).
The economic potential of the Devonian
black shales in northeastern Kentucky. C.
L. Sharpe II and G. E. Marshall. Depart-
ment of Geoscience, Morehead State Uni-
versity (sponsored by J. C. Philley).
Pyroclastic deposits in the Ordovician, Devo-
nian, and Mississippian of Kentucky. J. E.
Conkin. Department of Geology, University
of Louisville, and B. M. Conkin. Jefferson
Community College.
Saturday, 20 November
0930 Sectional meeting.
0945
Depositional environment of the Wilcox—
Claiborne (Eocene) sediments in Henry,
104
1000
1015
1100
1115
1130
1145
1200
TrANs. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
Weakley, and Carroll counties, Tennessee.
A. L. Clark. Department of Chemistry and
Geology, Murray State University.
UV-degradation of polymers. K. L. Gauri.
Department of Geology. J. A. Gwinn and
K. Popli. Department of Physics, University
of Louisville.
Additional findings concerning the mega-
brecchia at Jeptha Knob. C. R. Seeger. De-
partment of Geography and Geology, West-
ern Kentucky University.
A simple means for correlation of parametric
data sets. W. H. Dennen. Department of
Geology, University of Kentucky.
Clay mineralogy of the Pennington Forma-
tion of eastern Kentucky. G. Ellesworth.
Kentucky Geological Survey (sponsored by
H. P. Hodge).
A depositional model for the Middle Ordo-
vician Platteville Group, Lee and LaSalle
counties, Illinois. G. L. Kuhnhenn. Depart-
ment of Geology, University of Louisville.
Preliminary paleomagnetic results from
Upper Ordovician rocks of eastern Ken-
tucky. T. Smith. Department of Geology,
Eastern Kentucky University (sponsored by
C. T. Helfrich).
Our dwindling resources. L. Suranarayana.
Kentucky Geological Survey.
Coal is king in Kentucky. N. C. Kester. De-
partment of Geology, Eastern Kentucky
University.
The Lexington Area Karst Project, an over-
view and some preliminary findings. J.
Thrailkill and Michael R. McCann. De-
partment of Geology, University of Ken-
tucky.
PuysIcs
Room 287, Chemistry—Physics Building
David J. Boyle, KAPT President, Presiding
Charles D. Teague, Secretary
Friday, 19 November
1330
1340
1350
1400
1410
A mini-orange spectrometer for internal-
conversion-electron measurement. Douglas
E. Miracle and Bernard D. Kern. University
of Kentucky.
Positron studies of mercury—indium alloys.
W. F. Huang and Y. C. Leung. University
of Louisville.
L-shell fluorescent yields (Wz) for Z=63
and Z=92. Christopher E. Laird. Eastern
Kentucky University.
Emission spectrum of mercury—gallium vapor
mixture. Chilukuri Santarum. Union Col-
lege.
Beta decay of short lived nuclei near _—
116 and A=190. Jesse L. Weil. University
of Kentucky.
Total cross section measurements for (p,n)
and (an) reactions AL. B. Hiller, K. K.
Sekhauran, and F. Gabbard. University of
Kentucky.
1430
1450
Saturday, 20 November |
0930
0940
0950
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1050
1100
1110
PuysioLocy, BiopHysics, AND PHARMACOLOGY
Friday, 19 November
1315
1330
1345
Mossbauer effects in methylcyclopentadienyl :
iron dicarbonyl dimer. T. C. Rinckel and D. |
J. Boyle. Thomas More College. :
Odd-Z, odd-N nuclei near mass number A=
90. Bernard D. Kern.
tucky.
University of Ken-
The effects of low-level exposures of X rays |
on the trained response of planaria. Adrian
Gooch, Richard Buchanan, and William |
Buckman. Western Kentucky University.
Radio recombination lines from the plane |
of the Milky Way. Andrew W. Seacorn.
Northern Kentucky University.
Survey of charge compensation of trivalent >
rare ions in BaF2. W. J. Bresser, K. P. |
Roenker, and G. K. Miner. Thomas More
College. |
Some iodine charge state measurements at
20 mev. Jana Godwin, Jill Crawford, Greg
Bazzell, Ron Berkley, Russell Walker, Ken-
neth Courtney, Jack Brockman, and Lynn
Bridwell. Murray State University.
David Rittenhouse, scientist of 1776. Joel
Gwinn. University of Louisville.
The construction and use of a 6-inch New-
tonian reflector in a photographic study of
the moon. Mr. Jimmie Brownfield. Winner
of KJAS competition in Physics. |
Air pollution levels of oxidants and nitrogen
oxides in northern Kentucky. S. J. Schwartz.
and K. P. Roenker. Thomas More College.
Use of a hand-held calculator in a science |
classroom. Dewey Moore. Owsley County °
High School.
Experiences in solar heating. Michael R.
McPherson. Northern Kentucky University. .
Mechanics of expressway traffic. R. A. Meier
and J. E. Lang. Thomas More College.
Study of barriers to expressway noise pol-
lution. D. J. Simon and D. J. Boyle. Thomas >
More College. |
Room 200, Funkhouser Building
Sanford L. Jones, Chairman, Presiding
Thomas P. Coohill, Secretary
Nonprotein amino acid modification of moth
behavior and neuromuscular activity. Doug-
las L. Dahlman. Department of Entomology,
University of Kentucky. |
Effects of canavanine, an arginine analogue,
on reproduction and ovarial physiochemical
composition of the moth, Manduca sexta.
Ronald Palumbo and Douglas L. Dahlman.
Department of Entomology, University of
Kentucky. |
Noxious stimulation of the tooth pulp in
awake cats: a behavioral study. Stephen'
1400
1415
1430
1445
1500
ACADEMY AFFAIRS
Wilson, John R. Meyer, and Kenneth H.
Reid. Department of Physiology and Bio-
physics, University of Louisville.
A comparison of apparent autonomic re-
sponses to routine dental procedures. G. A.
West, A. E. Bastawi, and K. H. Reid. De-
partment of Physiology and Biophysics, Uni-
versity of Louisville.
An automated system for following reflex
responsiveness over wide variations in ex-
citability. G. Stege III, K. H. Reid, and S.
Wilson. Department of Physiology and Bio-
physics, University of Louisville.
Acupressure: noninvasive control of noci-
fensor reflex responsiveness in the awake
cat. K. H. Reid and S. Wilson. Department
of Physiology and Biophysics, University of
Louisville.
Biliary secretion and absorption of radio-
active thyroxine glucuronide in Rana cates-
beiana and Chrysemys picta picta. Sanford
L. Jones. Department of Biological Sciences,
Eastern Kentucky University.
Prostoglandin E2, and F: alpha synthesis
in rat testis in vitro. Jai Sarup. Department
of Biology, Murray State University.
Saturday, 20 November
0930
0945
1000
1015
1030
1045
1100
The effects of hypothalamic implants of
prolactin on the onset of puberty in the
female rat. James L. Voogt and Jay I.
Levin. Department of Physiology and Bio-
physics, University of Louisville.
Influence of carotid body sympathectomy
on ventilatory response to hypoxia. J. Sewell
and J. R. Meyer. Department of Physiology
and Biophysics, University of Louisville.
The influence of mammalian cell geometry
on ultraviolet radiation sensitivity in the
herpes virus-CV-1 cell system. Daniel J.
Knauer and Thomas P. Coohill. Biophysics
Laboratory, Western Kentucky University.
Ultraviolet enhancement (Weigle reactiva-
tion) of irradiated herpes virus survival in
mammalian cells. Thomas P. Coohill, Leslie
James, and Sharon Moore. Biophysics Lab-
oratory, Western Kentucky University.
A fluorescent antibody assay for SV40 virus
production in mammalian cells. Sharon P.
Moore, Timothy J. Eichenbrenner, and
Thomas P. Coohill. Biophysics Laboratory,
Western Kentucky University.
The identification of urinary glycosamino-
glycans associated with angiosarcoma of the
liver. Kevin L. Curran and Charles E. Kup-
chella. Cancer Center, University of Louis-
ville.
Carbon tetrachloride-induced changes in
liver and urinary cyclosamino-gylcans in the
rat. James Jarvis, Charles E. Kupchella, and
Kevin L. Curran. Cancer Center, University
of Louisville.
105
1115 Left ventricular diameter as an index of
contractility in the closed chest dog. David
W. Boone and William B. Wead. Depart-
ment of Physiology and Biophysics, Uni-
versity of Louisville.
SCIENCE EDUCATION
Room 397, Chemistry—Physics Building
Ronald K. Atwood, Presiding
J. Truman Stevens, Secretary
Saturday, 20 November
0930
0950
1010
1030
1050
1110
1130
1150
An evaluative study of a resource teacher
implementation program in elementary sci-
ence. Steve Henderson. Model Laboratory
School, Eastern Kentucky University.
Improving _ self-sufficiency of elementary
science teachers. George H. Miller. Division
of Natural Sciences, University of Louisville.
Utilizing mass communications for in-service
elementary science education: the system.
Herbert N. Simmons. Science Education,
Western Kentucky University.
Utilizing mass communications for in-service
elementary science education: the rationale
and implications. Robert L. Stevenson. Sci-
ence Education, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.
Science merit ratings. Frank Howard. State
Science Consultant, State Department of
Education.
Performance of Kentucky high schools on the
chemistry exam of the annual science and
mathematics achievement program at East-
ern Kentucky University. Darnell Salyer
and Earl T. Crouch. Department of Chem-
istry, Eastern Kentucky University.
Relationships among cognitive preferences,
science processes and grade level for junior
high students. Ronald K. Atwood and J.
Truman Stevens. Science Education, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.
Computer based resource units in environ-
mental education. Terry Wilson. Environ-
mental Consultant, State Department of
Education.
West Kentucky environmental education con-
sortium. Shaw Blankenship. Environmental
Education, Murray State University.
Business Session.
PsyYCHOLOGY
Room 359, Chemistry—Physics Building
Brent C. White, Chairman, Presiding
Don Brown, Secretary
Saturday, 20 November
1000
1015
Sectional Business Meeting.
The role of catecholamine synthesis in caf-
feine-induced hyperactivity. Brent C. White,
Carol Clegg, and Eli Adams. Centre College.
The role of perspective and slant in the per-
ception of apparent size and distance. Jack
G. Thompson and Claude A. Valenti. Centre
College.
Rambling remarks about some shortcomings
of the statistical significance test for psycho-
logical investigations. James S. Calvin. Uni-
versity of Kentucky.
Contrasting predictions of emotional pro-
cesses derived from Leventhal’s Parallel
Processing Model, Epstein’s Habituation
Model, and Wicklund’s Objective Self-
awareness Theory. Donald H. Brown and
Karen Haswell.
Habituation of emotional responses. Anita
Britton, Donald H. Brown, and Dave Horine.
1045
1100
1115
SOCIOLOGY
Room 345, Chemistry—Physics Building
Robert L. Hoffelder, Chairman, Presiding
James S. Wittman, Jr., Secretary
Friday, 19 November
1300 Toward a theory of fertility.
Murray State University.
1330 Social stratification: a comparative perspec-
tive. Henry H. B. Chang. Morehead State
University.
1400 Changes in the modern Chinese family. Wai
Kin Che. Campbellsville.
1430 Sectional Business Meeting.
1976-1977 Officers.
Dr. George.
Elections of
Saturday, 20 November
0945 Going steady as practiced by Kentucky high
school students. James S. Wittman, Jr.
Western Kentucky University.
1015 Television and the family: an overview of
the Icelandic experience. Thomas P. Dunn.
Western Kentucky University, and Bragi
Josepsson. Republic of Iceland.
ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY
Room 124, Funkhouser Building
Charles V. Covell, Jr., Chairman, Presiding
Henry H. Howell, Secretary
Friday, 19 November
1300 Business Meeting and Election of Officers.
1315 Efficiency and selectivity of two types of
wood slat traps in Kentucky Lake. Ralph
V. Jackson. Department of Biology, Murray
State University.
1330 Age and growth of channel catfish, Ictalurus
punctatus, in Dardanelle Reservoir, Arkansas.
Thomas M. Freeze. Department of Biology.
Murray State University.
Some limnological parameters of Vickers
Bay, Kentucky Lake. Kerry W. Prather. De-
partment of Biology, Murray State Uni-
versity.
1345
Trans. KeENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2)
1400
1415
1430
1445
1500
1515
Saturday, 20 November
0945
1000
1015
1030
1045
1100
1115
1130
Coniopterygidae of Kentucky. Victor John-
son and Paul H. Freytag. Department of
Entomology, University of Kentucky.
Coffee Break. |
Studies in artificial rearing of Amblyseius
fallacis, a predator of the twospotted spider
mite. Cary Patterson and J. G. Rodriguez. |
Department of Entomology, University of
Kentucky. |
Preference and utilization of food by the
coffee bean weevil, Araecerus fasciculatus.
J. G. Rodriguez, M. F. Potts, and L. D.|
Rodriguez. Department of Entomology, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.
Survivorship and life expectancy of Drosoph-
ila melanogaster population in abnormal oxy-
gen-normal pressure regime. Gerrit P. Kloek, |
Gertrude C. Ridgel, and Dennis B. Ralin.
Department of Biology, Kentucky State Uni-
versity.
Ovipositional studies of Bathyplectes anurus, |
a parasitoid of the alfalfa weevil. Kenneth:
V. Yeargan and M. A. Latheef. Department’
of Entomology, University of Kentucky.
A preliminary study of the benthic macro-:
invertebrates of the Bayou du Chien Creek.
in western Kentucky. James Roscher. De-.
partment of Biology, Murray State Uni-.
versity.
Lethal and teratogenic effects of inorganic
mercury to the embryonic development of!
Hyla gratiosa Le Conte. Albert Westerman.
Department of Biology, University of Ken--
tucky.
Genic variability and the adaptive strategy
of periodical cicada (Homoptera: Magici--
cada). Dennis B. Ralin and Gerrit P. Kloek.
Department of Biology, Kentucky State Uni-
versity.
The effects of 2450 m Hz microwaves on
Rana pipiens. Gordon Carnes, C. B. Ha-
mann, and D. G. Puntenny. Department of
Biology, Asbury College.
The viral complex of the fall web worm,
Hyphantria cunea (Drury), and _ related
Arctiidae species. Drion G. Boucias and
Gerald L. Nordin. Department of Ento-
mology, University of Kentucky.
Ultra low-volume spraying of Baygon for:
mosquito control. Gary Moneyham and Fred
Knapp. Department of Entomology, Uni-
versity of Kentucky. |
The Society of Kentucky Lepidopterists: its
contribution to our knowledge of Kentucky’s
butterflies and moths. Charles V. Covell,
Jr. Department of Biology, University of
Louisville. |
Comparative hematology in amphibians. Ar-|
land Hotchkiss. KJAS Winner of Zoology
Section Award.
q
ACADEMY AFFAIRS
Tue SIxTy-SECOND ANNUAL Business MEETING
OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY, LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY
19 and 20 November 1976
Hosts: Drs. Ellis V. Brown and William F. Wagner
MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
The meeting was called to order by President
Frederick Brown at 0805 in Room 139, Chemistry—
Physics Building, with about 60 members in
attendance.
After a motion by Secretary Prins and a second
from the floor, the Minutes of the 1975 Annual
Business Meeting at the University of Louisville,
as recorded in TRANSACTIONS Vol. 37(1-2),
were approved.
Secretary Prins then moved to accept all mem-
bers that joined during 1975. Motion was sec-
onded and carried.
Dr. Prins announced that membership has de-
clined from 510 individual members in 1975 to
480 in 1976. The total mailing list includes
about 580 entries in the computer at Western
Kentucky University.
A moment of respect was given three individuals
who passed away during the year: Dr. Robert
Boyer, University of Kentucky; Dr. Lyle R. Daw-
son, University of Kentucky; and Dr. Morgan E.
Sisk, Murray State University.
The Treasurers Report was presented by Wayne
Hoffman. The report was audited by Drs. R. L.
‘Miller, D. H. Puckett, and E. O. Beal (Chmn),
Western Kentucky University, and was found to
be in exemplary form. Dr. E. V. Brown moved
that the report be accepted. After a second, the
motion carried. It was noted that the current issue
of the TRANSACTIONS had not yet been paid for.
Treasurers Report to Audit Committee
Kentucky Academy of Science
30 September 1975-11 November 1976
Cash in Citizens National Bank,
Bowling Green, Kentucky ____. SS B42
_ RECEIPTS:
Subsidy from State _.. $3,000.00
Membership dues 2,038.50
Annual Meeting 113.20
Transactions subscriptions _ 3844.50
University of Louisville and
other purchase of
dimamsachHOns 02) oe.) 1,087.00
AAAS research grant ___.. 132.00
Botany grant transfer _____.. 500.00 $ 7,215.20
$12,562.47
DIsBURSEMENTS:
Botany crant 215) 500.00
Research grants _..___..___.__. 132.00
Annual Meeting _... 234.75
Publication of Transactions 4,129.16
107
INNS. “CUGS 2 ee ee 24.50
Stationery printing —____ 11.23
Miscellancous; = 1.00 $ 5,032.64
$ 7,529.83
Check to JKAS outstanding 500.00
Cash in Citizens National Bank __._____ $ 7,529.83
Savings Account, Lexington Federal
Savanes Ge Whoa eee $ 1274.02
Ova MONA gies wee wee Ae le ee $ 890.96
Certificate of Deposit (Grant) $ 2,641.68
MOAT] CP AGSHIGs p 2) see teen Om $12,336.49
Dr. Brown next called for reports from the
standing committees.
1. Committee on Membership. No report.
2. Committee on Legislation. This committee
did not function because of activity of participants
in the formation of the new standing committees
(see below).
3. Committee on Distribution of Research
Funds (Jerry Howell, Jr., Joe Winstead, Patricia
Malik). Two recipients were announced for 1976:
a. Phyllis K. Lonneman, Simon Kenton High
School, Independence, KY. $90.00 for a study
on “Distribution of Odonata (Insecta) in
Campbell, Boone, and Kenton counties.”
b. Charles V. Covell, Jr., University of Louisville.
$38.00 for continuing work on the “Lepidop-
teran Survey of the Red River Gorge.”
4. Committee on Publications. Dr. Krumholz
stated that from all indications the new format
and regularity of issues of the TRANSACTIONS
have been well received by the membership.
However, increases in costs of printing will neces-
sitate an increase in dues next year. Details of
costs were outlined in a separate report in the
Secretary's book (see below under New Business).
Reports of other committees were:
1. Seience Education Committee. Dr. Ted
George conveyed information relating to pupil
weighting factors in science education, probably
a dead issue; how fees for laboratory use are to be
obtained by local schools now that it has been
ruled unconstitutional to collect money from stu-
dents; and other matters that the committee is
keeping under close observation. More information
about those matters will be forthcoming in sub-
sequent NEWSLETTERS.
108
2. Resolutions Committee. Dr. Donald Batch
submitted the following resolutions, which were
unanimously accepted:
RESOLUTIONS
Whereas, the University of Kentucky has
graciously served as the Host Institution for
the Sixty-second Annual Meeting of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science, and whereas Dr.
Ellis V. Brown and Dr. William F. Wagner,
members of the Hospitality Committee, and
other personnel of the University of Ken-
tucky have all worked diligently to make the
meeting a success and,
Whereas, the University of Kentucky has
made outstanding contributions to scientific
thought and leadership,
Therefore, be it resolved:
a. That the Kentucky Academy of Science
express its appreciation to the University
of Kentucky and the above individuals,
and that the Academy’s Secretary be in-
structed to so inform them.
b. That the Kentucky Academy of Science
congratulate the University of Kentucky
as an outstanding institution of higher
education in Kentucky and our Nation
and for the promotion of science through
teaching, research, and public service.
3. Board of Directors. Dr. John C. Philley re-
ported that two areas were considered seriously
this year. Since the financial base of the Academy
is of prime concern, the committee is actively
pursuing means by which subsidies and/or grants
can be obtained from state or private sectors. The
primary reason for this is to enable the Academy
to sustain publication of a quality journal.
The second matter related to recognition of a
Distinguished Scientist in Kentucky. As a result,
the Board initiated granting the first Distinguished
Scientist Award. The recipient was Dr. Louis A.
Krumholz, University of Louisville.
4. The Junior Academy. Dr. Herbert Leopold,
Director, reported on activities of the Junior Acad-
emy ranging from periodic meetings to the estab-
lishment of a Science Days calendar. The Acad-
emy had an active year.
~
5. AAAS Representatives. No report.
Under Old Business, Dr. Brown recognized Dr.
Joe Winstead concerning additional grant monies
from an anonymous benefactor. Dr. Winstead
announced that, in addition to the existing flo-
ristics grant, an annual amount of $2,000.00 will
be added until a total of $10,000.00 has accu-
mulated. From the interest, the Botanical Grant
will be funded.
Dr. Brown then turned the
Meeting to New Business.
The first matter related to Amendments in the
Constitution to establish two new Standing Com-
attention of the
Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2)
mittees. The two proposed committees have been
ad hoc committees for several years and warrant |
permanent status. Descriptions of the committees
were read by the Secretary, and were considered
separately as follows:
To add to Article VIII
From Section 1: There shall be four standing
committees, namely:
To Section 1: There shall be six standing com-
mittees, namely: (and add) A Committee on_
Public Science Education consisting of five mem-
bers of which four are appointed by the President, |
plus the Vice President ex officio. Of the ap-|
pointed members, two are collegiate-level science
teachers and two are subcollegiate science teachers, |
each serving three-year rotating terms. Chairperson |
is designated from the appointed members of the
committee. It shall inform the Executive Com-_
mittee and the Academy on actions taken by the
officers of the Commonwealth of Kentucky on |
behalf of public science education and shall rec-
ommend to the Committee on Legislation appro- |
priate action to be taken by the Academy. |
A State Governmental Science Advisory Com-
mittee which includes the three ex officio posi- |
tions of President, President Elect, and Past Presi- |
dent; a member of the Board of Directors selected
by that body; and three members of the Academy
appointed by the President, to serve three-year |
rotating terms. Chairing this committee is the
Past President. It shall bring to the attention of
the Governor, appointed officials, and members
of the Legislature science-related issues and con-—
cerns pertinent to the scientific community and to —
the people of the Commonwealth and shall seek
to work in cooperation with those persons to re-
solve such scientific issues and concerns. |
Dr. Donald Batch moved (Dr. John Meyer
second) that the Committee on Public Science |
Education be established as a standing committee. |
Motion carried.
Dr. L. P. Elliott moved (Dr. H. Howell second) |
that the State Governmental Science Advisory
Committee be established as a standing committee.
Motion carried. |
Dr. Brown recognized Editor Krumholz who
discussed the need to raise dues. The present
cost of one volume of the TRANSACTIONS is |
about $6.35 and dues are $6.00 per year. Al-
though the matter of raising dues cannot be im-
plemented until the next annual meeting, Dr.
Krumholz requested a straw vote on whether or
not the members would approve increasing annual
dues to $10.00 for active members and to $6.00
for student members. There was general agree-
ment for such an increase.
Dr. Brown commented that he hoped that some
progress had been made during his year as Presi- |
dent and that more publicity is needed to promote >
exposure of the Academy to Commonwealth of- |
ficials. Perhaps a Publicity Officer would be
appropriate. Dr. Brown announced that he will
be leaving Kentucky shortly to accept a position
ACADEMY AFFAIRS
in the Psychology Department at The Pennsylvania
State University, and expressed thanks to the
Academy for his good experiences.
Dr. Brown then turned the meeting over to the
‘Nominations Committee, Dr. J. G. Rodriguez
(Chmn) (C. M. Dupier, Jr. and J. Meyer).
The new slate of officers was as follows:
President Elect: Charles E. Kupchella, University
of Louisville
Vice President: Sanford L. Jones, Eastern Ken-
tucky University
Secretary: Thomas Seay, Georgetown College
Treasurer: Bartlett G. Dickinson, Georgetown
College
Members of the Board of Directors to 1980: Ivan
Potter, Frankfort, and Gertrude C. Ridgel, Ken-
tucky State University
The floor was opened for further nominations.
Dr. E. V. Brown moved that nominations be
closed and that the above slate be accepted by
109
acclamation. After a second by T. Calhoon, the
motion passed unanimously and the Secretary
was ordered to declare the nominees elected by
acclamation.
There being no further business, Dr. Charles
Payne, incoming President, made a few remarks.
He thanked the outgoing officers and announced
that he would give priority attention to four
areas: (1) promote increases in service of the
Academy to the government and to scientists,
(2) promote increases in Academy support for
research, (3) promote increases in visibility of
the Academy to the government and scientists, and
(4) increase (or find) outside funding to subsi-
dize the costs of Publishing the TRANSACTIONS.
With those comments, Dr. Payne adjourned the
meeting at 0930.
Rudolph Prins, Secretary
Kentucky Academy of Science
NEWS AND COMMENT
It has been a good year!
The Academy has moved
forward during the past year,
and is actively continuing its momentum
in a number of important areas that will
increase our service to the people of the
Commonwealth in general and to members
of the Academy specifically. This year,
we will actively pursue increased support
of scientific research and increased visibil-
ity of the Academy, its members, and, in-
deed, all members of the scientific estab-
lishment of Kentucky, especially science
teachers at all levels.
The Academy will be able to increase
scientific research in the coming year
through generous donations of a dedicated
scientist who continues to make anonymous
contributions to the Academy for that pur-
pose. There will be increased funds for
distribution of research monies for floristic
studies, because that same donor has estab-
lished an endowment of $10,000 to be ad-
ministered by the Academy for the “Ken-
tucky Academy of Science Foundation for
Botanical Research in Kentucky.”
Dr. Ted George will maintain his dedi-
cated activities and involvement in the
public science education of Kentucky. To
ensure proper science education to the
youth of the Commonwealth, The Academy
must continue to make its concerns and
recommendations known to appropriate
state organizations concerned with science
education.
Another thrust of the Academy for the
coming year will be to increase state sup-
port for publishing the Transactions of the
Kentucky Academy of Science. Hopefully,
the Government of the Commonwealth will
recognize the Academy’s contribution to
the teaching of science and the support of
research in Kentucky, and support the
President’s
Remarks
110
Academy in its many endeavors. I am cer- |
tain that Dr. Marvin Russell will continue |
to be in the fore in this matter.
Fortunately for the Academy, Dr. Louis —
Krumholz will continue to serve as Editor
of our Transactions. It is the dedication to’
the Academy of men like Dr. Krumholz
that has made the Academy the success it
is.
To all members of the Kentucky Academy |
of Science, I sincerely request your advice
in matters the Academy should deal with
this year, and I urge you to let me know
if there is any way in which I and the
Academy can be of service.
CHARLES PAYNE.
* *% *% *% &
AIBS The American Institute of Biologi-
cal Sciences (AIBS) has initiated |
an activity to increase the participation of
biological scientists in all parts of the coun-—
try in making decisions on public issues _
that involve biology. Much of that activity
includes environmental issues that impinge’
on sciences of all disciplines. Representa- |
tives have been selected in each state to.
serve as contact persons, and Dr. Louis A.
Krumholz has agreed to act in that capac-
ity for Kentucky. He will be provided with:
information to be shared with his fellow
scientists and other appropriate and inter-_
ested persons on problems of air and water
pollution, energy related problems, use of
pesticides, Natural resources conservation,
endangered species of plants and animals,
and many other areas of concern. Anyone
who wishes to obtain information, may con-
tact Dr. Krumholz at the University of
Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208, or
at his home in Louisville at 1214 Royal
Avenue 40204.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS
‘
Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub-
lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and
announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received.
Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be re-
viewed by one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and, once accepted,
an attempt will be made to publish papers in the order of their acceptance. Manuscripts
should be typed, double spaced throughout, on good quality white paper 844 x 11 inches
(216
now than 10 or more years earlier.
Differences in average composition be-
tween open and forested plots are pre-_
sented in Tables 4 and 5, for eastern Ken-
tucky and other study areas. In this study,
ionic levels of rainfall were generally higher |
after moving through pine foliage. The
same trend was shown in the other reports
(Tamm 1951, Madgwick and Ovington |
1959, Voigt 1960, and Azevedo and Mor- |
gan 1974), except that nitrate nitrogen
levels in Illinois were not greatly affected.
Differences in crown characteristics among
various species of pine affect the propor-
tion of rainfall intercepted, passed as
throughfall, or passed as stemflow, and
this can influence nutrient movement in
precipitation (Miceli et al. 1975). |
Rainfall collected under hardwood fo-
liage contained high concentrations of cal-
cium, magnesium, and potassium, but sul-
fate and nitrate levels were apparently
unchanged. These data were collected late.
in the growing season while the foliage was
still on the trees. However, enrichment of |
rainfall may occur to some extent in hard- |
RAINWATER QUALITY IN A ForRESTED WATERSHED—Shearer et al.
woods even during the dormant season,
due to the influence of tree branches
(Madgwick and Ovington 1959).
Mineral additions to precipitation by for-
est canopies occur by leaching of nutrients
from leaves and branches, and by the wash-
ing off of dust particles from the surfaces.
In this area, washing of dust is likely the
dominant source.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The mineral content of precipitation in
Robinson Forest was high when compared
to values derived in other studies. Nitrate
nitrogen and magnesium were slightly
lower, while sulfate, calcium, and sodium
were much higher. The low pH values
indicate that precipitation in the region is
acidic.
_ We cannot provide a definitive explana-
tion for the relatively high mineral values
and low pH obtained in this preliminary
study, but since the nearby strip-mining
operations produce large amounts of dust
during dry periods, it seems logical that
this material could find its way back to
earth in precipitation.
LITERATURE CITED
AMERICAN Pupiic HEALTH AssOcIATION. 1971.
Standard methods for the examination of
water and wastewater. 13th Ed. Washington,
D. C. 874 pp.
AZEVEDO, J.. AND D. L. Morcan. 1974. Fog
precipitation in coastal California forests.
Ecology 55:1135-1141.
Eriksson, E. 1952. Composition of atmospheric
precipitation. I. Nitrogen compounds. Tel-
lus 4:214-232.
Fisher, D. A., A. W. GAMBELL, G. E. LIkENs,
115
AND F. H. BoRMANN. 1968. Atmospheric
contributions to water quality of streams in
the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest,
New Hampshire. Water Resourc. Res. 4:
1115-1126.
GAMBELL, A. W., AND D. A. FisHer. 1966.
Chemical composition of rainfall in eastern
North Carolina and southeastern Virginia.
U.S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supp. Pap. 1535-K.
Al pp.
Hem, J. D. 1970. Principles and processes con-
trolling composition of natural water. Pp.
12-40. In J. D. Hem (Ed.). Study and
interpretation of the chemical characteristics
of natural water. U.S. Geol. Surv. Water-
Supp. Pap. 1473. 358 pp.
IncHAM, G. 1950. The mineral content of air
and rain and its importance to agriculture.
J. Agric. Sci. 40:55-61.
Junce, C. E. 1958. The distribution of am-
monia and nitrate in rain water over the
United States. Trans. Amer. Geophys. U. 39:
241-248.
, AND R. T. Wersy. 1958. The con-
centration of chloride, sodium, potassium,
calcium, and sulfate in rain water over the
United States. J. Meteorol. 15:417—425.
Mapcwick, H. A., AND J. D. Ovincron. 1959.
The chemical composition of precipitation in
adjacent forest and open plots. Forestry 32:
14-22.
Martin, M. 1975. Recent EPA report says Ken-
tucky experiencing high sulfate pollution.
The Lexington Leader, 26 September, D-1.
MicE.I, J. C., G. L. RotFe, L. E. ARNOLD, AND
W. R. Boccsess. 1975. A preliminary study
of the role of precipitation in nutrient cycling
in loblolly (Pinus taeda L.) and short leaf
pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) pine plantations.
Univ. Ill. (Champaign—Urbana) Agric. Exp.
Sta., For. Res. Pap. 75-5. 4 pp.
Tamm, C. O. 1951. Removal of plant nutrients
from tree crowns by rain. Physiol. Plant. 4:
184-188.
Voicr, G. K. 1960. Alteration of the composi-
tion of rainwater by trees. Amer. Midl. Nat.
63:321-326.
The Aquatic Fauna of Russells Chapel Spring,
Calloway County, Kentucky
Katuy J. RAYBURN AND THomMAs M. FREEZE
Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071
ABSTRACT
A survey of the aquatic fauna of Russells Chapel Spring in Calloway County, Kentucky,
yielded the following kinds of organisms:
4 protozoans, 22 macroinvertebrates, 6 fishes, 2
amphibians, and 1 reptile. The collection includes a specimen’ of the rare aquatic earthworm
Haplotaxis gordioides.
INTRODUCTION
Little information is available in the
literature concerning the ecology of tem-
perate springs in Kentucky. The most ex-
tensive work reported is a series of studies
on the spring stream of Doe Run in Meade
County in north-central Kentucky by Cole
and Minckley (1961), Krumholz (1967),
Minckley (1961, 1963), Minckley and Cole
(1963), Minckley and Tindall (1963),
Prins (1964, 1968), Walker (1961), and
others. Minshall (1967, 1968) made a de-
tailed study of Morgan’s Creek, Meade
County, Kentucky. A statewide ecological
survey of Kentucky's temperate springs is
needed as each spring is a unique micro-
habitat. Because of the uniform conditions
often encountered, many species may be
present in springs far outside their normal
geographical range or a spring may harbor
relict species, phreatics, or crenobionts
(Hynes 1976). This paper reports a survey
of the aquatic fauna of a temperate spring,
Russells Chapel Spring, in Calloway
County, Kentucky.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We extend appreciation to Dr. R. O.
Brinkhurst of the Institute of Ocean Sci-
ences, Victoria, B. C., and to Drs. James
B. Sickel and Evelyn Cole of Murray State
University for their assistance in the iden-
tification of particular taxa, and to Dr.
Andrew Sliger of the University of Tennes-
see, Martin, for assistance in securing fish
specimens.
DESCRIPTION OF StTuDY SITE
Russells Chapel Spring rises in Calloway }
County, Kentucky, near a dirt road 100 m>
south of Russells Chapel, 36° 40’ N and
88° 07’ W. The boil is 3 m across with a
maximum depth of 1 m. The water bubbles
up from a central basin composed of un-
stable sand surrounded by clay sediment,
and gives rise to a small stream choked
with vegetation that empties into Little
Sugar Creek approximately 30 m from the
spring. Little Sugar Creek empties into
the Blood River Embayment on the west-_
ern side of Kentucky Lake (Tennessee
River ).
The surrounding area is low lying and
composed of soils of the Bodine cherty —
silt loam and Juka silt loam types (Hum- |
phrey et al. 1973). The area is poorly |
drained with numerous stagnant pools
spaced throughout. Tulip poplar Lirioden-_
dron tulipifera trees dominate the sur-
rounding rich woods.
Geologically, Calloway County is a part |
of the northern extension of the eastern
Gulf Coastal Plain and contains the most
recent geologic formation in Kentucky.
During the Cretaceous, Tertiary, and
Quaternary periods, Mississippian deposits
were covered with gravel, sand, silt, and
clay. The formations have not yet consoli-
dated into sandstone or shale (Humphrey
etjal. 1973):
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Since Russells Chapel Spring represents —
a microhabitat in a state of delicate bal- |
116
\
Aquatic FAUNA IN A KEeNTuCKy Sprinc—Rayburn and Freeze
ance, it was decided to limit collections
to a single period on 22-24 June 1976. On
23 June, an Ekman dredge, 150 x 150-mm
‘opening, was used to sample 2 sites for
benthic macroinvertebrates, the boil proper
and midway along the stream, approxi-
mately 10 m from the boil. In the boil
proper, 5 bottom samples were taken (1
from the unstable sand center and 4 from
the perimeter) while a single sample was
taken from the stream. Each sample con-
sisted of 3 grabs with the Ekman dredge.
On the night of 23 June, a drift net was
placed in the stream and left for 12 hours.
On 24 June, samples of fishes, amphibians,
and invertebrates inhabiting stands of
vegetation were collected using an electric
shocker and dip nets of various meshes.
Representative specimens of the fishes,
amphibians, and reptiles were fixed in 5
percent formalin and preserved in 40 per-
cent isopropyl alcohol, and all macroinver-
tebrates were fixed and preserved in 40
‘percent isopropyl alcohol. Two 500-ml
water samples were taken and examined
for Protozoa.
_ Organisms were identified upon return
to the laboratory at Murray State Univer-
sity. In addition, macroinvertebrates were
counted, and an index of diversity com-
puted at the generic level using the ma-
chine formula of Weber (1973). Since this
was basically a qualitative study, tempera-
ture was the only physical parameter mea-
sured.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This survey resulted in the collection of
4 species of Protozoa, 22 species of macro-
invertebrates, 6 species of fishes, 2 species
of amphibians, and 1 species of reptile. In
the following listing, the scientific name is
followed where applicable by the common
name, collection site, and notes on the dis-
tribution and abundance of each species.
Species were ranked arbitrarily as rare
when fewer than 10 organisms were col-
lected, as common when 10-100 organisms
were collected, and as abundant when
more than 100 specimens were taken. The
nomenclature and arrangement of taxa are
117
those of Pennak (1953), Eddy and Hodson
(1961), Bailey et al. (1970), and Kudo
Cig).
THe FAUNA
Protozoans
CHLOROMONADIDA
Chlamydomonadidae
Chlamydomonas globosa. Boil.
EUGLENOIDIDA
Euglenidae
Trachelomonas volvacina. Boil.
T. hispida. Boil.
TESTACIDA
Difflugidae
Difflugia globosa. Boil.
Macroinvertebrates
OPISTHOPORA
Lumbriculidae
Lumbriculus inconstans, aquatic earth-
worm. Stream. Rare.
Rhynchelmis sp. Boil and_ stream.
Common.
Haplotaxidae
Haplotaxis gordioides. Stream. Rare.
IsoPpoDA
Asellidae
Lirceus fontinalis, aquatic sowbug.
Boil and stream. Common.
Asellus stygius, aquatic sowbug. Boil.
Rare.
AMPHIPODA
Gammaridae
Crangonyx sp., scud. Boil and stream.
Abundant.
DECAPODA
Astacidae
Subfamily Cambarinae (immature
specimens prevented further classifi-
cation), crayfish. Boil and _ stream.
Rare.
EPHEMEROPTERA
Baetidae
Caenis sp., mayfly. Boil. Rare.
ODONATA
Agrionidae
Agrion sp., damselfly. Boil. Rare.
HEMIPTERA
Hydrometridae
Hydrometra sp., marsh treader. Boil.
Rare.
118
Gerridae
Gerris sp., water strider. Boil. Com-
mon.
Veliidae
Velia_ sp.,
strider. Boil.
Notonectidae
Notonecta sp., back swimmer.
Common.
Corixidae
Genus unidentifiable as specimens
were female, water boatman. Boil.
Common.
MEGALOPTERA
Sialidae
Sialis sp., alderfly. Boil and stream.
Common.
Corydalidae
Chauliodes
Rare.
TRICHOPTERA
Molannidae
Molanna sp., caddisfly. Stream. Rare.
COLEOPTERA
Haliplidae
Peltodytes sp., crawling water beetle.
Boil. Rare.
Helodidae
Elodes sp. Stream. Rare.
DIPTERA
Tipulidae
Tipula sp., cranefly. Stream. Rare.
Limnophila sp., _ cranefly. Stream.
Rare.
Chironomidae
Pentaneura sp., midge. Stream. Rare.
Tendipes sp., midge. Boil and stream.
Abundant.
Ceratopogonidae
Palpomyia sp., biting midge. Boil and
stream. Common.
Tabanidae
Chrysops sp. Boil. Rare.
broad-shouldered
Rare.
water
Boil.
dobsonfly.
sp., Stream.
; Fishes
PETROMYZONTIFORMES
Petromyzontidae
Genus’ unidentified
mens), lamprey. Boil
Common.
(larval
and
speci-
stream.
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4)
-CYPRINIFORMES
Cyprinidae
Campostoma anomalum,
Boil. Common.
Chrosomus erythrogaster, southern red-
belly dace. Boil. Rare.
Semolitus atromaculatus, creek chub.
Boil. Common.
Catostomidae
Erimyzon oblongus, creek chubsucker.
Boil. Common.
PERCIFORMES
Percidae
Etheostoma caeruleum, rainbow darter.
Boil. Common. |
E. squamiceps, spottail darter. Boil.
Common.
stoneroller.
|
Amphibians
SALAMANDROIDEA
Plethodontidae |
Desmognathus fuscus, dusky salaman- }
der. Boil. Common.
ANURA
Ranidae |
Rana pipiens, leopard frog. Boil.
Common.
Reptiles
Testudinidae |
Chrysemys scripta elegans, red-eared |
turtle. Boil. Rare.
A generic diversity of 2.24 was calcu-
lated for the benthic macroinvertebrates
from the stream while the boil itself ex-
hibited a diversity of 2.27. These values }
indicate a relatively undisturbed environ- }
ment having large numbers of genera with
no individual genus present in overwhelm-
ing abundance (Weber 1973). |
Mature specimens of Haplotaxis gordio- }
ides have never been identified for certain
from North America but immature worms
resembling it have been found in a few
locations (Brinkhurst and Jamieson 1971).
The exact identity of all these immature
individuals must remain in doubt until the
variation pattern of the dorsal setae of ma-
ture H. gordioides is documented (Cook |
1975). The specimen collected, although
immature, was identified as Haplotaxis on
the basis of the large prostomium with a
Aquatic FAuNA IN A Kentucky Sprinc—Rayburn and Freeze
transverse groove and the unusual sickle-
shaped setae in the ventral bundles and
the identification was later verified by Dr.
R. O. Brinkhurst. The single specimen
collected at Russells Chapel Spring prob-
ably is indicative of an association between
the spring and subterranean waters since
Haplotaxis gordioides has been found as-
sociated with subterranean waters in En-
gland, most of continental Europe, Japan,
and rarely in North America (Cook 1975).
Asellus stygius is a blind isopod that in-
habits subterranean springs, wells, and
caves in Missouri, Indiana, and Kentucky
and is rarely encountered in surface waters
(Pennak 1953). However, Minckley (1961)
reported it from several spring streams in
north-central Kentucky.
The 2 most abundant macroinvertebrates
encountered were amphipods and chirono-
_ mids. The genus Crangonyx is widely dis-
tributed and common in unpolluted clear
_ waters including springs, spring brooks,
streams, pools, ponds, and lakes (Pennak
1953). Chironomids are considered cosmo-
_ politan.
The collection of the southern redbelly
dace, Chrosomus_ erythrogaster, repre-
_ sented the first collection of this species in
the Coastal Plain region of western Ken-
tucky (Freeze and Rayburn 1977).
LITERATURE CITED
Pappy |. Be Freoow, E. S. Heraup, FE. A.
LacuneErR, C. C. Linpsry, C. R. Rosins, AND
W. B. Scorr. A list of common and scien-
tific names of fishes from the United States
and Canada. (3rd ed.). Spec. Publ. No. 6,
Amer. Fish. Soc., Washington, D. C. 150 pp.
BrINKHuRST, R. O., AND B. G. JAMiEson. 1971.
Aquatic Oligochaeta of the world. Oliver and
Boyd, Edinburgh, Scotland. 860 pp.
Corte, G. A., anp W. L. Mincgtey. 1961. A
new species of amphipod crustacean (genus
Gammarus) from Kentucky. Trans. Amer.
Microsc. Soc. 8:391-398.
Coox, D. G. 1975. Cave-dwelling aquatic Oli-
gochaeta (Annelida) from the eastern United
States. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 94(1):
24-37.
Eppy, S., AND A. C. Hopson. 1961. Taxonomic
keys to the common animals of the north
central states. Burgess Publ. Co., Minneapolis,
Minn. 162 pp.
FREEZE, T. M., AnD K. J. Raypurn. 1977. A
119
note on the distribution of Chrosomus ery-
throgaster (Cyprinidae) in Kentucky. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 38( 1-2) :97.
Humpuerey, M. E., F. L. ANDERSON, R. A. HaAyEs,
AND J. D. Sms. 1973. Soil survey of Callo-
way and Marshall Counties, Kentucky. U. S.
Govt. Print. Off. Washington, D. C. 82 pp.
Hynes, H. B. N. 1976. The ecology of running
waters. Univ. Toronto Press, Toronto, Can.
5b>D app:
Krumuouz, L. A. 1967. Accumulation of radio-
active fallout materials in the biota of Doe
Run, Meade County, Kentucky, 1959-1963.
Pp. 791-818. In B. Aberg and F. P. Hungate
(Eds.). Radioecological Concentration Pro-
cesses. Pergamon Press, New York, N.Y. 1040
pp.
Kupo, R. R. 1971. Protozoology. Charles C
Thomas, Springfield, Ill. 1173 pp.
Mincxiey, W. L. 1961. Occurrence of subter-
ranean isopods in the epigean environment.
Amer. Midl. Nat. 66:452—455.
. 1963. The ecology of a spring stream
Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. Wildl.
Monogr. No. 11:1-124.
, AND G. A. Core. 1963. Ecological
and morphological studies on gammarid am-
phipods (Gammarus spp.) in _ spring-fed
streams of northern Kentucky. Occ. Pap. C.
C. Adams Cent. Ecol. Stud. No. 10:1-35.
, AND D. R. Tinpati. 1963. Ecology
of Batrachospermum sp. (Rhodophyta) in
Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. Bull.
Torrey Bot. Club 90(6):391—400.
MinsHatL, G. W. 1967. Role of allochthonous
detritus in the trophic structure of a wood-
land springbrook community. Ecology 48(1):
139-149.
1968. Community dynamics of the
benthic fauna in a woodland springbrook.
Hydrobiologia 32(3—4) :305-339.
PenNAK, R. W. 1953. Fresh-water invertebrates
of the United States. The Ronald Press Co.,
New York, N. Y. 769 pp.
Prins, R. 1964. Attheyella carolinensis Chap-
puis (Copepoda: MHarpacticoida) on fresh-
water crayfishes from Kentucky. Trans. Amer.
Microsc. Soc. 83(3):370-371.
1968. Comparative ecology of the
crayfishes Orconectes rusticus and Cambarus
tenebrosus in Doe Run, Meade County, Ken-
tucky. Int. Rev. Ges. Hydrobiol. 53(5):667—
714,
WaLKER, B. A. 1961. Studies on Doe Run,
Meade County, Kentucky, IV. A new species
of isopod crustacean (genus Asellus) from
Kentucky. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 80:
385-389.
WEBER, C. (Ed.). 1973. Biological field and
laboratory methods for measuring the quality
of surface waters and effluents. National En-
vironmental Res. Center. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency. Cincinnati, O. 176 pp.
The Occurrence and Relative Abundance of Planktonie Fish
Larvae in Anderson Creek Embayment, Kentucky Lake, Kentucky
WaynE L. Davis aNnD THoMAS M. FREEZE
Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071
ABSTRACT
Larval fishes were collected from Anderson Creek embayment of Kentucky Lake with a
0.8-mm mesh plankton net and habitat seine to document the species of fishes utilizing the
area as a spawning ground. The Clupeidae constituted 99.6 percent of the total catch while
other species made up the remaining 0.4 percent. As the water temperature rose above 19.0 C,
a sharp increase occurred in the total number of Clupeidae. The nonclupeid fishes were rep-
resented by Morone sp. (above 17.0C) and by Pomoxis sp. (between 19.0 and 22.0C).
INTRODUCTION
The Anderson Creek embayment of Ken-
tucky Lake has been a center of consider-
able interest since 1973 due to the im-
pending industrialization of a portion of
its shoreline. To determine the impact of
such a development on the aquatic environ-
ment, 2 studies were conducted on the
physical, chemical, and biological param-
eters of the embayment by Crowell (1974,
unpublished master’s thesis, Murray State
University, Murray, Kentucky) and Kin-
man (1976, unpublished master’s thesis,
Murray State University, Murray, Ken-
tucky). A parallel study was conducted on
the Vickers Creek embayment of Kentucky
Lake by Prather (1977, unpublished mas-
ters thesis, Murray State University, Mur-
ray, Kentucky) to serve as a comparison
for the industrialization on Anderson Creek
embayment.
To supplement the findings of those in-
vestigations on water quality, plankton, and
benthic macroinvertebrates, the present
study was initiated to determine which
fishes utilized Anderson Creek embayment
as a spawning ground. According to Marcy
(1976), larval fishes usually are planktonic
or free floating at various stages of their
development and must depend upon cur-
rent for dispersal. Thus, they are poorly
adapted for avoiding hazardous environ-
mental conditions that might arise from
intense constructional practices or indus-
trial accidents. If such hazardous environ-
mental conditions should occur, it is ex-
120
tremely important to be able to assess not |
only the immediate but the long-range ef- |
fects upon the ecosystem. The data
gathered during this investigation can serve
as an important reference should the need
arise for such an assessment of Anderson —
Creek embayment.
DESCRIPTION OF AREA
Anderson Creek embayment is on the
western side of Kentucky Lake at Tennes-
see River Mile (TRM) 45.5. The embay-
ment is formed by Anderson Creek, a third |
order stream according to the classification —
of Kuehne (1962). Anderson Creek and >
its headwaters drain primarily woodlands —
with very little agricultural activity in the -
area. The embayment itself is 109.4 m_
(359.0 feet) above the sea level; has a
mean depth of 4.8 m (15.6 feet); a shore-
line of 3.9 km (2.4 miles); and a surface
area of 0.71 km? (177 acres) according to
Crowell (unpublished thesis). Extensive
shallow areas are present at the upper end
of the bay.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Air and surface water temperatures were ©
taken during each sampling trip with a>
standard mercury thermometer. Secchi
disk readings were recorded following the
procedure outlined by Hutchinson (1956).
Larval fishes were collected with a cone-
shaped, 0.5-m diameter net equipped with —
0.8-mm netting and a 354.5-ml (12 oz) |
PLANKTONIC FisH LARVAE IN Kentucky LAkE—Davis and Freeze
collection cup attached to the cod end of
the net. The net was towed with a 15-m
braided nylon rope attached to the back of
a boat powered by an outboard motor.
Weekly sampling, beginning in May and
ending in August 1976, was conducted at 2
stations in the study area. The first station
was parallel to and approximately 5 m from
the north shore and the second station was
in the middle of the embayment. Each
sample consisted of a 5-min trawl at a
speed sufficient to keep the net just below
the surface of the water. After each trawl,
all organisms were preserved in 10 percent
formalin.
During the last week of the survey, 2
shoreline seine hauls were made with a
0.8-mm mesh habitat seine at the back of
the embayment in an attempt to capture
fish that remained near shore after
_ hatching.
All samples were returned to the labora-
_tory and identified to the lowest taxon pos-
Me weal ye
sible utilizing an unpublished key devel-
oped by Tennessee Valley Authority
biologists in 1975. References by May and
Gasaway (1967), Nelson (unpublished),
and Siefert (1969) were helpful in identifi-
cation. Total numbers and mean lengths
for each identified taxon were recorded.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The skipjack herring Alosa chrysochloris,
gizzard shad Dorosoma cepedianum, and
threadfin shad D. petenense were the most
numerous larval Clupeidae in the townet
samples. Postlarvae of that family cannot
be identified readily to genus until they
have developed median fins and entered
the juvenile stage (May and Gasaway
1967). Those clupeids constituted 99.6
percent of the total catch while all other
species made up the remaining 0.4 percent
(Table 1).
The first clupeid to reach a size large
enough for identification was the skipjack
herring which indicates either that it
spawned earlier than either species of
Dorosoma or grew faster.
The numbers of clupeids taken in the
townet increased as the water temperature
TABLE 1.—DisTRIBUTION OF PLANKTONIC LARVAL FISHES COLLECTED BY TOWNET FROM ANDERSON CREEK EMBAYMENT, KENTUCKY LAKE, KENTUCKY,
May—Avucust 1976
Aug
July
June
May
18
April
9
17 25 30
9
SMMNOWONMDAMNADNMNHO.
FSOSSSSHSSSHHS
22S SS) SSS eee evi—
fon) o>)
NQANMAAHHAMDAH+HOHO
ap) elon!
fe of oO
9 ia)
1h | aw ieee gar | Seal 2 ae Fah a
CU i cll lh ole Te |
ey ay AR en Ea eer) en Fe a ee
Pah Us Uae Cie aes eabine el 7 esp Pind de cGNT a oil
vie Cteeiel, “esberls Le Ti code
Pees ea sth oh leuk. |
POe al Sy OP art
re _
Se aaa ale ee aS A See
ri |
Se TT TT Tayi TSC TR Sap) oe,
=) i=)
a rN
Resist) SPO hk et
rex res
Ee eee ale her oe? Poe]
a) aa)
Qh ete ele le El -cO} |
ron) jo)
a a
fen rex |
eee oe tetieet, Tic Gy
Ya) Ya)
rate ape
re re
SE tee li Ieee Pann
re |
See ews eile dieu 1 cbse
I~ ~-
eo Gwe bl orsies
a
eth he FS
Tso S x —
ores gs CO w&
A= = a“ —
Sue ES ce a eee
Col ss oo SS
oS s i = ae
ao Lies Jf. 86 S 9 6,
oO > .2 2 drs assus
Bs Se Ew a 222 AS
fa. 9 - S20 S55 5 6
02H ,005F 58 §FS SSG
madOoS8mgd 9S & og
™ 2S S-5-5 SF SF EEE
S916 Sa Of Siois So
PAATDPHPSSaAand<
nl |
Nn
15
14
2,293 37 28 206
45760 Sle 158
Totals
122
increased above 19.0C for the first time
that spring on 30 April and later on 30 May
1976. A period in which the water tem-
peratures remained below 19.0 C separated
those 2 dates. Hess (1976, unpublished
master’s thesis, Tennessee Technological
University, Cookeville, Tennessee), Raw-
son (1945), and Colby and Brooke (1973)
also showed similar increases in the num-
ber of larval fishes with increased water
temperature. A decrease in the Secchi disk
readings occurred prior to the increase in
the number of larvae per sample. While
the increased numbers are believed to be
due to temperature related spawns (Hess
unpublished thesis), the increased turbidity
and resultant decreased visibility tended
to increase the efficiency of the townet.
Noble (1970) and Scotton et al. (1973)
indicated that lower light intensities helped
reduce net avoidance by larval fishes with
a resultant increase in catch.
So few fish were captured that little can
be said concerning the temporal distribu-
tion of nonclupeid fishes. Generally, the
fishes were represented by the temperate
basses Morone sp. when the water tem-
perature was below 17.0 C and by the crap-
pies Pomoxis spp. when the water tempera-
ture was between 19.0 and 22.0C. The
differences in occurrence of those species
is also believed to be due to temperature
related spawns. Larval black crappies
Pomoxis nigromaculatus were caught be-
fore white crappies P. annularis (Table 1)
indicating that P. nigromaculatus probably
spawned earlier than P. annularis.
The shoreline seine hauls resulted in the
capture of juveniles of several species of
fishes not captured in the townet. Those
fishes, that probably spawned in Ander-
son Creek embayment, are: Lepisosteus
spp., Notemigonus crysoleucas, Pimephales
notatus, Notropis atherinoides, Fundulus
olivaceus, Labidesthes sicculus, Microp-
terus salmoides, and Lepomis spp. The
TrANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4)
above fishes usually inhabit the littoral |
zone of the embayment or have demersal |
eggs and/or larvae that would account for
their absence from the surface townet sam-
ples.
We believe that more intensive sam- |
pling at various times and depths would |
result in the addition of several species not |
encountered in the present survey.
LITERATURE CITED
Coxby, P. J., anp L. T. Brooxe. 1973. Effects ||
of temperature on embryonic development of
lake herring (Coregonus artedi). J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Can. 30:799-810.
Hutcuinson, G. E. 1957. A treatise on limnol- |
ogy. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
N. ¥.' Vol. Tt. 1,015 pr: |
Kueune, R. A. 1962. A classification of streams,
illustrated by fish distribution in an eastern |
Kentucky creek. Ecology 43(4):608-614.
Marcy, B. C., Jr. 1976. Planktonic fish eggs |
and larvae of the Connecticut Yankee Plant
including entrainment. Pp. 115-139. In D. |
Merriman and L. M. Thorpe (Eds.). The Con- |
necticut River ecological study. Amer. Fish. |
Soc. Monogr. No. 1, Washington, D. C. 252 |
Ppp.
May, E. B., anp C. R. Gasaway. 1967. A pre-
liminary key to the identification of larval |
fishes of Oklahoma, with particular reference
to Canton Reservoir, including a selected |
bibliography. Contrib. Okla. Fish. Res. Lab.,
No. 164. - Sapp:
Nose, R. B. 1970. Evaluation of the Miller |
high-speed sampler for sampling yellow perch
and walleye fry. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 27:
1033-1044. |
Rawson, D. S. 1945. The experimental intro- —
duction of smallmouth blackbass into lakes of
the Prince Albert National Park, Saskatche-—
wan. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 73:19-31. |
Scotton, L. N., R. E. Smrru, N. S. Smrra, K. S.
PricE, AND D. P. pE Sytva. 1973. Pictorial |
guide to fish larvae of Delaware Bay with in- |
formation and bibliographies useful for the
study of fish larvae. Univ. Delaware, Coll.
Mar. Stud., Delaware Bay Rept. Ser. 7,206
pp.
SrEFERT, R. E. 1969. Characteristics for separa-
tion of white and black crappie. Trans. Amer. |
Fish. Soc. 98(2):326—328. |
Comparative Age, Growth, and Condition of Channel Catfish
from Lake Dardanelle, Arkansas
Tuomas M. FREEZE’ AND BuForD TATUM
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Management, Arkansas Polytechnic College,
Russellville, Arkansas 72801
ABSTRACT
Pectoral spines were collected from 112 channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus from Lake
Dardanelle, Arkansas, during 1973-1975 for purposes of calculating age and growth of dif-
ferent year classes. A length—weight relationship, determined using the equation log W =
—4.3297 + 2.7216 log L, indicated that an average channel catfish from Lake Dardanelle
weighs about 165 g when it reaches a harvestable size of 255 mm. Lake Dardanelle channel
catfish were characterized by a large first year’s growth with greater lengths similar to those
from nearby states. Condition factors tended to decrease with increased age.
INTRODUCTION
In order to evaluate the ecological effects
of the heated water effluent from Arkansas
Power and Light Company’s nuclear elec-
tric generating plant, Arkansas nuclear
One, on Lake Dardanelle, it was necessary
to establish baseline data on the aquatic
fauna prior to the commercial operation of
the plant. A ten-year study was initiated
‘in 1973 by Arkansas Polytechnic College
with funding from Arkansas Power and
Light Company to accomplish that evalua-
tion. While the populations of many organ-
isms were sampled, this paper deals with
the age, growth, and condition of Lake
Dardanelle channel catfish.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Acknowledgments are expressed to Mr.
Edward L. Green, Project Head; Mr. Larry
Rider, District Biologist for the Arkansas
Game and Fish Commission; and student
assistants: Dennis Calloway, Ron God-
dard, Sam Henry, Larry Sanders, and
Bruce Shackleford.
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA
Lake Dardanelle (Fig. 1) is an impound-
ment of the Arkansas River in west-central
Arkansas near the town of Russellville. It
* Present address: Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky
42071.
is a flow-through reservoir created by the
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers as a part of
the Arkansas River navigation project. The
Arkansas River has its headwaters in the
Rocky Mountains of Colorado and flows
through Kansas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas
before emptying into the Mississippi River
approximately 150 km southwest of Mem-
phis, Tennessee. The reservoir has a drain-
age area of 398,090 km?, a conservation
pool of 13,880 ha, and a shoreline length of
507 km. Completed in 1969, the reservoir
is managed primarily for flood control and
navigation (McGee 1972).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A total of 112 channel catfish spines was
collected from Lake Dardanelle during
1973-1975 utilizing gill nets, trammel nets,
and rotenone. Total lengths of the fish
were recorded in inches, and weights were
measured either in grams on dietetic scales
or in tenths of pounds on suspension dial
scales. All English units of measurements
were converted to metric units before com-
putation of data.
Left pectoral spines were disarticulated
by means of the procedure outlined by
Sneed (1951) and placed in numbered
scale envelopes. As the spines were free
of all tissue except a thin layer of skin, they
received no special treatment or preserva-
tion in accordance with DeRoth (1965).
The spines were sectioned using a small
123
Lake Dardanelle
Fic. 1. Location of Lake Dardanelle, an im-
poundment of the Arkansas River.
power saw on a stationary platform similar
to the apparatus of Witt (1961). Unread-
able sections were ground by hand on a
fine carborundum stone to increase their
transparency.
The distal end of the basal recess served
as a reference point to ensure consistency
in the location of each section (Marzolf
1955, Sneed 1951). That reference point
resulted in more readable spine sections
and permitted comparisons with previous
studies utilizing the same method. One
disadvantage in its use is that the body-
spine relationship is curvilinear instead of
linear (DeRoth 1965).
Approximately one-fourth of the sections
were stained with alizarin red S for 3-5 sec
before being rinsed with distilled water,
but the procedure was discontinued as no
apparent advantages in aging the sections
were observed.
Spine sections were read with a binocular
microscope equipped with an ocular mi-
crometer. Measurements were made from
the center of the spine lumen to the annuli
Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4)
and to the edge of the expanded posterior
radius. |
Measurements of the pectoral spine an-
nuli were used to calculate an average rate |
of growth utilizing the Dahl—Lea direct
proportion method (Carlander 1969). This |
equation may be stated as: |
LL. — (Sa) ls
where L, = length at annulus n, S, = spine |
radius at annulus n, S = total spine radius,
and L = total body length. |
The length—weight relationship was de-_
termined using the formula: |
Log W = loga+nlogL
where W = weight in grams, L = total |
length in millimeters, and a and n are
empirical constants. The value of the con-
stant n usually is above 3.0 for larger spe-
cies of catfish such as the channel catfish
(Carlander 1969). :
The coefficients of condition (K) were:
computed using the formula:
K = 10° X W/L?
where W = weight in grams and L = total!
length in millimeters. The coefficients pro-.
vided indexes for comparative analyses of’
plumpness or well-being of the catfish..
Such calculations are based on the premise’
that the body form of a fish varies with the
cube of increasing length provided the
shape and specific gravity remain the same’
(Carlander 1969). |
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The growth of Lake Dardanelle chan-.
nel catfish, as determined by the Dahl-
Lea equation, and the annual lengths
for the 1966-1974 year classes are shown in
Table 1. The average annual increments:
decreased gradually from 140 mm the first’
year to 25 mm the sixth year of life and
then gradually increased to 56 mm in the
ninth year. The average annual increment
for the first year is approximately twice
that for any of the following years. While:
it is normal for channel catfish to attain
large percentages of their total lengths
during their first 2 years of life, the unusu-
CHANNEL CATFISH IN AN ARKANSAS LAKE—Freeze and Tatum
TABLE 1.—CALCULATED TOTAL LENGTHS (MM) OF
ARKANSAS,
Year Number of
class individuals 1 2 3
1966 = £27. O27 292,
1967 10 143 229 283
1968 13 155 230 Page
1969 28 139 207 269
1970 25 144 215 276
1971 14 145 226 289
1972 12 12.4 195 230
1973 4 90 163
1974 1 102
Average
Lengths 140 213 274
Average
Annual
Increments 140 73 61
ally large first year’s growth has resulted
in greater lengths of Lake Dardanelle chan-
nel catfish than those in several nearby
states for their first 4 years of life (Table
2). After the fourth year of life, the growth
was approximately equal to or below that
of catfish in the other lakes.
All of the studies in Table 2 were con-
ducted on man-made reservoirs. Many of
the 16 reservoirs that made up the Okla-
homa study are in the same watershed as
Lake Dardanelle but are closer to the head-
waters of the Arkansas River. Thus, their
location relative to the headwaters might
result in their being less fertile than Lake
Dardanelle. Each of those 16 reservoirs
had been impounded more than 4 years
and was labeled as old by Finnell and
TABLE 2.—CALCULATED TOTAL LENGTHS (MM) OF
KANSAS, 1973-1975 COMPARED
Number of
Location individuals if
Dardanelle Reservoir 112 140
16 Oklahoma Reservoirs 3,291 91
(Finnell and Jenkins 1954)
Norris Reservoir, Tenn. 87 99
(Carroll and Hall 1964)
Lake of the Ozarks, Mo. 434 53
(Marzolf 1951)
Kentucky Lake, Ky. 615 89
(Matthai 1972)
125
112 CHANNEL CATFISH FROM LAKE DARDANELLE,
1973-1975
Year
4 5 6 7 8 9
333 379 406 444 469 533
326 374 414 453 A482,
330 378 A427 410
B24 385 374
332 348
328
328 orl 396 432 AT7 533
54 43 25 36 45 56
Jenkins (1954), and age was cited by them
as the reason for the below average growth
of channel catfish as compared to other
Oklahoma waters.
The Lake of the Ozarks is farther north
than any of the other reservoirs and that
may account for the poor growth of chan-
nel catfish there. Other environmental
factors undiscussed by Marzolf (1951)
such as age, turbidity, and extent of repro-
ductive success may also have acted to de-
press the rate of growth.
Both Norris Lake, in the eastern moun-
tains of Tennessee, and Kentucky Lake,
bordering the Jackson Purchase Area of
Kentucky, were considerably older than
Lake Dardanelle when they were sampled.
Those conditions, plus differences in lati-
CHANNEL CATFISH FROM LAKE DARDANELLE, AR-
WITH DATA FROM OTHER STUDIES
Calculated total lengths at end of year
2 3 aa 5 6 " 8 9
213, 214) 328...311,..396 ..4382,) 477 533
178 249 305 363 417 472 531 577
175 272 325 373 424 457 541
109 155 196 234 264 292 330
188 259 310 356 404 455
2,0 a a a = —-
: : /
;
17+ /
log W = 4,3297 + 2.7216 log L
n
WEIGHT (KG)
eo &
‘| Se (ae
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
TOTAL LENGTH (MM)
Length-weight relationship of channel
catfish from Lake Dardanelle.
tudes, may account for some of the varia-
tions in length attainments. While the
channel catfish from Norris Lake came
from a balanced population (Finnell and
Jenkins 1954), the fish from Kentucky Lake
were stunted as evidenced by the retarda-
tion in growth reported by Matthai (1972).
Also, Lake Dardanelle being a very re-
cently formed body of water, is experienc-
ing what fishery biologists refer to as “peak
growing conditions” due to the increased
fertility of the water associated with the
decay of inundated vegetation.
The length-weight relationship (Fig. 2)
was calculated from 112 channel catfish
TABLE 3.—AVERAGE TOTAL LENGTHS (MM) AND WEIGHTS (G) OF CHANNEL CATFISH FROM LAKE DarR-
DANELLE, ARKANSAS, 1973-1975
1 2 3
Average length 102 163 230
Average weight 12 46 121]
No. of individuals 1 4 1
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 3-4)
Age
4 5 6 7 8 9
328 348 374 410 482 533
BS 4 358 460 572 963 LiZ35
14 25 28 13 10 5
TABLE 4,—AVERAGE CONDITION FACTORS (K) OF
CHANNEL CATFISH IN LAKE DARDANELLE, ARKAN-
sAS, FOR 1973-1975
Age (years) K
_
—
_
~]
OMA ID Wk WNW
i=
(o,2)
oo
ranging from 102 to 533 mm. This relation- _
ship can be expressed by the equation:
Log W = —4.3297 + 2.7216 log L.
Channel catfish from Lake Dardanelle >
weighed approximately 165 g upon reach-
ing a harvestable size of 255 mm. At 380 _
mm, they weighed about 500 g and at 510 |
mm approximately 1,080 g (Table 3).
Average coefficients of condition (K) for
fish from Lake Dardanelle (Table 4) tended ©
to decrease with an increase in age except
between the fifth and sixth and between
the seventh and eighth years of life. It is |
believed those discrepancies are due to the
small sample size of older fish. The slope |
in the length-weight regression was less —
than 3.0 indicating that a decrease in condi-
tion should occur with an increase in length |
as observed here, since length is related to |
age (Carlander 1969).
In comparison, the average coefficient
of condition of channel catfish from Norris
Lake was erratic, while that of Kentucky
Lake decreased with an increase in age
until the third year of life and then in--
creased steadily. Average coefficients of
condition for channel catfish were not
CHANNEL CATFISH IN AN ARKANSAS LAKE—Freeze and Tatum
reported by Finnell and Jenkins (1954) or
Marzolf (1951).
In conclusion, the channel catfish popu-
lation of Lake Dardanelle, prior to com-
mercial operation of Arkansas Nuclear One
- generating plant, exhibited a large first
years growth, other length attainments
comparable to studies from nearby states,
and condition factors that tended to de-
crease with an increase in age. In most
aspects, the channel catfish of Lake Dar-
danelle could be considered normal. How-
ever, it should be noted that the lengths of
Lake Dardanelle catfish may decrease with
the natural aging of the reservoir and the
resultant decrease in nutrients over an ex-
tended period of time.
More recent data on the aquatic fauna
of Lake Dardanelle including the channel
catfish are being collected by Mr. Buford
Tatum.
LITERATURE CITED
CARLANDER, K. D. 1969. Handbook of fresh-
water fishery biology, Vol. 1. Iowa St. Univ.
Press, Ames, Iowa. 720 pp.
127
Carro.., B. B., AnD G. E. Hatt. 1964. Growth
of catfishes in Norris Reservoir, Tennessee.
Tenn. Acad. Sci. 39(3):86-91.
DeRotu, G. C. 1965. Age and growth studies
of channel catfish in westem Lake Erie. J.
Wildl. Manage. 29(2):280-286.
FINNELL, J. C., AND R. M. Jenxins. 1954.
Growth of channel catfish in Oklahoma wa-
ters: 1954 revision. Okla. Fish. Res. Lab.
Rept. No. 41. 37 pp.
MarzoutFr, R. C. 1955. Use of pectoral spines
and vertebrae for determining age and rate
of growth of the channel catfish. J. Wildi.
Manage. 19(2):243-249.
Matrual, P. J. 1972. Kentucky Lake commer-
cial catfish catch analysis. Rept. Ky. Fish
Wildl. Res., Proj. 4-70-R. Res. Found., Mur-
ray St. Univ., Murray, Ky. 51 pp.
McGee, J. E. 1972. Your guide to the Darda-
nelle Reservoir area. U. S. Army Corps of
Engineers Brochure, Little Rock District,
Little Rock, Ark. 52 pp.
SNEED, K. E. 1951. A method for calculating
the growth of cannel catfish, Ictalurus lacus-
tris punctatus. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 80:
174-183.
Wirt, A., Jk. 1961. An improved instrument to
section bones for age and growth determina-
tion of fish. Prog. Fish-Cult. 23(2):94-96.
Helminth Parasites of the Spotted Sucker and Golden
Redhorse from the Kentucky River’
Davip L. Comps,” JoHn P. HarLEy, AND JOHN C. WILLIAMS
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475
ABSTRACT
The following helminths were recovered from 56 spotted suckers: Acanthocephala, Acan-
thocephalus sp.; Cestoidea, Biacetabulum banghami, Biacetabulum sp., Isoglaridacris folius,
Monobothrium ulmeri, and Promonobothrium minytremi; and 62 golden redhorse: Acantho-
cephala, Acanthocephalus sp. and Neoechinorhynchus prolixoides; Cestoidea, Biacetabulum sp.,
Isoglaridacris folius, Monobothrium ulmeri, and Promonobothrium minytremi; and Nematoda,
Camallanus oxycephalus and Rhabdochona sp. from the main channel of the Kentucky River.
Four of 6 species of helminths recovered from spotted suckers and 4 of 8 species recovered
from golden redhorse are new host records, and 8 of 9 species recovered are new state records.
INTRODUCTION
A review of the literature indicates that
only 5 published works exist on the hel-
minth parasites of catostomid fishes from
Kentucky (Aliff 1977; White and Harley
1973, 1974; White 1974; and Combs et al.
1976). All of them concern the white
sucker Catostomus commersoni except the
report by Combs et al. (1976) in which the
authors reported spotted suckers Miny-
trema melanops and_ golden redhorse
Moxostoma erythrurum as new host rec-
ords for the monogenetic trematode Anon-
chohaptor muelleri.
As a result, it was felt that a more com-
plete study of the parasites should be done
on the spotted and redhorse suckers from
the Kentucky River, and is the basis for
this report.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Drs. William Bullock
and John S. Mackiewicz for parasite iden-
tity confirmation and Dr. Robert A. Kuehne
for reviewing the manuscript. Representa-
tive specimens are with D. L. Combs.
*The authors acknowledge the National Marine
Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmo-
spheric Administration, for partial funding and
equipment used under Research Grant No. 2-186-
R. This work was also supported in part by an
EKU Faculty Research Grant No. 03-07.
*Present address: Northeast Region Research
Station, 4101 Boston Ave., Muskogee, Oklahoma
74401.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Forty-six Minytrema melanops and 62
Moxostoma_ erythrurum were collected
from August 1973 through April 1974, from
the main channel of the Kentucky River
and from the mouths of 7 tributaries (Eagle
Creek, Elkhorn Creek, Dix River, Red
River, North, Middle, and South Forks).
Most spotted suckers were collected up-
stream while most golden redhorse were
collected downstream in the Kentucky
River drainage. All fish were autopsied
fresh and parasites stained by routine
methods.
RESULTS
Parasites recovered from M. melanops
are listed in Table 1 and those from M.
erythrurum in Table 2. Mean intensity in-
festation indicates the number of helminths
found in each infested fish.
Nearly 1,050 individual helminths com-
prising 9 species were recovered from the
host fishes. In M. melanops, 79 percent of
the fish examined were infested by 1 or
more helminths while in M. erythrurum, 54
percent were infested. Four of the 8 spe-
cies of helminths recovered from M. ery-
thrurum and 4 of the 6 species recovered
from M. melanops constituted new host
records. Eight of the 9 species recovered
from both catostomids constitute new state
records.
The following is an annotated list of hel-
128
PARASITES OF SUCKERS IN KENTUCKY RIVER—Combs et all.
129
TABLE 1.—MEAN INTENSITY OF INFESTATION BY HELMINTHS RECOVERED FROM 46 MINYTREMA MELANOPS
FROM THE KENTUCKY RIVER INCLUDING NEW HOST AND STATE RECORDS
Records
No. fish Mean intensity Total New New
Parasite infested of infestation helminths Location host state
Acanthocephala
Acanthocephalus sp. 22 9 183 gut X
Trematoda
Anonchohaptor sp. 12 5 56 mouth xX xX
cavity
Cestoda
Biacetabulum banghami 10 3 34 gut xX X
Biacetabulum sp. ] i ] gut xX
Isoglaridacris folius L 1 i gut X X
Monobothrium ulmeri i 2 3 gut Xx xX
Promonobothrium minytremi 26 11 269 gut X
minths recovered from M. melanops and
_M. erythrurum from the Kentucky River.
_ Acanthocephalus sp.—This acanthocepha-
lan was designated as Acanthocephalus sp.
_ because it is very closely related to A. jack-
soni, as reported by White (1974) from the
Kentucky River, and A. dirus (Bullock,
pers. comm.). The genus Acanthocephalus
is highly variable and causes a great deal
of confusion in identification to species.
In the present study, Acanthocephalus
sp. constituted 60 percent of all helminths
found in M. melanops and M. erythrurum;
it was the most abundant helminth in M.
erythrurum and the second most abundant
in M. melanops. This is the first report of
Acanthocephalus sp. from either fish and
thus constitutes new host records for the
genus Acanthocephalus. The genus was
first reported in Kentucky by White (1974)
in Catostomus commersoni from the Ken-
tucky River drainage.
Neoechinorhynchus_ prolixoides.—This _ is
the first report for the species outside New
Hampshire since its original description by
Bullock (1963). It was found only in M.
erythrurum, and constitutes a new host
record and geographical range extension
into Kentucky.
Biacetabulum banghami.—Mackiewicz
(1968) first reported this caryophyllaeid
cestode from M. melanops and M. ery-
thrurum from Alabama and Oklahoma. In
the present study, it was recovered only
from M. melanops, was the fourth most
abundant helminth, and constitutes a new
state record.
Biacetabulum sp.—This caryophyllaeid ces-
tode was designated as Biacetabulum sp.
since it was very similar to specimens of
B. infrequens Mackiewicz found (pers.
comm.) in M. erythrurum, but our species
has too few postovarian vitellaria to be B.
infrequens. Mackiewicz (pers. comm.) be-
lieves our species might be either B. meri-
dianum or a variety of that species. Fur-
ther investigation is needed before species
confirmation can be made.
In the present study, Biacetabulum sp.
was recovered from both M. melanops and
M. erythrurum. The occurrence of this
genus in the Kentucky River thus consti-
tutes a new state record for both fishes.
Isoglaridacris folius.—Isoglaridacris folius
was recovered from both M. melanops and
M. erythrurum. This species of caryophyl-
laeid cestode has been reported previously
from M. erythrurum in Iowa by Fredrick-
son and Ulmer (1967). The occurrence in
M. melanops constitutes a new host record
as well as range extensions into Kentucky
for both fishes.
Monobothrium ulmeri.—Monobothrium ul-
meri was recovered from both the spotted
130
TrANS. KeNTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4)
TABLE 2.—MEAN INTENSITY OF INFESTATION BY HELMINTHS RECOVERED FROM 62 MOXOSTOMA ERY-
THRURUM FROM THE KENTUCKY RIVER INCLUDING NEW HOST AND STATE RECORDS
No. fish Mean intensity
of infestation
Parasite infested
Acanthocephala
Acanthocephalus sp. 22 21
Neoechinorhynchus prolixoides 4 ul
Trematoda
Anoncohaptor sp. 4 i
Cestoda
Biacetabu’um sp. 3 3
Isoglaridacris folius 1 1
Monobothrium ulmeri 1 if
Promonobothrium minytremi 12 if
Nematoda
Camallanus oxycephalus 8 3
Rhabdochona sp. 1 3
sucker and the golden redhorse. Calentine
and Mackiewicz (1966) reported the de-
finitive hosts of M. ulmeri to be Hypentel-
ium nigricans, Moxostoma anisurum, and
Moxostoma erythrurum. The finding of
this helminth in the present study consti-
tutes a new host record for M. melanops
and range extensions into Kentucky for
both fishes.
Promonobothrium minytremi.—Mackiewicz
(1968) reported the definitive host of P.
minytremi to be M. melanops. In the pres-
ent study, P. minytremi was recovered from
both M. melanops and M. erythrurum. Pro-
monobothrium minytremi was the second
most abundant helminth in M. erythrurum
and constitutes a new host record. In M.
melanops, P. minytremi constituted the
most abundant helminth with an infesta-
tion rate of 56 percent. The occurrence of
P. minytremi in both catostomid fishes con-
stitutes new state records.
Camallanus oxycephalus—The nematode
C. oxycephalus has been found in many
species of fishes including several genera
of catostomids (Hoffman 1967), and ap-
pears to be one of the most common hel-
minths of freshwater fishes. In the present
study, C. oxycephalus was recovered from
Records
Total New New
helminths Location host state
484 gut X
6 gut Xx xX
5 mouth X x
cavity
9 gut xX
1 gut X
1 gut xX
16 gut xX xX
24 gut
3 gut xX XxX
M. erythrurum and was the third most —
abundant helminth in that fish as well as _
representing a new state record.
Rhabdochona sp.—Several species of Rhab-
dochona have been reported previously —
from catostomid fishes (Hoffman 1967). |
In the present study, Rhabdochona sp. was —
found in M. erythrurum and constitutes a —
new host and state record for the genus.
DISCUSSION
Helminth infestation rates in M. mela-
nops and M. erythrurum were inversely —
proportional to the distribution of the
catostomid fishes in the Kentucky River. |
Moxostoma erythrurum with a wide dis-
tribution in the river, had an infestation
rate of 54 percent while M. melanops, with
a restricted distribution, had a higher in-
festation rate (79%).
The helminth Acanthocephalus sp. ex-
hibited the greatest density and distribu-_
tion throughout the Kentucky River, while >
the caryophyllaeid cestode P. minytremi,
had the second greatest density and distri- —
bution. No digenetic trematodes were recov- |
ered in this study. Their scarcity probably
is attributable to the high silt load of ‘the
river that is reducing the abundance and
ALIFF, J. V.
_ BuLtock, We J.
)
PARASITES OF SUCKERS IN KENTUCKY RIvVER—Combs ez¢ al.
distribution of gastropod intermediate hosts
(Leung and Williams 1975). It is of in-
terest to note that Aliff (1977) reported
relatively heavy infestations of digenetic
trematodes based on extensive collections
in 13 tributaries to the Kentucky River. In
that study, he examined 17 golden redhorse
from those tributaries and_ reported
metacercariae of Clinostomum sp. in only
a single fish from the Red River in Powell
County.
Seasonal variation of helminths was ob-
served in the present study with a peak
intensity of infestation being reached dur-
ing February and March. No difference in
parasite infestation was apparent as related
host sex or age, or recovery sites.
LITERATURE CITED
1977. Digenetic trematodes from
Kentucky fishes. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38(1-
2):1-14.
1963. Neoechinorhynchus pro-
lixoides n. sp. (Acanthocephala) from North
American fishes. Proc. Helminthol. Soc.
Wash. 30:92-96.
CALENTINE, R. L., AND J. S. MAckiEwicz. 1966.
Monobothrium ulmeri n. sp. (Cestoda: Caryo-
phyllaeidae) from North American Catostom-
131
idae. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 85:516—
520.
Coss, D. L., J. C. WiLLiaMs, AND J. P. HARLEY.
1976. New host records for Anonchohaptor
muelleri (Trematoda: Monogenea) from
catostomid fishes of the Kentucky River.
Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. 53:84.
FREDRICKSON, L. H., AND M. J. ULMER. 1967.
Caryophyllaeid cestodes from two species of
redhorse (Moxostoma). Proc. Iowa Acad.
Sci. 72:444461.
HorrMan, G. L. 1967. Parasites of North
American freshwater fishes. Univ. Cal. Press,
Los Angeles, Cal. 486 pp.
LeEunG, S. S., AND J. C. Wituiams. 1975. Com-
mercial Fishery Investigations of the Ken-
tucky River. Water and Silt Analysis. East.
Ky. Univ. Press, Richmond, Ky. 77 pp.
Mackiewicz, J. S. 1968. Two new caryophyl-
laeid cestodes from the spotted sucker, Miny-
trema melanops (Raf.) (Catostomidae). J.
Parasitol. 54:808-813.
Wuirte, G. E. 1974. Parasites of the common
white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) from
the Kentucky River Drainage. Trans. Amer.
Microsc. Soc. 93:280-282.
AND «J.P: -Hartey,’ 1973. "Helmimth
parasites of the white sucker, Catostomus com-
mersoni, from Lake Wilgreen in Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 34(3—4) :53—54.
, AND 1974. Helminth para-
sites of the white sucker (Pisces: Catostom-
idae) in the Kentucky River Drainage. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 35(1-2):24-26.
Parasites of Channel Catfish from the Kentucky River, with
a Comparative Note on the Ohio River’
Rosert W. Epwarps,” JOHN P. HARLEY, AND JoHN C. WILLIAMS
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475
ABSTRACT
One hundred sixty-one channel catfish were collected from the Kentucky River drainage
from April 1975 through June 1976 and examined for parasites.
The parasites recovered were: Trematoda: Acetodextra amiuri; Cestoda: Corallobothrium
sp., C. fimbriatum, C. giganteum; Nematoda:
arthrosis.
Contracaecum sp.; and Crustacea: Ergasilus
Seasonal variation was observed in A. amiuri, C. fimbratum, C. giganteum, and
E. arthrosis. Acetodextra amiuri, Contracaecum sp., C. giganteum, and E. arthrosis are new
state records.
INTRODUCTION
The channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus
is a moderately abundant and very desir-
able food fish of the Kentucky River drain-
age system (Williams 1974). However,
the parasitic organisms of I. punctatus in
the Kentucky River drainage have been
neglected with the exception of Aliff’s
(1977) work on the digenetic trematodes
and Bauer and Harley's (1973) work on
cestodes. Thus, the present study was done
to further the information on the parasites
of I. punctatus in the Kentucky River by:
(a) identification of parasites, (b) deter-
mining geographical distribution, and (c)
noting any seasonal variation in helminth
species.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
One hundred sixty-one channel catfish
were collected from the Kentucky River
drainage from April 1975 through June
1976.
In the main channel, fish were captured
by setting 1.5- and 2-inch (3.75-5.0-cm)
gill nets and lifting them 24 hours later.
Fish captured in locks on the river and
from coves in Herrington Lake, a tributary
to the Kentucky River, were killed with
* Supported in part by Faculty Research Grant
Nos. 03-05 and 03-07 from Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity.
* Present address: Department of Zoology, Uni-
versity of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701.
Pronox-Fish (5% emulsifiable rotenone) at —
a concentration of 1 ppm at the collection —
sites. Potassium permanganate was used to —
oxidize any Pronox-Fish that escaped
through the lower lock gate and the area of |
the blocknet when treating an open cove —
on Herrington Lake by placing it in porous
nylon bags and towing behind the boat
throughout the study area after the treat- —
ment was completed.
Specimens to be examined were trans-
ported to the laboratory on ice and all |
other fish were buried. In the laboratory,
fish usually were autopsied within 72
hours; fish that could not be examined |
within 72 hours were frozen for later exam-
ination. Fish were autopsied by routine
procedures, and individual organs were re-
moved and placed in separate Petri dishes
with Ringer's solution (0.7%). !
Gills and individual organ systems were |
examined by teasing the tissues apart;
stomach and intestine were dissected with
fine scissors and the “strip technique” uti-
lized. All helminths and parasitic cope-
pods recovered were placed in Ringer's
solution (0.7%) for gross macroscopic
examination.
Helminths and parasitic copepods were ©
fixed in hot standard alcohol-formalin—_
acetic acid solution (AFA). Specimens not —
to be stained were placed in large screwtop
vials filled with AFA.
Specimens were stained in Harris hema-
toxylin, cleared in xylene, and mounted in
132
PARASITES OF CHANNEL CATFISH IN KENTUCKY—Edwards et all.
133
TABLE 1.—MEAN INTENSITY OF INFESTATION BY PARASITES RECOVERED FROM 161 ICTALURUS PUNCTATUS
FROM THE KENTUCKY RIVER INCLUDING NEW STATE RECORDS
No. fish
Parasite infested of infestation
TREMATODA
Acetodextra amiuri 2 4
CESTODA
Corallobothrium sp.’ 18 2,
Corallobothrium giganteum 11 3
Corallobothrium fimbriatum 14 3
NEMATODA
Contracaecum sp. 10 i
CRUSTACEA
Ergasilus arthrosis? 108 24
1 Immature.
2 Females only.
Permount. Nematodes were fixed by drop-
ping them in hot 70 percent alcohol.
Confirmation of helminth species was
made by Dr. David A. Becker, Department
of Zoology, University of Arkansas, Fay-
etteville, Arkansas, and Donald Cloutman,
Duke Power Company, Huntersville, North
Carolina.
Mean intensity of infestation indicates
the number of parasites in each infested
fish.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
During the sampling period, approxi-
mately 2,700 individual parasitic organisms
representing 6 species were recovered.
Seventy-one percent of the fish examined
were infested by 1 or more parasitic or-
ganisms. Four of the 6 species of parasites
recovered constituted new state records.
The following is an annotated list of para-
sites recovered from I. punctatus (Table 1).
Acetodextra amiuri.—A total of 8 individ-
uals was found in the gravid ovaries of only
2 (1%) of the fish examined (Table 1).
The low number of individuals as well as
the low percentage of infestation probably
was due to the loss of most of the adults
during spawning. The helminth exhibits
seasonal variation related directly to the
spawning time of the fish, and very few or
no helminths were present after the fish
Mean intensity
New state
Total
parasites Location record
8 ovary D4
29 intestine
28 intestine »4
38 intestine
14 mesenteries 8
2,590 gills 4
spawned. This was consistent with the
results of the present study because the
majority of collections were made either
too early or too late to coincide with
spawning in I. punctatus.
In this study, immature adults were
found within the ova and mature adults
were free in the ovaries. According to
Warner and Hubert (1975) there is no
question that A. amiuri destroys ovarian
tissue and ova in I. punctatus.
A. amiuri has been reported from the
ovaries, gas bladder, urinary bladder, and
the liver of ictalurid fishes (Warner and
Hubert 1975). Aliff (1977) reported it
from the urinary bladder of I. melas re-
covered from the Kentucky River. The
present report represents a new state rec-
ord for A. amiuri in I. punctatus.
Corallobothrium sp.—An immature form
of the cestode genus Corallobothrium was
recovered from 18 (11%) of the fish exam-
ined, with a total of 29 individual helminths
collected (Table 1). The cestode was in
what seemed to be an immature form; how-
ever, it was capable of inhabiting the
definitive host year round.
Corallobothrium giganteum.—This proteo-
cephaline cestode was recovered from 11
(7%) of the fish examined with a mean in-
tensity of infestation of 3 (Table 1).
Twenty-eight individual cestodes were re-
134
covered from I. punctatus during the sum-
mer. This helminth was very similar to
the C. fimbriatum recovered and was dis-
tinguished by the smooth-surfaced scolex
versus the large fimbriate scolex with mar-
ginal lappets of C. fimbriatum.
The study showed that C. giganteuwm de-
monstrated seasonal variation very similar
to that of C. fimbriatum and was recovered
only in the summer as fully segmented
adults.
Corallobothrium fimbriatum.—Bauer and
Harley (1973) reported the caryophyllaeid
cestode Corallobothrium fimbriatum from
I. punctatus in Kentucky as being fully de-
veloped, segmented adults. The C. fim-
briatum of the present study were con-
sistent with those findings and contrary to
the report of Van Cleave and Mueller
(1934) in which they reported that C. fim-
briatum (in I. punctatus) were small and
unsegmented, suggesting that the fish was
an unsuitable host.
A total of 38 individual helminths was
collected from 14 I. punctatus with a mean
intensity of infestation of 3 (Table 1). Sea-
sonal variation was shown, however, since
the cestode was recovered as a segmented
adult only during the summer and in imma-
ture forms in the spring and fall.
Contracaecum sp.—The only nematode re-
covered from I. punctatus during the pres-
ent study was Contracaecum sp. Fourteen
individual nematodes were recovered with
a mean intensity of infestation of 1, with
10 (6%) of the fish infested (Table 1).
The nematode had 3 large lips, with
well-developed interlabia and _ intestinal
caecum present. Also, there were cuticular
papillae on the surface of the external
cuticle.
This nematode was found only in fish
collected in Kathys Cove on Herrington
Lake, an impoundment of the Dix River,
and constituted a new state record. It was
also reported by White and Harley (1974)
in the white sucker Catostomus commer-
soni.
Seasonal variation could not be con-
TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4)
firmed due to the scarcity of the nematodes
in the study.
Ergasilus arthrosis—The report of the
parasitic copepod Ergasilus arthrosis in this
study was the first record of the species in
Kentucky; however, it appears to be com-
mon on the gills of ictalurids in North
America (Roberts 1970). Because of the
synonymy with E. versicolor, many investi-
gators have mistaken E. arthrosis for E.
versicolor, since the main distinguishing
characteristic between them is that the first
endopod in E. arthrosis has 3 segments and
that in E. versicolor has 2 segments (Rob-
erts 1970).
In the present study, E. arthrosis was the
only copepod species infesting I. punctatus.
One hundred eight (67% ) of the fish exam-
ined were infested, and a total of 2,590
copepods were recovered with a mean in-
tensity of infestation being 24 (Table 1).
All E. arthrosis recovered were females;
males occur only in the free-living form and
die after copulation (Hoffman 1967).
E. arthrosis showed seasonal variation
during the study, with the highest infesta-
tion during summer and little or none dur-
ing fall and winter.
In cases of high infestation, the parasite
could have deleterious effects on the fish,
especially young individuals, since the para-
sites attach to and feed from the individual
gill filaments. In cases of high infestation,
the result may be stunting of growth, and
in extremely high infestations (due to tis-
sue damage and toxic wastes produced by
the parasite) the results may be lethal
(Hoffman 1967). During spring and sum-
mer, all fish examined were parasitized;
however, the infestations were not ex-
tremely heavy. The mean intensity of in-
festation ranged from 9 to 49 in spring and
summer, with higher values being recorded
from Herrington Lake. In this study, none
of the fish examined showed any signs of
deleterious effects from E. arthrosis.
The collection of I. punctatus and subse-
quent parasitological survey of the speci-
mens taken from the Ohio River for com-
parison with those from the Kentucky River
PARASITES OF CHANNEL CATFISH IN KENTUCKY—Edwards et al.
were similar in terms of the parasitic organ-
isms recovered during similar seasons.
Parasitic infestation in the present study
showed no pathological effects on I. punc-
tatus, and the fish were in relatively good
~ condition with no anomalies observed that
could be attributed to parasitic infestations.
LITERATURE CITED
AurrF, J. V. 1977. Digenetic trematodes from
Kentucky fishes. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38(1-
2):1-14.
Bauer, B. H., anp J. P. Harney. 1973. Intes-
tinal parasites from two species of catfishes
(Ictaluridae) from Wilgreen Lake in Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 34(3—4) :55-56.
HorFMan, G. L. 1967. Parasites of North
American Freshwater Fishes. Univ. Cal.
Press, Los Angeles, Cal. 486 pp.
Roserts, L. S. 1970. Ergasilus (Copepoda:
135
Cyclopoida): revision and key to species in
North America. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc.
89(1):134-161.
Van Gerave, He J. .AnNp J.°E.. MuetiER... 1934.
Parasites of Oneida Lake fishes. Part III.
A biological and ecological survey of worm
parasites. Roosevelt Wildl]. Ann. 3(3-4):161-
334.
WaRNER, M. C., AND W. A. Huperr. 1975.
Notes on the occurrence of Acetodextra amiuri
(Stafford) (Trematoda: Heterophidae) in
channel catfish from the Tennessee River. J.
Wildl. Dis. 11:37.
WuirteE, G., AND J. P. Harney. 1974. Helminth
parasites of the white sucker (Pisces: Cato-
stomidae) in the Kentucky River Drainage.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35( 1-2) :24-26.
Witutius, J. C. 1974. Commercial fishery in-
vestigations of the Kentucky River. Final
Report 2-186-R. NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish.
Serv., and Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frank-
fort, Ky. 184 pp.
Parasites of the White Crappie from
Lake Wilgreen, Kentucky’
Joun P. HarRLey
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475
ABSTRACT
A survey of 150 white crappies from Lake Wilgreen, Kentucky, yielded 8 species of para-
sites. New host records are reported for Contracaecum brachyurum and Ergasilus arthrosis.
New state records in the white crappie are reported for Crepidostomum cornutum, Postodiplo-
stomum minimum, Proteocephalus ambloplitis, Camallanus oxycephalus, Contracaecum brachy-
urum, C. spiculigerum, Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli, and Ergasilus caeruleus.
INTRODUCTION
To the author’s knowledge, the only pub-
lished work on parasites of the white crap-
pie Pomoxis annularis in Kentucky is that
of Aliff (1977). He reported a 7 percent
rate of infestation with only Proterometra
sp. being recovered. The present study was
undertaken to contribute further informa-
tion on parasites of the white crappie in
Kentucky.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
One hundred fifty white crappies were
collected between June and October 1976
from Lake Wilgreen, Madison County,
Kentucky. The fish were autopsied and
the parasites fixed, stained, and identified
according to previously reported proce-
dures (Harley and Keefe 1970, White and
Harley 1974).
RESULTS
During the sampling period, approxi-
mately 7,300 individual parasitic organisms
representing 8 species were recovered from
the 150 white crappies autopsied. There
was an average of nearly 50 parasites per
fish. The following is an annotated list of
parasites recovered from P. annularis (Ta-
ble 1).
Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli—A_ total of
485 individuals was found in the intestine
* Supported in part by Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity Faculty Research Grant No. 03-05.
of 100 (66%) of the fish examined. The
second intermediate host for this parasite
is small fish (Cyprinidae). Thus, since
minnows constitute a major portion of the
white crappie’s diet, this could possibly
explain the high infestation rate.
According to Ribelin and Migaki (1975),
the attachment sites of the very damaging
proboscis in the intestine are the seat of
prominent lesions and malabsorption syn-
dromes. Since the mean intensity of infes-
tation by this acanthocephalan was high
(38/fish), this could possibly be one of the
reasons for the overall small size and growth
rate of the white crappie in Lake Wilgreen.
Crepidostomum cornutum.—Only 63 indi-
viduals were recovered from the intestines
of 18 white crappies for a mean intensity
of infestation of 5. The low numbers recov-
ered are indications of the fact that one of
the intermediate hosts for this trematode is
sphaeriid clams of which there are few in
Lake Wilgreen.
Posthodiplostomum minimum.—Although
large numbers (4,500) of metacercariae
were recovered, the mean intensity of in-
festation (104) and the number of fish in-
fested (43) were light when compared to
data from Lepomis sp. (Harley and Keefe
1970) in Lake Wilgreen. Overall, crappies
do not seem to be as suitable a host for the
metacercariae as other Centrarchidae (Hoff-
man 1967) and that may explain the low
levels of infestation. Nevertheless, the
plentiful quantity of Physa integra and the
continued presence of herons probably will
136
|
i
ParASsITES OF WHITE Crappre—Harley
137
TABLE 1.—MEAN INTENSITY OF INFESTATION BY VARIOUS PARASITES OF 150 WHITE CRAPPIES FROM LAKE
WILGREEN, KENTUCKY, INCLUDING NEW HOST AND STATE RECORDS
No. fish Mean intensity
Parasite infested of infestation
ACANTHOCEPHALA
Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli 100 38
TREMATODA
Crepidostomum cornutum 18 5
Posthodiplostomum minimum 43 104
CESTOIDEA
Proteocephalus ambloplitis®? 25 6
NEMATODA
Camallanus oxycephalus 1A 12
Contracaecum spiculigerum® 3 4
Contracaecum brachyurum* 9 5
CRUSTACEA
Ergasilus arthrosis 34 33
1 Encysted larvae. 2 Plerocercoids. 3 Larvae.
maintain this parasite in white crappies in
this lake.
Proteocephalus ambloplitis—Only 91 ple-
rocercoids of this proteocephalid were re-
covered from 25 crappies with a mean
intensity of infestation of 6. These plero-
cercoids have been reported from the
viscera of many species of small fishes
(Hoffman 1967) which act as “carriers.”
Thus, in Lake Wilgreen, the white crappie
is a carrier for the plerocercoid of the bass
tapeworm and does not harbor the adult
worm.
Camallanus oxycephalus.—This nematode
was the most prevalent parasite recovered.
Eighty percent of the autopsied fish har-
bored this worm with a mean intensity of
infestation of 12. By comparison, Harley
and Keefe (1970) found a mean intensity
of infestation in Lepomis sp. of 4 with only
10 percent of the fish being infested. Thus,
in Lake Wilgreen, Pomoxis annularis seems
to harbor more C. oxycephalus than Lepo-
mis sp. The reason for this difference can-
not be explained based on available data.
Contracaecum spiculigerum.—This nema-
tode was the least prevalent of all parasites
Total Location New host New state
parasites in fish record record
A485 intestine x
63 intestine xX
4,500 liver, heart,
kidney X
91 viscera X
1,001 anus X
8 stomach,
intestine
37 stomach,
intestine X xX
1,129 gills X X
recovered. Only 8 were recovered from 3
crappies for a mean intensity of infestation
of 4 with 2 percent of the autopsied fish
being infested. Since the larvae have been
reported from many species of fishes (Hoff-
man 1967), there probably is no fish host
specificity. The finding of C. spiculigerum
can be accounted for by the occasional ap-
pearance of gulls (Laridae) on the lake.
Gulls normally harbor the adults.
Contracaecum brachyurum.—Only 37 lar-
vae were recovered from 9 crappies for a
mean intensity of infestation of 5 with 6
percent of the autopsied fish being in-
fested. Like for C. spiculigerum, gulls nor-
mally harbor the adults, the larval forms
infesting the fish that eat them.
Ergasilus arthrosis—This parasitic cope-
pod was very prevalent on the gills of the
autopsied white crappies. Twenty-three
percent of the fish surveyed harbored this
parasite with a mean intensity of infesta-
tion of 33. This was slightly higher than
the mean intensity (24) reported by Ed-
wards et al. (1977) for the channel catfish
from the Kentucky River. The difference
can be accounted for in that E. arthrosis
138
shows seasonal variation with the highest
infestation occurring during summer. In
this survey, all crappies were collected dur-
ing summer, while in the survey by Ed-
wards et al. (1977), the channel catfish
were collected over a period of 14 months,
including winter, which lowered their aver-
age rate of infestation.
DISCUSSION
Contracaecum brachyurum and Ergasi-
lus arthrosis from the white crappie are
new host records for the United States.
Those 2 parasites, along with all others
recovered, constitute new state records for
Pomoxis annularis as a host.
With the exception of Crepidostomum
cornutum and Ergasilus arthrosis, all the
other parasites have been reported previ-
ously from other sunfishes (Lepomis) from
Lake Wilgreen (Harley and Keefe 1970).
The finding of the parasitic copepod, E.
arthrosis, is the second report for Kentucky.
Edwards et al. (1977) reported it from
channel catfish in the Kentucky and Ohio
rivers and explained why it has been mis-
taken for E. versicolor.
When compared to other studies on the
white crappie (Dechtiar 1972, Becker and
Houghton 1969, Arnold et al. 1968, Allison
and McGraw 1967) in different parts of the
country, the present study has shown a
wider diversity and number of parasites re-
covered. A possible explanation for this is
the large number and variety of inverte-
brate hosts present in Lake Wilgreen
(Sugantharaj 1972, unpublished master’s
thesis, Eastern Kentucky University, Rich-
mond, Kentucky) that the white crappie
feeds upon. Also, the lake is highly pol-
luted (Otero and Leung 1972) and this
may have something to do with the high
diversity of micro- and macroorganisms
that serve as food for the white crappie.
Apparently, the high rate of parasitic infes-
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4)
tation is not unusual for fish in central Ken-
tucky as indicated by other studies (Aliff
1977, Combs et al. 1977, Edwards et al.
1977, White and Harley 1974).
LITERATURE CITED
AuiFF, J. V. 1977. Digenetic trematodes from
Kentucky fishes. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38(1-
2) :1-14.
Auuison, T. C., AND J. L. McGraw. 1967. The
helminth parasites of Centrarchidae from
the Navasota River System of Texas. Texas
J. Sci. 19:326-327.
ARNOLD, J. G., H. E. SCHAFER, AND R. L. VULLIET.
1968. The parasites of the fresh water fishes
of Louisiana. II. Check list of parasites. |
Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeast. Ass. Game Fish |
Comm. 21:531-543.
BrEcKER, D. A., AND W. C. Houcutron. 1969. A |
survey of the helminth parasites of selected —
game fishes of Lake Fort Smith, Arkansas.
Proc. Ark. Acad. Sci. 23:110—117.
Comss, D. L., J. P. HARLEY, AND J. C. WILLIAMs.
1977. Helminth parasites of the spotted and
golden redhorse suckers from the Kentucky
River. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38(3—4):128—
131.
DecuTiar, A. O. 1972. New parasite records
for Lake Erie Fish. Great Lakes Fish. Comm.
Tech. Rept. No. 17:1-11.
Epwarps, R. W., J. P. HARLEY, AND J. C. Wi- |
tiaMs. 1977. Parasite fauna of channel |
catfish from the Kentucky River with a com- |
parative note on the Ohio River. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 38(3-4):132—135.
Harxety, J. P., ann T. L. Keere. 19700 Hel-
minth parasites of four species of sunfishes |
(Centrarchidae) from Lake Wilgreen in Ken- |
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 32(3—4) :71-74.
HorFMan, G. L. 1967. Parasites of North
American Freshwater Fishes. Univ. Cal. |
Press, Los Angeles, Cal. 486 pp.
Otero, R. B., AND S. Leunc. 1972. Some ob-
servations on bacterial populations in Wil-
green Lake, Madison County, Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 33(1-2):16-26.
RIBELIN, W. E., anp G. Micaxt. 1975. The
pathology of fishes. Univ. Wis. Press, Madi-
son, Wis. 1,004 pp.
Wuiret, G., AND J. P. Hartey. 1974. Helminth
parasites of the white sucker (Pisces: Cato-
stomidae) in the Kentucky River drainage.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35(1-2):24-26.
Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Bromoquinolines
JERRY L. BUTLER AND MARSHALL GORDON
Department of Chemistry, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071
ABSTRACT
Excellent separations of isomeric bromoquinolines have been obtained using a packed
column containing QF-1. The method of analysis was used to assay various products obtained
from bromination of quinoline. Observed retention time ranged from 373 sec for quinoline
to 1,643 sec for 8-bromoquinoline with respective indexes of 1,596 and 2,018.
INTRODUCTION
The literature reveals little information
pertaining to the separation of quinoline
derivatives by gas chromatography. Gas
chromatography has been used to follow
the reaction kinetics of styrylquinoline for-
mation (Lynch and Gordon 1972). The
_ first reported attempt to separate isometric
halogenated quinolines was by Goodley
and Gordon (1972), who developed a
method for the rapid separation and quan-
titative analysis of selected chlorinated
quinolines by gas chromatography.
For separation of the bromoquinolines,
the McReynolds (1970) constants indicate
that QF-1 would be a good choice and that
OV-225 should also be considered. The
ability of QF-1 to retard the nitromethane
type molecule and the electron donor type
molecules seems to involve an interaction
between the unshared pair of electrons
(quinoline) with the trifluoropropyl group
of the liquid phase. Such being the case,
retention time should be a function of the
electron density at the nitrogen atom.
However, it appears from retention data
that separation is achieved by a dipole-
dipole interaction between the quinoline
ring structure and trifluoropropyl group of
the liquid phase.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Partial support of this work by the Mur-
ray State University Committee on Institu-
tional Studies and Research is gratefully
acknowledged.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The liquid phase used was a silicone
QF-1 coated onto Chromosorb G, AW,
DMCS, 60/70-mesh support and packed
into a 10 ft X 0.093 in (3.04 m X 0.236 cm),
1/8 in od (0.32 cm) aluminum tube. There
was no pretreatment of the support; it was
used as received (Johns-Manville Corp.).
Of the 5 different liquid loadings tested
(range 5-20%), the optimum loading was
10 percent. Other liquid phases, SE-30,
OV-225, and Apiezon L, and support ma-
terials Chromosorb W, regular; Chromo-
sorb W, DMCS; Chromosorb G, DMCS;
and Chromosorb T were found to be inef-
fective for the separation of the bromo-
quinolines. Helium was used as a carrier
gas for all analyses. The column tempera-
ture was 163 C; the injector port tempera-
ture was 210C; the detector temperature
was 225C. Sample size was 0.06 pl; the
carrier gas flow rate was 14.4 ml/min. An
effluent splitter located at the column-—
flame base junction effectively allowed 49
percent (6.6 ml/min) of the effluent to
bypass the detector. The remaining 51
percent effluent (7.8 ml/min) entered the
hydrogen flame. The recorder used was a
Honeywell 1.0 mv full-scale, Model 1630,
connected to an Infotronics Digital Inte-
grator, Model CRS-104. The gas chro-
matograph was a dual channel Varian
Aerograph, Model 1520, equipped with
flame-ionization detectors.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The retention index values, according to
Kovats (1967) and Rohrschneider (1966,
139
140
2200
2000
$ 1800
Cc
=
5 6.1600
:
x
.
g
< 1400
1200
1000
Fic. 1. Plot of log adjusted retention time for the bromoquinoline versus the n-alkane retention index.
TRANS. KENTUCKY
(\)
ix)
1.6 1'8 2:0 2.2
Loa Adjusted Retention Time
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4)
(\)
wD
e
2.
— Bromoquinolines
O n-AlKanes
24 2.6 2.8 3.0 Bi2 3.4
BROMOQUINOLINE COMPOUNDS on
QF-! FLUORO SILICONE
FLOW: 15 ml/min
TEMP: 163 C
1. Quinoline
2. G-Methylquinoline
3. 3-Bromoquinoline
4. 5-Bromoquinoline
5. 6-Bromoquinoline
6. 7-Bromoquinoline
7. 2-Bromoquinoline
8. 5-Bromo-6-methylquinoline
9. 8-Bromoquinoline
Fic. 2. Typical chromatogram
tiM@ (rind
of a standard mixture of the bromoquinoline.
Gas CHROMATOGRAPHY OF BROMOQUINOLINES—Butler and Gordon 141
TABLE 1.—RETENTION DATA FOR BROMINATED QUINOLINE ISOMERS ON QF-1 at 163 C anv 15 ML/MIN
FLOW RATE
Observed Adjusted :
retention retention Log adjusted Retention
Compound time (sec) time (sec) retention time index
methane 37 0 0.0000 100
heptane 48 11 1.0414 700
decane 73 36 1.5563 1,000
dodecane 114 Ti 1.8865 1,200
tetradecane 199 162 2.2095 1,400
hexadecane 378 341 2.5328 1,600
octadecane 736 699 2.8445 1,800
eicosane 1,469 1,432 3.1559 2,000
decosane 4,982 4,945 3.6942 2,200
quinoline 373 336 25265 1,596"
3-bromoquinoline 762 25 2.8603 1,810°
5-bromoquinoline 821 784 2.8943 1,832"
6-bromoquinoline 929 892 2,.9504 1,868"
7-bromoquinoline 1,060 1,023 3.0094 1,906"
2-bromoquinoline 1,151 LT 3.0468 1930"
8-bromoquinoline 1,643 1,606 3.2055 2,018"
1 These values were obtained from the equation
log t’,, —logt’,,
I = 200
1967), were found by injecting the normal
alkanes into the chromatograph using the
same conditions for the bromoquinoline
analysis and plotting the log adjusted re-
tention time versus the n-alkane number
multiplied by 100 (the n-alkane index)
(Fig. 1). Methane was used to obtain a
relative reference for the adjusted retention
time using the hydrogen flame detector.
The conditions for the quinoline isomer
analysis were duplicated, using a thermal
conductivity detector to establish the fact
that air and methane had the same reten-
tion time on the QF-1 column. The index
values and accompanying data for the QF-1
column at 163C are shown in Table 1.
log Ure +2) log Ur:
+ 100 Z.
Six standard mixtures were made using a
wide difference in composition of the
quinoline isomers. These mixtures were
weighed out on a Mettler balance to the
nearest 0.01 mg. Four to 6 injections of
each of the 6 standard mixtures were made
into the chromatograph, and an average
response value for each component was
calculated from the observed area of each
component. The response factors were
calculated on the basis of mole percent
composition and related to quinoline as
arbitrarily having a response factor of 1.00
(Dietz 1967). The values are shown to-
gether with the composition of one of the
standards and results from a typical analy-
sis in Table 2.
TABLE 2.—BROMINATED QUINOLINE ANALYSIS AND RELATIVE RESPONSE VALUES ON QF-1 at 163 C
Average Average
Standard analysis response
Compound (mole percent) (mole percent ) Error factor
quinoline OA21 22 +0.16 1.00
2-bromoquinoline 11.56 11.45 —0.11 1.10
3-bromoquinoline 13.94 13.85 —0.09 0.99
5-bromoquinoline 11.39 11.45 +0.06 1.04
6-bromoquinoline 12.87% ia: —0.15 0.99
7-bromoquinoline 14.92 14.90 —0.02 1.05
8-bromoquinoline Po 1346 +0.05 0.98
Total 100.00 100.00
142
tima (min)
Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4)
REACTION MIXTURE 17
ANALYSIS
PERCENT (mole)
|. Quinoline 64.52
2. 5-Bromoqguinoline 19.58
3. G-Bromoqguinoline — 00.1
4. 7-Bromoguinoline trace
5. .2-Bromoguinoline trace
6. 8-Bromoguinoline 15.7
Fic. 3. Typical chromatogram of a bromination reaction mixture.
A discussion of the preparation of bromo-
quinoline isomers together with details of
various bromination reactions conducted is
reported elsewhere (Butler and Gordon
1975).
The brominated quinoline reaction mix-
tures were analyzed in the same way as the
standard mixtures. The mole percent of
each isomer present was calculated from
the product of the area obtained and the
response factor for that isomer. In some
analyses, there was a rise in the baseline
of the chromatograph recording, but the
area was not sufficient for the electronic
integrator to respond. For those instances,
the isomers present, in obviously small
amounts, were indicated as “trace.” Figs.
2 and 3 illustrate chromatograms of a stan-
dard mixture and a reaction mixture,
respectively.
LITERATURE CITED
But_Ler, J. L., AnD M. Gorpon. 1975. A rein-
vestigation of known bromination reactions
———————— 1967. “Bae
of quinoline. J. Heterocyclic Chem. 12:1015— |
1020.
Dietz, W. A. 1967. Response factors for gas
chromatographic analyses. J. Gas Chro-
matogr. 5:68.
Goop.LEy, P. C., anp M. Gorpon. 1972. Gas
chromatographic analysis of halogenated
quinoline compounds. J. Chromatogr. Sci.
10:532-534. |
Kovats, E. 1967. Gas chromatographic charac- _
terization of organic substances in the reten- ©
tion index system. Pp. 229. In J. C. Giddings |
and R. A. Keller (Eds.). Advances in Chro- |
matography, Vol. 1. Marcel Dekker Co., New ©
York, N.Y. 392 pa. |
Lyncu, S. M., AND M. Gorpon. 1972. Kinetics
of styrylquinoline formation. J. Heterocyclic ©
Chem. 9:789-799. |
McReynotps, W. O. 1970. Characterization of
some liquid phases. J. Chromatogr. Sci. 8: |
685-691.
ROHRSCHNEWER, L. 1966. A method for the ]
characterization of gas chromatographic sta- _
tionary liquids. J. Chromatogr. 22:6. |
polarity of stationary
liquid phases in gas chromatography. Pp. |
333. In J. C. Giddings and R. A. Keller
(Eds.). Advances in Chromatography, Vol.
4, Marcel Dekker Co., New York, N.Y. 380
pp.
Distribution of the Barking Treefrog in Kentucky’
Burt L. Monrog, JR. AND RAYMOND W. GIANNINI
Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
Discovery of a second population of Hyla gratiosa in Caldwell County, Kentucky, isolated
from the only other known population in the state (Todd County and adjacent Montgomery
County in Tennessee), suggests that the disjunct nature of the northern populations is a
result of range contraction and the natural occurrence of relict populations rather than from
artificial introductions by man.
North of the central Gulf states, from
northen Alabama and _ northwestern
Georgia through central Tennessee, the
barking treefrog Hyla gratiosa is repre-
sented by disjunct, apparently relict popu-
lations. At the extreme north-central limit
of the range in north-central Tennessee and
south-central Kentucky, the species has
been heretofore known from a single pop-
ulation in Montgomery County, Tennessee
(Scott and Harker 1968), and adjacent
Todd County, Kentucky (Monroe and Tay-
lor 1972). The discovery of an additional
isolated population about 60 km northwest
of the foregoing extends the range of the
species toward southwestern Kentucky and
further illustrates the peculiar disjunct na-
ture of its distribution.
_ On 3 July 1976, Giannini obtained a sin-
gle specimen about 12 km south of Prince-
ton, Caldwell County, Kentucky. It was
taken about 50 m from the nearest water
on a warm, drizzly night; no frogs were
heard calling at that time. The specimen is
presently in the Herpetological Collections
of the Department of Biology, University
of Louisville (#UL 6779).
Following considerable rainfall, Giannini
located a breeding area on 5 July about 75
m from the site of the original specimen.
The area was a flooded slough with much
submergent grass and weedy growth, ap-
proximately 10 by 75 m in size. On that
night, 2 specimens were obtained (#UL
6780, 6781) from about 25 calling males.
* Contribution No. 186 (New Series) from the
Department of Biology, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40208.
Most frogs were sitting on vegetation at
surface level in water less than 1 m in
depth.
On 6 July, about 40 individuals were
calling in the area. In addition, 10 were
calling from a similar flooded area some
100 m distant from the first, and 10 more
in a permanently wet area some 10 m in
diameter and about 200 m distant from the
first location. All 3 areas contained much
submergent vegetation. No specimens were
taken but recordings were obtained.
Two more individuals were captured on
8 July, one of which is still alive in captivity
at this time (18 Feb 1977). About 50 frogs
in all were calling on 8 July at the original
site, with but 6 at the permanent wet area
and none at the third location.
On 10 and 12 July, following several
days without rainfall, a total of about 30
calling males was noted at the 3 locations.
Some 10 individuals were heard on 14 July
and none after that date.
The newly discovered area is in a differ-
ent drainage system than that involving the
other Kentucky population. In addition,
it is but 30 km east of the Land Between
the Lakes region, one of the most thor-
oughly studied regions herpetologically
within Kentucky. Although we are sure
other populations remain undiscovered in
parts of Kentucky and Tennessee, it is evi-
dent that the range is highly disjunct
through those states.
The most significant feature of the dis-
tribution of H. gratiosa is the absence from
southwestern Kentucky along the Missis-
sippi River bottomlands; virtually all Gulf
coastal plain species ranging north to Ken-
143
144
tucky occur in that floodplain. As a result,
the overall distribution of the species forms
a unique geographical pattern among east-
ern amphibians. A somewhat similar
pattern could be obtained in the mud sala-
mander Pseudotriton montanus if the mid-
land race P. m. diasticus were relict and
disjunct in central Kentucky and Tennessee
rather than widespread, but there is no spe-
cies displaying the particular distributional
peculiarities of H. gratiosa. Furthermore,
the existence of several sizable disjunct
breeding populations suggests that the dis-
tribution is a natural one, resulting from
range contraction and relict populations,
rather than possibly being produced
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4)
through artificial or accidental introduc-
tions by man. :
Further studies of the Caldwell County
population will be conducted in the sum-
mer of 1977. Field herpetologists in Ken-
tucky and Tennessee should be alerted to
the possible occurrence of this species else-
where in the region. |
LITERATURE CITED
Monrog, B. L., JR., AND R. W. Taytor. 1972.
Occurrence of the barking treefrog, Hyla
gratiosa, in Kentucky. J. Herpetol. 6:78.
Scott, A. F., anp D. F. Harker. 1968. First |
records of the barking treefrog, Hyla gratiosa
Le Conte, from Tennessee. Herpetologica 24:
82-83.
Articles on Kentucky in the Scientific and Technical Journals
of Antebellum Tennessee
At least 19 technical or scientific journals
were published in Tennessee before 1861
(Corgan 1977). While many are too poorly
known to permit analysis of content, sev-
eral contain articles on the natural history
of Kentucky. The following is an anno-
tated bibliography of those articles.
Fanning, Tolbert. 1842. Notes on a short
tour of Kentucky. Agriculturist 3:281-
282.
Brief notes on agricultural geography.
Loomis, I. Newton. 1846. Geologic en-
- campment. Naturalist 1:337-343, 385-
387.
Description of a four-week summer
field trip focused on Mammoth Cave.
Martin, Samuel D. 1845. Analysis of Ken-
— tucky soil. Agriculturist 6:107—108.
JAMES X.
Austin Peay State University,
CoRGAN
Clarksville, Tennessee 37040
Analyses of 3 samples of soil from
Clarke County.
Suddarth, J. B. 1856. Physical and medi-
cal topography, etc., of Simpson County;
in general applicable to the central re-
gion of southern Kentucky. Nashville J.
Med. Surg. 11:473-488.
A treatment of physical and cultural
geography; includes a list of plants.
To historically oriented students of Ken-
tucky science, those antebellum articles
may have academic value. They are now
little known because the journals in which
they appeared have become very obscure.
LITERATURE CITED
Corcan, J. X. 1977. Tennessee’s early techni-
cal and scientific journals, 1825-1861. J.
Tenn. Acad. Sci. 52:23-26.
145
NEWS AND COMMENT
The Executive Committee and
Board of Directors, in joint
session at Georgetown College on
9 April 1977, asked the Secretary to inform
the membership of a proposed change in
annual dues. In his June 1977 Newsletter,
Dr. Seay indicated the following proposed
increases to be voted on by the membership
at the Sixty-third Annual Meeting at West-
ern Kentucky University on 11 and 12 No-
vember 1977: Active membership, $10.00;
Student membership, $7.00; Life member-
ship, $100.00; and Contributing member-
ship, $50.00 annually or multiples thereof.
Contributing memberships are intended
largely, but not solely, for institutions and
industrial organizations. It is hoped that
one or more of the institutions of higher
education in the Commonwealth will use
such memberships as an indication of sup-
port for the Academy.
Annual
Dues
The Annual Meeting of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science will
be held at Western Kentucky
University on Friday and Saturday, 11 and
12 November 1977. Dr. Marvin Russell
will serve as host. Information on the
meeting will be forthcoming with the next
Newsletter.
Annual
Meeting
KAS
Committees
If you are interested in be-
coming actively associated
with the work of the Acad-
emy, now is your chance to let it be known!
There are a number of Standing Committees
to which new members are appointed
each year. Those Committees are: Mem-
146
bership, Legislation, Distribution of Re-
search Funds, and Publications. Also,
there are other committees that need new
and active personnel. If you are interested
in serving, or if you know of someone you
think can really contribute, please make
that willingness or interest known to Presi-
dent Charles Payne, Morehead State Uni-
versity, Morehead, Kentucky 40351, or
President Elect Charles E. Kupchella,
Cancer Center, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40201.
At their meeting of 10 September
Page
1977, the Executive Committee :
Charges
of the Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence instituted the practice of mandatory ©
page charges of $15.00 per printed page for.
all papers published in the TRANSACTIONS |
OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE |
beginning with Volume 39, Numbers 1-2, to —
be published in March 1978. The actual
costs of publication are in excess of $40.00
per printed page, and there is need to help
defray that cost. |
Distinguished Dr. Thomas B. Calhoon,
Scientist Chairman of the Board of |
Award Directors of the Kentucky —
Academy of Science, re- |
quests that all nominations for the Dis-_
tinguished Scientist Award for 1977 be sent’
to him along with appropriate vitae of the’
persons nominated. He asks that all such:
nominations be in his office no later than:
10 October 1977. His address is Depart-
ment of Physiology, Health Sciences Center,
University of Louisville, Louisville, Ken-
tucky 40232. |
Abricta ferruginosa, 26
Acanthocephala, 128-130
Acanthocephalus, 128-130
A. dirus, 129
A. jacksoni, 129
Acer saccharinum, 79
Acetodextra, 11
A. amiuri, 1, 5, 6, 11, 132, 133
Achillea millefolium, 22-25
Acipenser fulvescens, 69, 70
Acrosternum hilare, 83, 84
Agrion, 117
Agrionidae, 117
Alderfly, 118
ALIFE? JOHN: V., 1
Allocreadiidae, 1, 9
Allocreadium, 12
A. lobatum, 1, 4—7, 9, 12
Alloglossidium corti, 1, 6, 12
Alosa chrysochloris, 8, 49, 53,
ial
Ambloplites rupestris, 1, 3-11,
bile 53
Ammocrypta pellucida, 71
Amphibians, 118
Amphipoda, 47, 117
Anacardiaceae, 23
Anderson Creek Embayment,
120
Andropogon gerardi, 22-24
A. scoparius, 22-24
Anemone virginiana, 23, 24
Anguilla rostrata, 3, 49, 53
Anguillidae, 49
Anodonta grandis, 48
Anonchohaptor, 129
A. muelleri, 128, 129
Antebellum Tennessee, 145
Anura, 118
Aphredoderidae, 50
Aphredoderus sayanus, 50, 53
Aplodinotus grunniens, 3, 4, 7,
Geolroo, O4
Apocynaceae, 23
Apocynum cannibinum, 23, 24
Aquatic fauna, 116
Arch, Fort Campbell, 74, 77
Asclepias incarnata, 23
A. syriaca, 23
A. verticillata, 23, 24
Asclepidaceae, 23
Ascyrum hypericoides, 23
Asellus militaris, 47
A. stygius, 117, 119
Astacidae, 117
Aster, 22-24
A. patens, 22-24
ATHEY, RAYMOND, 95
Aulacizes, 31
INDEX TO VOLUME 38
A. irrorata, 28
Azygiidae, 1, 9
Backswimmer, 118
BAYER, FOREST. L., 15
Baetis, 47
Bass, largemouth, 51
rock, 51
smallmouth, 51
spotted, 51
white, 51
Beetle, bean leaf, 83-85
Mexican bean, 86
Betulaceae, 23
Biacetabulum, 128, 129
B. banghami, 128, 129
B. infrequens, 129
B. meridianum, 129
Bidens, 23
Big Clifty Prairie, 21
Bluegill, 51
BRANSON, BRANLEY A., 69
Bridges, natural, 74
Noah Creek, 74-76
Bromoisoquinilines, 16—17
Bromoquinolines, 139-142
Bromus, 79
B. tectorum, 23
BROWNE, EDWARD T., JR.,
95
BRYANT, WILLIAM S., 21
Bucephalidae, 1, 10
Bucephalus, 11
Bucephalopsis, 1, 5, 11
Buffalo, black, 50
smallmouth, 50
Bug, green stink, 83-85
Bullhead, black, 50
brown, 50
yellow, 50
Burrows, woodchuck, 79
BUTEER: JERRY els, 139
Caddisfly, 118
Caenis, 117
Callitrichaceae, 23
Callitriche deflexa, 23
Cambarinae, 117
Camallanus oxycephalus, 128-
130.132; 153
Campanulaceae, 23
Campostoma anomalum, 1, 3-8,
12, 49, 52, 53, 118
Caprifoliaceae, 23
Carassius auratus, 7, 49, 53
Carex, 22, 24
C. complanata, 23, 25
C. frankii, 23
C. vulpinoidea, 23
Carp, 49
147
Carpiodes carpio, 50, 53
G. cyprinus, 3, 50,. 53
Carpsucker, river, 50
Caryophyllaceae, 23
Cassia fasciculata, 22-24
Catfish, channel, 50, 123-127,
132-135
flathead, 50
Catostomidae, 50, 118
Catostomus commersoni, 3-8,
10, 11, 50, 52, 53, 128, 129,
134
Ceanothus americanus, 23
Centrarchidae, 51
Ceratopogonidae, 118
Cestoda, 62, 129, 130, 132, 133
Cestoidea, 128
Chaenorrhinum minus, 23
Chauliodes, 118
Cheumatopsyche, 48
Chironomidae, 48, 118
Chlamydomonadidae, 117
Chlamydomonas globosa, 117
Chloromonadida, 117
Chrosomus erythrogaster, 97,
TVS: 119
Chrysanthemum leucanthemum,
222.5
Chrysemys scripta elegans, 118
Chrysops, 118
Chub, creek, 50, 118
silver, 49
speckled, 70
Chubsucker, creek, 118
Cicada, 28
Cicadellidae, 26, 35
Cicadidae, 26
Clinostomum, 4, 131
Clinostomus funduloides, 70 ©
Cloverworm, green, 83-85
Clupeidae, 49, 121
Clupeids, 121
Colaspis brunnea, 83, 84
Colaspis, grape, 83-85
Coleoptera, 48, 118
COLTHARP, GEORGE B., 111
COMBS, DAVID L., 128
Compositae, 22, 23
Contracaecum, 132-134
C. brachyurum, 136-138
Corallobothrium, 132, 133
C. fimbriatum, 132-134
C. giganteum, 132-134
C. spiculigerum, 136, 137
Corbicula manilensis, 48
Coreopsis tripteris, 23
CORGAN, JAMES X., 74, 145
Corixidae, 118
Cornaceae, 23
Corydalidae, 118
148 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4)
Corylus, 25
C. americana, 22, 23, 25
Cottidae, 51
Cottontail, 79, 80
Cottus carolinae, 1, 3-8, 10, 51,
53
Counties, Kentucky
Caldwell, 143
Calloway, 116
Carter, 98
Christian, 74
Grayson, 21
Jefferson, 45
Madison, 136
Todd, 143
County, Tennessee
Montgomery, 143
Cranefly, 118
Crangonyx, 47, 117, 119
Crappie, black, 51
white, 51, 136
parasites of, 136
Crayfish, 117
Creeks, Kentucky
Eagle, 128
Elkhorn, 128
Goose, 45—49, 52-54
Little Goose, 49
Crepidostomum cooperi, 1, 6, 9
C. cornutum, 1, 3, 5, 7-9, 12,
136-138
C. isostomum, 1, 4, 7-9, 12
Crustacea, 132-134
Cryptogonimidae, 1, 11
Cyperaceae, 23
Cyperus, 22-24
C. ovularis, 23, 24
Cyprinidae, 49, 97, 118
Cypriniformes, 118
Cyprinodontidae, - 50
Cyprinus carpio, 3-5, 7-8, 49,
52-54
Dace, blacknose, 50
rosyside, 70
southern redbelly, 97, 118,
119
Damselfly, 117
Darter, arrow, 72
barcheek, 72
bluestripe, 71
Cumberland snubnose, 72
eastern sand, 71
fantail, 51
gilt, 71
greenside, 51
johnny, 51
rainbow, 51
redline, 72
tippecanoe, 72
DAVIS, WAYNE H., 120
Decapoda, 117
Desmanthus illinoensis, 23
Desmodium ciliare, 23
D. laevigatum, 23
D. sessilifolium, 23, 24
Desmognathus fuscus, 118
Dianthus armeria, 23, 24
Didelphis virginiana, 79
Difflugia globosa, 117
Difflugidae, 117
Digenea, 13
Diodia teres, 23
Diospyros virginiana, 22, 23
Diptera, 48, 118
Dobsonfly, 118
Dorosoma, 121
D. cepedianum, 3, 4, 8, 49, 52,
Boers pall
D. petenense, 121
Drum, freshwater, 51
Earthworm, aquatic, 117
Ebenaceae, 23
EDWARDS, ROBERT W., 132
Eel, American, 49
Eleocharis, 22
E. tenuis, 23, 24
Elodes, 118
Elymus virginicus, 23, 24
Empoasca fabae, 35, 86
Ephemeroptera, 47, 117
Epilachna varivestis, 86
Ergasilus arthrosis, 132-134,
136-138
E. caeruleus, 136, 137
E. versicolor, 134, 138
Ericymba buccata, 49, 53
Erigeron annus, 23
Erimyzon oblongus, 118
Esocidae, 49
Esox americanus vermiculatus
3, 49, 52
Etheostoma, 6, 12
E. atripinne, 72
E. bellum, 8
. blennioides, 1, 3-9, 11, 12,
oy) Wa
. caeruleum, 1, 3-8, 10-12,
51-53, 118
. camurum, 7
. cinereum, 72
. flabellare, 1, 3-8, 10-12, 51-
53
. nigrum, 4-6, 51, 53
. obeyense, 7, 72
. rufilineatum, 7, 72
saggita, 72
var. saggita, 72
var. spilotum, 72
spectabile, 1, 3, 4, 6, 9-12
squamiceps, 118
stigmaeum, 7
tippecanoe, 72
virgatum, 7
>
Bees ee &
E. zonale, 3, 8
Euglenidae, 117
Euglenoidida, 117
Eupatorium altissimum, 23
E. serotinum, 23
Euphorbiaceae, 23
Euphorbia corollata, 23, 24
E. supina, 23
Fagaceae, 23
Fasciola hepatica, 62-67
Festuca, 79
F. elatior, 23, 24
Fish, larvae, 120
planktonic, 120
Fishes, 118
Kentucky, 1
threatened, 69-73
Forests, Kentucky :
Daniel Boone National, 69 |
Fox, gray, 79, 80
red, 79, 80
FREEZE, THOMAS M., 97,
116, 120, 123
Frog, leopard, 118
Fundulus catenatus, 7, 8
F.. notatus, 6-8, 50, 52, 53
F. olivaceus, 122
Galium pilosum, 23 |
Gambusia affinis, 1, 4, 6, 12, —
51-53
Gammaridae, 117
Gammarus, 47
Gar, longnose, 49
shortnose, 49
Gas chromatographic analysis,
139-142
GAURL, Ki ge2 3s
Gentianaceae, 23
Geocoris, 83, 84, 87
Geraniaceae, 23
Geranium carolinianum, 23
Gerridae, 118
Gerris, 118
GIANNINI, RAYMOND W., |
143 |
GLEASON, LARRY N., 62
Gnaphalium purpureum, 23, 24 |
Goldfish, 49 |
Goniobasis, 13
GORDON, MARSHALL, 15, |
139 !
Gorgoderidae, 1, 11
Gramineae, 22, 23
HAAG, KIM H., 45
Haliplidae, 118
Haplotaxidae, 117
Haplotaxis, 118
H. gordioides, 117,°118
HARLEY, JOHN P., 128, 132,
136
Helenium flexuosum, 23
Helianthus hirsutus, 23
Helisoma, 13
Helodidae, 118
Hemerocallis fulva, 23
Hemiptera, 117
Herring, skipjack, 49, 121
HILL, FREDERICK C., 45
Hiodon alosoides, 8
H. tergisus, 4, 10
Homoptera, 26, 35 |
HOTCHKISS, ARLAND, 98 |
Hybognathus nuchalis, 70
Hybopsis aestivalis, 3, 70
H. storeriana, 8, 49, 53
Hydrometra, 117
Hydrometridae, 117
Hyla gratiosa, 143
Hymenolepis, 57
H. microstoma, 62-67
H. nana, 56-61 ,
Hypentelium. nigricans, 1, 3-7,
Pipes0. oo. Oo, 130
Hypericaceae, 23
Hypericum sphaerocarpum, 23
Ictaluridae, 50
Ictalurus, 52 ae
© melas, 1, 3-5, 7, 10, 11, 50
I. natalis, 3, 6-8, 11, 50
I. nebulosus, 7, 50
I. punctatus, 3, 7, 8, 50, 53, 54,
123-127, 132-135
Ictiobus bubalus, 7, 8, 10, 50,
52 OS
I. cyprinellus, 3
I. niger, 50, 53
Immunity, 56
passive transfer of, 56
Insects, phytophagous, 83
predaceous, 83
Iris cristata, 98
Iris, dwarf crested
| form), 98
Isoglaridacis folius, 128, 129
Isopoda, 47, 117
( white
Juncaceae, 23 ©
Juncus, 23
Kentucky Academy of Science
Academy Affairs, 101
Annual Business Meeting, 107
Distinguished Scientist
Award, 99
News and Comment, 110,
146
Kentucky, articles on, 145
KRUMHOLZ, LOUIS A., 99
Labiatae, 22, 23
Labidesthes sicculus, 3, 6-8, 122
INDEX TO VOLUME 38
Lactuca canadensis, 23, 24
Lagochila lacera, 69, 71
Lake, Arkansas
Dardanelle, 123
Lakes, Kentucky
Kentucky, 120
Wilgreen, 136
Lamprey, 118
Lampsilis, 13
Laridae, 137. ~
Lauraceae, 23
Leafhopper, 26 ~
potato, 86
Leguminosae, 22, 23
Lemna minor, 47
LENSING, BARBARA A., 88
Lepisosteidae, 49
Lepisosteus, 122
L. osseus, 49, 53
L. platostomus, 49, 53
Lepomis, 12, 122
. cyanellus, 4-11, 51, 53
. gibbosus, 3, 9
. gulosus, 1, 5,6, 10, 51-53
. humilis, 51, 53
. macrochirus, 1, 3-10, 51-53
. megalotis, 1, 3-10, 12, 13,
51-53
. microlophus, 3, 7,-8, 51, 53
Lespedeza virginica, 23
Leuceruthrus micropteri, 1, 3-
1O, 12
Liliaceae, 23
in Kentucky, 95
Lilium formosanum, 95, 96
L. philippinense, 95, 96
var. formosanum, 95
Limnophila, 118
Linaceae, 23
Linum virginianum, 23, 24
LIPSCOMB, THORNTON, 38
Lirceus, 47 .
L. fontinalis, 117
Liriodendron tulipifera, 116
Lissorchiidae, 1, 11
Lissorchis, 3
L. attenuatum, 1, 4, 5, 11
LL. srmeri, Lo8s 14
Lobeliaceae, 23
Lobelia puberula, 23, 24
L. spicata, 23
Logperch, 51, 71
Lonicera japonica, 23
Ludwigia alternifolia, 23
Lumbriculidae, 117
Lumbriculus inconstans, 117
Lycopus virginicus, 23
eat ele ge Pleat les!
th
Macroderoididae, 1, 12
Macroinvertebrates, 117
Madtom, brindled, 50
tadpole, 50
149
Marble, 38
carbon dioxide relation, 38
Marsh treader, 117
Mayfly, 117
Medicago lupalina, 23
Megaloptera, 118
Melanthium canadense, 95
M. virginicum, 95
Melilotus alba, 23, 24
Micropterus, 10
M. dolomieui, 1, 3-5, 7, 9, 10,
53
M.- punctulatus, 1, 3-10, 51-53
M. salmoides, 1, 3-12, 51-53,
122
Microtus pennsylvanicus, 79, 80
M. pinetorum, 79
Midge, 118
biting, 118
Minnow, bluntnose, 49
silver, 70
silverjaw, 49
Minytrema, 53, 54
M. melanops, 1, 3, 7, 8, 11, 50,
5o-54. 198-130
Molanna, 118
Molannidae, 118
Mollusca, 48
Molt, seasonal, 88
Monobothrium ulmeri, 128-130
Monobromoisoquinolines, 15
MONROE, BURT L., JR., 143
Morone, 121, 122
M. chrysops, 4, 51-53, 121
M. mississippiensis, 8
Mosquitofish, 51
Mouse, 56
house, 79
meadow jumping, 79
whitefooted, 79, 88
Moxostoma anisurum, 1, 3, 6, 8,
5Os5e5 130
M. carinatum, 50, 52, 53
M. duquesnei, 50, 53
M. erythrurum, 3-6, 8, 10, 50,
59-54, 128-130
M. macrolepidotum, 1, 3, 11
Musculium, 13
Mus musculus, 59, 79-81
Nabis, 83, 84
Nematoda, 128-130, 132, 133
Neoechinorhynchus _prolixoides,
128, 129
Nocomis micropogon, 3, 7
Notemigonus crysoleucas, 6, 49,
Bo, 122)
Notonecta, 118
Notonectidae, 118
Notropis ardens, 1,.3-8, 12, 49,
53
N. ariommus,. 70
150
N. atherinoides, 3, 4, 6-8, 49,
52, 53, 122
N. blennius, 49, 53
N. boops, 3-8, 12
N. chrysocephalus, 1, 3-9, 11,
12, 49, 53
N. cornutus, 52
N. galacturus, 7
N. heterolepis, 3
N. hudsonius, 6
N. photogenis, 5, 6
N. rubellus, 1, 3, 6, 7, 12
N. spilopterus, 3, 7, 8, 49, 53
N. stramineus, 3, 49, 53
N. telescopus, 71
N. volucellus, 3
N. whipplei, 1, 3, 6, 8, 12
Noturus, 52
N. flaous. 13,5, F511
N. gyrinus, 1, 8, 10, 50
N. miurus, 3, 50
Nyssa sylvatica, 22-24
Ochrotomys nuttalli, 89
Odonata, 117
Onagraceae, 23
Opecoelidae, 1, 12
Opisthopora, 117
Opossum, 79, 80
Orchidaceae, 23
Orius insidiosus, 83, 84, 86
Osbornellus, 26
Oxalidaceae, 23
Oxalis stricta, 23, 24
Palpomyia, 118
Panicum nitidum, 23, 24
Paramphistomatidae, 1, 12
Parasites, 136
helminth, 128
PARKS, JOHN T., 74
Parthenium integrifolium, 22-24
Paspalum, 23
PATTON, SHARON, 56
Paurorhynchus, 11
P. hiodontis, 1, 4, 10
Peltodytes, 118
Pentaneura, 118
Percichthyidae, 51
Percidae, 51, 118
Perciformes, 118
Percina burtoni, 71
. caprodes, 3-5, 7-9, 51, 53
. copelandi, 3
. cymatotaenia, 71
. evides, 3, 71
. maculata, 7
. phoxocephala, 3
Peromyscus, 90, 94
P. boylii, 89
P. leucopus, 79, 88, 91-94
P. maniculatus, 80, 81, 94
var. gambeli, 89
Ly Hloa~ Bean ~ la Bl la»
P. noveboracensis, 88
Petromyzontidae, 118
Petromyzontiformes, 118
Phleum pratensis, 23
Phlox maculata, 23
Phoxinus (= Chrosomus) eryth-
rogaster, 97
Phyllodistomum, 8
. caudatum, 1, 4, 5, 11, 12
P. etheostomae, 1, 3, 5-8, 11
P. lacustri, 1, 3, 8,, 11
(x
P.
yy
_ lysteri, 3, 11
. nocomis, 1, 4-6, 11
P. staffordi, 1, 8, 11
Physa integra, 48
Physalis, 23
Pickerel, grass, 49
Pimephales notatus, 1, 3-9, 12,
49, 52, 53, 122
P. promelas, 1, 3, 6, 12
Pisciamphistoma stunkardi, 1, 3,
ee 1G:
Pisidium, 13
Plagioporus, 3, 5, 6, 12
P. cooperi, 1, 6, 12
P. serotinus, 1, 4, 12
P. sinitsini, 1, 4-8, 12
Plantaginaceae, 23
Plantago aristata, 23
P. lanceolata, 23
Platanaceae, 23
Platanus occidentalis, 23
Plathypena scabra, 83, 84
Plethodontidae, 118
Pleurocera, 13
Poa compressa, 23
P. pratensis, 22-25
Podocotyle boleosomi, 1, 4—8, 12
P. lepomis, 12
Poeciliidae, 51
Polamoniaceae, 23
Polygalaceae, 23
Polygala sanguinea, 23, 24
P. verticillata, 23, 24
Polygonaceae, 23
Polyodon spathula, 69
Pomoxis, 121, 122
P. annularis, 3, 6-8, 10, 51, 53,
IDieGt22* 136
P. nigromaculatus, 51, 53, 121,
122
Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli,
136). 137
Populus deltoides, 79
Postodiplostomum minimum,
136, 137
Potentilla simplex, 22-24
Precipitation, 111
water quality of, 111
Procyon lotor, 79
Promonobothrium minytremi,
128-130
Proterometra, 3-8, 10, 12, 136
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4)
P. macrostoma, 1, 5, 6, 10
Protocephalus ambloplitis, 136,
137
Protozoans, 117
Prunella vulgaris, 23, 24
Pseudotriton montanus, 144
var. diasticus, 144
Psoralea psoralioides, 23
Pycnanthemum flexuosum, 22-
24
Pylodictis olivaris, 3, 50, 52, 53
Quercus marilandica, 22, 23, 25 |
QO. stellata, 22, 23
QO. velutina, 22, 23
Quillback, 50
Raccoon, 79, 80
Rana pipiens, 118
RANEY, H. G., 83
Ranidae, 118
Ranunculaceae, 23
RAO, MADIRAJU APPA, 38
Ratibida pinnata, 23
RAYBURN, KATHY J., 97, 116
Redhorse, black, 50
golden, 50, 128
river, 50
silver, 50
Reptiles, 118
Rhabdochona, 128, 130
Rhamnaceae, 23
Rhinichthys atratulus, 1 3, 0; GH
9, 12; 50" 52 53
Rhipidocotyle, 6-8, TOPE
R. septpapillata, i & [G12
Rhus, 25
R. copallina, 22—24
Rhynchelmis, 117
Rivers, Kentucky
Dix, 128
Kentucky, 128
Ohio, 132
Red, 128
Middle Fork, 128
North Fork, 128
South Fork, 128
Rosaceae, 23
Rosa setigera, 23
Rubiaceae, 23
Rubus flagellaris, 23, 24
Rudbeckia hirta, 23
Rumex acetosella, 23
R. conglomeratus, 23
Sabatia angularis, 23, 24
Salamander, dusky, 118
mud. 144
Salamandroidea, 118
Salicaceae, 23 .
Salix, 25
S. humilis, 22-25
S. nigra, 22, 23
:
Salmo gairdneri, 6
Salvia lyrata, 23, 24
Saponaria officinalis, 23
Sassafras albidum, 23, 24
_ Sauger, 51
Scaphirhynchus platorynchus,
70
Scaphoideus, 26, 28, 29, 34, 35
S. titanus, 27, 29, 30, 32
SCHMELTZ, L. L., 79
Sciaenidae, 51
Scirpus atrovirens, 23
| Scleria, 22
S. pauciflora, 23, 24
_ Scrophulariaceae, 23
Scud, 117
Sculpin, banded, 51
Scutellaria parvula, 23, 24
Secale cereale, 23
Semotilus atromaculatus, 1, 3-9,
1 50, 53, 118
Seriocarpus asteroides, 23
Setaria lutescens, 23
Shad, gizzard, 49, 121
threadfin, 121
SHEARER, MICHAEL T., 111
Shiner, emerald, 49
golden, 49
popeye, 70
river, 49
rosefin, 49
sand, 49
spotfin, 49
striped, 49
telescope, 71
Shrew, masked, 79
short-tailed, 79
Sialidae, 118
Sialis, 118
Silphium integrifolium, 23
S. perfoliatum, 23
Simulium vittatum, 48
Smilax rotundifolia, 22-25
Solanaceae, 23
INDEX TO VOLUME 38
Solidago juncea, 23
S. missouriensis, 22-24
Sorex cinereus, 79
Sorgastrum nutans, 23, 24
Sowbug, aquatic, 117
Soybeans, 83
Specularia perfoliata, 23
Sphaerium, 13, 48
Spiranthes vernalis, 23
Spring, Russells Chapel, 116
Stenelmis sexlineata, 48
Stenonema, 47
Stizostedion canadense, 8, 51,
53
S. vitreum, 71
Stoneroller, 49, 118
Stream, urban development in-
fluence, 45
Strophostyles umbellata, 22-24
Sturgeon, lake, 69, 70
shovelnose, 70
Sucker, hairlip, 69, 71
northern hog, 50
spotted, 50, 128
white, 50, 128
Sunfish, green, 51
longear, 51
orangespotted, 51
redear, 51
Sylvilagus floridanus, 79
Tabanidae, 118
TANJARUPHAN, PREEYA-
PORN, 38
TATUM, BUFORD, 121
Tendipes, 118
Tephrosia virginiana, 23
Testacida, 117
Testudinidae, 118
Tipula, 118
Tipulidae, 118
Topminnow, blackstripe, 50
Trachelomonas hispida, 117
T. volvacina, 117
Tragopogon dubius, 23
151
Treefrog, barking, 143
Trematoda, 62, 128-130, 132-
133
Trematodes, 1
Trichoptera, 48, 118
Trifolium procumbens, 23
Triganodistomum, 11
Turtle, red-eared, 118
Ulmaceae, 23
Ulmus alata, 23
Urocyon cinereoargenteus, 79
Velia, 118
Veliidae, 118
Verbascum thapsus, 23
Verbenaceae, 23
Verbena simplex, 23
Vernonia missurica, 23, 24
Violaceae, 23
Viola sagittata, 23
Vitaceae, 23
Vitis cinerea, 23-25
Vole, meadow, 79
Vulpes vulpes, 79
Walleye, 71
Warmouth, 51
Water beetle, crawling, 118
Water boatman, 118
Water quality, 111
on forested watershed, 111
Water strider, 118
broad-shouldered, 118
WHITAKER, JOHN O., JR., 79
WHITE, DAVID S., 45
WILLIAMS, JOHN C., 128,
132
WILSON, KENNETH RAY, 98
WITTWER, ROBERT F., 111
Woodchuck, 79, 80
YEARGAN, K. V., 83
Zapus hudsonius, 79
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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 38, NOS. 1-4, 1977
Digenetic trematodes from Kentucky fishes. John V. Aliff —_--------------------------
Preparation of monobromoisoquinolines. Jerry L. Butler, Forrest L. Bayer, and Marshall
Reese) crite Te I eet re ee ce ee
The Big Clifty Prairie, a remnant outlier of the Prairie Peninsula, Grayson County,
RAR INC MLN FIED AS DLs ee eee es
External morphology of adult leafhoppers of the genus Scaphoideus. Douglas E. Barnett
Reactivity of treated and untreated marble in carbon dioxide atmospheres. K. L. Gauri,
Preeyaporn Tanjaruphan, Madiraju Appa Rao, and Thornton Lipscomb ___-------------------
The fishes of Goose Creek, Jefferson County, Kentucky; a stream under the influence of
urban development. David S. White, Frederick C. Hill, and Kim H. Haag
Studies on the passive transfer via serum immunity to Hymenolepis nana in the mouse
MPUPRSEIETEESPALIOES aE SITELLOMGL CLE ON 2) i es ee) LE ee Ee ete a
Pathology in mice resulting from concurrent infestations with the bile duct dwellers
Fasciola hepatica (Trematoda) and Hymenolepis microstoma (Cestoda). Larry N.
ei Arete SUSE SE er wee ce ee Se ee
Threatened fishes of Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky. Branley A. Branson __-.-
Natural bridges of southern Christian County, Kentucky. James X. Corgan and John T.
pee (IDO ca TULA ty re Poe os Ne ein Se lt ett en es
Use of woodchuck burrows by woodchucks and other mammals. L. L. Schmeltz and John
CEP ORELSGO, «Jie Sa Bal tne BES Ta renee) ea ne eee
Seasonal abundance of common phytophagous and predaceous insects in Kentucky
SMe reel, Renew and, Ko Vv. Yeargen.. ee
Seasonal molt in the white-footed mouse Peromyscus leucopus. Barbara A. Lensing —__--
The “lost” Liliaceae of Kentucky: a reevaluation. Edward T. Browne, Jr., and Raymond
at fia EC Ee vie ea ee
A note on the distribution of Chrosomus erythrogaster (Cyprinidae) in Kentucky. Thomas
WeencczeaanceKariy J. Rayburn
A white-flowered form of Iris cristata from Carter County, Kentucky. Arland Hotchkiss
and Kenneth Ray Wilson
Distinguished Scientist Award
ieee Meee OREM UE ST Merten ete A Ve) AT Be Ss ee at
News and Comment
The quality of water received as precipitation on a forested watershed in eastern
Kentucky. Michael T. Shearer, George B. Coltharp, and Robert F. Wittwer
The aquatic fauna of Russells Chapel Spring, Calloway County, Kentucky. Kathy J.
NTEPIPCAI METI GHPEITOMIES! VI OVE TCO ZC | Le SEA) wee i
The occurrence and relative abundance of planktonic fish larvae in Anderson Creek Em-
bayment, Kentucky Lake, Kentucky. Wayne H. Davis and Thomas M. Freeze _..
Comparative age, growth, and condition of channel catfish from Lake Dardanelle, Arkan-
Sieeennomeas IM. Faceze and Buford Tatum ...
Helminth parasites of the spotted sucker and golden redhorse from the Kentucky River.
Mad E Gombs, Join P. Harley, and John C. Williams
Parasites of channel catfish from the Kentucky River, with a comparative note from the
Ohio River. Robert W. Edwards, John P. Harley, and John C. Williams _...
Parasites of the white crappie from Lake Wilgreen, Kentucky. John P. Harley
Gas chromatographic analysis of bromoquinolines. Jerry L. Butler and Marshall Gordon _..
Distribution of the barking treefrog in Kentucky. Burt L. Monroe, Jr. and Raymond W.
Giannini
Articles on Kentucky in the scientific and technical journals of antebellum Tennessee.
James X. Corgan
News and Comment
Index to Volume 38
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CONTENTS
The quality of water received as precipitation on a forested watershed in
eastern Kentucky. Michael T. Shearer, George B. Coltharp, and Robert
FE. Wittwer ne
The aquatic fauna of Russells Chapel Spring, Calloway County, Kentucky.
Kathy J. Rayburn and Thomas M. Freeze ______ |_ = a
The occurrence and relative abundance of planktonic fish larvae in Anderson
Creek Embayment, Kentucky Lake, Kentucky. Wayne H. Davis and
Thomas M. Freeze 1). ee
Comparative age, growth, and condition of channel catfish from Lake
Dardanelle, Arkansas. Thomas M. Freeze and Buford Tatum ___.____
Helminth parasites of the spotted sucker and golden redhorse from the Ken-
tucky River. David L. Combs, John P. Harley, and John C. Williams __
Parasites of channel catfish from the Kentucky River, with a comparative
note from the Ohio River. Robert W. Edwards, John P. Harley, and
John C. Williams __... se ee
Parasites of the white crappie from Lake Wilgreen, Kentucky. John P.
Harley ___ IAM MCR Ue
Gas chromatographic analysis of bromoquinolines. Jerry L. Butler and
Marshall. Gordon
Distribution of the barking treefrog in Kentucky. Burt L. Monroe, Jr. and
Raymond W. Giannini 14
Articles on Kentucky in the scientific and technical journals of antebellum ~
Tennessee. James X. Corgan ___.___ eee
News and Comment ....__. _*. ee 146 ¥
Index to Volume 38 a 47 b
TNS IN SZ
TRANSACTIONS |
y - as tL f- : 4 NM { UY lA y xX
ia : ey ay
-NTUCKY “Sx LiBRARIES
Gotul Publication of the Academy
Volume 39
_Numbers I-2
March 1978
The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914
OFFICERS FOR 1978
President: Charles E. Kupchella, Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louis-
ville 40202
President Elect: Sanford L. Jones, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Past President: Charles Payne, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351
Vice President: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green
42101
Secretary: Thomas N. Seay, Georgetown College, Georgetown 40324
Treasurer: Bartlett G. Dickinson, Georgetown College, Georgetown 40324
Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green 42101
Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A. Branson, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity, Richmond 40475
John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky,
Lexington 40506
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
John G. Spanyer 1978 Gertrude Ridgel 1980
Oliver Zandona 1978 Ivan Potter 1980
Thomas B. Calhoon 1979 Donald C. Haney 1981
Harold Eversmeyer 1979 William F. Wagner 1981
EprroriAL BOARD
Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Office of Academic Affairs, University of Louisville,
Louisville 40208
Associate Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of
Louisville, Louisville 40208
Editorial Board: Dennis E.. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of Louis-
ville, Louisville 40208
John C. Philley, School of Science and Mathematics, Morehead State Uni- —
versity, Morehead 40351 |
William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lex-
ington 40506
All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the
Editor. Authors must be members of the Academy.
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TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 1-11
March 1978
VOLUME 39
NUMBER 1-2
Structure and Composition of a Climax Mixed Mesophytic
Forest System in Laurel County, Kentucky
MARGARET RINGLAND CAMERON III* AND JoE E. WINSTEAD
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
ABSTRACT
Rock Creek Gorge in Laurel County, Kentucky, is a deep, narrow gorge dominated by
Tsuga canadensis, Oxydendrum arboreum, Betula lenta, and Liriodendron tulipifera, with
Rhododendron maximum dominating the understory. Analysis of the forest showed the com-
munity to be stable and climax. The dominant tree species dominated sapling and seedling
size classes. Slight variation was noted between vegetation on east- and west-facing slopes
with hemlock having a lower density on west-facing slopes.
The study site, composed of
76.5 ha, is estimated to support 329 trees/ha with an average basal area of 23.3 m?/ha.
INTRODUCTION
Much information has been gathered on
the forests of the eastern United States in
general, but little information can be found
on the forests of the Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky specifically. Rock Creek in Laurel
County, Kentucky, was designated as a
Natural Area by the U.S. Forest Service in
1939. It became a natural landmark regis-
tered by the U.S. Department of the Interior
in 1975 providing a reference to a small
portion of Kentucky’s original vegetation.
No extensive compositional studies of the
area have been made although Braun (1950)
cited Rock Creek as an example of gorge
vegetation in hemlock mixed mesophytic
forests. In her study, a random sample of
* Present address: Rt. 4, New 96 Highway West,
Franklin, TN 37064.
117 trees was taken to determine the com-
position of the gorge. Winstead and Nicely
(1976) sampled the tree flora using the
random pairs method but did not make any
analysis of size classes of the woody vege-
tation.
The total natural landmark covers ap-
proximately 312 ha (770.64 acres) within
the Daniel Boone National Forest adjacent
to the Rockcastle River. The area of this
study is a deep gorge. Map coordinates
and a sketch of the area are included in
Winstead and Nicely (1976). Discussions
with field workers of the U.S. Forest Service
indicated that logging activities in the Rock
Creek Gorge took place only at the mouth
of the gorge prior to 1938. An absence of
stumps, logging trails, and the physical
features of extremely steep slopes covered
with immense boulders indicates that there
has been very little disturbance by man
2 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
within the boundaries of the area studied
in this report.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We extend appreciation to Drs. Kenneth
A. Nicely and Herbert E. Shadowen for
their help in the preparation of this manu-
script. Special thanks are due Jim Cameron
for help in the field. We are also indebted
to the staff at the District Forest Ranger’s |
Office in London, Kentucky, for their co-
operation, and to the U.S. Forest Service
for access to the study area. This study was
funded, in part, by a Faculty Research
Grant from Western Kentucky University.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Field work for determination of forest
structure and composition was conducted
between May and September 1975. To
provide analysis of trees, saplings, and
seedlings, 3 circular plots were established
at each of 10 different sites within the
gorge. Five sites were placed on either side
TABLE 1.—NuMBER (N)
>
Species N
Tsuga canadensis 87
Oxydendrum arboreum 59
Betula lenta 46
Liriodendron tulipifera 32
Ilex opaca 34
Acer rubrum 28
Magnolia macrophylla 26
Fagus grandifolia 25
Quercus rubra 19
Quercus alba 12
Quercus prinus 10
Nyssa sylvatica 8
Cornus florida 6
Pinus taeda 5
Pinus virginiana 5
Magnolia acuminata 5
Carya glabra 4
Aesculus octrandra 1
Totals 412
of the gorge bisected by Rock Creek. Sites |
RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDO), RELATIVE FREQUENCY |
(RF), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF TREES SAMPLED IN SUM OF CIRCULAR PLOTS (1.25 HA) IN ROCK,
CREEK GorRGE, LAUREL CouNTy, KENTUCKY
were placed approximately 400 m apart in
the upper three-fourths of the gorge so that
all sample points were well away from the
open end of the gorge and any area that }
might have been disturbed by logging }
activity. The concentric circular plots had
diameters of 39.9, 28.22, and 19.95 m that
provided areas of 0.125, 0.062, and 0.031 ha,
respectively. All trees of 10 cm or greater
diameter breast height (dbh) were mea-
sured and recorded in the 0.125-ha plots.
Saplings, designated as woody plant species }
less than 10 cm dbh and greater than 50 cm
in height, were counted and recorded in
the 0.062-ha plots. Seedlings, woody plant }
species less than 50 cm in height, were }
noted and recorded in the 0.031-ha plots.
Due to the denseness of Rhododendron
and Kalmia, 3-m diameter plots were used |
to count the stems above ground. Those
plots and the sapling plots were then pro-
jected to 1 ha and analyzed together. |
Data collected in the above manner pro- }
vided for analysis of total numbers, relative
RD RDo RF IV
0.2106 0.4571 0.1052 0.7729
0.1428 0.0612 0.1052 0.3092
0.1113 0.0908 0.1052 0.3073
0.0774 0.0797 0.0736 0.2307
0.0823 0.0248 0.1052 0.2123
0.0677 0.0493 0.0736 0.1906
0.0629 0.0220 0.0947 0.1796
0.0605 0.0348 0.0736 0.1689 |
0.0460 0.0361 0.0526 0.1347 |
0.0290 0.0396 0.0421 0.1107 |
0.0242 0.0256 0.0315 0.0813
0.0193 0.0155 0.0315 0.0663
0.0145 0.0025 0.0421 0.0591 I
0.0121 0.0256 0.0105 0.0482 if
0.0121 0.0165 0.0105 0.0391
0.0121 0.0060 0.0210 0.0391 iI
0.0096 0.0050 0.0105 0.0251
0.0024 0.0045 0.0105 0.0174
0.9968 0.9966 0.9991 2.9925
Ciimax Mixep Mersopuytic Forest—Cameron and Winstead 8
density, and relative frequency of the vari-
ous species in each size class. Diameter
measurements of trees provided informa-
tion for determination of relative dominance
and basal area values. An importance value
was then calculated for trees by totaling
the values for relative density, relative fre-
quency, and relative dominance. Only rela-
tive density and relative frequency were
calculated for saplings and seedlings. Those
values were summed to find the importance
of the saplings and seedlings in their respec-
tive layers in the gorge.
Soil samples were taken at the center of
each site at depths of 0-5 and 5-10 cm.
Soil texture analysis followed the technique
developed by Bouyocous (1936) using soil
hydrometers. Determinations of pH, nitrate
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium were
made utilizing a standard LaMotte soil test-
ing kit.
RESULTS
In Rock Creek Gorge, 18 tree species
with individuals 10 cm or greater in diam-
eter were present in the 1.25 ha sampled.
Ranked according to importance values
(Table 1), the 4 dominant species were:
Tsuga canadensis, 0.7729; Oxydendrum ar-
boreum, 0.3092; Betula lenta, 0.3073; and
TABLE 3.—NUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD)
TABLE 2.—NUMBERS OF TREES PER HECTARE AND
BASAL AREAS (M’*/HA) FROM SELECTED POSITIONS
WITHIN Rock CREEK GORGE COMPARED WITH THE
EARLIER STUDY OF WINSTEAD AND NICELY (1976)
Location Trees/ha m?/ha
Total gorge 329.6 3.
East-facing slope 300.8 26.7
West-facing slope 358.2 19.9
Four plots closest
to earlier study 368.0 26.4
Earlier study total 672.8 AT.5
Liriodendron tulipifera, 0.2307. Ilex opaca
had a higher number, relative frequency,
and relative density than L. tulipifera, but
a much smaller relative dominance.
A total of 412 trees having a total basal
area of 29.1 m? was recorded in the 1.25-ha
sampling area. On a per hectare basis,
there were 329.6 trees, and the basal area
was 23.3 m? (Table 2). The mean diameter
at breast height of the trees sampled was
24.7 cm.
Twelve species were found on the cooler
and wetter east-facing slope in 5 sites that
totaled 0.625 ha. The 4 most dominant
species were the same as those for the total
gorge. The importance values were: T.
canadensis, 0.9032; O. arboreum, 0.3053; B.
RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDO), RELATIVE FREQUENCY
(RF), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF TREES SAMPLED IN SUM OF CIRCULAR PLOTS (0.625 HA) ON THE
EAST-FACING SLOPE OF ROCK CREEK GORGE, LAUREL COUNTY, KENTUCKY
Species N
Tsuga canadensis 44
Betula lenta 24
Acer rubrum 22
Oxydendrum arboreum 25
Liriodendron tulipifera Fo.
Magnolia macrophylla 19
Ilex opaca 19
Fagus grandifolia
Magnolia acuminata
Quercus alba
Quercus rubra
Cornus florida
Totals 188
RD RDo RF IV
0.2340 0.5473 0.1219 0.9032
0.1276 0.1227 0.1219 0.3722
0.1170 0.0796 0.1219 0.3185
0.1329 0.0505 0.1219 0.3053
0.1170 0.0995 0.0975 0.3140
0.1010 0.0328 0.1219 0.2557
0.1010 0.0211 0.1219 0.2440
0.0372 0.0091 0.0731 0.1194
0.0159 0.0060 0.0243 0.0462
0.0053 0.0259 0.0243 0.0555
0.0053 0.0046 0.0243 0.0342
0.0053 0.0004 0.0243 0.0300
0.9995 0.9995 0.9992 2.9982
4 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE 4.—NUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDO), RELATIVE FREQUENCY
(RF), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF TREES SAMPLED IN THE SUM OF CIRCULAR PLOTS (0.625 HA) ON
THE WEST-FACING SLOPE OF Rock CREEK GorRGE, LAUREL CouNTy, KENTUCKY
Species N
Tsuga canadensis A3
Oxydendrum arboreum 34
Fagus grandifolia 18
Quercus rubra 18
Betula lenta 22.
Ilex opaca Ss
Quercus alba Di
Quercus prinus 10
Liriodendron tulipifera 10
Nyssa sylvatica 8
Magnolia macrophylla i
Pinus taeda
Acer rubrum
Cornus florida
5
6
5
Pinus virginiana o
Carya glabra 4
Magnolia acuminata 2;
i
Aesculus octandra
Totals 224
lenta, 0.3722; and L. tulipifera, 0.3140 (Table
3). There was a total of 188 trees having
an average dbh of 26.04 cm and a basal
area of 16.7 m?; on a per hectare basis, the
trees totaled 300.8, and the basal area was
26.7 m*. The largest trees of the gorge were
T. canadensis, and all were on the east-
facing slope. Those 8 trees ranged in diam-
eter from 77.70 to 95.76 cm.
On the drier, west-facing slope, all 18
tree species were present (Table 4). The
6 species restricted to that slope were
Quercus prinus, Nyssa_ sylvatica, Pinus
tsuga, Pinus virginiana, Carya glabra, and
Aesculus octandra. Of the 4 dominant
species, Tsuga canadensis and Oxydendrum
arboreum still ranked first with importance
values of 0.6141 and 0.3509, respectively,
and were followed by Fagus grandifolia,
0.2362, and Quercus rubra, 0.2334. Betula
lenta had a higher relative density than
either, but its importance value was only
0.2326. There was a greater number of
trees as well as species than on the east-
facing slope. The west-facing slope had
RD RDo RF TV
Rh
0.1911 0.3361 0.0869 0.6141 4x
0.1511 0.1129 0.0869 0.3509 = fl
0.0800 0.0693 0.0869 0.2362 I
0.0800 0.0839 0.0695 0.2334 fill
0.0977 0.0480 0.0869 0.2326 = fi
. 0.0666 0.0297 0.0869 0.1832 i
0.0488 0.0581 0.0521 0.1590 fx
0.0444 0.0600 0.0521 0.1565 (ii
0.0444 0.0531 0.0521 0.1496 Hii
0.0355 0.0363 0.0521 0.1239 8
0.0311 0.0075 0.0695 0.1081 (
0.0222 0.0603 0.0173 0.0998 —s I
0.0260 0.0088 0.0521 0.0869 H
0.0222 0.0052 0.0521 0.0795 fy
0.0222 0.0388 0.0173 0.0783 fi
0.0177 0.0117 0.0173 0.0467 =,
0.0088 0.0060 0.0173 0.032% i,
0.0044. 0.0107 0.0173 0.0324 0
0.9942 1.0364 0.9726 3.0032 f
224 trees, but the average dbh was only
22.66 cm and the basal area was 12.4 m?_
for the 0.625 ha, or a basal area of 19.9 m4 |
and 308.24 fees /ha. |
Although not sampled within any of uel |
test plots, 2 additional species, a single large
specimen of Liquidambar styraciflua and |
3 individuals of Cercis canadensis, were
seen during the field work.
Saplings and shrubs were sampled over
a total area of 0.625 ha for themlO=sites™
Sixteen species of trees and 4 species of
shrubs were found. All species were ranked
according to relative density (RD) plus
relative frequency (RF) (Table 5). Tsuga
canadensis (0.1112), I. opaca (0.0882), and
F. grandifolia (0.0882) were the most im-_
portant trees. Rhododendron maximum was ©
the most important shrub as well as the
most important woody plant of the under-—
story with a RD + RF value of 0.9432.
Kalmia latifolia also had a value higher than |
any sapling, but was found only on the
drier, west-facing slope. A few Castanea
dentata were found, all infected with the
i
>
’
)
Ciimax Mixep Mersopuytic Forest—Cameron and Winstead
TABLE 5.—NuUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD)
SHRUB SPECIES PER HECTARE IN ROCK CREEK GORGE, LAUREL COUNTY, KENTUCKY
Species
Rhododendron maximum
Kalmia latifolia
Tsuga canadensis
Magnolia macrophylla
Ilex opaca
Fagus grandifolia
Oxydendrum arboreum
Acer rubrum
Betula lenta
Liriodendron tulipifera
Cornus florida
Clethra acuminata
Stewartia ovata
Hamamelis virginiana
Nyssa sylvatica
Quercus alba
Quercus rubra
Quercus prinus
Carya glabra
Castanea dentata
chestnut blight, and none were over 1 m
high. Stewartia ovata, a small tree in the
understory, was also found in the gorge.
The remaining tree species were all found
Totals
1T denotes a value of less than 0.0001.
N
184,000
30,000
312
56
74
72
95
112
42
27
21
67
37
19
www Dd © ©
215,924
>
AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF) OF SAPLING AND
RF
0.0879
0.0329
0.1098
0.0549
0.0879
0.0879
0.0769
0.0659
0.0549
0.0549
0.0549
0.0439
0.0329
0.0329
0.0329
0.0219
0.0219
0.0219
0.0111
0.0111
0.9993
RD + RF
0.9432
0.1723
0.1112
0.0551
0.0882
0.0882
0.0773
0.0664
0.0551
0.0550
0.0550
0.0442
0.0330
0.0329
0.0329
0.0219
0.0219
0.0219
0.0111
0.0111
19979
in the canopy and subcanopy. The 2 species
of Pinus and A. octandra, found in the tree
size class, were not found in the saplings.
Clethra acuminata and Hamamelis virgin-
TABLE 6.—NUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF) OF SAPLING AND SHRUB
SPECIES PER HECTARE ON THE EAST-FACING SLOPE OF ROCK CREEK GORGE, LAUREL CouNTYy, KENTUCKY
Species
Rhododendron maximum
Tsuga canadensis
Ilex opaca
Magnolia macrophylla
Fagus grandifolia
Clethra acuminata
Oxydendrum arboreum
Betula lenta
Acer rubrum
Cornus florida
Liriodendron tulipifera
Stewartia ovata
Totals
1T denotes a value of less than 0.0001.
N
127,574
160
7H
80
48
131
105
67
45
19
13
10
128,333
RD
0.9940
0.0012
0.0006
0.0006
0.0003
0.0010
0.0008
0.0005
0.0003
0.0001
0.0001
TBS
0.9995
RD + RF
1.1159
0.1231
0.1225
0.0982
0.0979
0.0742
0.0740
0.0737
0.0735
0.0490
0.0490
0.0244
1.9754
6 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE 7.—NUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF) OF SAPLING AND SHRUB
SPECIES PER HECTARE ON THE WEST-FACING SLOPE OF ROCK CREEK GORGE, LAUREL County, KENTUCKY
Species N
Rhododendron maximum 57,000
Kalmia latifolia 30,000
Tsuga canadensis A67
Fagus grandifolia 96
Oxydendrum arboreum 83
Acer rubrum 179
Ilex opaca 70
Liriodendron tulipifera 42
Hamamelis virginiana 38
Magnolia macrophylla 32
Cornus florida 22,
Nyssa sylvatica 16
Quercus rubra 13
Quercus prinus 6
Quercus alba 16
Betula lenta 16
Carya glabra 6
Clethra acuminata 3
Castanea dentata 3
Totals 88,108
RD RF RD + RF
0.6465 0.0588 0.7053
0.3403 0.0588 0.3991
0.0053 0.0980 0.1033
0.0011 0.0784 0.0795
0.0009 0.0784 0.0793
0.0020 0.0588 0.0608
0.0008 0.0588 0.0596
0.0005 0.0588 0.0593
0.0004 0.0588 0.0592
0.0004 0.0588 0.0592
0.0003 0.0588 0.0591
0.0002 0.0588 0.0590
0.0001 0.0392 0.0393
sli 0.0392 0.0392
a 0.0222 0.0222
él 0.0196 0.0196
I 0.0196 0.0196
- 0.0196 0.0196
al 0.0196 0.0196
0.9988 0.9630 1.9618
1 T denotes a value of less than 0.0001.
iana were the other shrubs found in the
gorge.
On the east-facing slope, the most im-
portant saplings and shrubs and their RD
+ RF values were R. maximum, 1.1159; T.
canadensis, 0.1231; I. opaca, 0.1225; and
M. macrophyll, 0.0982 (Table 6). On the
west-facing slope, the 4 major saplings and
shrubs and their RD + RF values were
R. maximum, 0.7053; K. latifolia, 0.3391; T.
canadensis, 0.1033; and F. grandifolia,
0.0794 (Table 7). Oxydendrum arboreum
was also an important species with a value
of 0.0793.
According to RD+RF values, the im-
portant seedlings in the gorge are T. cana-
densis, 0.3304; Magnolia spp., 0.3152; Acer
rubrum, 0.2584; and R. maximum, 0.1911
(Table 8). On the east-facing slope, the
predominant seedlings are Magnolia spp.,
0.4395; T. canadensis, 0.3335; A. rubrum,
0.3022; and I. opaca, 0.2439 (Table 9); and
on the west-facing slope are T. canadensis,
0.3291; Magnolia spp., 0.2306; A. rubrum,
0.2289; and R. maximum, 0.1588 (Table 10).
Kalmia latifolia, 0.1542, also has a high}
importance. |
No major differences could be found in
the texture of the soil samples between the }
east- and west-facing slopes. Also, little
differences were noted between 0-cm and
5-cm samples. The soil texture tests showed
the soil to contain an average of 63.11 per-}
cent sand. The average percentage of sil
was 17.51 and clay was 13.72.
The pH levels ranged from 3.8 to 44)
and statistical analysis indicated a highly}
significant difference (.001 level) between }
the 3.8 pH of the east-facing slope and the
4.2 of the west-facing slope.
Phosphorus was high in all 16 samples}
ranging from 168 to 224 kg/ha. Potassium
was generally low. The LaMotte soil test
measures potassium only for levels of 112
kg/ha or greater. In all but 2 samples the
potassium levels were below that limit. Ath
1 site, the level reached 112 kg/ha in the}
5-cm sample. The only difference noted at :
CLimAx MIxep MEsopHytic Forest—Cameron and Winstead
7
TABLE 8.—NuMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF) OF SEEDLINGS SAMPLED
IN THE SUM OF CIRCULAR PLOTS (0.312 HA) IN RocK CREEK GorRGE, LAUREL CouNTy, KENTUCKY
Species
Tsuga canadensis
Magnolia spp.
Acer rubrum
Rhododendron maximum
Ilex opaca
Fagus grandifolia
Quercus rubrum
Hamamelis virginiana
Kalmia latifolia
Oxydendrum arboreum
Clethra acuminata
Nyssa sylvatica
Stewartia ovata
Liriodendron tulipifera
Betula lenta
_ Quercus prinus
Sassafras albidum
Totals
N
59
59
43
13
eBPnwNnNwWN AIO OW Dd
_ that site from the others was the presence of
_P. taeda, P. virginiana, A. octandra, and C.
glabra. In the 0-cm sample of another site,
the potassium level measured 173 kg/ha.
No species difference occurred at this site.
_ Nitrogen levels were less than 11.2 kg/ha
except at 2 sites where the levels were
between 11.2 and 22.4 kg/ha.
RD
0.2092
0.2092
0.1524
0.0851
0.0567
0.0567
0.0248
0.0354
0.0460
0.0212
0.0177
0.0319
0.0248
0.0071
0.0106
0.0071
0.0035
0.9994
RF
0.1212
0.1060
0.1060
0.1060
0.1212
0.0454
0.0757
0.0606
0.0454
0.0454
0.0454
0.0303
0.0303
0.0303
0.0151
0.0151
0.0151
1.0145
DISCUSSION
nD RE
0.3304
0.3152
0.2584
0.1911
0.1779
0.1021
0.1005
0.0960
0.0914
0.0666
0.0631
0.0622
0.0551
0.0374
0.0257
0.0222
0.0186
2.0139
Upon analysis of the data, the forest
community was shown to be a stable
system. When the 10 most important spe-
cies of each size class are compared, the
data show the forest to be replenishing itself
with the same species (Table 11). Eight
TABLE 9.—NuUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF) OF SEEDLINGS SAMPLED
Species
— Magnolia spp.
_ Tsuga canadensis
— Acer rubrum
Ilex opaca
Rhododendron maximum
Fagus grandifolia
Quercus rubra
— Clethra acuminata
_ Stewartia ovata
— Hamamelis virginiana
Totals
IN THE SUM OF CIRCULAR PLOTS (0.156 HA) ON THE EAST-FACING SLOPE IN RocK CREEK GorGE, LAUREL
County, KENTUCKY
RD RF RD + RF
0.2656 0.1739 0.4395
0.2031 0.1304 0.3335
0.1718 0.1304 0.3022
0.0700 0.1739 0.2439
0.1093 0.1304 0.2397
0.0156 0.0869 0.1025
0.0390 0.0434 0.0824
0.0390 0.0434 0.0824
0.0312 0.0434 0.0746
0.0312 0.0434 0.0746
0.9758 0.9995 1.9753
8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE 10.—NuMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF) OF SEEDLINGS SAMPLED
IN THE SUM OF CIRCULAR PLOTS (0.156 HA) ON THE WEST-FACING SLOPE IN Rock CREEK GorGE, LAUREL
County, KENTUCKY
Species N
Tsuga canadensis 33
Magnolia spp. 25
Acer rubrum 21
Rhododendron maximum 10
Kalmia latifolia LS
Ilex opaca 7
Fagus grandifolia 14
Oxydendrum arboreum 6
Hamamelis virginiana 6
Nyssa sylvatica 9
Stewartia ovata 3
Liriodendron tulipifera 2
Betula lenta 3
Quercus rubrum 2,
Quercus prinus 2
Sassafras albidum 1
Totals 157
of the first 10 saplings are also among the
first 10 trees in importance value, although
the order differs. The 2 species that are
different in the sapling class are Cornus
florida and Stewartia ovata, usually small
trees confined to the subcanopy and under-
story levels, although C. florida was found
in the tree class within the gorge. In the
seedling class, 8 of the first 10 species were
TABLE 11.—ORDERS OF IMPORTANCE OF TREES’, SAPLINGS’, AND SEEDLINGS® OF THE 10 MAJOR TREE SPECIES |
WITHIN Rock CREEK GorcE, LauREL County, KENTUCKY
Trees Saplings
Tsuga canadensis
Oxydendrum arboreum
Betula lenta Ilex opaca
Ilex opaca
Liriodendron tulipifera
Acer rubrum
Betula lenta
Acer rubrum
Magnolia macrophylla
Tsuga canadensis
Magnolia macrophylla
Fagus grandifolia
Oxydendrum arboreum
RD RF RD + RF
0.2101 0.1190 0.3291
0.1592 0.0714 0.2306
0.1337 0.0952 0.2289
0.0636 0.0952 0.1588
0.0828 0.0714 0.1542
0.0445 0.0952 0.1397
0.0891 0.0238 0.1129
0.0382 0.0714 0.1096
0.0382 0.0714 0.1096
0.0573 0.0476 0.1049
0.0191 0.0476 0.0067
0.0127 0.0476 0.0603
0.0191 0.0238 0.0429
0.0127 0.0238 0.0365
0.0127 0.0238 0.0365
0.0063 0.0238 0.0301.
0.9993 0.9520 1.9513
again the same as the trees although the
order was not the same. The presence of —
Stewartia ovata in the seedlings makes 9
out of 10 seedlings and saplings the same.
In all size classes, Tsuga was the most
important tree.
Coniferous trees usually are found in a
more acid soil than hardwood species, par-
tially because conifers can tolerate more
Seedlings
Tsuga canadensis
Magnolia spp.
Acer rubrum
Fagus grandifolia
Quercus rubra
Ilex opaca
Oxydendrum arboreum
Fagus grandifolia
Quercus rubra
Quercus alba
Liriodendron tulipifera
Cornus florida
Stewartia ovata
? Trees with diameter of 10 cm dbh or greater.
* Saplings having a diameter of less than 10 cm dbh and a height of 50 cm or greater.
* Seedlings—woody tree and shrub species having a height less than 50 cm.
Nyssa sylvatica
Stewartia ovata
Betula lenta
Ciimax MrIxep Mersopyuytic Forest—Cameron and Winstead
TABLE 12.—TREE SPECIES REPORTED IN 3 STUDIES OF THE ROCK CREEK GorGE, LAUREL COUNTY, KENTUCKY
Present study
412 trees
Tsuga canadensis
Oxydendrum arboreum
Betula lenta
Liriodendron tulipifera
Ilex opaca
Acer rubrum
Magnolia macrophylla
Fagus grandifolia
Quercus rubra
Quercus alba
Quercus prinus*
Nyssa sylvatica
Braun (1950)
117 trees
Tsuga canadensis
Fagus grandifolia
Liriodendron tulipifera
Acer rubrum
Quercus rubra
Betula lenta
Ilex opaca
Castanea dentata
Nyssa sylvatica
Quercus montana‘
Oxydendrum arboreum
Magnolia macrophylla
Winstead and Nicely (1976)
100 trees
Tsuga canadensis
Liriodendron tulipifera
Betula lenta
Acer rubrum
Quercus rubra
Ilex opaca
Nyssa sylvatica
Prunus serotina
Fagus grandifolia
Quercus alba
Magnolia macrophylla
Carpinus caroliniana
Cornus florida
Pinus taeda
Pinus virginiana
_Carya ovata
Aesculus octandra
Magnolia acuminata
J
1 Same species according to Radford et al. (1968).
acid soils and partially because of their
presence. In sandy soils, such as that in
the gorge, cations are easily leached and
replaced by hydrogen ions. Also, plant
litter from certain species, especially those
of Pinaceae, yield acidic material when they
decompose (Daubenmire 1959). In the soil
of the gorge, there was a highly significant
difference between the pH of the east-
facing and west-facing slopes. The pH was
lowest on the east-facing slope (3.8), and
the only conifer present (Tsuga canadensis)
had the highest relative dominance (0.5473).
On the west-facing slope, the pH was 4.4,
and 3 species of conifers collectively had a
relative dominance of 0.4352, while the
hardwoods had a relative dominance of
0.5639.
Other studies involving Rock Creek
Gorge were done with different techniques
and smaller samples. In the study by Braun
(1950), 117 trees were randomly sampled
and recorded. Winstead and Nicely (1976)
used 2 750-m transect lines to sample 100
trees using a random pairs method. The 3
studies show a difference in the data col-
lected (Table 12). In a comparison of
Cornus florida
number of species, Braun found 12, 11 of
which were the same as in the present
study. The other single species reported by
Braun, but absent in the present analysis,
was Castanea dentata which has been elim-
inated by chestnut blight. Dead, fallen
chestnut trees still remain in the gorge.
Winstead and Nicely (1976) found 13
species of trees within the gorge. Eleven
of those species were found in the present
study; Prunus serotina and Carpinus caro-
liniana were not found.
Basal areas of the present study were
compared with those reported by Winstead
and Nicely (1976) (Table 2). The 2 tech-
niques gave different results. An analysis
of the 4 plots nearest the earlier study
showed 368 trees/ha with a basal area of
26.4 m?. Those figures are higher than for
the total gorge (329.6 trees with 23.3 m?/ha
basal area). The numbers are less than
those in the preliminary study that had
672.3 trees/ha with a basal area of 47.5 m°.
The data show a pattern of decreasing
numbers with increasing size of the area
sampled.
The basal area data from Rock Creek
10 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
Gorge do not match the predicted value of
30 m*/ha as proposed by Held and Win-
stead (1975) being an indication of climax
status in mesic forest systems. Their pro-
posal was developed by comparing basal
area data from various studies of forests
primarily in Kentucky and Indiana. Those
forest ecosystems were not confined to such
a narrow gorge as Rock Creek; thus, the
physiography of the area might be limiting
in some way to tree growth.
Braun (1950) found that the pattern
of vegetation in Rock Creek Gorge with
hemlock dominant accompanied by dense
thickets of Rhododendron was typical of
the narrowest gorges of the Cumberland
Plateau. She also noted the greater impor-
tance of oak on the drier slopes. In Rock
Creek, the importance value of the sum of
the 3 species of oak on the west-facing
slope was 0.5489, just below that of hem-
lock (0.6141). On the other slope, only 1
species of oak was present having a value
of 0.0535, while that of hemlock was 0.9104.
Lilley Cornett Woods in Letcher County
is a virgin area in southeastern Kentucky
on the Cumberland Plateau (Martin 1975).
The area contains several hemlock com-
munities on lower northeastern and _ north-
western slopes. Tsuga canadensis accounted
for 60 percent of the importance value and
Fagus grandfolia was the only other im-
portant constituent. The northwestern slope
had smaller trees with the highest density
of 478 stems/ha; the northeastern slope had
321 stems/ha. The pattern is the same as
that in Rock Creek Gorge. Also, as in
Rock Creek, oak became a more important
constituent on the northwestern slope. A
greater number of tree species was present
on the northwestern slope of Lilley Cornett
Woods than in Rock Creek Gorge. Fifteen
species were found on the northeastern
slope and 18 on the northwestern slope
compared with 12 on the eastern slope and
18 on the western slope in Rock Creek.
Basal areas were higher in the woods than
the gorge. Martin (1975) reported basal
areas of 42.4 m*/ha on the northeastern
slope and 22.4 m?/ha on the northwestern
slope of Lilley Cornett Woods compared
with 26.7 m?/ha on the eastern and 19.9}
m?/ha on the western in the gorge. That}
difference may be due to differences in}
methods. Martin used 12.4 cm dbh as the}
smallest tree size instead of the 10 cm dbh}
limit used in Rock Creek. In spite of that.
difference, the pattern is still the same. The}
greatest basal area is on the eastern slopes.
In Lilley Cornett Woods, beech was a
more important constituent of the forest
composition than in Rock Creek Gorge.
Braun (1950) found the same to be true of
wider gorges where beech occupied the
valley floor. The pattern was present at
Yahoo Falls in McCreary County, Kentucky, }
although that area is not covered by a virgin
forest (Braun 1950).
No other virgin hemlock—-mixed meso-
phytic forests have been studied in Ken-
tucky. Areas of secondary growth with the
same hemlock—mixed mesophytic forest are
present in Red River Gorge, but to our}
knowledge no compositional studies have
been done there. In 1973, Herman and See
reported on secondary succession after a
fire in the hemlock—mixed mesophytic forest
of “Tight Holler” in Wolfe County. After
47 years, tulip poplar was dominant, and
hemlock was present only in the shrubj
layer. |
Rock Creek Gorge is a good site for more§
specific ecological studies of virgin vege-
tation. Also, the rim of the gorge is second-
ary growth with 1 plot that was clearcut in
1965 by the U.S. Forest Service. The plot}
has since been abandoned and is a possible
site of the study of successional patterns of
that area.
The present study gives a more complete
picture of vegetational structure and com-
munity composition than would be expected
to develop within similar gorge habitats in
the Cumberland Plateau of Kentucky. Such
information may be of considerable value
in future plans of wilderness management
and development of potential recreational
sites. Another point of significance is that
such a protected area as Rock Creek, once
inventoried, provides a potential pool ol
genetic stock representing species that now
or in the future might have great economic
value in reforestation, timber production,
and wildlife management. It is also hoped
the data presented here may provide base-
line information for comparison with other
climax forest systems within the central and
eastern United States in relation to stability
of forest ecosystems and species diversity.
LITERATURE CITED
Braun, E. L. 1950. Deciduous Forests of East-
ern North America. Hafner Publishing Co.,
New York, N.Y. 596 pp.
Bovyoucos, G. J. 1936. Directions for making
mechanical analysis of soils by the hydrometer
method. Soil Science 42:225-229.
DauBENMIRE, R. F. 1969. Plants and Environ-
Cruimax Mixep MEsopHytic Forest—Cameron and Winstead ie
ment. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
N.Y. 422 pp.
HeE.p, M. E., AND J. E. WinstEAp. 1975. Basal
area and climax status in mesic forest systems.
Ann. Bot. 39:1147-1148.
HERMAN, T., AND M. G. SEE. 1973. Secondary
succession following fire in “Tight Holler,”
Kentucky. Castanea 38:275-285.
Martin, W.H. 1975. The Lilley Cornett Woods:
A stable mixed mesophytic forest in Kentucky.
Bot. Gaz. 136:171-183.
RADFORD, A. E., H. E. AHLES, AND C. R. BELL.
1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the
Carolinas. Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel
Hill, N.C. 1183 pp.
WInsTEaD, J. E., anp K. A. Nicety. 1976. A
preliminary study of a virgin forest tract of
the Cumberland Plateau in Laurel County,
Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 37(1-2):
29-32.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 12—22
Vegetation of the Boone County Cliffs Nature Preserve,
a Forest on a Kansan Outwash Deposit in Northern Kentucky
WILLIAM S. BRYANT
Department of Biology, Thomas More College,
Ft. Mitchell, Kentucky 41017
ABSTRACT
Four distinct local communities were recognized and related to aspect and disturbance at
the 20.24-hectare Boone County Cliffs Nature Preserve on Kansan outwash deposits in northern
The dominant tree species in each community were:
muhlenbergii, Q. rubra, and Ulmus rubra in the maple—oak—elm community; Ulmus rubra, Acer
saccharum, Fraxinus americana, Quercus muhlenbergii, Q. rubra, and Robinia pseudo-acacia in
the elm—maple-locust community; Acer saccharum, Tilia americana, Fagus grandifolia, and
Fraxinus americana in the maple—basswood—beech community; and Acer saccharum, Fagus
grandifolia, Fraxinus americana, Quercus rubra, and Q. alba in the maple—beech—oak community.
The vegetation of the forest differs greatly from the hydromesophytic forests of the Illinoian till
plain, but compares somewhat to the slope and ravine forests on other Illinoian deposits.
Kentucky.
INTRODUCTION
Several authors have reported on the
vegetation of the glaciated tristate area of
northern Kentucky (Nelson 1918, Braun
1950, Keith 1968, Held and Winstead 1976),
southwestern Ohio (Braun 1916, 1917, 1936,
1950; Cobbe 1943), and southeastern In-
diana (Gordon 1936, Chapman 1942, Keller
1946, Beals and Cope 1964). All those
studies concerned vegetation on Illinoian
till except that of Keith (1968) who did not
differentiate between the various Pleisto-
cene drift deposits. No reports are available
for the areas of Kansan outwash recently
identified in northern Kentucky (Ray 1966,
1974) that filled ancient and abandoned
tributaries to the Ohio River.
In this paper, the vegetation on Kansan
outwash at the Boone County Cliffs Nature
Preserve is compared with that of areas of
Illinoian till. The Preserve, purchased by
the Kentucky Chapter of The Nature Con-
servancy, is known locally as the Cliffs or
Enchanted Valley. Sutton (1877, 1879)
referred to the area as the Middle Creek
Conglomerate.
THE Strupy AREA
The 20.24-ha Boone County Cliffs Nature
Preserve lies off Middle Creek Road ap-
12
Acer saccharum, Quercus
proximately 14.2 km west of Burlington, in — |
western Boone County, Kentucky.
old growth forest predominates the Pre-
serve, some logging occurred about 60 years"
ago aed some trees were selectively cut just
prior to acquisition by The Nature Con-
servancy (however, my data were collected.
prior to that most recent logging).
Elevations in the Preserve range from 198. |
to 259 m above mean sea level. Large
conglomerate cliffs and boulders outcrop on
the slopes (Fig. 1). Ray (1974) stated that }
the Middle Creek conglomerate is com-
posed of cemented sand, gravels, and cob- }
bles of limestone and a few crystalline rocks }
and quartzite. The area that includes the
conglomerate is now deeply eroded, espe- |
cially by Middle Creek, to narrow valleys
with rugged precipitous walls 18.3 m or}
more high. Soils are Jessup silt loam and}
Cynthiana flaggy clay loam (Weisenberger.
et al. 1973) and are derived from weather-
ing of the conglomerate and colluvial action.
Wet areas resulting from the seepage of |
water from the interior of the conglomerate }
rock are abundant and present throughout
the year. A springfed stream passes through
the ravine that separates the north- and
south-facing slopes.
The climate is temperate and humid. The
average temperature is 12.2 C and the aver-f}
; Fic. IF.
_ serve, Boone County, Kentucky.
age annual rainfall is 101.6 cm (Weisen-
berger et al. 1973).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I extend appreciation to Mr. John S.
Garton who aided in the preparation of
this manuscript, to Mr. Michael E. Held of
Ohio University for furnishing information
on soil texture, and to former students in
my classes at Thomas More College who
helped with collection of data.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Vegetation was sampled from March 1972
to October 1976. Trees were sampled in
0.04-ha circular plots, saplings in 0.0l-ha
circular plots, and seedlings in 0.004-ha
circular plots. Shrubs were sampled in the
latter 2 sized plots.
Woody plants with diameters breast
height (dbh) of 8.9 cm (3.5 inches) or
greater were classed as trees. Seedlings and
,
VEGETATION ON KANSAN OutwasH—Bryant 13
saplings were placed in appropriate size
classes determined with a sampling tem-
plate. Seedlings in Class 1 were woody
plants from 15.2 cm to 1.37 m high (6
inches-4.5 feet); those in Class 2 were over
1.37 m high with diameters at ground level
less than 1.27 cm (0.5 inch). All sapling
size classes were 1.37 m or more in height.
Saplings in Class 3 were from 1.27 to 3.81
cm (0.5-1.5 inches) in diameter; Class 4
were from 3.81 to 6.35 cm (1.5-2.5 inches)
in diameter; and Class 5 were from 6.35 to
8.9 cm (2.5-3.5 inches ) in diameter. A total
of 29 plots for each vegetational category
was sampled. Plots were spaced at 33-m in-
tervals along straight-line transects through
the communities sampled.
The relative frequency (RF), relative
density (RD), relative dominance (RDo),
and importance value (IV) for each tree
species were determined. Numbers of seed-
lings, saplings, and shrubs per hectare were
determined.
14 TraANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE 1—THE NUMBER (N), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE
(RDo), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF ALL TREE SPECIES AT THE BOONE County CLirFs NATURE PRE-
SERVE, BOONE County, KENTUCKY
N RF RD RDo IV
Acer saccharum 216 ty fe 40.91 20.83 79.05
Ulmus rubra 72 8.33 13.64 11.84 33.81
Fraxinus americana 43 11.54 8.14 10.01 29.69
Fagus grandifolia 14 D1 2.65 12.23 20.65
Quercus rubra aA 7.69 4.17 8.11 19.97
Quercus muhlenbergii 33 3.85 6.25 7.26 17.36
Tilia americana 16 3.85 3.03 bl 14.39
Celtis occidentalis 16 4.49 3.03 2.36 9.88
Robinia pseudo-acacia 12, 3.85 DAL 3.41 9.53
Liriodendron tulipifera 9 5 Fe 1.70 2.49 9.32
Carya cordiformis 8 3.85 1.52 3.73 9.10
Juglans nigra 9 Seal | 1.70 1.98 6.89
Quercus alba 6 1.92 1.14 2.82 5.88
Ulmus americana 6 2.56 1.14 212 5.82
Cercis canadensis 12 2.56 Zt 0.47 5.30
Carpinus caroliniana rf 3.21 hs 0.27 4.81
Carya ovata ‘4 2.56 35 0.37 4.26
Fraxinus quadrangulata i 1.92 Eos 0.64 3.89
Ostrya virginiana 5 1.92 0.95 0.19 3.06
Aesculus glabra 2 1.28 0.38 0.14 1.80
Platanus occidentalis if 0.65 0.19 0.73 1.56
Gymnocladus dioicus 2 0.64 0.38 0.30 32,
Carya glabra 1 0.64 0.19 0.08 0.91
Acer negundo 1 0.64 0.19 0.07 0.90
Cornus florida 1 0.64 0.19 0.03 0.86
Totals 528 100.00 100.02 99.99 300.01
Because of local differences in habitat,
such as aspect and disturbance, the forest
was divided into 4 sampling areas: south-
and disturbances. The 4 community types |
were: maple—-oak-elm on the south-facing
slope, elm—maple-locust on the ridge atop
facing slope, ridge atop the south-facing
slope, north-facing slope, and ridge atop
the north-facing slope. No quantitative
determinations of herbs were made, how-
ever, notes on the herbaceous composition
were taken. Soil samples were taken from
20 sites and the soil texture was determined
with a hydrometer.
Nomenclature for all plant species follows
Mohlenbrock and Voigt (1959).
ANALYSIS OF COMMUNITIES
Distinct local communities were recog-
nized and probably were related to aspects
the south-facing slope, maple-basswood-—
beech on the north-facing slope, and maple-—
beech-oak on the ridge atop the north-
facing slope. In addition to the major com-
munity types, a small stand of Liriodendron
tulipifera was present in the ravine between
the slopes. A list of the kinds of trees in
the entire Preserve is presented in Table 1,
and the average basal area values for the
dominant tree species in each community
are listed in Table 2. :
Average values for soil samples at 20 7
locations throughout the Preserve were: |
sand (40.37%), clay (23.21%), and silt
(36.42% ). Local differences regarding soil
VEGETATION ON KANSAN OutwasH—Bryant
15
TABLE 2.—AVERAGE BASAL AREA (CM”*) FOR INDIVIDUAL TREES OF 8 SPECIES IN THE 4 COMMUNITIES AT
THE BOONE County CLirFs NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE CouNTy, KENTUCKY
South-facing
slope
Acer saccharum 270.84
Quercus rubra 1,549.87
Fraxinus americana 1,006.33
Ulmus rubra Sale|
Quercus muhlenbergii 848.95
Robinia pseudo-acacia 476.53
Tilia americana
Fagus grandifolia
textures probably were not great enough to
modify plant distributions.
Maple-Oak-Elm Community
The south-facing slope was the driest
habitat in the Preserve due to its exposure.
The upper half of the slope was decidedly
xeric. Acer saccharum (IV 61.42) was the
bo
most prominent tree, although being most
abundant on the lower portions of the slope
North-facing
South ridge slope North ridge
197.18 229.43 472.72
421.44 902.94 1,653.01
553.86 856.95 687.70
540.06 1,259.10
365.07
994.98
1,642.11 497.10
oll ae 2,389.85
(Table 3). Oaks, Quercus muhlenbergii
(IV 43.82) and Q. rubra (IV 28.30), ranked
second and third, respectively, while Q.
alba (IV 5.16) ranked thirteenth. Com-
bined, the oaks had an importance value
of 77.28. Other important associated trees
included Ulmus rubra, Juglans nigra, Fraxi-
nus americana, and Celtis occidentalis.
Fraxinus quadrangulata was confined to the
upper slope, especially rooted in the large
_ TasLe 3.—THE NUMBER (N), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE
(RDo), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF ALL TREE SPECIES ON THE SOUTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE
County Ciirrs NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE County, KENTUCKY
Species N RF RD RDo
Acer saccharum Sy 13.46 32.90 15.60
Quercus muhlenbergii 23 7.69 14.84 21.29
Quercus rubra 8 9.62 5.16 13252
Ulmus rubra 18 7.69 LEG] 6.30
Juglans nigra 9 9.62 D.oL 6.89
Fraxinus americana 8 7.69 5.16 8.78
Celtis occidentalis 10 5.79 6.45 5.80
Liriodendron tulipifera 6 9.62 3.87 2.82
Ulmus americana 5 et S20 4.71
Carya cordiformis 2 3.85 1.29 6.83
Cercis canadensis ‘i 3.50 4,52 LOK
Robinia pseudo-acacia 2 3.85 1.29 1.04
Quercus alba 1 1.92 0.65 2.59
Platanus occidentalis 1 1.92 0.65 230
Acer negundo 1 1.92 0.65 0.24
Fraxinus quadrangulata 1 1.92 0.65 0.17
Carpinus caroliniana 1 1.92 0.65 0.09
Aesculus glabra ih 1.92 0.65 0.07
Totals 155 100.00 100.03 100.02
IV
61.42
43.82
28.30
25.60
22.32
21.63
18.02
16.31
13.71
11.97
9.64
6.18
5.16
5.12
2.81
2.74
2.66
2.64
300.05
16 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE 4.—SEEDLINGS (SrzE CLAssEs 1, 2) AND SAPLINGS (SIzE CLAssEs 3, 4, 5) PER HECTARE OF ALL
SHRUB AND TREE SPECIES ON THE SOUTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE County CLirrs NATURE PRESERVE, |
BooNE County, KENTUCKY
Size class
1 2 3 4 5
Shrubs
Staphylea trifolia 164.65 136.21 21.93
Lindera benzoin 3,265.88 So 101oF 406.17 186.61
Asimina triloba 1,180.09 741.00 43.89
Seedlings—saplings
Acer saccharum 686.09 ai Serer 164.67 32.93 10.97
Quercus rubra 82.33 54.88 43.89 43.89
Fraxinus americana 1S7-20 65.87 10.97
Cercis canadensis 439.09 164.67 186.61 43.89
Ostrya virginiana 439.09 54.88 10.97
Carya cordiformis 137.21
Carpinus caroliniana 27.44 21.93 10.97
Acer negundo 109.77 54.88
Fraxinus quadrangulata 219.53 IByAnAl 32.93
Prunus serotina 164.65 27.44 21.93
Fagus grandifolia 27.44 10.97
Platanus occidentalis 27.44
Liriodendron tulipifera 164.65 10.97
Ulmus rubra 301.88 109.77
Celtis occidentalis 82.33 27.44
Aesculus glabra 21.93 10.97
Oercus muhlenbergii 10.97
conglomerate outcrops that were difficult
to sample.
Cercis canadensis was the major under-
story tree. Shrubs, Lindera benzoin, Asi-
mina triloba, and Staphylea trifolia, were
most abundant on the lower slope and near
the stream, yet A. triloba did extend upslope
wherever water seepage occurred.
Of the canopy trees, seedlings and sap-
lings of A. saccharum were the most abun-
dant (Table 4). Seedlings and saplings of
most of the dominant trees were present,
but only A. saccharum reached tree replace-
ment size.
Elm-—Maple-Locust Community
The ridge atop the south-facing slope was
cleared approximately 60 years ago and an
old farm road crossed the ridge. Remnants
of the early successional stages, Ulmus
rubra and Robinia pseudo-acacia, were still
present and ranked first (IV 91.48) and
fourth (IV 33.02), respectively (Table 5). |
A. saccharum, F. americana, and the oaks, |
Q. muhlenbergii and Q. rubra, were other |
important trees, however, those 4 species —
were smaller there than elsewhere in the |
Preserve reflecting a more recent establish-
ment. Entire black locust trees and portions |
of others were dead and dying. The re-
placement of R. pseudo-acacia by A. sac-
charum, F. americana, and the oaks was
in advanced condition. Those latter species
were of Class 5 (Table 6). U. rubra was
reproducing, but R. pseudo-acacia was not.
F. quadrangulata was most abundant near
the edge of the conglomerate cliffs and its |
seedlings and saplings extended throughout
the ridge. |
An understory of Cercis canadensis was
developing under the new canopy. Asimina
VEGETATION ON KANSAN OutwasH—Bryant I.
TABLE 5.—THE NUMBER (N), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE
(RDo), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF ALL TREE SPECIES ON THE RIDGE ATOP THE SOUTH-FACING SLOPE
OF THE BOONE County CiLirFs NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE CouNTy, KENTUCKY
Species N RF RD RDo IV
Ulmus rubra 50 16.67 33.56 41.25 91.48
Acer saccharum 38 16.67 25.50 11.45 53.62
Fraxinus americana 15 13.89 10.07 12.69 36.65
Robinia pseudo-acacia 10 1 Lt 6.71 15.20 33.02
Quercus muhlenbergii 10 5.06 G77 5.08 17.85
Quercus rubra 6 8.33 4.03 3.86 16.22
Carya cordiformis 3 5.06 2.01 2.28 9.85
Celtis occidentalis 3 5.06 2.01 2.10 9.67
Fraxinus quadrangulata 5 2.78 3.36 5/5, 8.69
Carya ovata Me 5.56 io 0.81 7.70
Cercis canadensis 4 20 2.68 0.41 5.87
Gymnocladus dioicus 2 2.78 ee 1.45 5.BT
Carya glabra it 2.78 0.67 0.38 3.83
Totals 149 100.03 99.99 100.00 300.02
TABLE 6.—SEEDLINGS (S1IzE CLAssEs 1, 2) AND SAPLINGS (SIzE CLAssEs 3, 4, 5) PER HECTARE OF ALL
SHRUB AND TREE SPECIES ON THE RIDGE ATOP THE SOUTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE CoUuNTy CLIFFS
NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE CouNtTy, KENTUCKY
Size class
1 2 3 4 5
Shrubs
Asimina triloba 41.15 49.40
Staphylea trifolia 205.83 16.47
Symphoricarpos orbiculatus 411.67
Rubus sp. 770.45
Seedlings—saplings
Acer saccharum 247.00 82.33 312.87 214.07 32.93
Quercus muhlenbergii 82.33 Lodece 16.47 16.47
Quercus rubra 82.33 214.07 32.93 16.47
Ulmus rubra 823.33 82.33 65.87 16.47 16.47
Cercis canadensis 82.33 hS TS 32.93 16.47
Ostrya virginiana 123.50 16.47
Fraxinus quadrangulata LtLL50 (82.17 230.53
Fraxinus americana 164.65 Al.15 P52
Carya cordiformis 370.50 123.50 16.47
Celtis occidentalis 946.83 247.00 W738
Acer negundo AS 41.15 16.47
Ulmus americana ALAS
Juniperus virginiana 41.15
Aesculus glabra 16.47
Gymnocladus dioicus 32.93
Carya glabra 16.47
18 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE 7.—THE NUMBER (N), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE
(RDo), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF ALL TREE SPECIES ON THE NORTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE
County Ciirrs NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE COUNTY, KENTUCKY
Species N RF RD RDo IV
Acer saccharum 61 19.05 50.00 16.73 85.78
Tilia americana 14 11.90 11.48 27.49 50.87
Fagus grandifolia 2 7.14 4.10 20.99 32:23
Fraxinus americana il 7.14 9.02 Liat 27.43
Ulmus rubra 4 (14 3.28 6.02 16.44
Carpinus caroliniana 6 9.52 4.92 0.94 15.38
Carya cordiformis 3 4.76 2.46 4.98 12.20
Quercus rubra $ 4.76 2.46 3.24 10.46
Liriodendron tulipifera 2 4.76 1.64 2.50 8.90
Ostrya virginiana 4 4.76 3.28 0.65 8.69
Celtis occidentalis 3 4.76 2.46 1.01 8.23
Ulmus americana il 2.38 0.82 2,.92 6.12
Aesculus glabra 1 BESTS 0.82 0.45 3.65
Carya ovata if 2:38 0.82 0.35 aa
Fraxinus quadrangulata i 2.38 0.82 0.26 3.46
Cornus florida 1 2.38 0.82 0.12 3.32
Cercis canadensis 1 2.38 0.82 0.08 3.28
Totals 122 99.97 100.02 100.00 299.99
triloba and Staphylea trifolia were present
where slight depressions in soil allowed
water accumulation. Remnants of the past
clearing association, Symphoricarpos orbi-
culatus and Rubus sp. persisted in the tracks
of the farm road.
of Fagus grandifolia were present (Table
Maple-—Beech-Oak Community
The ridge atop the north-facing slope —
was also dominated by A. saccharum (IV
127.53), with major associated canopy trees
Maple-Basswood-—Beech Community being F. grandifolia (IV 59.30), and F.
The vegetation of the north-facing slope
was a mixed mesophytic association with A.
saccharum (IV 85.78), Tilia americana (IV
30.87), and Fagus grandifolia (IV 32.23) as
the dominant trees (Table 7). F. americana
and U. rubra were major associates. The
understory was composed of Carpinus caro-
liniana and Ostrya virginiana.
The shrub layer was composed of Lindera
benzoin, Asimina triloba, and Staphylea tri-
folia. All of those species ranged high up
the slope and were not confined to seepage
areas. A few individuals of Hydrangea
arborescens were present, but were not
recorded from sample plots. Of the domi-
nant tree species, replacement to tree size
was by A. saccharum, T. americana, and F.
americana, however, saplings up to Class 3
americana (IV 39.78) (Table 9). Q. rubra
and Q. alba ranked fourth and fifth, respec- —
tively, but as a composite the oaks had an
importance value of 44.17.
The trees were widely spaced and there
was no well-defined subcanopy or shrub
layer. Seedlings and saplings of A. sac-
charum and F. grandifolia were present to
tree replacement size (Table 10).
Shortly after that ridge community was
sampled, many of the oaks were logged.
Hummock of Tulip Poplar
Near the head of the stream that passed |
through the ravine was a small stand of |
Liriodendron tulipifera. The soil was
deeper there than elsewhere in the Preserve.
VEGETATION ON KANSAN OvutTwasH—Bryant 19
TABLE 8.—SEEDLINGS (S1zE CLAssEs 1, 2) AND SAPLINGS (SIzE CLAssEs 3, 4, 5) PER HECTARE OF ALL
SHRUB AND TREE SPECIES ON THE NORTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE County CLirFs NATURE PRESERVE,
BoonE County, KENTUCKY
Shrubs
Asimina triloba 2,223.00
Lindera benzoin 185.25
Staphylea trifolia 339.63
Seedlings—saplings
Acer saccharum 617.50
Tilia americana 185.25
Fraxinus americana G75
Carpinus caroliniana Glo
Fagus grandifolia 92.63
Ulmus rubra 185.25
Quercus rubra
Cercis canadensis 92.63
Acer negundo 92.63
Liriodendron tulipifera 30.88
Carya cordiformis 61.75
Fraxinus quadrangulata
Aesculus glabra
That stand apparently was the seed source
of the tulip poplars of the slopes.
Discussion
No comparable studies of vegetation on
Kansan outwash have been reported, al-
though Keith (1968) undoubtedly included
Size class
2 3 4 5
2,037.75 61.75
185.25 Sy Us:
123.50 24.70
648.38 135.85 86.45 24.70
123.50 12.35 12°39
92.63 12-30
30.88 1235
61.75 61.75
123.50
30.88
61.75 12.35
1 P85,
30.88
61.75
some areas in his study; however, because
of the weathered nature of the areas he
sampled, he made no distinctions between
till deposits. Since there is more literature
for vegetation of Illinoian till available com-
parisons are to that area.
When all sampling areas are combined,
the forest of the Boone County Cliffs
TABLE 9.—THE NUMBER (N), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE
(RDo), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF ALL TREE SPECIES ON THE RIDGE ATOP THE NORTH-FACING SLOPE
OF THE BOONE County CLirFs NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE County, KENTUCKY
Species N RF RD RDo IV
Acer saccharum 66 23.08 64.71 39.74 197 5s
Fagus grandifolia i) 23.08 8.82 27.40 59.30
Fraxinus americana 9 23.08 8.82 7.88 39.78
Quercus rubra 5. 7.69 4.90 10.53 23.12
Quercus alba 1 7.69 4.90 8.46 21.05
Liriodendron tulipifera 1 3.85 0.98 4.18 9.01
Carya ovata 4 3.85 3.92 0.44 8.21
Tilia americana 2 3.85 1.96 1.27 7.08
Ostrya virginiana 1 3.85 0.98 0.09 4.92
Totals 102 100.02 99.99 99.99 300.00
20 TrANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE 10.—SEEDLINGS (S1IzE CLAssEs 1, 2) AND SAPLINGS (SIZE CLAssEs 3, 4, 5) PER HECTARE OF ALL
SHRUBS AND TREE SPECIES ON THE RIDGE ATOP THE NORTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE County CLIFFS
NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE County, KENTUCKY
Seedlings—saplings
Acer saccharum 494.00
Fagus grandifolia 329.33
Ostrya virginiana 617.50
Cornus florida 41.17
Carya cordiformis 247.00
Quercus rubra 205.83
Fraxinus americana 164.67
Fraxinus quadrangulata 82.33
Ulmus rubra 494.00
Celtis occidentalis
Sassafras albidum
Nature Preserve shows some similarities as
well as striking differences to those on
Illinoian till, in particular the Dinsmore’s
Woods (Held and Winstead 1976). In both
forests, Acer saccharum ranked first in
importance value, 79.05 at the Preserve
to 91.94 at Dinsmore’s Woods. Fraxinus
americana ranked third at the Preserve (IV
29.69) and second at Dinsmore’s Woods
(IV 44.48) while Ulmus rubra ranked second
at the Preserve (IV 33.81) and fourth at
Dinsmore’s Woods (IV 22.93). The Pre-
serve forest was decidedly more mesic than
Dinsmore’s Woods when the respective im-
portance values of the following species are
compared: Fagus grandifolia, 20.65 to 6.91;
Tilia americana, 14.39 to 5.17; Quercus
rubra, 19.71 to 7.81; and Liriodendron tu-
lipifera, 9.32 to 0. The importance values
for Q. muhlenbergii, 17.36 to 5.38; Q. alba,
5.88 to 17.87; and Celtis occidentalis, 9.88
to 29.88, reflect other differences. Keith
(1968) felt that a high importance for C.
occidentalis, such as that at Dinsmore’s
Woods indicated a disclimax. Basal area
values were very similar, 27.2 m?/ha at
the Preserve to 28.1 m?/ha at Dinsmore’s
Woods. The differences between the forests
probably are the results of different soils,
weathered conglomerate, and colluvium at
the Preserve and a Wisconsin loess cap at
Size class
2 3 4 5
247.00 131.73 49.40 131.73
41.17 279.93 32.93 16.47
370.50 148.20 16.47
65.87 131.73
82.33 49.40
164.67 98.80
41.17 16.47
16.47
ANAT
41.17
Dinsmore’s Woods, in conjunction with a
greater number of microhabitats at the
Preserve.
Local habitat factors result in distinct
communities at the Preserve with only 3
tree species, A. saccharum, F. americana,
and Q. rubra, in each of the 4 community
types. Cobbe (1943) noted the establish-
ment of local communities at Cabin Run,
Ohio, as a result of microenvironmental
differences.
The vegetation of the south-facing and
north-facing slopes was quite different at
the Preserve. Braun (1917) noted that
slopes of the same steepness but of different
direction show great differences in the
character of the vegetation even though
both are on conglomerate rock substrate.
The south-facing slope, the driest habitat,
was occupied by a maple—oak—elm associa-
tion. Cobbe (1943) also found the south-
facing slope to be less mesophytic and
dominated by A. saccharum. Braun (1950)
noted that the drier slopes and exposed river
bluffs of the Illinoian deposits in Kentucky
display remnants of an oak—ash—maple
forest. The prominence of Q. muhlenbergii,
the most xeric of the white oak group
(Curtis 1959), on the south-facing slope is
evidence of the dryness. Mesic shrubs,
Asimina triloba, Lindera benzoin, and
VEGETATION ON KANSAN OutTwasH—Bryant 21
Staphylea trifolia, were abundant on the
lower slope and in seepage sites. Braun
(1917) noted the occurrence of constantly
‘wet places on conglomerate slopes resulting
from a gradual seepage of water from the
interior of the rock.
Presently, the disturbed south-facing
ridge is occupied by an elm—maple-locust
association. The ridge was undergoing
advanced succession toward a maple—oak-—
elm community. The systematic replace-
ment of Robinia pseudo-acacia by Acer and
Quercus was readily visible. Many individ-
uals of black locust were dead or dying and
that species was not reproducing. Braun
(1916) found that black locust did not
retain its early importance after other trees
were started, and was seldom found within
the oak forest. Along with black locust on
the top of bluffs in southwestern Ohio were
'U. rubra, Fraxinus quadrangulata, and Q.
muhlenbergii (Braun 1916). U. rubra was
reproducing to tree replacement size and
apparently was maintaining itself as a
member of the developing maple-oak-elm
community.
_ The north-facing slope was occupied by
a mixed mesophytic association of maple-
-basswood-beech. Cobbe (1943) found the
north slope of Cabin Run ravine to be the
most mesophytic community with a dense
canopy of Fagus grandifolia, Tilia ameri-
cana, Liriodendron tulipifera, Q. alba, and
Juglans nigra. Cobbe also recorded A.
-saccharum in the understory along with F.
americana, U. rubra, Ostrya virginiana, and
Carpinus caroliniana. Both A. saccharum
and F. americana were more abundant in
the subcanopy than the canopy at the
Preserve. Cobbe (1943) stated that a large
number of individuals but of small basal
area indicated that those trees were not
important in the canopy.
The position of L. tulipifera in each of
the slope associations deserves special men-
tion. Cobbe (1943) found L. tulipifera to
be most prevalent in the wide protected
ravine of Cabin Run, much like its site of
abundance at the Preserve, and noted that
it reproduced only in openings offered by
the death of canopy trees. Overthrow of
large canopy trees is a common occurrence
on the slopes of the Preserve and possibly
is one of the reasons why trees do not reach
larger size. The severe slope angles and
the sandy nature of the soils will not support
large trees. When such trees overturn, L.
tulipifera from its seed source in the ravine,
invades the newly created openings or gaps.
The ridge atop the north-facing slope was
occupied by a maple—beech-oak associa-
tion. Braun (1916) and Cobbe (1943)
recorded F. grandifolia from the tops of
hills, ridges, and knolls, and along with
beech on the tops of the hills, are other
trees, the most important of which are A.
saccharum, Carya laciniosa, Q. alba, and
QO. rubra (Braun 1916). Such an assemblage
is similar to that at the Preserve. The trees
were more widely spaced on the ridge than
elsewhere in the Preserve and the shrub
and subcanopy layers were very sparse.
Cobbe (1943) noted that the beech ridge
communities were open with no layering.
Saplings of A. saccharum and F. grandifolia
reach tree replacement size, but the oaks
were not reproducing, especially Q. alba.
Held and Winstead (1976) also observed
poor reproduction by white oak.
The flora of the Preserve is similar to
that reported by Cobbe (1943) and Braun
(1917) for the glaciated slope areas in
southwestern Ohio. I have recorded over
300 species of vascular plants in the Pre-
serve. Conglomerate boulders on the lower
slopes are covered with plants. On the
drier outcroppings, fewer species are
present. The plant successional pattern on
those conglomerate cliffs undoubtedly is
much like that reported by Braun (1917)
on the conglomerate rocks of southern Ohio.
In conclusion, the glaciated portion of
Kentucky is limited to a small area in the
extreme northern counties, yet those glacial
deposits are of significance geologically and
vegetationally. The vegetation of the Boone
County Cliffs Nature Preserve, on Kansan
outwash, differs greatly from the hydro-
mesophytic forests of the Illinoian till plain
(Braun 1916, 1936), but compares some-
what to slope and ravine forests on I]linoian
till (Cobbe 1943, Held and Winstead 1976).
22 TRANS. KeENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
Braun (1936) reported that where ravines
cut through the hydromesophytic flats, a
number of species of the mixed mesophytic
forest enter, of which tulip poplar and sugar
maple are the most important. The ravine
and slopes in the Preserve provide numer-
ous microhabitats, and are largely respon-
sible for the similarities observed with the
vegetation of dissected Illinoian deposits.
LITERATURE CITED
BEALS, E. W., AND J. B. Cope. 1964. Vegetation
and soils in an eastern Indiana woods. Ecology
45:777-792.
Braun, E. L. 1916. The physiographic ecology
of the Cincinnati region. Ohio Biol. Surv. 2:
115-211.
1917. The vegetation of conglomerate
rocks of the Cincinnati region. Plant World
20:380-392.
1936. Forests of the Illinoian till plain
of southwestern Ohio. Ecol. Monogr. 6:89-—
149.
1950. Deciduous forests of eastern
North America. The Blakiston Co., Phila-
delphia, Pa. 596 pp.
CHAPMAN, A. G. 1942. Forests of the Illinoian
till plain of southwestern Indiana. Ecology
23:189-198.
Cosse, T. J. 1943. Variations in the Cabin Run
Forest, a climax area in southwestern Ohio.
Amer. Midl. Nat. 29:89-105.
Curtis, J.T. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin.
Univ. Wis. Press, Madison, Wis. 657 pp.
Gorpon, R. B. 1936. A preliminary vegetation
map of Indiana. Amer. Mid]. Nat. 17:866—877.
HE.p, M. E., AND J. E. WinstEAp. 1976. Struc- |
ture and composition of a climax forest system _
in Boone County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 37(3—4) :57-67.
Kerrn, J. R. 1968. Vegetation of the Pleistocene
Drift Region, Northern Kentucky. Trans. Ky. |
Acad. Sci. 29( 1-4): 10-20.
KELLER, C. O. 1946. An ecological study off
Kien Woods, Jennings County, Indiana. Bolg
ler Univ. Bot. Stud. 8:64-81.
MOHLENBROCK, R. W., AND J. W. VolicrT.
A flora of southern Illinois. So. IIl.
Press, Carbondale, Ill. 390 pp.
NELson, J. C. 1918. Plants from Boone County, |
Kentucky. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 38:125—-143.
Ray, L. L. 1966. Pre-Wisconsin glacial deposits
in northern Kentucky. Pp. 195-199. In Geo-
logical Survey Research 1966. U.S. Geol. Surv. |
Prof. Pap. 650-D.
1959.
Univ.
. 1974. Geomorphology and tall
Geology of the glaciated Ohio River Valley—
a reconnaissance study. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof.
Pap. 826. 77 pp.
Sutton, G. 1877. Glacial or ice deposits in
Boone County, Kentucky, of two distinct and
widely distinct periods. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci.
Proc. 25:225-231.
1879. Glacial or ice deposits in Boone
County, Kentucky, of two distinct and widely
distinct periods. Indiana Geol. Surv. Ann.
Rept. 8—9-10:108-113.
WEISENBERGER, B. C., E. W. DOowe Lu, T. R.!
LeaTuHERS, H. B. Oper, AND A. J. RICHARDSON.
1973. Soil survey of Boone, Campbell, and
Kenton counties, Kentucky. USDA, Soil Cons.
Serv. Gov't. Print. Off. Washington, D.C. 67
pp.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1-—2), 1978, 23-30
Conjugate Addition Reactions of 4-Chlorobenzotriazole,
4.6-Dichlorobenzotriazole, and 4.,5,6,7-Tetramethylbenzotriazole
Purttie H. MorGAN AND KARL F. HussunG
Department of Chemistry and Geology, Murray State University,
Murray, Kentucky 42071
ABSTRACT
4-Chlorobenzotriazole, 4,6-dichlorobenzotriazole, and previously undescribed 4,5,6,7-tetra-
methylbenzotriazole were synthesized and subjected to some base-catalyzed conjugate addition
reactions.
Addition products of 4-chloro- and 4,6-dichlorobenzotriazole with acrylonitrile,
acrylamide, crotonic acid and benzalacetophenone were prepared, as well as an addition product
of 4,5,6,7-tetramethylbenzotriazole with crotonic acid. Structural assignments were made on
the addition products from ultraviolet absorption data; 4-chlorobenzotriazole giving 1- and 2-
substituted products, and 4,6-dichloro- and 4,5,6,7-tetramethylbenzotriazole giving only 2-
substituted products. Postulations are advanced on the basis of inductive and steric effects
in an effort to explain the influence of benzenoid substituents on the course of the addition
reaction.
INTRODUCTION
It has been reported previously that
azoles with an unsubstituted, exocyclic
imino group undergo addition reactions
with conjugated, unsaturated systems
(Wiley et al. 1954, 1955). Several ben-
zenoid substituted benzotriazoles were later
synthesized and addition products prepared
and structurally elucidated by ultraviolet
absorption data (Wiley, Hussung, and Mof-
fat 1955; Wiley and Hussung 1957). The
reported evidence indicated that benzotria-
zoles with chlorine atoms substituted in
both the 4- and 7-positions (4,5,6,7-tetra-
chlorobenzotriazole and 4,7-dichlorobenzo-
triazole ) add to conjugated systems to give
2-substituted products, whereas 5,6-dichlo-
robenzotriazole along with the parent,
benzotriazole, yielded 1-substituted prod-
ucts. This difference in behavior was at-
tributed to steric hindrance when bulky
substituents occupy both the 4- and 7-
positions.
In order to obtain a clearer understanding
of the effect of benzenoid substituents of
benzotriazoles on the course of the addition
reaction, 4-chlorobenzotriazole, 4,6-dichlo-
robenzotriazole, and 4,5,6,7-tetramethylben-
zotriazole were prepared and subjected to
the base-catalyzed azole addition reaction
and the structure of the products elucidated.
23
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Partial support of this research by the
Murray State University Committee on
Institutional Studies and Research is grate-
fully acknowledged.
MATERIALS, METHODS, AND RESULTS
The synthesis of 4-chlorobenzotriazole
was accomplished by 3 different methods.
The first involved the direct chlorination
of benzotriazole utilizing the swamping
catalyst technique, in which excess alumi-
num chloride is used as a complexing agent
(Gordon and Pearson 1964). An equimolar
amount of chlorine was passed into the
molten mass of benzotriazole and aluminum
chloride to produce 4- and 5-chlorobenzotri-
azole and some dichlorinated products. A
mixture of the monochloro derivatives was
separated from the much less soluble di-
chloro derivatives by fractional recrystal-
lization from water. The mixture melted
over a wide range (136-155 C) and gave a
neutralization equivalent identical with that
of the calculated value (153.5). An attempt
to separate the mixture using ethanol and
aluminum oxide in a column chromato-
graphic technique failed. Separation of
the isomers was accomplished, however,
by fractional recrystallization from a 1:2
24 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
ethanol-water mixture. The less soluble 4-
chlorobenzotriazole was isolated in 9 per-
cent yield.
The second method employed to prepare
4-chlorobenzotriazole involved replacement
of the amino group in 4-aminobenzotriazole
via the Sandmeyer reaction. Readily avail-
able 4-nitrobenzotriazole (Fries et al. 1934)
was reduced catalytically and the resulting
amino derivative diazotized. Replacement
of the diazonium group was effected by -
addition of a freshly prepared cuprous
chloride solution. After completion of the
reaction, 4-chlorobenzotriazole was obtained
in 4 percent yield.
The third and most satisfactory method
of preparation of 4-chlorobenzotriazole was
by ring closure that involved diazotization
of 3-chloro-o-phenylenediamine formed dur-
ing catalytic hydrogenation of 6-chloro-2-
nitroaniline. The precursor of the diamine
was obtained as follows. Sulfonation of
o-nitroaniline gave 3-nitro-4-aminobenzene-
sulfonic acid that was chlorinated, using
chlorine gas dissolved in glacial acetic acid,
to give 3-nitro-4-amino-5-chlorobenzenesul-
fonic acid (Wolf et al. 1954) that in tum
was desulfonated during steam distillation
to give 6-chloro-2-nitroaniline.
4.6-Dichlorobenzotriazole was synthesized
as previously described (Wiley and Moffat
1963) by diazotization of 3,5-dichloro-1,2-
diaminobenzene, obtained by the stannous
chloride and hydrochloric acid reduction of
2-nitro-4,6-dichloroaniline.
Previously undescribed 4,5,6,7-tetrameth-
ylbenzotriazole was prepared as follows.
Pentamethylbenzene was nitrated below
10 C with a mixture of fuming nitric acid
and concentrated sulfuric acid covered with
an equal volume of chloroform to give very
good yields of dinitroprehnitine (Smith and
Harris 1935). The dinitroprehnitine was
suspended in glacial acetic acid, palladium
on charcoal was added and reduction was
effected using a Parr hydrogenator. The
resultant tetramethyl-o-phenylenediamine
was diazotized in the acetic acid medium
with nitrous acid to yield 4,5,6,7-tetrameth-
ylbenzotriazole.
The addition products were prepared, in
general, by heating the substituted benzo-
triazole with the conjugated substrate for }
15-20 hours in the presence of a_ base |
catalyst, either pyridine or benzyltrimethy]- |
ammonium hydroxide.
Some experimental details for the prepa-
ration and characterization of the parent
benzotriazoles and their conjugate addition
products follow.
4-Chlorobenzotriazole
To 22.9 g (0.1383 mole) of 6-chloro-2-
nitroaniline dissolved in 300 ml of glacial
acetic acid was added 0.5 g of palladium on
charcoal catalyst. The mixture was placed
on a Parr hydrogenator overnight to reduce
the nitroamine to 3-chloro-o-phenylenedi-
amine. The resultant solution was filtered,
cooled to 5C, and an aqueous solution of
sodium nitrite was added dropwise with |
stirring until an excess of nitrous acid was |
observed. The solution, after being allowed
to warm slowly to room temperature, v‘as |
concentrated to approximately 30 ml end
diluted with water to precipitate 12.2 g of
the crude product that was 60 percent of |
the theoretical amount. Decolorization with ©
norite and several recrystallizations from.
water gave the pure product, mp 169-171 C. |
The reported melting point is 170C (Dal
Monte and Veggetti 1958).
1
B-1'-4-Chlorobenzotriazolyl)-butyric acid !
To a melt of 1.53 g (0.01 mole) of 4-chloro- ©
benzotriazole and 1.30 g (0.014 mole) of
crotonic acid (10% water) was added 20:
drops of pyridine. The mixture was heated
at 100 C for 15 hours, cooled, dissolved in a
few milliliters of acetone and poured -into ”
0.5N hydrochloric acid. The resultant solu-_
tion was decolorized with norite and, upon”
cooling, a tan oil separated that eventually —
solidified. After being placed in the refrig-|
precipitated from the solution and were
separated mechanically from the tan solid.
The crystals weighed 0.55 g which was 237
percent of the theoretical amount. Recrys-/
tallization from water gave the pure product,|
mp 154-155 C.
ConyucaTE AppiTion REAcTIoNS oF AzoLES—Morgan and Hussung 25
Analysis: Calculated for C19Hi9N302Cl:
nN. 17.53. Found: N, 1742.
B-2’-(4-Chlorobenzotriazolyl)-propionitrile
To a mixture of 1.00 g (0.0065 mole) of
4-chlorobenzotriazole and 4.00 g (0.0755
mole) of acrylonitrile was added 10 drops
of pyridine. The resulting mixture was
heated at 80C for 20 hours, producing a
brown, viscous material on cooling. The
oil was dissolved in acetone and brought
almost out of solution with hot water. The
resultant solution was decolorized with
norite and filtered, and the product allowed
to recrystallize while cooling overnight in a
refrigerator. Filtration produced 0.85 g of
white solid that represented a 63 percent
yield. Two subsequent recrystallizations
from methanol gave the pure sample, mp
131.5-133.5 C.
Analysis: Calculated for Cy>5H;N,Cl: N,
27.11. Found: N, 26.94.
B-l’-(4-Chlorobenzotriazolyl)-
propionamide
To a melt of 1.15 g (0.0075 mole) of 4-
chlorobenzotriazole and 0.55 g (0.0075 mole)
of acrylamide was added 8 drops of benzy]-
trimethylammonium hydroxide (Triton-B).
The solution was heated at 80 C for 20 hours,
cooled, and ether was added to precipitate,
after stirring, a white solid. The dried solid
weighed 1.55 g representing 95 percent of
the theoretical amount. Three recrystalliza-
tions from acetone gave the pure product,
mp 166-168.5 C.
Analysis: Calculated for CgHyN,OCI: Cl,
3:70. Found: Cl, 15.57.
B-Phenyl-B-I’-(4-Chlorobenzotriazolyl)-
propriophenone
4-Chlorobenzotriazole (1.53 g, 0.01 mole )
and benzalacetophenone (2.08 g, 0.01 mole)
Were mixed and 4 ml of pyridine added.
The mixture was heated at 90 C for 18 hours,
cooled, 30 ml of ligroin and 10-20 ml of
diethyl ether added, and the resulting mix-
ture stirred until the oil solidified yielding
a white solid. The filtered solid weighed
~
2.80 g for a 77.4 percent yield. One recrys-
tallization from a diethyl ether—ligroin mix-
ture and 1 from an acetone—water mixture
gave the analytical sample, mp 139.5-141.5
C
Analysis: Calculated for Cs;H,;,N3;OCI:
C, 69.71; H, 4.46. Found: C, 69.65; H, 4.37.
B-2’-(4,6’-Dichlorobenzotriazolyl)-
propionitrile
A mixture of 2.00 g (0.0106 mole) of 4,6-
dichlorobenzotriazole, 6.00 g (0.113 mole)
of acrylonitrile, and 5-7 drops of pyridine
was heated at 80C for 18 hours in a test
tube fitted with a condensor and immersed
in an oil bath heated with a glascol mantle.
The reaction mixture was allowed to cool
to room temperature and a white solid
crystallized. The crystals were filtered,
washed with a small amount of cold acry-
lonitrile, and dried to give 1.16 g of product,
representing a 39 percent yield. The product
was recrystallized twice from acrylonitrile
to yield pure transparent crystals, mp 157-
158 C.
Analysis: Calculated for C;HgN4Cls: Cl,
29.41. Found: Cl) 29.71.
B-2’-(4,6’-Dichlorobenzotriazolyl)-
propionamide
To a melt of 1.88 g (0.01 mole) of 4,6-
dichlorobenzotriazole and 0.71 g (0.01 mole)
of acrylamide was added 5-8 drops of Tri-
ton-B. The resulting mixture was heated
at 80 C for 20 hours. The reaction mixture
was cooled and 10-15 ml of diethyl ether
added. After considerable stirring, a white
solid formed that was filtered to yield 2.15 g
of crude product, representing 83 percent
of the theoretical amount. After 1 recrystal-
lization from ethyl acetate and 2 from ace-
tone, 0.20 g of white needles was isolated as
an analytical sample, mp 214.5-217 C.
Analysis: Calculated for CsHsNsOCls: C,
Aloe, ol. Found: CC, 41.78: H, 3.06.
B-2’-(4’,6’-Dichlorobenzotriazolyl)-
butyric acid
To a mixture of 1.88 g (0.01 mole) of
4,6-dichlorobenzotriazole and 1.00 g (0.01
26 Trans. Kenrucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
mole) of crotonic acid (10% water) was
added enough pyridine to produce a_ ho-
mogeneous solution that was heated at
100C for 15 hours. Evaporation of the
pyridine left an extremely viscous material
that was poured into 0.5N hydrochloric acid
and stirred to precipitate 1.75 g of crude
product for a 64 percent yield. Two recrys-
tallizations from acetone-water gave the
analytical sample, mp 134-136 C.
Analysis:
N, 15.33; Neutr. equiv., 274.1. Found: N,
15.32; Neutr. equiv., 279.0.
B-Phenyl-B-2’-4’,6’-Dichloroben-
zotriazolyl)-propiophenone
To a melt of 1.88 g (0.01 mole) of 4,6-
dichlorobenzotriazole and 2.08 g (0.01 mole)
of benzalacetophenone (chalcone) was
added 8 drops of Triton-B. The mixture
was heated at 80 C for 20 hours. The reac-
tion mixture was cooled, diethyl ether was
added and, after stirring, 1.70 g of crude
white product precipitated which repre-
sented a 43 percent yield. Two recrystal-
lizations from diethyl ether gave 0.55 ¢ of
pure product, mp 160-162.5 C.
Analysis: Calculated for C2;Hi;N3;0Cl:
C, 63.65; H, 3.82. Found: 63.89; H, 3.86.
4,5,6,7-T etramethylbenzotriazole
Five g (0.0223 mole) of dinitroprehnitine
was dissolved in 150 ml of glacial acetic
acid, 0.5 g of palladium on charcoal was
added and the solution was placed on the
Parr hydrogenator overnight, producing
tetramethyl-o-phenylenediamine. The reac-
tion mixture was filtered and 25 ml of water
was added. The resulting solution was
cooled to 5-10 C and a sodium nitrite solu-
tion was added until an excess was observed.
During addition of the sodium nitrite solu-
tion, a light tan precipitate could be seen
forming. The precipitate was filtered,
washed with water, dried, and found to
weigh 2.50 g representing a yield of 73 per-
cent. The sample was recrystallized from
ethanol to give the pure product, mp 291-
294 C.
Analysis: Calculated for CioHi3N3: C,
68.54; H, 7.48; N, 23.98; Neutr. equiv., 175.
Found: C, 68.72; H, 7.39; N, 24.22; Neutr. |
Calculated for CypH»NsOoCle: -
equiv., 178.
B-2'-(4,5',6’,7’-Tetramethylbenzotriazolyl)-
butyric: acid
To a melt of 1.75 g (0.01 mole) of 4,5,6,7-
tetramethylbenzotriazole and 1.00 g (0.01
mole) of crotonic acid (10% water) was
added 20 drops of Triton-B. The mixture
was heated at 100C for 20 hours, cooled, |
and the viscous product was dissolved in
10-15 ml of acetone and poured into 0.5N
hydrochloric acid to precipitate 2.00 g of
crude product, representing a yield of 76.6
percent of the theoretical amount. The
product was dissolved in 1 molar NaOH
and filtered into acid in hopes of removing.
any unreacted 4,5,6,7-tetramethylbenzotri-
azole as residue on the filter. After several!
recrystallizations from an acetic acid—water
mixture, the pure product was obtained, mp}
207—208.5 C.
Analysis: Calculated for CysHigN302: GC,
64.35; H, 7.33... Found: CG, 641051727
Analytical Data
Elemental analyses were conducted by.
Galbraith Laboratories, Inc., Knoxville,
Tennessee. The neutralization equivalent’
for 4,5,6,7-tetramethylbenzotriazole was ob-.
tained by using glacial acetic acid as the
solvent, and as titrant, perchloric acid dis-
solved in glacial acetic acid. All other
neutralization equivalents were determined
using either water or ethanol—water mixtures
to dissolve the sample and standard sodium
hydroxide as the titrant. A Beckman Ex-
pandomatic pH meter was used in obtaining
titration curves for detection of the end
points. |
Ultraviolet Absorption Spectra
Ultraviolet absorption data on all of the|
compounds were collected manually from a
Beckman DU-2 spectrophotometer, using
10--10-* molar solutions of the sample dis-
solved in spectral grade methanol. The
spectra for each of the parent benzotriazoles
and their corresponding conjugate addition
products are shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3.
ConyucaTE AppITIOoN Reactions or AzoLes—Morgan and Hussung 27
°
oooee”
Ww
Ne)
°
ae
loge
TS alin
3.6 ;
a4 9250/1260 270 9280 290 300 310 320
dX in mu
Fic. 1. Ultraviolet absorption spectra for 4-chloro-
benzotriazole ( ), B-l’-(4’-chlorobenzotriaz-
olyl)-butyric acid (-—-—-—), B-2’-(4’-chlorobenzo-
triazolyl)-propionitrile (O O O), B-1’-(4’-chloroben-
zotriazolyl )-propionamide (---::-- ), and 6-phenyl-
B-1’-( 4’-chlorobenzotriazoly] ) -propiophenone
(-—O-O-O-).
DIscussION
The ambident, nucleophilic anions of
parent benzotriazoles are resonance stabi-
lized. Resonance extremes for the anions
of symmetrically substituted 4,7-dichloro-
benzotriazole and asymmetrically substi-
tuted 4-chlorobenzotriazole are illustrated
in Fig. 4.
In the 4,7-dichlorobenzotriazolyl anion,
resonance extremes A and C (Fig. 4) are
equivalent while in the 4-chlorobenzotri-
azolyl anion, resonance extremes A, B, and
C (Fig. 4) are nonequivalent. As a result,
the base-catalyzed azole addition reaction
can theoretically give rise to 2 isomeric
products with symmetrically substituted
240 250 2605270) 280 290 300 310 320
X} in mu
Fic. 2. Ultraviolet spectra for 4,6-dichlorobenzo-
triazole ( ), B-2’-(4’-6’-dichlorobenzotriaz-
olyl)-butyric acid (-———), B-2’-(4’,6’-dichloroben-
zotriazolyl )-propionitrile (O OO), f-2’-(4’,6’-di-
chlorobenzotriazolyl )-propionamide (-----: ), and
B-phenyl-f-2’-( 4’,6’-dichlorobenzotriazoly] ) -propio-
phenone (—O-O-O-).
benzotriazoles and 3 isomeric products with
asymmetrically substituted benzotriazoles
(Fig. 5).
The problem of structural isomerism of
the 1- and 2-substituted benzotriazoles has
been resolved with benzotriazole. Ultra-
violet absorption data distinguish between
the 2 isomers and chemical data establish
the position of the substituents (Krollpfeif-
fer et al. 1938, Specker and Gawrosch 1942).
Further chemical and spectral evidence con-
cerning l- and 2-substituted benzotriazoles
was provided from investigations involving
4.7- and 5,6-dichlorobenzotriazole, 4,5,6,7-
tetrachloro- and 4,5,6,7-tetrabromobenzotri-
azole (Wiley, Hussung, and Moffat 1955;
Wiley and Hussung 1957). The spectral
28 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
x» in mu
Fic. 3. Ultraviolet absorption spectra for 4,5,6,7-
tetramethylbenzotriazole ( ) and B-2’-(4’,5’,
6’,7’-tetramethylbenzotriazoly] )-butyric acid (— — -).
evidence indicates that benzotriazoles and
their corresponding 1-substituted deriva-
tives show two maxima approximately 20-
25 mp apart. In some spectra, a shoulder
before the first maximum is observed. In
all spectra, the second maximum is lower in
CL CL
Fic. 4. Resonance extremes for 4-chloro- and 4,7-dichlorobenzotriazolyl anions.
‘ ducts
we ©
Es ae! NS
River incinsy vA
Ne N
(CL)
C
log € value than the first. Additional spec-
tral evidence indicates that 2-substituted
derivatives show 1 principal maximum or a
partially resolved double maxima a few
millimicrons apart, with higher log € values.
than the maxima associated with either the |
parent benzotriazole or the corresponding |
l-substituted derivative.
When 4,6-dichlorobenzotriazole was sub-
jected to the azole addition reaction, ad-—
were obtained with acrylamide,
acrylonitrile, benzalacetophenone, and cro-
tonic acid. All addition products were found
by ultraviolet spectroscopy to have the
“single” maximum characteristic of 2-sub-.
stituted benzotriazoles (Fig. 2) and have
been assigned structures accordingly. The
structure of the addition product with
acrylamide is shown in Fig. 5B.
4-Chlorobenzotriazole gave addition prod-
ucts with acrylamide, acrylonitrile, benza-
lacetophenone, and crotonic acid. From
observing the melting point ranges of the
crude addition products, the possibility
existed that mixtures of isomers were pro-
duced, with either the most abundant or
least soluble isomer being isolated in the
purification procedure. Limited attempts.
to separate isomers, however, were unsuc-
cessful. Three of the adducts gave ultra-
violet spectra characteristic of 1-substituted
benzotriazoles while the acrylonitrile adduct
gave a spectrum characteristic of 2-sub-
stitution (Fig. 1). The 1-substituted prod-.
ucts could be either 1,4-disubstituted (Fig.
5A) or 1,7-disubstituted (Fig. 5C) but have
been assigned the 1,4 structure. This seems
ConyucaTE AppiT1Ion REAcTIoNs oF AzoLtes—Morgan and Hussung 29
Cle
Nw
NN
(CL) N“ (CL)
R
A
Ce R
|
= NN Nw
- UR y N
N (CL) N
C
Fic. 5. Theoretically possible addition products of 4-chloro- and 4,6-dichlorobenzotriazole with acryl-
amide (R = pe
justified on the basis of previous work that
indicated that symmetrical benzotriazoles
with substituents in the 4- and 7-positions
gave only 2-substituted and no 1-substituted
addition products (Wiley, Hussung, and
Moffat 1955; Wiley and Hussung 1957).
Therefore, the same effect should be ob-
served in asymmetric benzotriazoles when
there is a chlorine substituent on the 4-
position only. The nitrogen adjacent to the
halogen in the 4-chlorobenzotriazolyl anion
should be less nucleophilic, and hence, less
favorable as a reaction site in the addition
reaction, since the chlorine would reduce
the electron density at that nitrogen, induc-
tively, and could, as previously postulated,
sterically impair attack at that position.
The slightly acidic nature of benzotri-
azoles is attributable to resonance stabiliza-
tion of their anions. Decreased acidity in
4.5,6,7-tetramethylbenzotriazole, due appar-
ently to the electron releasing character of
the methyl groups, made attempts at titra-
tion with dilute base unsuccessful. This
reduced acidity made the preparation of
base-catalyzed conjugate addition products
difficult. 4,5,6,7-Tetramethylbenzotriazole
was added successfully, however, to cro-
tonic acid. The addition product formed
was indicated by ultraviolet absorption data
to be 2-substituted (Fig. 3).
The best insight into the effect of ben-
zenoid substituents of benzotriazoles on the
course of the addition reaction was provided
by the studies involving 4,6-dichlorobenzo-
triazole. Since only 2-substituted products
were obtained, the 1-nitrogen adjacent to
the ring and not sterically impaired is inac-
tivated by an inductive effect. The fact
that both chlorine atoms are positioned
meta to that nitrogen produces an electron
withdrawing inductive effect of sufficient
magnitude to reduce its nucleophilicity, thus
rendering it an unfavorable reaction site. If
steric hindrance, as previously postulated
(Wiley, Hussung, and Moffat 1955; Wiley
and Hussung 1957), was the controlling
factor, l-substituted addition products
would no doubt have been produced. The
fact that 4-chlorobenzotriazole gave both
1- and 2-substituted addition products can
be explained on the basis of a smaller
inductive effect and the absence of steric
interference at the 1-nitrogen.
The presence of electron releasing methyl
groups in the 4- and 7-positions should favor
inductively, and hinder sterically, the in-
volvement of the 1-(3-) nitrogens in the
addition reaction. Since 4,5,6,7-tetramethyl-
benzotriazole gave a 2-substituted addition
product, it appears, on the basis of this
evidence, that the steric factor plays the
dominant role.
LITERATURE CITED
1958. Tri-
Sci. Fac.
Dat Monre, D., AND P. VEGGETTI.
azoles and benzotriazoles. Boll.
Chim. Ind. Univ. Bologna 16:1-9.
Fries, K., H. Gurersockx, AND H. Kuun. 1934.
Bicyclic compounds and their comparison with
naphthalene. IV. Series of azimidobenzenes
and N-methylazimidobenzenes. Ann. Chemie
oLi:2is:
30 Trans. KENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(1-2)
Gorpon, M., AND D. E. Pearson. 1964. The
swamping catalyst effect. VI. The halogena-
tion of isoquinoline and quinoline. J. Org.
Chem, 29:329.
KROLLPFEIFFER, F., H. Potz, AND A. ROSENBERG.
1938. N-Alkylbenzotriazoles and the consti-
tution of benzotriazole. Berichte 71B:596.
SmirH, L. I., Anp S. A. Harris. 1935. Studies
on the polymethylbenzenes. XI. The nitration
of pentamethylbenzene and of hexamethyl-
and hexaethylbenzene. J. Amer. Chem. Soc.
57:1289.
SPECKER, H., AnD H. Gawroscu. 1942. Ultra-
violet absorption of benzotriazoles, pyridones
and their salts. Berichte 75B:1338.
Wiey, R. H., anp K. F. Hussunc. 1957. Halo-
genated- benzotriazoles. J. Amer. Chem. Soc.
79:4395.
>
, AND J. Morrat. 1955. Prep-
aration, structure, and properties of 4,5,6,7-
tetrachlorobenzotriazole and its 1- and 2-sub-
stituted products. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 77:
5105.
, AND J. Morrar. 1963. 4,6-Dichloro-
benzotriazole. J. Chem. Eng. Data 8(2):279.
, N. R. Smiru, D. M.-JOHNSON, AND J.
Morrat. 1954. Conjugate addition reactions
of azoles: 1,2,3-triazole and benzotriazole. J.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 76:4933.
, =, ———,, AND ———..
1955. Conjugate addition reactions of azoles.
II. 1,2,4-Triazole, tetrazole, nitropyrazoles and
benzotriazole. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 77:2572.
Wo tr, F. J., K. Prister, III, R. M. Witson, Jr.,
AND C. A. Rospinson. 1954. Benzotriazines.
I. A new series of compounds having anti-
malarial activity. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 76:
3551.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1—2), 1978, 31-38
Some Hydrologic Characteristics of a Small
Forested Watershed in Eastern Kentucky
EVERETT P. SPRINGER AND GEORGE B. COLTHARP
Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40506
ABSTRACT
Evaluation of land use—water yield relationships requires knowledge of baseline or background
hydrologic characteristics of relatively undisturbed watersheds. Hydrologic data were collected
in 1972-1976 on a 93.70-ha undisturbed forested watershed in the Eastern Mountain and Coal-
field region of Kentucky. During that period, precipitation averaged 136.07 cm annually. Total
water yield (runoff) averaged 80.20 cm or 59 percent of the average annual precipitation. Mean
annual stormflow (quickflow ) volume comprised 44 percent of the mean annual runoff. Steeply
sloping flow duration curves coupled with a high percentage of the total annual runoff that
occurred as stormflow characterizes the watershed as having “flashy” hydrologic response.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, increased attention has
been devoted to the quantity and quality
of surface water that drains from forested
watersheds. The Eastern Mountain and
Coalfield Region is mainly forested, and
contains the primary watersheds for more
than half of Kentucky. The Kentucky,
Licking, Big Sandy, and Cumberland rivers,
that originate in the region, provide water
for industrial and public use for the eastern
half of the state. Several recent reports
(Kentucky Department of Commerce 1975,
Krieger et al. 1969) show that approxi-
mately 96 percent of the water used in the
Eastern Mountain and Coalfield Region and
79 percent of the water used in the Blue-
grass Region is in the form of surface water.
With this demonstrated dependency upon
surface water supplies, land use practices
in the headwater areas can greatly affect
the quantity and quality of flow of that
vital resource.
In order to evaluate the current status of
land use—water yield relationships, we need
to know the baseline or background values
of water quantity and quality produced
from relatively undisturbed forested water-
sheds. Such values are essential yardsticks
in any evaluation of environmental degra-
dation.
Forest hydrology studies currently under-
31
way at the University of Kentucky Robinson
Forest in eastern Kentucky are providing
some of these much needed baseline data.
Several small forested watersheds have been
monitored since 1971, and this paper sum-
marizes some of the pertinent hydrologic
characteristics of one of those areas.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Study Area
over 75 percent of the soils of Robinson
Robinson Forest lies 40.23 km south of
Jackson, Kentucky, in the Eastern Mountain
and Coalfield Physiographic Province. The
University of Kentucky acquired the 6,075-
ha tract in 1923 following logging of the
virgin stands; there has been no extensive
logging since acquisition. The bedrock is
comprised of alternating layers of sand-
stones, siltstones, shales, and coal from the
Pennsylvanian Age (Hutchins et al. 1976).
Some layers of the bedrock are more resis-
tant to weathering than others, therefore,
the resulting slopes are dissected by
benches. The deepest soils occur along the
upslope sides of benches and in cove sites,
while rock outcrops are common along
slopes and the outslope edges of benches.
From a hydrologic viewpoint, those soils
are classified as shallow. The Shelocta and
Rigley series, found on slopes, comprise
32 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
> (fo yee ‘ KAY
inte a Zs = . XS \
~~ ify \ ‘
ite Watitift, tes
Fic. 1. Topographic map of Falling Rock Water-
shed.
Forest (Hutchins et al. 1976). The Gilpin
and Steinsburg series are residual soils on
ridgetops, and the Pope series has evolved
from alluvial material along the bottoms
(Graves et al. 1977).
Falling Rock Watershed is a 93.7-ha tract
selected as the control watershed for future
studies (Fig. 1). Its orientation is predom-
inantly northwest, and the slopes average
44 percent. The main channel length is
670 m and slopes at a rate of 54.6 m/km.
The basin is oval and the long axis runs
from southwest to northeast. The 100 per-
cent forest cover on the watershed has an
average basal area of 20.40 m?/ha, with the
predominant species being oaks (Quercus
spp.), yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipi-
fera), hickories (Carya spp.), and maples
(Acer spp.). Carpenter and Rumsey (1976)
published a complete checklist of species
on Robinson Forest.
Measurements
Total incoming precipitation was mea-
sured with a weighing type gauge in a small
clearing near the stream gauging station
(Fig. 1).
Streamflow was measured continuously
by a 3:1 side-sloped, broad-crested _tri-
angular weir equipped with an FW-1 water
level recorder (Fig. 2). The weir cutoff
wall is tied into shale on each side and
across the bottom. The weir has a rated
head capacity of 0.9 m, equivalent to 4,825.7
]/sec.
Data Reduction
Precipitation charts were point picked by
hand, and the data transferred to computer
cards. Reduction of the data to 2, 5, 10, 15,
and 30-min and 1, 2, 6, and 24-hour inten-
sities, for each event and daily and monthly
totals, was accomplished by means of a
previously developed computer program
(Shanholtz and Burford 1967).
Streamflow charts were reduced by means
of an Oscar-K chartreader available through
the U.S. Forest Service, Berea, Kentucky.
The Oscar-K utilizes an X-Y coordinate
system, with time on the X axis and stage
on the Y axis; the chartreader is interfaced
with a keypunch so that values are punched
directly into cards. The cards were processed
into streamflow information using the
Coweeta streamflow program described by
Hibbert and Cunningham (1967). The out-
put of the program includes (1) mean daily
flow in Ism (liters per second per square
mile), with monthly and annual summaries;
(2) flow frequency by minutes; (3) storm-
flow information; and (4) stormflow sum-
mary by months, seasons, and years.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Precipitation
The precipitation pattern is typical for
this area of the United States; low intensity,
long duration rainstorms predominate dur-
ing winter, and high intensity, convectional
storms occur in summer. Snow is an insig-
nificant form of precipitation and no attempt ©
has been made to determine its relative ©
contribution (percentage of total). Mean |
annual precipitation for 1972-1976 was
136.07 cm; the driest year was 1976 when
117.85 cm fell and the wettest was 1974
when 156.99 cm fell. The amounts and
distribution of the monthly and annual pre-
-
HyproLocy OF FoRESTED WATERSHED—Springer and Coltharp 33
Fic. 2. V-notch weir used for measurement of streamflow.
cipitation for the study period (Table 1) Streamflow
indicate that March receives the highest Monthly and annual streamflow for 1972-
mean monthly precipitation of 17.19cmand 1976 are shown in Table 2. Mean annual
August is the lowest, receiving 6.80 cm. streamflow was 80.20 cm, 59 percent of the
TABLE 1.—MONTHLY, ANNUAL, AND MEAN PRECIPITATION (CM), FALLING Rock WATERSHED, 1972—1976
Year
Month 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 x
Jan 20.70 4.11 22.23 on7 9.32 13.13
Feb 18.08 7.32 4.83 9.09 8.64 9.59
Mar 10.29 13.46 17.86 28.02 16.33 (749
Apr 21.64 12.95 11.99 9.25 1.07 11.38
May C10 14.66 14.61 17.65 6.83 12.29
Jun 1.19 5.44 24.89 9.25 16.51 12.77
Jul 8.89 15.57 7.24 4.14 12.34 9.64
Aug 0.89 3.76 13.72 7.87 To 6.80
Sep 11.43 5.59 9.78 17.02 13.46 11.46
Oct 7.62 9.14 4.95 12.01 15.19 9.78
Nov 10.46 17.58 11.43 10.13 2.79 10.48
Dec 17.02 10.80 13.46 9:07 7.62 11.59
Annual 142.47 120.38 156.99 142.67 117.85 136.07
34 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE 2.—MOoNTHLY, ANNUAL, AND MEAN STREAMFLOW (CM), FALLING Rock WATERSHED, 1972-1976
Month 1972
Jan 19.99 1.98
Feb 19.46 8.92
Mar 9.02 7.67
Apr 28.09 9.65
May Schl T.1D
Jun 0.53 0.64
Jul 0.46 0.71
Aug 0.15 0.38
Sep 0.56 0.18
Oct 0.66 0.41
Nov 2771 ol
Dec 17.68 6.30
Annual 103.08 51.96
average annual precipitation, an exception-
ally high value! The highest annual yield
was in 1972 with 103.08 cm and the lowest
yield was the following year with 51.96 cm.
The mean monthly data in Fig. 3 indicate
the temporal distribution of the mean an-
CENTIMETERS
Year
1973 1974 1975 1976 x
22.81 13.18 3.91 12.37
4,42 ie yg 10.67 11.04
15.75 31.57 13.49 15.50
10.82 10.57 3.10 12.47
3.40 10.41 0.86 5.23
12.50 2.46 3.12 3.85
0.81 0.23 1.47 0.74
0.91 0.15 1.65 0.65
2.59 0.74 1.14 1.04
1.73 1.96 9.88 2.93
6.88 5.11 2.24 4.87
10.24 6.35 fae 9.54
92.86 94.44 58.64 80.20
nual flow. On the average, the first 4
months of the year accounted for 64 percent —
of the annual runoff. If May and June are
included, those 6 months produced 75 per- |
cent of the annual runoff. That period cor-
responds with the dormant vegetational
Fic. 3. Relationship between mean monthly precipitation, runoff, and quickflow for Falling Rock Water-
shed, 1972-1976.
HyproLocy oF ForEsTeED WATERSHED—Springer and Coltharp oD
Flow (csm)
Flow (1/sec)
iene on eG GeCSC«CR SC‘ COO
Percent of time flow equaled or exceeded
Fic. 4. Composite flow duration relationship for
Falling Rock Watershed, 1972-1976.
season and is characterized by full soil mois-
ture recharge. Reinhart et al. (1963) found
a similar relationship at the Fernow Experi-
mental Forest in West Virginia. The rela-
tively shallow soils do not have a large
water storage capacity, and recharge occurs
quickly. Such a lack of a large soil water
storage reservoir produces “flashy” runoff
conditions on those watersheds, and little
or no storage dictates that baseflow cannot
be sustained during prolonged dry periods,
and the streams do not flow for brief periods
during the year. Low flows occur primarily
in July and August, periods of low precipita-
tion and high evapotranspiration demand.
For 11 days in late August and early Sep-
tember 1975 there was no streamflow.
By 1000
500
100
Flow(csm)
so
Flow(\/sec)
Percent of time flow equaled or exceeded
Fic. 5. Flow duration relationship for wet year
Flow Duration
Flow duration curves (Figs. 4-6) are
presented to indicate the distribution of
flows and further substantiate the “flashy”
characterization of the watershed. Fig. 4
represents the total 1972-1976 period when
mean discharge was 7.00 I/sec. Fig. 5 rep-
resents 1974, characterized as a wet year,
and it is obvious from the curve that flow
was not less than 0.60 1/sec for any signifi-
cant percentage of time during the year.
Also, mean flow for that year was 8.20 l/sec,
considerably above the composite mean of
7.00 1/sec. Fig. 6 represents 1976, a dry year
when mean discharge was 5.20 1/sec, and
during that year discharge exceeded 10.20
36 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(1-2)
500
100
Flow (esm
Flow (\/sec)
Percent of time flow equaled or exceeded
Fic. 6. Flow duration relationship for dry year
1976.
I/sec only 36 percent of the time, while the
average for that interval was 43 percent.
Morisawa (1968) indicated that flow
duration curves allow characterization of
runoff from watersheds. Those watersheds
with large storage capacity will exhibit flat
flow duration curves, whereas watersheds
with little or no storage have steeply sloped
curves. The curves from Falling Rock
Watershed have steep slopes, further evi-
dence of lack of moisture storage within
the soils of Robinson Forest.
Stormflows
Stormflow or direct runoff from forested
watersheds consists almost entirely of sub-
surface flow, while overland flow or surface
runoff is virtually nonexistent. Hewlett and
Streamflow
VZZ A taichtlow
WY ip Yj
Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Wor Dee
Fic. 7. Relationship between mean monthly stream- }
flow and quickflow for Falling Rock Watershed,
1972-1976. |
Hibbert (1967), recognizing the processes }
that operate in forested watersheds, clas-
sified storm hydrograph volumes as quick- }
flow and delayed flow. Quickflow is dis-
tinguished from delayed flow by a line with }
a slope of 0.55 1/sec/km?/hr projected from —
the rising limb to falling limb of the hydro- }
graph. That method was used to analyze }
hydrographs from Falling Rock Watershed. }
The resultant monthly and annual quick- }
flow volumes are presented in Table 3. The }
largest quickflow volumes usually occur }
during months of soil moisture recharge and >
little or no evapotranspiration. However,
June 1974 had an abnormally high value of
8.97 cm that resulted from above average
precipitation during March-June 1974. In_
Fig. 7, that presents monthly mean stream- |
flow and quickflow for the study period, }
July is the only month where quickflow was
less than 30 percent of the mean monthly
flow. During the study, quickflow averaged |
44 percent of the mean annual runoff.
Hewlett and Hibbert (1967), surveying
forested watersheds in the eastern and
southeastern United States, found only 1
-
HyproLocy OF ForESTED WATERSHED—Springer and Coltharp 37
TABLE 3.—MONTHLY, ANNUAL, AND MEAN QUICKFLOW VOLUMES (CM), FALLING Rock WATERSHED, 1972-
1976
Year
Month 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 £
Jan 10.54 0.01 12.95 3.78 1.47 3.79
Heb 10.15 1.64 0.10 3.07 4.07 3.87
Mar 2.65 2.53 5.95 20.12 8.06 7.86
Apr 16.80 3.98 2.90 3.78 0.05 5.00
May 0.35 Suge. 0.76 4.75 0.05 1.93
Jun 0.04 0.06 8.97 0.84 LGl 2.30
Jul 0.07 0.22 0.11 0.01 0.46 Oak.
Aug 0 0.03 0.21 0.02 0.82 0.22
Sep 0.40 0.02 0.84 0.24 0.65 0.43
Oct 0.04 0.08 O37 0.94 5.92 1.47
Nov 0.77 9.03 2.19 SR id 0 2.33
Dec 8.60 3.30 2.56 EO 2.08 3.65
Annual 50.41 2h? Oto 42.72 25.24 35.48
forested watershed with a quickflow re-
sponse as high as Falling Rock Watershed.
That watershed, at Union, South Carolina,
has an 85 percent forest cover.
There have not been enough years of
data collection to determine any return
periods on peakflows. The data presented
in Table 4 represent the highest yearly
peaks obtained during this study. It should
be noticed that 1973, categorized as a dry
year, had the lowest peak value.
SUMMARY
Precipitation and streamflow data were
collected over a 5-year period on a small
undisturbed forested watershed in the
Eastern Mountain and Coalfield Region of
Kentucky. Hydrologic characteristics were
determined from the data pool. Such base-
line hydrologic information is lacking for
TABLE 4.—YEARLY MAXIMUM RATE OF FLOW (L/
SEC), FALLING Rock WATERSHED, 1972-1976
Date Flow rate
12 Apr 1972 3,375
26 Nov 1973 1,195
22 Jun 1974 3,060
25 Apr 1975 1,818
21 Mar 1976 2,999
the region. Precipitation averaged 136.07
cm for the period. Total streamflow and
quickflow volumes were closely related,
with most of the annual volume produced
during the dormant season. Mean annual
streamflow of 80.20 cm represented 59 per-
cent of the mean annual precipitation, and
quickflow accounted for 44 percent of the
total runoff. Quickflow volumes coupled
with steeply sloping flow duration curves
categorize the watershed as flashy, from a
hydrologic viewpoint.
The potential of the region as a lumber
and energy producer is enormous, but it is
important that those resources be obtained
without destroying watershed values. To
better understand such watersheds, experi-
ments must be conducted to evaluate treat-
ment effects on the water resource at Robin-
son Forest.
LITERATURE CITED
CARPENTER, S. B., AND R. L. Rumsey. 1976.
Trees and shrubs of Robinson Forest, Breathitt
County, Kentucky. Castanea 41:277—282.
Graves, D. H., G. B. CoLttTHarp, M. C. Ham-
METTER, D. C. JoRDAN, C. L. SHILLING, AND
R. F. Wittwer. 1977. Remote sensing of
effects of land use practices on water quality.
Final Report Contract No. NAS8-31006. 159
pp.
38 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
HEWLETT, J. D., AND A. R. Hippertr. 1967. Fac-
tors affecting the response of small watersheds
to precipitation in humid areas. Pp. 275-290.
In W. E. Sopper and H. W. Lull (Eds.).
International Symposium on Forest Hydrology.
Pergamon Press, New York, N.Y. 813 pp.
Hipsert, A. R., anD G. B. CUNNINGHAM. 1967.
Streamflow data processing opportunities and
application. Pp. 725-736. In W. E. Sopper
and H. W. Lull (Eds.). International Sym-
posium on Forest Hydrology. Pergamon Press,
New York, N.Y. 813 pp.
Hurcuins, R. B., R. L. BLevins, J. D. HILL, AND
E. H. Wurre. 1976. The influence of soils
and microclimate on vegetation of forested
slopes in eastern Kentucky. Soil Science 121
(4):234-241.
KENTUCKY DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE.
1975.
Natural resources of Kentucky. Frankfort, Ky.
42 pp.
KriEGER, R. A., R. V. CUSHMAN, AND N. D. THOMAs.
1969. Water in Kentucky. Ky. Geol. Surv.,
Lexington, Ky. 51 pp.
Morisawa, M. 1968. Streams, their dynamics
and morphology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, N.Y. 175 pp.
REINHART, K. G., A. R. ESCHNER, AND G, R.
TRIMBLE. 1963. Effect on streamflow of
four forest practices in the mountains of West
Virginia. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-1.
79 pp. Northeast For. Exp. Sta., Upper Darby,
Pa,
SHANHOLTz, V. O., AND J. B. Burrorp. 1967.
Computer systems for reduction and analysis
of hydrologic data. USDA Agric. Res. Ser.
ARS-41-132. 90 pp.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1—2), 1978, 39-53
The Louisville Meteorite—Fall and Recovery
GRAHAM HUNT
Department of Geology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
AND
THomaAs E. BOONE
Rauch Planetarium, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
The Louisville Meteorite entered the earth’s atmosphere at 1530 EST, 31 January 1977 as
a bolide that created a flash visible for 160 km. Sightings checked by a Brunton compass
assisted in working out a possible sequence of 4 major fragmentation and/or illumination events.
During those events, the fireball traveled on an azimuth of S 87 W, and counterclockwise to
the earth’s revolutionary path. To date, 4 stones found within an ellipse of fall in central and
western Louisville, Kentucky, have been identified as fragments of a chondritic meteorite. The
ellipse is about 10 km long and 7 km wide with a long axis S 87 W, the largest stone near its
southwestern apex. In falling, 4 stones struck 2 rooftops, a car top, and the window of a house.
Mapping and recovery to date has yielded 1,312 g of chondritic meteorite material. The largest
stone weighed 1,051 g.
Microscopic investigation and chemical studies have established that the Louisville Meteorite
is an ordinary chondrite with shock metamorphic banding, an olivine—hypersthene chondrite
(L6 in the classification of Van Schmus and Wood 1967).
INTRODUCTION
From early geologic times, our earth and
the other members of the solar system have
been bombarded by solid bodies from space
called meteorites. They may be the oldest
and most primitive pieces of planetary
matter that we have access to at the present
time, approximately one billion years older
than the oldest known earth rocks.
It is important to distinguish between
“finds” and “falls” in meteorite studies.
Among the meteorite falls that have been
observed and recovered, about 92 percent
are stones, 6 percent irons, and 2 percent
stony irons. Those meteorites found but
not observed to fall are 35 percent stones,
o9 percent irons, and 6 percent stony irons
(Prior 1953).
Meteorites usually are named after geo-
graphic landmarks such as the nearest city
or village large enough to have a post office.
J. Lawrence Smith (1877) drew attention
to the remarkable fact that during about
18 years in the late 1800s there had been
39
12 falls of meteorites in the United States,
8 of which had occurred over the prairie
regions of the west, not far from his home
in Louisville. In Kentucky, 24 meteorites
have been positively identified (Mason
1962), and 5 of them are classified as falls:
Bath Furnace, Cumberland Falls, Cynthi-
ana, Murray, and the latest addition to the
list, Louisville (Hunt 1977).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Television stations WLKY (Fran Severn),
WHAS (Chuck Olmstead), and WAVE
(Norm Lewis), and newspapers (The Louis-
ville Times, The Courier-Journal, and the
New Albany Tribune) gave the Louisville
meteorite excellent “front page” coverage.
Staff members Mark Webb and Martha
Hays of the Rauch Planetarium aided
greatly in gathering data. Barry Williams,
Darren Doderer, and Danny Cain, geology
students, University of Louisville, assisted
in ground searches. The Hunt family,
Dalyce, Freya, Shel, and Rod, participated
40
Fae. <1,
Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
INDIANAPOLIS
SIGHTING DATA
LOUISVILLE METEORITE
«<——— Direction of fireball approach
/O. @ Observer location
‘SCALE: QO. 5S sO 20 3O MILES
O 10 20 30 40 $50 KILOMETERS
FIGURE 2)
2»
24@
Sighting data of the Louisville Meteorite showing the direction of approach of the fireball, the |
location of observers, and the outer limits of audible detonation.
FALL AND RECOVERY OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE—Hunt and Boone 4]
LOCATION AND SIGHTING DATA
LOUISVILLE METEORITE
A 8 Barlow Stone
AK Krill Stone
H Horney Stone
AW Warehouse Stone
O Detonations
) © 13. Observations - (LOCATIONS)
fe) 2 3 Miles
| 2 4 5 Kilometers
Fic. 2. Sighting data of the Louisville Meteorite showing the ellipse of fall, the flight axis, observer
locations, and points of recovery of the 4 stones.
in the ground search and the collection of
sighting data. Louisvillians and citizens of
the surrounding areas were very helpful in
supplying sighting data. Mr. and Mrs. R.
J. Barlow, Mrs. Krill, Mrs. Horney, and Mr.
R. L. White generously made available their
specimens for research purposes. Research
on the meteorite was supported by the Uni-
versity of Louisville. E. Jarosewich pro-
vided the bulk analysis.
We gratefully acknowledge the help of
J. Kalliokoski and the use of the facilities
of Michigan Technological University. R.
_E. Folinsbee reviewed the manuscript.
THe METEORITE
Fall
The Louisville meteorite entered the
earth's atmosphere over metropolitan Louis-
ville, Kentucky, at 2030 GMT (1530 EST)
on 31 January 1977. The senior author in-
vestigated 165 reported observations of the
detonating bolide, and during the week
following the fall, identified 4 widely sepa-
rated individual chondrites (Hunt 1977).
Various types of sighting data, as outlined
on standard fireball cards, were obtained
from reliable observers during the spring
following the fall. Those data include:
azimuths for first seen and end point, angle
to horizon, estimated velocity, number and
character of detonations, direction of fire-
ball trajectory, the form and colors of the
fireball, the length of time of observation,
and the exact location of the observer.
Locations of the observers are shown in
Figs. 1 and 2, and their eye witness accounts
are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. The
bearings to the observers first sighting and
42
TABLE 1.—INFORMATION GATHERED IN INDIANA AND KENTUCKY ON THE SIGHTING OF THE FIREBALL OF THE
LOUISVILLE METEORITE. OBSERVER LOCATIONS ARE FOR Fic. 1
Ot
~l
10
ll
12
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(1-2)
Observer location
Farm Credit Bank,
Indianapolis
Salem, Highway 60
I-65, ca. 30 miles
N of Louisville
Madison
Floyds Knobs
1718 Marlow Dr,
New Albany
Otisco
Oakwood subdivision,
New Albany
Prairie Village,
Crestridge Dr
Valley Station, Dixie
Hwy & Miller Ct
Holsclaw Hill, Brooks
Okolona
Bullitt Co. ca. 8 km
from Shepherdsville
Bullitt Co. south
of Salt River
Radcliff
Radcliff
Elizabethtown
Hodgenville
Hodgenville
Wax, Grayson Co.
Between Bowling
Green & Park City
New Haven
Boston
Shepherdsville
Sound
Nil
Nil
Nil
Sizzling
2 explosions
Nil
Nil
Thunder 60
sec after
sighting
Boom
Boom
Direction
of flight
INDIANA
ENE to WSW Silvery white with multiple fragmentation
N to S
E to W
NW falling
E to W
W
KENTUCKY
N overhead
E to W
E to W
E to W
NW overhead
NW
Comments on meteorite
Gold sparkle tinted red, 4-5 sec observa-
tion, 1515 hours
Burned out before it hit ground, like
flame thrower or Roman candle
White to blue form with pink tail
Intensely bright orange, burned out leav-
ing curved trail, few seconds
Bright with tail and smaller fragment
falling
Explosion and rumble, time delay
Bright red with tail
Fireball with tail, left white trail and
disappeared, like sparkler leaving small |
pieces
Basketball-sized fireball with red_ tail, |
detonation at endpoint
Yellow, 3 fragments with 1 piece off each
side, cone-shaped, 2 sec duration, 8,000— |
10,000 feet elevation
Round, red fireball ca. 3 feet in circum-
ference with red tail “about 10 feet
long”
Swishing sound
Blue corona on fireball with bright tail, |
burned out after 10 sec
|
Silvery, elliptical vapor trail flame, no 7
fragmentation :
Yellow streak, bright explosion and dis-
appeared |
Ball of fire, low
Reddish-yellow fragmentation at endpoint,
became smaller and disappeared
2 fragments, left trail of black smoke and
fire during fall
Dark in front, trail of fire red—white—blue.
Golden streak across sky |
Fireball with orange trail, fire went out
Yellow and blue, 4—5 sec lag bees!
sighting and noise
FALL AND RECOVERY OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE—Hunt and Boone 43
TABLE 1.—CONTINUED
the end point of the fireball were measured
with a Brunton compass and/or a transit
at the exact spot of observation. The bear-
ing lines (Fig. 2) were plotted with a
protractor on a detailed street map of the
city showing the exact locations of all
observations. The end result of such a
survey can be used to establish the points
formerly occupied by the fireball (Folins-
bee and Bayrock 1964). The presence of
the pronounced clustering of sightings at
4 widely separated locations strongly sup-
ports the sound data of at least 4 major
detonations (Figs. 2, 3).
Spatial relationships of the various ob-
servers (35) and the direction of fireball
approach, approximately S 87 W (Fig. 1),
and the descriptions (Table 1) indicate that
the outer limits of the reliable sightings are
-at about a 160-km radius from Louisville
(Observer No. 1 in Indianapolis to the
north; Observers Nos. 21, 34, and 35 to the
south and southeast, and Observer No. 33
to the east). The audible outer limits of the
detonations appear to be about 50 km from
Louisville. Because the Louisville meteor
Direction
Observer location Sound of flight Comments on meteorite
25 10 km east of Nil E to W Shining in front with flames coming from
Taylorsville back
26 Pewee Valley Boom E to W Clear color with tail
27 Oldham Co. between Overhead One loud explosion from directly over-
Crestwood and boom head
Ballardsville q/
28 Fox Harbor, Pros- Boom-sizzle NE to SW Ball of fire, 500-1,000 feet high
pect Hwy 42
29 Frankfort Nil W Ball of fire with orange and yellow tail
30 Lexington E to W Ball of fire with tail, silver
31 Lexington, IBM Nil NE to W Reddish-orange, very bright with trailing
fire giving off objects, multiple frag-
mentation
32 Lexington (SW) Nil W Grapefruit-sized, 2-2.5 sec, brighter than
sun, white with yellow tail
33 E of Winchester on Nil W Reddish-orange with tail, 1532 hours
Mountain Pkwy
34 Somerset Nil Light flashing through sky at 1530 hours,
shooting star
35 Somerset Nil E Red, blue trail
fell during the daylight hours on a very
clear, sunny, and cold day (-5.5C), some
eye witness accounts of the fall were very
descriptive.
Observer No. 12 (Fig. 1) at a distance
of 16 km reported, “A round red fireball
about 3 feet in circumference with a fiery
red tail about 10 to 12 feet long, moving
from east to west, with no noise, lower than
a plane would be, and then a boom.” Ob-
server No. 15 at a distance of 50 km re-
ported, “It was a silvery, elliptically shaped
vapor trail with flame, no noise.” Observer
No. 18 at a distance of 76 km reported, “A
reddish-yellow fireball that became smaller,
spitting particles, and then disappeared.”
Observer No. 19 at a distance of 60 km
reported, “My father and I saw the mete-
orite while cutting wood about a mile south
of Lincoln’s birthplace in Hodgenville, Ken-
tucky. My father saw one piece fall off first
and then told me to look, and we both saw
a second piece fall off. It left a trail of
black smoke. They looked like fire as they
fell. It was moving very fast, but we didn’t
hear the boom.” Observer No. 20 at a
44 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE 2.—REPORTS ON FIREBALL OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE, 31 JANUARY 1977, BY OBSERVERS IN LOUIS-
VILLE, KENTUCKY. SIGHTINGS ARE AZIMUTHS AT FIRST AND LAST OBSERVATION. FIGURES IN PARENTHESES
ARE MEASURED ALTITUDES. OBSERVER LOCATIONS ARE FOR Fic. 2
Sighting
—— Duration
Observer location First Last (sec) Comments
1 4th & Liberty Sts N25E NW 65 3 Stream of fire; horizontal Roman candle;
(65>) black object falling at 1,000-ft elevation;
sounded like rocket fire
2 Browns Lane & N 25 W N 45 W 2-3 Blue-orange tail; slope >45°; sizzling hiss
Beargrass Creek (50°) (40°) ca. 120 sec prior to large boom; disappeared —
after 30-45 sec
Bellarmine College N 42 E N13 W 5 Fireball with orange tail; fragmentation, ©
oy)
(24°) (36° ) minor slope; sonic boom after 30-60 sec;
like airplane on fire |
4 27th floor, 5th & N 90E Overhead 2 White center with trailing yellow edges; 1 _
Main Sts ( Dike!) fireball maybe splitting; estimated 500-
1,000 ft above tower
5 Preston & Eastern N50 E N 45 W few White nucleus with yellow tail; black smoke;
Pkwy (40°) (55°) 3 faint booms ca. 40 sec after first sighting;
downward slope; like flag flapping in wind
6 Outer Loop & NI8E N 45 W 5 Reddish with sparks; roll of firecrackers
Smyrna Rd (21=95°)~!) (19°)
7 6100 Campground Rd N43E N33 E few Very bright explosion; bright orange and
CI92327 = (16"35) yellow; many fragments burned out at
2,000 ft; steep slope
8 4562 Melton Ave N4A7E N15 W few __ Rolling thunder and boom 30 sec after first
(22) (14°) seen; 1 large fireball with orange tail and
sparks; 3 explosion-like events, 1 ca. N 25 E —
large piece (ca. 1% of original) shot upward,
2nd halfway on trajectory, 3rd was shower >
at endpoint |
9 3750 Crittenden Dr EtoNE N30W 5 White with 2 streaks for 4 sec; completely
Cape) (45°) extinguished white flame; sound like |
welder’s torch and rolling thunder after 10.
sec
10 Bremmer Way & N 65 E N 37 W few ‘Very bright with orange tail; last noise about —
Ehrler Dr (372) (307) 60 sec after first seen |
11 Washington & Ohio NT75E Obstructed 4 White with orange tail; fragmentation at |
Sts C2gen (45°) endpoint; “crack” when exploded |
12 8th & Broadway N N 75 W 4 Arc of welder’s blowtorch; bright white with |
Gira) (2725) darker endpoints of cylindrical fireball; })
fragmentation (3) pieces fell N of Broad-
way at endpoint; static sound like rushing
artillery shell overhead 60 sec after first
seen; vanished then reappeared
$3! 442358. 3rd St S 80 W S 65 W few Level flight of white to red fireball (maybe J.
10th floor (5°) (52) fragment reported in Lake Dreamland area
but not recovered ); sound before sighting
14 25th & Lee Sts N 30-45 W few White streak; boom 30 sec after first seen; ;
(50° ) other explosions i
§
15 1130 St. Michael St N40E N 70 W 2 Blue—white with orange tail; no fragmenta-§-
(20°) (20°) tion; huge boom ca. 60 sec after first seen;
floor of house shaking
-
FALL AND RECOVERY OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE—Hunt and Boone 45
TABLE 2.—CONTINUED
Sighting
Observer location First Last
16 3901 Taylor Blvd N25E
(30° )
17 7th & Berry Sts N 50-65 W N75 W
(45° ) (40° )
18 1821 Cypress St N 80 E NW
(25°)
19 530 Camden N45 E N 10 W
(44°) (52°)
20 1123 Standiford Lane N N5 W
(50° ) (50°)
21 4th & York Sts N 62 E N 55 W
(35° )
22 Floyd & Walnut Sts N50E NSE
(50° ) (55°)
distance of 104 km reported, “It was dark
_ in front, coming from the east, red—white—
_ blue with a trail of fire.” Observer No. 29
_ at a distance of 64 km reported, “It was a
ball of fire with tail, some orange and yellow
and no noise.” Observer No. 30 at a distance
of 110 km reported, “It looked like a ball
of fire, silverish colors with a tail, and was
moving very fast.” Observer No. 31 at a
distance of 110 km reported, “A reddish
orange, large and very bright meteor, trail-
ing fire tail, giving off small objects, travel-
ling westerly with a high rate of speed.”
Observer No. 32 at a distance of about 110
km reported, “It is brighter than the sun,
moving in the same direction he was, low
and fast, for about 2 seconds, appeared to
be the size of a grapefruit, white with
yellow tail, and horizontal flight.” Observer
No. 34 at a distance of 165 km reported,
“A light flashing down through the sky. My
first comment was I have never seen a
shooting star at daytime before. My second
comment was that it must be a piece of
space junk burning up as it reentered the
atmosphere. Would it be possible to see it
this far away?” An observation at a distance
of 190 km (near the Kentucky—Tennessee
Duration
(sec) Comments
2 White, very bright orange tail; no fragmen-
tation; coneshaped; at least 3 booms, last
30—45 sec after first seen
2 White, like 2 fragments, small one preceding
large one, both conical; largest boom like
rumbling thunder
few Fireball with yellowish parts and tail; 2
pieces, smaller one following; large boom
2-3 White-yellow like flare gun; 2 fragments,
smaller preceding; popping to fizzling
2 White flash with trail; noise continuous; no
sound at endpoint
3 White with red tail; horizontal cone ca. size
of quarter
2 Pink nucleus with white exterior and gray
tail; shaped like tennis ball; explosion at
endpoint with 2 major fragments and tail
of showers
border at Interstate 65) appears to be the
outer limit of sighting.
The following are some of the more
important eyewitness accounts and are
presented in chronological order of data
gathering (Fig. 2).
Observer No. 4 in his office window, at
the 27th floor of the First National Tower
at Fifth and Main Streets, Louisville, pro-
vided an excellent head-on report of the
fireball passing within an estimated few
hundred feet of the window. “It had a very
white center, with a pale yellow edge, and
very little tail was visible from this position.”
Observer No. 5 reported, “I walked a few
steps upon entering the parking lot, and
heard a flapping sound coming from the
sky. I use the word flapping sound _ be-
cause the sound reminded me of a flag
being whipped about by the wind. I looked
up and saw a white, yellow-tinged fireball
with a short tail, and some whisps of black
smoke trailing it.”
Observer No. 6 gave the following ac-
count of the fireball: “It was traveling in
a northwesterly direction, first observed at
approximately 25 to 30 degrees up in the
sky, visible long enough to see it was a red
46 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
KILOMETERS
DETONATION
ALTITUDE ABOVE GROUND LEVEL IN FEET
7© OBSERVER SIGHTING
PROFILE OF THE PATH OF THE LOUISVILLE BOLIDE
8
L\ RECOVERED STONE
SHOCK WAVE
10 MOST SEVERE Iz
DISTANCE ALONG AXIS OF TRAJECTORY IN MILES
Fic. 3. Profile of the path of the Louisville Meteorite.
ball with sparks tapering out into a tail.
Then it disappeared. Just a very short time
after, the sound was like a roll of firecrackers
exploding in about the same spot.”
Observer No. 8 sighted a white fireball
with a red tail that appeared to undergo 3
main fragmentation events over a ground
distance along the axis of the trajectory of
about 18 km, suggesting a slope of about
34°, and a velocity of about 3 km/sec near
the end point. He noticed that, “At the
point of the first fragmentation event, about
one-third of the total mass shot upward and
another blast occurred about half way along
the slope with a final shower at the end
point of the sighting.”
One of the best descriptions of entry came
from a geology student, Darren Doderer,
working in the basement of the library of
the University of Louisville who reported,
“At 3:30 p.m. Monday, the 3lst of January,
I was sitting at a desk studying, and looking
out the north-facing window of the library
when I first noticed the meteor in a direc-
tion just north of east and at an altitude
of about 30°. My initial impression was that
the meteor was actually some type of fire- _
work shot into the sky from the field be- |
tween the Gym and Threlkeld Hall. When |
I realized that it was not falling back to |
earth, but was instead moving laterally |
across the sky, I followed its course with
closer attention. At no time did the object
ever appear to grow larger as if it were
falling towards the earth. The size remained |
uniform (roughly the size of a softball at a |
short distance), even though I was visually |
aware of the lack of depth perception. Its |
speed was noticeably slow, calculated ve-_
locity at 1 to 2 miles per second near the
end point, it remained within my vision for
7 to 10 seconds. The color was white and
FALL AND RECOVERY OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE—Hunt and Boone 47
its shape was that of a compressed cone or
funnel with the sharp end pointed away
from the direction of travel. Both of those
properties remained constant while the
object was within my vision. The object’s
path took it over the western end of the
library, and out of my field of vision. About
a minute and a half later I heard a large
explosion, comparable to explosions pro-
duced by the artillery at Ft. Knox.”
Interpretation and Reconstruction
of Sighting Data
Sighting directions, locations of detona-
tions, fall area, and the area of most severe
ground shock on the basis of selected field
interviews are shown in Fig. 3. The most
reliable observers were those closest to the
path, and Observer Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11,
12, 15, 21, and 22 provided most of the
details in identifying the profile. The ap-
parent angle of descent was about 35° as
reported by Observer Nos. 2 and 8. Ob-
server No. 8, an amateur astronomer wit-
nessed most of the trajectory and fragmen-
tation events. Apparently, there were few
observers who actually witnessed the entire
sequence of events from the first illumina-
tion or detonation up to the end point or
final disappearance of the fireball. The
largest number of observations were made
by those south of the fireball trajectory,
and who did not have to face the glare of
the sun’s rays.
Apparently, the bolide created its initial
bright flare above the observers east of St.
Matthews. Observer Nos. 6, 8, 9, 10 (Figs.
2,3) first noticed the bolide at an altitude
of about 9 km. This calculation of altitude
of first disruption is somewhat lower than
the “normal” altitudes of 12 to 30 km as
reported by Krinov (1960) and the altitudes
near 30 km for Canadian chondritic mete-
orites (Folinsbee et al. 1969). Because the
detonation of a bolide is so spectacular, one
would assume that the trajectory can be
pinpointed in angle and direction by cross
sightings. Plots of altitudes of the moving
bolide were calculated by multiplying the
tangent of the vertical angle times the
ground distance (as computed from the site
of the observers ).
After the first illumination, the main body
appeared to continue on essentially a course
of about S 87 W. The sighting and sound
data suggest that a second major detonation
took place about 3 km over the heads of
the people in the St. Matthews area, in-
cluding the senior authors house. The
atmospheric shock wave in that area ap-
pears to be the most severe, rattling win-
dows, knocking pictures off walls, and
causing minor damage to a chimney.
The angle of descent changed markedly
subsequent to the second detonation (Ob-
server Nos. 2, 8), and the body took on a
more level flight. A third detonation ap-
parently occurred above the intersection
of Interstate 65 and Main Street, Louis-
ville, sending fragments directly at the city
(Observer Nos. 4, 8, 22). It is tempting
to speculate that 3 of the 4 recovered stones
were the result of that detonation. It is
noticed that the slope should become shal-
lower as the small mass reacts to the shock
disturbance of the air, implying fragmenta-
tion of the meteorite (Hellyer 1969).
The final and fourth detonation appar-
ently occurred above the intersection of
45th Street and Broadway, 2 of the busiest
streets in western Louisville. That detona-
tion was witnessed by Observer Nos. 5, 6,
7, 9, 12, and 14 (Fig. 2). The Barlow stone
was recovered in that area.
A best fit interpretation and reconstruc-
tion of the fireball’s trajectory suggests that
the meteoroid attained a fairly level flight
at an altitude of about 2 km between the
last 3 detonation points subsequent to under-
going a very steep slope of about 35°.
Estimates of the duration of the fireball
vary from about 2 to 6 sec indicating a very
slow velocity of about 2 km/sec along the
last 20 km of its trajectory. Observer No. 6
noted a 5-sec duration over about 19 km,
Observer No. 9 gave 6 sec for 19 km, and
Observer No. 12 gave the length of time
the fireball was in sight as 4 sec for 5 km
near the point of final disappearance of the
fireball.
48 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
Sound Data
Detonations accompanying the Louisville
fireball were heard throughout the fall area,
but the audible limit was greatest to the
southeast, probably as a result of the 90-
knot winds from the northwest (Table 3).
Four major detonations were reported, but
their number and character varied from one
observer to another depending largely on
location. In the area of first detonation to
the area of second detonation, the initial
entry of the meteor probably produced the
largest shock wave (similar to sonic boom),
possibly due to the highest velocity through
the air attained by the original body. Sounds
heard by observers varied from one location
to another. Observers closest to the path
described a hissing to a sizzling sound.
Other close-in descriptions included: sounds
resembling roman candles, artillery shells,
welder’s blow torch, rushing winds, thunder
rumblings, roll of firecrackers, and rocket
fire. One observer (No. 5, Fig. 2) suggested
that the sound was much like a flag “flap-
ping in the wind.”
The time interval of 60 sec between first
seen and the first sound arrivals suggests
that the sound waves traveling at about 0.3
km/sec originated at an altitude of about
9km. Therefore, the sound data agree quite
favorably with the sighting data. Many
observers used the word sonic boom for a
description of the sounds that they heard.
Apparently, sonic booms may be produced
when the bunching of the aerodynamic
disturbances that the meteorite creates is at
the same speed of the meteorite (Warren
1977). Such aerodynamic disturbances will
travel out in all directions, and the observer
will notice the booms whenever the com-
ponent of the velocity of the meteorite
towards him is equal to the speed of sound.
Color and Form
Analyses of the information from the
different observers indicate that the bolide
was blue-white, detonated with flashes of
white light, traveled as a reddish fireball,
and became black when it reached terminal
velocity as the fragment falls almost ver-
TABLE 3.—NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE REPORT
FROM STANDIFORD FIELD, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY,
31 January 1977. CLEAR, WIND FROM WEST AT
10 MILES/HOUR, TEMPERATURE 22 F, RELATIVE HU-
MipITy 51%. WHIND VELOCITIES FROM NATIONAL
WEATHER SERVICE
Altitude Speed Direction
( feet ) (knots ) (from )
34,000 80 W 270°
24,000 90 NW 290°
16,000 60 NW 300°
~ 14,000 50 NW 300°
9,000 40 NW 300°
5,000 35 NW 390°
Surface boundary
2,000 30 W 270°
tically to the earth. Air resistance slows
down most meteorites to a uniform terminal
velocity about 100-300 m/sec (Krinov 1960).
Apparently, the Louisville fireball flared
a very bright blue-white to silvery color
at speeds where the kinetic energy per
ounce was enormous. That energy would
be dissipated within a very few seconds by
pushing the air aside and heating the sur-
face of the meteoroid. This produced a
glowing tail of air behind with some of the
ablated material of the meteroid. A color
change from white to red of the detonated
fragment apparently took place as the frag-
ment approached ground level (Folinsbee
and Bayrock 1961).
Observers described various shapes for
the bolide depending on what part of the ©
fall witnessed, detonation, level flight, or |
the approach to ground level of a particular _
meteorite. Observer No. 12 (Fig. 2) sug-
gested that the bolide was cylindrical in ©
outline and resembled an artillery shell that
he observed during his army career. During
the higher atmospheric altitudes, the bolide |
was described in size and shape as a grape- |
fruit, tennis ball, cone shaped, or a fireball.
Recovery
The total amount of Louisville meteorite |
material that reached the ground is not
known. Some may still be lodged in some-
FALL AND RECOVERY OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE—Hunt and Boone 49
one’s roof, or perhaps be lost at the bottom
of the Ohio River. Approximately 25 per-
cent of the ellipse (Fig. 2) is the Ohio
River, that was frozen over at the time of
fall. Most of the likely places of thin ice
area were investigated because some mete-
orite recoveries have been made from lake
ice and specimens that may still be found
would change the fall area.
From 1 February to 30 March 1977, the
senior author, students, and others con-
ducted ground searches. Approximately
2,560 man-kilometers were used in checking
out possible fall areas where there was a
lead to a possible find. Ground searches
were complicated in the heavily populated
area of western Louisville by the improbable
task of checking out all the roof tops in the
area. Most public property in the western
end of Louisville including Shawnee Park,
Shawnee Golf Course, Chickasaw Park, and
others were investigated. In some cases, the
search party was enlarged by the owners
and occupants of the search area. Permis-
sion to conduct ground search was obtained
from various residents of Indiana. The
grounds of the Gallagher Plant of Public
Service Indiana, on line with the path of
the fireball, were searched.
The open areas along the River Road on
the western bank of the Ohio River were
also traversed on foot, but to no avail.
Several cross sightings in the southwestern
and northeastern parts of the map area
(Fig. 2) prompted numerous empty-handed
recovery efforts. A systematic sweep of the
area adjacent to the grounds of Stauffers
Chemical Plant and the area to the north-
east of the Barlow residence proved un-
successful. Observer Nos. 7 and 12 were
convinced that recoveries were possible at
the point near the intersection of their cross
sightings. Some of the local people were
shown the meteorite and encouraged to do
some searching. However, the “front page
coverage’ of the press, television, and radio
probably was responsible for the recovery
of the 4 stones. Approximately 200 possible
meteorite specimens were turned in for
identification, but no new recoveries were
made after the first week.
To date, 4 widely separated stones of the
Louisville meteorite with a total weight of
1,312 g have been recovered (Figs. 2, 3,
Table 4).
The first stone recovered was a 1,051-¢
piece from the roof of the residence of Mr.
and Mrs. Robert Barlow at 4509 Greenwood
Avenue, Louisville. Mrs. Barlow reported
that she had heard the meteorite hit the roof
of her house after hearing a large explosion.
She remarked that, “the sonic boom sounded
like thunder, and the second noise sounded
like maybe some ice had fallen.” When her
husband came home, he noticed a hole
about 1 m across in the roof, and imme-
diately called the roofer who realized the
scientific importance of the fall by notifying
the manager of Television Channel 32,
Louisville, that he believed the roof he had
repaired had been damaged by a meteorite.
The authors were called in at this time to
identify the meteorite, inspect the damage
at the Barlow residence, and to look for
any other fragments. The stone had lodged
itself in the roof (shingles covering 7.5-cm
by 2.6-m boards), allowing the exterior sur-
face of the stone to pick up some tar from
the shingles. A shock wave from the impact
apparently had penetrated about a meter
of attic space and then registered its force
on the ceiling of an upstairs closet by knock-
ing down a 100-cm? slab of plaster.
The Rauch Planetarium received a tele-
phone call from Mrs. Margaret Krill of 906
Ellison, Louisville, and she reported that a
stone (36.5 g) had broken her window at
about the same time that she heard a loud
boom overhead. Hunt identified the stone
as being part of the same Louisville mete-
orite.
The third recovered stone was found on
top of a car belonging to Mrs. Marcella
Horney parked at 100 East Liberty Street,
Louisville. Apparently the stone caved in
the car roof and then bounced to the hood
of a nearby car. The stone was identified
by Hunt at the Rauch Planetarium.
The fourth meteorite apparently had
knocked a 5-inch hole in the roof of the
R. L. White warehouse at 1023 West Main
Street, Louisville. It lay unnoticed on the
Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(1-2)
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FALL AND RECOVERY OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE—Hunt and Boone 51
warehouse floor until a security guard re-
covered the stone near the spot where the
roof was leaking. Positive identification of
the stone was made by Hunt.
Morphology and Macrostructure
All stones of the Louisville meteorite have
a partial fusion crust, are dull grey-green in
color on a freshly broken surface, are aero-
dynamically rounded; magnetic, very hard,
and banded in part. Because the meteorite
was recovered soon after the fall, the ex-
terior morphology is still characterized by
flight markings. The fusion crust that forms
during flight is black, vesicular, and up to
several millimeters thick. The thinner crusts
may have formed in the breaking period of
flight. The scattered accumulations of
fusion crust over most of the exterior sug-
gests that each stone was once part of a
larger mass that tumbled in flight. Because
of the rounded nature of the stones, it would
appear that a significant amount of ablation
or rounding took place during oriented
flight. All the stones have surfaces that look
like freshly broken rock. This suggests that
each recovered stone represents material
that broke away from a much larger piece
late in atmospheric flight, possibly at the
final end point of the fireball.
It is noted that the Louisville meteorite
may have undergone a certain degree of
shock metamorphism as indicated by the
dark bands forming up to 25 percent of the
meteorite. Mason (1966) and others have
suggested the light and dark color variation
may be explained by metamorphic processes
acting on chondritic material. The dark
bands are characterized by considerable
“veining” of the metallic minerals and brec-
cias. The Warehouse stone shows a fine
network of cracks or lineated voids that
may be external expressions that have pene-
trated into the interior of the stone (Clarke
et al. 1971) or may represent the action of
the removal of softer parts of the stone at
the time of detonation.
In thin section, the Barlow stone shows
some obliteration of the primary textures,
that is, there appears to be a general merg-
A hi CHE,
Fic. 4. The Krill Stone of the Louisville Meteorite
showing the partial fusion crust.
ing of the matrix and the chondrules. The
chondrules appear deformed because of
their elliptically shaped outline. Some are
partially disrupted, and undulose extinction
is common. Chondrules of barred olivine
and pyroxene are diffuse in part, but most
are recognizable. They show a limited range
of radii within the thin section and the
average diameter of the chondrules is about
1 mm. Other types of chondrules include
radiating, monomineralic, and rhombic py-
roxene types. Lithic fragments of chon-
drules are present.
The Krill stone (Fig. 4) shows partial
fusion crust and some veining. A _ thin
section of the Barlow stone (Fig. 5) con-
tains (a) a disrupted chondrule, and (b) a
chondrule merged with the matrix.
Further Investigation
The largest recovered stone of 1,051 g,
referred to as the Barlow stone, reached the
Smithsonian Institution Division of Mete-
orites on Friday, 4 February 1977. The
information of the recovery was given to
the staff of the Scientific Event Alert Net-
work (SEAN 2:14). A 107-g slice was cut
at the Smithsonian for mineralogical and
chemical investigations after an initial slice
52 TRANS.
he ee
Fic. 5. Photomicrographs of a thin section of the
Barlow Stone showing (a) a disrupted chrondrule
and (b) a chondrule merging with the matrix. The
scale bar in each photomicrograph is 1 mm.
of about 50 g was cut by the authors at the
University of Louisville.
The bulk chemical analysis by Eugene
Jarosewich of the light portion of the Barlow
stone is given in Table 5. The chemical
data (Fe/SiOz., Fe°/Fe, and SiOe/MgO
ratios) and petrologic data indicate that
the Louisville meteorite is an olivine—
hypersthene chondrite (L6 in the classifica-
tion of Van Schmus and Wood 1967).
After the 2 slices of 50 g and 107 g were
removed from the Barlow stone, the butt
piece was flown to L. Rancitelli of Batelle
Northwest, Richland, Washington, for the
nondestructive measurements of rapidly
decaying radionuclides. This may be one
of the fastest times on record for a meteorite
to undergo radioactive counting subsequent
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(1-2)
TABLE 5.—CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LOUISVILLE
METEORITE, USNM 5872 (LIGHT). ANALYST:
EUGENE JAROSEWICH, DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL
SCIENCES, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON,
EC:
Chemical Jo
Fe Bo
Ni 1:33
Co 0.06
S (1.76)
FeS 4.83
SiO, 40.73
TiO: Ota
Al-Os 2.22.
Cr2Oz 0:55
FeO 15.09
MnO 0.36
MgO 25.45
CaO 1.80
NazO 0.96
K:O 0.11
P.O; 0.19
H:O(-+) 0:12,
H:.O(—) 0.03
C
Total 99.71
Total Fe 20.65
to a fall. The wholebody counting of the
very short half-lives gives information on
cosmic radiation that will complement
measurements made in other similar inves-
tigations. Preliminary data of this type
suggest that the entire original Louisville
body was 10 to 100 times as large-as its
recovered pieces.
Specimen material of the meteorite was
made available for measurements on argon
isotopes and other rare gases at the Depart-
ment of Earth Sciences, State University of
New York, Stony Brook. Those measure-
ments may also give some information on
the preatmospheric size of the body. Radio-
metric ages of both the light- and dark-
colored portions of the meteorite suggest
that the time of shock metamorphism was
several million years ago (private communi-
cation).
FALL AND RECOVERY OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE—Hunt and Boone 53
LITERATURE CITED
CLARKE, R. S., E. JAROSEWICH, AND J. NELEN.
1971. The Lost City, Oklahoma, Meteorite:
an introduction to its laboratory investigation
and comparisons with Pribram and Ucera. J.
Geophys. Res. 76:4135-—4143.
FouinsBEE, R. E., AND L. A. BAyrockx. 1961. The
Bruderhein meteorite—fall and recovery. J.
Roy. Astro. Soc. Can. 55:218—228.
, AND 1964. The Peace River
Meteorite: fall and recovery. J. Roy. Astro.
Soc. Can. 58:109-124.
FOoLINSBEE, R., L. BAyRock, G. CUMMING, AND D.
SmirH. 1969. Vilna meteorite—camera, visual,
seismic and analytic records. J. Roy. Astro.
Soc. Can. 63:61—86.
HeEtityer, B. 1969. Statistics of Meteor Falls.
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 7:149-150.
Hunt, G. 1977. Louisville Meteorite, ordinary
chondrite L6 with shock metamorphic textures.
Amer. Astron. Soc. Bull. 9:506.
Krinov, E. L. 1960. Principles of Meteorites.
Pergamon Press, New York, N.Y., 535 pp.
(Russian original published in 1955).
Mason, B. 1962. Meteorites. J. Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, N.Y. 274 pp.
1966. The enstatite chondrites. Geo-
chim. Cosmochim. Acta 30:23-39.
Prior, G. 1953. Catalogue of meteorites. 2nd
ed., rev. by M. H. Hey. London: British
Museum.
SCIENTIFIC EVENT ALERT NETWORK BULLETIN.
1977. Smithsonian Institution 2(1):14.
SmitH, J. L. 1877. Description of meteoric stones:
Cynthiana, Kentucky meteorite. Amer. J. Sci.
Third Series XIV :224—229.
VAN ScumMus, W. R., AND J. A. Woop. 1967.
A chemical—petrologic classification for the
chondritic meteorites. Geochim. Cosmochim.
Acta 31:747-765.
WarrREN, C.H.E. 1977.
Phys. 18:183-—192.
Sonic bangs. Contemp.
Trans, Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1—2), 1978, 54-59
Sociology and Policy:
The Clark Maritime Centre Environmental Impact Assessment’
Joun A. BuscH
Department of Sociology, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40208
INTRODUCTION
Can research and opinion of sociologists
influence governmental policy and decision
making? One possible avenue for such in-
fluence is the Environmental Impact State-
ment (EIS). The potential for influence
through that channel would appear great,
although it is as yet ill defined and beset
with problems. This paper attempts to
raise some questions that must be answered
eventually, and to point to some problems
that must be solved concerning the socio-
logical aspects of impact statements, using
a specific example, The Clark Maritime
Centre. Issues to be addressed include (1)
near-site surveys, (2) the community leaders
survey and quantification, and (3) vested
interests of the coordinators of Environ-
mental Impact Assessments (ETJA’s).
The distinction between an Environmen-
tal Impact Assessment and an Environ-
mental Impact Statement is, I believe, a
very important one, the implications of
which will be taken up further on. At this
point, it will be sufficient to say that when
a decision is made that a formal Environ-
mental Impact Statement is needed, it is
supposed to be based on the gathering and
analysis of appropriate data, termed the
Environmental Impact Assessment (U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers 1974). The fed-
eral agency responsible for producing an
Environmental Impact Statement under the
National Environmental Protection Act of
1969 either conducts the assessment itself or
contracts for some reliable agency to do it.
The Environmental Impact Statement is
then written from the assessment, a fact that
*Presented at the North Central Sociological
Association Annual Meeting 6-8 May 1976, The
Galt House, Louisville, Kentucky.
34
gives the federal agency a means of con-
trolling what is finally presented.
In the spring of 1975, I directed 3 surveys
as part of an Environmental Impact State-
ment for a proposed riverport and industrial
park on the Ohio River in Clark County,
Indiana, the Clark Maritime Centre. The
first, or near-site survey, was based on 15-
to 20-min interviews with residents of 301
households near the proposed site. For the
second, or on-site survey, a longer period
was spent with residents of 9 of the 16
households on the proposed project site.
The third survey used mail questionnaires
sent to 34 persons in Indiana and Kentucky
who had been nominated as _ influential
residents of the region.
NEAR-SITE SURVEYS
The sociological investigation for that
statement was unusual in that a survey of
opinion toward the project was made for
the population living near but not on the
site, as well as for those few on-site resi-
dents and a small number of local influen-
tial persons. Such a nontraditional approach
provides reactions of a larger segment of
the population near the proposed project,
rather than just of those who live on the
site itself. The community attitudes toward
a proposed project may or may not be con-
sistent with those of the on-site residents
who must give up their homes, but once
such data are gathered, they demand con-
sideration. The important policy question
raised by this procedure concerns just how
much weight should those community
opinions carry in determining the desir-
ability of a project.
Of course, the basis of opinion can vary
considerably from one respondent to an-
other, and from one study to another. Public
SOCIOLOGY IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT
information and commentary prior to the
survey may be lacking or abundant, but
usually are biased. In the present near-site
survey, respondents had some knowledge of
the proposed riverport, but were essentially
unaware that about 800 adjacent acres
would be devoted to an industrial park. We
showed our respondents a map of the im-
mediate area and provided a short descrip-
tion of the proposed facilities. That and
other techniques could be employed to help
mitigate any presurvey publicity or pro-
paganda. If the respondents are adequately
informed, a stronger argument can be made
that their opinions should carry significant
weight, but how much weight relative to
physical and biological impacts of the pro-
posed project remains an open and difficult
question. The sample survey is one thing
many sociologists are well trained to do.
Should such surveys become typically
incorporated into Environmental Impact
Statements, it is likely that sociologists
would be called upon to conduct them, and
would pressure them to consider more
earnestly the weighting problem.
THE ComMMUNITY LEADERS SURVEY
AND QUANTIFICATION
The very existence of the Environmental
Impact Statement requirement, mandated
by the National Environmental Protection
Act of 1969, is an indication of an emerging
public concern for the quality of the human
environment and the importance of those
factors that must, by law, be addressed
(Council on Environmental Quality 1973,
1974). The surveys of the on-site residents,
near-site residents, and community leaders
can all be sources of evidence that is either
typically overlooked in the standard Envi-
ronmental Impact Statement or is treated as
peculiar to a particular instance. Perhaps
the best example is the Community Leaders
Survey. Community leaders usually are
above average in intelligence, educational
level, and knowledge of the inner workings
of the community and its problems. In the
case of the Clark Maritime Centre, as in
most Environmental Impact Statements,
Busch
Ul
Ol
community leaders were not sampled to
determine the proportions holding various
opinions, but to obtain as wide a variety of
opinion as possible. Technical problems of
sampling, as well as limitations of time and
budget, force the researcher to delimit the
near-site survey so that many individuals
with an interest in the outcome of the proj-
ect, could not be sampled. Moreover, their
opinions may be quite different from those
of people nearer the proposed project site.
The community leaders survey serves to
recover some of that information, at least
qualitatively, if not in a form amenable to
quantification. How can these more elabo-
rate and well thought out concerns of com-
munity leaders be entered into an Environ-
mental Impact Statement, even though they
may not be “quantifiable?’ How much
weight should they carry relative to the
other surveys and relative to the massive
amount of social indicator data, including
archival material, that is quantifiable but
often only crudely interpretable?
The well thought out concerns of the
community leaders can be entered into the
Environmental Impact Statement by mak-
ing a detailed list of all issues pro and con
that the survey director (not the Environ-
mental Impact Assessment director) judges
as (1) potentially significant additions to
the issues already being addressed by the
Environmental Impact Assessment and (2)
reflections of a trend of feeling in the popu-
lation in a somewhat larger area than the
near- or on-site populations. Both points
are pertinent to the case of the Clark Mari-
time Centre. For the Clark project, both
the on-site and near-site surveys were con-
ducted solely in Indiana, while the com-
munity leaders survey encompassed the
Greater Louisville region, thus including
sentiment on the Kentucky side of the river.
This latter survey revealed some concern
for the status of Six Mile Island, immedi-
ately adjacent to the project and owned by
Kentucky. Furthermore, there was a notice-
able concern over property values on the
Kentucky side of the river. Of course, many
comments were made in support of the
project. A few negative comments empha-
56 Trans. KENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE ]1.—PERCENTAGE OF SPACE DEVOTED TO SE-
LECTED SOCIOLOGICAL TOPICS LISTED UNDER “SOCIAL
CHARACTERISTICS” IN THE CLARK MARITIME CEN-
TRE FINAL DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATE-
MENT
Topic Total
Population trends 27.8
Housing characteristics 19.0
Recreation 15.9
Public facilities and aesthetics 17
Near-site survey 1:0
On-site survey 4.0
Community leaders survey 1.6
Total* 100
1 The total reflects only those topics im the tables.
size the usefulness of the community leaders
survey as it draws from a wider geographic
area and brings to light issues missed by
the other surveys.
The question of weighting the community
leaders survey relative to the other surveys
and other quantifiable archival data, pre-
sented itself in the Clark project. There
was no computational decision strategy or
any guidelines for a judgemental strategy
for those contingencies. As it turned out,
the social impact of the project in the Final
Draft of the Clark Maritime Environmental
Impact Statement (U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers 1975) was largely confined to
population trends and housing character-
istics, etc. in the area (with very little inter-
pretation of the relevance of this informa-
tion to the proposed facilities). In the 2
important chapters, Environmental Setting
Without the Project and Environmental
Impact of the Proposed Action, there was
a marked imbalance between data and
interpretation, coupled with the imbalance
given to archival data versus the attitudinal
data including the community leaders
survey (Table 1). At least 2 possible ex-
planations for such imbalances, suggest
themselves: (1) when data are quantified
(especially when elaborated by charts or
tables) they tend to take on an aura of
validity and importance that may be mis-
leading for the issue at hand. If the relevant
data are reported but not interpreted, they
are, at best, mere padding and, at worst, a
token use of sociology on nonsensitive issues
to avoid its use on sensitive issues; and (2)
perhaps in the confusion of trying to decide
how to present the opinions of the com-
munity leaders, it becomes easiest to classify
it into a few very large categories, con-
sequently rendering it useless. This is a
more benign cause, but has equally un-
desirable effects.
VESTED INTERESTS OF COORDINATORS OF
ENVIRONMENTAL Impact ASSESSMENTS
A possible explanation of the imbalance
in the presentation of different kinds of
data revolves around the vested interests
of the coordinators of the Environmental
Impact Assessment. For example, if an ~
engineering firm that hopes eventually to
build the project is selected to conduct the
assessment, there is a marked conflict of
interest. That conflict would exist even if
most of the research were conducted by
subcontractors working under the direction
of the firm with the vested interest. In the
case of the Clark project, the community
leaders survey offers a concrete example.
In surveying community leaders, we came
across facts and concerns peculiar to the
project at hand that were not addressed
elsewhere in the Environmental Impact
Assessment. Some of those issues were
somewhat sensitive, and were effectively
ignored in the First Draft of the Environ-
mental Impact Assessment by categorizing
them as opposition “based on recreational,
environmental, aesthetic and economic rea-
sons,” and giving 6 illustrations of “typical
concerns.” The following are examples that
perhaps should have been included as addi-
tions to issues raised elsewhere, either in
the sense of not having been mentioned at
all or as having been mentioned so briefly
as to have missed the import of the issue
for the project. Two that favor the pro-
posed facilities were: (1) the facilities as
planned would localize industrial develop-
ment, and, (2) the area presently lacks
sufficient industry to support required
governmental services and consequently
SOCIOLOGY IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT—Busch 57
such facilities would be desirable. In op-
position to the proposed facilities were: (1)
the fact that a community organization in
Kentucky had gone to considerable lengths
(including obtaining a grant from the U.S.
Department of the Interior) to purchase
and seek gifts of land to create a park along
the river that would lose some of this scenic
value if the riverport were built across from
it, and (2) pleasure boating is as important
to the local economy as the proposed Mari-
time Centre and business from pleasure
boaters would decrease if the proposed
facilities were built.
The point should be made that just
because a respondent makes an assertion,
that assertion is not necessarily valid and
such a disclaimer should be included in
each Environmental Impact Statement.
Nevertheless, once the assertion is made
and the issue is out in the open it can be
investigated. This certainly is the value of
the Community Leaders Survey. The ques-
tion of who should investigate issues raised
in the Community Leaders Survey that are
not being addressed elsewhere has not been
considered by those who have had the
responsibility of preparing Environmental
Impact Assessments or Environmental Im-
pact Statements. The questions raised for
the influence of sociology on policy include:
(1) is mere lip service given to sociological
analyses?, and (2) what is to prevent dif-
ferential emphases on those areas of the
analysis that reflect positively on the project
from those that do not or vice versa?
If there are vested interests in the direc-
torship, and should one of the surveys
oppose one of those interests, the influence
of that survey can be negated by mention-
ing it only superficially and by concentrat-
ing on more favorable findings. That
devious practice would be less likely to
succeed if there were guidelines for presen-
tation of data and for interpretation of each
kind of survey. The need for guidelines
seems particularly urgent in the community
leaders survey. When the data oppose the
vested interests, there may be a temptation
to present the findings in such a form as
to make them meaningless. If the federal
agency responsible for the preparation of
the Environmental Impact Statement has
no such guidelines, and its personnel are
sufficiently overworked with other matters,
they may find it easy to accept uncritically
the judgment presented in the assessment.
CONCLUSIONS
At base, the issues raised here and the
call for guidelines reveal that the decision
making procedures in the Environmental
Impact Statement are grossly underdevel-
oped. A society in which some important
decisions are made solely on the basis of
scientific studies, without the involvement
of power and influence, might be difficult
for many sociologists to envision. Yet, in a
very real sense, the Environmental Impact
Statement purports to be taking us in that
direction. Even to approximate such an
ideal would likely decrease inequities in
power and privilege, but would benefit the
environment. A survey by the Council on
Environmental Quality (1975), of all federal
agencies that have completed 100 or more
Environmental Impact Statements, reported
assertions by all those agencies that their
decisions on various actions for which En-
vironmental Impact Statements were made
were substantially affected by the findings
of the Environmental Impact Statements,
either in terms of reversing or modifying
those decisions. Hopefully, those reports
have not been exaggerated and do indeed
indicate a movement toward the ideal. It is
my understanding that the federal agencies
have been subjected to considerable public
pressure to reform, including improvement
and better disclosure of the decision making
procedures for the Environmental Impact
Statement. If that is true, then once again
the public is ahead of the scientific com-
munity. But because of its special expertise,
it is necessary for the scientific community
to turn its attention to those issues before
any reasonable resolution can be forthcom-
ing.
It would seem that among many other
things the guidelines should emphasize the
need to justify the relevance of any piece
38 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
of sociological data for the proposed action
at hand. Such an emphasis would decrease
the tendency to “pad” certain data in order
potentially to overshadow other data. The
force of such a guideline extends all the way
to the specific datum, rather than stopping
with a justification for the general type of
data. By way of illustration, it would not
be enough for a justification to be given for
different types of surveys (on-site, near-site,
and community leaders, etc.) or other forms
of sociological data (archival data, e.g.,
census data, other records that might be
supplied by community planning agencies,
etc.). Instead, the specifics must be justified.
For example, the Council on Environmental
Quality (1975) Guidelines suggest the use
of population statistics in general. In the
Clark Maritime Centre Environmental Im-
past Statement, space in terms of both text
and tables is devoted to minority char-
acteristics, age-sex characteristics, family
characteristics, and school enrollment.
There is no justification given for the inclu-
sion of those data, i.e., their relevance to
the proposed riverport and industrial park
is not even alluded to. Those data are
included in the section Environmental Set-
ting Without the Project but not mentioned
in the crucial section Environmental Impact
of the Proposed Action. The actual inclu-
sion in the Environmental Impact State-
ment of data on minority characteristics,
age-sex characteristics, etc. needs some
justification lest (1) they be used as pad-
ding to overshadow a less than thorough
presentation of some other, less favorable,
data, or (2) the quantity of uninterpreted
data generates confusion for the reader or
a hesitancy to go to the trouble of reading
more than a summary of the document.
The influence of the Environmental Im-
pact Statement director is strong but not all
prevailing, as was indicated by the con-
troversy over the inclusion of the On-Site
Survey. The results of that survey were
completely left out of the Environmental
Impact Assessment submitted to the Corps
of Engineers. Before the First Draft of the
EIS was published, I raised objection to
that deletion and in a meeting between
myself, the Environmental Impact Assess-
ment Director, and a Corps official, the
issue was civilly but heatedly argued. As
expected, the on-site respondents were gen-
erally opposed to the project. But what
seemed to bother the Environmental Impact
Assessment Director most was my insistence
on including the assertion by one of the
respondents that 3 of the families on the
site are related and the heads of those
households have been lifelong residents.
Such an assertion, the Environmental Im-
pact Assessment Director felt, appealed too
much to sentimentalism. Yet, it would be
hard to deny that the displacement of those
families might well be perceived by them
as adverse impact. It was the decision of
the Corps official to include the assertion
as well as the rest of the On-Site Survey.
My hope is that sometime in the future,
sociologists will be able to look back at that
particular Environmental Impact Assess-
ment Director with a feeling of gratitude.
As the unverified story goes, that man was
able to sell the idea of a Near-Site Survey
to his superiors in the face of great resis-
tance. I don’t know how to express strongly
enough my conviction that the Near-Site
Survey is immensely useful to the Environ-
mental Impact Statement and to sociology
as a profession. Certainly, there is expertise
in survey techniques in other disciplines,
but in the public mind and in the minds
of some environmental impact assessment
directors, surveys of social characteristics
and attitudes will call for sociologists. For
sociologists, the Environmental Impact
Statement in general, and the Near-Site
Survey in particular, can be a source of
income, community service, and in some
instances a source of data for their scholarly
pursuits. If we become more involved as
individuals with the Environmental Impact
Statement, I think we would be well advised |
to enter early into the planning stage lest
we find inadequate planning for any of the ©
above possible benefits. My experience ©
with the Clark Maritime Centre surveys |
convinces me that the knowledge of survey |
techniques by those who planned and bud-
geted the Environmental Impact Assess-
SOCIOLOGY IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT—Busch 59
ment was nil. The funding was absurdly
low and the time frames were quite un-
realistic.
According to the Council on Environ-
mental Quality (1975:412),
“As the relevance of different types of
information becomes apparent, the cur-
rent approach of some agencies simply
to catalog an enormous variety of facts
should slowly begin to change. Many
impact statements now resemble encyclo-
pedias. They discuss the project’s setting
in overly elaborate detail and contain
lengthy descriptions of all species of plant
and animal life in the affected area.
Frequently, this reflects a lack of under-
standing of what is important and what
is not. As the crucial environmental ques-
tions start to come into focus, it should
become increasingly clear that much of
this verbage can be dispensed with, thus
helping to reduce the size of many of
the statements.”
Obviously, sociology is not the only
discipline in an ambiguous situation with
respect to its contributions to environmental
impact statements. The Environmental Im-
pact Statement is going to become impor-
tant to the sociologist as a source of income
and as a tool for influencing social policy.
Whatever the problems with the way sociol-
ogy is used in the Environmental Impact
Statement (be those problems of uncer-
tainty only, or of the temptation to dis-
tortion by vested interests able to work
their will in the midst of uncertainty ), it is
time that sociologists advocate a set of
procedures for the presentation of sociolog-
ical findings within the spirit of the National
Environmental Protection Act of 1969.
LITERATURE CITED
CoUNCIL ON ENVIRONMENTAL Quatity. 1973.
Guidelines: Appendix II, Preparation of En-
vironmental Impact Statements (38 F.R. 20550,
1 August).
. 1974. Environmental Quality—Fifth
Annual Report. U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., Wash-
ington, D.C.
. 1975. 102 Monitor, 5(5) June. U.S.
Gov't. Print. Off., Washington, D.C.
U.S. Army Corps oF ENGINEERS. 1974. Prepara-
tion/Coordination E.I.S.’s. Dept. Army, Off.
Chief Engin., Washington, D.C.
1975. Draft Environmental Impact
Statement: Clark Maritime Centre, Jefferson-
ville, Clark County, Indiana, Ohio River Mile
597. Louisville District, Louisville, Ky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 60-73
Age, Growth, Condition, and Maturity of Sunfishes
of Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky’
WaLTER L. REDMON” AND Louis A. KRUMHOLZ
Department of Biology, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
Measurements of 1,545 sunfish referable to 9 species indicated that rock bass, longear sunfish,
green sunfish, bluegills, smallmouth bass, and spotted bass maintained successful populations in
Doe Run. Rates of growth of rock bass, longear sunfish, and bluegills were equal to or greater
than in other streams reported in the literature, while those of smallmouth bass, spotted bass,
and green sunfish were slightly less. Largemouth bass and white crappies grew very slowly,
probably because environmental conditions in Doe Run were marginal. Growth rates of male
and female green sunfish, bluegills, and rock bass were similar, but male longear sunfish grew
faster than females. Male longear sunfish, green sunfish, and rock bass outlived females of
those species. Length—weight relationships and coefficients of condition of all species except
rock bass were comparable to those of other streams. All sunfishes that spawned in Doe Run
did so only in the lower reaches of the stream in late summer, probably because of the influence
of constantly cool water temperatures at the stream source. The longear sunfish—-rock bass—
smallmouth bass was the most successful sunfish association.
INTRODUCTION
Although sunfishes (Centrarchidae) are
widely distributed over the eastern United
States and include several species very
popular among sport fishermen, relatively
little is known of their rates of growth in
streams. This study presents data for 9
species of centrarchids from Doe Run,
Meade County, Kentucky, prior to its im-
poundment to form Doe Valley Lake in
July 1961. Species considered are: rock
bass Ambloplites rupestris, green sunfish
Lepomis cyanellus, warmouth L. gulosus,
bluegill L. macrochirus, longear sunfish L.
megalotis, smallmouth bass Micropterus
dolomieui, spotted bass M. punctulatus,
largemouth bass M. salmoides, and white
crappie Pomoxis annularis. Two specimens
of each of 2 other sunfishes, the orange-
spotted sunfish L. humilis and the black
crappie P. nigromaculatus were collected,
but the data were too meager for satisfac-
* Contribution No. 188 (New Series) from the
Department of Biology, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40208.
* Present address: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Region V, Chicago, Illinois 60604.
60
tory analysis. Nomenclature follows that
of Bailey et al. (1970).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report is based on research per-
formed under Contract No. AT-(40-1)-2595
between the U.S. Atomic Energy Commis- ©
sion and the University of Louisville, Louis
A. Krumholz, Principal Investigator. We
are most grateful for that assistance. It is |
also a revision of parts of a thesis presented —
to the Graduate School of the University —
of Louisville by Mr. Redmon as partial |
fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Science in Biology. |
We are deeply appreciative of the assis- —
tance provided by many graduate students ©
and others, particularly C. F. Bryan, J. E. |
Craddock, R. H. Goodyear, L. G. Hill, and —
W. L. Minckley in the field and in the |
laboratory. |
DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA
Doe Run, a limestone stream, rises as a |
torrent spring 4.8 km east and 0.6 km north
of Ekron, Kentucky, and flows north-north-
east for 15.6 km to empty into the Ohio
SUNFISHES OF DoE Run, MrEApDE County—Redmon and Krumholz 61
River at Ohio River Mile 642.2, about 57
km downstream from Louisville. Detailed
descriptions of the physical and chemical
characteristics of the stream have been
given by Minckley (1963) and Krumholz
(1965, 1967). The portion of the stream
sampled during this study did not include
the headwaters since no sunfishes main-
tained populations in that area, but did
include the stretch from Highway 1638
(Km 5) to the Ohio River, a distance of
10.8 km (Fig. 1). Within the sampling
area, the stream above Km 8 had a gradient
of 6.6 m/km, whereas below that point the
gradient was 1.7 m/km. Downstream from
Km 12.5, the channel was filled with back-
water from the pool formed by Ohio River
Lock and Dam No. 44 near Leavenworth,
Indiana, at an elevation of 374 feet (114 m)
above mean sea level (msl). In 1971, Lock
and Dam No. 44 was replaced by the Can-
nelton Locks and Dam at Cannelton, In-
diana, and the pool was raised to 383 feet
(116.7 m) msl. Thus, the backwater now
extends very nearly to the toe of the dam
for Doe Valley Lake.
The average width of Doe Run above the
backwater was about 10 m, and ranged
from more than 12 m in some pools to no
more than 2 m at some riffles. Maximum
depths in pools was about 2 m, but in many
riffles, the water was no more than 20 cm
deep. In the area of relatively steep gradi-
ent, the bottom was largely a mixture of
bedrock, marl, and rubble. Downstream
from Km 8, the bottom was mostly silt, sand,
and clay with some stones that had washed
in during spates.
Prior to 1961, when the lower portion of
the valley was cleared, Doe Run flowed for
most of its length under a heavy canopy
of riparian vegetation. The roots of many
large trees had been undercut by the stream
and those areas provided shelter for many
sunfishes and other species as well.
Water temperatures in Doe Run mani-
fested the moderating effects of ground-
water temperatures as well as ambient air
temperatures. At the spring source, the
temperature rarely varied from 13.3 C.
About 5 km downstream, the maximum
DOE RUN nm
ay KmIi0O
MEADE COUNTY q
KENTUCKY soe rf
VALLEY (
LAKE
‘e Km9
ie} u 2 G
es es es 1
TWO KILOMETERS \
7-Springs
Branch g 2
Km6 )
4
\
Km5
Bridge for Highway /638
Buffalo
Spring
STATION |
Blue Spring
pring Source
Fic. 1. Map of Doe Run, Meade County, Ken-
tucky, showing stream kilometers, locations of dams,
bridge for Highway 1638, and extent of Doe Valley
Lake. The broken line through Doe Valley Lake
shows the course of the stream prior to impound-
ment (after Krumholz 1967).
water temperature recorded by Minckley
(1963) was 20.0 C in August 1960 and the
minimum was 6.1C in March 1961. An-
other 3 km downstream, the maximum was
25.6 C and the minimum was 1.7C. Dis-
solved oxygen in Doe Run was near or over
saturation at all times, and pH was circum-
neutral. Discharge at the source ranged
from less than 0.1 to about 17 m?/sec.
62 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Although fishes in this study were col-
lected by electrofishing, seining, and an-
gling, most were taken with emulsifiable
rotenone, 9-11 July 1961. The rotenone was
used in an attempt to eradicate all fishes
from the section of Doe Run to be im-
pounded as Doe Valley Lake (Fig. 1). That
collection is important because of its size,
homogeneity of time and locality, and rela-
tive nonselectivity of method. Other sun-
fishes were collected between October 1959
and July 1961.
A total of 1,545 specimens referable to
9 species and 4 genera of sunfishes was
used: longear sunfish, 567; bluegill, 536;
green sunfish, 199; rock bass, 131; spotted
bass, 28; white crappie, 26; smallmouth
bass, 24; warmouth, 18; and largemouth
bass, 16. All specimens were fixed in 10
percent formalin and stored in 70 percent
ethanol, but all measurements were made
within 48 hours after collection. Scale
samples were taken from just below the
lateral line under the spinous dorsal fin,
along with data on standard, fork, and total
lengths in millimeters, weights in grams,
and sex. Only standard lengths were used
in our calculations.
Age determinations were made from im-
pressions of scales in strips of cellulose
acetate after the procedure of Campbell
and Witt (1953) and using an Eberbach
scale projector. Three scales from each fish
were chosen for impressions, and the annuli
on those scales were compared. A single
scale was chosen for measuring the annual
increments, and growth was calculated for
each year of life using the formula:
fo eee sae)
where L’ = computed standard length at
time of annulus formation,
L = observed standard length at
time of capture,
S’ = radius of scale at annulus,
S = radius of scale at time of cap-
ture, and
C = correction factor,
with the assumption that body length is
proportional to scale growth (Van Oosten
1929, Hile 1936, Whitney and Carlander
1956, and others). The correction factor,
C, is the intercept of the curve formed
by plotting standard length against scale
radius.
The only occurrences of sunfishes above
Highway 1638 (Fig. 1) were of occasional
green sunfish, bluegills, and an orange-
spotted sunfish, all adults, probably dis-
‘placed from nearby sinkholes. No young-
of-the-year sunfishes were found upstream
from the bridge despite intensive collecting.
Similarly, none of the basses, crappies, or
other sunfishes were collected upstream
from the bridge.
Each spring, numerous sexually mature
green sunfish, bluegills, and longear sunfish
became concentrated in a large pool just
below the swift-flowing culvert of the high-
way bridge, but there was no spawning
in the area, probably because of the cool-
ness of the water (Minckley 1963). Witt
and Marzolf (1954), Swingle and Smith
(1950), and others have stated that tem-
peratures above a certain minimum (21.1 C)
are required to induce spawning in those
sunfishes. Several longear sunfish and blue-
gills caught from the area were resorbing
ova at the time of capture (Minckley 1963).
AGE AND GROWTH
Longear Sunfish
The longear sunfish was the most abun-
dant sunfish in Doe Run prior to the im-
poundment of Doe Valley Lake. Of the
567 specimens used in this study, 440 (787% )
were taken during the rotenone treatment
of 9-11 July 1961. The longear sunfish
made up 36.7 percent of all sunfishes taken
during the study. |
The oldest specimens were in Age Group _
VI and the youngest were in Age Group I;
no young of the year were collected. The |
age composition (Table 1) and the length- |
frequency distribution (Fig. 2) of the 440
individuals taken with rotenone indicated |
that three-fourths were more than 3 years |
old and of a greater length than 70 mm.
That population composition corresponds
SUNFISHES OF Dor Run, MEADE Country—Redmon and Krumholz 63
TABLE ]1.—LENGTH-FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS OF
442 LONGEAR SUNFISH OF ALL AGE GROUPS TAKEN
DURING THE ROTENONE TREATMENT 9-11 Juty 1961,
Dor Run, MEADE County, KENTUCKY
Standard Age group
ee hehe
(mm) I II III IV V VI Total
30-39 5 5
40-49 5 5
50-59 10 6 16
60-69 8 18 26
70-79 ao. 15 54
80-89 20° 74 3 97
90-99 6271026 88
100-109 51.26) 6 12
110-119 2G s 2 50
120-129 3 16 4 Zo
130-139 2 2 A
Total Poise oo.) 156 119) 46 8 440
closely with that reported from the Black
River, Missouri (Patriarche and Lowry
1953), but contains a greater percentage of
older individuals than reported for Clear
Creek, Illinois (Lewis and Elder 1952), and
Beaver Creek, Kentucky (Tompkins and
Carter 1951).
Calculations of growth rates of 560 indi-
viduals, based on a straight-line relationship
between body length and length of scale,
and corrected for an intercept of 10 mm in
body length, showed that longear sunfish
reached average lengths of 40, 63, 83, 99,
112, and 119 mm for Age Groups I through
VI, respectively (Table 2). The factor for
converting standard length to total length
is 1.251 based on actual measurements of
all longear sunfish taken from Doe Run.
Although female longear sunfish had an
average length slightly greater than that of
males at the end of the first year’s growth
(Table 3), males grew faster each succeed-
ing year, and were an average of 8.7 mm
longer at the end of the fifth growing
season. In Doe Run, male longear sunfish
lived longer than females, and the percent-
age of males in the population increased
with increasing age until only males of Age
Group VI survived (Table 3). Hubbs and
Cooper (1935) also found that male longear
sunfish grew faster than females, but made
50 Lepomis megalotis =
40 440 specimens fs
40 Lepomis macrochirus -
30 385 specimens
Lepomis cyanellus
10 | 85 specimens =
fo)
Number of Specimens
20 Ambloplites rupestris
115 specimens -
- an
As eee a a
fe) 00 150 200
sanders Length (mm)
Fic. 2. Length-frequency distributions of the 4
most abundant sunfishes in Doe Run, Meade
County, Kentucky, taken during the rotenone treat-
ment 9-11 July 1961.
no mention of differences in longevity be-
tween the sexes.
The relationship between standard length
and weight of longear sunfish in Doe Run
was calculated by least squares as:
Log W = +4.80156 + 3.2504 log L
where W = weight of fish in grams and
L = standard length in millimeters.
Lewis and Elder (1952) reported a length-
weight relationship for longear sunfish in
Clear Creek, Illinois, somewhat lower than
that for Doe Run (log W = -4.77 + 3.16
log L). Hile (1931) presented average
weights for several groups of longear sun-
fish in Indiana, but his values were for
stunted populations in lakes, and the
weights were lower than those for corre-
sponding lengths in Doe Run. Hile (1936)
64 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE 2.,—AVERAGE CALCULATED STANDARD LENGTHS IN MILLIMETERS OF SUNFISHES AT THE END OF EACH
YEAR OF LIFE, DoE Run, MEADE County, KENTuCKy, NOVEMBER 1959 To JuLy 1961
Calculated length at end of year
1 2. 3 4 5 6 7 8
Longear sunfish 39.8 Ga. 82.5 98.7 WA 119.4
Bluegill 35.0 63.4 85.6 105.6 137, 135.0
Green sunfish Bos 62.5 89.6 110.2 1 ETE
Rock bass 46.8 76.9 106.9 132.0 155.1 174.0 192.1 206.0
Spotted bass 76.6 1267 160.8 193.9 228.2 253.0
Smallmouth bass (ho 131-5 179.5 224.1 260.1
Largemouth bass 56.6 102.9 151.0 199.0 227.0
White crappie 54.5 93.5 114.0
Warmouth 39.8 64.4 86.7 107.7
proposed the term “coefficient of condition”
as a means of indicating suitability of en-
vironment and to provide a measurement
by which the fishes of one body of water
could be compared with those of another.
The average coefficient of condition for
longear sunfish in Doe Run was 4.958 as
determined from the equation
K = 100,000 W/L?
where W = weight of fish in grams and
L = standard length of fish in milli-
meters.
In their study, Lewis and Elder (1952)
reported an average coefficient of condition
of 3.56 for 164 longear sunfish from Clear
Creek, Illinois, much lower than that for
fish from Doe Run.
Of the 402 longear sunfish sexed in this
study (Table 3), 95 percent of the females
in Age Group II were sexually mature as
indicated by enlarged ovaries, whereas only
II
TABLE 3.—STANDARD LENGTHS IN MILLIMETERS AND
NUMBERS OF LONGEAR SUNFISH OF EACH SEX FROM
THE 6 AGE GROUPS, DoE RuN, MEADE County,
Kentucky, 9-11 Juty 1961, BAasED on 402 INDIvID-
UALS. THE FIGURES IN PARENTHESES INDICATE THE
NUMBERS OF SPECIMENS
9 percent of the males in that age group
had enlarged testes. In Age Group III, all |
females were mature, but only 64 percent —
of the males were in spawning condition. |
In Age Group IV, all females were sexually |
mature, but 4 percent of the males were not. —
The smallest mature female (Age Group I) |
was 59 mm long and was the only mature ©
individual in the group. The smallest
mature male (Age Group II) was 79 mm
long and was the only mature male in that
group. |
Although no young-of-the-year longear —
sunfish were collected during the study, it
is obvious that spawning took place each
year. Such successful spawning took place |
in the large pools and quiet waters in the
lower reaches of the stream. It is note-
worthy that spawning had not yet occurred |
by 9 July 1961 when the stream was treated |
with rotenone.
Bluegill
Among Doe Run sunfishes, the bluegill —
was second in abundance prior to the
rotenone treatment. Of the 536 specimens |
reported here, 385 (72%) were taken with >
rotenone, and based on the entire study,
the bluegill made up 34.7 percent of all
sunfishes in the stream. |
Age group
: Le ai eT ara Relatively little is known of the growth |
of bluegills in small streams, but its growth
aie bp ie eK 100.3 111.8 119.4 in Jentic waters has been studied exten- |
TOR AES EA SDP Eaten) sively. The relatively large population of
Females 39.1 62.3 79.1 93.4 104.1 — bluegills in Doe Run is believed to be
(220) A287) ATIB) | BOI a) unusual since it is not usually considered a
SUNFISHES OF Dor Run, MEADE Counry—Redmon and Krumholz 65
stream fish. Trautman (1942, 1957) noted
that introductions of bluegills into flowing
waters in Ohio were unsuccessful, except
when some individuals reached oxbows,
overflow ponds, or large quiet pools.
The oldest bluegill from Doe Run was
a single member of Age Group VI, and
members of Age Groups I, II, and III made
up more than 95 percent of those taken with
rotenone (Table 4). The length-frequency
distribution of 385 individuals (Fig. 2)
displays the normal pattern of decrease in
numbers each succeeding year of age; how-
ever, the paucity of larger individuals may
suggest a rather unfavorable environment.
Growth rate was calculated for 521 blue-
gills based on a straight-line relationship
between body length and scale length, cor-
rected for an intercept of 9.8 mm in body
length. In Doe Run, bluegills attained
average lengths of 35, 63, 86, 106, 124, and
135 mm for Age Groups I through VI,
respectively (Table 2). The conversion
factor for standard to total length is 1.279
based on measurements of all bluegills
caught from Doe Run. The growth rate in
Doe Run was higher than that reported
from other streams except those in Okla-
homa studied by Finnell et al. (1956) and
Jenkins et al. (1952). The growth rate in
Beaver Creek, Kentucky (Tompkins and
Carter 1951), was slightly slower the first
2 years, but the small size of their sample
makes any comparison questionable. Pur-
kett (1958a) reported that bluegills grew
at their fastest rate in the middle portions
of streams in Missouri. The habitat in Doe
Run is most similar to that described for
those streams in Missouri. Growth in the
Missouri streams was slower than in Doe
Run in the early years of life but may have
been faster in the fourth and fifth years.
There was no apparent difference in
growth rates of male and female bluegills
in Doe Run. The sex ratios through the
first 4 years of life was very near 1:1. Of
the 7 individuals in Age Group V, 5 were
males, and the lone individual in Age Group
VI was a male.
All bluegills from Doe Run were used in
calculating the length-weight relationship
TABLE 4.—LENGTH-FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS OF
376 BLUEGILLS OF ALL AGE GROUPS TAKEN DURING
THE ROTENONE TREATMENT, 9-11 JuLy 1961, DoE
Run, MEADE County, KENTUCKY
Age group
ee
length I II Iil IV V VI ‘Total
20-29 1 1
30-39 39 39
40-49 58 58
50-59 64 2, 66
60-69 oo 29 65
70-79 1 40 2 43
80-89 1S 26 44
90-99 AN OAT 1 32
100-109 8 8
110-119 4 9 13
120-129 4 4
130-139 2, 2
140-149 i 1
Total 199 93 67 14 2 1 a6
as determined by least squares from the
equation log W = -5.5035 + 3.5845 log L.
The curve developed from the equation
fitted empirical data from specimens smaller
than 100 mm well, but weights of larger
individuals were slightly lower.
The coefficient of condition of Doe Run
bluegills determined from all specimens,
ranged from 2.358 to 5.662 with an average
of 3.779.
Sex and gonad conditions were deter-
mined for all specimens over 80 mm long
in the rotenone sample; smaller specimens
were not sexually mature. About half the
females in Age Group II larger than 80 mm
were mature, but no males that size in that
age group had reached maturity. Almost
76 percent of the females in Age Group III
were mature, but only 7 percent of the
males were mature. At Age Group IV, 86
percent of all fish were mature, and the
3 older specimens, all males, were mature.
The smallest mature female was an 80-mm
individual of Age Group II, and the smallest
mature male (Age Group III) was 93 mm
long.
The collection of young-of-the-year blue-
gills in the lower reaches of Doe Run each
year prior to 1961 (Minckley 1963) indi-
cates that the population was permanent,
66 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
TABLE 5.—LENGTH DISTRIBUTION OF 82 GREEN SUN-
FISH OF ALL AGE GROUPS TAKEN DURING THE ROTE-
NONE TREATMENT, 9-11 Jury 1961, Dor Rwvn,
MEADE County, KENTUCKY
Age group
Standard ——_
length I II Ill IV V Total
30-39 14 14
40-49 13 13
50-59 12 12
60-69 6 2 8
70-79 10 10
80-89 3 3
90-99 5 iI 6
100-109 D 3 8
110-119 1 4 ,
120-129 2 1 o
Total a5 AD lh ee 1 82
and not maintained through ingress from
the Ohio River.
Green Sunfish
The green sunfish was the third most
abundant sunfish in Doe Run prior to the
impoundment of Doe Valley Lake; it made
up 12.9 percent of all sunfishes taken from
Doe Run. Of the 199 specimens collected
during the study, only 85 (43%) were taken
in the rotenone sample. The rotenone
sample contained a single specimen of Age
Group V, the oldest, a male, and more than
half the sample was made up of members
of Age Group I (Table 5). The length-
frequency distribution is representative of
the population during the summer of 1961.
Growth rate was calculated for 186 indi-
viduals based on a straight-line relationship
between body length and scale length, and
corrected for an intercept of 9.6 mm. Aver-
age standard lengths for Age Groups I
through V, respectively, were 35, 63, 90,
110, and 128 mm (Table 2). The conver-
sion factor for standard to total length is
1.254 based on measurements of all green
sunfish in the Doe Run collection. The
growth rate in Doe Run was below average
for many streams cited in the literature. In
6 Missouri streams, green sunfish from only
the St. Francis and Gasconade rivers grew
more slowly than those in Doe Run (Pur-
kett 1958a, 1958b; Patriarche and Lowry
1953). In Oklahoma, green sunfish in the
Little River and [Illinois River systems at-
tained average lengths by the end of 3 years |
that exceeded average lengths of individuals ©
of Age Group V in Doe Run (Finnell et al.
1956, Jenkins et al. 1952).
Little difference was noted in the growth
rates of male and female green sunfish in
Doe Run. Hubbs and Cooper (1935) noted
- that the growth rate for male green sunfish ©
in Michigan was considerably greater than
that of females.
In Doe Run, males lived longer than |
females, and the percentage of males in the ©
population increased with age until Age
Group V when only males survived. |
Length-weight relationships were deter-
mined for all green sunfish from Doe Run
by least squares with the equation log W =
4.7064 + 3.1376 log L. The curve devel-
oped from that equation fitted empirical
data for all specimens. Lewis and Elder
(1952) reported a length—-weight relation-
ship for green sunfish in Clear Creek,
Illinois, as best represented by the equation
log W = -4.89 + 3.19 log L, an indication
that Clear Creek individuals were lighter.
than their Doe Run counterparts. |
The average coefficient of condition of |
197 green sunfish from Doe Run was 3.520,
ranging from 2.700 to 4.912. Lewis and _
Elder (1952) reported a mean coefficient
of condition of 3.19 for 83 individuals that
ranged from 55 to 199 mm in standard
length. Those data indicate that conditions
in Doe Run were better than in Clear Creek,
at least for green sunfish.
Sex and condition of gonads were deter-
mined for all green sunfish longer than 60
mm from the rotenone sample. Two of the
large females but none of the males in Age
Group I were sexually mature. About a
third of the males and 70 percent of the
females in Age Group II had reached matu-
rity. All individuals of older age groups
were mature. The smallest mature females
were 2 67-mm individuals of Age Group I; .
the smallest mature male was a 76-mm
specimen of Age Group II.
More small green sunfish than young of |
SUNFISHES OF Dor Run, MEeapE Counry—Redmon and Krumholz 67
TABLE 6.—LENGTH-FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF 106 ROCK BASS OF ALL AGE GROUPS TAKEN DURING THE
ROTENONE TREATMENT, 9-11 JuLty 1961, DoE Run, MEADE County, KENTUCKY
—
Standard length II Ill
30-39
40-49
50-59
60-69
70-79
80-89
90-99
100-109
110-119
120-129
130-139
140-149
150-159
160-169
170-179
180-189
190-199
200-209
210-219
Total 24 19 6
—
me bd & OL
_
NWrrNY OS
Ne
any other sunfish were taken in the down-
stream area of Doe Run, indicating that
reproduction was common in pools of that
area. Minckley (1963) reported that green
sunfish reproduced in Doe Valley Lake
shortly after its impoundment, indicating
that the species had survived the attempted
eradication with rotenone.
Rock Bass
The rock bass, the fourth most abundant
sunfish in Doe Run, was commonly found
among the undercut roots of riparian syca-
more trees Platanus occidentalis L. A total
of 131 specimens was taken during the
entire study and they made up 8.5 percent
of all sunfishes. The rotenone study yielded
115 specimens. The number of large indi-
viduals made the population of interest to
the angler, but there was little utilization
of the fishery. The length-frequency dis-
tribution of all specimens from Doe Run is
shown in Fig. 2.
The oldest rock bass in the collection was
of Age Group VIII, and young of the year
were collected 2-6 km downstream from
Age group
IV V VI VII VIII Total
13
5
3
12
3
i
2
A
I 4
2 F 5
6 i. 8
3 4 7
9 1 10
6 6
3 8 ii:
1 2 3
4 4
1 3 4
1 1
12 p35 12 74 1 106
the bridge for Highway 1638 in the fall of
1960. The age composition of 106 speci-
mens from the rotenone study is shown in
Table 6.
Rate of growth was calculated for 121
rock bass based on a straight-line relation-
ship between body length and scale length
and corrected for an intercept of 18.3 mm.
In Doe Run, the respective standard lengths
for Age Groups I through VIII were 47, 77,
107, 132, 155, 174, 192, and 206 mm (Table
2). The conversion factor for standard to
total length is 1.226 based on measurements
of all rock bass. The rate of growth in Doe
Run, although faster during the first year,
was similar to that reported for the middle
sections of Missouri streams by Purkett
(1958a) and the Tippecanoe River, Indiana,
by Scott (1949). The growth rate in Doe
Run was greater than that reported for the
Black River, Missouri, by Patriarche and
Lowry (1953). Growth rates of rock bass
from 2 Kentucky streams reported by
Tompkins and Carter (1951) were much
greater than in Doe Run, or any other
stream for that matter, but their samples
were small. In the Illinois River system
68
of Oklahoma (Jenkins et al. 1952), the
growth rate was higher than in Doe Run.
No significant difference in growth rates
of males and females was apparent in Doe
Run. Still, based on the fish taken with
rotenone, males outlived females. Of the
specimens sexed, 62 percent of those in Age
Groups II, III, and IV were females, but
only 27 percent of those in Age Groups V
through VIII were females. Only 1 of 7
specimens in Age Group VII was a female,
and the lone fish in Age Group VIII was
a male. Hile (1941) reported that the
growth rate of male rock bass in Nebish
Lake, Wisconsin, exceeded that of females,
but that females lived longer than males.
All specimens in the Doe Run collection
were used to calculate the length-weight
relationship. The equation determined by
least squares was log W = -4.4625 + 3.0329
log L. The curve derived from that equa-
tion fitted empirical data for all sizes. Scott
(1949) determined the length-weight rela-
tionship for rock bass in the Tippecanoe
River to be log W = -5.040 + 2.908 log L.
Comparison of values from those curves
indicates that fish from Doe Run were
relatively lighter than those from the Tippe-
canoe River.
Most adult rock bass from Doe Run in
July 1961 were not at peak sexual maturity,
indicating that reproduction had not yet
taken place. Young-of-the-year rock bass
taken in the fall of 1960 were no longer
than 24 mm standard length in September
or December, a strong indication of very
late spawning dates. Rock bass spawned
throughout the lower reaches of Doe Run.
The smallest sexually mature female was a
105-mm specimen of Age Group II, and the
smallest mature male was a 110-mm indi-
vidual of the same age.
Spotted Bass
Spotted bass were collected more often
than either of the other black basses, but
only 2 of the 28 specimens in our sample
were taken with rotenone. Based on all
collections, it made up 1.8 percent of the
total sunfish population. The oldest speci-
TrANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
mens belonged to Age Group VI, and 4
young of the year were the youngest, and
averaged 31 mm standard length.
Growth rates were determined for 24
individuals based on a straight-line relation-
ship between body length and scale length
and corrected for an intercept of 27.4 mm.
That intercept is the average value reported
by Bryan (1964, unpublished doctoral dis-
sertation, University of Louisville, Louis-
- ville, Kentucky ) for all his stations. In Doe |
Run, spotted bass attained average lengths
of 77, 127, 161, 194, 228, and 253 mmm
for Age Groups I through VI, respectively
(Table 2). The conversion factor for stan-—
dard to total length is 1.225 based on mea-—
surements of all Doe Run specimens.
The growth rate of spotted bass in Doe
Run was lower than that for streams in
Missouri (Purkett 1958a), Oklahoma (Jen-_
kins et al. 1952, Finnell et al. 1956), or
from Slate Creek, Kentucky (Tompkins and
Carter 1951). Bryan (unpublished disserta-_
tion) compared growth rates throughout its —
range in streams and impoundments and
found no trends attributable to geography,
but instead believed that local factors in
the habitat were responsible for any varia-_
tions.
several streams in the Ohio River valley
(Bryan unpublished dissertation) was best
represented by log W = -5.138 + 3.124 log
L. Weight values derived from that curve
are slightly lower than corresponding values’
from Doe Run.
The average coefficient of condition of
the 28 individuals from Doe Run was 2.532
and ranged from 1.707 to 3.237. Lewis and
Elder (1953) reported an average value of
2.46 for Clear Creek, Jllinois, and Bryan
(unpublished dissertation) reported aver-
age values that ranged from 2.27 to 2.90
for 8 stream populations. Comparison of
those data indicates that spotted bass from
Doe Run were in slightly better condition.
than the averages for the other streams. _
Young-of-the-year specimens from the
Length-weight relationship for spotted
bass from Doe Run was calculated using
the equation log W = -4.9287 + 3.1778 log
L. Such a relationship for spotted bass in
|
|
|
SUNFISHES OF DoE Run, MEADE Counry—Redmon and Krumholz 69
lower reaches of Doe Run in September
and October 1960 showed that reproduction
had been successful. Large adults taken
during the rotenone study had not yet
reached spawning condition, but their
gonads were approaching that stage. It
appears that the spotted bass maintained
a small permanent population in the large
pools near the lower end of Doe Run.
Smallmouth Bass
The smallmouth bass was rare in Doe
Run and its distribution was restricted to
the lower reaches of the stream. A total of
24 specimens was taken, 14 of which were
caught in the rotenone treatment. Based
on all collections, it made up 1.5 percent
of all sunfishes in Doe Run. Tate (1949)
reported as many as 100 adult smallmouth
bass (“a dense population”) in a 4-km
stretch of Coffin Creek, Iowa.
The oldest individuals in Doe Run were
in Age Group V, and young of the year
were taken in 1960 and 1961. The single
15-mm young-of-the-year smallmouth bass
taken during the rotenone study was the
only sunfish of that age group taken during
1961. Large specimens of Age Groups IV
and V made up two-thirds of all smallmouth
bass, an indication that the population, like
those of other sunfishes, was underexploited.
Minckley (1963) reported seeing an angler
with a smallmouth bass from Doe Run that
weighed 964 g after viscera and scales had
been removed. That individual was con-
siderably larger than any in the Doe Run
collection. That small number in the col-
lection precludes any satisfactory length-
frequency distribution.
Growth rates were calculated for 20 indi-
viduals based on a straight-line relationship
between body length and scale length and
corrected for an intercept of 14.6 as deter-
mined by Everhart (1950). No body-scale
relationship was attempted from Doe Run
data. Smallmouth bass in Doe Run attained
lengths of 78, 132, 180, 224, and 260 mm,
respectively, at ages I through V (Table 2).
In addition, 3 individuals of Age Group O,
collected in mid-August 1960, averaged 33
mm standard length, and a 15-mm specimen
was taken during the rotenone study. The
conversion factor for standard to total
length is 1.216 based on measurements of
all Doe Run specimens.
Growth rate of smallmouth bass in Doe
Run was slightly below average for some
streams in Missouri (Purkett 1958a, Patri-
arche and Lowry 1953) and Oklahoma
(Jenkins et al. 1952, Finnell et al. 1956),
but was much greater than that reported
by Suttkus (1955) for Fall Creek, New
York, and somewhat higher than that in
Coffin Creek, Iowa (Tate 1949). The
growth rate in Elkhorn Creek, Kentucky
(Tompkins and Carter 1951), one of the
best-known smallmouth bass streams in the
state, was much higher than that reported
for any other stream.
Measurements of all specimens from Doe
Run were used to calculate length—-weight
relationship. The equation, as determined
by least squares, was log W = -6.011 +
3.986 log L. Tate (1949) reported that
relationship as log W = -4.8128 + 3.0935
log L for smallmouth bass in Coffin Creek,
Iowa, indicating that they were heavier
than those from Doe Run. Populations in
Missouri Ozark streams (Purkett 1958a)
and Fall Creek, New York (Suttkus 1955),
also had length-weight relationships greater
than that in Doe Run.
The average coefficient of condition of
Doe Run smallmouth bass was 2.425. It
was lower than that reported by Tate (1949)
for Coffin Creek, Iowa, but higher than that
reported by Suttkus (1955) for Fall Creek,
New York. The high coefficient of condi-
tion for smallmouth bass in Doe Run indi-
cates that the environment is favorable for
the species.
Largemouth Bass
The largemouth bass was rare in Doe
Run, and its distribution was limited to the
large pools in the lower reaches of the
stream; still, an individual was collected
near the bridge for Highway 1638 in June
1961. Only 16 individuals were collected
from Doe Run, and 14 of those were in the
70 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
rotenone collection. Based on all collec-
tions, the largemouth bass made up 1.0
percent of the total sunfish population in
Doe Run.
The oldest individual was of Age Group
V and the youngest were in Age Group I.
No young of the year were taken. More
than half the specimens in all collections
were of Age Group II (Table 2). The
growth rate was calculated for 15 individ-
uals based on a straight-line relationship
between body length and scale length cor-
rected for an intercept of 25.4 mm. The
largemouth bass in Doe Run had attained
average lengths of 57, 103, 151, 199, and
227 mm for Age Groups I through V, re-
spectively (Table 2). The conversion factor
for standard to total length is 1.227 based
on measurements of all specimens.
The growth rate for largemouth bass in
Doe Run was very slow. They grew more
slowly than in any of the streams in Mis-
souri ( Purkett 1958a), in Kentucky (Tomp-
kins and Carter 1951), and in Oklahoma
(Jenkins et al. 1952, Finnell et al. 1956).
In the Clinch River, Tennessee, below
Norris Dam, Eschmeyer (1944) reported
that age determination of 108 largemouth
bass taken after 15 November 1943 revealed
that individuals up to 300 mm total length
(ca. 245 mm standard length) were young
of the year, none having annuli on their
scales.
Measurements of all largemouth bass
from Doe Run were used to calculate the
length-weight relationship from the equa-
tion log W = -4.839 + 3.106 log L. The
average coefficient of condition for those
fish was 2.451. Eschmeyer (1944) reported
a coefficient of condition of 2.19 for large-
mouth bass from the Clinch River. Thus,
that species in Doe Run was plumper than
most other stream populations even though
they grew very slowly.
None of the largemouth bass from Doe
Run was in breeding condition in July 1961.
One female contained eggs in an early stage
of development.
White Crappie
The white crappie was not collected from
Doe Run until 1961 when it was taken from
the backwater of the Ohio River. The 26
specimens taken during the entire study
period made up 1.7 percent of the total
sunfish population. All specimens were
small, the largest being an individual of
Age Group III; the youngest were 5 indi-
viduals of Age Group I. No young of the
year were collected.
Growth rate was calculated for the 20
specimens taken with rotenone based on
a straight-line relationship between body
length and scale length. Those fish had
attained average standard lengths of 71,
123, and 150 mm at ages I through III,
respectively (Table 2). The conversion
factor for standard to total length is 1.213
based on measurements of all specimens.
The growth rate in Doe Run was below
the average for white crappies from Slate
Creek, Kentucky (Tompkins and Carter
1951), the St. Francis River, Missouri ( Pur-
kett 1958a), and Poteau River, Oklahoma
(Hall 1951), but was greater than in the
Salt, Gasconade, and Meramec rivers, Mis-
souri (Purkett 1958a, 1958b), and the Little
and Illinois rivers, Oklahoma (Jenkins et al.
1952, Finnell et al. 1956).
All specimens from Doe Run were used
to calculate the length-weight relationship
from the equation log W = -6.1946 + 3.7658
log L. The average value was 2.382. Han-
sen (1951) reported seasonal changes in
coefficient of condition among male and
female white crappies from Lake Decatur,
Illinois, with values for males being higher
than for females.
Warmouth
Prior to the rotenone treatment, only a
single warmouth had been collected from
Doe Run. The rotenone study produced an
additional 17 specimens. Those fish were
limited to the sluggish pools in the lower
reaches of the stream. Based on all data, —
the warmouth made up 1.2 percent of the ©
total sunfish population. |
The oldest individuals were in Age Group 4}
IV, and 2 individuals of Age Group I were §
the youngest. Growth rate was calculated
for 18 specimens based on a straight-line
SUNFISHES OF DoE RuN, MEADE Counry—Redmon and Krumholz ral
relationship between body length and scale
length corrected for an intercept of 13.4
mm. The average standard lengths were
40, 64, 87, and 108 mm, respectively, for
Age Groups I through IV. The conversion
factor for standard to total length is 1.240
based on measurements of all specimens.
The growth rate (Table 2) was slower
than that reported by Tompkins and Carter
(1951) from Slate Creek, Kentucky, by Fin-
nell et al. (1956) and Jenkins et al. (1952)
for the Little and Illinois river systems,
Oklahoma, and from the Mississippi River
(Upper Mississippi Conservation Commis-
sion 1946). Also, it was much slower than
that reported for 2 Illinois lakes by Lari-
more (1957).
The length-weight relationship was based
on all specimens using the equation log W
= —5.359 + 3.504 log L. The average coef-
ficient of condition for warmouths in Doe
Run was 4.089.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Eleven centrarchids were present in Doe
Run prior to the rotenone treatment of 9-11
July 1961, when most fishes used in this
study were collected. Of those, 9 were
present in sufficient numbers for analysis
of growth rate, coefficient of condition, age
at maturity, and length-frequency distribu-
tion. Except for a few isolated individuals,
all sunfishes were restricted to the area
downstream from the bridge for Highway
1638 (Fig. 1) by a combination of factors
including obstruction of stream flow, high
gradient, water temperature, and lack of
suitable habitat. Lack of sufficient cover
and competition with other species more
suited to Doe Run’s environment played a
major role in limiting the sunfish popula-
tion.
Populations of rock bass, longear sunfish,
smallmouth bass, and spotted bass contained
majorities of older individuals, indicating
that the populations were mature and
underexploited. The populations of blue-
gills and green sunfish contained relatively
large numbers of young individuals, indi-
cating reproductive success. Collectively,
all other sunfishes made up less than 5
percent of the total sunfish population, and
none was known to have reproduced in
Doe Run, although the warmouth and the
largemouth bass may have done so on
occasion.
The growth rates of different sunfishes
are indications of the suitability of the
environment. The most abundant sunfish
in Doe Run, the longear sunfish, grew faster
than the average rate of other streams
reported in the literature. The bluegills also
grew faster than those reported from other
streams, but not as fast as in lakes. The
rock bass, abundant in a limited area of
Doe Run, had an average growth rate com-
parable with that of other streams; that
population contained many individuals
larger than average for most Kentucky
streams. The growth rates of smallmouth
bass, spotted bass, and green sunfish were
slightly less than those reported for other
streams. However, the smallmouth bass
grew faster than they did in streams of
comparable size reported in the literature,
Fall Creek, New York (Suttkus 1955), and
Coffin Creek, Iowa (Tate 1949). Other
centrarchids in Doe Run, the largemouth
bass, warmouth, and white crappie grew
very slowly when compared with those from
other streams, indicating that environmen-
tal conditions in Doe Run probably were
marginal; those species refer warmer and
more sluggish or lentic waters.
Growth rates of male and female green
sunfish, bluegill, and rock bass were similar,
but the male longear sunfish grew notice-
ably faster than females. Also, males of
those 4 species lived longer than females.
Females of all species considered reached
sexual maturity at younger ages than males.
Analyses of length-weight relationships
indicated that only the rock bass was below
those reported for other streams. Compari-
sons were hindered by the paucity of suit-
able material from other streams. Bennett
(1938) reported that slower growing popu-
lations of smallmouth bass in Wisconsin
lakes had relatively higher average weights
than fast growing individuals. However,
Tate (1949) found that smallmouth bass in
72 Trans. KENTucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
Coffin Creek, Iowa, that had a faster growth
rate than reported by Bennett, were also
heavier. It appeared that any attempt
to relate length-weight relationships with
growth rates may be misleading. Although
the growth rates of the different species of
sunfishes in Doe Run ranged from above
average to below average, all species except
the rock bass and white crappie were
heavier than average. Within geographic
regions, the relative weights of sunfishes are
controlled by the food available and not
solely on increase in length after embryo-
logical development. While growth can be
controlled by several factors, temperature
of the water and length of the growing
season play dominant roles (Bennett 1938,
Thompson 1941).
Of the sunfishes collected during the
rotenone treatment of 9-11 July 1961, only
the smallmouth bass was known to have
spawned already that year. Some female
longear sunfish appeared to be in peak
spawning condition, as indicated by the
condition of the ovaries, but no spent
females were found. Other species did not
appear ready to spawn. Those data indicate
that spawning dates for sunfishes in Doe
Run are relatively late in the year probably
because of the constant coolness of the
water at the source of the stream and the
almost complete shading of the stream by
riparian trees and their influence on water
temperatures downstream.
From the information at hand, the most
successful association of centrarchids in
Doe Run is the longear sunfish-rock bass—
smallmouth bass. Based on our collections
elsewhere, that association is not uncom-
mon for cool, clear, free-flowing, gravel-
bottomed streams.
LITERATURE CITED
BarLEy, R. M., J. E. Frrcn, E. S. Herap, E. A.
LaAcHNER, C. C. LinpsEy, C. R. Rosins, AND
W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of common and
scientific names of fishes from the United
States and Canada. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec.
Publ. No. 6:1-149.
BENNETT, G. W. 1938. Growth of the small-
mouthed black bass, Micropterus dolomieu
Lacépéde, in Wisconsin waters. Copeia 1938
(4):157-170.
CAMPBELL, R. S., AND A. Wirt, Jr. 1953. Im-
pressions of fish scales in plastic. J. Wildl.
Manage. 17( 2) :218-219.
EscHMEYER, R. W. 1944. Fish migration into
the Clinch River below Norris Dam, Tennes-
see. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 19(1):31-41.
EverHartT, W. H. 1950. Relation between body
length and scale measurements in the small-
mouth bass. J. Wildl. Manage. 14(3):266—
276.
FINNELL, J. C., R. M. JENKINS, AND G. E. HALL.
1956. The fishery resources of the Little
River system, McCurtain County, Oklahoma.
Rept. Okla. Fish. Res. Lab. 55:1-82.
Haut, G. E. 1951. Preimpoundment fish popu-
lations of the Wister Reservoir area in the
Poteau River basin, Oklahoma. Trans. N.
Amer. Wildl. Conf. 16:266—283.
HaANsEN, D. F. 1951. Biology of the white crap-
pie in Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 25 . |
(4) :207—265.
Hitz, R. O. 1931. The growth of fishes in In-
diana. Invest. Ind. Lake Streams 1(2):9—55.
1936. Age determination of fish from
scales: method and application to fish cultural
problems. Prog. Fish-Cult. 23:15.
. 1941. Age and growth of the rock
bass, Ambloplites rupestris (Rafinesque), in
Nebish Lake, Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. Acad.
Sci., Arts, Lett. 33:189-337.
Husss, C. L., anpD G. P. Cooper. 1935. Age and
growth of the longeared and green sunfishes
in Michigan. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts Lett.
20:669-696.
JENKINS, R. M., E. M. LEONARD, AND G. E. HALL.
1952. An investigation of the Illinois River
and preimpoundment of Tenkiller Reservoir,
Oklahoma. Rept. Okla. Fish. Res. Lab. 26:
1—136.
KruMuoiz, L. A. 1965. A radioecological study
of the biota of Doe Run, Meade County,
Kentucky. U.S. Atomic Energy Comm. Doc.
No. TID-22815.
1967. Accumulation of radioactive fall-
out materials in the biota of Doe Run, Meade
County, Kentucky, 1959-1963. Pp. 791-818.
In Radioecological Concentration Processes.
Pergamon Press, New York, N.Y. 1040 pp.
Larmore, R. W. 1957. Ecological life history
of the warmouth (Centrarchidae). Bull. Il.
Nat. Hist. Surv. 27:1-83.
Lewis, W. M., AND D. Exvper. 1952. The fish
population of the headwaters of a spotted bass
stream in southern Illinois. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 82:193-202.
MinckLeEy, W. L. 1963. The ecology of a spring
stream Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky.
Wildl. Monogr. 11:1-124.
PATRIARCHE, M. E., anp E. M. Lowry. 1953.
Age and growth of five species of fish in Black
\
SUNFISHES OF Dor Run, MEADE Counry—Redmon and Krumholz fo
River, Missouri. Univ. Mo. Stud. 26(2):85-
109.
Purkerr, C. A., Jr. ‘ 1958a. Growth rates of
Missouri stream fishes. Dingell-Johnson Pro-
gram. Publ. Mo. Cons. Comm. 1:1-46.
1958b. Growth of fishes in the Salt
River, Missouri. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 87
(1957 ):116—131.
Scott, D. C. 1949. A study of a stream popu-
lation of rock bass, Ambloplites rupestris. In-
vest. Ind. Lakes Streams 3(3):169-234.
Sutrkxus, R.D. 1955. Age and growth of a small
stream population of “stunted” smallmouth
bass, Micropterus dolomieu dolomieu (Lacé-
pede). N.Y. Fish Game J. 2(1):83—94.
SwINcLeE, H. S., anp E. V. SmirH. 1950. Factors
affecting the reproduction of bluegill bream
and largemouth bass in ponds. Agric. Exp.
Sta., Ala. Poly. Inst. Circ. 87:1-8.
Tate, W. H. 1949. Growth and food habits of
smallmouth black bass in some Iowa streams.
Ia. St. Coll. J. Sci. 23(4) :343-354.
Tuomeson, D. H. 1941. The fish production of
inland streams and lakes. Pp. 206-217. In A
symposium on hydrobiology. Univ. Wis. Press,
Madison, Wis. 405 pp.
Tompkins, W. A., AND B. T. Carter. 1951.
Growth rates of some Kentucky fishes. Fish.
Bull., Ky. Cons. Comm. 6:1-9.
TRAUTMAN, M. B. 1942. Fish distribution and
abundance correlated with stream gradients as
a consideration in stocking programs. Trans.
N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. 7:211—223.
. 1957. The fishes of Ohio.
Univ. Press, Columbus, O. 683 pp.
Upper MiuississtipPpI CONSERVATION COMMISSION.
1946. Second progress report of the technical
committee for fisheries. 27 pp.
VAN OostTEN, J. 1929. Life history of the lake
herring (Leucichthys artedi Le Sueur ) of Lake
Huron as revealed by its scales, with a critique
of the scale method. Bull. Bur. Fish. 44:
263-428.
Wuitney, R. R., AND K. D. CaRLANDER. 1956.
Interpretation of body-scale regression for
computing body length of fish. J. Wildl.
Manage. 20(1):21-27.
Wirt, A., JR., AND R. C. MarzoirF. 1954. Spawn-
ing and behavior of the longear sunfish,
Lepomis megalotis megalotis. Copeia 1954
(3):188—190.
Ohio St.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 74-75
On the Occurrence of the Cedar Glade Endemic
Viola egglestonii in Kentucky
Jerry M. BAskIn AND CAROL C. BASKIN
School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40506
ABSTRACT
Viola egglestonii Brainerd, previously known to occur only in Bullitt County in Kentucky, is
reported from 3 localities in Nelson County. A 1977 publication reporting the species as
“common” in Hart County and “abundant” in Warren County is repudiated.
Viola egglestonii Brainerd (Violaceae) is
a perennial, stemless blue violet endemic to
cedar (limestone) glades of the southeastern
United States. Its center of distribution is
in the Central Basin of Tennessee, but dis-
junct populations occur on cedar glades in
Alabama, Georgia, and Kentucky. In Ken-
tucky, the species was known only from
Bullitt County in north-central Kentucky,
where it occurs on cedar glades developed
on Silurian limestone (Baskin and Baskin
1975a, Baskin and Baskin 1975b).
We have discovered 3 other populations
of V. egglestonii on small cedar glades in
Nelson County: (1) along old US Highway
31E, 0.8 miles (1.3 km) south of State
Highway 46 east of Balltown (J. and C.
Baskin #1797, 12 September 1976, KY,
VDB), (2) along Jim Clark Rd., 0.2 miles
(0.3 km) west of State Highway 46 east of
Balltown (J. and C. Baskin #1922, 19 May
1977, KY, VDB), and (3) along Nat Rogers
Road (State Highway 46), 1.5 miles (2.4
km) west of US 31E (J. and C. Baskin
#1913, 19 May 1977, KY, VDB). Those
localities are approximately 20 miles (32
km) south of the nearest population of V.
egglestonii in Bullitt County. The Nelson
County cedar glades on which V. eggles-
tonii grows also are on Silurian limestone.
Characteristic cedar glade species grow-
ing with V. egglestonii in Nelson County
include Agave virginica L., Asclepias ver-
ticillata L., Croton capitatus Michx., C.
monanthogynus Michx., Desmanthus illino-
ensis (Michx.) MacM., Euphorbia corollata
L., Houstonia canadensis Willd., H. nigri-
cans (Lam.) Fern., Hypericum dolabriforme
74
Vent., Isanthus brachiatus (L.) BSP, Notho-
scordum bivalve (L.) Britt., Panicum flexile
(Gattinger ) Scribn., Rosa carolina L., Ruel-
lia humilis Nutt., Scutellaria parvula Michx.,
Sisyrinchium albidum Raf., and Sporobolus
vaginiflorus (Torr.) Wood. Nomenclature
follows Fernald 1950. The blue-green alga
Nostoc commune Vauch. also is present.
In a compilation entitled “Endangered
Plants and Animals of Kentucky,” Babcock
(1977) showed, on a county map of Ken-
tucky, V. egglestonii occurring in Bullitt,
Hart, and Warren counties. Furthermore,
he indicated that V. egglestonii is “common” —
in Bullitt and Hart counties and “abundant”
in Warren County. In Bullitt County, we |
have located about a dozen populations of —
V. egglestonii in the eastern portion of the ©
county. For the most part, those popula- —
tions are small, often with less than 100 |
plants scattered over an area of only a few ©
square meters. Although there are a few
small cedar glades in Hart and Warren ©
counties, we have never found V. eggles- _
tonii on any of them. The only mention in |
the literature of the occurrence of the
species in Warren County is in a report —
entitled “Violets of North America” by Ezra
Brainerd in 1921. In that report, Brainerd
mentioned a single specimen of V. eggles-
tonii collected by Miss Sadie F. Price from
near Bowling Green on 11 April 1899.
According to Brainerd, that specimen was |
at the St. Louis Botanical Garden, and it
was labeled V. falcata Greene. We have >
corresponded with Dr. Marshall Crosby of |
the St. Louis Botanical Garden about the |
Sadie Price specimen. In a letter to J. |
VIOLA EGGLESTONII IN KENTUCKY—Baskin and Baskin aD
Baskin dated 13 June 1977, Dr. Crosby
stated that, “I have been unable to locate
this specimen filed either under V. eggles-
tonii or V. falcata.” Thus, there is no speci-
men to verify that V. egglestonii has ever
been collected in Warren County.
The only report of the occurrence of V.
egglestonii in Hart County is by Braun
(1943) in her catalogue of spermatophytes
of Kentucky. Dr. Braun reported a single
collection of the species from Hart County.
The specimen is now deposited in the U.S.
National Herbarium, bearing a label with
the following information: E. Lucy Braun
No. 3910 “on dry sw slope, open red cedar
“Big Woods” in Hart County, Ky., May 2,
1941.” We have carefully examined the
specimen, and it definitely is not V. eggles-
tonii. We were unable to identify the
species, but it appears to be either V. escu-
lenta Ell. or V. triloba Schwein. var. triloba.
The lobing of the leaves and the sparse
pubescence on the leaf surfaces are charac-
teristic of V. esculenta, a species not known
to occur in Kentucky. The specimen has
leaf lobing characteristic of V. triloba var.
triloba, and it was collected within the
range of that species. However, the leaves
on the specimen are not very pubescent as
they are in good V. triloba var. triloba
(Brainerd 1921, Russell 1965). Thus, there
is no specimen to verify the occurrence of
V. egglestonii in Hart County.
In summary, Viola egglestonii in Ken-
tucky appears to be restricted to a few
small populations on cedar glades in Bullitt
and Nelson counties.
LITERATURE CITED
Bascock, J. V. 1977. Endangered plants and
animals in Kentucky. A publication of the
Office of Research and Engineering Services.
College of Engineering, University of Ken-
tucky. Lexington, Ky. 128 pp.
BAsSKIN, C. C., AND J. M. Baskin. 1975a. The
cedar glade flora of Bullitt County, Kentucky.
Castanea 40:184—190.
BAskIN, J. M., AND C. C. Baskin. 1975b. Geo-
graphical distribution of the cedar glade en-
demic Viola egglestonii. Rhodora 77:427-429.
BRAINERD, FE. 1921. Violets of North America.
Vt. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 224. 172 pp.
Braun, E. L. 1943. An annotated catalogue of
spermatophytes of Kentucky. Published by the
author, Cincinnati, Ohio. 161 pp.
FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray's manual of botany.
8th Ed. Amer. Book Co., New York, N.Y.
1632 pp.
RussELL, N. H. 1965. Violets (Viola) of central
and eastern United States. Sida 2:1-113.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 76-77
An Infrequently Reported Alga:
Chadefaudiothrix gallica Bourrelly
(Xanthophyceae:Heterotrichales) *”
Gary E. DILLARD
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
ABSTRACT
Chadefaudiothrix gallica Bourrelly, an infrequently encountered xanthophyte, is reported
from south-central Kentucky representing its second known locale in addition to the type locale
in France. The major distinguishing characteristics and known distribution of the 3 described
species of the genus are summarized.
The xanthophycean genus Chadefaudio-
thrix was erected by Bourrelly (1957). The
type species, C. gallica, was collected from
an acidic pond (pH 6.5) in France. Two
additional species, C. fluitans (Fritsch)
Bourrelly [= Ecballocystis fluitans Fritsch,
1933] and C. minouchetii (Bourrelly ) Bour-
relly [= Elakatothrix minouchetii Bourrelly,
1947], were recognized by Bourrelly (1957).
Distinguishing characteristics and known
distributions of the 3 species are summarized
in Table 1.
The genus is characterized by forming
gelatinous tubes that are simple or anasto-
mosed and uni- or multiseriate. Individual
cells, that may not be contiguous with
their neighbors within the tube, are second-
arily enclosed by a sheath clearly distin-
* Dedicated to Dr. Larry Alston Whitford on the
occasion of his 75th birthday.
*I wish to thank Dr. Pierre Bourrelly for verify-
ing the identification.
guishable from that of the primary tube.
The tubes are free or may be attached by
a gelatinous holdfast to the substrate. The
cells are elongate-cylindrical, rarely slightly
reniform, with rounded to slightly truncated
apexes. Each cell contains 1-4 parietal
chloroplasts without pyrenoids. The only
known means of reproduction is accom-
plished by oblique vegetative cell division.
Apparently, the genus was known only
from the type locales in France and England
prior to Whitford and Schumacher’s (1969)
report of C. gallica from acidic swamp pools
in Wake County, North Carolina.
C. gallica (Fig. 1) was collected from
Sloan’s Crossing Pond, Mammoth Cave
National Park (Edmonson County, Ken-
tucky), in March 1976 (pH 6.2, 12C). In
spite of intensive examination of the samples
available at that time, only 3 specimens
were found. Although routine collections _
have been taken from the pond subse- |
TABLE 1.—MA Jor DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF THE 3 DESCRIBED SPECIES |
oF Chadefaudiothrix BouRRELLY |
Dimensions ()
Number of Tubes Cells
Species chloroplasts ( width ) (width/length ) Habit Distribution
C. gallica 2 30-35 6-8 x 27-30 anastomosing tubes, France; USA:
metaphytic Ky, NC
C. fluitans 4 14-18 3.0-3.5 x 9-18 anastomosing tubes, England
metaphytic
C. minouchetii 1 13-15 2x 12-26 simple tubes, France
epiphytic
INFREQUENTLY REPORTED ALGA—Dillard rai
fic. 1. Chadefaudiothrix gallica Bourrelly. A.
Portion of anastomosing tube; B. single vegetative
cell. Scales in microns.
quently, no additional specimens of C. gal-
ica have been observed.
With the exception of reports by Whit-
ford and Schumacher (1969, 1973), Meyer
and Brook (1969), and Tarapchak (1972),
the xanthophycean flora of the United
States is poorly known. It appears that the
more ephemeral forms, excluding such
genera as Ophiocytium, Tribonema, and
Vaucheria, occur primarily in dystrophic
ponds, swamps, and bogs with major vege-
tative development in early spring and fall
when water temperatures are 10-15 C.
LITERATURE CITED
BourrEL.Ly, P. 1947. Algues rares et nouvelles
des mares de la Forét de Fontainebleau. Rev.
Gén. Bot. 54:306—-326.
1957. Un nouveau genre de Xantho-
phycée d’eau douce de la Forét de Sénart:
“Chadefaudiothrix.” Rev. Algol. 3:97-102.
Fritscu, F. E. 1933. Contribution to our knowl-
edge of British algae, V. A British species of
Ecballocystis (E. fluitans sp. nov.). J. Bot.
1933:187—196.
Meyer, R. L., anp A. J. Broox. 1969. Fresh-
water algae from the Itasca State Park, Min-
nesota, II. Chrysophyceae and Xanthophyceae.
Nova Hedwigia 17:105-112.
TARAPCHAK, S. J. 1972. Studies on the Xantho-
phyceae of the Red Lake wetlands, Minnesota.
Nova Hedwigia 23:1—44.
WuitForp, L. A., AND G. J. SCHUMACHER. 1969.
A Manual of the Fresh-Water Algae in North
Carolina. North Carolina Agric. Exp. Sta.
Tech. Bull. No. 188:1-313.
, AND . 1973. A Manual of
Fresh-Water Algae. Sparks Press, Raleigh,
North Carolina. 324 pp.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1—2), 1978, 78-79
First Record of the Masked Shrew in Western Kentucky
THOMAS FRENCH
Department of Life Sciences, Indiana State University,
Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
In Kentucky, Sorex cinereus was pre-
viously known to occur only at Big Black
Mountain, Harlan County, in extreme south-
eastern Kentucky
1974). Hall and Kelson (1959) included
Sorex cinereus in western Kentucky along
the Ohio River, and Barbour and Davis
(1974) suggested that it might occur in
northern Kentucky on the basis of records
from adjacent Indiana and Ohio. Between
22 November and 17 December 1976, 6 pit-
fall can traps were set just west of U.S. 41,
0.7 miles (1.1 km) south of the Ohio River
in Henderson County, Kentucky. From
those cans, 1 white-footed mouse Peromys-
cus leucopus, 1 pine vole Microtus pineto-
rum, and 7 masked shrews Sorex cinereus,
were captured. The cans were confined to
0.2 acres (0.08 ha) of river floodplain forest
with numerous rotting logs and a thick mat
of leaf litter.
The specimens compare favorably in coat
color and body size to a series of 7 speci-
mens from Hovey Lake, Posey County,
Indiana (ISU 1080-1086). The means and
ranges of standard body and skull measure-
ments (Table 1) show little difference
between the Indiana and Kentucky speci-
mens. Cranial measurements follow Jackson
(1928).
TABLE 1.—MEANS AND RANGES OF STANDARD BODY AND SKULL MEASUREMENTS OF 2 SERIES OF Sorex
cinereus FROM INDIANA AND KENTUCKY. ALL MEASUREMENTS ARE IN MILLIMETERS AND WEIGHTS ARE IN
GRAMS
Condylo- Maxillary
Total Tail Hind foot basal Cranial Maxillary Palatal toothrow
length length length Weight length width width length length |
Henderson 89.3 36.7 11.9 3.2 15.6 es 4.4 6.5 5.9 i
County, Ky. 86-92 3640 11.5-12.0 2.9-3.7 15.3-16.1 7.4-7.7 4.34.5 63-68 5.66.1 |
BT ae 7 R= a=) 2S 7 n= 7 ee n=7 |
Posey 86.1 36.1 11.9 a 15.9 TG 4.4 6.6 5.9 |
County, Ind. 81-91 33-39 11.0-13.0 3.1-3.6 15.4-16.4 7.5-7.7 43-45 6.46.8 5.86.0
a7 n= 7 n=7 n=6 n=6 x2=6 7]
(Barbour and Davis .
The type locality of S. c. lesweurii (Du- |
vernoy) is the Wabash River Valley, In-
diana. The exact locality was not listed,
but specimens from all but southeastern.
Indiana have been referred to that subspe-.
cies by Mumford (1969). Sorex c. lesueurii
is characterized by dark winter pelage,
although much darker individuals are
known to occur in Newton County, oe
(ISU 996-998, 1910, 1911), 240 miles (ca..
380 km) north of Hovey Lake. The a |
locality is approximately 20 miles (32 km)
east-northeast of Hovey Lake. |
Ectoparasites were collected from 1
Henderson County S. cinereus and were
identified by Dr. J. O. Whitaker, Jr., as:
Protomyobia sp., 11 (these are being studied!
further); Orycteroxenus soricis, 10; and.
Amorphacarus hengererorum, 1 male.
The present specimens (ISU 3635-3640
and UKy 5243) constitute the second local-
ity for the species in Kentucky and the first!
record for the subspecies lesueurii. |
I gratefully acknowledge J. O. Whitaker,
Jr., for reviewing this manuscript. |
LITERATURE CITED
Barsour, R. W., AND W. H. Davis. 1974. Mam-
mals of Kentucky. University Press of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, Ky. 322 pp.
MASKED SHREW IN WESTERN KENTUCKY—French 79
Hatt, E. R., anp K. R. Ketson. 1959. The and Microsorex). North Am. Fauna no. 51.
Mammals of North America. Ronald Press, Washington, D.C. 238 pp.
New York, N.Y. 2 vols., 1083 pp. Mumrorp, R. E. 1969. Distribution of the mam-
Jackson, H. H. T. 1928. A taxonomic review of mals of Indiana. Ind. Acad. Sci., Monograph
the American long-tailed shrews (genus Sorex no. 1. Indianapolis, Ind. 114 pp.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1—2), 1978, 80-81
DISTINGUISHED SCIENTIST AWARD
Dr. Wallace W. Hagan
Last year, your Academy’s Board of
Directors created the Distinguished Scien-
tist Award of the Kentucky Academy of
Science. It was created to honor those
among us who have distinguished them-
selves either as generators of new knowl-
edge through the development of clever
experiments or observations, whether at the
research bench, out in the field, or within
societies of man, or transmitters of new
knowledge to new generations of young
minds where information becomes weighed,
evaluated, and incorporated into the body
of knowledge of man, or as facilitators in
the public sector who help the public and
government to understand new knowledge
and put it to effective use for the sake of
the future of mankind.
I am delighted at this time to have the
honor to make known the name of the
Academy's 1977 Distinguished Scientist.
The person we are honoring this evening
was born in Illinois and attended the Uni-
versity of Illinois, receiving his bachelor’s,
masters, and eventually his doctoral degrees
in geology from that institution. While at
' in charge of the Ground Water Section on
80
the University of Illinois, he was honored
with membership in Phi Beta Kappa.
Even before obtaining his doctorate, he
was a petroleum geologist for the Wicklund]
Development Corporation and a consulting
geologist in several municipalities in Ken-
tucky and Illinois. Following completion
of his graduate work, he became geologist |
the Indiana Geological Society. He also
served as a geologist and consulting geol-
ogist for a number of oil companies in
Oklahoma, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, and
Tennessee. Since 1958, he has been Director.
and State Geologist of the Kentucky Geo-
logical Survey.
He has published papers in paleontology
and on oil and gas possibilities in various
regions of the midwestern United States.
He has given extensively in the area of
public service. Just as some examples, he
was for 6 years a member of the Advisory }
Board of the Kentucky Geological Survey. |
From 1958 to the present, he has served as.
the Governor's representative on the Inter- }
state Oil Compact Commission. He has:
been a member of the Kentucky Water}
Resources Council since 1958, and for 13 |
years served on the Research and Policy}
Committee of the Kentucky Water Re-}
sources Institute. He is a continuing mem-
ber of the Committee on Radioactive Waste },
Disposal of the Kentucky Science and Tech-
nology Council, and has been a member
of the Lower Mississippi Region Compre-
hensive Study Group since 1970. For 10]
years, he was a member of the Advisory}
Committee on Water Data for Public Use
of the United States Department of the
Interior.
During that same time, he has been active
in a number of professional societies, having
risen to distinguished positions in each. As
an example, he has been a long-standing
member of the Association of American}
State Geologists, having risen through vari-
ous offices to become its national President
in 1968 and 1969. He also served for some’
years as a member of its Executive Board.
DISTINGUISHED SCIENTIST AWARD 81
As another example, he has been Vice Chair-
man of the Southeastern Section of the
Geological Society of America. In addition,
he is a member of the American Association
of Petroleum Geologists, having served on a
number of their committees, including the
Advisory Committee to Federal, State, and
Local Agencies. He is not only a member of
the Geological Society of Kentucky, but in
1966 served as the state President. This is
only a small sample of this individual's
participation in various local, state, and
national professional societies.
In 1972, our recipient received the John
Wesley Powell Award that was established
in 1971 by the United States Geological
Survey of the United States Department of
the Interior. That award is given in recog-
nition of the contribution that private
citizens and groups have made to the
furtherance of the USGS missions. Largely
through the efforts of the man we honor
this evening, extensive geological mapping
of the Commonwealth of Kentucky has
been accomplished. Kentucky is one of
the few states with such complete mapping
of its resources.
Thus, the person we honor tonight has
had a distinguished career in his chosen
profession and has made important and
significant contributions in the public sector
toward furtherance of the understanding
and utilization of that information by
society.
We are pleased to announce that the
Academy’s 1977 Distinguished Scientist is
Dr. Wallace W. Hagan, Director and State
Geologist of the Kentucky Geological Sur-
vey.
Thomas B. Calhoon, Chairman
Board of Directors
Response by Dr. Hagan
Dr. Calhoon, Mr. President, fellow mem-
bers of the Kentucky Academy of Science,
and guests, I appreciate very much being
honored as recipient of the award of “Dis-
tinguished Scientist for 1977.” I accept it
with acknowledgment it was made possible
by the accomplishments of the staff of the
Kentucky Geological Survey, the coopera-
tive programs with KGS and the United
States Geological Survey in areal geologic
mapping, water resources investigations,
and topographic mapping; by the support
of the Kentucky Department of Commerce,
the University of Kentucky, and the Ken-
tucky Development Cabinet.
The Kentucky and Federal governments,
industry, Kentucky Chamber of Commerce,
Agriculture-Kentucky Farm Bureau, the
Kentucky Geological Survey Advisory
Board, the people of Kentucky, and profes-
sional engineers and geologists have sup-
ported the KGS programs and made them
possible.
The Areal Geologic Mapping Program
that was commenced in 1960 as a coopera-
tive program by KGS and USGS is the
first time an attempt has been made to map
the bedrock geology of a state this large
at a scale of 1:24,000. The 767 quadrangles,
each of which covers about 59 square miles,
have all been field completed, and it is
anticipated all will be printed by January
1979. This is a program of great economic
value to all our people.
Again, I want to thank the Kentucky
Academy of Science for the recognition of
our work through me. It is indeed an un-
expected privilege. I also thank my wife,
Betty, for all the patience, understanding,
and support she has given me during the
years.
This is the last Academy meeting I will
attend as your Director and State Geologist
of the Kentucky Geological Survey as I am
to retire 1 July 1978. My interest in the
Academy, the geology of Kentucky, and the
progress of the Survey will continue beyond
that date.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 82-87
ACADEMY AFFAIRS
PROGRAM
Friday, 11 November 1977
1200-1600, REGISTRATION, Thompson Complex
CST for Science—Central Wing
1200-1700 SCIENTIFIC EXHIBITS, Thompson
Complex for Science—Central Wing
1300-1600
ing pages)
KAS ANNUAL BANQUET, Downing
University Center Auxiliary Dining
Room
1830-2030
Speaker: Damon Harrison
Commissioner of Energy
Commonwealth of Kentucky
HOSPITALITY HOUR, Red Carpet
Inn
2100-2300
Saturday, 12 November 1977
0800-1200 SCIENTIFIC EXHIBITS, Thompson
Complex for Science—Central Wing
0800-1000 REGISTRATION, Thompson Complex
for Science—Central Wing
0800-0915 ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING,
Thompson Complex for Science—Cen-
tral Wing, Room 129
0915-0930 COFFEE BREAK
0930-— SECTIONAL MEETINGS (see follow-
ing pages)
SECTIONAL PROGRAMS
BoTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY
Room 203 Thompson Complex for Science,
North Wing
William Martin, Chairman, Presiding
Willem Meijer, Secretary
Friday, 11 November
1300 The causitive agent of reddening in lettuce.
L. P. Elliot, Western Kentucky University.
The effect of temperature and cell poisons
upon the growth of Saccharomyces cerivisiae
populations. Michelle Gausepohl, Western
Kentucky University. (Sponsor: Herbert
Leopold. )
The taxonomic significance of experimental
selection by vernalization in Nuphar. E. O.
Beal, Western Kentucky University.
Ecotypic differentiation in Ohio and Mis-
sissippi populations in Acer negundo L.
Anthony Greco and Joe Winstead, Western
Kentucky University.
1315
1330
1345
SECTIONAL MEETINGS (see follow- |
82
1400
1415
1430
1445
Effects of submergence on Liquidambar
styracflua L. seedlings. Lynn N. Wellman
and Joe E. Winstead, Western Kentucky |
University. |
Experimental synthesis on ectomychorrhizae |
with Pisolithus tinctorius on tree seedlings |
produced for strip mine reclamation. Dale
M. Maronek and James W. Hendrix, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.
Association on mammal occurrence in the
ectomychorihoral fungus Pisolithus tinctorius |
with superior growth on pine seedlings on
reclaimed strip mine sites. James W. Hen-
drix, Dale M. Maronek, and Claude Dow- |
ning, University of Kentucky and Division |
of Reclamation, London, Kentucky. |
The Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission. |
Donald Harker, State Government, Frank-
fort.
Saturday, 12 November
0930
0945
1000
1015
1030
1045
1100
1115
1130
1145
1200
Index Herbarium Kentuckiensis. Stuart Las- |
setter, Eastern Kentucky University. |
Endangered and threatened plants of Ken-.
tucky. Progress report. Willem Meijer,
University of Kentucky, and Mary Wharton, |
Georgetown College. |
Bald point, a forest and prairie complex in
northern Kentucky. William S. Bryant,
Thomas More College. |
The flora of Hardin County. Ray Cranfill,
University of Kentucky.
A new station for the filmy fern Trichom-|
anes boschianum in Western Kentucky.
Ronald R. Van Stockum, University of
Louisville.
The Inner Blue Grass and its tree vege-
tation. Julian J. Campbell, University of!
Kentucky. |
Lichen associations in relation to air pollu-.
tion in the Inner Blue Grass. Martha Simp- }
son, University of Kentucky. (Sponsored by
Willem Meijer. ) !
Geographic affinities of the bryophytes on
the Red River Gorge. Susan M. Moyle,
Centre College. |
Saxicolous bryophyte communities in the]
Red River Gorge. Mary Gallagher and
Susan M. Moyle, Centre College.
The Flora of the Kentucky River Bluffs in
the Blue Grass Region. Willem Meijer, Uni-§
versity of Kentucky.
Election of officers for 1977-1978.
ACADEMY AFFAIRS 83
CHEMISTRY SECTION
Room 402 Thompson Complex for Science,
Central Wing
Ilyas Ahmad, Chairman, Presiding
James Niewahner, Secretary
Friday, 11 November
1400 The role of different dietary carbohydrates
on the body chemistry of animals in relation
to cholesterol, lipid, lipoprotein levels, and
certain serum enzymes levels. Ilyas Ahmad
and Charlotte Dingels, Kentucky State Uni-
versity.
Characterization of nitrogen compounds
from coal liquids. Tay-Yen Lin and Norman
Holy, Western Kentucky University.
1430
Saturday, 12 November
0930 The effect of diet on the number and size
of adipose cells in rats. Lydia C. Maness
and Sue A. Debes, Kentucky State Univer-
sity.
Gas chromatograph and flame ionization
analysis of ethylene gas production. Steve
Estok. (Third place award in Chemistry
ISEF, Cleveland, Ohio, 1977), Western
Kentucky University.
Poiymerization of some metallophthalocya-
nines. Issa Jabra and Robert Farina, West-
ern Kentucky University.
Stereochemistry of 1-tertiary butyl-1,4-dihy-
dronaphthalene and 1,4-di,ter-butyl-1,4-di-
hydronaphthalene. Abdol Haji-Hossien-Ne-
jad and Normal L. Holy, Western Kentucky
University.
Kinetic study of the peroxysulfate—chloride
reaction. Jim Niewahner, Northern Ken-
tucky University.
1000
1020
1040
1100
GEOGRAPHY SECTION
Note: Geography will have concurrent sessions
Friday.
Friday, 11 November
URBAN GEOGRAPHY—Room 337,
Environmental Science and Technology Building
1300 Geography and Planning. The Eastern Ken-
tucky University experience. R. L. Marion-
neaux, Eastern Kentucky University.
The areal distribution of three components
of the urban social profile of metropolitan
Perth. Thomas P. Field, University of
Kentucky.
Occupational structure of Louisville, 1832.
A. William Dakan, University of Louisville.
1315
1330
1345 An examination of variations in quality of
life among Kentucky’s urban places. Dennis
E. Quillen, Eastern Kentucky University.
Factorial urban ecology of metropolitan
Lexington. Dinker I. Patel, Kentucky State
University.
1400
CULTURE AND DEVELOPMENT—Room 337,
Environmental Science and Technology Building
1415 Growth management in the Bluegrass. T. J.
Kubiak, Eastern Kentucky University, and
J. V. Panayotoff, Department of Transporta-
tion, Frankfort.
Cultural determinism in a difficult physical
environment. Gary C. Cox, Morehead State
University.
Louisiana sugarcane: an industry in change.
Arthur Frank Perkins, Eastern Kentucky
University.
1430
1445
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY—Room 338,
Environmental Science and Technology Building
1300 Tornadoes of 27 March 1890: an approach
to the study of severe weather phenomena
in Kentucky's past. Marvin W. Russell,
Western Kentucky University.
Methods for assessing the influence of winter
temperatures on natural gas consumption.
Glenn Conner, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity.
1315
1330 Quaternary fluctuations and areal extent of
drifting arctic sea ice. Anthony O. Clarke,
University of Louisville.
1345 Ducktown: a making of a desert. James W.
Taylor, Western Kentucky University.
KENTUCKY GEOGRAPHY—Room 338,
Environmental Science and Technology Building
1400 Ellen Churchill Semple: a portrait. Cynthia
Cooke, University of Louisville.
A proposed “Pronouncing Gazetteer of Ken-
tucky Place Names.” William A. Withing-
ton, University of Kentucky.
Wet, dry, and damp: alcohol and Kentucky
counties. Tom Spinks, University of Louis-
ville.
Visitation to Kentucky reservoir parks: a
prediction for Taylorsville. John L. Ander-
son, University of Louisville.
1415
1430
1445
GEOLOGY SECTION
Geology will have concurrent sessions Friday
and Saturday afternoons.
Note:
Friday, 11 November
GENERAL GEOLOGY—Noland Fields, Chairman
Room 323, Environmental Science and Technology
Building
84 Trans. KENTucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
1300 Source of the heavy minerals in the Wilcox
and Claiborne formations in Henry, Weak-
ley, and Carroll counties, Tennessee. Armin
L. Clark, Murray State University.
The Devonian-Mississippian paracontinuous
contact in southern Kentucky. J. E. Conkin,
University of Louisville, and B. M. Conkin,
Jefferson Community College.
Relationship of sieve size frequency distri-
bution data to thin-section textural data: a
progress report. Thomas McLoughlin, More-
head State University.
1415
watershed in eastern Kentucky. Everett D.
Springer and George B. Coltharp, University
of Kentucky.
Multispectral scanning information on the
highlands of the moon. C. Ronald Seeger,
Western Kentucky University.
1440
COAL—Norman C. Hester, Chairman; Room 328,
Environmental Science and Technology Building
1515 Geochemistry of coal-bearing sediments in
eastern Kentucky. Roy Dale Merritt, Eastern
Kentucky University. (Sponsor: Norman C.
Hester).
The occurrence and distribution of sulfur in
coal bearing rock in Eastern Kentucky. Nor-
man C. Hester, Eastern Kentucky University.
1540
1605 Interval correlation of western Kentucky
coals. L. Chyi, University of Kentucky.
1630 Petrology, mineralogy, and chemistry of
Hazard #4 tonestin. Stanley Stevens,
Eastern Kentucky University.
SPECIAL SESSION—C. Ronald Seeger, Chairman;
Room 328, Environmental Science and Technology
Building
Invited papers on geology and tectonics
of western Kentucky
0930 Survey of the tectonic setting of the central
midcontinent. Virginia Lee Hagee and C.
Ronald Seeger, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity.
Aeromagnetic and gravity anomalies related
to structure in western Kentucky. R. W.
Johnson, Tennessee Valley Authority, and
G. R. Keller, University of Texas at El Paso.
Geology of the Reelfoot Basin. Howard R.
Schwalb, Kentucky Geological Survey, Hen-
derson, Kentucky.
1020
1045 Interpretation of microgravity surveys of the
Tiptonville Dome. Susan K. Towe, Parrish
N. Erwin, Jr., and Richard G. Stearns,
Vanderbilt University.
1110 Earth resistivity of samples in the field and
laboratory. Jau-Ping Tsau, Richard G.
Some hydrologic characteristics of a forested °
Stearns, and Robert G. Perry, Vanderbilt
University
Tracing a fault scarp near Reelfoot Lake.
Richard G. Stearns, Jau-Ping Tsau, Susan K.
Towe, and Parrish N. Erwin, Jr., Vanderbilt
University.
1200 Noon meal.
1135
AFTERNOON SESSIONS
GEOCHEMISTRY AND SEDIMENTATION—
Gary Kuhnhenn, Chairman; Room 323, Environ-
mental Science and Technology Building
1315 U-Th geochemistry of Devonian black shale
in Kentucky. W. H. Blackburn, P. A. Davis,
and G. Makowitz, University of Kentucky.
Stratigraphy and geochemistry of Chatta-
nooga shale in Pulaski County, Kentucky.
Dennis Swager and Eugenion Nunez, Uni-
versity of Kentucky. (Sponsor: Perry B..
Wizggley. ) |
Depositional history and paleoecology of
carbonate mud mounds within the Fort |
Payne (lower Mississippian) of northern |
Tennessee. Robert B. Lieber and W. C.
MacQuown, University of Kentucky. |
Preliminary microscopic study of the Devo-_
nian black shales from eastern Kentucky.
Michael L. Miller and Frank R. Ettensohn,
University of Kentucky. |
1340
1405
1430
Clay mineralogy and depositional environ-
ment of some interbedded green and black |
shale. Lewis P. Scott IV, Eastern Kentucky |
University. (Sponsor: Perry B. Wiggley. )
1455
GENERAL GEOLOGY—Ronald Dilamarter,
Chairman; Room 328, Environmental Science and }
Technology Building
1315 Depositional Environment of the Strodes |
Creek member of the Lexington Limestone.
Hamidedin Marashi and Perry B. Wiggley,
Eastern Kentucky University.
Ojo Caliente tuff ring of the Rio Grande
Rift, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico. S..
Judson May, Eastern Kentucky University.
1340
1405 Clay mineralogy of the overburden in east-
ern Kentucky. Clinton C. Wetmore and
Stanley Stevens, Easter Kentucky Univer-
sity. |
1430 Louisville Meteorite: ordinary chondrite L6
with shock metamorphic textures. Graham
Hunt, University of Louisville. |
Quaternary topographic changes on glacial
1455
drifts in Iowa. Ronald R. Dilamarter, West- |
ern Kentucky University. (Sponsor: C.
Ronald Seeger. ) |
1520 Sectional Business Meeting, Room 328, En-
vironmental Science and Technology Build-
ing.
ACADEMY AFFAIRS 85
Puysics SECTION
Room 403, Thompson Complex for Science,
Central Wing
James Parks, Chairman, Presiding
Manuel Schwartz, Secretary
Friday, 11 November
1300
1330
1340
1350
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
1450
KAPT Business Meeting, James Parks, Pres-
ident, Presiding.
Report—AAPT actions. Frank Six, Western
Kentucky University.
Simplified statistics for introductory physics.
Peter W. Murphy, Centre College.
Diffraction of light by an array of filaments.
D. Bryant, Western Kentucky University.
Search for a solid state laser oscillator at
1.315 micrometers. E. Dorman, Western
Kentucky University.
Magnetic braking during star formation.
Robert C. Fleck, Jr., University of Kentucky.
Magnetohydrodynamics and inhomogeneous
cosmologies. A. Fennelly, Western Kentucky
University.
Emission-line galaxies. T. Bohuski, Western
Kentucky University, and D. Weedman and
A. Fairall, Vanderbilt University.
Basic experiments with silicon solar cells.
Randall Winchester and Buford Anderson,
Murray State University.
Advanced experiments with silicon solar
cells. Steven Hicks and Buford Anderson,
Murray State University.
Saturday, 12 November
0930
0940
0950
1000
1010
1020
Synergistic effects of ultraviolet radiation on
mammalian cells and viruses. B. E. Cobb
and T. P. Coohill, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.
Dynamical evolution of the interstellar gas
towards the formation of stars: the “Gravi-
tational Slingshot.” F. O. Clark, University
of Kentucky.
Total neutron production cross section for
*°Si (an) *S. D. S. Flynn, R. Hershberger,
F. Gabbard, and J. L. Weil, University of
Kentucky.
Cross section and strength functions for *“Ag
(p,n) **Cd, and *°Ag (p,n) ?°Cd. R. Hersh-
berger, D. S. Flynn, F. Gabbard, and J. L.
Weil, University of Kentucky.
Positron annihilation and molecular polariz-
ability. D. C. Huang, Catalytics and Chem-
icals, Inc., Louisville, and W. F. Huang,
University of Louisville.
Study of range, stopping power, and strag-
gling of alpha particles in air. P. J. Ouseph
and A. Mostovych, University of Louisville.
1030 Traffic noise near the Thomas More College
1040
1050
campus—predictions. D. P. Roenker and J.
Boyle, Thomas More College.
Optimizing travel times in a mass transit
system. V. A. O'Connell and J. E. Lang,
Thomas More College.
Fine structure in F and G states of helium.
K. B. MacAdam, University of Kentucky.
PHysioLocy, BioPHysICs, AND
PHARMACOLOGY SECTION
Room 130, Thompson Complex for Science,
North Wing
Thomas F. Coohill, Chairman, Presiding
John Meger, Secretary
Friday, 11 November
1400
1415
1430
1445
1500
Evidence for bifunctionality in the his B
enzyme of Salmonella typhimurium. Eugene
J. Hoffman, Western Kentucky University.
Radiation enhanced (Weigle) reactivation
of herpes virus. Leslie C. James, Thomas P.
Coohill, and Sharon P. Moore, Western
Kentucky University.
Effect of 8-methoxypsoralen on Weigle re-
activation of herpes virus. Leslie C. James
and Thomas P. Coohill, Western Kentucky
University.
A mathematical model for maize competition
and yield emphasizing harvest index. Mar-
vin W. Russell, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity.
Does the murine bone marrow cell popu-
lation contain immunocompetent cell for
cellular immunity? F. Morgado, Western
Kentucky University.
Saturday, 12 November
0930
0945
1000
1030
1100
1130
Multiple molecular forms of porcine enolase;
physical and chemical properties. William
Farrar, Eastern Kentucky University. (Spon-
sor: Sanford L. Jones.)
The effect of salpingectomy on maintenance
of pseudopregnancy, uterine and ovarian
weights in the rat. Sanford L. Jones, East-
ern Kentucky University.
Folic acid absorption in pregnancy. Debra
K. Pearce, Northern Kentucky University.
Computer designed contact lenses. F. D.
Bryant, Western Kentucky University.
Effects of diayepam (valium) on the medul-
lary respiratory neurons of anesthetized cats.
Leon D. Wang and Donald T. Frazier,
University of Kentucky.
Sectional business meeting and election of
officers.
86
SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION
Room 338, Environmental Science and
Technology Building
Shaw Blankenship, Chairman, Presiding
Terry Wilson, Secretary
Saturday, 12 November
0930 An experiment in an integrated science—
math—education component in the elemen-
tary teacher education program. Gary Bog-
gess and Arvin Crafton, Murray State
University.
Utilizing a mobile laboratory to teach en-
vironmental concepts. Nancy Stearns, Mu-
seum of Natural History and Science, Louis-
ville, Kentucky.
0955
Participatory versus passive planetarium
programs. Jack Fletcher, Eastern Kentucky
University.
Educational activities of the northern Ken-
tucky Audubon Club. Michael O’Brien,
Program Director Northern Kentucky Audu-
bon Club.
Statewide staff development training in
science education. Frank Howard, Kentucky
Department of Education, Frankfort.
Energy education curriculum project. Terry
Wilson, Kentucky Department of Education,
Frankfort.
Business session.
1110
1135
1200
PsyCcHOLOGY SECTION
Room 349, Environmental Science and
Technology Building
Friday, 11 November
1300 The effects of modeling on personal space
in white subjects in relation to a black or
white confederate. Rita C. Masden and
Richard Shuntich, Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity. (Sponsor: Dr. William H. Watkins. )
Conformity within the fraternity system.
Mark Davis and Brent White, Centre Col-
lege.
Indirect tests of theories of dreaming using
presleep manipulation. Donald Brown and
Cathy Kassab, Centre College.
Learning of ‘identity’ and ‘difference’ roles
in the pigeon. David E. Hogan, Charles A.
Edwards, and Thomas R. Zentall, University
of Kentucky. (Sponsor: James S. Calvin. )
Passive avoidance learning in the young
domestic chick. Michael Osborne, Bruce A.
Mattingly, and James F. Zolman, University
of Kentucky.
1320
1340
1400
1440 Caffeine—amphetamine interaction: route of
injection and prior caffeine treatment. Brent
White and Don Harkins, Jr., Centre College.
Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
1500 Functional recovery after spaced sequential
destruction of the frontal lobes in the rat.
Charles Goodlett and Arthur Nonneman,
University of Kentucky.
Saturday, 12 November
0930
head State University. (Sponsor: Dr. Fran-
cis R. Osborne. )
0950
time: Dose response and drug order rela-
tionships.
Centre College.
1010
trollable vs. uncontrollable stress in rats.
Francis H. Osborne, Ronald L. Skidmore,
Allen L. Levay, Morehead State University.
The effects of retinal eccentricity and
orientation on perceived length. Jack G.
Thompson and Katherine A. Fowler, Centre
College. (Sponsor: Dr. Brent White. )
1030
adult concept formation. Jack G. Thompson
and Joanne H. Cornell, Centre College.
(Sponsor: Dr. Brent White. )
1110
behavior of Kentucky residents. Bradley S.
Moore, Morehead State University. (Spon-
sor: Dr. Francis H. Osborne. )
1130 Business meeting.
SocIoLOoGy SECTION
Room 402, Environmental Science and
Technology Building
Craig Taylor, Chairman, Presiding
K. M. George, Secretary
Friday, 11 November
1300 Evaluation of effect of occupational sex
dominance by probability estimation. Au-
drey Jackson, Western Kentucky University.
1330 The phenomenological critique of social sci-
ence. Edward Armstrong, Murray State }
University.
1430 Sectional business meeting. Election of
1977-1978 officers.
Saturday, 12 November
0945
Wozniak and Thomas Dunn, Western Ken-
tucky University.
ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY SECTION
Room 101, Thompson Complex for Science,
North Wing
Henry H. Howell, Chairman, Presiding
Paul H. Freytag, Secretary
The effects of apomorphine on spontaneous ©
activity in rats. Ronald L. Skidmore, More- —
Caffeine suppression of barbituate sleep —
Brent White and Lynn Elliot,
Effects of response topography with con- —
The role of rule difficulty and familiarity in ©
The effects of population density on social ©
Workshop in social science simulations. Paul }
ACADEMY AFFAIRS 87
Friday, 11 November
1300 The mammals of Lilly's Woods. William
W. Lewis and M. Pete Thompson, Eastern
Kentucky University.
Economics of woodchucks in central Ken-
tucky. M. Pete Thompson, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.
Winter bird roosts in the Bowling Green
area, with analysis of microbial flora and
diet of the birds. H. E. Shadowen and L. P.
Elliott, Western Kentucky University.
Scanning electron microscopy of the scolex
of the cestode Onygmatobothrium musteli.
Fred H. Whittaker, University of Louisville.
Long-term survivorship of Drosophila in
oxygen enriched atmospheres: a multiple
generation approach. Gerrit Kloek, Ken-
tucky State University.
Drosophila survivorship in hypobaric atmo-
spheres: a preliminary discussion. Linda
Mahoney, Kentucky State University.
The effect of mutations on the survival of
Drosophila melanogaster. Becky Unthank,
KJAS Winner of Zoology Section.
Sectional business meeting.
1315
1330
1345
1400
1415
1430
1445
Saturday, 12 November
0930 Population dynamics of Sitona hispidula
adults in alfalfa and red clover in Kentucky.
Gary L. Leibee, University of Kentucky.
The early hair streak Erora laeta in Ken-
tucky (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). Charles
V. Covell, University of Louisville.
Biology of Caliroa quercuscoccineae (Hy-
menoptera: Tenthredinidae). Eric Johnson,
University of Kentucky.
Life cycle of Gonatopus bicolor (Hymenop-
tera: Dryinidae). Paul H. Freytag, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.
0945
1000
1015
EXHIBITORS
Beckman Instruments
Carl Zeiss
Carolina Biological Supply Company
Estes Industries
Graphic Controls Corporation
Harvard Apparatus Company, Inc.
(Devices for Science, Inc. )
Olympus Corporation of America
Southern Biology Supply
Exhibits are in the lobby of the Thompson Science
Complex, Center Wing during 11 November, 1200-
1700, and 12 November, 0730-1500.
The Academy acknowledges the support of all
exhibitors and recognizes that the meeting is
enhanced by displays of materials of use to science
educators.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 88-91
Tue Srxty-THiRp ANNUAL BuSINESS MEETING
OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
WESTERN KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY, BOWLING GREEN, KENTUCKY
11 and 12 November 1977
Hosts: Drs. Marvin Russell and Wayne Hoffman
MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
The meeting was called to order by President
Charles Payne at 0805 in Room 129, Thompson
Complex for Science, Central Wing, with about
60 members in attendance.
After a motion by Secretary Seay and a second
from the floor, the Minutes of the 1976 Annual
Business Meeting at the University of Kentucky,
as recorded in TRANSACTIONS Vol. 38( 1-2),
were approved.
The Secretary then moved to accept all members
that joined during 1976. The motion was seconded
and carried.
The Secretary announced that membership has
increased to 538 individual members and a total
mailing list of close to 600 (as of 7 November).
The Secretary was notified of one death during
the year: Dr. Ward Sumpter, Western Kentucky
University.
The Treasurer’s Report was given by Dr. Bart-
lett Dickinson. The report was audited by Gene-
vieve Clark, Dwight Lindsay, and Tom Seay
(Chm.) and found to be in good order.
Treasurers Report to the Audit Committee
Kentucky Academy of Science
11 November 1976—4 November 1977
Cash in Citizens National Bank
Bowling Green, Kentucky,
11. November 1976 #22242. $ 7,529.83
Check outstanding to JKAS,
lf November 197620 = Ss 500.00
$ 7,029.83
RECEIPTS:
Subsidy from State ___- $ 6,000.00
Membership dues ______- 1,582.50
Annual Meeting 873.85
Subscriptions to
‘Transscuons _ 220. 2 be 458.00
Transactions to
University of Louisville 375.00
AAAS Research Grant __ 128.00
Floristic Grant transfer __ 500.00
Botany Foundation ______. 2,000.00
$11,917.35 $11,917.35
$18,917.18
88
DISBURSEMENTS:
Annual Meeting _.__ $ 1,296.69
AAAS Research Grants _ 128.00
Refund to National
Science Foundation ____ 300.86
Certificate of Deposit,
Botany Foundation ___ 2,000.00
Operating expenses—
stationery, etc. _____ 121.24
RloristievGrants.s-oNeee 500.00
Dues to AAAS, 1977 _____ 24.50
Publication of
Eransactionsy:: 252. 28 7,337.00
$11,708.29
Balance 2.22 EE EEE $ 7,238.89
Cash in Farmer’s National Bank,
Georgetown, Kentucky,
4 November 1977
Savings account, Lexington Federal
Savings and Loan
Savings account, First National Bank,
Georgetown
Savings account (Foundation),
First National Bank, Georgetown __.
Savings account (Floristic Grant),
Citizens National Bank,
Bowling Green
Certificate of deposit ( Botany
Foundation ), Citizens National
Bank, Bowling Green “<-. 22333 2,843.16 9
Certificate of deposit (Botany |
Foundation ), First National
Bank, Georgetown _________________ 2,000.00 |
|
ToraL AssETs: $15,116.43.
Dr. Payne called for the following committee
reports:
1. Committee on Membership. Dr. Batch re-
ported that the membership drive was more suc-.
cessful than the past drive with about a 10 percent.
increase in membership. (The Secretary noted that
Dr. Batch led the way with 8 new members. ) |
2. Committee on Legislation. No report.
3. Committee on Publications. Dr. Krumholz))
presented the following written report to the Sec-
retary:
ACADEMY AFFAIRS 89
During 1977, 2 issues of Volume 38 of the
Transactions were published and distributed to the
membership.
Volume 38(1-2) consisted of 110 pages that
included 16 papers, the Distinguished Scientist
Award, Academy Affairs, and News and Comment.
Volume 38(3-4) consisted of 40 pages that in-
cluded 10 papers, News and Comment, and the
Index and Contents for Volume 38. The cost for
Volume 38( 1-2) was $4,641.57 and that for Vol-
ume 38(3-4) was $2,156.40 for an annual total
of $6,797.97. Thus, the cost per page for the
entire page for the entire volume was $41.45
including all blank pages and covers.
The subjects of the 26 papers in Volume 38
were distributed among the various disciplines as
follows: Zoology, 16; Chemistry, 3; Botany, 3;
Geology, 2; Bacteriology, 1; and Scientific Litera-
ture, 1. Pages occupied by the various disciplines
in Volume 38 were: Zoology, 92; Chemistry, 15;
Botany, 8; Geology, 13; Bacteriology, 6; and Scien-
tific Literature, 1.
The size of Volume 38 represents an increase of
39 pages over that of Volume 37 for 1976 that
included 19 papers distributed among the dis-
ciplines as follows: Zoology, 10; Botany, 7; and
‘Chemistry, 2. Pages occupied by those disciplines
were: Zoology, 44; Botany, 40; and Chemistry, 2.
It also represents an increase of 3 disciplines in-
‘cluded in the publication.
' It is hoped that greater numbers of papers from
disciplines other than Zoology and Botany will be
forwarded to the editorial office. We have estab-
lished deadlines of 1 January and 1 July for sending
completed and edited manuscripts to the printer.
Thus, any prospective author should submit a
‘Manuscript at least 3 months in advance of those
deadlines so that there is ample time for review
and revision.
In addition to the above report, Dr. Krumholz
announced that the Executive Committee voted
that all authors of papers published in the TRANS-
ACTIONS must be members of the Academy. The
Board of Directors was asked to approve that
action. The Board approved.
_ Dr. Krumholz also announced that, beginning
with Volume 39 of the TRANSACTIONS, there
will be page charges of $15.00 per printed page
or portion thereof.
4. Committee on Public Science Education. Dr.
Ted George presented the following report:
_ We have proposed to the Kentucky Council on
Teacher Education and Certification that there
should be 3 distinct areas of certification for science
teachers: Elementary (K-—6), Middle School (5-9)
and Secondary (9-12) and we also specified what
we thought certification requirements should be
for those science teachers. Our proposal for Ele-
mentary certification was rejected. The Council
agreed to study the Middle School certification for
all teachers and set up its own committee to study
the feasibility and make recommendations. This
committee recommended a separate certification
area for Middle School and also recommended
certification requirements of 24 semester hours in
science for science teachers in Middle School. Of
the 24 hours, 6 hours at least must be in Biological
Science, 6 hours in Physical Science, and 6 hours
in Earth Science. One laboratory would be re-
quired in each Biological Science and Physical
Science.
In our opinion, this preparation would be totally
inadequate for anyone to teach the science courses
now available at grades 7, 8, and 9. The proposal
has passed the Kentucky Council on Certification
as well as the State Board of Education and is due
to be implemented in September 1979.
We have been told that many other groups have
reservations concerning these new Middle School
Certification Guidelines and that hearings will be
held as to whether the Guidelines will be optional
or mandatory for the Middle School teachers. If
you have an opportunity to attend one of the
meetings, you should be sure to register your
opinion. A full report of the Committee is available.
5. State Governmental Science Advisory Com-
mittee. Dr. Marvin Russell reported that he had
attended a meeting with the Governor’s Cabinet.
It was scheduled for 10 min, but turned into a
45-min session at their insistence. A meeting was
held at the request of Mr. Harry Snyder, Executive
Director of the Council on Higher Education, to
discuss the updating and expansion of the Scientific
Manpower Registry. The possibility of the Council
assuming the major responsibility for maintaining
the registry was explored. Dr. Russell will serve
as liaison to the Academy President until such time
as the new president elects to appoint a committee
or take other action.
“The National Science Foundation will provide
up to $2,500,000 in study grants to be used by the
States to identify and analyze potentially useful
ways in which State and local governments can
increase their capacities for using science, engineer-
ing, and technology in meeting the needs of their
citizens. Up to $25,000 each for the Executive and
Legislative Branches of each State government will
be made available as the Federal share of the cost
of the study grants.
“This planning program is intended to provide
State governments with assistance in the develop-
ment or improvement of the policy formulation
processes in their States. Funds will be provided
to assist a State in identifying the need for, and
the contributions that can be made by, policy
analyses, research results, and decisionmaking
process of their State, in both the Executive and
Legislative Branches.” (Taken from the program
announcement. )
KAS has been asked by one of the state agencies
to explore possible areas of mutual interest.
90
6. Committee on Botanical Research Fund. Dr.
Joe E. Winstead reported the following awards:
Ms. Deborah Otte, graduate student at the Uni-
versity of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, $400.00, to
help fund her study “A Vegetational Analysis in
Relation to Environmental Factors of the Red River
Drainage System in Eastern Kentucky.”
Ms. Sally Arnold, graduate student in Biology
at Western Kentucky University, $100.00, to help
support her study “Determination of Environ-
mental vs. Genetic Variability within the Lindernia
dubia—anagallidea Complex.”
These awards will be made in January 1978 upon
receipt of dividends and interest from the KAS
Foundation for Botanical Research endowment.
7. KAS—AAAS Grant Committee.
Winstead gave the following report.
Members of the KAS-AAAS Grant Committee
after study of proposals submitted to the Academy
have selected 2 applications to share the 1977-1978
award. Recipients are: Sister Mary Leon Riney,
St. Mary High School, Paducah, Kentucky. Grant
monies to be used to help purchase a Hach water
analysis kit for student use in environmental chem-
istry. Mr. Richard A. Van Enk, Department of
Biology, Western Kentucky University. Funds -to
help defray incidental expenses for his proposed
study entitled “Isolation and Enumeration of Yeasts
of Medical Importance from the Barren River.” It
is the intent of the Committee that the funds
available for 1977-1978 be divided equally be-
tween Sister Riney and Mr. Van Enk.
Dr. Joe E.
8. Floristic Grant Committee. Dr. Marian Fuller
reported that the committee had met to formulate
general procedures, but there was no award to
announce at this time. Other committee members
are Arland Hotchkiss, University of Louisville, and
John Thieret, Norther Kentucky University.
At this point, President Payne exhibited the new
Certificate of Membership that will be made avail-
able to all new members automatically and to all
other members upon request. Appreciation was
expressed to Herbert Leopold for making the cer-
tificate available to the Academy.
9. The Junior Academy. Herbert Leopold re-
ported that the Junior Academy is solvent and
operating smoothly. The April Symposium held in
Lexington drew an attendance of 225-250 with 80
papers presented. Steve Estok, Warren East High
School, won third place honors in the chemistry
section of the International Science and Engineer-
ing Fair. He will present his paper at the AAAS
meeting in Washington.
10. AAAS Representatives. Dr. Branley Branson
reported that there had been considerable cor-
respondence regarding various offices and new
groups within the AAAS, but there was nothing
major at this time to report to the Academy.
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
President Payne asked for the assembled mem-_
bers to act on the dues increases as presented in
the Academy Newsletter. The dues increases were: |
Active Membership __.________ $ 10.00
Student Membership —..--______ 7.00
Sustaining Membership —...____ 25.00
Life Membership. 3... eee 100.00
Institutional Affiliation*® 50.00
(or multiples/year )
* The Executive Committee and Board of Direc-|
tors voted to change the name Ree
Membership” to “Institutional Affiliation.”
There was no discussion and the motion to
accept the new dues figures was passed without}
objection.
Once the above increase was accepted by the|
assembled members, President Payne announced
the receipt of $6,000.00 from the Governor’s Con-.
tingency Fund and called for the report of the!
Resolutions Committee.
John Philley,
that were
1l. Resolutions Committee.
submitted the following resolutions,
unanimously accepted:
Resolution No. 1:
Whereas, Western Kentucky University has gra-
ciously served as the Host Institution for the Sixty-
third Annual Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of
Science, and whereas Dr. Marvin Russell, Dr.
Wayne Hoffman, and others at Western Kentucky
University have worked diligently to make the
meeting a success and,
Whereas, Western eueeden University has made
outstanding contributions to scientific thought and
leadership,
Therefore, be it resolved herewith:
a. That the Kentucky Academy of Science ex-
presses its appreciation to Western Kentucky
University and the above individuals, and
that the Academy’s Secretary be instructed to
so inform them.
b. That the Kentucky Academy of Science con-
gratulates Western Kentucky University for
being an outstanding institution of higher
education in Kentucky and our Nation and
for promoting science through instruction,
research, and public service.
Resolution No. 2:
Whereas, the University of Louisville and More-
head State University are among the outstanding
institutions of higher education in the Common-)
wealth of Kentucky and have been instrumental in
providing significant leadership to the Kentucky
Academy of Science,
Therefore be it resolved herewith:
That the Kentucky Academy of Science expresses
its appreciation to the University of Louisville
——— ee ee ee ee ee ee as
——] 0 Oe eee
[
ACADEMY AFFAIRS 91
and to Morehead State University for their in-
stitutional affiliations with the Academy, and
that the Academy’s Secretary be instructed to so
inform these institutions.
President Payne expressed his appreciation to
Dr. Krumholz for his fruitful effort in obtaining
$500 from the University of Louisville as an institu-
tional affiliation. Modesty prevented him from
taking any credit for the $250 institutional affilia-
tion of Morehead State University. Members of
the other institutions of higher education were in-
vited to give their institution the privilege of
participating!
It was announced that the Executive Committee
had accepted an invitation from Eastern Kentucky
University for the next annual meeting. The dates
will be announced later.
The chair then recognized the chairman of the
nominating committee, Dr. Krumholz (assisted by
Henry H. Howell and William S. Bryant), who
presented the following:
President Elect: Sanford L. Jones, Eastern Ken-
_ tucky University
‘Vice President: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky
_ University
‘Secretary: Thomas N. Seay, Georgetown College
Treasurer: Bartlett C. Dickinson, Georgetown Col-
lege
»Members of the Board of Directors to 1981: Don-
ald C. Haney, Eastern Kentucky University;
_ William F. Wagner, University of Kentucky
Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold,
Western Kentucky University
AAAS Representatives: Branley Branson, Eastern
Kentucky University; John Carpenter, University
of Kentucky
There were no nominations from the floor and
the above slate of officers was elected by acclama-
tion.
There being no further business, President Payne
became Past President Payne by introducing the
new President, Charles Kupchella. President Kup-
chella listed as his priorities for the new year:
1. Membership expansion. Dr. Batch’s impetus
should spur the Academy in both increasing and
giving better balance to the membership of the
Academy.
2. Seeking more permanent state support as one
way to improve the Transactions (along with
implementation of page charges and dues in-
crease ).
3. Enhance visibility of the Academy and scientific
endeavor. Attention was called to the report of
Lloyd and Associates indicating the poor stand-
ing of Kentucky in receipt of Research and
Development funds.
4, The desire to visit as many campuses as possible
in the course of the year, perhaps giving a paper
along the lines of “Cancer: The Ultimate En-
vironmental Insult.”
With those comments, the meeting was adjourned
at 0915.
Thomas Seay, Secretary
Kentucky Academy of Science
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1—2), 1978, 92-94
NEWS AND
President’s Science is far more of an
Remarks entity than any of its sub-
sets. While physiology, psy-
chology, sociology, chemistry, and other
scientific disciplines share the same meth-
odologic approaches to the quest for new
knowledge, they overlap in scope and have
rather indistinct boundaries. It is appro-
priate that there are organizations that bind
scientists together outside their narrow dis-
ciplines to provide a framework from which
to deal with the problems of science and of
society. The interaction among scientific
subdivisions will become increasingly im-
portant as we deal with enormously com-
plicated problems that require multidis-
ciplinary approaches. This is also Kentucky
Science, and this, too, is becoming more
important as we face increasingly complex
socioscientific problems within the Com-
monwealth.
Recently, I reflected on the things that
stimulated me to become more involved in
the work of the Kentucky Academy of
Science. In addition to the obvious oppor-
tunities for good fellowship and for getting
to know my colleagues throughout the state,
there was the challenge presented in the
report on Federal Research and Develop-
ment funding. in Kentucky, written several
years ago by Dr. William Lloyd. That
report revealed that Kentucky ranked fifty-
first behind forty-nine other states and
Washington, D.C. in federal dollars coming
back to the state for research development.
The report did not offer an explanation for
this state of affairs, in fact it discounted
several of the more likely reasons, e.g., our
low standing remained the same even if per
capita income of federal tax dollars con-
tributed by Kentuckians was taken into
account. Since one of our objectives as an
Academy of Science is to encourage scien-
tific research, that report indicates that our
work is cut out for us. I will call on appro-
priate state officials to join with us in an
evaluation of our current status in science
and technology as a first step toward doing
something about any inappropriate differ-
92
COMMENT
ence between where we are and where we }j
ought to be.
Overall, I intend to help maintain the fi
increasing momentum the Academy has}
enjoyed in recent years under the leader- }
ship of Dr. Charles Payne, Dr. Fred Brown,
and others. We have enjoyed several years }
of state support for the publication of the)
Transactions and I will try to secure a more jj
permanent base of such support, perhaps
related to some degree of formal association ||
between the Kentucky Academy of Science
visible Academy with a more visible rela-
tionship with other of the Commonwealth’s.
institutions so that we can work more effec-.
tively to upgrade science and technology
and those qualities of life linked to our
the point where it is now a first-rate pub-
lication in every way by which quality};
can be measured. The institution of page},
charges is a positive step toward a per-
manent base from which that level off)
excellence can be maintained. The Board
of Directors has enjoyed a new sense off
purpose in recent years under leadership of}
Dr. John Philley and Dr. Thomas Calhoon.h
I look forward to working with the Board
of Directors in the coming year as it con-
tinues its “Distinguished Scientist Award”
and the implementation of other innovative
ideas. Last year, the Academy enjoyed
more than a ten percent increase in mem-
bership largely as a result of the work of},
Dr. Donald Batch and his Membership},
Committee. Dr. Batch has agreed to con-
tinue to work to make the membership of
the Academy even more representative of
the scientific interests throughout Kentucky.
I am dedicated to involving previously un-}
involved individuals in the work of the},
Academy on various committees and in},
other Academy activities. A gratifying num-
ber of members of the Academy have come
forward offering to help. Some of them);
have been long-time, faithful supporters of
the Academy, and a significant number
have been persons new to the governance
of the Academy and its committees. This
“new blood” is absolutely essential to the
continued revitalization, vigorous growth,
and success of the Kentucky Academy of
Science.
Overall, I sense that the Academy is
becoming increasingly capable of making
significant progress toward its goals. I am
delighted and grateful to be part of what
I perceive to be a good thing getting better.
I look forward with anticipation to further
positive developments in the years ahead.
Membership Dr.
Certificate
Herbert Leopold and
his colleagues of Western
Kentucky University have
Be sibned and printed handsome member-
ship certificates now available to all mem-
bers of the Academy. The certificate is on
high quality parchment, 8.5 x 11 inches,
suitable for framing. It is intended to
present all new members with such a cer-
tificate. Longstanding members may also
receive a certificate of their own by re-
questing one, in writing, from the Secretary,
Dr. Thomas N. Seay, Georgetown College,
Georgetown, Kentucky 40324.
Tax Court Our printer, Allen Press, Inc.,
Ruling Lawrence, Kansas, has called
to our attention a recent deci-
sion by the United States Tax Court that
is of interest to our members. The decision
of the Court in the case of Robert E. Drury
vs. Commissioner, 36 T.C.M. 835 (1977)
upholds the right of a scholar to deduct the
costs of publication of his research from his
income as ordinary business expense.
Dr. Drury wrote an article judged to be
of scientific value, but could not get it
published without cost to himself, so he
paid for the publication of the article. He
deducted the cost of payment for the publi-
cation from his federal income tax return
as ordinary and necessary business expense
under Section 162 of the Internal Revenue
Code of 1954. The Internal Revenue Ser-
vice disallowed his deduction and the mat-
News AND COMMENT 93
ter was taken to Tax Court. The Tax Court
upheld Dr. Drury’s deduction, and recog-
nized that “the expenditure for the pub-
lication of his article were ordinary and
necessary business expenses within the
meaning of Section 162.”
Recently, Allen Press had their local
attorney review the case, and the following
is his summary:
“Based on the Tax Court’s holding, it ap-
pears that the principal criteria for securing
the deduction of publication costs for a
scientific article or monograph are as fol-
lows: (1) that the author is expected to
publish as a part of his job responsibilities,
(2) that he cannot obtain cost-free pub-
lication in a scientific journal, and (3) that
he needs to publish for the purpose of ob-
taining job advancement. If these criteria
are present and can be substantiated in the
event of an audit by the Internal Revenue
Service, it would appear that a deduction
of publication expenses under Section 162
of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 should
be allowed.”
We are grateful to Allen Press for this
information.
New Law on A new U.S. Copyright Law
Copyright went into effect 1 January
1978. That law will affect
all copyrighted journals in a number of
areas, but will not affect the TRANSACTIONS
OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
because our journal is not copyrighted.
Although all of the implications and
potential legal problems have not been
resolved, several significant features of the
new law must be understood by authors and
editors alike. All material sent to any editor
of a copyrighted journal is potentially copy-
righted before it reaches publication in that
journal. In order for any organization to
continue the dissemination of copyrighted
information by the same means it has used
in the past, as well as for authors to achieve
the same level of exposure, all authors
are now required to take action above
and beyond current customary procedures.
94 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2)
Basically, the new law protects only the
author, and the copyright in the journal
may not be totally effective. As of 1 Jan-
uary 1978, if a paper is subject to copyright
in any journal, each author must arrange for
a formal written transfer of copyright to
the journal concerned. The journal will
then turn back to the author all rights,
except those of the journal, so that he may
do with his work whatever he wishes. Suit-
able forms are sent to authors to sign and
return to the editor. The authors retain
the right to refuse.
To reiterate, the new copyright law does
not apply to our journal because the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science does not copy-
right its TRANSACTIONS, nor does it intend
to do so in the foreseeable future.
At the Sixty-third Annual Meet-
ing of the Kentucky Academy of
Science in November 1977 at
Western Kentucky University, the member-
ship adopted the policy of mandatory
assessment of page charges for all papers
published in the TRANSACTIONS OF
THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCI-
ENCE. That charge will be $15.00 per
page or portion thereof, and went into
effect on 1 January 1978 with Volume 39,
Page
Charges
Numbers 1-2. The actual costs of publica-
tion are in excess of $40.00 per printed page
or portion thereof, and there is need to
help defray those costs if the present quality |
of the TRANSACTIONS is to be main-
tained.
Annual At the Sixty-third Annual Meet-
Dues ing of the Kentucky Academy of
Science in November 1977 at
Western Kentucky University, the member-
ship adopted the following changes in all
categories of dues, effective 1 January 1978:
Active Member, $10.00 per year; Student
Member, $7.00 per year, not to exceed 4
years; Life Member, $100.00 as a single
payment; and Institutional Affiliate, $50.00
or multiples thereof per year. Since that
meeting, The University of Louisville,
Morehead State University, Eastern Ken-
tucky University, and Western Kentucky
have become Institutional Affiliates. Ken-
tucky State University and Kentucky Wes-
leyan College have agreed to become af-
filiated, and invoices have been sent to
them. Several other colleges and univer-
sities have expressed an interest in affilia-
tion, and it is hoped that all institutions of
higher education in the Commonwealth
will join with us in our efforts to promote
science. |
INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS
Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub-
lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and
announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received.
Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be re-
viewed by one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and, once accepted,
an attempt will be made to publish papers in the order of their acceptance. Manuscripts
should be typed, double spaced throughout, on good quality white paper 8% xX 11 inches
(216 x 279 mm). The original and one copy should be sent to the Editor and the author
should retain a copy for his own use in correcting proof. Metric and Celsius units are to
be used for all measurements instead of, or in addition to, English and Fahrenheit units.
Format and style may vary somewhat depending on the scientific discipline, but the basic
pattern of presentation will be consistent for all manuscripts. The Style Manual of the
Council of Biological Editors (CBE Style Manual), the Handbook for Authors of papers
in the Journals of the American Chemical Society, the Handbook for Authors of the Amer-
ican Institute of Physics, Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, and A Manual of
Style (Chicago University Press) are most useful guides in matters of style, form, and
spelling. Only those words intended to be italicized in the final publication should be
underlined.
The sequence of material in the manuscript should be: title page, abstract, body of
the manuscript, literature cited, tables with table headings, and figure legends and figures.
1. The title page should include the title of the paper, the author’s name and address, and
any footnote material concerning credits, changes of address, and so forth.
2. The abstract should be concise and descriptive of the information contained in the
paper. It should be complete in itself without reference to the body of the paper.
3. The body of the manuscript should include the following sections: Introduction, Ac-
knowledgments (if applicable), Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, Summary,
and Literature Cited. In manuscripts of only a few pages, there is no need to break it up
into sections, except for the Literature Cited. All tables and figures, as well as all litera-
ture cited must be referred to in the text.
4. All references in the Literature Cited must be typewritten, double spaced, and should
provide complete information on the material referred to, as in the following examples:
Article:
Jounson, A. E., anp E. V. Harrety. 1962. An analysis of factors governing density
patterns in desert plants. J. Bot. 44(3):419-432.
Book:
Daruincron, P. J., Jk. 1965. Biogeography of the southern end of the world. Harvard
Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 236 pp.
5. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in arabic
numerals, and set on a separate page. The heading of the table should be informative of
its contents.
Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print either 5 X 7 or 8 X 10 inches.
Line drawings in India ink on white paper are acceptable, but should be no larger
than 8% x 11 inches. Photographs should have good contrast so they can be repro-
duced satisfactorily. All figures should be numbered in arabic numerals and should
be accompanied by an appropriate legend. It is strongly suggested that all contributors
follow the guidelines of Allen’s (1977) “Steps Toward Better Scientific Illustrations”
published by the Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas 66044.
The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for
checking all literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly
Extensive alterations on the galley proofs are expensive and such costs are to be borne by
the author. Reprints are to be ordered when the galley proofs are returned to the Editor.
CONTENTS
Structure and composition of a climax mixed mesophytic forest system in
Laurel County, Kentucky. Margaret Ringland Cameron III and Joe E.
Winstead. <- t ee
Vegetation of the Boone County Cliffs Nature Preserve, a forest on a Kansan
outwash deposit in northern Kentucky. William S. Bryant _-.._____
Conjugate addition reactions of 4-chlorobenzotriazole, 4,6-dichlorobenzotri-
azole, and 4,5,6,7-tetramethylbenzotriazole. Phillip H. Morgan and Karl
F. Hussung 22.1 a ee ee eee
Some hydrologic characteristics of a small forested watershed in eastern
Kentucky. Everett P. Springer and George B. Coltharp __-______-
The Louisville Meteorite—fall and recovery. Graham Hunt and Thomas E.
Boone 2.2 ee a a eee
Sociology and policy: the Clarke Maritime Centre environmental impact
assessment. John A. Busch 2 gt Se eee eee
Age, growth, condition, and maturity of sunfishes of Doe Run, Meade
County, Kentucky. Walter L. Redmon and Louis A. Krumholz —__
On the occurrence of the cedar glade endemic Viola egglestonii in Kentucky.
Jerry M. Baskin and Carol C. Baskin ___... 3a. 4 ee
An infrequently reported alga: Chadefaudiothrix gallica Bourrelly (Xantho-
phyceae: Heterotrichales). Gary E. Dillard —._ 3 _ OE
First record of the masked shrew in western Kentucky. Thomas French __
Distinguished Scientist Award __... |
Academy Affairs
Program 2 a eee
The sixty-third annual business meeting __________
News and Comment ____ a ee
INIA 7
TRANSACTIONS
ENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
C iii! Publication of the Academy
CF
OCT 24 1978
SS QBRARIES 7 Volume 39
Numbers 3-4
September 1978
The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914
OFFICERS FOR 1978
President: Charles E. Kupchella, Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louis
ville 40202 ;
Past President: ‘ Gade pare Morcaed State University, Morehead 40351 ee
Vice President: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowlihgs Green 4
42101 ‘ "ee er.
Secretary: Thomas N. Seay, Georgetown College, Georgetown 40324
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Boarp OF DIRECTORS
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Thomas B. Calhoon 1979 Donald C. Haney
Harold Eversmeyer 1979 William F. Wagner
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Academy. ea- 4
TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE
September 1078
VOLUME 39
NUMBER 3-4
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-4), 1978, 95-106
Attitudes of Kentucky College Students Toward Science
GeorGcE H. MILLER
Division of Natural Sciences, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
This study investigated some attitudes toward science of 909 upperclass students in 3 large
state universities and 9 small liberal arts colleges in Kentucky in relation to selected academic
and vocational characteristics. The attitudes related to support of science and the scientific
enterprise, and orientation toward scientific thought and habits.
Comparisons were made of students classified as to their academic area, hours of college
course work in science, type of institution attended, and sex. The possible effects on attitudes
due to interactions involving those variables were also investigated. An additional series of
analyses involved prospective elementary and secondary teachers and those students not
choosing teaching as their vocation.
College students attending large state institutions evinced stronger support toward science
than students at small liberal arts colleges, as did students with more than 18 semester hours
of course work in science, and students who majored in natural science subjects. Male and
female students showed no difference in their support toward science. Students pursuing
nonteaching careers were more positive toward science than elementary or secondary edu-
cation students.
INTRODUCTION
Never before have the sciences been so
much a part of the nation’s culture. We
live in a scientific civilization, an environ-
ment greatly influenced by the applications
of science, with the general public in many
ways aware of its importance and its in-
fluence on our daily lives.
A general awareness of the importance
of science does not necessarily mean its
functioning as a cultural activity of man
is understood or universally supported, nor
can we assume the learning of factual
scientific information is always accom-
panied by the acquisition of desirable
95
attitudes and thought processes (Shrigley
1974). The intent of this study was to
investigate some attitudes of college stu-
dents in Kentucky in relation to selected
academic and vocational characteristics, as
they relate to support of science and the
scientific enterprise, and orientation toward
scientific thought and habits. The Schwirian
Science Support Scale (Tri-S) provided a
measure of the extent of support toward
science and the Vitrogan Generalized At-
titude Toward Science (VGAS) scale as-
sessed the orientation of respondents to-
ward scientific thought. Comparisons were
made of college students classified as to
their academic area, hours of college course
96 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
work in science, type of institution at-
tended, and sex. In consideration of their
potential contribution to improving the
overall orientation toward and support of
science through their future roles in the
classroom, an additional series of analyses
was made involving prospective elemen-
tary teachers, prospective secondary
teachers, and_ students not choosing
teaching as their vocation. The possible |
effects on attitudes due to interactions be-
tween variables were also investigated.
This study was not intended to determine
where or how the attitudes were acquired,
but to allow comparisons between various
groups, and to identify factors associated
with the attitudes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author expresses appreciation to Drs.
Patricia Schwirian and David Vitrogan for
their permission to use the attitude instru-
ments employed, and to the faculty at each
participating institution for their coopera-
tion in providing access to the students
involved.
RATIONALE OF THE STUDY
Science educators are in general agree-
ment as to the objectives of science
education, as indicated by Science Educa-
tion in American Schools, the Forty-sixth
Yearbook of the National Society for the
Study of Education, and their Fifty-ninth
Yearbook, Rethinking Science Education.
In the latter, Hurd (1960) summarized the
objectives of science instruction as (1)
acquiring a background of ordered knowI-
edge, (2) developing inquiry processes for
problem solving, (3) understanding the
dependence of society upon scientific
achievement and the interplay of science
and human affairs, (4) acquiring apprecia-
tion for the importance of science and its
contribution as a human _ intellectual
activity, (5) acquiring skills and abilities
for processing information and expanding
self learning, and (6) formation of attitudes
conducive to the use of knowledge and
methods of science.
A more recent statement of the objectives -
of science education by Lombard and
Owen (1965) specified 5 major objectives
similar to those of Hurd. However, they
placed the ability to apply the methods, —
techniques, and rational processes of
science at the top of their list. They also
stated that the success of the entire
scientific enterprise depends to a great
extent on the general attitude of its sur- |
rounding culture. Brown (1954) and
Blough (1960) have expressed similar views —
for the need for desirable attitudes toward }
science. 1 7
Science in a technological society is not
unique in kind but rather in its high
degree of development and wide scope.
The combination of elements indispensable }
for modern science are not immutable, and
any altering of conditions will affect the }
progress of science. Parsons (1951:338) }
noted the relationship between science and }
society when he stated, “Science is in-
timately integrated with the whole social
structure and culture condition. They
mutually support one another—only in cer- })
tain types of society can science flourish, },
and conversely, without a continuous and
healthy development and application of |
science such a society cannot function
properly.” According to Nagel (1959),
Seaborg (1970), and Bronowski (1965),
any success at improving the quality of
life and achieving a fuller sense of human
dignity will result from a coordinated in-
terplay of all our sciences and our social
and philosophical outlook. All those forces
must be used in a healthy combination,
built around a common trust and under- }
standing.
The Scientific Literacy Research Center
at the University of Wisconsin was founded
to work on problems associated with knowI-
edge in and of science needed by a popula-
tion living under democratic principles. As
a result of a review of the literature from
1946 to 1964 concerning scientific literacy,
science for general education, science for
the citizen, and science and society, Pella’
et al. (1966) derived a set of referents |
describing a scientifically literate person. |
ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS TOWARD ScCIENCE—Miller 97
Nonspecific in nature, but nevertheless oc-
curring in a pervasive role, a constructive
attitude toward science was identified as
characteristic of such a person.
The National Science Teachers Associa-
tion (1968) sponsored report, Steps Toward
Scientific Literacy, A Report of College-
Level Conferences on Science for Non-
science Majors, stressed attitudes, interests,
values, and appreciations as vital objectives
if we are to achieve a scientifically literate
society. Eiss and Harbeck (1969) cautioned
that simply an increased awareness of facts
about science often results in a greater
dislike for science; therefore, we must
concern ourselves with the attitudes and
values of students, and place increased
emphasis on objectives in the affective
domain. Until educational programs con-
‘sider such objectives, they will be in-
adequately evaluated. An analysis of re-
search on instructional procedures led
Ramsey and Howe (1969:70) to a similar
conclusion when they said, “a student’s
attitude toward science may well be more
important then his understanding of science
since his attitudes determine how he will
use his knowledge.”
Helping young people achieve a realistic,
practical, and constructive approach to
science in their lives is a task that falls
mainly on science instruction in the schools
(Hawn 1960, Kuhn 1973). In addition, it
would appear that the most opportune
conditions for either acquiring constructive
thought processes and attitudes or improv-
ing existing ones would be during the
formal school years. Worth (1965) and
Wittlin (1963) reported that behavioral
traits and personality patterns are estab-
lished during the early years, and changes
during later years are difficult to effect.
As a vocational group, teachers are in a
position to serve as models for individuals
whose attitudes are often as yet ill defined.
The nature of the teaching function places
teachers in a situation where they are
relatively free to sanction or disapprove
attitudes students exhibit. This is consistent
with a statement by Watson (1967) to the
effect that the teacher establishes the tone
or social climate within which pupil learn-
ing occurs. A common suspicion is that
there is a major relationship between the
characteristics of the “whole teacher” and
the learning of the “whole child.”
The degree of association between a
teacher's attitudes and characteristics, and
student outcomes in the classroom has not
been resolved, but a body of literature is
accumulating that indicates significant re-
lations do occur (Bixler 1958, Rosenthal
and Jacobson 1968, Hone and Carswell
1969, Washton 1971, and Rothman 1969).
Therefore, it would seem appropriate, if
the objectives of science education are to
be accomplished, that the attitudes toward
science of prospective and_ in-service
teachers must be given special consider-
ation.
Previous efforts to assess attitudes toward
science of various segments of the popula-
tion are few in number and of questionable
value. One limitation has been the unavail-
ability of suitable instruments for assess-
ment. Another has been preoccupation,
until recently, with cognitive outcomes in
the schools while minimizing affective
objectives.
Considerable confusion is evident in the
literature concerning the distinction be-
tween the possession of scientific attitudes
and positive attitudes toward science. The
former refers to the possession of thought
processes and skills employed in using the
scientific method, while the latter should
properly be reserved for the state of mind
mediating one’s response to a psychological
object, placing it in the affective domain.
Another point that needs attention is the
relatively frequent equating of accuracy of
perception of science and favorableness of
attitude toward science. Again, the first
appears to be in the cognitive domain and
the latter in the affective.
An early effort to assess the opinions of
college students, in relation to the nature
of science and its purpose in society (Wil-
son 1954), showed that nearly a third of
the students thought science responsible
for much of the evil in the world, and
approximately half were in favor of federal
98 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
control for the financing and direction of
all scientific research.
Another effort to determine the college
student’s concepts and perceptions of
science and the scientist was reported by
Mitias (1970). The instrument used to
gather information contained 2 incomplete
statements about science and the scientist
that the student was asked to complete
with the first response that came to mind.
Responses similar in meaning were grouped
together and summarized. Mitias observed
14 categories for “science” and 10 for “the
scientist,” with no dominating stereotyped
concept for either topic. By assigning posi-
tive, neutral, or negative character to the
responses, it was found that the concept of
science as “a necessary evil” ranked second
in frequency, and the first positive concept
of science ranked fifth. The majority of
observed concepts represented a neutral
view.
The image of the scientist, as perceived
by college students, was reported by
Beardslee and O’Dowd (1961), who used
a 48-scale semantic differential instrument.
Data suggested a readiness to respond to
the word “scientist” in a complex manner.
The image was very similar for freshmen
and seniors, but there was evidence that
students entering college had a more favor-
able view of the scientist than students who
had already spent a semester in college.
The strong features of the image of the
scientist were his intelligence and driving
concern to extend knowledge and discover
truth. The weaknesses in his image related
to his being out of touch with life and
uninterested in people and art, and a
nonconformist with only moderate control
of his impulses.
Snow and Cohen (1968) explored the
prestige hierarchy among senior college
students toward the natural sciences, the
social sciences, and the humanities, and
whether it was constant or influenced by
continued professional specialization. The
initial testing indicated that hierarchical
professional evaluation was present on the
undergraduate level, with science students
exhibiting the most favorable attitude to-
- humanities rather than the scoial sciences,
ward their own major, ranking the social
sciences next, and humanities last. Among
the social sciences and humanities students, —
their own group was placed with the
sciences and they relegated the other
(social sciences or humanities) to the least
favorable position. With continued profes-
sionalization of the students, some modifi-—
cation was observed. The sciences exhibited —
a more favorable attitude toward the
and social science graduate students ex-
hibited equally favorable attitudes toward
all professions. |
Sadava (1976) compared the attitudes
toward science of nonscience majors to
those of the general public, as measured
previously in a national survey by the
Opinion Research Corporation. The re-
sults indicated the students had more
negative opinions than the general popula-
tion.
Most research on attitudes of teachers
toward science attempted to measure or
obtain opinions concerning science as an
academic subject, or toward the teaching
of science. Dutton and Stephens (1963)
constructed a Thurstone type instrument
intended to measure attitudes toward
teaching elementary science, and reported
generally favorable attitudes toward teach- |
ing science among prospective elementary
teachers. |
Kane (1968) used the semantic differ-
ential technique to assess the attitudes of
prospective elementary teachers toward
mathematics, science, language arts, and
social studies as academic areas and as
future teaching areas. He also measured
their attitudes toward “teaching children,”
and found a significantly higher score for
“teaching children” than for teaching chil-
dren any of the specific academic areas.
Presumably, they conceived the role of
“teaching children” apart from teaching
specific subjects to them. He did not find
any significant differences among the group
attitudes toward the 4 academic areas.
Schwirian (1969) employed her own
instrument to determine which of 8 per-
sonal and professional characteristics were
ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS TOWARD ScIENCE—Miller 99
related to 191 elementary teachers’ attitudes
toward science. Younger teachers possessed
more positive attitudes than older teachers,
and graduates of state schools were more
favorable to science than graduates of
liberal arts colleges, as were teachers with
10 or more semester hours of science course
work. She concluded that the most positive
teacher would most likely be a person un-
der 40 years of age who graduated from a
state school and had taken 10 or more
hours of course work in science. A follow-
up study by Schwirian (1972) produced
results consistent with her earlier study.
An improvement in attitudes toward
science, as measured by the Purdue
Master Attitude Scale (Siemankowski
1969), was the result of an experimental
general education science course using a
wide variety of audiovisual aids, pro-
grammed learning, and an _ autopaced
teaching process. The emphasis on individ-
ualized learning, although not affecting
content achievement or understanding of
science, was considered useful in improving
attitudes. Recent studies attempting to
identify. conditions that contribute to a
more positive attitude of teachers toward
science are those of Barufaldi et al. (1977),
Johnson et al. (1974), Kennedy (1973),
Shrigley (1977), and Simmons and Esler
(1972).
RESEARCH PROCEDURES
In order to assess the attitudes toward
science of college students in Kentucky,
all degree granting colleges in the state
were invited to participate and provide
access to their students. Twelve schools
agreed to do so: 3 large state institutions,
Morehead State University, Murray State
University, and the University of Louisville,
and 9 small private liberal arts colleges,
Asbury College, Bellarmine College, Bre-
scia College, Cumberland College, Ken-
tucky Wesleyan College, Pikeville College,
Spalding College, Thomas More College,
and Union College participated. Each
school offered a teacher preparation pro-
gram, and collectively represented 60 per-
cent of the schools in the state with such
TABLE 1.—CHARACTERISTICS OF 441 STUDENTS AT
LARGE STATE SCHOOLS AND 468 STUDENTS FROM
SMALL PRIVATE SCHOOLS IN KENTUCKY
Large state Small private
schools schools Total
Men 191 220 All
Women 250 248 498
Humanities 114 88 202
Natural sciences 126 103 229
Social sciences 201 ohh, 478
Elementary education 113 AS 234
Secondary education 140 159 299
Nonteaching 188 188 , 216
a program. The state schools all had en-
rollments of over 7,000 students while the
private schools ranged from 800 to 2,000
students. Each private school was either
affiliated with a religious denomination
at the time of the study or had been in
its past, though none restricts admission on
the basis of religion.
A total of 909 students was involved in
the study, 468 from private colleges and
44] from state institutions. Since all sub-
jects were juniors or seniors, all had com-
pleted a similar educational objective since
each school required participation in a
general education program during the first
2 years of study.
To effect as representative a sample as
possible, an effort was made to include
both male and female students majoring in
the academic areas of humanities, natural
sciences, and social sciences from each
school. Since each school offered a teacher
preparation program, an effort was made
to include candidates at both the elemen-
tary and secondary levels in the sample
(Table 1). The selection process was
randomized to the extent possible when
working with intact groups.
Permission was obtained to use attitude
assessment instruments developed by
Schwirian (1968) and Vitrogan (1967).
Administration and processing of the data
occurred the spring semester of 1971. Re-
sponses to the instruments and a personal
data page were key punched on IBM
100
TABLE 2.—SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
MEANS FOR STUDENTS AT SMALL PRIVATE
SCHOOLS AND LARGE STATE SCHOOLS AS DERIVED BY THE TRI-S AND VGAS SCALES
Type of
Scale school n
Tri-S Small private 468
Large state 44]
VGAS Small private 468
Large state 44]
1 Significant at the 0.01 level.
? Significant at the 0.05 level.
cards for processing on an IBM 360/40
computer.
The independent or main effect variables
examined as possible sources of variance
in the group means were (1) type of
institution (state or private liberal arts),
(2) semester hours of science (0 to 8, 9 to
17, 18 or more), (3) sex, (4) academic
area (humanities, social sciences, natural
sciences), and (5) vocational choice (ele-
mentary education, secondary education,
nonteaching ). The categories for semester
hours of course work in science were chosen
with the intention of separating students
taking the minimum possible work in
science, according to academic require-
ments in the catalogs, and students choos-
ing additional science courses, from the
group following the more typical academic
nonscience program.
Possible interaction effects on attitudes
toward science were investigated with the
variables (1) sex and type of institution,
(2) sex and hours of course work in
science, (3) sex and academic area, (4)
academic area and type of institution, (5)
vocational choice and hours of course work
TABLE 3.—SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEANS FOR MEN AND WOMEN STUDENTS AT
KENTUCKY COLLEGES AS DERIVED BY THE TRI-S AND VGAS scALES
Scale Sex n
Tri-S Men 412
Women 497
VGAS Men 412
Women 497
1 Significant at the 0.05 level.
Mean G t
107.06 11.89 |
110.71 12.72 4.47
188.06 20.94 -
190.08 20.10 2.01
in science, (6) vocational choice and sex,
and (7) type of institution and teaching»
level.
The statistical procedures used in deter-
mining the significance of the differences
in group means for the main effect vari-
ables were the ¢ statistic for comparisons
involving 2 means, and a one-way analysis"
of variance where more than 2 means were |
examined. Where significance occurred in-
volving 3 or more means, an additional
procedure was necessary to determine
which means were significantly different.
The procedure employed in this study in-
volved the computation of multiple ¢ tests.
Stratification according to the different
levels of the main effects involved in the
possible interactions resulted in 2 X 2 and
2 X 3 analysis of variance designs. Inter-
actions involve specificity of effect, where-
by the effect of one variable changes,
depending upon the specific value of the
second variable. Interaction effects are
relevant to generalization statements about
the main effect variables, and limitations
upon generalizability appear in the statis-
tical analysis as significant interactions.
Mean G &
108.37 13.03
109.16 11.97 2.04
187.87 20.55
190.66 20.51 0.96
ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS TOWARD ScIENCE—Miller
101
TABLE 4.—ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR NUMBER OF SEMESTER HOURS OF SCIENCE BY STUDENTS IN SE-
LECTED KENTUCKY COLLEGES AS DERIVED BY THE TRI-S AND VGAS SCALES
Source of Sum of
Scale variation squares
Tri-S Hours of science 5,709
Within 135,339
VGAS Hours of science 1,760
Within 382,528
1 Significant at the 0.01 level.
The criterion variables employed in this
study reflect attitudes toward science. As
an aid in determining the degree of rela-
tionship between the 2 estimates, scores
were correlated for each group in the study.
The intent of the analysis was to gain
additional insight into the characteristics
of specific groups.
RESULTS OF ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION
Results of analyses involving the f¢ test
for “type of institution” (Table 2) indicate
that the type of institution attended is
related to attitudes toward science as mea-
sured in this study. Students attending
large state schools scored significantly
higher on the Tri-S and VGAS scales than
students at small private colleges. The ¢
value of 4.47 on the Tri-S was significant
at the 0.01 level. Analyses for “sex group”
(Table 3) revealed that women are ori-
ented toward scientific thought and pro-
cesses to a greater extent than men, and a
lack of significant difference as to support
of science, although the trend in scores did
favor women over men.
The summary of the analysis of variance
involving the main effect variable “semester
hours of science” in relation to the Tri-S
and VGAS scales is given in Table 4. With
2 degrees of freedom in the numerator and
904 in the denominator, an F value of
19.11 for the Tri-S was highly significant
at the 0.01 level and was the highest of
20 such values calculated. A multiple com-
parison test applied to the differences be-
tween the means on the Tri-S for “semester
hours of science” was used to determine
which of the means were significantly dif-
Mean
df square F
2, 2,854.50 19.11?
904 149.38
2 880.00 2.08
904 ADD, 29,
ferent and produced the large F value in
Table 4. The mean attitude score for
students with 18 or more semester hours
of science was significantly higher than for
students with 0 to 8 or 9 to 17 hours of
science. No significant difference was
found in the attitude scores for students
with 0 to 8 hours of science and those with
9 to 17 hours.
Therefore, students with 18 or more
semester hours of science evinced greater
support toward science as a cultural ac-
tivity than students who followed a typical
nonscience program or those who elected
to take other subjects in lieu of the avail-
able general education science (Table 5).
The summary of the analysis of variance
involving the main effect variable “aca-
demic area” in relation to the Tri-S and
VGAS scales is shown in Table 6. The F
value for the VGAS was only 0.66, while
a highly significant 9.04 was obtained for
TABLE 5.—RESULTS OF THE MULTIPLE COMPARISON
TEST APPLIED TO THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
MEANS ON THE TRI-S SCALE FOR SEMESTER HOURS
OF SCIENCE TAKEN BY STUDENTS AT SELECTED KEN-
TUCKY COLLEGES
Categories compared n Means t
0-8 hours of science 266 107.84 0.94
9-17 hours of science 404 106.94 ,
0-8 hours of science 266 107.84 4.55}
18 or more hours of 239 112.93
science
9-17 hours of science 404 106.94 6.01:
18 or more hours of 239 112.93 ;
science
1 Significant at the 0.01 level.
102
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
TABLE 6.—ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ACADEMIC AREA PREFERRED BY STUDENTS AT SELECTED KEN-
TUCKY COLLEGES AS DERIVED BY THE TRI-S AND VGAS SCALES
Source of Sum of
Scale variation squares
Tri-S Academic area 2,761
Within 138,287
VGAS Academic area 560
Within 383,680
1 Significant at the 0.01 level.
the Tri-S. A multiple comparison test was
applied to the differences between means
on the Tri-S for the “academic area”
variable to determine which categories of
the variable were significantly different.
Natural science majors scored considerably
higher than humanities or social sciences
majors (Table 7). In each instance, the
difference was significant at the 0.01 level.
No significant difference was found in the
attitude scores for students who majored
in humanities or social sciences.
The results of the analysis of variance
involving “vocational choice” (Table 8) re-
veal the F value on the VGAS scale to be
nonsignificant at 0.34, while a highly signif-
icant 14.64 was obtained for that variable
on the Tri-S. A multiple comparison test
applied to the differences between the
means on the Tri-S scale for the “vocational
choice” variable (Table 9) was used to
determine which means were significantly
different and contributed to the large F
TABLE 7.—RESULTS OF THE MULTIPLE COMPARISON
TEST APPLIED TO THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
MEANS ON THE TRI-S SCALE FOR ACADEMIC AREA
PREFERRED BY STUDENTS AT SELECTED COLLEGES IN
KENTUCKY
Categories
compared n Means t
Humanities majors 202 107.58 3.591
Natural science majors 230 Ae
Natural science majors 230 bis TO Mer er 39]
Social science majors ATT 107.85 ;
Humanities majors 202 107.58 0.26
Social science majors AT7 107.85
1 Significant at the 0.01 level.
Mean
df square F
2, : 1,380.50 9.04"
904 152.63
2, 280.00 0.66
904 423.49
values in Table 8. The decision to work
toward a teaching position appears to be re-
lated to the degree of support afforded
science (Table 9). The mean attitude score
on the Tri-S for students not working to-
ward a teaching position was considerably
higher than the means for either prospective
elementary or secondary teachers. There
was no difference between the attitudes of
students preparing to be elementary or
sceondary teachers.
The analysis also tested for first-order
interactions involving specific 2-variable
combinations of the main effects. No
significant interactions occurred, strength-
ening the generalizability of the previous
results and the external validity of the
research findings. The variables related to
attitudes toward science do no depend upon >
specific values of the other variables for
their effects to be manifested.
Although the 2 attitude scales were re-
lated, since a correlation of responses from
each group in the study resulted in r values
significantly different from zero, the degree
of correlation was not impressive, and it
appears that they measure, for practical
purposes, different dimensions of attitude
toward science. Secondary education stu-
dents exhibited the highest relationships
between the 2 scales with an r value of
0.4026, indicating slightly over 16 percent
of the variance in one scale may be at-
tributed to variance in the other scale for
that group. Although statistically signifi-
cant, the relationship for students not
working toward a teaching position implies:
a variance accountability of less than 6 per-.
cent between the scales, certainly not an_
impressive relationship (Table 10).
ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS TOWARD SCIENCE—Miller
103
TABLE 8.—ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR VOCATIONAL CHOICE OF STUDENTS AT SELECTED KENTUCKY COL-
LEGES AS DERIVED BY THE TRI-S AND VGAS sCALES
Source of Sum of
Scale variation squares
Tri-S Vocational choice 4,417
Within 136,631
VGAS Vocational choice 288
Within 384,000
1 Significant at the 0.01 level.
The variability of the scores for the
groups responding to the attitude scales
was consistent in that the test of the
homogeneity of variance failed to produce
any significant F ratios. Indications of the
dependability of the scores reported in
this study may be surmised from the
reliability coefficients obtained from the
instruments, with respectable values of
0.7853 for the Tri-S and 0.8118 for the
VGAS scale.
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
Possession of sufficient semester hours of
course work in science to qualify for a
minor or a major was associated with a
more positive attitude toward science than
was true with students with fewer hours.
This could be interpreted in either of 2
ways. Participation in science courses may
be contributing toward a more positive
attitude, or a preexisting more positive
attitude may influence students to enroll
in more science courses. Although reassur-
ing to science educators, it would be
presumptuous to infer that enrollment in
science courses necessarily leads to im-
proved attitudes. Until further research
clarifies the situation, all that can be said
is that students with a minor or a major in
science also have more positive attitudes
toward science. Had less positive attitudes
been associated with increased course work
in science, a much more serious problem
would face science educators than occurs
with the present situation. When the ob-
served relation between attitudes and
course work in science is better understood,
Mean
df square F
me 2,208.50 14.64
904 150.81
2 144.00 0.34
904 423.84
and causal relations are determined, pro-
grams to improve attitudes of nonscience
students will have an enhanced probability
of success.
The findings of this study indicate social
science and humanities majors, at both
small and large institutions, possess less
favorable attitudes toward science as a
cultural activity of man than do -natural
science majors. Thus, it would appear that
some of the objectives of the general edu-
cation program are not being achieved.
The nonscience student may be acquiring
an understanding of science; that has
neither been established nor disproved in
this study, but it is apparent that all
student groups do not exhibit an equally
supportive positive attitude toward science.
It may be necessary to revise or add to
the currently available general education
science courses in order to achieve the
stated objectives more fully. Verbal and
written comments from the subjects of the
TABLE 9.—RESULTS OF THE MULTIPLE COMPARISON
TEST APPLIED TO THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
MEANS ON THE TRI-S SCALE FOR VOCATIONAL
CHOICE OF STUDENTS AT SELECTED KENTUCKY COL-
LEGES
Categories compared n Means t
Elementary education 234 105.95 1.85
Secondary education 300 107.89
Secondary education 300 107.89 3. 48
Nonteaching oto 111.26
Elementary education 234 105.95 5 18°
Nonteaching 375 111.26
104
TRANS. KeNTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4)
TABLE 10.—CoRRELATIONS BETWEEN THE ATTITUDE SCALES FOR EACH GROUP AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE
OF STUDENTS FROM SELECTED KENTUCKY COLLEGES.
ALL CORRELATIONS ARE SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT
FROM ZERO AT THE 0.01 LEVEL
Group
Small private schools
Large state schools
Males
Females
Zero—7 semester hours of science
8-17 semester hours of science
18 or more semester hours of science
Humanities majors
Natural science majors
Social science majors
Elementary education
Secondary education
Nonteaching
Total
investigation frequently referred to the
boring nature of current courses and their
lack of relevancy. An increased emphasis
on the interrelations of science, technology,
and society, and more frequent investiga-
tions into contemporary problems seem
warranted.
The association between attitudes toward
science and the type of institution attended
may be due to an inherent difference be-
tween students attending state schools and
those attending private liberal arts colleges,
or it may be an indication of change that
occurs while attending one type of institu-
tion and not at the other. Either or both
of those conditions would seem to offer
the best explanation for the observed
association since their general education
requirements and catalog descriptions do
not differ appreciably. Regardless of the
source of the difference, an effort should
be made to improve student attitudes to-
ward science at the small liberal arts
colleges.
One of the most rewarding experiences
of this study was the opportunity to estab-
lish relations and exchange views with non-
science faculty across the state. It became
apparent that members of the various
disciplines share many of the same con-
cerns and have the potential to contribute
n r ti
468 0.3377 0.1140
44] 0.3001 0.0901
412 0.3002 0.0902
AQ7 0.3443 0.1185
266 0.3298 0.1087
404 0.3300 0.1089
239 0.2981 0.0889
202 0.3254 0.1058
230 0.2894 0.0837
ATT 0.3375 0.1139
234 0.3802 0.1445
300 0.4026 0.1620
375 0.2408 0.0579
909 0.3221 0.1037
much toward the solution of our common
concerns.
crease contacts and communication across
It would seem advisable to in-—
disciplinary lines and among schools if we
are to maximize the potential.
In view of their potential contribution —
science —
to improving attitudes toward
through their future roles in the classroom,
the lower attitude scores of prospective ©
teachers, as compared to students not pre-
paring for a teaching carrer, should be —
regarded with concern. If teachers are to —
assist others in acquiring or improving ©
existing constructive attitudes, it would
seem
should first possess those attributes.
It may be worthwhile to undertake cur-
ricular revision whereby prospective ele-
mentary and secondary teachers participate
in special science courses intended to en-
courage formation of more positive at-
titudes. Such courses should stress the
nature of science, its interrelationship with
society, and the contribution of science as
a human intellectual activity along with >
the more conventional process and content
objectives. Currently, college
the state have indicated little support for
science courses expressly for
cate present programs to be inadequate.
reasonable that they themselves
faculties in >
prospective —
teachers, but the results of this study indi-
ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS TOWARD ScCIENCE—Miller
Regardless of its final form, remedial action
is warranted, the nature of which will need
to be determined in subsequent research.
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1977. The effect of a science methods course
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The college student image of the scientist.
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BixLer, J. E. 1959. The effect of teacher atti-
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Part 1. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, IIl.
344 pp.
BronowskI, J. 1965. Science and human values.
Harper and Row, New York, N.Y. 119 pp.
Brown, S. B. 1954. Science information and
attitudes possessed by California elementary
school pupils. J. Educ. Res. 47:551-554.
Dutton, W. H., anp L. STEPHENS. 1963. Mea-
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Math. 63:43-49.
E:ss, A. F., anp M. B. Harsecx. 1969. Behav-
ioral objectives in the affective domain. ED
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D.C. 49 pp.
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Hone, E., AND E. CarswEtu. 1969. Elements
of successful inservice education. Sci. Child.
6:24-26.
Hurp, P. DeH. 1960. Science education for
changing times. Pp. 34-37. In Fifty-ninth
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Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, II]. 344 pp.
JouHnson, R. F., F. Ryan, AND H. SCHROEDER.
1974. Inquiry and the development of posi-
tive attitudes. Sci. Educ. 58:51-56.
Kane, R. B. 1968. Use of the semantic differ-
ential technique to measure prospective ele-
mentary school teacher attitude toward
mathematics and other subjects. ED 021761.
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Ind. 66 pp.
KENNEDY, T. 1973. The effect of process in-
struction on changing preservice elementary
teachers’ attitudes toward science. School Sci.
Math. 73:569-574.
Kuun, D. 1973. Value systems in life science
instruction. Sci. Educ. 56:343-350.
LomMBarD, J. W., AND W. B. Owen. 1965. Ob-
jectives of science education, compiled as a
105
guide to the development of an assessment
program in science education. Sci. Res. Ass.,
Inc., Chicago, Ill. 48 pp.
Mirias, R. G. 1970. Concepts of science and
scientists among college students. J. Res. Sci.
Teach. 7:135-140.
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106
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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3—4), 1978, 107—110
Effect of Cohabitation on Survivorship of Drosophila
melanogaster Exposed to Varying Oxygen Atmospheric
Concentrations:
GERTRUDE C. RiDGEL AND GERRIT P. KLOEK
Department of Biology, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601
ABSTRACT
Unisexed and bisexed cultures of vestigial wing, brown-eyed Drosophila melanogaster
were exposed to 9, 21, 33, and 49 percent oxygen atmospheric concentrations. Flies in uni-
sexed cultures, in almost every instance, survived longer than those in cohabitation.
The
lethal time to 50 percent mortality was shorter in bisexed cultures exposed to high (49%)
and low (9%) oxygen mixes than among flies in the unisexed cultures similarly exposed.
Atmospheric mixtures of 33 percent oxygen did not appear to affect survivorship. Mean
longevities in all female cultures were significantly longer than the male cultures.
INTRODUCTION
Observations of sex differences in mor-
tality of Drosophila melanogaster have been
observed by many investigators including
Pearl and Parker (1921) and Kloek et al.
(1976a). Experimental evidence in our
laboratory showed that the difference was
more pronounced in our vestigial wing (vg),
brown-eyed (bw) strain than in our wild
type. Greiff (1940) cited Krubiegel, who
in 1939 reported that cohabitation of males
and females shortened the mean duration
of life in both sexes. Malick and Kidwell
(1966) reported that single sexed cultures
of their wild strain survived about 6 days
longer than mated ones. Smith (1958)
reported that in D. subobscura, mated
males lived longer than mated females.
However, the longevity of females could
be prolonged by keeping them virgins or
by exposing mating females to a high tem-
perature for a brief period.
This investigation, a portion of a larger
research program in our laboratory, was
undertaken to determine the extent of dif-
ferences in longevity due to cohabitation
in vgbw flies when exposed to varying
oxygen concentrations. All previous studies
under investigation in our laboratory had
been done with flies in cohabitation.
*This research was supported by a National
Aeronautics and Space Administration Grant NSG
10 00801.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
The flies (vgbw) used in this investiga-
tion were maintained in the Kentucky State
University laboratory for more than 3 years.
This strain was established from the g 519
stock originally obtained from the Bowling
Green University Drosophila Laboratory.
The flies were treated with 9, 21, 33, and
49 percent oxygen concentrations in the
manner described by Kloek et al. (1976a)
except the designated 60-ml bottles con-
tained males alone, females alone, or a
combination of males and females. No
bottle contained more than 54 flies or
fewer than 31 flies. Every 5 days, the flies
were etherized, counted, sexed, and placed
in fresh culture medium.
RESULTS
The survivorship curves from data ob-
tained at 5-day intervals are shown in Figs.
1-4. The shape of each curve comparing
sexually isolated cultures with flies in
sexual cohabitation are quite similar for a
given oxygen concentration. Flies in the
21 percent oxygen concentration showed a
5-day difference in both males and females
when flies of unisexed cultures were com-
pared with those in a mixed sexed culture.
The cohabitating flies exposed to 33 percent
oxygen lived equally as long as those in
single sexed culture for both males and
107
PERCENT
DAYS
Fic. 1. Percentage of survivorship and _ lethal
time (LT 50) of a strain of vgbw Drosophila, ex-
posed to 9 percent oxygen at 5-day intervals. Solid
lines represent females alone, dashed lines females
in cohabitation, dotted lines males alone, and X
lines males in cohabitation.
females, but at many levels during the
examination periods, males living with fe-
males appeared to survive better. Unisexed
male flies exposed to 49 percent oxygen
had a 10-day difference in total life span
compared to males in cohabitation. At the
same time, the females showed a 15-day
difference in life span under similar con-
ditions. Male cultures exposed to 9 percent
oxygen concentration survived 5 days
longer than in bisexual cultures. Females
in cohabitation survived 30 days less than
those living solely with females in 9 percent
oxygen (Fig. 1). However, the data for
PERCENT
DAYS
Fic. 2. Percentage survivorship and lethal time
(LT 50) of a strain of vgbw Drosophila exposed
to 21 percent oxygen at 5-day intervals. Notations
are the same as in Fig. 1.
TrANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4)
PERCENT
DAYS
Fic. 3. Percentage survivorship and lethal time
(LT 50) of a strain of vgbw Drosophila exposed
to 33 percent oxygen at 5-day intervals. Notations
are the same as in Fig. 1.
those cohabitating groups were obtained
from a small sample (48 flies).
Mean longevities were determined on
flies living alone and in cohabitation for
each treatment. For the most part, the mean
longevities were higher for flies in unisexed
cultures than those in cohabitation (Table
1). The females exposed to 2) 0 percent
oxygen in cohabitation showed a slightly
higher mean longevity than the single fe-
male cultures. Males in mixed sex cultures
exposed to 33 percent oxygen had a higher
mean longevity than those in single male
cultures. When the significances of the
mean were determined, the differences
LTso
PERCENT
oO
(2)
DAYS
Fic. 4. Percentage survivorship and lethal time
(LT 50) of a strain of vgbw Drosophila exposed
to 49 percent at 5-day intervals. Notations are
the same as in Fig. 1.
SURVIVORSHIP OF DROSOPHILA IN OxyGEN—Ridgel and Kloek
109
TaBLE 1.—MEAN LONGEVITY (X), STANDARD DEVIATIONS (S), STANDARD ERROR, AND LETHAL TIME IN
DAYS TO 50 PERCENT MORTALITY FOR VGBW FLIES EXPOSED TO 4 DIFFERENT OXYGEN ATMOSPHERES
0% Sex De
9 Fa’ 33.19
Fc’ I3.13°
Ma [5.75
Mc iets
ot Fa 13.10
Fe 32.18
Ma 19.49
Mc 18.89
33 Fa 36.60
Fe 34.80
Ma 19.75
Mc 94.25%
49.9 Fa 27.50
Fe 24.00
Ma 19.07
Mc livers
14a = unisexed culture.
2 ¢ = cohabitating culture.
* Significant differences between a and c at 95% confidence limits.
were significant for females alone and in
cohabitation when exposed to 9 percent
oxygen and for males exposed to 33 and
49 percent.
The last column in Table 1 shows the
days to 50 percent mortality for flies ex-
posed to each oxygen concentration. In the
9 percent oxygen atmospheric mix, isolated
females survived 39 days to 50 percent
mortality, while cohabitating females lived
an average of 34.2 days. In those 2 popula-
tions of female flies, the time to 50 percent
mortality was actually longer than that of
females exposed to 33 percent or to 21 per-
cent oxygen mixes. Male flies in the 9 per-
cent oxygen atmospheric mixture showed a
decrease in time to 50 percent mortality of
9.5 days in isolated male cultures and 7.5
days in cohabitating cultures. Hypoxia in
the males appeared more detrimental in
terms of time to 50 percent mortality than
hyperoxia. Males living alone that were
exposed to a 49 percent oxygen atmospheric
mixture had a time to 50 percent mortality
of 17.9 days, while among males living with
females it was 12 days.
Days to
S Sx 50% mortality
P62 1.34 39.0
10.24 2.09 34.2
10.25 E035 9.5
8.45 eZ fies.
c2-GL 0.87 30.0
11.38 ibe 30.0
8.10 0.53 18.0
9.47 AL 14.0
16.04 DAPAT Bas
10.94 2.19 52
8.36 0.84 18.0
6.94 Jus) DeenS
8.91 0.59 25.0
9.32 1.70 23.0
6.65 O82 17.9
4.90 0.82 12.0
DISCUSSION
This investigation was our initial attempt
to compare the longevities of D. melano-
gaster in unisexed and bisexed cultures
exposed to varying oxygen concentrations.
Already reported by us (Kloek et al.
1976a) and by many others were the ob-
servations that males cohabitating had a
shorter life span than cohabitating females
exposed to normal and modified atmo-
spheres. The present investigation con-
firmed those observations. Furthermore,
the data revealed that flies in cohabitation
were less tolerant when exposed to extremes
in oxygen concentrations (9 and 49%)
than the flies in sex isolated cultures. This
finding is more clearly demonstrated when
comparisons were made at the 25th day
period of exposure (Table 2). In the 9
and 49 percent oxygen concentrations,
cohabitating male flies did not survive as
well as those in sex isolated cultures. It
may be that the greater activities assumed
during courting was stressful to the co-
habitating organisms in hyperoxia and
110
TABLE 2.—PERCENTAGE SURVIVORSHIP AFTER 25
DAYS OF EXPOSURE TO 4 DIFFERENT OXYGEN AT-
MOSPHERES
Oxygen Concentration (%)
Sex 9 21 33 50
Fa’ 72 80 84 50
Fe 63 83 80 43
Ma 14 45 16 3
Me 9 AT 40 0
1a = unisexed culture.
*b = cohabitating culture.
hypoxia, and could lead to the reduced
survivorship.
It appears that the 33 percent oxygen
atmospheric mixture was not detrimental
to the vgbw flies. This was also evident
among a wild type strain in another study
in our laboratory (Kloek et al. 1976b). As
a matter of fact, in both investigations the
flies exposed to 33 percent oxygen survived
as well or better than those exposed to the
20 percent oxygen concentrations. This was
unexpected since in a previous study Kloek
et al. (1976a), the mean longevity of
cohabitating vestigial wing brown-eyed flies
exposed to 21 percent oxygen was 43.43 and
31.55 days for females and males, respec-
tively, as compared with 32.18 and 18.89
days in the current investigation. The dif-
ference in longevity in those 2 sets of data
may reflect a response to other environ-
mental variations, including temperature.
Kloek et al. (1976a) conducted their ex-
periment January through March during
which time the morning temperatures from
day to day ranged from 18 to 27.5 C with
an average temperature of 22.87 C over the
entire experimental period. The present
investigation was undertaken June through
August when temperatures from day to day
ranged between 24 and 27 C with an aver-
age temperature over the experimental
period of 25.74 C. Siddiqui and Barlow
(1972), in their research on population
growth with a strain of vestigial wing flies,
found that time to 50 percent mortality de-
creased with rising temperatures at both
constant and alternating temperatures.
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
Comparing Siddiqui and Barlow’s data with
ours, they found that at a constant temper-
ature of 22.5 C the time to 50 percent mor-
tality was 36 days and at 25 C the time was
23 days. Our data from a previous experi-
ment (Kloek et al. 1976a) showed that with
the average temperature of 22.87 C, the flies
exposed to 21 percent oxygen had a time to
50 percent mortality of greater than 45
days, while in our experiment with an aver-
age of 25.74 C, the time was 30 days. Those
data confirm other evidences that show
that temperature differences may greatly
influence experimental results in the life
activities and must be considered when
analyzing data on longevity of Drosophila.
Data presented above demonstrate clearly
that males have a lethal time of 50 percent
mortality far below females exposed to
high (49%) and low (9%) oxygen atmo-
spheres, and that cohabitating organisms
are more affected by those exposures than
sex isolated cultures. From the mean
longevities and total life spans, we draw
similar conclusions.
LITERATURE CITED
GreiFF, D. 1940. Longevity in Drosophila melano-
gaster and its ebony mutant in the absence of
food. Amer. Nat. 74:363-376.
Kioex, G. P., D. B. Rain, anp G. C. R@GEL.
1976a. Survivorship and gene frequencies of
Drosophila melanogaster, populations in ab-
normal atmospheres. Aviat. Space Environ.
Med. 47:272-279.
, G. C. Ree. AND PD eeeiaAee
1976b. Survivorship and life expectancy of
Drosophila melanogaster populations in ab-
normal oxygen—normal pressure regimes.
Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 47:1174—1176.
Matick, L. E., anp J. F. Kipwett. 1966. The
effect of mating status, sex and genotype on
longevity in Drosophila melanogaster. Genet-
ics 54:203-209.
PEARL, R., AND S. PARKER. 1921. Experimental
studies on the duration of life, I. Introductory
discussion of the duration of life in Drosoph-
ila. Amer. Nat. 55:481-509.
Sippieur, W. H., anp C. A. Bartow. 1972.
Population growth of Drosophila melanogaster
at constant and alternating temperatures.
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 65:993-1001.
SmiTH, M. J. 1958. The genetics of longevity
in Drosophila subobscura. Proc. Int. Cong.
Genet. 2: 182-183.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-4), 1978, 111-116
Genic Variability in Some Kentucky Populations of
Seventeen-Year Periodical Cicadas
(Homoptera: Magicicada )
Dennis B. RALIN AND GERRIT P. KLOEK
Department of Natural Science, Castleton State College,
Castleton, Vermont 05735
and
Department of Biology, Kentucky State University,
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601
ABSTRACT
The 17-year periodical cicadas Magicicada cassini and M. septendecim exhibited a high
degree of intraspecific (S = 0.98) and interspecific (S = 0.94) genic similarity based on
electrophoretic analysis of 15 protein loci.
Genic heterozygosity values (H) ranged from
0.076 to 0.119 in 3 populations, considerably lower than already published values for the
13-year cicadas M. tredecassini and M. tredecula (0.191 and 0.174, Krepp and Smith 1974).
Adjustment for the loci not studied in common results in H values between 0.121 and 0.168
for the 4 species. The mean H value for the 4 species of periodical cicadas (0.149) is in the
low range relative to the H values of Drosophila (0.157) and other insects (0.176). It is
possible that the lower genic heterozygosities of periodical cicadas relative to other insects
are a reflection of a “fine-grained” adaptive strategy resulting from the extraordinarily long
subterranean nymphal stage.
INTRODUCTION
Electrophoretic analyses of structural
gene loci provide direct evidence of high
levels of genic variability in animal popu-
lations (Lewontin and Hubby 1966, Harris
1966, Powell 1975). Whether these elec-
trophoretic polymorphisms are maintained
by selection or are mostly neutral is a
subject of continuing debate among evolu-
tionary biologists (e.g., see Lewontin
1974). Of interest is the observation that
higher levels of genic heterozygosity exist
in invertebrate populations than exist in
vertebrate populations (Selander and Kauf-
man 1973, Powell 1975). Selander and
Kaufman (1973) interpreted that difference
in terms of Levins’ (1968) theory of adap-
tive strategies in relation to environmental
uncertainty. That is, the greater degree of
mobility and homeostatic control an organ-
ism has, the more likely it is to experience
the environment as “fine-grained.” There-
fore, at most loci, 1 optimum allele would
be selected. Small, relatively immobile
organisms experience their environment as
sets of alternatives in time and space, or
“coarse grained.” Selection in those organ-
isms would favor different genotypes at
many loci to allow for maximum fitness
under different circumstances. A_ higher
genic heterozygosity would be expected in
such populations.
Although nearly 100 different animal
species, subspecies, and semispecies have
been examined (Powell 1975), we believe
that a general theory relating physiological
ecology and life history to the genetics of
animal populations is still problematical.
There has been no clear comparison of
eurythermal and_ stenothermal _ poikilo-
therms, between hemimetabolic and _ holo-
metabolic insects, between very large and
small homeotherms, and so forth. More-
over, the vast majority of terrestrial in-
vertebrates studied thus far are insects, and
most of them belong to the genus
Drosophila. The periodical cicadas are of
interest from this point of view, since they
are hemimetabolic insects having an un-
111
112
usually long generation time. Moreover,
99 percent of that time is spent in the
nymphal stage in a subterranean habitat.
Compared with other insects, cicadas face
relatively constant conditions during the
major portion of their life cycle. We
decided to examine genic variability in 2
species of 17-year periodical cicadas when
a brood emerged in Kentucky in 1974. In
this report, we compare levels of hetero-
zygosity in 17- and 13-year cicadas (Krepp
and Smith 1974) and compare their mean
heterozygosity levels with those of other
insects.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
Grant NSG 10 00801. We thank Robert
French, Alan Hammond, and Sushil Jain
for technical assistance, and Jean Clark for
typing the manuscript.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Seventy-nine periodical cicadas were col-
lected on 29 May and 2 June 1974. Forty-
five were collected in Frankfort, Franklin
County, Kentucky, and 34 were collected
on the Frank Clark Farm, 3.2 km south of
Monterey, Owen County, Kentucky. Ac-
cording to the emergence times given by
Alexander and Moore (1962), they were
17-year cicadas of Brood XIV. Only 1 of
the 3 17-year cicadas, M. cassini, is found
in the Frankfort area (Alexander and
Moore 1962). All 45 individuals from
Frankfort had similar songs and morphol-
ogy. In the Monterey area, 20 of the
cicadas collected had the same morphology
and the same song (a series of ticks fol-
lowed by a buzz). The other 14 cicadas
collected at Monterey had a distinctly
lower-pitched song without any ticks in it,
were noticeably larger than M. cassini,
had reddish-yellow pronota and prothoracic
pleura, reddish abdominal sternites and
were identified as M. septendecim.
Cicadas were placed in_ individual
16 x 70-mm vials and covered with a 2
percent phenoxyethanol-0.25 M_ sucrose
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
solution. Vials were kept in a cold room
between 0-5 C for 2 weeks, and _ later
stored at -40 C for 10 months before runs
were made. .-
Horizontal electrophoresis was performed
on 11 percent starch gels (Lot No. 371,
Hiller Electrostarch Co., P.O. Box 1294,
Madison, Wisconsin). Four different buffer
systems were used: (1) system A of Steiner
and Johnson (1973); (2) tris-citrate (pH
6.7) of Selander et al. (1971); (3) system
C of Steiner and Johnson (1973); and (4)
tris-maleate of Selander et al. (1971). Stain
recipes were similar to those of Selander
et al. (1971) and Steiner and Johnson
(1973). Enzymes and proteins stained for
on each buffer system were as follows:
(1) aldolase (ALD), esterases (EST),
general proteins (PT), indophenol oxidase/
tetrazolium oxidase/superoxide dismutase
(SOD), leucine aminopeptidase (LAP),
malate dehydrogenase (MDH), malic en-
zyme (ME), 6-phosphogluconate dehydro-
genase (6-PGD), phosphoglucose isomerase
(PGI), and phosphoglucomutase (PGM);
(2) glutamate oxaloacetate aminotransfer-
ase (GOT), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
dehydrogenase (G-3-PDH), MDH, ME,
and PGM; (3) a-glycerophosphate dehy-
drogenase (a-GPD), glucose-6-phosphate
dehydrogenase (G-6-PD), and G-3-PDH;
and (4) xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH),
G-6-PDH, a-GPD, GOT, and PGI.
When more than 1 set of bands were
seen on a gel slice, the most anodal set was
designated 1 and the others were numbered
in accordance with their distance from the
anode. When a set of bands gave evidence
of allelic variation, the allele of greatest
anodal mobility was designated 100, and
the others were designated by their mobili-
ties relative to the 100 allele. Cathodally
migrating alleles were denoted by a minus
sign preceding the relative mobility.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Allelic forms at consistently scorable
protein loci are given in Table 1. Hetero-
zygote banding patterns at polymorphic
loci were similar to those described for
GENIC VARIABILITY IN PERIODICAL CicApAs—Ralin and Kloek
113
TABLE 1.—ALLELES AND ALLELIC FREQUENCIES’ AT 15 LOCI IN 2 SPECIES OF 17-YEAR CICADAS
Homolog in
Locus 13-year cicadas? M. cassina M. septendecim
PT-2 PT-1 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00)
PT-4 PT-2 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00)
SOD-1 IPO-1 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00)
EST-1 ES-1 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00)
EST-2 ES-2 100 (0.548 ), 94 (0.317), 100( 0.321), 94( 0.536),
91 (0.135) 91 (0.143)
EST-4 Not done ~100 (0.890), -71 (0.094), ~100 (0.464), -71 (0.250),
—42 (0.016) —42, (0.286)
ME-I1 MDH-2 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00)
PGI-3 PGI-1 —100 (1.00) —100 (1.00)
PGM-1 PGM-I? 100 (0.205), 89 (0.491), 100 (0.071), 89 (0.750),
79 (0.304) 79 (0.179)
G-3-PDH-1 Not done 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00)
MDH-1 MDH-1 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00)
MDH-2 MDH-3 —100 (1.00) —100 (1.00)
ALD-1 Not done 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00)
GOT-1 GOT-1 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00)
GOT-2 GOT-2 —100 (1.00) —100 (1.00)
1 Frequencies calculated as unweighted averages of 2 populations.
)
2 From descriptions given by Krepp and Smith (1974).
13-year cicadas by Krepp and Smith
(1974). Probable homologous loci are also
noted in Table 1. The Frankfort population
of M. cassini was in Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium at each polymorphic locus as
tested by chi square analysis.
Genic similarities as measured by Rogers’
(1972) coefficient of genic similarity are
S = 0.94 for the heterospecific comparison
and S = 0.98 for the conspecific compari-
son. Mean genic heterozygosity (H) for
each species population, based on 15 loci,
is given in Table 2. Values calculated by
actual count match quite closely with
estimated values calculated from Hardy-
Weinberg heterozygote frequencies. There
were no significant differences among the
3 populations.
Although slightly higher than average
genic similarities between conspecific pop-
ulations of other organisms, the S value
of 0.98 between the Monterey and Frank-
fort populations of M. cassini is still well
within the range of values observed in
earlier studies (Avise 1976). The S value
of 0.94 between M. cassini and M. sep-
tendecim is in the high range for an inter-
specific comparison, reflecting the fact that
all periodical cicadas are sibling species
differentiated by minor morphological dif-
ferences and acoustic behavior (Alexander
and Moore 1962). Hardy-Weinberg esti-
mates of genic heterozygosity in 2 species
of 13-year cicadas and 2 species of 17-year
cicadas are given in Table 3. The column
headed H + 2 sx seems to indicate signifi-
TABLE 2,—MEAN GENIC HETEROZYGOSITIES (H) + 2 STANDARD ERRORS IN 2 SPECIES OF 17-YEAR PERI-
ODICAL CICADAS
Species Population
M. cassini Frankfort 45
Monterey 20
M. septendecim Monterey 14
H+2sE H
(Actual Count) ( Estimated )
0.098 + 0.018 0.093
0.076 + 0.017 0.076
0.119 + 0.028 0.119
114
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
TABLE 3.—ESsTIMATED GENIC HETEROZYGOSITY VALUES (H) IN 4 SPECIES OF PERIODICAL CICADAS
Species No. of Populations No. of Loci H=+2sr Adjusted H?
M. tredecassini 2 15 0.191 + 0.024" 0.168
M. tredecula 2 15 0.174 + 0.033’ 0.154
M. cassini 2 15 0.093 + 0.012 0.121
M. septendecim 1 15 0.119 + 0.028 0.151
1 Calculated from given allele frequencies (Krepp and Smith 1974); Standard errors from actual counts.
=> See text for details.
cantly lower levels of genic heterozygosity
in 17-year cicadas compared with 13-year
cicadas.
According to the compilations of Powell
(1975), the mean heterozygosities of our
brood are in the low range for those in-
vertebrate organisms reported. Krepp and
Smith (1974) sampled what were thought
to be 2 species of 13-year cicadas of Brood
XIX (presumably Magicicada tredecassini
and M. tredecula), and found levels of
genic heterozygosity in the high range for
insects.
The apparent difference in the studies
probably is, in part, an artifact caused by
a difference in the loci sampled. We
believe that 12 of the loci sampled here
are homologues of those sampled by Krepp
and Smith (1974). Unfortunately, their
samples had already been discarded by the
time we were aware that someone else had
studied periodical cicadas (M. H. Smith
pers. comm.). One _ additional highly
polymorphic locus sampled by Krepp and
Smith (1974), ES-3, seems to be compar-
able to our highly polymorphic EST-4
(Table 1). We were unsuccessful in
sampling 2 polymorphic loci in M. trede-
cassini-M. tredecula, a-GPDH-1, and G-
6-PDH-1 (Krepp and Smith 1974). On
the other hand, we also sampled 2 mono-
morphic loci not sampled by them, ALD-1
and G-3-PDH-1 (Table 1).
In an attempt to pool these data to get
an H value reflecting the greatest number
of loci available at this time, we calculated
an adjusted H for each species. We took
the highest heterozygosity values for
G-6-PDH-1 and a-GPDH-I in M. trede-
cassini-M. tredecula (respectively, 0.495
and 0.280 Krepp and Smith 1974) and
used them to adjust M. cassini and M.
septendecim upward; and we took the
0.000 heterozygosity values for ALD-I and
G-3-PDH-1 (Table 1) and used them to
adjust M. tredecula and M. tredecassini
downward. The resultant adjusted H
values (Table 3) are considerably more
alike, ranging from 0.121 to 0.168. Mean
H value for the unadjusted figures was
0.144 and the mean adjusted H value was
0.149. Either of those figures is in the
low range compared with mean H values
of Drosophila and other insects. Mean H
values of periodical cicadas, Drosophila,
and other insects are compared in Table 4.
Mean values for the latter 2 categories
probably are significantly underestimated.
The Drosophila value includes a number
of H values for isolated semispecies, sub-
species, and island populations that are
lower than the values of continental popu-
lations or populations from the main spe-
cies range. The other insects category
includes island populations of the homop-
TABLE 4.—MEAN HETEROZYGOSITY ESTIMATES FOR
SELECTED GROUPS OF INSECTS
Grouping pie
Periodical cicadas 4 0.149 + 0.008
Drosophila’ 38 0.157 + 0.009
Other insects” 10 0.176 + 0.020
1 Taken from Powell (1975), including all species, semi-
species, subspecies, and island populations.
* Eight species from Powell (1975) plus 2 species from
McKechnie et al. 1975.
GENIC VARIABILITY IN PERIODICAL CicApAs—Ralin and Kloek
teran Philaenus spumarius that have a very
low H value (0.076, Saura et al. 1973).
Although more data for both periodical
cicadas and other insects are needed, it
does appear that H values of periodical
cicadas are in the low range relative to
other insects in general.
Additional data may raise the mean H
value for cicadas back towards Krepp and
Smith’s (1974) figures, or they may lower
its mean even more. We believe the latter
will be true. Krepp and Smith (1974)
attributed their results to the high environ-
mental uncertainty they believed those in-
sects face. In other words, they implied
that periodical cicadas experience the en-
vironment as “coarse-grained” in the terms
of Levins’ (1968) model of adaptive
strategies.
It is difficult for us to accept Krepp and
Smith’s (1974) view. The insects spend
more than 99 percent of their life in a
subterranean habitat, and physical factors
are exceedingly stable there. Therefore,
we suggest that periodical cicadas perceive
their environment as “fine-grained” in terms
of Levins’ (1968) model.
We believe that these types of analyses
should prove useful in elucidating the
genetic bases of environmental adaptation.
We also believe it is premature to assign
definitive adaptive significance to hetero-
zygosities at this time because more loci
must be examined and more species
studied. For that reason, we wish to
present our results here, and point out
that these additional data lower the mean
heterozygosity for periodical cicadas below
those of Drosophila and other insects.
SUMMARY
The 17-year periodical cicadas Magi-
cicada cassini and M. septendecim ex-
hibited a high degree of intraspecific
(S'= 0.98) and interspecific (S = 0.94)
genic similarity based on electrophoretic
analysis of 15 protein loci. Genic hetero-
zygosity values (H) ranged from 0.076 to
0.119 in 3 populations, considerably lower
than already published values for M.
115
tredecassini and M. tredecula (0.191 and
0.174 Krepp and Smith 1974). Adjustment
for the loci not studied in common results
in H values between 0.121 and 0.168 for
the 4 species. The mean H value for 4
species of periodical cicadas is in the low
range relative to the H values of Drosophila
and other insects. This is consistent with
the hypothesis that periodical cicadas ex-
perience the environment as “fine-grained”
and are less subject to the effects of
balancing selection than are other insects.
LITERATURE CITED
ALEXANDER, R. D., AND T. E. Moore. 1962.
The evolutionary relationships of 17-year and
13-year cicadas, and three new _ species.
(Homoptera Cicadidae, Magicicada). Misc.
Publ. Mus. Zool., Univ. Mich. 121:1—59.
AvisE, J. E. 1976. Genetic differentiation dur-
ing speciation. Pp. 106-122. In F. J. Ayala
(Ed.). Molecular Evolution. Sinauer Assoc.
Inc. Sunderland, Mass. 277 pp.
Harris, H. 1966. Enzyme polymorphism in
man. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B. 164:298-310.
Krepp, S. R., anp M. H. Smiru. 1974. Genic
heterozygosity in the 13-year cicada, Magici-
cada. Evolution 28:396—401.
Levins, R. 1968. Evolution in changing en-
vironments. Princeton University Press,
Princeton, N.J. 120 pp.
Lewontin, R. C. 1974. The genetic basis of
evolutionary change. Columbia Univ. Press,
New York, N.Y. 346 pp.
, AND J. L. Hussy. 1966. A molecular
approach to the study of genic heterozygosity
in natural populations. IJ. Amount of varia-
tion and degree of heterozygosity in natural
populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura. Ge-
netics 54:595-609.
McKecunirz, S. W., P. R. EHRLICH, AND R. R.
Waiter. 1975. Population genetics of Eu-
phydryas butterflies. I. Genetic variation and
the neutrality hypothesis. Genetics 31:571-
594.
PowELL, J. R. 1975. Protein variation in natural
populations of animals. Pp. 79-119. In T.
Dobzhansky, M. K. Hecht, and W. C. Steers
(Eds.), Evolutionary Biology, Volume 8.
Plenum Publ. Corp., N.Y. 387 pp.
Rocers, J. S. 1972. Measures of genetic sim-
ilarity and genetic distance. Studies in Ge-
netics VII. Univ. Texas Publ. 7213:145-153.
SaurA, A., O. HALKKA, AND J. LoKkr. 1973.
Enzyme gene heterozygosity in small island
populations of Philaenus spumarius (L.)
(Homoptera). Genetics 44:459-473.
SELANDER, R. K., anp D. W. KauFMan. 1973.
116
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Genic variability and strategies of adaptation
in animals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 70:1875-
1877.
, M. H. Sirsa, S. Y. Yanc, W. E. JOHN-
SON, AND J. B. Gentry. 1971. Biochemical
polymorphism and systematics in the genus
Peromyscus. I. Variation in the old-field
STEINER, W. W. M., AND W. E. JOHNSON.
mouse (Peromyscus polionotus). Studies in
Genetics VI. Univ. Texas Publ. 7103:49-90.
1973.
Techniques for electrophoresis of Hawaiian
Drosophila. Island Ecosystems Integrated
Res. Prog., U.S. Int. Biol. Prog., Technical
Report No. 30:1-21.
,
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3—4), 1978, 117-121
Removal of Nitrogen and Sulfur from
Coal-Derived Liquids
TAY-YEAN LIN AND NormMAn L. HOLy
Department of Chemistry, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
ABSTRACT
Substantial amounts of the nitrogen can be removed from a variety of coal-derived
liquids by extraction with sulfuric acid. The greater the concentration of sulfuric acid, the
greater the amount of nitrogen removed. From the extraction characteristics, the nature
of the nitrogen appears to span the spectrum between basic and neutral compounds.
The
sulfur content was not substantially altered by extraction with sulfuric acid. Liquid chro-
matography of the coal liquids also resulted in appreciable diminution of the nitrogen content;
the sulfur content was unchanged. A variety of coal-derived liquids was found to respond
similarly to both acid extraction and column chromatography.
INTRODUCTION
One of the obstacles to broader utiliza-
tion of coal-derived liquids is the presence
of fairly high levels of nitrogen in those
products. High nitrogen concentrations
have a very negative effect upon the pos-
sible applications of those products as
fuels. Coal liquids can be used as fuels
by power generating plants or other in-
dustries that can scrub out the nitrogenous
by-products, but those fuels generally can-
not replace fuel oils or gasoline. Refine-
ment of coal liquids is often not feasible
because nitrogen has a negative effect upon
the performance of refinery catalysts (Cady
and Seeling 1952, Dineen et al. 1958, Jen-
sen et al. 1971). If coal-derived liquids
are to become viable fuels for a variety of
applications, it is necessary to reduce the
nitrogen levels substantially.
The level of sulfur in coal liquids is not
high because the liquefaction processes
remove most of it. Further reduction is
still desirable.
Efforts to reduce the level of nitrogen in
coal-derived liquids have focused upon
catalytic hydrogenation with concomitant
conversion of nitrogen to ammonia, that is
then scrubbed out. Hydrogenation, while
effective in removing more than half the
nitrogen, does require severe conditions
(Schulman 1973, Vernon and Pennington
1973, Satchell 1976, Crynes 1976, Katzer
et al. 1976, Stein et al. 1977). From the
standpoint of economics, it would be de-
sirable to find alternative approaches.
We sought a very simple, inexpensive
method by which nitrogen and sulfur could
be removed. We are aware of successful
efforts to reduce nitrogen contents of shale
oil by extraction with sulfuric acid ( Map-
stone 1948) and column chromatography
(Bond and Harriz 1957). Even with that
history, there was no assurance that such
methods would be successful for coal
liquids because the nature of the nitrogen
and sulfur compounds is largely uncharac-
terized. Furthermore, considering that coal
liquids are composed of substantial pro-
portions of aromatic compounds, there was
the distinct possibility that treatment with
sulfuric acid could actually increase the
sulfur content.
The nitrogenous compounds in shale oil
have been characterized, in part, by their
responsiveness to extraction by sulfuric
acid (Mapstone 1948). By that technique,
it has been possible to determine, very
roughly, the proportions of basic nitrogen
compounds and those that are neutral. It
is attractive to make a similar study of
coal-derived liquids and to compare the
results with those obtained for shale oil.
Additionally, few comparisons between the
various coal liquids produced in several
laboratories are available. There is no
a priori reason to surmise that those
Lh?
118 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
TABLE 1.—SULFUR AND NITROGEN CONTENTS OF COAL-DERIVED LIQUIDS’ UPON TREATMENT WITH SUL-
FURIC ACID
Volume coal liquid (m1)
Total Total
Before After sulfur nitrogen
Entry Origin Treatment treatment treatment (%) (%)
la GU 145 R Product #38 None 0.38 122.
Gulf Oil Company
lb GU 145 R Product 438 5% H2SO, (3 ml) 5.0 4.1 0.68 0.83
Gulf Oil Company
le GU 145 R Product 438 50% H2SO, (3) 5.0 4.0 0.76 0.83
Gulf Oil Company
ld GU 145 R Product #38 90% H2SO, (3) 5.0 3.8 0.43 0.55
Gulf Oil Company
le GU 145 R Product #38 100 g alumina 0.40 0.74
Gulf Oil Company
2a Hydro-Oil None 0.094 0.41
230 x 470 C
2b Hydro-Oil 50% H2SO: (3) 5.0 4.1 0.15 0.18
230 x 470 C
2c Hydro-Oil 90% H2SO; (3) 5.0 3.8 0.14 0.03
230 x 470 C
od Hydro-Oil 100 g alumina 0.097 0.07
240-410 ©
3a LO-366 None 0.093 0.42
400-650 F
3b LO-366 5% H2SO, (3) 5.0 48 0.085 0.15
400-650 F
3c LO-366 50% H-SO; (3) 5.0 4,4 0.10 0.12
400-650 F :
3d LO-366 90% H2SOs (3) 5.0 4.0 0.075 0.02 :
400-650 F :
3e LO-366 100 g alumina 0.067 0.075
400-650 F
4a LO-367 None 0.12 0.72
650-975 F
4b LO-367 90% H:SO, (2) 25.0 18.5 0.069 0.12
650-975 F
4c LO-367 90% H»SOs (4) 25.0 18.0 0.084 0.08
650-975 F
4d LO-367 90% H»SO, (5) 25.0 WS 0.11 0.05
650-975 F
4de LO-367 90% H.SO, (10) 25.0 17.0 0.13 0.08
650-975 F
Af LO-367 100 g alumina 0.12 0.21
650-975 F
Producer Conoco Hydrocarbon Research Gulf
Samples Liquefaction Solvent H-Coal, 180-380 F GU 145 R, 193 C
Hydro-Oi H-Coal, LO-366 Product #38
Low-Ash Extract H-Coal, LO-367 GU 145 R, Product #38
NITROGEN AND SULFUR IN COAL-DERIVED Liguips—Lin and Holy
products would respond similarly to either
acid extraction or column chromatography
simply because they are obtained by di-
verse methods. An investigation into com-
parisons between those fuels is timely.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the Institute for
Mining and Minerals Research for financial
support.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Extraction
Data (Table 1) were obtained by adding
the indicated amount of acid to a separa-
tory funnel or centrifuge tube containing
the indicated volume of coal liquid. After
shaking, the layers were separated (2,000
rpm, 2 min for centrifuged samples), and
the organic layer was washed with water,
dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate, and
filtered. Centrifugation was necessary for
samples extracted with acid less concen-
trated than 50 percent sulfuric acid.
Chromatography
Data (Table 1) were obtained by eluting
20-ml samples of coal liquid from a
40 < 2-cm alumina column (100 g AI,Os,
Matheson, Coleman, and Bell, 80-325
mesh) with ethyl ether. The ether was
then evaporated on a rotary evaporator.
Elemental analyses were performed by the
Materials Analysis Laboratory, Institute for
Mining and Minerals Research or Galbraith
Laboratories, Knoxville, Tennessee.
A sample of coal-derived liquid was
placed on a 40 X 2-cm alumina column
(100 g, Matheson, Coleman, and Bell, 80-
325 mesh). No solvent was employed, but
a vacuum was necessary in order that the
samples would pass through the column at
a reasonable rate. Ten 2-ml portions were
collected. The column was then washed
with 100 ml of 20 percent sulfuric acid,
then 100 ml of 95 percent ethanol, and,
finally, 100 ml of ethyl ether. Then an-
other 10 samples were collected. These
latter fractions constituted those classified
as acid washed.
119
reent Nitrogen
Pe
5 20 25 50 90%
Concentration Sulfuric (w/v%)
Fic. 1. Extraction of nitrogen from coal liquids
with sulfuric acid.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Extraction
The results of extraction of a variety of
coal-derived liquids indicate that (Figs.
1, 2, 3; Table 1): (1) reduction in the
nitrogen content of all coal-derived liquids
tested occurred upon treatment with sul-
furic acid. The curves display gross simi-
larities though the extent of nitrogen
1.2
Percent Nitrogen
0.8
0.6
0.4
5 20 25 50 902
Concentration Sulfuric Acid (w/v%)
Fic. 2. Extraction of nitrogen from coal liquids
with sulfuric acid.
nal
origi
Percent Nitrogen
Fraction
Fic. 3. Chromatography of H-Coal: light distil-
late 400-650 F. Original sample 0.42% nitrogen.
removal varied substantially with the
sample; (2) the major amount of nitrogen
can be removed from a sample by a single
extraction with 90 percent sulfuric acid;
(3) many different nitrogenous compounds
must be present because the curves display
no very distinct breaks. Therefore, a wide
range of such compounds are present that
span the spectrum of basic-to-neutral com-
pounds. Shale oil displayed a much more
distinct break (Mapstone 1948) at 20-30
percent sulfuric acid, and is considered to
mean that there is a reasonably high con-
centration of highly basic nitrogenous
compounds in shale oil. In contrast, coal
liquids appeared to contain a lesser pro-
portion of highly basic compounds; (4)
considerable similarities were present in the
nitrogenous compounds regardless of the
physical characteristics or process origin as
shown by the similar shapes of the curves.
It should not be interpreted that the com-
pounds were the same, but rather that
there were relatively constant proportions
of basic compounds or neutral compounds
from one sample to another.
Recoveries varied from 65 to 98 percent
after extraction, depending upon the con-
centration, and to some extent, the amount
of acid. The more concentrated the acid,
the less the material recovered. It is likely
that with increasing concentration of acid
TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
there is increased tendency for it to extract
phenols or other heteroatom containing
molecules. Extraction of highly viscous
products is not attractive; when the acid
is added, the samples (e.g., GU 145 R
249 C, Gulf; Low-Ash Extraction 290 C/1
torr, Conoco; Coal Oil 3174-35, Universal
Oil Products) became virtually solids, and
attempted separation using centrifugation
at 3,000 rpm did not result in a separation
‘of layers.
Extraction of the sulfur compounds was
not very effective (Table 1); actually, that
observation paralleled that for shale oil.
It is interesting to note, however, that the
sulfur content did not actually increase
significantly. Conceivably, sulfonation of
phenolic or other derivatives could have
led to higher values for sulfur.
Chromatography
Chromatography is effective in remov-
ing nitrogenous compounds from coal-
derived liquids. From the data in Fig. 3,
it can be seen that chromatography re-
sulted in a substantial nitrogen reduction.
That graph is typical of those obtained for
several other coal-derived liquids. There
are no distinct breaks in the curves, again
indicating the presence of a variety of
nitrogen products having different alumina
affinities. It is also interesting that the
columns can be regenerated rather easily;
in fact, the regenerated columns actually
gave better performance than the original
alumina.
LITERATURE CITED
Bonn, G. R., JR., AND C. G. Harriz. 1957. De-
termination of trace amounts of total nitrogen
in petroleum distillates. Anal. Chem. 29:177—
180.
Capy, W. E., AnD H. S. Seextinc. 1952. Com-
position of shale oil. Ind. Eng. Chem. 44:
2636-2641.
Crynes, B. L. 1976. Catalysts for upgrading
coal-derived liquids. ERDA Energy Res.
Abst. 1(5 ) :673.
DINEEN, G. U., G. L. Coox, AND H. B. JENSEN.
1958. Estimation of the types of nitrogen
compounds in shale-oil gas oil. Anal. Chem.
30:2026—2030.
NITROGEN AND SULFUR IN COAL-DERIVED Liguips—Lin and Holy
JENSEN, H. B., R. E. Poutson, AND G. L. Cook.
1971. Characterization of the saturates and
olefins in shale-oil gas oil. Prepr. Amer.
Chem. Soc. Div. Fuel Chem. 15(1):113-121.
aren, |. R., B. C. Garss, J.:'H.. Onson, H:
Kwart, AND A. B. Stites. 1976. Kinetics
and mechanism of desulfurization and denitro-
genation of coal-derived liquids. ERDA En-
ergy Res. Abst. 1(5):673-674.
MapstongE, G. E. 1948. Nitrogen in oil shale
and shale oil. J. Proc. Soc. New South Wales
79:135-144.
SATCHELL, D. P. 1976. Development of a pro-
cess for producing an ashless low-sulfur fuel
121
from coal.
673.
SCHULMAN, B. L. 1973. Hydrogen purification
and recycle in hydrogenating heavy mineral
os -U.S."( Exxon ) 3,717,571.
Srempe hi oy ES YVOentrz, AND) Ry (Be CaLLen.
1977. Upgrading coal liquids to gas turbine
fuels. 3. Exploratory Process Studies. Ind.
Eng. Chem., Prod. Dev. Res. 16:61-73.
VERNON, L. W., AND R. E. PENNINGTON. 1973.
Hydrotreating of hydrocarbonaceous liquids
with carbon monoxide-containing gas. U.S.
(Exxon) 3,719,588.
ERDA Energy Res. Abst. 1(5):
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-—4), 1978, 122-126
Aspects of Photoperiodic Time Measurement in the
Crayfish Orconectes immunis
E. LyNN TALTON' AND RUDOLPH PRINS
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
ABSTRACT
Experiments were conducted to determine if an hourglass model is a mechanism whereby
photoperiodic time is measured by the crayfish Orconectes immunis. Two experiments were
conducted in each of which there were 2 series of treatments. Series I and II were time (T)
experiments in which T was the total length of the light-dark cycle. In Series I, the light
phase of the cycle was held at 16 hours with varied lengths of darkness (LD 16;2, T 18:
LD 16;8, T 24: LD16;20, T 36: LD16;32, T 48). In Series II, the dark phase was 8 hours
and the hours of light were varied (LD 2;8, T 10: LD 16;8, T 24: LD 28:8, T 36: LD
40:8, T 48). No significant differences were found in the molting responses of the crayfish
to the photoperiods in those experiments. The data would then indicate than an hourglass
mechanism is not utilized to measure photoperiod under the conditions tested.
INTRODUCTION
Environmental factors such as tempera-
ture and photoperiod have been shown to
affect molting in crayfish (Aiken 1969;
Armitage et al. 1973; Mobberly 1963; Rice
and Armitage 1974; Stephens 1955; Molley
1974, unpublished master’s thesis, Western
Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Ken-
tucky; Sadewasser 1974, unpublished mas-
ters thesis, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, Kentucky; and Van Hoff
1976, unpublished master’s thesis, Western
Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Ken-
tucky. Molley (unpublished thesis) and
Sadewasser (unpublished thesis) have
shown that crayfish respond linearly to
temperature in that molting frequency in-
creases with increases in temperatures,
within limits. Temperatures fluctuate con-
siderably during seasonal changes in tem-
perate regions. Photoperiod progressively
increases from a winter minimum daylength
to a summer maximum daylength, thence
cycling back to a winter minimum. Be-
cause of that predictability, photoperiod
may be a more reliable environmental cue
for the crayfish.
It has been demonstrated in plants and
insects that a biological clock measures a
* Present address: Department of Zoology, North
Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27607.
time interval of the photoperiod (light or
darkness) (Bowen and Skopik 1976, Hamner
1960, Lees 1966, Pittendrigh and Minis
1964, Went 1960). It is possible that cray-
fish (Crustacea) also use such a device.
Various authors have reported that long-
day photoperiods will produce higher
molting frequencies than will short or
normal day photoperiods (Aiken 1969,
Armitage et al. 1973, Stephens 1955,
Molley unpublished thesis, Sadewasser un-
published thesis, and Van Hoff unpublished
thesis). Therefore, it would appear that
crayfish use some type of mechanism to
measure the duration of the light or dark
period.
The mechanism of photoperiodic time
measurement may be either an hourglass
model or a circadian oscillator model ( Pit-
tendrigh 1972). It was the objective of this
research to further define the role of photo-
period in the molt cycle of the crayfish
Orconectes immunis by determining if an
hourglass model is a mechanism for photo-
periodic time measurement.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Dr. Samuel P. Meyers,
Louisiana State University for graciously
providing the food used in the experiments
and to Dr. James P. Worthington, Western
Kentucky University for his sustaining
assistance with statistical procedures.
122
PHOTOPERIOD IN CRAYFISH Mo.tinc—Talton and Prins
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The crayfish Orconectes immunis used
in these experiments were obtained from
Wolf Lake Fish Hatchery, Kalamazoo
County, Michigan, on 2 June and 11
September 1976 and transported immedi-
ately to Western Kentucky University.
Those animals obtained in June were col-
lected directly from a drained hatchery
pond. In September, animals were ob-
tained from the hatchery holding tanks
where they had been held at 11 C for
approximately 1 week.
The cephalothorax length of the crayfish
collected in June ranged from 25.1 mm to
44.5 mm (mean = 35.9 mm) while those
obtained in September ranged from
19.2 mm to 37.5 mm (mean = 25.6 mm).
The environmental units used in the ex-
periments provided temperature and light
control. Each unit contained 6 separate
compartments. The light source in each
compartment was a Westinghouse 15-watt
coolwhite fluorescent light bulb, wrapped
in Opaque tape to reduce light to the ap-
propriate intensity. Zinc coated screens
with 6-mm mesh were used to cover the
crayfish trays, thus allowing penetration of
all wavelengths of light. Opaque dividers
were placed in the trays since, at least in
one instance, lack of privacy in the crab
Gecarcinus lateralis inhibited molting
(Bliss and Boyer 1964). Temperatures in
the units were held constant at 22 C.
Two experiments, each containing 2
series were conducted. The first experi-
ment was initiated on 4 June 1976 and the
second on 14 September 1976. Experiment
1 was 80 days in duration while Experiment
2 was conducted for 160 days. Series I
and II of each experiment were T experi-
ments, in which T was the total length of
the light-dark cycle. In Series I, the light
phase of the cycle was held at 16 hours
with varied lengths of darkness (LD 16;2,
tals: Eb 16;8, T 24: LD 16;20, T 36:
LD 16;32, T 48). In Series II, the dark
phase was 8 hours and the hours of light
were varied (LD 2;8, T 10: LD 16;8,
T 24: LD 28;8, T 36: LD 40;8, T 48).
In Experiment 1, 2 light intensities were
123
30 ss
10
16:20 16:32
TOTAL NUMBER OF MOLTS
20
10
PHOTOPERIOD
Fic. 1. Total molts occurring in response to 16L:
varied dark and varied light:8D photoperiods in
Experiment 1 (Series I and II). A. Molts in
Series I (16L:Dark). B. Molts in Series II ( Light:
8D).
used, 223.56 lux and 413.64 lux. In Ex-
periment 2, intensities of 32.4 lux were
used in all treatments.
Two hundred and twenty-four crayfish
were used in each experiment. In Experi-
ment 1, 7 photoperiod treatments (4 in
Series I, and 3 in Series II) were further
subdivided into 2 levels of intensity (223.56
lux and 413.64 lux). There was 1 replica-
tion of each treatment. Eight animals were
assigned to each photoperiod intensity
treatment and 8 to each replication. Equal
numbers of male and female crayfish were
used.
In Experiment 2, there were 7 photo-
period treatments (4 in Series I, and 3 in
Series II). There were 3 replications of
each treatment. Eight animals were as-
signed to each photoperiod treatment and
124
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
TABLE 1,.—ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE TOTAL MOLTS OCCURRING IN RESPONSE TO PHOTOPERIOD, IN-
TENSITY, AND SEX IN EXPERIMENT 1
Source Df
Total 63
Treatment SL
Photoperiod (= A) ¥
Intensity (= B) 1
Sex (=<) 1
AxB 7
AxC T
B¢-G 1
Ax BC 7
Error 32
1 Significant at the 0.05 level.
* Highly significant at the 0.01 level.
ns = Nonsignificant.
to each replication. Equal numbers of male
and female crayfish were used.
The crayfish were checked daily for
molts, and shed exoskeletons were left in
the trays for the animals to consume. The
crayfish trays were rotated at intervals to
provide for an even exposure of animals
to the light source. The crayfish were
given approximately 0.5 g of high protein
food every 5 days. Portions of the food
not consumed were removed after 4 days.
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) using
a completely random design with a fac-
torial arrangement of treatments was used
to analyze molting data.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The numbers of molts in each photo-
period in Series I and II of Experiment 1
are presented in Fig. 1. From those data
it appeared that the different photoperiods
of constant light and varied dark caused
similar molting responses in all the cray-
fish. The analysis of variance (Table 1)
confirmed that there were no significant
differences in the molting response of the
crayfish to the various photoperiods of
constant light and varied dark. In Experi-
ment 2, the differences in the molts oc-
curring for each photoperiod of constant
dark and varied light were not statistically
significant (Fig. 2, Table 2). Therefore,
the data indicate that the crayfish were
SS MS F
100.48
65.98 200 1.97*
15.86 AOA | 2.10 ns
4.52 4,52 4,19"
19.14 19.14 Lit be
14.86 Dae 1.97 ns
6.73 0.96 0.89 ns
0.14 0.14 0.13 ns
4.73 0.68 0.63 ns
34.50 1.08
not using an hourglass mechanism for
photoperiodic time measurement.
Bowen and Skopik (1976) indicated
that the European corn borer Ostrina
nubialis utilized an hourglass mechanism
for measurement of photoperiod. In their
experiments the 16L; varied dark conditions
caused no termination of diapause except
in 16L;8D, indicating that the amount of
light or periods of darkness greater than
8 hours were not being measured by an
hourglass clock. However, when the 8
hours of darkness were coupled with vary-
ing light periods, termination of diapause
occurred in every instance. This would
indicate that the system of time measure-
ment in O. nubialis acted like an hourglass
in which photoperiodic time measurement
was determined by the length of the dark
period. An hourglass model measuring a
specific time interval and thereby inducing
molts was not used by the crayfish O.
immunis in those experiments because no
constant time interval, when coupled with
varying light or darkness, produced an in-
crease in the number of molts.
Significantly greater numbers of molts
were obtained in the 413.64 lux light in-
tensity treatments than in the 223.56 lux
light intensity treatments in Experiment 1
(Table 1). The reasons for this are not
understood. There are few data available
on the effects of light intensity on molt
responses of crustaceans and the available
PHOTOPERIOD IN CRAYFISH Moutinc—Talton and Prins
' TOTAL NUMBER OF MOLTS
15 B
10
PHOTOPERIOD
Fic. 2. Total molts occurring in response to 16L:
varied dark and varied light:8D photoperiods in
Experiment 2 (Series I and II). A. Molts in Series
I (16L:Dark). B. Molts in Series II (Light:8D).
data indicate opposite responses from those
obtained in these experiments. Prins et al.
(1972), when using O. immunis from Ken-
tucky, found that molting in the crayfish
was less frequent in 120 ft-c (1,296.0 lux)
intensities than in 15 ft-c (162.0 lux) in-
tensities when the animals were kept at
22 C. Bliss (1954) found that the molting
TABLE 2.—ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE TOTAL MOLTS OCCURRING IN
125
occurring in the crab Gecarcinus lateralis
was less when light intensities were greater
than 10 lux. Molting responses of crayfish
to light intensities are too little understood
to draw any conclusions.
In Experiment 1, there were highly
significant differences in molting between
sexes with females molting more than males
(Table 1) (females = 90, males = 37).
Tack (1941) suggested that there is an
inhibitory mechanism that keeps female
O. immunis, when bearing young, from
molting. The males in our experiment had
already started their spring molt when
collected, whereas the females had been
held from molting until the young were
released. This, then, may have caused the
differences seen in our experiment.
At this time, it is difficult to determine
if seasonal influences such as maturation
and development of the gonads affect the
crayfish in conjunction with daily photo-
period. It may be that the circadian clocks
were setting the patterns of growth and
development of the gonads thereby in-
directly determining when the crayfish
molt. It is not certain if the stage of sexual
development affects the measurement of
photoperiodic time since no _ significant
interactions between sex and photoperiod
were detected.
SUMMARY
1. Experiments were conducted to deter-
mine if an hourglass model is a mechanism
whereby photoperiodic time is measured by
the crayfish Orconectes immunis. The ef-
fects of photoperiod, intensity, and sex on
molting were measured in Experiment 1,
RESPONSE TO PHOTOPERIOD
AND SEX IN EXPERIMENT 2. ALL DIFFERENCES (F') WERE NONSIGNIFICANT
Source Df
Total (i
Treatment EF
Photoperiod (= A) 8
Sot B) 1
x XB 8
Error 54
SS MS F
65.99
19.24 1.13 1.30
10.11 1.26 1.46
1.13 1.13 1.30
8.00 1.00 1.16
46.75 0.87
126
while the effects of photoperiod and sex
were measured in Experiment 2.
2. The crayfish did not use an hourglass
model for photoperiodic time measurement
under the conditions tested.
3. The crayfish demonstrated _ signifi-
cantly greater molts at higher light inten-
sities than at lower light intensities in
Experiment 1.
4.In the first experiment, females
molted significantly more frequently than
males.
LITERATURE CITED
Arken. D. E. 1969. Photoperiod, endocrinology,
and the crustacean molt cycle. Science 164:
149-155.
ArmiTaAGE, K. B., A. L. BurkeMa, JR., AND N. J.
Wittems. 1973. The effect of photoperiod
on organic constituents and molting of the
crayfish Orconectes nais (Faxon). Comp.
Biochem. Physiol. 44A:431—456.
Buss, D. 1954. Light inhibition or regeneration
and growth in the crab Gecarcinus lateralis.
Anat. Rec. 120:742-743.
, AND J. R. Boyer. 1964. Environ-
mental regulation of growth in the decapod
crustacean Gecarcinus lateralis. Gen. Compar.
Endocr. 4:15-41.
Bowen, M. F., anp S. D. Sxopirx. 1976. Insect
photoperiodism: The “T Experiment” as evi-
dence for an hourglass mechanism. Science
192:59-60.
Trans. Kenrucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4)
Hamner, K. D. 1960. Circadian rhythms and
the time measurement in photoperiodism.
Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 25:
249-256.
Lees, A. D. 1966. Photoperiodic timing mech-
anisms in insects. Nature 210:986—989.
Mosperty, W. C. 1963. Hormonal and _ en-
vironmental regulation of the molting cycle
in the crayfish Faxonella clypeata. Tulane
Stud. Zool. 11:79-95.
PirrENDRIGH, C. S. 1972. Circadian surfaces:
and the diversity of possible roles of circadian
organization in photoperiodic induction. Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. 69:2734—2737.
, AND D. H. Minis. 1964. The entrain-
ment of circadian oscillations by light and
their role as photoperiodic clocks. Amer. Nat.
98 :261-294.
Prins, R., R. RUTEMILLER, AND S. CARDER. 1972.
Molting of the crayfish Orconectes immunis
(Hagen), in relation to temperature, photo-
period, and light intensity. Ass. Southeast.
Biol. Bull. 19:93.
Rice, R. R., anp K. B. Armrrace. 1974. The
influence of photoperiod on processes asso-
ciated with molting and reproduction in the
crayfish Orconectes nais (Faxon). Comp.
Biochem. Physiol. 47A:234—259.
STEPHENS, G. C. 1955. Induction of molting in
the crayfish, Cambarus, by modification of
daily photoperiod. Biol. Bull. 108:235-241.
Tack, P. I. 1941. The life history and ecology
of the crayfish Cambarus immunis Hagen.
Amer. Midl. Nat. 25:420—446.
WENT, F. W. 1960. Photo- and thermoperiodic
effects in plant growth. Cold Spring Harbor
Symp. Quant. Biol. 25:221—230.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-—4), 1978, 127-130
Populational Differences in Bud Bursting of
Carpinus caroliniana Walt.
Gorpon I. WARDELL’ AND JOE E. WINSTEAD
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
ABSTRACT
Twig samples collected from latitudinally diverse populations (between 31 and 43° N)
in winter condition, and subsequently exposed to controlled temperature treatments in growth
chambers, indicated ecotypic differences in bud bursting response. Exposure to cold treat-
ment prior to placement under !ong days (16-hour photoperiod) and warm temperatures
(day-night cycle of 24-16 C), reduced time required for bud burst in all populations, but a
latitudinal cline was apparent with more southern populations having earlier bud burst.
Under longer exposure to cold of at least 4 C, populations from intermediate latitudes showed
slower response to bud burst than the extremes of the latitudinal range tested, indicating a
protective mechanism to prevent bud burst in more variable habitats with unpredictable
spring temperatures.
INTRODUCTION
Since Turesson’s (1922) pioneering study
of ecotypes, significant research has shown
many species to be composed of discrete
populations with physiological and mor-
phological differences enabling each popu-
lation to cope more effectively with its
particular environmental regime. Litera-
ture reviews have revealed that, when
considering the total number of plant
species, relatively few have been subjected
to intensified or even superficial investi-
gations of populational differentiation
(Hiesey and Milner 1965).
Carpinus caroliniana Walt. (commonly
called ironwood, blue beech, American
hornbeam, or water beech; Fernald 1950)
is a dominant understory species in eastern
North America; its range extends from
Nova Scotia to Minnesota and south to
Texas and Florida. Wide distribution and
relative abundance makes ironwood an
ideal species for ecotypic and community
investigations.
Despite the abundance of Carpinus
caroliniana, very little information has been
published about it. A survey of such
*Permanent mailing address: 6810 Bordman
Rd., Almont, Michigan 48003.
references as ExceRPTA BOTANICA, BroLoc-
ICAL ABSTRACTS, and DiIssERTATION AB-
strActs confirmed that there is virtually no
information on the autecology of the genus.
This is not unexpected since it is currently
of little economic importance. As wood
and fiber demands increase, this seemingly
noneconomic tree may prove to be an im-
portant source of wood fiber. In the past,
ironwood has been utilized for wagon axles,
spokes, implement handles, and mallet
heads, and charcoal of hornbeam was often
mixed with gunpowder (deWit 1966).
Carpinus reportedly accumulates higher
than normal amounts of aluminum ( Krucke-
burg 1969) availing it as a subject for
investigating the possibility of its func-
tional niche as an aluminum pump. Popu-
lational variation in fruit size has been
reported, with larger fruit being evident
from more northern habitats (Winstead
et al. 1977). The current study is an in-
vestigation of the aspects of populational
variation in terms of bud bursting.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Support by a Western Kentucky Uni-
versity Faculty Research Grant to defray
travel expenses in collection of plant ma-
terial is sincerely appreciated.
127
128
TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
TABLE 1.—LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF 9 COLLECTION SITES OF Carpinus caroliniana FROM MICHIGAN
TO ALABAMA.
Population Code County
Ml Isabella
M2 Lapeer
Il Scott
Kl Grayson
K2 Simpson
TI Davidson
Al Limestone
A2 Montgomery
A3 Covington
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Collection sites were established for com-
parisons of widespread populations along
a north-south line between 83 and 86°W
and a latitudinal distribution between 31
and 43°N (Table 1).
Buds were collected in late December
1975 from 2 trees at each of 9 sites (Table
1), placed in a cold chamber, and main-
tained at 4 C until removed for testing.
Twenty twigs from each population were
cut to approximately 20 cm, put in a test
tube with tap water, and covered with a
plastic bag. The twigs were then placed
in an environmental growth chamber (En-
ALL POPULATIONS WERE BETWEEN 83°12’ AND 86°49’ W LONGITUDE
State N. Lat.
Michigan 43°29’
Michigan 42,°58’
Indiana 38°42’
Kentucky ot oor
Kentucky 36°43’
Tennessee 362074
Alabama 34°48’
Alabama a2 64
Alabama BS Gece
vironator Corporation model 3448) with a
day-night temperature of 24-16 C and a
16-hour photoperiod with light intensities
of 6,500 to 8,600 lux. All buds were checked
daily for evidence of bursting.
Periods of exposure to temperatures be-
low 4 C in the field were calculated for
each population from information provided
by the National Climatic Center, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
Asheville, N.C.
RESULTS
Winter buds of Carpinus collected from
field populations and placed in a growth
TABLE 2.—POPULATIONAL DIFFERENCES IN BUD BURSTING OF Carpinus caroliniana UNDER CONTROLLED
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS OF 16-HOUR DAYS AND 24—16 C
Population Code M1 M2
PROGRAM I
Days below 4 C prior to test* 15 80
Days required for 25% bud burst 33 —
Days required for 50% bud burst — —
PROGRAM II
12 K1 K2 din Al A2 A8
72 61 43 51 56 40 47
34 19 26 23 20 18 18
51 20 27 27 22 18 19
Days below 4 C prior to test 97 6 102,
Days required for 25% bud burst 18 19
Days required for 50% bud burst 21 ae
PROGRAM III
Days below 4 C prior to test 118 123
Days required for 25% bud burst 9 it
Days required for 50% bud burst 10 14
1 Days below 4 C prior to test include field conditions before 9 Jan 1976, as well as days held in cold chamber at
on. Program II conditions include an additional 22 days of 4 C than twig cuttings in Pro-
gram I; Program III conditions include an additional 21 days of 4 C than Program II and 43 days additional cold
4 C subsequent to collection.
treatment than Program I.
93
26
28
114
19
83
16
18
104
10
13
65
LW
20
86
10
12
72
17
19
93
9
13
78
14
14
99
9
10
62
12
13
83
9
10
69
13
13
|
|
Bup BurstTING IN C4arRPiInNUuSs—Wardell and Winstead
chamber at regular intervals displayed a
possible ecotypic response to the amount
of cold experienced prior to springlike
conditions. After a minimum of 40 to 80
days at 4 C, a latitudinal response in bud
bursting could be seen from Michigan to
Alabama (Program I, Table 2). The
southernmost populations exhibited 50 per-
cent bud initiation after only 19 days in
the growth chamber. As latitude increased
northward, so did the time required for
maximum bud bursting (up to 51 days).
When subjected to a minimum of 62 to
102 days at 4 C, the time required for 50
percent bud bursting decreased for all
latitudes (Program II, Table 1). The
Alabama populations continued to display
the earliest bud bursting, while the central
and northern populations required longer
periods to attain 50 percent bud bursting.
The third set of buds (Program III)
placed in the growth chamber for 83 to
123 days below 4 C, showed that the
northern and southern populations ex-
perienced bud bursting at approximately
the same time. The material from the
central latitudes required a considerably
longer period of warm temperatures before
initiating spring activity.
DIscuUSSION
Winter buds collected from latitudinally
diverse field populations demonstrated a
high degree of interpopulational variation
in response to cold temperature precon-
ditioning. After receiving only 40 to 80
days of temperatures below 4 C, the first
program showed apparent latitudinal re-
sponse to bud bursting with a longer time
period required as latitude increased.
McMillian and Peacock (1964) docu-
mented a similar response in Prosopis
(mesquite) grown under uniform condi-
tions. They concluded that late bud
bursting in northern populations (Okla-
homa and Texas) was a selective advan-
tage, preventing frost damage after early
warm periods.
The second program of 62 to 102
minimum days at 4 C depicted a similar
129
pattern but with a shorter time between
maximum bud bursting in the north and
south. Following 83 to 123 days at 4 C,
the third program revealed the central
latitude populations (Indiana, Kentucky,
and Tennessee) retaining the longest dor-
mancy. The northern and southern popu-
lations experienced bud bursting at ap-
proximately the same time. McNaughton
(1967) reported a similar response in
altitudinally diverse forest community
samples placed under controlled environ-
mental conditions. He reported that woody
plants originating from the intermediate
elevations required a greater time for
maximum bud bursting that did either of
the extreme elevations. McNaughton pro-
posed that unstable temperature and
frequent late frosts of the intermediate
altitudes selected against the early bud
bursting genotypes. In regard to Carpinus,
the central latitudes are noted for their
winter thaws and warm periods followed
by frost. Without a protective mechanism
to prevent spring bud _ initiation, frost
damage would be severe. On the other
hand, when spring begins in the northern
and southern extremes there is generally
little variation, and no need for an ex-
tended dormancy.
It may be concluded from this study
that ironwood bud bursting is primarily
dependent on 2 factors: (1) the amount
of cold preconditioning experienced prior
to springlike conditions, and (2) the dura-
tion of cold necessary to break winter
dormancy varies with latitude. Extended
cold requirements of the populations at
central latitudes in the eastern United
States can be viewed as a_ protective
mechanism that impedes spring develop-
ment during brief warm periods in the
winter.
LITERATURE CITED
pEWir, H. C. D. 1966. Plants of the World.
E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., New York, N.Y.
208 pp.
Fernatp, M. L. 1950. Gray’s Manual of Bot-
any. American Book Co., New York, N.Y.
1632 pp.
HresEy, W. 1965.
M., AND H. W. MILNER.
130
Physiological and ecological races and species.
Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. 16:203-216.
Krucxesurc, A. R. 1969. Soil diversity and the
distribution of plants with examples from
North America. Madrono 20(3):129-154.
McMILLian, C., AND J. T. Peacock. 1964. Bud
bursting in diverse populations of mesquite
(Prosopis: Leguminosae ) under uniform con-
ditions. Southwest. Nat. 9(3):181-188.
McNavucurTon, S. J. 1967. Genetic control of
TrANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
bud bursting in altitudinally diverse Cascade
Forest community samples. Amer. Midl. Nat.
77(2) :528-532.
Turreson, G. 1922. The genotypical response
of the plant species to the habitat. Hereditas
3:211-350.
WrwnstTEabD, J. E., B. J. SmirH, AND G. I. WARDELL.
1977. Fruit weight clines in populations of
ash, ironwood, cherry, dogwood and maple.
Castanea 42:56—60.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-4), 1978, 131-134
Age and Growth, Length-Weight Relationships, and Condition
Factors of the Greenside Darter from Silver Creek,
Kentucky
G. WiLuiAM WoLFE’, Bruce H. BAUER’, AND
BRANLEY A. BRANSON
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475
ABSTRACT
Data on age and growth were obtained from 203 greenside darters from Silver Creek,
Madison County, Kentucky, during February and March 1973. The fish length-scale length
relationship was TL = 20.16 + 0.9937 SR. Males were larger than females at all ages, but
relative to their respective calculated maximum lengths, females grew more rapidly except
during the last year of life. The length-weight relationship was log W = —5.1894 +4 3.1199
log L for the combined sexes. Condition factor (K) increased with age, but there was no
significant difference between males and females.
INTRODUCTION
The greenside darter is a common in-
habitant of streams of the Great Lakes,
and Mississippi and Potomac river drain-
ages. In Kentucky, the adults are typically
found over bedrock in swift, deep riffles,
while the juveniles may be found in less
violent habitats. It is the largest member
of the subgenus Etheostoma and charac-
teristically has a complete lateral line, gill
membranes broadly connected, frenum well
developed, large, expansive pectoral fins,
and sides with about 8 double bars, each
pair forming a U-shaped figure.
No data on age and growth of the
greenside darter are available for Ken-
tucky, and few such data are available for
the species from other states. Growth in-
formation is often necessary for studies
of maturity, mortality rates, and population
dynamics. This study provides information
on growth, length-weight relationships, age
structure, condition factors, and sex ratios
of E. blennioides in a Kentucky stream.
Regional comparisons were made with
growth studies on E. blennioides in Penn-
sylvania (Lachner et al. 1950) and New
York (Fahy 1954).
* Present address: Department of Zoology, Uni-
versity of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37916.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Two hundred three greenside darters
were taken in 5 collections at 3 different
stations in Silver Creek, a tributary to the
Kentucky River, Madison County, Ken-
tucky, during February and March 1973.
All fish were preserved in 10 percent
formalin, numbered, measured to the
nearest millimeter (total length), weighed
to the nearest 0.1 g, and sexed.
Approximately 10 scales were removed
from the right side of each darter, below
the lateral line, and at the tip of the com-
pressed pectoral fin. At least 4 scales were
cleaned with a bleach solution, mounted
between glass slides, and examined with a
microprojector (80 magnification). The
distance from the focus to the anterior
margin of the scale and to each annulus
was measured to the nearest millimeter
along the radius most nearly colinear with
the focus, as described by Hile (1954).
The identification number of the fish from
which the scales were taken was recorded
on each slide. All scales were prepared at
the same time and read without immediate
knowledge of the fish from which they
came to prevent bias in age determination
because of the size of the fish (Marcy
1969).
131
132
The body-scale relationship was: TL =
20.16 + 0.9937 SR, where TL = total
length and SR = anterior scale radius
(at 80x ). The body scale relationship was
linear (r = 0.989) and required no trans-
formations.
Time of annulus formation could not be
determined, although gonadal development
indicated that the time of capture was
very close to the advent of spawning and,
therefore, all fish were assumed to have
completed at least 1 year of life. An an-
nulus was distinguished from an accessory
mark as a zone of closely spaced circuli
followed by a zone of widely spaced circuli
and by the cutting over of circuli in the
lateral fields.
Calculations of length at each annulus
were made from measurements of the an-
terior radius applied in the formula L; =
c+ (S;/S) (L-C), where L; is the length of
the fish at time of annulus formation, C is
the length of the fish at time of back-
calculated scale formation (20.16 mm), S;
is the length of the anterior radius of the
scale at each annulus, S is the length of
the anterior radius at capture, and L is
the total length of the fish at capture.
Coefficients of condition (K) were cal-
culated using the formula K = W/L? x 10*,
where W = weight in grams and L = total
length in millimeters. The length-weight
relationships were computed following the
method of Jester and Jensen (1972).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The mean calculated total lengths of
Silver Creek E. blennioides in Age Groups I
through V were 60.0, 73.2, 84.8, 85.0, and
83.5 mm, respectively (Table 1). Males
attained greater lengths than females at all
ages. The mean calculated total lengths of
males through 4 age groups were 61.6, 74.1,
87.4, and 95.5 mm, and for females through
5 age groups were 58.7, 72.1, 80.8, 81.5, and
83.5 mm. Fahy (1954), in New York, and
Lachner et al. (1950), in Pennsylvania,
found similar results, but typically E. blen-
nioides from Silver Creek were longer than
TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4)
those from either Pennsylvania or New
York.
Back calculations of length frequently
exhibit a tendency for computed lengths at
a given age to be smaller, the older the
fish from which they were computed
(Tesch 1971). This is commonly known
as “Rosa Lee’s phenomenon.” The data in
Table 1 represent a reversal of this which
might possibly have been due to a size
selective mortality that acted more severely
on the smaller fish of an age group.
In Silver Creek, E. blennioides males at-
tained 64.5 percent of their calculated
maximum mean length during their first
year and 77.6 percent by the second year.
Females grew faster relative to their own
calculated maximum length, attaining 70.3
and 86.3 percent during their first and
second years, respectively. Lachner et al.
(1950), found that after 2 years, males
attained 76.3 percent of their maximum
lengths, and females 90.2 percent. Fahy
(1954) found male and female growth to
be 84 and 82 percent, respectively, after
2 years of life.
The more rapid rate of growth of females
was not manifested in the last year of life
in either Kentucky or Pennsylvania. The
present study indicates that during their
last year of life, males grew 7.2 mm (7.5%
of maximum growth) and females grew
4.0 mm (4.8%). In Pennsylvania, males
grew 8.1 mm (10.5%) and females 0.5 mm
(0.8%) during their last year. Fahy (1954)
found that in New York males and females
had more equal growth, with the males
growing 3.8 mm (5.2%) and females
3.7 mm (5.2%) during their last year.
Few fish survived to Age Group IV. Al-
though there were more females than males
in Age Group I, more males than females
survived to Age Group III. A Chi-Square
analysis of the sex ratios revealed that the
females significantly outnumbered the
males in age group I (P = 0.01). In Age
Group II, no significant difference was
noted, however, by Age Group III there
were significantly more males than females
(P = 0.05). Although females outnumbered
AGE AND GROWTH OF GREENSIDE DARTER—Wolfe et al.
133
TABLE 1.—MEAN CALCULATED TOTAL LENGTHS OF 203 E. blennioides. THE DATA Is SHOWN FOR MALES,
FEMALES, AND BOTH SEXES
No. of
Age Group Sex Fish i
Males 40 61.3
I Females 67 56.9
Both 107 58.6
Males 31 58.8
II Females ay) 61.6
Both 58 60.1
Males All 65.6
Ill Females 9 63.0
Both 30 64.8
Males 2 68.8
IV Females 4 60.6
Both 6 66.3
Males —— —
V Females 2 54.5
Both ie 54.5
Mean Males 94 61.6
Total Females 109 58.7
Lengths Both 203 60.0
males in Age Group IV (4:2), the sample
size of 6 fish may not be representative.
Only 2 fish were captured from Age Group
V, both were females.
Equations for length-weight relationships
were calculated after lengths and weights
were transformed into logs (base 10). The
length-weight equation for males (n = 94)
was: Log W = 5.4007 + 3.2278 log L
(r = .998) and for the females (n = 109)
was: log W = 4.9038 + 2.9713 log L
(r = .993). The slope of the length-weight
relationship of the males was 3.2278 in-
dicating that the relative weight of the
fish increased faster than the length
(Ricker 1971). The females have a slope of
2.9713 indicating a slightly faster increase
in length when compared to weight. An
analysis of covariance (Sokal and Rohlf
1969) indicated that there was no signifi-
cant difference between the slopes at the
0.05 level; therefore the length-weight re-
lationship for all fish (n = 203) regardless
Mean calculated total lengths
at each annulus
2 3 i 5
69.8
12
70.4
19.6 87.3
75.7 83.1
78.4 86.0
82.6 88.3 95.5
72.9 78.7 82.5
76.1 81.9 86.8
66.5 75.0 79.5 83.5
66.5 75.0 79.5 83.5
74.1 87.4 95.5
72.1 80.8 81.5 83.5
73.2 84.8 85.0 83.5
of sex was: log W = 5.1894 + 3.1199 log L
(f-="995)),(Fiai 2):
Condition factors for E. blennioides
(Table 2) show an increase with increasing
LogW=-4.90375 + 2.97128 LogL
r=.993
E
oe, %
—~ 74 Log W=-5.40070+t 3.22784 Log L
+ 6 r= 998
ae
O 5
Lu 4
=
© 3
S,
a
2 3 4 5678910 2
LOG LENGTH (mm)
Fic. 1. Length-weight relationship of Etheostoma
blennioides plotted on log-log paper.
134 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
TABLE 2.—CoMPARISON OF MALE AND FEMALE E. blennioides CONDITION FACTORS FOR EACH AGE
GROUP
Males Females Total
_—. No K No. K No K
I 40 1.0071 67 1.0423 107 1.0292
II 31 1.0436 ot 1.0846 58 1.0627
Ill at 1.1426 1.1484 30 1.1443
IV A 1.1505 LI731 6 1.1655
V — at 1.1605 2 1.1605
age in both sexes. Although female con- LITERATURE CITED
dition factors were greater at all ages, none Fany, W. R. 1954. The [fe se eeeeeeneee
of the differences were significant when
northern greensided darter Etheostoma blen-
analyzed by means of a nonparametric nioides blennioides Rafinesque. J. Elisha
t-test. The slightly greater values for the Mitchell Sci. Soc. 70(2):139-205.
females probably was due to their increased H=, R. 1954. Fluctuations in growth and
weight resulting from ovarian development
prior to spawning.
SUMMARY
Age and growth of 203 Etheostoma
blennioides from Silver Creek, Madison
County, Kentucky, indicate that males grew
larger than females, but, females grew
faster relative to their own maximum
lengths. Similar studies on E. blennioides
in New York and Pennsylvania also demon-
strated that males were larger than females.
Kentucky specimens were larger than
either those of New York or Pennsylvania.
The slope of the male length—weight re-
lationship was slightly but not significantly
greater than that of the females. Although
females significantly outnumbered males in
Age Group I, by Age Group III, males
significantly outnumbered females. Female
condition factors were slightly, but not
significantly, greater than those of males.
year-class strength of the walleye in Saginaw
Bay. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 56:
7-59.
JesTER, D. B., anp B. L. JENSEN. 1972. Life
history and ecology of the gizzard shad,
Dorosoma cepedianum (Le Sueur) with ref-
erence to Elephant Butte Lake. N. Mex. St.
Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Res. Rept. 218:1-55.
LacHNER, E. A., E. F. WESTLAKE, AND P. S.
HANDWERK. 1950. Studies on the biology
of some percid fishes from western Pennsyl-
vania. Amer. Mid]. Nat. 43(1):92—111.
Marcy, B. C. 1969. Age determination from
scales of Alosa pseudoharengus (Wilson) and
Alosa aestivalis (Mitchill) in Connecticut wa-
ters. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 98(4) :622-630.
Ricker, W. E. 1971. Methods for assessment
of fish production in fresh waters. IBP Hand-
book No. 3. Blackwell Sci. Publ. Oxford and
Edinburgh, Eng. 313 pp.
SoKAL, R. R., AND F. J. Ronxtr. 1969. Biometry.
W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco, Cal.
776 pp. :
Tescu, F. W. 1971. Age and Growth. Pp. 93-
123. In: Methods of assessment of fish pro-
duction in fresh waters. W. E. Ricker (Ed.).
IBP Handbook No. 3. Blackwell Sci. Publ.,
Oxford and Edinburgh, Eng. 313 pp.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-—4), 1978, 135-137
The Ecological Status of Six Rare Plants in Kentucky,
with Reference to a Recent Publication on
Endangered Species
Jerry M. BAskIN AND Caro C. BasKIN
School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506
ABSTRACT
Documented comments on the occurrence of 6 rare plant species in Kentucky include 5
species referred to in a recent publication entitled “Endangered Plants and Animals of Ken-
tucky” by Jan V. Babcock. Evidence is presented to show that the actual ecological status
of 5 of those species in Kentucky is quite different from that reported by Babcock, and the sixth
species, Satureja glabella, was not mentioned. The scientific merit of the plant section of
Babcock’s publication is questioned.
INTRODUCTION
Jan V. Babcock (1977) recently com-
piled a book entitled “Endangered Plants
and Animals of Kentucky.” With regard to
the plant species in that publication, there
are gross inaccuracies concerning their
present ecological status in Kentucky, and
some rare species that occur in Kentucky
were not included. The purpose of this
article is to comment on the ecological
status of 6 of the Commonwealth’s rare
plant species, with special reference to Bab-
cock’s book. Those 6 species not only are
rare in Kentucky but are rare throughout
their narrow geographic ranges.
Viola egglestonii Brainerd
Babcock indicated that V. egglestonii
occurs in Warren, Hart, and Bullitt counties
and suggested, by symbols on his map,
that the species is “abundant” in Warren
County and “common” in Hart and Bullitt
counties. The only mention in the literature
of V. egglestonii in Warren County is in a
report entitled “Violets of North America”
by Ezra Brainerd in 1921. In that report,
Brainerd mentioned a single specimen col-
lected by Sadie F. Price from near Bowling
Green in Warren County on 11 April 1899.
The only report of its occurrence in Hart
County was by Braun (1943) who had a
single collection of it from Hart County.
Furthermore, Braun did not list V. eggles-
tonii as occurring in Warren County, and
Hart is the only county from which she had
a collection of it. We (Baskin and Baskin
1978) have searched the cedar glades, the
natural habitat of V. egglestonii, in Warren
and Hart counties and have not found it
in either county. Furthermore, in a taxo-
nomic treatment of the violets of central
and eastern United States, Russell (1965)
did not indicate that V. egglestonii oc-
curred in Kentucky because he could not
find herbarium specimens to document its
occurrence there.
We recently discovered a few small
populations of V. egglestonii on Silurian
limestone in eastern Bullitt County (Baskin
and Baskin 1975), but the species certainly
is not common there, contrary to what is
indicated on Babcock’s distribution map.
In 1975, Bullitt was the only county in
Kentucky in which living populations of V.
egglestonii were known to occur. More
recently, however, we found 3 small popu-
lations in Nelson County, south of Bards-
town (Baskin and Baskin 1978).
Leavenworthia torulosa Gray
Babcock depicted L. torulosa as “abun-
dant” in Warren County, “common” in
Logan County, and “probable” in Simpson
County. For Warren County, he gave 1
specific location, “twelve miles north of
U.S. 68,” which he must have taken from
Rollins (1963). In his field studies of the
135
136
genus Leavenworthia, Rollins (1963) found
only 1 population of L. torulosa in Ken-
tucky and gave its location as “cedar glade
situation, 12 mi. north of U.S. Highway 68
on state route 1083, Warren County.” No-
where in his book did Babcock refer to
Rollin’s monograph.
Presently, only 2 extremely small popu-
lations, 1 in Warren County and 1 in Logan
County, are known in Kentucky, and the
Warren County population referred to by
Rollins no longer exists (Baskin and Baskin
1977). Certainly, L. torulosa is not common
or abundant anywhere in Kentucky, and
probably never was. The reasons we con-
clude it never was common or abundant
are: (1) its specialized cedar glade habitat
of seasonally wet or flooded shallow soil
over limestone in pools or depressions is
not common, and (2) very few collections
of the species have ever been made in
Kentucky. The species was collected by
Short in 1840, Rollins and Channell in
1959 ( Rollins 1963), and Baskin and Baskin
in 1973 (Baskin and Baskin 1977). Rollins
made the following statement concerning
the occurrence of L. torulosa in Kentucky
“I searched for the species in Kentucky in
three different years before finding it and
I have not seen any specimens from that
state collected in the interim between those
of Short in the 1840’s and the small popula-
tion we found in 1959.”
Leavenworthia exigua var. laciniata Rollins
Babcock wrote that L. exigua var.
laciniata is “common” in Bullitt and Jef-
ferson counties. As with other plant spe-
cies in his book, Babcock did not cite
specific literature references or herbarium
specimens. Rollins (1963), who first de-
scribed that variety of L. exigua, gave only
1 location, on Ridge Road in Bullitt County,
Kentucky, and he cited only 2 collections
from that site. Leavenworthia exigua var.
laciniata does occur in Bullitt and Jefferson
counties, as Babcock indicated, but it is
not common. We have searched extensively
for L. exigua var. laciniata in Bullitt County
and in the southern portion of Jefferson
County. It is fairly common in a small
Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4)
portion of eastern Bullitt County, but we
have found only 1 small population in
Jefferson County, just north of the Bullitt-
Jefferson County line.
Conradina verticillata Jennison
Babcock noted that C. verticillata is
“common” in McCreary County, but then
described its distribution in Kentucky as:
“South Fork of Cumberland River, sub-
merged upon completion of Wolfe Creek
Dam.” Braun (1936) first reported the
species from Kentucky along the banks of
the South Fork of the Cumberland River
in McCreary County. Apparently, that is
the only locality from which the plant has
ever been collected in Kentucky. In his
synopsis of Conradina, Shinners (1962) cited
specimens from a single collection of C. ver-
ticillata made by Braun at the above
locality on 18 June 1935. Gray (1965, un-
published doctoral dissertation, Vanderbilt
University, Nashville, Tennessee) in his
study of Conradina, cited specimens col-
lected by Braun at the same locality on 6
September 1934 and 18 June 1935. In her
catalogue of Kentucky spermatophytes,
Braun (1943) wrote “Very rare and local
on banks of South Fork Cumberland River,
where it will be submerged upon com-
pletion of the Wolf Creek dam: McCreary.”
Gray (unpublished dissertation) doubted
that C. verticillata still exists in McCreary
County, Kentucky, and wrote “. . . the only
reported station of its occurrence (Braun
1936) is situated upstream from the present
site of Wolf Creek Dam on the South Fork
of the Cumberland River. The presumed
site of the population is now submerged.”
Apios priceana Robinson
Babcock noted A. priceana as occurring
only in Warren County and suggested that
its occurrence is only “probable.” Accord-
ing to Browne and Athey (1976), speci-
mens collected by Sadie F. Price near
Bowling Green in Warren County are on
deposit in GH, NY, and US. Those
specimens probably were collected in the
late 1890s. The species has been collected
Stix RARE PLANTs IN KENtucKy—Baskin and Baskin
in at least 3 other Kentucky counties in the
1970s. In their study of the flora of the
Land Between the Lakes of Kentucky and
Tennessee, Ellis et al. (1971) reported the
species from Trigg County, Kentucky.
More recently, Browne and Athey (1976)
reported it from Livingston and Lyon
counties, Kentucky.
Satureja glabella ( Michx.) Briq.
Satureja glabella is an example of a rare
plant in Kentucky (and throughout its
range) that was not included in Babcock’s
treatment. The species is known only from
a few localities in middle Tennessee, north-
western Arkansas, and central Kentucky
(Baskin and Baskin unpublished informa-
tion). The University of Kentucky her-
barium has 2 specimens of S. glabella
[labeled Cunila glabella Michx., an old
synonym for Satureja glabella (Michx.)
Briq.| collected by Short. One specimen
was collected in 1836 but has no collection
site, and the other specimen has neither a
date nor a collection site. In 1943, Braun
said that the species occurred in Henry
and Owen counties. Since then, Wharton
(No. 10,267b in UK, 9 August 1956) has
collected S. glabella in Franklin County,
making a total of 3 Kentucky counties from
which the species has been collected.
CONCLUSION
We conclude that the plant section of
Babcock’s book contains inaccuracies and
should be used with caution as a source
of floral documentation in preparation of
-
137
environmental assessments by federal or
state agencies or contractual consultants to
those agencies.
LITERATURE CITED
Bascock, J. V. 1977. Endangered plants and
animals in Kentucky. A publication of the
Office of Research and Engineering Services.
Coll. Engin., Univ. Ky. Lexington, Ky. 128
pp.
Baskin, J. M., anp C. C. Baskin. 1975. Geo-
graphical distribution of the cedar glade en-
demic Viola egglestonii. Rhodora 77:427—
A429.
, AND 1977. Leavenworthia
torulosa Gray: An endangered plant species
in Kentucky. Castanea 42:15-17.
, AND . 1978. On the occur-
rence of the cedar glade endemic Viola eg-
glestonii in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
39( 1-2) :74—75.
BRAINERD, E. 1921. Violets of North America.
Vt. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 224: 172 pp.
Braun, E. L. 1936. Notes on Kentucky plants
I. Castanea 1:41—45.
1943. An annotated catalogue of the
spermatophytes of Kentucky. Cincinnati,
Ohio. 161 pp.
Browne, E. T., JR., AND R. ATtHEy. 1976. Her-
barium and field studies of Kentucky plants.
III. New or rare flowering plants in western
Kentucky. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 92:
104—109.
Evuis, W., E. WorrorD, AND E. CuHester. 1971.
A preliminary checklist of the flowering
plants of the Land Between the Lakes.
Castanea 36:229-246.
Rouuins, R.C. 1963. The evolution and system-
atics of Leavenworthia (Cruciferae). Con-
trib. Gray Herbarium Harvard Univ. No. 192:
3-98.
RussELL, N. H. 1965. Violets (Viola) of cen-
tral and eastern United States. Sida 2:1-113.
SHINNERS, L. H. 1962. Synopsis of Conradina
(Labiatae). Sida 1:84—88.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-—4), 1978, 138-141
Kentucky’s High Country—A Biological Treasure
WaynE H. Davis AND RoGER W. BARBOUR
School of Biological Sciences, |
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506
ABSTRACT
Big Black Mountain and other peaks and ridges in the counties bordering Virginia in
southeastern Kentucky harbor a variety of northern species of plants, insects, birds, and
mammals found nowhere else in the state. The isolation of those peaks from the main range
of the Appalachians and Smokies makes them especially interesting to students of evolution.
Except for the ridge within Cumberland Gap National Historical Park, all of Kentucky’s
high country is threatened by the destructive effects of strip mining for coal.
INTRODUCTION
Many northern species of plants and
animals range southward along the Ap-
palachian chain into the Great Smokies.
Kentucky, lying to the west of those high
peaks and ridges, is outside the range of
many of them. Big Black Mountain, ele-
vation 4,150 feet (1,277 m), the highest
point in Kentucky, does support a popula-
tion of several of those northern species.
Our northern species probably arrived
there in front of the Pleistocene ice cap
that at one time extended southward to
what is now Cincinnati, Ohio. During that
time, many northern species of plants and
animals probably were abundant and wide-
spread there; the fossil record shows sey-
eral modern species of northern mammals
in central Kentucky (Guilday et al. 1971).
Now, of course, with the consistently
warmer weather over the past hundred or
so centuries, the only ones that have per-
sisted are those that inhabited the moun-
tains, or found sanctuary in cool deep
coves and gorges.
Bic BLAcK MOuNTAIN
The best known, and most intensively
studied of our higher mountains is Big
Black Mountain, in Harlan County (Kel-
logg 1939; Braun 1940, 1941a, 1941b, 1942;
Barbour 1941, 1950a, 1950b, 1950c, 1951,
1952, 1953; Barbour and Smith 1956;
Breiding 1947; Lovell 1950; Mengel 1965;
Croft 1969). Surely, it harbors a wider
array of northern species than any other
mountain in Kentucky. We are personally
familiar with 23 species of plants and
animals whose distribution in Kentucky is
essentially limited to that mountain. Only
a few of them are known to breed else-
where in the state, and then in only a few
localities.
Wildflowers:
Turk’s-cap lily
Canada mayflower
Painted trillium
Trees and Shrubs:
Yellow birch
Mountain magnolia
Mountain winterberry
Striped maple
Red-berried elder
Red azalea
Birds:
Veery
Solitary vireo
Golden-winged warbler
Black-throated blue
warbler
Blackburnian warbler
Chestnut-sided warbler
Canada warbler
Rose-breasted grosbeak
Slate-colored junco
138
Lilium superbum L.
Maianthemum canadense
Desf.
Trillium undulatum
Willd.
Betula lutea Michx.
Magnolia fraseri Walt.
Ilex montana T. & G.
Acer pensylvanicum L.
Sambucus racemosa
Fern.
Rhododendron bakeri
Lemmon
Hylocichla fuscescens
Vireo solitarius
Vermivora chrysoptera
Dendroica caerulescens
Dendroica fusca
Dendroica pensylvanica
Wilsonia canadensis
Pheucticus ludovicianus
Junco hyemalis
Kentuckxy’s Hich Country—Davis and Barbour
Mammals:
Masked shrew Sorex cinereus
New England cottontail Sylvilagus transitionalis
Deermouse Peromyscus maniculatus
Red-backed mouse Clethrionomys gapperi
Woodland jumping Napaeozapus insignis
mouse
Dr. E. Lucy Braun (1941, 1942) listed
3 additional plant species from Big Black
Mountain with which we are unfamiliar:
Carex aestivalis M. A. Curtis, C. leptonervia
Fern., and Solidago curtisii T. & G.
Dr. Thomas C. Barr, Jr., who has been
studying relict species of carabid beetles
in the Appalachians, has given us the fol-
lowing list of interesting beetles he has
found on top of Big Black Mountain, most
of which are known in Kentucky only from
that locality.
Cychrines (snail-eaters ) :
Scaphinotus webbi. Perhaps a new subspecies.
Scaphinotus andrewsi germari
Sphaeroderus canadensis
Annilines (minute, eyeless soil beetles ) :
Annillinus sp. undescribed. Nearest relative is
found in a cave in Alabama.
Trechines:
Trechus hydropicus canus. Until now, thought
to be endemic to southwestern Virginia.
Anchomenines:
Platynus gracilentus. A glacial relict species that
forms hybrid swarms with P. angustatus and
thus is of special evolutionary interest.
Carabines:
Carabus limbatus
Pterostichines:
Pterostichus rostratus
Pterostichus lachrymosus
Dr. Barr believes that fieldwork would
most likely reveal several additional species
of interesting beetles in the Kentucky High
Country.
That Kentucky’s relict populations of
139
northern species have long been isolated is
evident from an examination of our red-
backed mice. They constitute a_ well-
marked subspecies C. g. maurus (Kellogg
1939) that has been reported only from
Big Black Mountain and nearby Big Stone
Gap, Virginia. They are much darker than
red-backed mice from any other region.
Our northern birds, with their greater
mobility, are not as isolated from other
mountaintop populations, and all the spe-
cies one would expect on a 4,000-foot
(1,219-m) mountain at this latitude are
found on Big Black Mountain.
OTHER RIDGES AND PEAKS
There are other ridges and peaks in
Kentucky high enough to support northern
species of birds and mammals. Cumberland
Mountain in Cumberland Gap National
Historical Park, rises .to -.o.910 feet
(1,081 m). The Park contains several
north-facing slopes, ravines, streams, and
meadows above 3,000 feet (914 m). Log
Mountain, rising to about 3,200 feet
(985 m) behind Chenoa in western Bell
County, is the westernmost mountain
habitat in Kentucky, some 90 km from Big
Black Mountain. About midway between
those localities, in the vicinity of Alva, are
numerous peaks, ridges, and spurs ranging
in elevation from 2,900 to 3,400 feet (892-
1,046 m). Except for a trail along one
ridge and a fire tower on one peak, the
mountaintops around Alva seem to be
nearly inaccessible. Probably, some sup-
port northern species.
Pine Mountain, a single straight ridge
running nearly the length of southeastern
Kentucky, rises in some places to about
2,800 feet (862 m). However, the north-
facing slope is extremely steep, nearly
clifflike, and the ridge is rather arid, mak-
ing the mountain a rather poor prospect
for northern species, but some may well
be there. A spur from Pine Mountain, be-
tween Hellier and Dorton in Pike County,
contains an extensive flat area at 2,600
feet (800 m) and a peak rising above
2,800 feet (862 m). This area, known as
140
Flatwoods, apparently has not been in-
vestigated.
Croft (1969) studied the breeding birds
of Cumberland Mountain that is accessible
by hiking trails through the National Park.
He found several species of northern birds
but no juncos, rose-breasted grosbeaks, or
blackburnian warblers. Perhaps Big Black
Mountain is the only place in Kentucky
high enough to support those species. Croft
also visited Log Mountain and reported it
to be accessible via strip mine roads.
We are presently surveying the verte-
brate fauna of Cumberland Gap National
Historical Park, and have captured red-
backed mice and deermice on Cumberland
Mountain, providing a second locality for
those interesting mammals in Kentucky.
Unfortunately, all of Kentucky’s high
country is underlain with large quantities
of high quality coal in several seams at
different elevations. Contour and auger
mining is proceeding at such a rapidly ac-
celerating rate that the industry reports
that surface mining will be essentially
completed in the Eastern Kentucky Coal-
fields within 12 years. We fear that contour
benches and auger holes will affect the
hydrology of the mountaintops, draining
the moisture necessary to support most
northern species. Only the National Park
seems safe from assult by the strip miners.
Efforts should be made to preserve more
of Kentucky’s northern treasure before it
is lost forever. Big Black Mountain must
be saved. To the naturalist, it is the single
most interesting locality in the state, the
place to go to find northern birds, mam-
mals, and plants. Already heavily scarred
by strip mining, Big Black Mountain is the
most important conservation problem in the
state.
An effort should be made to survey the
flora and fauna of the several dozen or so
mountain slopes that apparently have never
yet been visited by biologists. There is a
reasonable possibility that some small mam-
mal species presently unknown in Kentucky
occur there.
An effort should be made to determine
the complete range of Clethrionomys gap-
TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
peri maurus, and to preserve several
selected pieces of its habitat. That mouse
should be on the official list of “Rare and
Endangered Species of the United States”
(subspecies are included on the list), and
has recently been proposed.
There is little that we can do individ-
ually toward saving these biological trea-
sures except express our concern. We
would like to encourage efforts by the
Nature Conservancy to acquire some of
Kentucky’s high country and to encourage
the cooperation of the corporate land
owners in saving the area. We welcome
the interest of the Kentucky Nature Pre-
serves Commission. We hope that enough
concern is being generated to save these
mountains.
LITERATURE CITED
Barsour, R. W. 1941. A preliminary list of the
summer birds of the summit of Big Black
Mountain. Ky. Warbler 17:46-47.
1950a. The reptiles of Big Black
Mountain, Harlan County, Ky. Copeia 1950
(2):100-107.
1950b. A new subspecies of the sala-
mander, Desmognathus fuscus. Copeia 1950
(4) :277-278.
1950c. Notes on the plants of Harlan
County, Ky. Castanea 15:125.
1951. The mammals of Big Black
Mountain, Harlan County, Kentucky. J. Mam-
mal. 32:100—110.
1952. Animal habitats on Big Black
Mountain. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 13:215-220.
1953. The amphibians of Big Black
Mountain, Harlan County, Kentucky. Copeia
1953(2):84-89.
, AND C. E. Sorry. 1956. Pitymys
pinetorum carbonarius in Harlan County,
Kentucky. J. Mammal. 37:121.
Braun, E. L. 1940. An ecological transect of
Black Mountain, Kentucky. Ecol. Monogr.
10:193-241.
194la. The red azalea of the Cum-
berlands. Rhodora 43:31-35.
1941b. Notes on Kentucky plants III.
Castanea 6:10-12.
1942. Notes on Kentucky plants VI.
Castanea 7:7—10.
Breimwinc, G. H. 1947. A list of birds from Big
Black Mountain. Ky. Warbler 23:37—40.
Crort, J. E. 1969. Notes from the southeastern
mountains. Ky. Warbler 45:67-81.
Guritpay, J. E., H. W. Hamitton, anp A. D. Mc-
Crapy. 1971. The Welch Cave peccaries
Kentuckys High Country—Davis and Barbour 141
(Platygonus) and associated fauna, Kentucky Lovett, H. B. 1950. Breeding birds of Big
Pleistocene. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 43:249-320. Black Mountain. Ky. Warbler 26:57-66.
Keuttoce, R. 1939. A new red-backed mouse MENGEL, R. 1965. The birds of Kentucky.
from Kentucky. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 52: Amer. Ornith. Union, Ornith. Monogr. No. 3.
37-40. 581 pp.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-4), 1978, 142-144
New Distributional Records for the Rosyside Dace
in Kentucky
Lewis Gites MILLER.
Hunter Hancock Biological Station,
Department of Biological Sciences,
Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071
ABSTRACT
The distribution of the rosyside dace Clinostomus funduloides includes the Tennessee
River drainage of Kentucky.
In view of collection records, the Blood River drainage of
eastern Calloway County, Kentucky, appears to mark the farthest downstream distribution
of the rosyside dace in the Tennessee River system. Information pertaining to ecology and
associated species is also presented.
Branson (1977) and Clay (1975) re-
ported the rosyside dace Clinostomus
funduloides as being restricted, in Ken-
tucky, to the Big Sandy and Little Sandy
rivers and Tygart’s and Kinniconick creeks.
Collection records indicate Clinostomus
funduloides occurs widely in the Tennessee
River system except in the extreme lower
section in Kentucky (Bauer pers. comm.;
Evermann 1918; Ross and Carico 1963;
Jones 1974, unpublished master’s thesis,
Murray State University, Murray, Ken-
tucky ). Sisk (pers. comm.) collected Cli-
nostomus funduloides from Billie Branch, a
tributary to Cypress Creek on the Ken-
tucky—Tennessee state line.
This paper presents information on the
distribution of Clinostomus funduloides in
the Tennessee River drainage of Kentucky
along with information on its ecology and
associated species.
Of the 13 sites sampled, 10 were within
the Blood River drainage (Fig. 1). Blood
River heads in north-central Henry County,
Tennessee, and flows approximately
21.4 km north-northeast to empty into
Blood River Embayment on the western
side of Kentucky Lake (Tennessee River).
The streams sampled in eastern Calloway
County flow through an area known as
the Breaks and are underlain by Cretaceous
deposits of the Tuscaloosa, Eutaw, and
Ripely series. Bedrock consists of Fort
Payne, Warsaw, and St. Louis limestones.
Streams west of the Breaks area of the
142
Jackson Purchase are generally sluggish,
turbid, underlain by Tertiary deposits, and
are typical of Gulf Coastal Plain streams.
Streams were sampled from June through
August 1977 with a habitat seine faced with
mosquito mesh netting. Fishes were pre-
served in 10 percent formalin. Specimens
are deposited in the Murray State Univer-
sity Vertebrate Museum.
Measurements of alkalinity, total hard-
ness, and turbidity were made with a Hach
OR er RS FERS aS
——
MILES
o!1234567890
|
KY
TN
sx
Fic. 1. Map of the western tributaries of the as-
cending arm of the Tennessee River in Calloway
County, Kentucky, showing collection localities
(dots). Localities from which Clinostomus fundu-
loides was taken are circled.
RosyswE Dace IN Kentucky—Miller
143
TABLE 1.—PHYSICOCHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS OF STREAMS FROM WHICH ROSYSIDE DACE WERE COL-
LECTED
Methyl red-
bromcresol Specific Water
Dissolved green Total conductivity Turbidity temp
Station oxygen pH alkalinity hardness “mhos/cm (JTU) (C)
Panther Creek 7.0 6.3 10.0 10.0 38 38 19.0
Knight Branch 6.9 6.6 15.0 5.0 ol 8 25.5
Billie Branch 6.3 6.3 te0 10.0 30 49, 25.0
chemistry kit. Measurements of dissolved
oxygen and water temperature were taken
with a Yellow Springs oxygen meter; pH
was determined with a Hellige pH color-
imeter; conductivity was registered using
a Hach conductivity meter. All chemistry
parameters were measured in the field.
Physicochemical measurements for
streams from which rosyside dace were col-
lected were little different than for streams
from which they were not. Stream pH was
slightly acidic; the water was soft and not
well buffered (Table 1). Phenolphthalein
alkalinity was zero. Methyl red—bromcresol
green alkalinity never exceeded 20 mg/l.
Conductivity rarely exceeded 40 umhos/cm.
Stream turbidity usually was not above
40 Jackson turbidity units. Pools from
which the rosyside dace was taken were
clear and had a bluish cast.
Clinostomus funduloides appeared to
select a well-defined habitat in pools vary-
ing from 1.2 to 2.1 m wide and from 0.8 to
1.0 m deep. The substrate was sand and
gravel with little or no silt; current was
moderate at each site.
On 3 June 1977, 8 specimens of rosyside
dace were collected from Panther Creek,
a tributary to Blood River, 1.6 km upstream
from Kentucky Highway 280 and 0.6 km
downstream from Culpepper Hollow. The
site was 4.2 km northwest of New Concord,
Kentucky, and just downstream from the
Trumann Bean farm.
On 11 August 1977, 3 specimens of rosy-
side dace were collected from Knight
Branch, a tributary to Blood River, at the
Bizzel Road Bridge 0.5 km south of
Kentucky Highway 444 and 3.4 km east
of New Concord, Kentucky.
On 15 August 1977, several specimens of
rosyside dace were collected (1 specimen
preserved) from Billie Branch, a tributary
to Cypress Creek 0.3 km upstream from
the Kentucky—Tennessee state line and
16 km west of Kentucky Highway 121.
The site was 4.2 km southeast of New
Concord, Kentucky, on the Terry Shoe-
maker farm.
Headwater species frequently associated
with Clinostomus funduloides were the
creek chub Semotilus atromaculatus, fantail
darter Etheostoma flabellare lineolatum,
spottail darter Etheostoma squamiceps, and
snubnose darter Etheostoma (Ulocentra)
sp. (Table 2). Rhinichthys atratulus, the
blacknose dace, was taken only in Billie
Branch; Jones (pers. comm.) found the
rosyside dace and blacknose dace associ-
ated in the headwaters of Lost Creek, Land
Between the Lakes, Tennessee, where they
were uncommon. The goldstripe darter
Etheostoma parvipinne is listed provision-
ally with associated species from Billie
Branch. Sisk (pers. comm.) collected 2
specimens from that stream; however, none
was collected during this study. Sisk’s col-
lection of Etheostoma parvipinne marks the
first record of that etheostomid from Ken-
tucky waters. The goldstripe darter has
been recorded from Cypress Creek, Ten-
nessee (Bauer pers. comm. ).
Clinostomus funduloides appears to have
evolved in the eastern Appalachians
(Trautman 1957). The subspecies Clinos-
tomus funduloides estor (Deubler 1955,
unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York) apparently
migrated down the Tennessee River during
the Pliocene much as did Etheostoma
144
TABLE 2.—SPECIES ASSOCIATED WITH Clinostomus
( LETTERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE
P = PANTHER CREEK, K = KNIGHT
BrancH, B = BriL_tm BRANCH; LETTERS FOLLOW-
ING REFER TO OCCURRENCE: C = COMMON, SEV-
ERAL SPECIMENS BEING TAKEN, P = PRESENT BUT
NOT COMMON, R = RARE, ONLY 1 OR 2 SPECIMENS )
funduloides.
STREAM:
Cyprinidae
Semotilus atromaculatus (P, K, B) C
Rhinichthys atratulus (B) P
Cyprinodontidae
Fundulus olivaceous (P) R
Centrarchidae
Lepomis megalotis (K, B) P
Percidae
Etheostoma flabellare (P, K) C
E. parvapinne (B) R*
E. squamiceps (P, K, B) C
E. (Ulocentra) sp. (P, K, B) C
* Present but not collected during this study (Sisk pers.
comm. ).
blennioides newmanii; the Tennessee River
is thought to have been in a downcutting
stage at that time, and velocity, depth,
and turbidity probably were much different
than at present (Miller 1968).
In view of collection records for streams
in the Tennessee River drainage and from
records of adjacent states, the streams from
which Clinostomus funduloides was taken
during this study apparently represent its
farthest downstream distribution in the
system (Bauer pers. comm., Buchanan
1973, Forbes and Richardson 1920, Jones
unpublished master’s thesis, Pflieger 1975,
Sisk 1969, Smith and Sisk 1969, Sliger
pers. comm., and Webb and Sisk 1975).
Increased agrarian land use in the
Breaks area of eastern Calloway County,
with its accompanying siltation, presents a
growing threat of habitat destruction to
the few remaining populations of the rosy-
side dace in the Tennessee River drainage
of Kentucky.
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4)
Special thanks are due Bruce Bauer,
Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, and
Dr. Andrew Sliger, University of Tennessee,
Martin, for. providing collection records.
Thanks are also due the late Dr. Morgan
E. Sisk who generated my interest in fishes
and who early stimulated this study. My
thanks also go to Mike Freeze, Judy Harrer,
and Rick Morin without whose assistance
in the field this study would not have been -
possible.
LITERATURE CITED
Branson, B. A. 1977. Threatened fishes of
Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38( 1-2) :69-73.
BucHaNaNn, T. M. 1973. Key to the fishes of
Arkansas. Ark. Game Fish Comm., Little
Rock, Ark. 177 pp.
Cray, W. M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky.
Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frankfort, Ky.
416 pp.
EvVERMANN, B. W. 1918. The fishes of Ken-
tucky and Tennessee. A distributional cata-
logue of the known species. Bull. U.S. Bur.
Fish. 35:295-368.
Forses, S. A., AND R. E. RICHARDSON.
The fishes of Illinois.
2nd ed. 358 pp.
Miiter. R. V. 1968. A systematic study of the
1920.
Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv.,
greenside darter, Etheostoma blennioides
Rafinesque (Pisces: Percidae). Copeia 1968
(1):1—40.
Prurecer, W. L. 1975. The fishes of Missouri.
Mo. Dept. Cons., Jefferson City, Mo. 343 pp.
Ross, R. D., anp J. E. Carico. 1963. Records
and distribution problems of fishes of the
North, Middle, and South Forks of the Hol-
ston River, Virginia. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull.
161: 1-24.
Sisk, M. E. 1969. The fishes of West Kentucky.
I. Fishes of Clark’s River. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 30( 3-4) :54-59.
Smiru, P. L., anp M. E. Sisk. 1969. The fishes
of West Kentucky. II. The fishes of Obion
Creek. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30(3—4):60-68.
TRAUTMAN, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio.
Ohio St. Univ. Press., Columbus, Ohio. 683
pp.
Wess, D. H., anv M. E. Sisk. 1975. The fishes
of West Kentucky. III. The fishes of Bayou
de Chien. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36(3-4):
63-70.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-4), 1978, 145-146
Habitat of the Golden Mouse Ochrotomys nuttalli
WayneE H. Davis AND CHARLES K. SMITH
School of Biological Sciences,
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506
ABSTRACT
In the autumn and winter of 1977-1978, during an apparent population high at Cumber-
land Gap National Historical Park, Kentucky, Ochrotomys nuttalli became established in
habitats not usually associated with it. The mice were found in an area devoid of trees and
in an area where the ground cover was grass, lacking shrubs or vines. A colony is estab-
lished in a thicket of Rhododendron maximum L. in a hemlock and hardwood forest along
Shillalah Creek at Hensleys Settlement at 3,240 feet (997 m) elevation on Cumberland
Mountain.
The favored habitat of the golden mouse
Ochrotomys nuttalli is a dense tangle of
vines climbing up among trees. Such areas
are typical of moist lowlands, dry hillsides,
woodland borders, and areas of secondary
growth in the southeastern United States.
Thickness of the understory appears to
be the most important factor (McCarley
1958, Goodpaster and Hoffmeister 1954).
Vines such as greenbrier (Smilax), honey-
suckle (Lonicera), and grape (Vitis), pro-
vide best cover, although blackberries
(Rubus) are satisfactory. Trees preferred
are cedars and pines (Barbour 1942, 1951;
Barbour and Davis 1974; Linzey 1968;
Wallace 1969). Golden mice are semi-
arboreal, building nests and feeding plat-
forms up among the vines and trees (Good-
paster and Hoffmeister 1954).
Howell (1921) and Handley (1948)
noted the occurrence of golden mice in
canebrakes in Alabama and Virginia. In
Florida, Pearson (1953) found them re-
stricted to densely shrubby areas in
hammocks, but Ivey (1949) found them
common in hammocks where magnolias
shaded out nearly all the understory, as
well as in the brushy hammock edges.
In the course of our work on a survey
of the mammals of Cumberland Gap Na-
tional Historical Park, we found golden
mice in a variety of habitats, some of which
seem unusual.
During the fall of 1977, we trapped
several golden mice in a flat lowland area
devoid of trees below the Visitors’ Center.
The mice were taken where Japanese
honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Thunb.)
formed a dense mat covering the ground,
nearly excluding all other plant life. On
26 November 1977, we caught a pair of
golden mice in the same area in a patch
of golden rod (Solidago) with an under-
story of grass. Nearby were 2 white pines
(Pinus strobus L.) and a yellow pine
(Pinus echinata Mill.), all of which were
devoid of undergrowth.
From 5-7 January 1978, we captured 7
Ochrotomys nuttalli in 35 traps set along
Shillalah Creek at Hensleys Settlement near
the summit of Cumberland Mountain at an
elevation of 3,240 feet (997 m). The vege-
tation consisted of large forest trees (oak,
maple, hemlock) with the understory al-
most exclusively Rhododendron maximum
L. The golden mice were caught among
the fallen logs and rhododendron, a habitat
they shared with red-backed mice Cleth-
rionomys gapperi maurus), cloudland deer
mice (Peromyscus maniculatus nubiterrae ),
and wood mice (P. leucopus).
Barbour (1951) made an intensive sur-
vey of the mammals of the nearby Big
Black Mountain and found no golden mice
above 2,700 feet (823 m). He concluded
that they seemed to be restricted to the
valleys and lower slopes, brushcovered
areas where Smilax was much in evidence.
In the Great Smoky Mountains, golden
mice have been found only in the foothills,
145
146
ranging up to 2,700 feet elevation and
were never taken in the rhododendron
thickets (Linzey and Linzey 1971). Al-
though Odum (1949) found golden mice
ranging up to 4,120 feet (1,256 m) near
Highlands, North Carolina, and captured
1 specimen among rhododendrons, we
suspect that their invasion of the rhododen-
drons atop Cumberland Mountain in south-
eastern Kentucky is a recent development.
Perhaps a high population of golden
mice in the Cumberland Gap area has
caused some individuals to move into mar-
ginal habitats. Although they seem well
established in the rhododendrons at this
time, it will be interesting to see if they
persist.
LITERATURE CITED
Barsour, R. W. 1942. Nest habitat of the
golden mouse in eastern Kentucky. J. Mam-
mal. 23(1):90-91.
1951. The mammals of Big Black
Mountain, Harlan County, Kentucky. J. Mam-
mal. 32(1):100—110.
AND W. H. Davis. 1974. Mammals of
Kentucky. Univ. Press Ky., Lexington, Ky.
322 pp.
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4)
GooppasTER, W. W., AND D. F. HOFFMEISTER.
1954. Life history of the golden mouse,
Peromyscus nuttalli, in Kentucky. J. Mammal.
35(1):17-27.
Hanpbiey, C. O., Jr. 1948. Habitat of the
golden mouse in Virginia. J. Mammal. 29
(3) :298-299.
Howe, A. H. 1921. A _ biological survey of
Alabama. U.S. Dept. Agric., Bur. Biol. Surv.,
N. Amer. Fauna No. 45: 1-88.
Ivey, R. D. 1949. Life history notes on three
mice from the Florida east coast. J. Mammal.
30(2) 157-162.
Linzey, A. V., AND D. W. Linzey. 1971. Mam-
mals of Great Smoky Mountains National
Park. Univ. Tenn. Press, Knoxville, Tenn.
114 pp.
Linzey, D. W. 1968. An ecological study of the
golden mouse, Ochrotomys nuttalli, in the
Great Smoky Mountains National Park.
Amer. Mid]. Nat. 79(2):321-345.
McCarey, H. 1958. Ecology, behavior and
population dynamics of Peromyscus nuttalli
in eastern Texas. Texas J. Sci. 10:147-171.
Ovum, E. P. 1949. Small mammals of the
Highlands (North Carolina) Plateau. J.
Mammal. 30(2):179-192.
Pearson, P. G. 1953. A field study of Peromys-
cus populations in Gulf Hammock, Florida.
Ecology 34:199-—207.
Wauuace, J. T. 1969. Some notes on the
growth, development and _ distribution of
Ochrotomys nuttalli (Harlan) in Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30( 1—2) :45-52.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-4), 1978, 147-149
Index Herbariorum Kentuckiensis
STUART LASSETTER
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475
ABSTRACT
A survey conducted during the spring of 1977 indicates 10 institutional herbaria and 2
private herbaria in Kentucky.
herbaria.
HERBARIA OF KENTUCKY
Except for the few herbaria listed in
Holmgren and Keuken (1974), relatively
little information concerning Kentucky
herbaria is available. The survey informa-
tion presented herein is offered as a refer-
ence for herbarium resources in Kentucky.
A list of 38 colleges and universities was
compiled from Hurt (1975). Technical
and business schools as well as theological
seminaries were excluded, but state and
private schools and community colleges
were contacted. My gratitude is extended
to those persons who took time to return
the questionnaires.
Results of this survey show 10 institu-
tional herbaria and 2 private herbaria in
Kentucky. All are small, but in combination
they represent more than 119,000 plant
specimens.
Each herbarium with its factual material
is listed below. If the herbarium is listed
in Holmgren and Keuken (1974) the Index
Herbariorum symbol follows the herbarium
name.
Asbury College Herbarium
Division of Science and Mathematics, As-
bury College, Wilmore, Kentucky 40390.
Henry H. Howell, Curator.
Established 1967.
Number of specimens not given, vascular
plants and lichens.
No active accession or exchange.
Athey Herbarium ( private collection )
701 Woodland Drive, Paducah, Kentucky
42001.
More than 119,000 specimens are contained in those 12
Raymond Athey, Curator.
Established 1967.
3,671 unmounted vascular plants (mostly
Compositae, Gramineae, and Cyper-
aceae of prairie habitats) and some
bryophytes; duplicates in Memphis State
University Herbarium.
Active accession, no active exchange, no
loans.
Berea College Herbarium
Berea College, Berea, Kentucky 40404.
James Grossman, Curator.
No establishment date given.
560 vascular plants from Berea College
Forest lands.
No active accession, no exchange.
Centre College Bryophyte Herbarium
Division of Science and Mathematics,
Centre College, Danville, Kentucky
40422.
Susan M. Moyle, Curator.
Established 1974.
200 temperate zone bryophytes, many from
Red River Gorge.
Active accession, active exchange (out-
going = Kentucky bryophytes; incom-
ing = temperate zone bryophytes).
Davies Herbarium (DHL)
Department of Biology, University of
Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208.
W. S. Davis, Curator; Harry Woodward.
Establishment date not given.
22,000 vascular plants (some bryophytes,
lichens, fungi, and algae).
147
148
Important collections from Bernheim For-
est, Kleeber Bird Sanctuary, Horner
Wildlife Sanctuary, and some type speci-
mens.
Active accession and exchange (outgoing =
vascular plants, flowering plants; incom-
ing = vascular plants, flowering plants).
Eastern Kentucky University Herbarium
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond, Ken-
tucky 40475.
Stuart Lassetter, Curator; William H. Mar-
tin.
Established 1974.
3,300 vascular plants.
Active accession and active exchange (out-
going = vascular plants mostly of Ken-
tucky and southeastern United States;
incoming = Vicia, and general vascular
plant collections).
Herbarium of Biology Department
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green, Kentucky
42101.
Kenneth A. Nicely, Curator; Ernest O. Beal.
Established 1967.
9,058 (plus 1,000 in processing) vascular
plants (about half are local and Western
Kentucky specimens, and half are dupli-
cates of Flora of the Carolinas and south-
eastern United States).
Active accession, limited exchange (mainly
exchange with Kentucky herbaria).
Herbarium of Thomas Hunt Morgan
School of Biological Sciences ( KY )
Thomas Hunt Morgan School of Biological
Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Kentucky 40503.
S. F. Conti, Director; Willem Meijer, Cura-
tor.
Reestablished in 1948 after fire destroyed
previous collections.
39,603 vascular plants, not including bryo-
phytes and lichens.
Important collections: Dr. Short, 1840;
county flora thesis collections for Mc-
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
Lean County (J. Conrad) and Bourbon
County (Edi Gudharji).
Active accession and exchange (outgoing =
vascular plants of Kentucky and adjacent
areas; incoming = Eastern United States
flora).
Morehead State University Herbarium
Department of Biology, Morehead State
. University, Morehead, Kentucky 40351. .
Howard L. Setser, Curator.
Establishment date unknown, specimens
date from 1920s.
5,300 vascular plants.
Important collections: several
Ferns of Kentucky specimens.
Active accession and exchange (outgoing =
vascular plants of eastern Kentucky; in-
coming = vascular plants of Kentucky
and adjacent states.
McCoy
Murray State University Herbarium
(MUR)
Department of Biological Sciences, Murray
State University, Murray, Kentucky
42071.
Marian J. Fuller, Curator.
Established 1967.
14,000 vascular plants and some bryophytes.
Important collections: Thomas McCoy fern
collection.
Active accession and exchange (outgoing =
Kentucky vascular plants; incoming =
vascular plants ).
Northern Kentucky University
Herbarium (KNK)
Department of Biological Sciences, North-
ern Kentucky University, Highland
Heights, Kentucky 41076.
John W. Thieret, Curator.
Established 1973.
10,000 (plus 10,000 unmounted) vascular
plants and a few lichens, some type
specimens.
Active accession and active exchange (out-
going = vascular plants; incoming =
vascular plants ).
HERBARIA OF KENTUCKY—Lassetter
Varner Herbarium (private collection)
Route 3, Cynthiana, Kentucky 41031.
Johnnie B. Varner, Curator.
Established 1965.
11,583 vascular plants (Kentucky woody
plants, Crataegus, southern Appalachian
collections ).
Active accession, no exchange, no loans.
In addition to these collections housed
in Kentucky, there are regional herbaria
near Kentucky that have a significant num-
ber of Kentucky specimens. They are
Memphis State University, Memphis, TN;
Southern Illinois University (SIU) in Car-
bondale, IL; University of Cincinnati
(CINC) in Cincinnnati, OH; University of
Tennessee (TENN) in Knoxville, TN;
University of West Virginia (WVA) in
Morgantown, W. VA.; and perhaps Mar-
149
shall University in Huntington, W. VA.
(Raymond Athey, Willem Meijer, Linda
Rader, pers. comm.). The Reed Herbarium
in Baltimore, MD also contains a great
number of Kentucky specimens. The U.S.
National Herbarium (US) in Washington,
D.C. contains Lucy Braun’s collections.
Historical collections by early botanists
are housed in various American and
European herbaria, but it is not the pur-
pose of this paper to provide a complete
list of those collections.
LITERATURE CITED
HouMcREN, P., AND W. KEUKEN. 1974. Index
herbariorum. Part I. The herbaria of the
world. Sixth ed. Oosthoek, Scheltema, and
Holkema, Utrecht, Netherlands. 397 pp.
Hurt, H.W. 1975. The college blue book. 15th
ed. Macmillan Publ. Co., Inc., New York,
N.Y. 02 pp.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-—4), 1978, 150—159
The Fantail Darter Etheostoma flabellare in the
Salt River Drainage, Kentucky
Joon R. BAKER’
Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
ABSTRACT
Age and growth, length-weight relationship, coefficient of condition, food habits, sex
ratios, and a maturity index were determined for the fantail darter Etheostoma flabellare
in Brashears Creek, a tributary to the Salt River in Spencer and Shelby counties, Kentucky.
Comparisons were made with other fantail darters collected throughout the Salt River Basin.
Life span was approximately 2.5 years for males and 2 years for females. Growth was great-
est in the first year from June through October. Coefficient of condition was highest in July
and lowest in November. Food consisted of Diptera, Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, Plecoptera,
and other invertebrates in order of importance.
Males were more numerous than females
due to a differential mortality rate. The maturity index for females was highest in April
when the ovary weight was 15.5 percent of the body weight.
INTRODUCTION
The fantail darter Etheostoma flabellare
is a slender fish 30-60 mm long. Its back
is olive brown and the sides are yellowish
brown marked by dark horizontal streaks,
with dark brown crossbars on the back,
and with the tail prominently banded with
dark brown lines. The fantail darter in-
habits rocky and gravelly riffles of streams
that range in size from small creeks to
relatively large rivers and is widely dis-
tributed throughout the Mississippi drain-
age. It is more tolerant of turbidity and
organic pollution than most darters. It
feeds principally on immature stages of
aquatic insects in the riffle habitat ( Pflieger
1975). In the Salt River it is an important
part of the fauna, being the second most
abundant fish (Neff and Krumholz 1974)
throughout the mainstream and most of the
tributaries (Hoyt et al. 1970). In an effort
to ameliorate periodic flooding, 3 impound-
ments were planned for the Salt River
System. Those impoundments would elimi-
nate much of the habitat of the fantail
darter. Therefore, because of its importance
as a major component of the fauna and the
1Present address: Department of Biological
Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las
Vegas, Nevada 89154.
possibility of habitat loss, this study was
undertaken to determine some of the
biological aspects of the fantail darter
within the Salt River System.
The Salt River drainage lies in the Outer
Blue Grass Region of Kentucky. The rock
strata are Ordovician limestone shale of the
Maysville, Richmond, and Eden group
containing up to 90 percent shale (Hen-
dricksen and Krieger 1964). Due to the
impervious nature of the shale, stream flow
fluctuates drastically during periods of
heavy precipitation, and is tremendously
influenced by extensive beds of water
willow Justicia americana (L.). Islands
and embankments are formed from the
accumulation of gravel and debris in the
water willow diverting the flow back and
forth across the stream bed developing
pools and riffles that give the stream a
braided appearance. Those beds also serve
to maintain pool levels that are important
to aquatic life, especially during periods of
low rainfall in late summer and early fall.
Physical and chemical aspects of the Salt
River and its tributaries are given in
Woodling (1971, unpublished master’s
thesis, University of Louisville, Louisville,
Kentucky) and Miller (1976, unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of Louis-
ville, Louisville, Kentucky).
150
FANTAIL DARTER IN THE SALT RIvER—Baker
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report is based on research per-
formed under Project No. B-031-KY, Agree-
ment No. 14-31-0001-3891, with the Office
of Water Resources Research, U. S. Depart-
ment of the Interior, as authorized under
the Water Resources Research Act of 1964,
Louis A. Krumholz and Stuart E. Neff,
Principal Investigators. Grateful acknowl-
edgment is offered for that assistance. It
is also a revision of parts of a thesis
presented to the Graduate School of the
University of Louisville as partial fulfill-
ment of the requirements for the degree
of Master of Science in Biology.
I wish to extend special thanks to Louis
A. Krumholz for his guidance and en-
couragement throughout the course of the
study and for his review of this manu-
script. Deep appreciation is offered to
Peter Bersell, Edmond J. Bacon, Jr., Daryl
E. Jennings, Andrew C. Miller, and David
S. White for their assistance in the field
and in the laboratory, and to F. Bowsher
for typing this manuscript.
METHODS
A total of 1,793 fantail darters was taken
from 5 locations on Brashears Creek (Fig.
1, Stations 26-30) monthly from June 1972
through May 1973. No fish were collected
in April due to high water. In addition,
295 fish were obtained from the following
areas (Fig. 1): Salt River Stations 3, 11,
and 14; Chaplin River Stations C2 and
C10; Beech Fork, Marion County; West
Fork of Simpson Creek, Nelson County;
and Plum Creek, Spencer County. Sixteen
fish were collected from Harrods Creek,
Oldham County (not part of the Salt River
drainage) in April and were used to sup-
plement the data for that time period.
Collections were made with a 3-mm-
mesh minnow seine. The fish were either
shocked with an 1100-watt alternator or
herded by kicking the riffles. Specimens
were immediately fixed in 10 percent
formalin and later preserved in 70 percent
ethanol.
Standard length, weight, and sex were
151
determined for all fish. After blotting each
fish with a paper towel, they were weighed
to the nearest 0.01 g on a Mettler single-
pan electric balance and measured to the
nearest millimeter. Sex was determined by
examining the genital papillae; in males,
the genital papilla narrows at the apex to
a blunt point whereas in females it remains
broad and expanded. That characteristic
proved completely reliable with fish over
25 mm long. Smaller fish could not be
sexed by that method, nor could they be
sexed by dissection because of the lack of
development of the gonads.
Length-frequency distributions were
made for each collection, grouping the
fish in 2-mm intervals. Age groups were
determined using both scales and length
frequencies. Scales from 80 fish of various
length groups were examined for aging
as outlined by Larimore (1957). The scales
were removed from the left side of the
body above the lateral line at the junction
of the dorsal fins. The length—-weight re-
lationship and coefficient of condition
values were determined according to formu-
las of Lagler (1969). The length-weight
relationship for 127 fish from Brashears
Creek was computed using the least squares
method and is expressed in the logarithmic
form:
Log W = 4.8650 + 3.0085 Log L
where W equals weight in milligrams and
L equals standard length in millimeters.
Food habits were determined using fre-
quency of occurrence and average number
of individual organisms per stomach (Lag-
ler 1969). Four hundred stomachs (30-50
per month) were analyzed for their con-
tents. Material from the intestine was not
used. Identifications were based on keys
by Burks (1953), Pennak (1953), Ross
(1944), and Usinger (1956).
The ovaries from 176 fantail darters were
removed and weighed to the nearest 0.1 g;
160 were from Brashears Creek collected
in October through March and May and
16 were from Harrods Creek, Oldham
County, collected in April.
Fic.
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
39(3-4)
SS
| sae =
; Creek \
$
SHELBY $ SHELBYVILLE ff PROPOSED SITES FOR
Myst
TAYLORSVILLE
| U@ |
$ Y) \ AND
; ry
« 3 CAMP GROUND
a |
S g LAKES
He. ——}+—
on SALT RIVER BASIN
. |
eS KENTUCKY
Creek
oe? (28) (
/ S v ae
SPENCER
@7) ee ALY (
Gs ~~
LAWRENCEBURG ®
& )TAYLORSVILLE s 8 a Cr =
e Oa. oo ANDERSON yo iS
40 (24) Salt we =
59 Ae 36 aaa (3) p )
COUNTY : 100 ie
. ee ty coun OMe 7
ok 2 =a Be ‘BUREN Ls Cia:
RS ee (ea GO) = WS 2
as a ek wet Cc <
3 | cree) gt ) S
@p em 110 _
: e 4 Lp ¥,
ee pBLOOMFIELD x wey oN, (3) [
CiaKt A whe aD gulp \
Z ew Y lee GS -
NELSON (Sos Nutt a); x
SAGY 3° 253 40 MERCER C5) \
Eee Leo Zio sine
CAMP o. ERE Oy KR
% (>)
BARDSTOWN "oO Is3 = a» sauna a
COUNTY GROUND <3, COUNTY = ( oe ea
wy MAUD ee | 3 (6) \ SALT RIVER
fork 60 SO) AKE @ Ni BASIN
2 50 \
ea) | HARRODSBURG
5) )
S Co, | :
< 4
CY pF | 70 f
90 C4) gee
@2) *
| ae [
4 3) [
SPRINGFIELD DAWOEL IE
100) C2) 2. yy
COUNTY o. | BOYLE — ( LD
Cl be ie NS Ci)
| 110 BY
I
COUNTY
i —_—
COUNTY
is
(after Neff and Krumholz 1974).
Part of the Salt River Basin of Kentuckyshowing the locations of stations used as collecting
sites
FANTAIL DARTER IN THE SALT RivEr—Baker
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Associated Species
In July, an extensive collection was made
in the riffle areas of Brashears Creek. At
that time, 14 species of fishes were col-
lected along with the fantail darter. E.
flabellare was the most abundant fish con-
stituting 62 percent of the collection. Other
fishes in order of relative abundance were:
Etheostoma caeruleum, Etheostoma_ blen-
noides, Campostoma anomalum, Pimphales
notatus, Etheostoma zonale, Noturus flavus,
Notropis spilopterus, Hypentelium nigri-
cans, Notropis ardens, Notropis stramineus,
Notropis boops, Percina caprodes, Ericym-
ba buccata, and Pimphales promelas. No-
menclature follows Bailey et al. (1970).
Age and Growth
Age groups were readily distinguished
from length—-frenquency distribution (Fig.
2) after the spawning period in May and
June. Scales were used for age determina-
tions when age based on the length-fre-
quency distribution was questionable. Age
Groups 0, 1, and 2 were present in
Brashears Creek and the Salt River. Only
3 females in Age Group 2 were collected
at Brashears Creek and Salt River Station
3. The 2 largest females (50 mm) were
collected in May and June; the largest
male was 56 mm collected in October.
Schwartz (1965) reported that newly
hatched fantail darters from the upper
Allegheny River, Pennsylvania, averaged
7.3 mm total length, similar to the 7.0 mm
reported by Lake (1936) from Black
Creek, New York. Young-of-the-year fish
from Brashears Creek had a mean standard
length in June of 20 mm, almost 3 times
the length of reported newly hatched fish
(Fig. 3). After the first month, there was
an increase of approximately 15 mm per
year. At the end of 1 and 2 years, E.
flabellare reached mean standard lengths
of 35 and 51 mm, respectively. Males in
Age Group | were slightly larger than fe-
males, mean lengths being 36 mm and
34 mm, respectively. Winn (1958a) re-
153
os "Fish
February
121 Fish
January
129 Fish
December
127 Fish
October
:
|
PERCENT FREQUENCY
oO
September
151 Fish
August
129 Fish
428 Fish
June
161 Fish
f
30 40 50 60
STANDARD LENGTH, MILLIMETERS
Fic. 2. Length frequencies of fantail darters
from Brashears Creek, 1972 and 1973. The earliest
collection (June) is at the bottom of the figure.
ported “males larger” as a sexual dimorphic
characteristic in fantail darters but did not
report the extent of dimorphism. In the
Salt River, size is not a readily distinguish-
able sexual dimorphic characteristic for
fantail darters.
Karr (1964), using the scale method,
reported for E. flabellare from Bluff Creek,
Iowa, total lengths of 18.7, 34.8, and
42.4 mm at the first through the third
annuli, respectively, for females, and males
were 18.5, 36.7, 59.0, and 62.0 mm at the
first through the fourth annuli, respectively.
Lake (1936) reported fantail darters of
Age 0 to be about 30 mm standard length
in November after hatching in June, similar
to that for fantail darters in Brashears
Creek. Scales did exhibit an area in the
first year of growth where the distance
between circuli was increased. Such ex-
154
i (on 2 years (7)
w”
xe
ia year (il
Pea ] 10 mont hs (88)
9 months (109)
Fi mont (ts)
CT) months t110)
io)
x _ [1 __ 5 months (77)
as
Fe
oO
= — 4 months (126)
_ CO) 3 montns (102)
[TM] 2 months (55)
CT month (35)
10 20 30 40 50 60
STANDARD LENGTH IN MILLIMETERS
Fic. 3. Mean standard lengths of fantail darters
at different ages in Brashears Creek, 1972 and
1973. The baseline for each age group is the
range in standard length, the open rectangle is
1 standard deviation to each side of the mean,
and the closed rectangle is 2 times the standard
error to each side of the mean. Numbers in
parentheses are numbers of specimens.
panded circuli may have been mistaken by
Karr for annuli.
Condition Factor
The coefficient of condition or condition
factor, K, was determined monthly for
males and females of Age Groups 0 and 1
(Fig. 4). Since sex of fish in Age Group 0
could not be determined in June and July,
those specimens were lumped _ together.
The condition factor in all groups was
highest in July and declined through
November. Females of both age groups
had higher K values than males due to
increasing ovarian weights in December-
February but dropped below males in May
after spawning. Unfortunately, adequate
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4)
Age Group O
J m
1.6 > AS. Age Group |
s
SAN
= \ par male — ——_ —_
\ females —— -——~-—
\
‘ /
COEFFICIENT OF CONDITION
Fic. 4. Seasonal changes in the coefficient of
condition, K x 10°, for male and female fantail
darters of Age Groups 0 and 1 from Brashears
Creek, 1972 and 1973. K values for March and
April were not determined.
collections could not be made in March
and April because of high water. Fe-
males probably would have shown a high
K value in early April when ovaries were
at their greatest development. Weights of
males apparently were not affected by re-
production as Tsai (1972) has shown for
Etheostoma olmstedi, although K values
for March and April may have reflected
some change. The condition factor did
decrease with age. K values for Age
Group 2 males in June and July were
1.332 and 1.380, respectively, considerably
lower than for Age Group 0 or 1 during
the same time period (Fig. 4).
The condition factor varies with both
environmental as well as biological factors.
Of those environmental factors that have
an effect, the available food supply is of
major importance. The primary food of
the fantail darter is immature aquatic in-
sects. In Brashears Creek, Woodling (un-
published thesis) found the lowest average
biomass and average number of organisms
in June through August. The condition
factor for E. flabellare was highest during
that period indicating that benthic organ-
isms even at their lowest level were present
in sufficient numbers to provide an ade-
quate food supply. Decreasing water
temperatures in August-November ap-
peared to have the greatest effect on the
condition factor, with the lowest value,
FANTAIL DARTER IN THE SALT RivER—Baker
TABLE 1.—COEFFICIENT OF CONDITION, K x 10’,
FOR FANTAIL DARTERS FROM Q STATIONS IN THE
SALT RIVER DRAINAGE. NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES
INDICATE NUMBERS OF SPECIMENS. SEE Fic. 1 For
LOCATIONS OF STATIONS
Coefficient
Station Date of condition
Plum Creek 30 May —_—-11.6238 + .0305 (12)
Brashears Creek 13 Jun 1.5370 == .03809 (37)
Simpson Creek 31 May 1.4610 + .0272 (50)
Chaplin River, 21 May 1.4231 + .0177 (40)
2
Chaplin River, 10 Jun 1.3951 = .0213 (40)
C10
Salt River, 14 24Jul _—«1.3894 + .0410 (50)
Salt River, 11 29 Jun 1.3046 + .0160 (50)
Salt River, 3 21 May 1.2870 + .0536 (4)
Beech Fork 5 Jun 1.0882 + .0828 (5)
except for females in May, occurring in
November corresponding with low water
temperatures. The increasing condition
factor in December through March cor-
responded with increasing water tempera-
ture and gonadal weight.
Condition factors for
fish collected
155
throughout the Salt River system at ap-
proximately the same time and of the
size group are shown in Table 1. The
lowest condition factor was in those fish
from the headwaters of Beech Fork of the
Chaplin River, a major tributary to the
Salt River. In the Salt River mainstream,
K values increased from the headwater
downstream with the highest value occur-
ring in Plum Creek, a small intermittent
tributary to the Salt River. The condition
factor of those fish from the Chaplin River
mainstream were intermediate to those of
the Beech Fork and Salt River. The reason
for such a gradual increase in condition
factor from upstream to downstream in
samples from the Salt River and the low
value in Beech Fork are not obvious but
must be related to environmental factors.
Food Habits
Analysis of the contents of 400 fantail
darters from Brashears Creek revealed that
aquatic insects, isopods, and amphipods
were the only food items taken (Table 2).
Dipterans (primarily chironomids) were
TABLE 2.—SEASONAL DIFFERENCES IN STOMACH CONTENTS OF FANTAIL DARTERS AS PERCENTAGE FRE-
QUENCY OF OCCURRENCE, BRASHEARS CREEK, 1972 AND 1973. NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE
AVERAGE NUMBERS OF ORGANISMS PER STOMACH
Taxonomic group Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
Ephemeroptera 7E(S AS) ALS) 47(3.0) 41(3.5) 30( 1.4)
Plecoptera a( £0)
Lepidoptera 6(1.0) 3(1.0)
Coleoptera 10(2.0) 3(1.0) 6(1.0) 6( 1.0) FAG BAD
Trichoptera 63(3.7 ) 60( 2.2) 40(3.2) Soc) ZO te)
Diptera 57(8.2) 50(3.9) 50(1.7 ) 59(4.9) 45( 4.3)
Isopoda acl) 2(3.0)
Amphipoda
Taxonomic group Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar May
Ephemeroptera 1I7CLO) 4(1.0) 2( 1:0) 6( 1.0) 87(1.9) StL)
Plecoptera E2OL.T) 51(3.2) 29(1.4) 20(1.4) 12(1.0) 27(1.3)
Lepidoptera
Coleoptera
Trichoptera 2(1.0) 2(1.0) 2(1.0) 23(2.3)
Diptera 63(5.7) 62(8.4) 82( 14.7) 82( 14.7) 100( 10.3 ) 39(9.2)
Isopoda 4(1.0) 11(1.4) 6( 3) 6(1.3) 50( 4.6)
Amphipoda 4(1.0) EE C12) ALO) 4(1.5) 5(2.5)
156
TABLE 3.—STOMACH CONTENTS OF FANTAIL DART-
ERS AS PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE IN
LENGTH Groups | (25-35 MM, N = 208), 2 (36—
45 MM, N = 158), anp 3 (46-55 mM, N = 34),
BRASHEARS CREEK, 1972 AND 1973. NUMBERS IN
PARENTHESES INDICATE AVERAGE NUMBERS OF OR-
GANISMS PER STOMACH
Length group of darters
Taxonomic group 1 2 3
Ephemeroptera 36 (2.5). 72442.3) 82a)
Plecoptera TS CRO) (24 (2:8)) W822)
Lepidoptera PLOY 724(4.0)
Coleoptera ode iat oaes )
Trichoptera D5 (2.1). 180-63:2) 8243-0)
Diptera 66 (6.4) 49(8.5) 47 (14.4)
Isopoda 103 (4.3) .10:(2A4))) 23is 0)
Amphipoda SLB SiO)
the most important food throughout the
year. Mayflies (Ephemeroptera) were the
only other insects utilized throughout the
year although they were not abundant in
winter when stoneflies (Plecoptera) were
a major food item (December through
February ). Caddisflies (Trichoptera) and
mayflies were important summer food items
(June through October). Aquatic moth
larvae (Lepidoptera) and aquatic beetle
larvae (Coleoptera) made up a small por-
tion of summer food. Isopods and amphi-
pods also were utilized as winter food.
There was no apparent selectivity of
food items. Dominant food items corres-
ponded with dominant benthic organisms
reported by Woodling (unpublished thesis )
for Brashears Creek. Larval chironomids
and mayflies (Stenonema spp.) were avail-
able throughout the year and were utilized
accordingly. Other food items were taken
as they became available. There was also
no selection of food items by different size
groups of darters (Table 3). Smaller fish
used the same size food items as larger
fish, but there were no_lepidopterans,
coleopterans, or amphipods in the stomachs
of large fish. This probably was due to
the infrequent occurrence of those organ-
isms and the small sample size for the
larger fish.
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
Percent
Ovary Weight/Body Weight,
N“N
Nov
aire
1973
Fic. 5. Maturity index for female fantail darters
based on specimens from Brashears Creek and
Harrods Creek, 1972 and 1973.
Reproduction
The maturity index (percentage of
ovarian weight to body weight) for fantail
darters in Brashears Creek indicated that
spawning occurred in April and early May
(Fig. 5). Again, data “for @itsit aes
Harrod’s Creek were used in April because
there was no collections for that month
from the Salt River. On 7, 15, and 18 May,
the maturity index was 5.8, 6.4, and 9.5,
respectively. The 7 May collection was
taken from the swifter riffles in the main-
stream and had a higher number of spent
individuals. Ovarian weights were higher
in fish collected on 5 and 18 May from
along the banks and side streams where
current was moderate. A number of nests
were found along the banks and _ side
streams indicating that those areas were
the primary spawning grounds. Side
FANTAIL DARTER IN THE SALT RivER—Baker
streams and banks apparently were selected
by the fantail darter because of slower
current and higher water temperature.
Water temperatures in those areas were
1-2 C higher than in the mainstream where
the average temperature was 17 C on 15
May. Winn (1958a) reported that E.
flabellare spawned the first week of April
in Kentucky and Tennessee and about 2
weeks later in Michigan. Lake (1936) re-
ported spawning in Black Creek, New
York, from 26 April to 22 June with in-
cubation for about 21 days at 70 F (21 C).
The breeding habits of E. flabellare have
been described by Lake (1936) and Winn
(1958a, 1958b). They reported that the
nest is prepared on the undersides of rocks
and guarded by the male. An acceptable
female enters the nest, turns upside down,
and deposits the eggs by attaching them
to the lower surface of the rock as they
are fertilized by the male. Usually, about
45 eggs are deposited one at a time and
the female stays in the inverted position
for the entire egg laying period, approxi-
mately 2 hours. Males usually assume the
inverted position only at the moment of
deposition of an egg. Females are re-
productively active during their first year
of life. A large female may spawn 5 times
during a spawning season and several fe-
males may spawn in the same nest. The
male remains in the nest until the eggs
hatch and keeps them free from silt and
fungus by cleaning them with the bulbous
pads developed on the dorsal fin.
The breeding habits of E. flabellare and
E. nigrum are very similar, and Winn
(1958a) stated that they are the most
complex of the darters. E. maculatum ap-
pears to have similar breeding habits
except the eggs are laid in a wedge-shaped
mass rather than in a single layer (Raney
and Lachner 1939).
Winn (1958b) reported that in darters
he examined there was an inverse correla-
tion between extent of care and the num-
bers of eggs laid. The fewest number of
eggs laid were by E. nigrum, E. maculatum,
and E. flabellare which exhibit the greatest
parental care. Williams (1959) has also
157
TABLE 4.—SEX RATIOS FOR 1,211 FANTAIL DART-
ERS FROM BRASHEARS CREEK, 1972 AND 1973.
RATIOS ARE PERCENTAGES
Month Males Females Sex Ratio
Jun 129 85 60.40
Jul 148 66 69:31
Aug 22 ya 50:50
Sep 45 17 72:28
Oct 91 on 71:29
Nov 2D 15 62:38
Dec 69 58 54:46
Jan 70 44 61:39
Feb 69 36 66:34
May 57 39 59:41
Total t2o 486 64:36
shown that ovarian weights in E. flabellare
and E. nigrum that exhibit parental care
are higher than in E. caeruleum and E.
spectabile where there is no parental care.
Sex Ratio
In Brashears Creek, males dominated fe-
males at a ratio of 64:36 (Table 4). Sex
ratios were based on all fish collected
except those in Age Group 0 in June
through October whose sex could not be
determined because the gonads were not
sufficiently developed. The dominance of
males was due to a differential mortality
rate rather than to a differential birth rate.
The sex ratio for fish in Age Group 0 in
December was almost equal, 51:49. Males
became increasingly more dominant with
age, sex ratios of Age Groups 1 and 2
being 63:37 and 86:14, respectively, in
June. Only 2 females in Age Group 2 were
collected from Brashears Creek throughout
the entire study. The differential mortality
observed in Brashears Creek resulting in
sex ratios favoring males may be due to
reproductive behavior and predation. Fe-
males during the spawning period are more
susceptible to environmental factors as well
as predation because of the female’s wan-
dering nature at that time, going from nest
to nest. Males maintain the nest and,
therefore, are not as exposed as the females.
The sex ratio of the combined collections
158
from the other stations in the Salt River
system was 61 males to 49 females. Al-
though the combined collections did favor
males, sex ratios at 4 stations favored fe-
males. Sex ratios, for E. flabellare reported
by Lake (1936) and Schwartz (1965) have
shown that females outnumbered males
about 2 to 1. Sex ratios for E. flabellare
appear extremely different in different
localities, as Raney and Lachner (1943)
have reported for Boleosoma nigrum
olmstedi. Sex ratios of other darters
generally show a tendency for males to
exceed females (Raney and Lachner 1939,
Lachner et al. 1950).
SUMMARY
The fantail darter was abundant through-
out the Salt River drainage. The life span
was 2.5 years for males and 2 years for
females. Growth was greatest in the first
month, tripling its initial length. Coefficient
of condition was highest in July when
water temperatures were optimum and
lowest in November when water tempera-
tures were low. Females had a _ higher
coefficient of condition in winter and a
lower condition in the spring due to the
additional weight of the ovaries. Food of
the fantail darter was aquatic insects con-
sisting of Diptera (primarily chironomids ),
Ephemeroptera,. Trichoptera, Plecoptera,
and other benthic organisms in order of
importance. Food habits changed season-
ally as the benthic fauna changed. Dif-
ferent size groups exhibited no difference
in food habits. In Brashears Creek, there
was always an adequate food supply, even
in the summer when the numbers of aquatic
insects were at their lowest. The peak
spawning period was in April and extended
into May. Young of the year appeared in
the riffles in June. Males outnumbered fe-
males at a ratio of 61:39 in the Salt River
and 64:36 in Brashears Creek. The dom-
inance of males was due to differential
mortality rate rather than to a differential
birth rate.
LITERATURE CITED
BarLEy, R. M., J. E. Frrcn, E. S. Herap, E. A.
LACHNER, C. C. LinpsEy, C. R. Rosins, AND
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of common and
scientific names of fishes from the United
States and Canada (Third Edition). Amer.
Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. No. 6. Washington,
D.C. 150 pp.
Burks, B. D. 1953. The Mayflies or Ephemer-
optera of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv.
26(1):1-216.
HENDRICKSON, G. E., AND R. A. Krizcer. 1964.
Geological survey water supply paper 1700.
U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Washington, D.C.,
135 pp.
‘Hoyt, R. D., W. E. NEFF, AnD L. A. KRUMHOLZ.
1970. An annotated list of fishes from the
upper Salt River, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 31( 3-4) :51-63.
Karr, J. R. 1964. Age, growth, fecundity and
food habits of fantail darters in Boone
County, Iowa. Iowa Acad. Sci. 71:274—280.
LAcCHNER, E. A., E. F. WestTLAKE, AND P. S.
HANDWERK. 1950. Studies on the biology
of some percid fishes from western Pennsy]l-
vania. Amer. Mid]. Nat. 43(1):92—111.
Lacter, K. R. 1969. Freshwater Fishery Biol-
ogy. W. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa. 421
pp.
Lake, C. T. 1936. The life history of the fan-
tailed darter, Catonotus flabellaris flabellaris
(Rafinesque). Amer. Mid]. Nat. 7(5):816—
830.
Larimore, R. W. 1957. Ecological life history
of the warmouth (Centrarchidae). Bull. Il.
Nat. Hist. Surv. 27(1):1-83.
Nerr, S. E., anpD L. A. Krumuotz. 1974. A
detailed investigation of the sociological, eco-
nomic, and ecological aspects of proposed
reservoir sites in the Salt River Basin of Ken-
tucky. Univ. Ky. Water Res. Inst., Res. Rept.
No. 67. 64 pp.
PENNAK, R. W. 1953. Fresh-water Invertebrates
of the United States. The Ronald Press, New
York, N.Y., 769 pp.
PFuiecER, W. L. 1975. The fishes of Missouri.
Mo. Dept. Cons., Columbia, Mo. 343 pp.
Raney, E. C., anp E. A. LAcHNER. 1939. Ob-
servations on the life history of the spotted
darter, Poecilichthys maculatus (Kirtland).
Copeia 1939(3):157-165.
, AND 1943. Age and
growth of johnny darters, Boleosoma nigrum
olmstedi (Storer) and Boleosoma longimanum
(Jordan). Amer. Mid]. Nat. 29(1):229-238.
Ross, H. H. 1944. The Trichoptera or caddis-
flies of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 23:
1-326.
ScHwaRTz, F. J. 1965. Densities and ecology
of the darters of the upper Allegheny River
watershed, Pp. 95-103. In C. A. Tryon, Jr.,
R. T. Hartman, and K. W. Cummins (Eds.).
Studies on Aquatic Ecology of the Upper
Ohio River System. Pymatuning Laboratory
of Ecology Spec. Publ. No. 3, Univ. Pitts-
burgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. 103 pp.
FANTAIL DARTER IN THE SALT RivER—Baker
Tsar, C. 1972. Life history of the eastern
johnny darter, Etheostoma olmstedi Storer, in
cold tailwater and sewage-polluted water.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 101(1):80-88.
Usincer, R. L. 1956. Aquatic Insects of Cali-
fornia. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley, Los
Angeles, Cal. 508 pp.
WinuiaMs, G. C. 1959. Ovary weights of dart-
ers: a test of the alleged association of par-
159
ental care with reduced feundity in fishes.
Copeia 1959(1):18-24.
Winn, H. E. 1958a. Comparative reproductive
behavior and ecology of fourteen species of
darters (Pisces-Percidae). Ecol. Monogr.
28(2):155-191.
1958b. Observations on the repro-
ductive habits of darters (Pisces—Percidae ).
Amer. Mid]. Nat. 51(1):190-212.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3—4), 1978, 160-163
The Elimination of Fluctuations During the Use
of a Nitrate Specific Ion Electrode
Linpa L. BLAINE AND FRANK: R. TOMAN
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
ABSTRACT
Fluctuations in millivolt readings were found to occur when using an Orion nitrate specific
ion electrode to measure nitrate concentration.
Those fluctuations were greatest in the weaker nitrate solutions (10* M and 5 x 10* M)
and were more pronounced when the electrode had not been renewed for a while. The
fluctuations could be reduced greatly if the electrode was preequilibrated in sodium nitrate
solution for 0.5 hour with stirring before taking the readings.
INTRODUCTION
During experiments in which a nitrate
specific ion electrode was used to measure
nitrate concentrations, it was observed that
millivolt readings for standard sodium
nitrate solutions sometimes varied con-
siderably. It was not known if that type
of fluctuation varied with the length of
time since electrode renewal or if it was
a characteristic of all nitrate electrodes.
Millivolt readings have an inverse relation-
ship with nitrate concentration. The pres-
ent study was undertaken to evaluate the
precision of the nitrate electrode and to
determine the conditions of use under
which reproducible results could be ob-
tained.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The nitrate specific ion electrode, Orion
Model 92-07, was the subject of this study.
The reference electrode was a single junc-
tion reference electrode, Orion Model
90-01. The electrodes were used in a
Corning Model 12 research pH meter.
Dioxane, sodium nitrate, and potassium
chloride were of reagent grade. Liquid ion
exchanger, 92-07-02, and internal filling
solution, 92-07-03, were from Orion Re-
search. Phenyl mercuric acetate was ob-
tained from Eastman Kodak.
Sodium nitrate was used to prepare a
1.0 M solution. The reference electrode
was kept filled with 0.1 M_ potassium
chloride. Preservative was prepared by
dissolving 0.1 g of phenyl mercuric acetate
in 20 ml of dioxane, then diluting to 100 ml
with distilled deionized water.
Standards were prepared daily by mak-
ing dilutions of the 1.0 M sodium nitrate
stock solution with glass distilled deionized
water. Experiments were run utilizing the
following 5 sodium nitrate standards:
10* M, 5X10+ M, 10° M, 5X103 M, and
10-> M. One ml of preservative was added
to each liter of distilled deionized water
used to prepare standards.
Nitrate electrodes were renewed accord-
ing to instructions in the Orion Nitrate Ion
Electrode Manual (1970).
Four separate experiments were designed
to evaluate the electrodes under study and
to attempt to obtain reproducible results:
(1) no pretreatment of the nitrate elec-
trode, (2) electrodes were rinsed and
dried, then immersed in dilute nitrate
solution, the switch turned on, and pre-
equilibrated for 0.5 or 1 hour, (3)
electrodes renewed on the day prior to use,
then preequilibrated for 0.5 hour without
stirring and preequilibrated 0.5 hour with
stirring, and (4) sensitivities of 3 different
nitrate specific ion electrodes were com-
pared; each had been renewed prior to the
experiment.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Experiment I—No Pretreatment of
Nitrate Electrode
The 5 sodium nitrate standards were
read on 5 different days from weakest to
160
FLUCTUATIONS IN A NITRATE ION ELECTRODE—Blaine and Toman
strongest and repeated until reproducible
results were obtained (Table 1, Column
1). This required from 45 min to 1 hour
each day. The values in the table are the
differences in readings for a particular
standard between the first and last reading
and are the averages for 5 trials on 5 dif-
ferent days. Actual readings ranged from
163 millivolts (mv) to 40 mv on the
10° M standard. On each day, readings
decreased as the standards were read re-
peatedly. The lower readings indicated
that the electrode possessed greater sen-
sitivity after being used for a period of
time.
From the results of this experiment, it
was decided to test electrodes after they
had been preequilibrated for 0.5- and
1-hour periods.
Experiment 2—Pretreatment of the
Nitrate Electrode:
0.5 Hour vs. 1 Hour Preequilibration
After the electrodes were rinsed and
dried and preequilibrated for 0.5 hour or
1 hour, the nitrate standards were read in
the same manner as described for Experi-
ment 1 (Table 1, Columns 2, 3). The
values in each column are averages for 4
trials on 4 different days.
Preequilibration for 0.5 hour reduced the
amount of total change from the first to
the last reading when compared to readings
with no treatment. Preequilibration for
1 hour was of very little or no greater
benefit than preequilibration for 0.5 hour.
Experiment 3—Pretreatment of a Recently
Renewed Electrode:
0.5 Hour Preequilibration vs. 0.5 Hour
Preequilibration with Stirring
On the day prior to the beginning of
this experiment, the electrode was renewed
to determine the stability of readings dur-
ing the first hour of use following renewal.
Nitrate standards were read on 9 different
days. On 3 days, the electrode received
no pretreatment, and on 3 days, the
electrode received 30 min preequilibration
as described in Experiment 2. On the other
161
TABLE ].—DIFFERENCES IN MILLIVOLTS BETWEEN
THE FIRST AND THE LAST READING OF STANDARD
SOLUTIONS
No 0.5 hour 1 hour
preequili- preequili- preequili-
Conc. bration bration bration
hc f0-M 4.5 2.9 Sak
5. <1 10> M aa 2.0 ES
Lose 10M Bok 1.6 Et
5 x 10°M 20 LG hb
Lt 34.10-3M Ze 1.4 Et
3 days, the electrode received the same
type of pretreatment with the dilute nitrate
solution kept in motion with a magnetic
stirrer (Table 2). Values for each column
are averages for 3 trials.
This experiment generally showed less
change in readings under conditions of no
pretreatment when the nitrate electrode
had been recently renewed than it did in
earlier experiments when it had not been
recently renewed (Table 2, Column 1;
Table 1, Column 1). The same general
trend is indicated when changes in read-
ings after the electrode had been equili-
brated for 0.5 hour are compared for re-
cently renewed and not recently renewed
electrodes (Table 2, Column 2; Table 1,
Column 2). There still remained, however,
less change in readings after a 0.5-hour
preequilibration period than with no pre-
treatment in the renewed electrode (Table
2, Columns 1, 2). This further substantiates
the need for preequilibration before using
the nitrate electrode. The preequilibration
apparently is even more important as the
electrode ages.
The data reported in Table 2, Column 3,
when the electrode was preequilibrated in
a dilute nitrate solution kept in motion with
a magnetic stirrer, showed less change than
with no pretreatment or with 0.5 hour pre-
treatment with no stirring (Table 2). This
indicated that not only is preequilibration
important, but that stirring increased the
effectiveness of the equilibration period. It
should be noted that most of the change
in readings during the first week of use
after renewal was in the weaker solutions,
10-* M and 5x10-* M (Table 2).
162
TABLE 2.—DIFFERENCES IN MILLIVOLTS BETWEEN
THE FIRST AND THE LAST READING OF STANDARD
SOLUTIONS DETERMINED ON A RECENTLY RENEWED
ELECTRODE
0.5-hour
No pre- 0.5-hour pretreatment
Conc. treatment pretreatment with stirring
1x 10°*M 4.3 2.0 ies |
9 x 10*M 1.5 0.3 0.5
1x 10° M 0.7 0.8 0.3
° x 10°M 0.7 1.0 0.3
1x 10°M 0.7 0.5 0.3
Experiment 4—Comparison of 3 Different
Nitrate Ion Electrodes
The original Orion nitrate specific ion
electrode and 2 other electrodes borrowed
from other university departments were
renewed before the experiment was begun.
Readings were recorded on 6 different days
for each electrode, on 3 days, 30-min pre-
equilibration with the magnetic stirrer, and
3 days with no pretreatment. The elec-
trodes from the Departments of Agriculture,
Biology, and Chemistry, are referred to as
Electrodes A, B, and C, respectively
(Tables 3, 4). Values are averages for 3
trials on 3 different days.
Previous results with Electrode B showed
changes in values during the first half hour
of use, and continued in this experiment
(Tables 3, 4). The same trend was
demonstrated by the other 2 electrodes.
Apparently, fluctuations during the first
half hour of use are characteristic of all
Orion nitrate specific ion electrodes.
TABLE 3.—DIFFERENCES IN MILLIVOLTS BETWEEN
THE FIRST AND THE LAST READING OF STANDARD
SOLUTIONS DETERMINED ON 3 DIFFERENT ELEC-
TRODES UTILIZING A 0.5-HOUR PREEQULILBRATION
PERIOD WITH STIRRING
Conc. Electrode A Electrode B-_ Electrode C
1x 10*M 2.8 4.] 5
5 x 10*M 0.5 21 OF
1x 10°M 0.8 1.0 0.7
o> xX 10°M 0.7 0.3 0.5
1x 10°M 0.3 0.5 0.7
TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4)
TABLE 4,—DIFFERENCES IN MILLIVOLTS BETWEEN
THE FIRST AND THE LAST READING OF STANDARD
SOLUTIONS DETERMINED ON 3 DIFFERENT ELEC-
TRODES WITH NO PRETREAMENT
Conc. Electrode A Electrode B_ Electrode C
1956, 16-M 3.1 5.8 1.8
5 x 107M 1:3 3.8 1.8
Ls 103M 0.7 Zt Ley,
5 xX 10°M 0.5 2.0 is
I< 10. M 0.5 Ls jo |
Experiment 4 also showed that changes
in behavior of a nitrate ion electrode can
be expected between 2 and 4 weeks after
being renewed, and is in agreement with
an evaluation of the nitrate electrode by
Potterton and Schuts (1967). The experi-
ment showed, however, that when working
with dilute nitrate solutions, a freshly
renewed electrode does not assure that
reproducible results will be achieved. In
all cases, changes greater than 1.0 mv
were obtained with a freshly renewed
electrode with no pretreatment when
working with solutions of 10-* M concen-
tration (Table 4). Pretreatment with a
stirred solution of sodium nitrate reduced
changes, but some change in readings was
still observed. Thus, the nitrate electrode,
when freshly renewed and pretreated as
described above, did not give reproducible
results for solutions of 10-* M concentration.
In all cases, however, reproducible results
were obtained eventually for the dilute
solutions after the electrode had been in
use for about 0.5 hour.
A recently renewed nitrate electrode,
when used with more concentrated solu-
tions (10-* M to 10-2 M), did not show the
variation that exists with dilute solutions
(Tables 3, 4). Variations occurred for the
more concentrated solutions when the elec-
trode had aged. For Electrode B, greater
variation occurred about a month after
renewal, and the variation was much more
pronounced when the electrode had not
been pretreated. There were no millivolt
variations after the electrode had been in
use for approximately 0.5 hour.
Millivolt readings for nitrate solutions of
FLUCTUATIONS IN A NITRATE ION ELECTRODE—Blaine and Toman
10-* M and 5 X 10-* M with Electrode B,
pretreated or not, showed a greater percent-
age variation than with more concentrated
solutions. Even for the lower concentra-
tions, since readings did eventually become
reproducible, there was no indication that
the electrode failed to give dependable
readings when proper technique was
utilized as long as 4 to 6 weeks after
renewal.
CONCLUSIONS
Experimental results with an Orion
nitrate specific ion electrode indicated that
millivolt readings decreased during the first
half hour of use. Pretreatment by soaking
the electrode in dilute nitrate solutions for
0.5 hour reduced but did not eliminate the
variation in readings. Preequilibration for
1 hour was of little more benefit than a
half hour, but stirring the solution during
pretreatment increased the effectiveness.
There was less variation in readings dur-
ing the first half hour of use when the
nitrate electrode had been renewed re-
cently. Variation was further decreased by
use of a half-hour preequilibration with
163
stirring. Change in readings was minimal
in the stronger nitrate solutions (10-? M to
10° M), particularly if the fresh electrode
was preequilibrated. Weaker nitrate solu-
tions consistently showed greater variations
than stronger solutions. For all concentra-
tions, greater variation occurred in readings
as the electrode aged. In all cases, readings
became reproducible after the electrode
had been in use for approximately 0.5 hour.
Comparison of 3 different electrodes
indicated that all Orion nitrate specific ion
electrodes give similar results when tested
under similar conditions. Regardless of
factors such as length of time since re-
newal or nitrate solution concentration,
maximum reliability in the electrode is
obtained by reading aliquots of a dilute
nitrate solution for at least 0.5 hour and
determining that stability had been
reached prior to making the determinations.
LITERATURE CITED
Orion RESEARCH INc. 1970. Instruction manual,
nitrate ion electrode, Model 92-07. Orion
Research Inc., Cambridge, Mass. 5 pp.
PoTTERTON, S. S., AND W. D. Scuuts. 1967.
An evaluation of the performance of the
nitrate-selective electrode. Anal. Lett. 1:11.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3—4), 1978, 164
NEWS AND
Annual = The Sixty-fourth Annual Meeting
Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence will be held at Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond, on 3 and
4 November 1978. Registration will com-
mence at noon on 3 November in the main
lobby of Moore Building. The Annual
Banquet will be held in Keen Johnson Ban-
quet Hall at 1830 on 3 November, and Dr.
David Pimentel, Cornell University, Ithaca,
New York, will speak on “Energy in Food
Production.” The Annual Business Meet-
ing will begin at 0800 on 4 November.
Hosts for the meeting are Ted George and
Sanford Jones. Be sure to make your room
and banquet reservations promptly.
RS UGE SRE ck
Membership The Executive Committee
Drive of the Academy has re-
quested that the member-
ship drive begun so ably by Don Batch will
be extended to this year’s Annual Meeting.
Any active member who nominates five or
more persons for membership will receive
a free ticket to the Annual Banquet. The
new membership forms are available from
Don Batch (Eastern), Tom Seay (George-
town ), and Lou Krumholz (Louisville), and
they will be pleased to supply you with as
many such forms as you wish. Our goal is
1,000 plus members.
* * * *
If you haven't done so
already, please be sure to
send your nominations for
the Academy’s Distin-
guished Scientist for 1978 to Dr. Harold
W. Eversmeyer, Department of Biological
Sciences, Murray State University, Murray,
Kentucky 42071. Be sure to include ade-
quate information on your candidate’s
achievements along with a reasonably com-
plete vita.
Distinguished
Scientist
Award
COMMENT
Institutional Ten institutions of higher
Affiliation education in Kentucky have
become Institutional Affili-
ates of the Kentucky Academy of Science
during 1978. They are listed in alphabetical
order. We sincerely hope they continue
such affiliation for years to come.
Alice Lloyd College
Bellarmine College
Eastern Kentucky University
Kentucky State University
Kentucky Wesleyan
Morehead State University
Murray State University
Northern Kentucky University
University of Louisville
Western Kentucky University
The Kentucky Academy of Science ex-
tends its deep appreciation for that support.
NSF Fourteen short courses
Chautauqua-Type in the 1978-1979 series
Short Courses of NSF Chautauqua-
Type Short Courses for
college teachers will be open to a limited
number of scientists and engineers in in-
dustry. The courses will be held at two of
the regional field centers, The Oregon
Graduate Center for Study and Research
and the University of Hartford. For fur-
ther information, contact the Department of
Materials Science, 19600 N.W. Walker
Road, Beaverton, Oregon 97005, or the
Chautauqua Field Center, 451 Dana Hall,
West Hartford, Connecticut 06117.
* * * *
The index and contents of volume
39 will be distributed as a separate
insert with the March 1978 issue of volume
40 of the Transactions.
Index
164
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Paty s° i Nae
aay q
ne G
vh Vs 4 ’
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INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS
Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub-
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Article:
Jounson, A. E., AND E. V. Harrety. 1962. An analysis of factors governing density
patterns in desert plants. J. Bot. 44(3):419—432.
Book:
Danr.incTOoNn, P. J., Jn. 1965. Biogeography of the southern end of the world. Harvard
Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 236 pp.
5. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in arabic
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CONTENTS
Attitudes of Kentucky college students toward science. George H. Miller_.. 95
Effect of cohabitation on survivorship of Drosophila melanogaster exposed
to varying oxygen atmospheric concentrations. Gertrude C. Ridgel and
Gerrit. P.. Kldek’ 7:3. 8 i Re 2 eee 107
Genic variability in some Kentucky gee ies of seventeen-year periodical
cicadas (Homoptera: Magicicada). Dennis B. Ralin and Gerrit P. Kloek 111
Removal of nitrogen and sulfur from coal-derived liquids. Tay-Yean Lin
and Norman: L. Holy 223° 224 So) sf eee 117
Aspects of photoperiodic time measurement in the crayfish Orconectes
immunis. E. Lynn Talton and Rudolph Prins ______-» ___ eae 122
Populational differences in bud bursting of Carpinus caroliniana Walt.
Gordon I. Wardell. and Joe E. Winstead)... 3 ee 127
Age and growth, length-weight relationships, and condition factors of the
greenside darter from Silver Creek, Kentucky. G. William Wolfe, Bruce
H. Bauer,.and Branley A, Branson. 24 +8 = es ee 131
The ecological status of six rare plants in Kentucky, with reference to a
recent publication on endangered species. Jerry M. Baskin and Carol
Gi Baskin): sa 135
Kentucky's high country—a biological treasure. Wayne H. Davis and Roger
W. Barbour 2. jes a ee 138
New distributional records for the rosyside dace in Kentucky. Lewis Giles _
Miller ji. 008 2G RS pee ae ee 142
Habitat of the golden mouse Ochrotomys nuttalli. Wayne H. Davis and
Ghackegie. Sauthe. Se oe Ts aes 145
Index Herbariorum Kentuckiensis. Stuart Lassetter 147
The fantail darter Etheostoma flabellare in the Salt River drainage, Ken-
tucky. John R: Baker = 0.0 a ee 150
The elimination of fluctuations during the use of a nitrate specific ion
electrode. Linda L. Blaine and Frank R. Toman ________-__ a
News and Comment) ls 8 ee ie ae 164
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