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Brown, Centre College, Danville 40422 Secretary: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101 Treasurer: Wayne Hoffman, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101 Representative to AAAS Council: Branley Branson, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475 BoArRD OF DIRECTORS Ernest Beal 1974 Charles Payne 1976 J. Hill Hamon 1974 Morris Taylor 1976 Thomas B. Calhoon 1975 Fletcher Gabbard 1977 Charles E. Kupchella 1975 John C. Philley 1977 EDITORIAL OFFICE Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 Associate Editors: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louis- ville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of Louisville, eet Kentucky 40208 William E. Dennen, Department of Geology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the Editor. The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT. Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon nomina- tion, payment of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from the Secretary. The Transactions are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are $6.00. Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $7.00; foreign, $8.00; back issues are $8.00 per volume. The Transactions are issued semiannually. Four numbers comprise a volume. Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Librarian, Uni- versity of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208, who is the exchange agent for the Academy. TRANSACTIONS of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY of SCIENCE JewlOTA VOLUME 35 NUMBERS 1-2 Thomas Hunt Morgan HERBERT PARKES RILEY Thomas Hunt Morgan School of Biological Sciences University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 The Hunt-Morgan House is associated with two nationally or internationally famous Americans. It was the home of General John Hunt Morgan, a Confederate general and cavalry leader whose exploits as head of “Morgan’s Men” placed him high on the Union’s “most wanted” list. Probably better known, and certainly better known outside the United States is his nephew, Dr. Thomas Hunt Morgan, a professor of biological sciences whose pioneer studies in the field of classical genetics opened up a new and exciting area of biological research, and laid the foundations for the vast amount of work in biochemical and molec- ular genetics that has developed since the end of World War II. Dr. Morgan’s father was Captain Charlton Hunt Morgan who rode with the general’s band during the War Between the States, and his mother was Ellen Key Howard whose grandfather, Francis Scott Key, was the author of “The Star-Spangled Banner.” Dr. Morgan was descended from the early Anglo-Saxon stock who founded and built up the country during colonial days, and in height, appearance, and manners he was very much a southern gentleman. In his ancestral lines were several old, aristocratic families of Pennsylvania and Maryland. He was born on 25 September 1866 in the Hunt-Morgan House, which has sometimes been called Hopemont. Apparently, he was named for his uncle, Lieutenant Thomas Hunt Morgan, a member of Morgan's Raiders, who had been killed in a skirmish at Lebanon, Kentucky, in 1863. In 1880, Dr. Morgan entered the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky (now the University of Kentucky ) as a student in the preparatory department. Two years later he became an_ under- graduate and received his Bachelor of Science degree, with highest class honors, in 1886. Dr. Morgan had shown an early interest in natural history, and was an avid collector of birds, birds’ eggs, and fossils before he was 10 years old, so it was only natural that as an undergraduate his chief interest would be in that subject. He was fortunate to study under A. R. Crandall, a professor in the Department of Natural History, from 1878 to 1888. Apparently, Professor Cran- dall maintained high academic standards, for Dr. Morgan had to take a year of organic and inorganic chemistry as a prerequisite to a major in the department. He later wrote of Professor Crandall (letter to President Frank L. McVey at the time of a University of Kentucky Convocation on 25 September 1936 in honor of Dr. Morgan) “I have never met with a finer character or better teacher. I realize the very great debt I owe to these earlier experiences.” During his student days, the college, including the preparatory school, had an enrollment of a little more than 300 students 2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) and about 20 faculty members. Lexington was a very small town in a distinctly rural environment and was not then ringed, as it is today, by residential suburbs and _ shop- ping centers. It was a paradise for the student of natural history. Dr. Morgan was an excellent student and was valedictorian of his class at the graduation exercises, but he had a lighter side as well, and accumu- lated a number of demerits for tardiness at chapel and for disorder in class and in the halls. His only low mark was in French, and for a most unusual reason. Professor Francois M. Helveti, the instructor in French, had been a soldier in the Union army during the War Between the States and had been captured by General Morgan’s men and forced to ride back- wards on a mule from Cincinnati to Lexington. Such an indignity provoked a hatred for the Morgan family that pre- vented him from being objective when it came to Dr. Morgan’s grade in French. In the autumn of 1886, Dr. Morgan entered The Johns Hopkins University for graduate work in biology. This was a fortunate choice, as The Hopkins was, under the leadership of Daniel Coit Gilman, one of the superior graduate schools in the United States and one of the few institu- tions in the country that offered the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. It was a fortunate choice, too, because it had an excellent faculty in biology which included Professor William Keith Brooks and several others of note, and a group of fellow students, such as H. V. Wilson, E. G. Conklin, S. Watase, and R. G. Harrison, who became leaders in the biological sciences at the turn of the century. Professor E. B. Wilson, later a colleague of Dr. Morgan at Columbia University, had preceded him as a graduate student at The Hopkins by just a few years. In 1888, the State College of Kentucky awarded Dr. Morgan the degree of Master of Science on the basis of work done there during his senior year plus work done for two years in absentia while he was a graduate student at The Johns Hopkins University. On 5 June 1889, the Board of Trustees of Kentucky elected him to a professorship, and the Annual Register of the State College of Kentucky for 1888-1889, with the announcements for 1889-1890, listed Thomas Hunt Morgan as Professor of Natural History. However, on 13 June 1889, Dr. Morgan wrote to President James K. Patterson declining the appointment as he had just accepted an appointment as Fellow in Morphology at The Hopkins and hoped to apply for his degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the end of the year. He wrote that the fellowship generally led to the Bruce Fellowship for one or more years and that by accepting it he could devote himself for one or two years entirely to research in zoology. He received his doctoral degree in 1890 and remained for one postdoctoral year as a Bruce Fellow. At that time he had no thought of being a geneticist. His field was experimental embryology, and his doctoral dissertation was entitled “Embryology and Phylogeny of the Pycnogonids (sea _ spiders).” Bryn Mawr College in Philadelphia offered him a professorship in 1891 and he accepted it. He taught there for 13 years and, as in his graduate studies at The Johns Hopkins University, was preceded there by Professor E. B. Wilson, who left the year Dr. Morgan joined the faculty. His Bryn Mawr experience was a very significant one, as during his later years he became engaged to Miss Lilian Vaughan Sampson, a graduate student in biology and an excellent violinist. She was a first-class biologist in her own right and published a number of articles in technical scientific journals after she was married. Their marriage took place in June 1904 and they became the parents of four children. In 1904, Dr. Morgan was called to the new Chair of Experimental Zoology at Columbia University in the City of New York. In a sense, this appointment was the turning point of his professional career because it gave him facilities that he could never have had at Bryn Mawr. His teach- ing load was lighter, the library was much better, and he had many first-class graduate THOMAS HUNT students. In addition, there was a much larger group of stimulating biologists in the faculty, including Professor E. B. Wilson, whose field was closely allied to Morgan’s. The inclusion of both men in the same department was mutually very beneficial. One of the great benefits that Dr. Morgan derived from his Columbia professorship was access to three unusually brilliant graduate students who were there at the same time, and who, along with their professor, formed a harmonious team which, in a sense, was the forerunner of the numerous scientific teams of the present day. They were H. J. Muller, C. B. Bridges, and A. H. Sturtevant. In recognition of their assistance, Dr. Morgan shared his Nobel Prize money with the two who were still with him in 1933 when he received it. In 1920, the California Institute of Technology was formed from a smaller and less renowned technical school near Los Angeles. In 1928, it expanded to include biology, and Thomas Hunt Morgan was appointed Chairman of the Division of Biology, Director of the Wm. G. Kerckhoff Laboratories, and a member of the Execu- tive Council of the Institute. There, he had an even greater opportunity to develop the science of genetics than he had as a professor at Columbia University. Natu- rally, the Division of Biology tended to emphasize genetics as he added his former students Dr. Bridges and Dr. Sturtevant to the staff as well as several other geneticists from other institutions. He remained as Chairman of the Division and Director of the Kerckhoff Laboratories until 1941, when he retired at almost 75 years of age. “Retirement, however, is a relative word, and Dr. Morgan continued his biological research after he gave up his more formal duties, and until a short time before his death, which occurred 4 December 1945, at the age of 79 years. Dr. Morgan was one of a group of biologists responsible for establishing the well-known Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Especially Morcan—Riley 3 during the early part of this century it was a tremendously active research laboratory for aquatic biology, and many famous biologists of that period spent their summers there. Dr. Morgan built a home at Woods Hole in 1907 which he maintained until 1944, and he spent every summer there during that period with two exceptions. The house had a double living room 80 feet long and 25 feet wide, and a large dining room and kitchen. On the second floor were six bedrooms, two sleeping porches, and one household bathroom. The third floor had four huge unfinished rooms for the maids. No architect was used, and the total cost for lumber and labor was $3,000. While there, he entertained many of the famous biologists of Europe. In addition to his periodic visits to the Marine Biological Laboratory, he made other trips to collect material and to consult with investigators in other laboratories. They included the West Indian island of Jamaica, the Stazione Zoologica in Naples, and the Universities of Berlin, Zurich, Helgoland, and other places. During his academic career, Dr. Morgan published 14 books with a total of almost 5,000 pages. His first, published in 1897, was on the development of the frog’s egg, and his last, in 1934, was on embryology and genetics. Perhaps the one that had the greatest impact on biology was “The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity” au- thored by T. H. Morgan, A. H. Sturtevant, H. J. Muller, and C. B. Bridges. It was originally published in 1915 and was revised in 1923. It brought together and sum- marized the evidence which that team had been accumulating in support of Mendelism and the chromosome theory of heredity, and from then on the chromosome theory was well accepted and no longer under suspicion except by a few diehard biologists. In addition to the books, Dr. Morgan published more than 300 articles in technical biological journals. Experimental embryology was a fashion- able biological subject in the 1880's and 1890’s and Dr. Morgan was one of its + TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 30( 1-2) leaders. According to Muller (1946), he was “an outstanding member of what may be called the heroic generation of American biologists—those whose work raised Ameri- can biology to a position second to none among the countries of the world.” During that period, biology was in a very unsettled state. In many ways it had not attained the status of a science, and it tended to be confounded and obfuscated by philosoph- ical or pseudophilosophical speculations that all too frequently were substituted for experimentation and the _ objective procurement of facts. One of the big controversial problems was the fundamental one of the essence and substance of life. The two principal theses were mechanism and vitalism and they were mutually antagonistic. The former hypoth- esized that living things were fundamen- tally the same as nonliving, that that they were composed of the same kinds of mole- cules, and that they operated according to the same laws that controlled the reactions of inanimate objects. The vitalists, on the other hand, assumed that life is partly self-determining, that it cannot be explained by the laws of chemistry and physics alone, and that its functions and behavior are not purely mechanistically determined. The vitalists refused to explain life in concrete terms with the result that subjects such as embryology, heredity, regeneration, organi- zation, and evolution frequently seemed to be enshrouded in an air of mystery. Dr. Morgan was an experimentalist who believed in exact observation. He was one of a group of biologists of that period who detested and scorned speculation and all generalization based on inadequate infor- mation, and who felt that the important need was for more data, more information, before conclusions could be drawn or generalizations made. This attitude was frequently called “mechanistic,” especially by those not in rapport with it. Morgan's philosophy on that subject can be readily understood from a biographical note he published in Science (Morgan 1912) about Miss N. M. Stevens, a former student of his at Bryn Mawr College; she was a first- class cytologist who made some significant observations on chromosomes and_ the inheritance of sex in animals. He wrote “She was a trained expert in the modern sense—in the sense in which biology has ceased to be a playground for the amateur and a plaything for the mystic.” Early work of Dr. Morgan involved, among other problems, the importance of the structure of the egg to the development of the individual. It was a problem that interested him all his life. In the preface to his “Experimental Embryology” (Morgan 1927), he wrote “A transparent egg as it develops is one of the most fascinating objects in the world of living things. The continuous change in form that takes place from hour to hour puzzles us by its very simplicity. The geometric patterns that present themselves at every turn invite mathematical analyses. The constancy and orderliness of the whole series of events, repeating themselves a thousandfold in every batch of eggs, assures us of a causal sequence conspiring to create an object whose parts are adjusted to make a machine of extraordinary complexity.” Some of the early embryological studies were fascinating because of the meticulous- ness of the observations and the ingenious- ness of the methods used to devise critical experiments. During the early stages of the development of the embryo, the first cell to be formed, the zygote, divides into 2, those 2 divide into 4, then into 8, 16, 32, and finally into a mature individual that consists of hundreds of thousands or mil- lions of cells. A study of this development requires great patience and keen observa- tion, for growth and differentiation are very precise and follow a rigid pattern, any deviation from which would result in an abnormal individual. The pattern, however, may differ with different species or kinds of animals. Those most frequently studied are lower marine invertebrates because their eggs are readily obtainable in tremendous quantities and are not too difficult to study Tuomas Hunt Morcan—Riley 5 under the microscope. Various zoologists in Europe and the United States studied different organisms; Morgan’s main obser- vations were on the frog, and culminated in 1897 in a small book on “The Development of the Frog’s Egg.” He traced the normal development of the egg, cell by cell, from its beginning until late in the development of the tadpole. During that period of biological research, many zoologists were studying the egg under abnormal conditions to determine whether they could learn more about normal development by studying the ab- normal rather than the normal. Various means were used to produce unusual conditions. Eggs were kept compressed in certain planes, cells or parts of cells were destroyed with hot needles, develop- ing embryos were raised in sea water lacking or containing too much of certain salts, eggs were subjected to violent centrifugal force before or during develop- ment, nuclei were removed from cells, pieces of the egg were sliced off, and both nucleate and enucleate egg fragments were fertilized and allowed to develop as they would. Morgan tried all these methods on frogs and other animals, such as sea urchins and marine polychaete worms, and from these studies many valuable principles of development were discovered and under- stood. Morgan’s interests in the field of experimental embryology were extensive throughout his life, and the problems he attacked were many and _ varied. Early in the twentieth century, Morgan turned from his study of experimental embryology to the newly emerging field of genetics or the science of heredity. In 1865, Gregor Mendel, living in a monastery in Brunn, a town then in Austria, now in Czechoslovakia, presented a talk before the natural history society of that town in which he explained in considerable detail the results of a series of experiments he had conducted on the breeding of peas; he also suggested a theoretical explanation of his results. His talk was published the follow- ing year in the transactions of that society, but did not attract the attention of the biological world. At the end of the century, similar experi- ments were being carried on independently by Hugo de Vries in Holland, Carl Correns in Germany, and Eric von Tschermak in Austria. They all obtained the same results and came to the same conclusions, and in 1900 each published his own data and conclusions. In the meantime, they came across Mendel’s original work and realized that their conclusions had been anticipated by 35 years. When the rediscovery of the principles that Mendel had originally discovered be- came known to the biological world, there was a mixed reaction. Some biologists saw in them the answer to all problems of he- redity and evolution, but others were very skeptical or even hostile to their acceptance. Some people thought they were not true and some thought that even if they were true they were not universal, but applied only to the garden pea or to just a few organisms. It is very interesting to note that Dr. Morgan was one of a group of biologists who were critical of parts of Mendel’s scheme. Morgan started his work in genetics in 1908 (Stubbe 1933), and in 1909 he gave a talk at a meeting of the American Breeder's Association in Colum- bia, Missouri, in which he expressed a doubt that the hereditary factors, which we now know as “genes” existed at all. He proposed instead, that the condition of two contrasting characters, such as round or wrinkled peas, might be the result of alternative states of stability or conditions which determine the traits of which an individual is composed, rather than the result of the clean and absolute segregation of material bodies such as genes. The principal event that changed Mor- gan’s attitude towards genetics was the discovery of a white-eyed fly. Within three years of the rediscovery of Mendel’s laws, a graduate student by the name of W. S. Sutton, who was studying at Columbia University, observed the striking parallelism 6 TRANS. KeENTucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) in the behavior of chromosomes during cell division and the formation of germ cells and the hereditary factors that Mendel had hypothesized. He emphasized that it could not be purely coincidental, and maintained that these hereditary factors must be located in the chromosomes, thus laying the foundations for the chromosome theory of heredity. Not all biologists accepted such a revolutionary doctrine. At about the same time, several zoologists were concerned with the problem of the determination of sex. It had been shown by some that females in many animals appar- ently had two members of a certain chromo- some, now designated the “X chromosome’, whereas the males had only one, and it was suggested that this difference determined whether the animal was a male or a female. However, other zoologists found that in other animals the reverse condition seemed to be true, the male having two such chromosomes and the female only one. Confusion reigned, and the problem of sex determination seemed to be a very baffling one. Most of Dr. Morgan’s work in genetics was done with a tiny two-winged fly called Drosophila melanogaster; its popular names are pomace fly, fruit fly, or vinegar fly. If a person should put some bananas outdoors in the spring or summer, he would probably soon find some of these flies flitting around them. If he collected and examined them, he would find that they would invariably have eyes of a certain shade of red. Such flies, collected under natural or “wild” conditions are said to have “wild-type” characteristics or traits. This peculiar shade of red is then called the wild-type eye color. Morgan had had a number of such wild-type flies in his laboratory for many generations. It was, therefore, a great and pleasant shock when one morning he found a white-eyed male in a laboratory stock bottle. Of course, there was only one thing to do with such a fly—mate it immediately to a wild-type- eyed virgin female to see what would hap- pen. Probably to his surprise, Dr. Morgan found that wild-type and white eyes be- haved exactly as they should if they were determined by a pair of those hereditary factors or genes at the basis of the Mende- lian laws of heredity. Furthermore, not only did they behave according to Mendel's laws, but they also followed a pattern that would indicate that they were located on the X chromosome, or were “sex-linked,” to use the technical expression. Their pattern of transmission from one generation to an- other was the same as the pattern that Miss Stevens had observed for the X chromo- — some of Drosophila. | It was then finally recognized that birds and butterflies show one type of sex inheri- tance and sex-linkage, and the Diptera, mammals, and other animals show another, and that these two types are fundamentally the same except that in one the female has the odd chromosome, and in the other, the male has. It was also seen that Morgan’s example of white eye inheritance in the fruit fly follows the same pattern of heredity as do certain sex-linked traits in human beings, such as hemophilia and a certain kind of color blindness. Very soon after the discovery of the white-eyed male, a male appeared with short wings. This trait happened, by chance, also to be sex-linked and thus to follow the same pattern of transmission that was followed by the white-eyed character. Experiments soon showed that these two genes, white eyes and short wings, were linked together, which is just what they should have been if they were on the same chromosome. Dr. Morgan then crossed these two types together and found that although they were linked and therefore tended to be inherited together, they would sometimes show recombinations. Such recombinations of otherwise linked genes had been found in other organisms by other biologists but had never been satisfactorily explained. Morgan reasoned that the chromosomes must break and interchange similar pieces at some time early in the divisions that produce the germ cells in animals. This THOMAS HUNT theory of crossing over was supported by observations that had been made by F. A. Janssens, a Belgian cytologist, in 1909. He had shown that in a very early stage of these divisions, cross-shaped chromosome configurations could be seen under the microscope that were exactly what one would expect to find if the chromosome broke and crossed over as Morgan hypoth- esized (Morgan 19lla, 191lb). Recent observations have substantiated these ideas and have shown that crossing over involves exchanges of pieces of half chromosomes, as Janssens had originally suggested, and not whole ones, a very minor point. The crucial point is that these observa- tions caused Dr. Morgan to reverse some of his former ideas about Mendel’s laws. In- stead of being skeptical of them, he now accepted them wholeheartedly and spent most of the rest of his life confirming and expanding them. Only a great man would have done so, as many people, confronted with evidence opposed to their hypotheses would tend to find ways to look for con- firmatory evidence, rather than give up their cherished hypotheses. After demonstrating sex-linkage and showing that two sex-linked genes are linked to one another, Morgan extended his genetic studies. From 1909 to 1912, he and his group found many new mutations in Drosophila. After 1910, they attacked the problem of crossing over with great vigor, and published the first edition of their masterful “The Mechanism of Mende- lian Heredity” in 1915. Morgan’s greatest contribution was the study of linkage and crossing over. He demonstrated beyond doubt that genes located on the same chromosome sometimes separate from one another and that they do so more frequently if they are farther apart on the chromosome. With this demonstration, linkage maps, based on breeding data, could be con- structed and the whole chromosome theory was substantiated. While Dr. Morgan’s earlier work was in the field of experimental embryology, and while the work for which he is best known Morcan—Riley re was the genetic study of Drosophila, it should also be mentioned that he carried on extensive research on regeneration, and on the life cycle and cytology of the phylloxerans, a group of plant lice. These studies were important in influencing the thinking of the time. Dr. Morgan’s list of honorary degrees is extensive. He received the Doctor of Laws degree from The Johns Hopkins University (1915), the University of Kentucky (1916), McGill University (1921), the University of Edinburgh (1922), and the University of California (1930). The University of Michigan awarded him the degree of Doctor of Science in 1924, and the Univer- sity of Heidelberg (Germany) gave him the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1931. In 1933, he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine from the University of Zurich (Switzerland), and two years later the University of Paris awarded him the degree of Docteur Honoris Causa. He was President of the National Academy of Sciences from 1927 to 1931, of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science in 1930, and of the Sixth International Congress of Genetics in 1932. He was a member of the American Philo- sophical Society, the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the American Society of Naturalists, and other American scientific organizations. He was an honor- ary member of many European societies including the Royal Society of London, the Paris Academy of Science, Belgian Society of Zoology, Royal Society of Science of Uppsala, Vienna Academy of Science, and other scientific societies in France, Norway, Denmark, Ireland, Finland, Brussels, Mos- cow, St. Petersburg, and Munich. He was one of the members of the editorial board of GENETICS from the time it was founded in 1916 until his death. Of his many important scientific contri- butions, the greatest was the work in genetics that clinched the acceptance of Mendel’s laws, established the chromosome theory, and developed the concept of the linkage and crossing over of genes on a 8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) chromosome. It was for this work that he became the first man without a medical degree to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. LITERATURE CITED Morcan, T. H. 19lla. The application of the conception of pure lines to _ sex-limited inheritance and to sexual dimorphism. Amer. Nat. 45:65-78. 191lb. An attempt to analyze the constitution of the chromosomes on the basis of sex-linked inheritance in Drosophila. J. Exp. Zool. 11:365—-411. 1912. The scientific work of Miss N. M. Stevens. Science 36:468—470. . 1927. Experimental Embryology. Co- lumbia Univ. Press, New York, N.Y. 766 pp. Mutter, H. J. 1946. Thomas Hunt Morgan 1866-1945. Science 103:550-551. Stubbe, H. 1933. Thomas Hunt Morgan—der Nobelpreistrager fiir Medizen. Der Ziichter 5:257-260. A “Container Effect” on “C Primary Production Measurements Bruce C. PARKER AND GENE L. SAMSEL’ Department of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 ABSTRACT Comparative data on in vitro “C rates of primary production in 6 different kinds of containers yielded differences of more than an order of magnitude quite consistently. Experi- ments involving light penetration through and into the various containers, chlorophyll analyses, surface area/volume differences, etc. suggested that at suboptimal light intensities an inexpensive, screw cap, 250-ml (8-oz) pharmaceutical bottle produces results more closely approaching primary production rates in nature. INTRODUCTION Since the introduction of the light and dark bottle method for estimating primary production, numerous investigators have pointed out inherent problems in equating the observed in situ primary production with that of the natural environment. Such problems include: (1) Surface/volume ratio effects of the containers (Antia et al. 1963); (2) Injury to cells during filtration, inducing loss of intracellular “C organic matter (Arthur and Rigler 1967); (3) Spa- tial heterogeneity of the plankton sampled (Cassie 1962, Verduin 1964); (4) Precipi- tation of CO; as FesCO3 (Goldman and Mason 1962); and (5) Orientation of con- tainers with respect to the light source (Ohle 1958, Elster and Motsch 1966). Still other problems are changes in pH, light, temperature, circulation, nutrients, biotoxins, and microbial communities in- duced by the containers, some of which were forewarned in studies reviewed by Lund and Talling (1957) shortly after Steemann Nielsen’s (1952) 'C method came into widespread use. Vollenweider (1969) provided an up-to- date list of many problems associated with the measurement of primary production. One such problem, which especially con- cerns our research, is that soft glass absorbs more photosynthetically influential light Present address: Dames and Moore, 1150 West 8th Street, Cincinnati, Ohio 45203 (especially ultraviolet) than does quartz; since ultraviolet often is detrimental to the photosynthetic system, carbon assimilation rates in Pyrex or quartz bottles can be 50 percent less than in soft glass ones. Also, in Vollenweider (1969), Talling and Fogg (p. 74) noted “Some loss of light by absorp- tion and reflection, will occur at or in the transparent walls of the bottles or enclo- sures. Such loss is only likely to be con- siderable in the far ultraviolet region of the spectrum, where normal glass absorbs SHONGLY.. isp: While surveying the ecology of several freshwater ponds and meltwater pools on the Antarctic Peninsula, we first became aware of the striking differences in measur- able primary production induced by dif- ferent containers. Faced with a shortage of typical 300-ml glass-stoppered (BOD) bottles used extensively by limnologists, we resorted to 8-oz (250-ml) screw cap phar- maceutical type bottles also made of soft glass. Consistently, these 250-ml bottles yielded ‘'*C uptake rates significantly above (i.e., up to 60% higher than) values obtained with the standard 300-ml bottles. Since it is clear from the literature that a great variety of bottles, plastic bags, or special chambers (e.g., domes) have been used for estimating primary production, we began comparisons of several of these con- tainers in an effort to explain their differ- ences. 10 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are grateful to Drs. Robert Schmidt, Harold Hopkins, and Ray Tipsord, for advice and assistance in interpreting our data. MATERIALS AND METHODS Our primary production studies were conducted mainly in the field using several aquatic environments. While the precision of alternative laboratory experiments cannot be discounted, the difficulties in duplicating conditions of natural light scatter, the con- tinuously changing angle of solar radiation source, the complete solar spectrum, natural spatial turbidity differences, natural plank- ton communities, pH, etc., in our opinion, necessitated the field approach. The aquatic environments used were: (1) an oligotrophic pond in Antarctica containing Chlorella as the only detectable phytoplankter (called C. B. Pond and described by Parker et al. 1972); (2) a farm pond near the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University campus, essentially mesotrophic in character with high turbidi- ties, and possessing Dinobryon as the chief phytoplankter along with several diatoms; (3) a shallow and eutrophic duck pond on the same campus with Spirogyra, Oedo- gonium, Cladophora, Cymbella, Melosira, and Navicula among the phytoplankton; and (4) a waste oxidation pond at Sult’s Trailer Court, Meramec, Virginia, as pic- tured and described by Parker et al. (1971), and containing Chlamydomonas, Pandorina, Euglena, and other typical sewage lagoon algae. For primary production, we used the “C method originally described by Steeman Nielsen (1952) and as modified by Goldman (1963) and Strickland and Parsons (1968). One ml of a solution of Na2'*CO; buffered at pH 9.5 and with an activity of 4yCi was injected into the containers. All containers, unless otherwise stated, were incubated in their respective aquatic environments at a depth of 20 cm from which the sample had been taken. They were oriented horizontally with convex or rounded sides facing up and with longitudinal axes essentially corresponding to that of the sun’s east-west path. After incubation, 10-ml aliquots were fixed with 40 percent formalin to make a 1:30 dilution for transport to the laboratory. Equal aliquots were filtered through GS 0.22-1 Millipore membranes by procedures outlined by Parker (1967) to avoid exces- sive loss of intracellular organics. Filters were rinsed routinely with 2 ml of 0.03 N HCl. Periodic checks on the “C organic matter in filtrates revealed always less than 5 percent of the total C organic matter to be extracellular. After storage over desic- cant for at least 24 hours, all membranes were counted for 10 min, suspended in 0.4 percent PPO [2,5-Diphenyloxazole] and 0.01 percent POPOP [2,2-p-Phenylenebis (5-phenyl) oxazole] in toluene on a Pac- kard Tricarb Model 3310 Scintillation Counter. Duplicate membranes consistently exhibited less than 5 percent variation. We used the anthracene method (Dore 1958, Marquis and Yelenosky 1962) as one means of measuring the light penetrating the various containers. Anthracene is a photosensitive compound which has been used as a simple chemical radiometer in terrestrial ecology, and which Parker et al. (1972) applied to aquatic environments. When a tube filled with a benzene solution of anthracene is placed in sunlight, anthra- cene polymerizes into benzene insoluble dianthracene; the amount of dianthracene produced is approximately proportional to the total visible radiation received during the exposure period. Following exposure, the contents of each tube is filtered to re- move the precipitated dianthracene, and the concentration of anthracene remaining in the clear filtrate is determined directly on a colorimeter against a standard curve. We followed essentially the methods described by Marquis and Yelenosky (1962), while using a variety of glass containers and tubes. Our data are expressed as percentage trans- mittance, because we have found that not all wavelengths of radiation apparently cause anthracene polymerization. Conse- quently, our anthracene data are only useful PRIMARY PRODUCTION Fic. 1. Six containers used in comparative primary production experiments; top (left to right) and bottom (left to right), they are: 125-ml Pyrex, 150-ml BOD, 300-ml BOD, 2-0z (ca. 70-ml) pharmaceutical, 8-oz (ca. 250-ml) pharma- ceutical, and 16-oz (ca. 500 ml) pharmaceutical bottles. for comparisons of relative amounts of total radiation penetrating the various containers; we shall discuss this point in detail sub- sequently. Two additional points should be included as a supplement to the direc- tions by Marquis and Yelenosky (1962): (1) tubes or bottles must be filled with the benzene solution because the reaction does not proceed normally on exposure to air; and (2) if the solution freezes during exposure to light (<0 C) as it did fre- quently in Antarctica, spurious data result. Extractable chlorophyll a was deter- mined by the method of Strickland and Parsons (1968:189) using the formula 11.64 E6630 — 9.16 E6450 + 0.10 E6300 as recommended by SCOR/UNESCO. Chlo- rophylls b and c were not calculated due to their lower reliability with colorimetric analysis. As with the '‘C primary produc- tivity procedure, we used GS 0.22- Milli- MEASUREMENT—Farker and Samsel ba: Bre. 2. Normalized curves of percentage trans- mittance (vertical axis) of light between 700 and 300 mu (horizontal axis) pieces of glass obtained from each type of container; top to bottom: 300-ml BOD, 250-ml, and 70-ml pharmaceutical bottles. pore membranes and procedures established by Parker (1967) for minimum cell damage. In addition, we have found it essential that comparative chlorophyll determina- tions entail (1) filtration of identical volumes at similar pressures and (2) extrac- tion in acetone for identical time lengths (i.e., 20 + 1 hr at 5-8 C). For highly turbid samples and high phytoplankton densities, we substituted Whatman GF/C fiberglass filters which were removed by centrifuga- tion prior to colorimetric determinations. The 300-ml soft glass BOD or reagent bottles with ground glass stoppers; the 250-ml (8-oz), 70-ml (2-0z), and 500-ml (16-oz) pharmaceutical screwcap bottles, all of soft glass; the 125-ml spherical Pyrex 12 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) TasBLe 1.—SeLEct Data oN “C Primary PropucTioN (CALCULATED AS MG/M*/HR PHOTOFIXED), ANTHRACENE POLYMERIZATION (AS % TRANSMISSION OF BENZENE FILTRATE) AND EXTRACTABLE CHLOROPHYLL a (AS MG PIGMENT/M*® EXTRACTED) FOR DIFFERENT CONTAINERS AND DIFFERENT Aguatic ENvirONMENTS (— Means No Data CoLLEcTED). NONE REFERS TO CHLOROPHYLL ANALYSIS ON WATER SAMPLES Not INCUBATED IN CONTAINERS; L = LicHTt AND D = DARK CONTAINERS Primary Anthracene Experiment No. Container Production Polymerization Chlorophyll a 1: 20 January 1970, 25 hr., None _ = <10 10,760—96,840 lux, Antarctic 250L o.6o. ccar 70 = pond. 300L 2.60, leaked STO _ 2: March 1970, 6 hr., S50L, 0.20 42 Suspended solids 21,520 lux, Farm pond, bat i 0.09 20 interfered with high turbidity. 300L 0.13 20 extraction TOL 0.10 g 3: 10 April 1970, 8 hr., None - - 261 37,660-53,800 lux, Duck pond. 250L 34.2, 30.1 755 ie 574 250D - - 550 1251, pppoe ies AD 35 316 125D - - 544 300L DO eet 45, 38 502 300D - - 616 70L EGS 104 3495 506 70D - - 537 500L 3.6, 3.4 38, 42 486 500D - — 484 4: 12 September 1970, 6 hr., None _ — 218, 189 64,560 lux continuously, 250L SOL SH (Were! sy Duck pond water in containers 250D il = 134 on roof of Biology Bldg., T1251. 1235 127 70, 69 59 VPI & SU 125D _ = 197 300L B10) Oe 49, 47 106 300D 1.8 - 155 70L TA, 4.3 71, 64 17 70D - - 178 500L iy bees U) 59, 49 82 500D - _ 170 150L. 4.8, 4.6 41, 29 150D - - 5A: 3 December 1970, 4 hr., 250L 16.5, 16.4 30,128—36,584 lux, Duck pond. 125. 10. LEO 300L 9.4, 9.3 OL. 100 30:0 500L bees 3 es? 5B: 3 December 1970, 4 hr., None - 820 30,128-36,584 lux, oxidation 250L 416, 414 960 pond. 250D - 920 1251, 2755 iA. 856 125D - 840 300L 245, 243 804 300D ~ 808 70L 931.228 900 70D - 860 500L 30, 29 612 500D - 876 150L 40, 38 685 150D - 840 PRIMARY PRODUCTION MEASUREMENT—Parker and Samsel 13 bottles with ground glass stoppers; and in a few experiments only, the 150-ml soft glass BOD or reagent bottles with ground glass stoppers used in our comparative studies are shown in Fig. l. The 300-, 150-, and 125-ml containers are used widely by limnologists and oceanographers. A frequent disadvantage of these _ glass- stoppered bottles not emphasized in this paper is the tendency for the stoppers to become loose and leak during incubation. Percentage transmittance measurements at various wavelengths of light between 700 and 300 mp» were conducted on a Beckman DB continuous recording spectro- photometer. For these studies, 3 or more pieces of glass were selected from the main surface of each container after breakage. In the case of the pharmaceutical bottles, 3 pieces were taken from both convex and flat sides. Graphs of percentage transmit- tance of each piece of glass were obtained against air (no glass) as the spectrophotom- eter blank. All curves reported subse- quently represent normalized curves which have averaged the 3 or more comparable glass pieces. Although detectable variation occurred, the range in variation between curves of separate glass pieces from the main area of the container surfaces ( except- ing corners) differed by no more than a few percentage points at any one wave- length, and there was considerably less variation over the entire visible spectrum examined. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CO, Uptake Rates Data for 5 experiments involving the different kinds of containers are summa- rized in Table 1. In the first experiment, the CO, uptake rate was about 60 percent higher in the 250-ml bottles than in the 300-ml BOD type bottles. Similarly, anthracene polymerization was signifi- cantly greater in the 250-ml bottles, as indicated by the higher percentage trans- mittance values which, in turn, indicate a greater degree of anthracene conversion to the insoluble dianthracene form caused sit rsciaaitssecieies cutest sea em Pic) 3: eaves curves of percentage trans- mittance (vertical axis) of light between 700 and 300 mu (horizontal axis) for 3 or more pieces of glass obtained from each type of container; top to bottom: 500-ml pharmaceutical, 125-ml Pyrex, and 150-ml BOD bottles. by a greater amount of light penetrating the 250-ml bottle. Several other experi- ments comparing photosynthetic CO. up- take and anthracene polymerization were performed in Antarctic ponds; all revealed essentially the same types of results. The data from the second experiment reveal similarly that a higher rate of CO, uptake occurred in the 250-ml bottle when compared with that in the 3 other kinds of containers. The greatest polymerization of anthracene also occurred in the 250-ml bottle, suggesting that more light appar- ently penetrated that type of container. In the third experiment, the rate of COQ, uptake in the various containers ranged over nearly an order of magnitude. As 14 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE 2.—LicHut TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF GLAss PrECES AND INTACT CONTAINERS, INCLUDING SURFACE AREA/VOLUME RATIOS A Dine G X % White Fluorescent Wave Length Light (via Calculated Container Range (mz) x % T1 lux meter) S/V 250-ml 700—400 89.1 400-300 66.2 94.2 0.30 700-300 83.3 125-ml 700—400 87.0 400-300 74.6 90.4 0.23 700—300 83.6 300-ml] 700—400 79.0 400-300 59.0 86.5 0.24 700-300 74.0 70-ml 700—400 88.9 400-300 54.6 92.3 0.50 700-300 88.3 500-ml 700—400 74.3 400-300 52.2, 88.5 0.25 700-300 68.8 150-ml 700—400 81.2 400-300 61.8 88.0 0:25 700-300 76.4 1x % T = means of >3 planimeter (area) measurements on each original graph with <1% variation of areas of percentage transmissions; expressed as areas of % T/area of 100% T X transmission values for the designated wavelength ranges. before, the 250-ml bottles produced the highest fixation values and the greatest amount of anthracene polymerization. Extractable chlorophyll a appeared to increase in all containers, but we discovered subsequently that the value for the fresh collection (261) was not valid for com- parison with the values obtained from incubated bottles; a larger volume of the fresh sample had been filtered, and it was extracted 6 hours longer than other samples. Notable among the chlorophyll data of Experiment 3 are the values for the 125-ml light and the 500-ml light and dark bottles; these values may signify some degradation of chlorophyll @ during incubation. In the fourth experiment (Table 1), the 250-ml bottles did not produce the highest CO, uptake rates. Anthracene polymeriza- tion, however, was highest in the 250-ml bottles. Because all bottles were incubated on the roof of the Biology Building, and the light intensity was exceptionally high, we suspect that light and/or temperature might have inhibited the CO, fixation rates and caused chlorophyll degradation, 100, thus reflecting mean percentage which was significant, especially in the light bottles. In 2 other experiments (5A and 5B), the trends in CO, uptake are consistent with those of the first 3 experiments. Also, Experiment 5B was repeated with similar results. No degradation in chlorophyll ap- pears to have occurred in this in situ experiment although the possibility of an increase in chlorophyll a exists for some containers, especially 250L, 250D, and 7OL. The data in Table 1 represent typical (not biased) data of the type obtained in approximately 10 additional experiments. Optical Properties of the Containers Data obtained on the light transmission through the containers and glass pieces obtained from them are shown in Table 2 and Figs. 2 and 3. Note that 94.2 percent of the white fluorescent light (100% = ca. 5,380 lux) penetrated through both walls of the 250-ml bottles, and this amount of light is the greatest recorded for the 6 containers. Also, the spectral data on pieces of glass showed that 89.1 percent of the PRIMARY PRODUCTION MEASUREMENT—FLarker and Samsel 15 spectrum between 700 and 400 mp was transmitted through the pieces (single wall layer) obtained from the 250-ml bottles, which also constitutes the highest value. As would be expected, more of the near ultraviolet light (300-400 mp) penetrates the glass of the Pyrex 125-ml flask pieces. Another parameter affecting the total amount of radiation reaching a container is the surface area exposed to light com- pared to its volume, the latter of which is an indication of mean depth and relative phytoplankton numbers. Therefore, the data in Table 2 are the calculated surface area/volume ratios, based on the maximal area of cross sections through cylindrical and spherical containers. Note that the 70-ml bottle had the greatest S/A value, while the 250-ml bottle has the second highest S/A value and all others are about equal. These calculations indicate that, on a volume (or per cell) basis, more light will penetrate the 70-ml and 250-ml bottles than other containers. CONCLUSIONS Our studies have shown that a wide range in CO, uptake rates occurs under a variety of conditions when different con- tainers are employed in light and dark bottle measurements for primary produc- tion. Comparisons of data collected with different kinds of containers should be avoided. The fairly consistent and_ repeatable pattern of highest CO, uptake rates using 250-ml bottles, intermediate rates using 300-, 125-, and 70-ml bottles, and low rates using the 500-ml and 150-ml bottles may be caused by a greater amount of light penetrating the 250-ml bottles. The anthra- cene data appear to support this conclusion most strongly. The direct measurements of light transmission also show that 250-ml bottles are somewhat more transparent to visible light than any of the other containers including the 125-ml Pyrex flasks. Possibly these small differences in optical properties of the various glass container walls are further increased or decreased by other characteristics of the containers, such as, the surface/volume ratios, ditterences in reflectance due to curvature of the glass, cle: At least in some instances, the chloro- phyll appeared to increase in the 250-ml bottles and to decrease in the 500-ml and 150-ml bottles. These increases may be the result or the cause of the greater photo- synthesis and production during incubation. Also, it is probable that the decreases ob- served indicate some kind of deleterious effect of enclosure of the phytoplankton within the 500-ml and 150-ml containers. These are matters for further study. We recognize that this research has left many questions unanswered. How- ever, on the basis of data so far obtained, we feel that the 250-ml pharmaceutical bottle permits an in situ rate of primary production more closely approaching that of the natural aquatic environment than do other containers. Furthermore, the 250-ml bottle with screw cap prevents loss of 4C which can occur in containers with un- secured stoppers, and 250-ml bottles are readily available from drug stores and cost less than 10 percent that of BOD or Pyrex containers. These are the containers we use currently in studies of Kentucky lakes (Samsel et al. 1973). LITERATURE CITED AnriA Nuh, Gs DD. IMcArristern,-V...R:, Parsons: K. STEVENS, AND J. D. H. Strickuanp. 1963. Further measurements of primary production using a large-volume plastic sphere. Limnol. Oceanogr. 8:166—183. Anmion, (Gh. vAnD UF. Ho Hicnrr. 1967." .A possible source of error in the 14C method of measuring primary productivity. Limnol. Oceanogr. 12:121—124. Cassie, R. M. 1962. Microdistribution and other error components of 14C_ primary production estimates. Limnol. Oceanogr. 7:121-130. Dore, W. G. 1958. A simple chemical light meter. Ecology 39:151—152. Evster, H. J., anp B. Morscu. 1966. Unter- suchungen iiber das Phytoplankton und die organische Urproduktion in einigen Seen des Hochschwartz walds, im Schleinsee und Bodensee. Arch. Hydrobiol. Suppl. 28:291- 376. 16 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) GotpMaAN, C. R. 1963. The measurement of primary productivity and limiting factors in fresh water with carbon-14. Pp. 103-113. In: Proc. Conf. on Primary Productivity Measurement, Marine and Freshwater. Ha- waii, 1961. USAEC Doc. TID-7633. GOLDMAN, C. R., anp D. T. Mason. 1962. In- organic precipitation of carbon in productivity experiments utilizing carbon-14. Science 136: 1049-1050. Lunp, J. W. G., AnD J. F. Tatuinc. 1957. Bo- tanical limnological methods with special reference to the algae. Bot. Rev. 23:489-583. Marquis, D. A., AND G. YELENOSKy. 1962. A chemical light meter for forest research. U.S. For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE No. 165, Upper Darby, Pa., 1-24. OnLteE, W. 1958. Diurnal production and destruction rates of phytoplankton in lakes. Rapp. Cons. Explor. Mer 144:129-131. Parker, B. C. 1967. Influence of method for removal of seston on the dissolved organic matter. J. Phycol. 3:166—-173. ParRKER, B. C., E. K. OBENG-ASAMOA, AND G. L. SAMSEL, JR. 1971. Effects of detergent protease enzymes on sewage oxidation pond phytoplankton. Bioscience 21:1035-—1038, 1042. Parker, B. C., G. L. SAMSEL, JR., AND G. W. Prescotr. 1972. Freshwater algae of the Antarctic Peninsula. I. Systematics and ecology in the U.S. Palmer Station area. Antarct. Res. Ser. (Amer. Geophys. Union) 20:69-81. SAMSEL, G. L., Jr., J. R. REED, AND R. R. Daus. 1973. Preliminary investigations of a head- water creek in Eastern Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 34:13-21. STEEMANN NIELSEN, E. 1952. The use of radio- active carbon (1!4C) for measuring organic production in the sea. J. Con. Internatl. Explor. Mer 18:117-—140. STRICKLAND, J. D. H., anp T. R. Parsons. 1968. A Practical Handbook of Seawater Analysis. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. No. 167:1-311. VERDUIN, J. 1964. Principles of primary produc- tivity: Photosynthesis under completely natural conditions. Pp. 221-238. In: Jackson, D. F. (ed.) Algae and Man, Plenum Press, N.Y. VOLLENWEIDER, R. A. 1969. A manual of methods for measuring primary production in aquatic environments, including a chapter on bacteria. I.B.P. Handbook No. 12. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, England, 213 pp. The Distribution of Stoneflies (Insecta: Plecoptera) of the Salt River, Kentucky’” Davip S. WHITE Department of Biology and Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT As part of a preimpoundment study for Taylorsville Lake in the Salt River, Kentucky, 2,932 adult and 1,375 nymphal stoneflies were collected from August 1970 to July 1971. Annotations are given for the 12 species that represent 5 families and 8 genera. Special emphasis was placed on a study of the life history for Isoperla burksi, including stomach analysis and fecundity. INTRODUCTION To understand the stream ecosystem, the combinations of organisms and the interactions of all communities must be examined as to the roles they play (Krum- holz and Neff 1970). Among the benthic forms, the stoneflies constitute a major component of the food web, and an ac- curate list of the species, their abundance, distribution, and life histories is essential to interpreting the results of any changes that might occur in a stream ecosystem. In conjunction with a preimpoundment study for Taylorsville Lake in the Salt River Basin (Krumholz 1971, Krumholz and Neff 1972, Neff and Krumholz 1973) the benthic fauna of the area was surveyed from 1968 through 1972. As part of that survey, Woodling (1971, unpublished mas- ters thesis, University of Louisville, Louis- ville, Kentucky ) studied the benthic fauna and water quality of Brashears Creek, a major tributary to the Salt River, during 1969 and 1970. The present paper is a summary of our information on_ the plecopterans of both the Salt River and Brashears Creek during the study period. Many aspects of the life histories of the stoneflies found in the Salt River Basin have been reported by Needham 1 The work on which this report is based was supported in part by funds provided by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Water Resources Research, as authorized under the Water Resources Research Act of 1964, Contract No. B-022-KY, Agreement No. 14-31- 0001-3087. 2 Contribution No. 170 (new series) from the Depart- ment of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208. i and Claassen (1925), Claassen (1931), Frison (1929, 1935, 1942), and Harden and Mickel (1952). An _ exception is Isoperla burksi Frison, which is quite common throughout the stream system. Thus, special attention has been given to food habits and fecundity for that species. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank the personnel of the Water Resources Laboratory for assisting in collecting the benthic samples, and espe- cially Vincent Resh, Bruce Wilson, and Tom Weber for their diligence in making the blacklight collections. I am particularly grateful to Dr. William E. Ricker, Fisheries Research Board of Canada, and Dr. Paul H. Freytag, University of Kentucky, for their determinations of the stoneflies. I also thank Dr. Louis A. Krumholz and Dr. Stuart E. Neff, Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, for reviewing the manuscript. THE Stupy AREA The study area, in central Kentucky, extends 94 miles on the Salt River and 22 miles on Brashears Creek (Fig. 1) and has been described in detail by Krum- holz (1971), Krumholz and Neff (1972), and Neff and Krumholz (1973). Station numbers used in this paper correspond to those listed by Krumholz (1971), Krumholz and Neff (1972), and Neff and Krumholz (1973) that were sampled regularly for benthos and other materials. 18 | SHELBY SS SPENCER 26 40 (2.2) TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) a] ec (0% e3 TAYLORSVILLE PROPOSED SITES FOR TAYLORSVILLE | AND | CAMP GROUND | LAKES ——-— SALT RIVER BASIN | KENTUCKY ANDERSON Ayansuan Salt ee te COUNTY ae" ENS nies % ee are aa \ 5 sie a Dye tate) ek Si = -—_ e = Ss cl” Cis) res ®

] ax 29 ice GROUND Se \ dig = ( Boundary of G S 3 (6yS ne SALT RIVER 60 eer ee) SO) AKE C6) BASIN VE, | 60 tl ue HARRODSBURG Pare. ) SSS Po, | mn QO < °4 Te Nea B3 80 70 is WASHINGTON\S, 30 | (C4). FPS ; @ - | , bie fh am F SS [ / 2x0 ms BD / \ SPRINGFIELD a ae j x / os 8 100) | Cay | VU: / > ee 2 COUNTY - BOYLE o = Gas | Q Ce | | 110 MARION | "4 oe COUNTY a Op, E BANON | Lp, sti COUNTY ips kt — re oe. Soe Fic. 1. Map of portions of the Salt River and Beech Fork showing the areas to be impounded (From Neff and Krumholz 1973). and the locations of the permanent collecting stations. at these stations are primarily mud on limestone bedrock with scattered areas of sand, gravel, and rubble supporting some emergent vegetation. Stations 15 through Upstream from Station 13, the Salt River will remain much as it is today and will not be flooded by impoundment for Taylorsville Lake. The bottom materials cine STONEFLIES OF SALT RIvER, KENTUCKy—White 21 will be inundated permanently, and Sta- 4 tn Saute. oo oes tion 14 is likely to be flooded at least part of = & = al Coe each year. Bottom materials at those sta- & " a tions consist of bedrock, sand, gravel, and §& larger stones, and there are extensive beds ve Pee, tet coh Ga et caico a of water willow Justicia americana (L.) 5 | Shee ay reyes Vahl from late spring through fall. Stations & e 22 and 23 are below the damsite and & the bottom materials are similar to those © MOM tana 3x K upstream. ¢ Brashears Creek enters the Salt River : Ele| x mI ee See below the proposed damsite approximately 4 E 0.5 mile above Station 23. The bottom of “ ||/% c Saal se xK xx Brashears Creek is much like that in the 4% : Salt River and also supports large stands z 2 | 2 a 52 BERLE Se of water willow. An intermittent tributary, 2 | 2 Station T, that enters Brashears Creek from << au xxx x the west between Stations 26 and 33, was z ie sampled when water was present. There, z i x x the streambed is similar to that in Brashears Creek. ee The beds of water willow were animpor- a| x ~KxXRKXK tant physical feature of the study area, ¢ and particular attention was given to «& > al x x XXXxxxXxx sampling those areas. During the summer, & 4 their growth effectively channelized many 3 B bl x 5 xX parts of the stream, giving it a braided *§& appearance. The massive root systems aie o| x x a limited shifting of the sand and gravel Z E . bars during periods of high water especially & Bila! xx xxxxX in the winter and spring months. The § ; submerged root masses have been shown’ § eae x xx to provide an excellent winter refuge for 3 2 |" many of the nymphs and larvae of the = a x wan various aquatic insects (Woodling, unpub- 4 lished master’s thesis). © Bi nec x METHODS < ft Y Several hundred collections of nymphs é were made using a Surber square-foot : cl x sampler and a 1-m wide “qualitative seine” & made of nylon bobbinet (#0 grit cloth). ~ The Surber sampler was used primarily in = the riffle areas while the qualitative seine Z es facilitated collection in the peripheral areas : sees Rs 5 % such as mudbanks and emergent vege- E55 3 3S S-p S28 S tation. 7 Psy ERE SS SSS Adults were collected through extensive — S = = gs a ‘ " ES . a weekly blacklighting from March through 3 : = 8 = SSSSSE S : ; S. SkLRgsgvgsgesreeTse October 1971. Examination of tree trunks, < cee Gee eeeces 1,375 2.932 10 Totals 20 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) T burks | SAAN Z pervula wt A vivipara CNN A. forbesi = &. fascia Adults io | Bi Ww N. nigritta burks P placida N. clymene A. arida Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec |Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul 1970 1971 Fic. 2. Seasonal distribution of nymphs and adults of 12 species of stoneflies in the Salt River and Brashears Creek, Kentucky. rocks, and bridge abutments yielded many adult specimens, and sweeping emergent and littoral vegetation proved effective, especially in collecting the winter and early spring forms. Where possible, nymphs and adults were identified and sexed using the guides of Needham and _ Claassen (1925), Claassen (1931), and Frison (1935, 1942). THE STONEFLIES During the study period, 1,375 nymphal and 2.932 adult stoneflies were collected from the 16 stations, and represented 5 families, 8 genera, and 12 species (Table 1). The seasonal distribution of nymphs and adults in those collections is shown in Fig. 2. NEMOURIDAE Nemoura nigritta group—Seventy nymphs of this group were collected from March through May in the deeper, slower riffles from 5 stations in the lower Salt River and from a single station at the source of Brashears Creek just below the confluence of Bullskin and Clear creeks (Table 1, Fig. 2). Most were found on the larger stones though some were taken from the submerged water willow roots. The adults, 1 male and 4 females, were found under the bark of fallen trees near the waters edge. The emergence period was very short; it began in early March and probably did not extend beyond 10 June. C APNIIDAE Allocapnia vivipara (Claassen ).—A. vivip- ara was the most abundant winter stonefly and the third most abundant stonefly in our collections; 242 nymphs were collected from 5 of the upper 6 stations in the Salt River and from all 6 stations in Brashears Creek (Table 1). Nymphs and adults were taken in and near the slow, shallow riffles in the Salt River and along the entire length of Brashears Creek. The greatest abundance of A. vivipara in Brashears Creek, however, was in the uppermost 3 stations and in the intermittent tributary. Adults were present from late February to early April (Fig. 2). The sex ratio was very close to 1:1. The males, however, began emerging about 2 weeks before the females and were taken on tree trunks as far as 50 m from the shore. The females, though mainly macropterous, usually were not far from the stream’s edge. Allocapnia forbesi Frison.—A. forbesi was represented only by 3 adult males, and was the least abundant of any stonefly in these collections. All were taken in early Febru- ary at Stations 26 and 33, near the mouth of Brashears Creek (Table 1, Fig. 2). T AENIOPTERYGIDAE Brachyptera fasciata (Burmeister ).—Six large nymphs were taken in late February from riffles at 3 stations in Brashears Creek where the water was deep and fairly slow (Table 1). Both adult females were col- lected on a gravel bar at Station 33 in early March (Fig. 2). Taeniopteryx burksi Ricker and Ross.— T. burksi was the earliest of the winter fauna and appeared in the riffles in mid- November. Though not abundant, it was present throughout the winter in the lower stations of the Salt River and in the upper reaches of Brashears Creek (Table 1). As with Brachyptera, the nymphs were found in the deeper, slower areas of the STONEFLIES OF SALT RIVER, KENTUCKy—White 21 riffles especially near the beds of water willow. Adults, 7 males and 2 females, were taken under stones along the streambeds, and were collected only in November and December; however, they probably were present through early April (Fig. 2). Taeniopteryx parvula Banks.—Six large nymphs were taken in December from the root masses of the water willows only at Station 23 in the Salt River just downstream from the mouth of Brashears Creek (Table 1). A single adult was taken on a sandbar at the same station. PERLODIDAE Isoperla burksi Frison.—Isoperla burksi was the fourth most abundant stonefly in our collections. Nymphs of I. burksi were more abundant than any other nymphs in the collections and were collected at 10 stations, especially in the riffles of the lower Salt River and throughout Brashears Creek from January to April (Table 1, Fig. 2). Of the 5 instars noted, the first 2 were found mainly among the roots of water willow. The larger individuals were most abundant in the open areas of the riffles. A measurable difference in size between males and females was noted in the 3 larger instars with the females becoming progressively larger until the difference in size was no greater than 0.2 mm prior to emergence. Nymphal females outnumbered males slightly more fan’? 1: Stomach analysis of 21 nymphs of different sizes showed I. burksi to be both carnivorous and cannibalistic, as are many other members of the genus. No nymph examined contained more than 1 organism in its stomach. All prey was consumed whole with no preference as to whether they were ingested headfirst or tailfirst. Of the 21 stomachs, 7 were empty, 8 con- tained chironomid larvae, 4 contained ephemeropteran nymphs, 1 contained a Perlesta nymph, and 1 an I. burksi nymph. Adults began emerging in very late April and were present until the middle of June. They showed virtually no attraction to the blacklight, and only 1 was taken by that method during the entire emergence period. In late April and early May, adults were found under pieces of driftwood and bark scattered along the shore. Adults in late May and June were taken by sweeping the emergent water willow. The females col- lected in that manner outnumbered the males by slightly more than 2:1, the same sex ratio exhibited among the nymphs in our collections. As indicated by the results of sweeping, mating and egg deposition took place during the day. Even though egg deposi- tion was not observed, several females taken from the water willow deposited egg masses on the sides of the collecting jars. Egg counts from 10 newly emerged females ranged from 257 to 409 with an average of 358. Isoperla clio (Newman).—A few large nymphs were taken in February and March from 3 stations in the Salt River and 4 sta- tions in Brashears Creek (Table 1, Fig. 2). No more than | or 2 were collected in each sample indicating that the species was widespread but not abundant. Adults were taken from late March through early May by sweeping emergent vegetation. Isoperla nana (Walsh).—Nymphs_ were collected from the riffles in early March through the end of April from 4 stations in the Salt River and 1 in Brashears Creek (Table 1, Fig. 2); but two adult males were taken in early May from a sandbar at that station, and a third was taken in late April as it drifted into the bottom sampler. PERLIDAE Acroneuria arida (Hagen).—A. arida was the second most abundant stonefly in our collections. With a 2-year life cycle, A. arida was the only nymph present in the riffles throughout the year (Fig. 2), and was collected at 5 stations in the Salt River and 4 stations in Brashears Creek (Table 1). First-year nymphs began appearing in the riffles during April and were abundant 22. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) until October. Since only a few specimens were taken from December through March, it was assumed that the nymphs either entered the submerged beds of water willow roots or were buried in the bottom sediments. In late March, nymphs reap- peared at all of the lower Salt River stations and throughout much of Brashears Creek. Emergence began in late May and continued through early July. A. arida was attracted to blacklight in large numbers. Perlesta placida (Hagen).—P. placida was the most abundant plecopteran taken and made up more than half the total number of stoneflies in the collections. Also, it was taken at all but 2 of the stations sampled, those being in the extreme upper reaches of the Salt River, where the only stonefly taken was Allocapnia vivipara. Nymphs were present in the riffles from March through the middle of June (Fig. 2), and their numbers in the collections were exceeded only by those of Isoperla burksi. Adults of P. placida were present from the second week in June through the second week in July, and the individuals of this species made up nearly three- fourths of all adult stoneflies in the collections. Neoperla clymene (Newman).—Nymphs were found at 4 stations in Brashears Creek and at 3 stations in the Salt River (Table 1). They first appeared in the riffles in early March and were present until the second week in July. N. clymene was the fifth most abundant stonefly in the collections. Emergence began in early June and extended through the middle of July. A few specimens were attracted to the black- light but most were collected on stones near the stream’s edge and by sweeping littoral vegetation. DISCUSSION Of the species collected, all except Acroneuria arida appeared to be univoltine, producing a single generation per year. The life cycle of A. arida, as has been noted for other Acroneuria (Claassen 1931, and Harden and Mickel 1952), requires 2 years. All 12 species would be classified nonactive first instar or intermediate (Hynes 1961). Of the 12 species in the collections, no more than 10 were collected at any station (Station 30 at the source of Brashears Creek), and at Stations 2 and 3 in the upper Salt River, only a single species was col- lected (Table 1). Nine species were col- lected at Station 23, 8 were present in the collections from Station 22, and there were 7 species in the collections from each of 4 stations, Station 14 in the Salt River and Stations 28, 29, and 33 in Brashears Creek. No more than 4 species were taken in the collections from the other 9 stations. No species was taken at all 16 stations (Table 1), but specimens of Perlesta placida were collected at 14 stations, speci- mens of Allocapnia vivipara were taken at 11 stations, Isoperla burksi at 10 stations, Acroneuria arida at 9 stations, Isoperla clio and Neoperla clymene at 7 stations, and the Nemoura nigritta group at 6 stations. None of the others was taken at more than a third of the stations, and Taeinopteryx parvula was collected only at Station 23 just below the confluence of Brashears Creek and the Salt River. With the exception of Perlesta placida and Allocapnia vivipara, all species were collected only at stations containing sub- stantial beds of water willow. The water willow affords protection for the long inactive stages and for the smaller instars which were often collected by sampling in and around the root beds. Water willow provides a site for mating and egg deposi- tion by adults of the late spring and summer such as the Nemoura_ nigritta group, Taeniopteryx burksi, and Isoperla burksi. Water willow is not necessary for Perlesta placida, but where this vegetation is present, it is used as a site for mating and egg deposition. Allocapnia vivipara is an inhabitant of small and intermittent streams, as often is P. placida (Frison 1929, 1935), and was found only in Brashears Creek and the portions of the STONEFLIES OF SALT RIVER, KENTUCKY—White pe Salt River upstream from the proposed Taylorsville Lake. Since the majority of the species were collected within or near the beds of water willow, any changes in the distribution of that vegetation brought about by the impoundment of Taylorsville Lake might have a direct effect on the abundance and distribution of these species in the Salt River. As pointed out earlier, nymphs of Acro- neuria arida were the only larvae present throughout the year (Fig. 2), since that species was the only one in our collections that had a 2-year life cycle. Nymphs of all other species were collected at different times from early November through mid- June (Fig. 2). Nymphs of Taeniopteryx burksi and Isoperla burksi were taken over periods of 6 months and the periods of collecting nymphs of other species ranged down to 2 months for Brachyptera fasciata, Isoperla clio, and I. nana. The only species for which nymphs were not collected was Allocapnia forbesi. LITERATURE CITED CLAASSEN, P. W. 1931. Plecoptera nymphs of America (north of Mexico). Vol. IJ. Thomas Say Foundation, College Park, Md. 199 pp. Frison, T. H. 1929. Fall and winter stoneflies, or Plecoptera, of Illinois. Ill. Nat. Hist. Sury. Bull. 18:340—409. . 1935. The stoneflies or Plecoptera of Illinois. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 20: 281-471. 1942. Studies of North American Plecoptera with special reference to the fauna of Illinois. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 22: 233-355. PARDEN, P. Hann. C. FE. Micker, . 1952. The stoneflies of Minnesota (Plecoptera). Univ. Minn. Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 20:1-84. Hynes, H. B. N. 1961. The invertebrate fauna of a Welsh mountain stream. Arch. Hydro- biol. 57:344—-388. KruMHOoLz, L. A. 1971. A preliminary ecological study of areas to be impounded in the Salt River Basin of Kentucky. Univ. Ky. Water Res. Inst., Res. Rept. No. 43:1-16. , AND S. E. Nerr. 1970. The fresh- water stream, a complex ecosystem. Proc. 5th Ann. Water Res. Conf. 6:163—174. , AND —————. 1972. A preliminary ecological study of areas to be impounded in the Salt River Basin of Kentucky. Univ. Ky. Water Res. Inst., Res. Rept. No. 48:1—25. NEEDHAM, J. G., AND P. W. CLAASsEN. 1925. A monograph of the Plecoptera or stoneflies of America north of Mexico. Thomas Say Foundation Bull. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 2: 1-397. NerrF, S. E., anp L. A. Krumuouz. 1973. A detailed investigation of the sociological, economic, and ecological aspects of proposed reservoir sites in the Salt River Basin of Kentucky. Univ. Ky. Water Res. Inst., Res. Rept. No. 67:1-64. Helminth Parasites of the White Sucker (Pisces: Catostomidae ) in the Kentucky River Drainage GLENN WHITE AND JOHN P. HARLEY Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475 ABSTRACT The following helminths were recovered from 100 white suckers (Catostomus commersoni ) from the Kentucky River drainage system: Acanthocephala, Acanthocephalus jacksoni and Octospinifer macilentus; Trematoda, Clinostomum marginatum, Neascus sp., Phyllodistomum lysteri, Plagioporus serotinus, and Triganodistomum attenuatum; Cestoidea, Glaridacris catostomi, Hunterella nodulosa, and Monobothrium hunteri; and Nematoda, Contracaecum sp. and Philometra cylindracea. Octospinifer macilentus, P. serotinus, M. hunteri, Contracaecum sp., and P. cylindracea are new state records. Philometra cylindracea is also a new host record. INTRODUCTION As stated in a previous paper (Bauer and Harley 1973), the helminth parasites of Kentucky fishes have, overall, been grossly neglected when compared with data from other states. A review of the literature indi- cates that only 2 published works exist on the parasites of the white sucker Catos- tomus commersoni Lacépéde in Kentucky: Aliff (1973, unpublished doctoral disserta- tion, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky) reported the digenetic trematode Lissorchis attenuatum and White and Har- ley (1973) reported the acanthocephalan Acanthocephalus jacksoni, the trematodes Clinostomum marginatum and Neascus sp., and the cestode Glaridacris catostomi. As a result, it was felt that a more com- plete study of the parasites should be done on the white suckers in Kentucky. Second- arily, C. commersoni was chosen for study because it is considered a nonsport or “rough” fish and thus has been neglected in many studies. MATERIALS AND METHODS Representative numbers of fish were col- lected from Boone (11), Eagle (19), Otter (14), Silver (13), and Tates creeks (14), the main channel of the Kentucky River (11), and Kentucky River Lock No. 3 (18). Collections were made over a 13-month period from May 1972 through June 1973. Fish were either autopsied in the field or were transported alive back to the labora- tory for autopsy. Internal organs were placed in separate Petri dishes of saline and teased apart. When recovered, ces- todes, nematodes, and trematodes were placed in saline. Acanthocephalans were placed in distilled water to evert the proboscis. Fixation and relaxation of nematodes were accomplished by dropping them in hot 70 percent ethyl alcohol. Cestodes were first relaxed in 4 percent chloretone (Hargis 1953) and then fixed in hot standard AFA solution. Trematodes were placed under a coverslip with slight pressure and flooded with hot AFA. The acanthocephalans were fixed in hot AFA. Adult acanthocephalans and trematodes were stained with both Harris’ hematoxylin and Mayer's paracarmine. Cestodes were stained only with Mayer's stain or placed in polyvinyl alcohol according to Hoffman (1954). All staining was regressive. De- staining, dehydration, and clearing were done by the standard techniques (Guyer 1953). Mounting, except for PVA, was done in permount. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Catostomus commersoni, the common white sucker of the Kentucky River drain- age system, has a diverse parasite fauna. Twelve species of helminths were recovered (Table 1). These represented all the major taxa of animal parasites in fishes. ; : — See PARASITES OF WHITE SUCKER—White and Harley 25 TABLE ]1.—NuUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF PARASITES OF CATOSTOMUS COMMERSONI INCLUDING NEw Host AND STATE RECORDS. Mean intensity % of in- infested festation Parasite ACANTHOCEPHALA Acanthocephalus jacksoni 58 LZ Octospinifer macilentus 2 6 TREMATODA Clinostomum marginatum (Imm) 7 5 Neascus sp. (Imm) 11 59 Phyllodistomum lysteri 4 S Plagioporus serotinus 10 ie: Triganodistomum attenuatum 2 3 CESTOIDEA Glaridacris catostomi 37 3 Hunterella nodulosa 8 lial Monobothrium hunteri 2 2 NEMATODA Contracaecum sp. 9 2, Philometra cylindracea 2 3 ONE HUNDRED FISH WERE AUTOPSIED. IMM DESIGNATES IMMATURE WoRMS New New Total Location host state parasites in fish record record 1,005 Intestine 1p Intestine x 19 Fins, musculature, mouth, gill arches 644 External surface 19 Urinary bladder 729 Intestine x 6 Intestine 1 DA! Intestine 87 Intestine 3 Intestine x 14 Mouth (under A epithelial layer ) 6 Body cavity Xx Xx The acanthocephalan, A. jacksoni, was the most abundant and widespread parasite found. Of the 5 trematodes recovered, the adult fluke P. serotinus, as well as the metacercaria of Neascus sp., were abun- dant. Four cestodes were found with G. catostomi being the one most commonly encountered. Nematodes were scarce, with only 2 species being found. However, Contracaecum sp. proved unusual in having cuticular papillae, and all were found under the epithelial layer of the mouth. Five of the 12 parasites recovered con- stituted new range extensions, with Ken- tucky being a new locality record. In addi- tion, C. commersoni is a new host record for P. cylindracea in the United States. The drainage system as a whole appeared to be relatively unpolluted if the diversity and abundance of parasites were used as an index. Clean water is essential for the existence of molluscan and arthropod inter- mediate hosts, which helminths require for completion of their life cycles. Two streams in this study deserve special note. Boone Creek lies in Fayette County, an area of rapid growth. This has led to the construction of 4 sewage treatment plants, 2 tertiary and 2 secondary, along this creek. Nevertheless, 10 of the 12 spe- cies of parasites were collected at this site. Eagle Creek was unusual because O. macilentus and P. cylindracea were col- lected here, but not from the other study areas in the Kentucky River drainage. This possibly could be a result of the piracy of Eagle Creek from the Ohio River during the Pliocene Epoch (Jillson 1949). Acknowledgments are due Dr. John S. Mackiewicz (SUNY), Professor W. L. Bullock (University of New Hampshire), Dr. John V. Aliff (Georgia College), and Dr. John C. Williams (Eastern Kentucky University ). 26 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) LITERATURE CITED Bauer, B. H., AnD J. P. HARLEy. 1973. Intestinal parasites from two species of catfishes (Icta- luridae) from Lake Wilgreen in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 34(3,4):55-56. Guyer, M. F. 1953. Animal Micrology. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill. 327 pp. Harcis, W. J. 1953. Chloretone as a trematode relaxer, and its use in mass collecting tech- niques. J. Parasit. 39:224—225. HorrMan, G. L. 1954. Polyvinyl alcohol-fixa- small helminths and tive adhesive for protozoans. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 73:328-329. Jmxtson, W. R. 1949. The piracy of Eagle Creek. Roberts Printing Co., Frankfort, Ky. 16 pp. Wurre, G. E., anp J. P. HaR.ey. minth parasites of the common white sucker, Catostomus commersoni, from Lake Wilgreen in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 34(3,4): 53-54. 1973. Hel- A New Coding System for Hardshelled Turtles Cart H. ERNST Department of Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia 22030 Lexington, Kentucky 40506 Mary Faitra HersHey, AND ROGER W. BARBOUR Thomas Hunt Morgan School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky, Several systems of marking and coding freshwater and _ terrestrial hardshelled turtles for further study have been pro- posed (Bogert 1937, Cagle 1939, Kaplan 1958, Pough 1970). Unfortunately, all have disadvantages which may make them im- practical. Probably the best method for marking large numbers of wild turtles for future identification in capture—recapture studies is by notching the shell. It is the cheapest method and involves little time and few tools ( Ernst 1971). The coding system of Cagle (1939) for notching has been used in most turtle studies; however, it is complicated and con- fusing. In Cagle’s system, the marginals are numbered 1 to 12 from anterior to posterior on each side of chelydrid, emydid, and testudinid turtles and 1 to 11 in kinosternid turtles. The positional number of the notched marginal is then recorded. A comma is used to separate those on a single side of the carapace, and a hyphen sepa- rates the left and right sides. For example, turtle 1, 8-2, 9 had the first and eighth left marginals notched and the second and ninth on the right side. This system allowed a total of 2,516 combinations by using up to 4 notches. An easier and less confusing system is one with the notched marginals or certain plastral scutes coded so turtles can be numbered consecutively. This is done by assigning numerical values to certain cara- pacial marginals and the gulars and anals of the plastron. In chelydrid, emydid, and testudinid turtles marginals 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 on the left side of the cara- pace may be coded as 1, 4, 10, 40, 100, 400, 1,000, and 4,000, respectively, and the same marginals on the right side as 2, 7, 20, 70, 200, 700, 2,000, and 7,000 (Fig. 1). By 27 adding the numerical values of the notched marginals, one arrives at the number of the specimen. For example, a turtle with notches on the second left marginal and tenth right marginal is 704. This system allows up to 999 turtles to be coded without making more than 6 notches per turtle, and 9,999 without more than 8 notches. If 10,000 or more turtles are to be marked, the plastron may be used; the left gular may be coded as 10,000, the right gular as 20,000, the left anal as 40,000 and the right anal as 70,000 (Fig. 1). It is doubtful if an investigator could ever use up all of the possible combinations in this system, and it can be applied to any number of dif- ferent species concurrently. Kinosternid turtles have only 11 mar- ginals on each side of the carapace and the above system must be abbreviated for them. The corresponding left marginals can be coded as 1, 4, 10, 40, 100, 400, and 1,000, respectively, and those on the right at 2, 7, 20, 70, 200, 700, 2,000. If more than 3,999 turtles are to be marked, the plastron can again be used. Since some kinosternids have no more than a single gular scute, the humerals can be used instead with the left humeral coded as 4,000, the right humeral as 7,000, the left anal as 10,000 and the right anal as 20,000. If large Chelydra serpentina or Macro- clemys temminckii are to be marked, prob- lems will arise during the notching process. A vicious tempered chelydrid with its powerful jaws and long neck can be re- strained by allowing it to bite a length of rope and then tying the rope under the posterior edge of the carapace so the head is held in. The marginals at the bridge of the cara- pace and plastron, or at the junction of 28 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) Fic. 1. numerical codon for each suitable marginal; B = the plastron with the numerical value for each gular and anal). the carapace and plastron in bridgeless spe- cies, should not be used because of the weakening of the shell at that point (this usually involves the fourth to seventh marginals ). The proposed numerical coding system is not difficult to memorize, requires few tools, and simplifies handling field data for large numbers of turtles. A field notebook with consecutively numbered entries can be kept with relative ease, and from it data can later be transferred to file cards or be computerized. The cards can be filed nu- merically with one card per turtle, and all entries for an individual can be entered chronologically on its card. The proper card is easily found for recording of addi- tional data. A numerical coding system for notched hardshelled turtles (A = the carapace with the The numbers used for coding in this study are not the only ones possible and other systems may be worked out to allow coding of even larger numbers of turtles. LITERATURE CITED Bocert, C. M. 1937. Note on the growth rate of the desert tortoise, Gopherus agassizi. Copeia 1937:191—-192. Cacite, F. R. 1939. A system of marking turtles for future identification. Copeia 1939: 170-173. Ernst, C. H. 1971. Population dynamics and activity cycles of Chrysemys picta in south- eastern Pennsylvania. J. Herpetol. 5:151—-160. Kaptan, H. M. 1958. Marking and _ banding frogs and turtles. Herpetologica 14:131-132. Poucu, F. H. 1970. A quick method for permanently marking snakes and _ turtles. Herpetologica 26:428—-430. Decay and Its Prevention in Natural Stone Ke Pan CxURI Geology Department, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT In our studies on a variety of natural building stones, we have observed 2 basic types of profiles of weathering. In highly compact rocks such as marble, the zone of weathering is characterized by a reduced specific gravity and augmented capillarity. Here, the texture of the zone of weathering is quite distinct relative to the texture of the parent material. In less compact rocks such as limestone, the pore space in the zone of weathering becomes plugged due to the recrystallization of salts obtained by the solution of the parent rock. The effect of continued weathering of all these stones is the surface reduction of objects which leads to destruction of ornamentation and surface relief. Using industrial polymers, methods of impregnation have been given which, by reducing water transport into the stone, have greatly minimized the effect of weathering agents. INTRODUCTION The deterioration of natural stone due to atmospheric attack is vividly exposed in the ruins of the Coliseum of Rome and in the Parthenon of Athens. Several centuries of atmospheric attack was essential to dis- integrate those structures. With the in- creasing amounts of pollutant gases in the atmosphere contributed by the burning of fossil fuels, the deterioration of stone objects is now continuing at an accelerated pace. This paper is designed to present several aspects of stone deterioration such as modification of properties of weathered stone, laboratory methods of studying such properties, and decay rates of stone ex- posed to concentrated artificial atmospheres generated for accelerated weathering. Finally, certain methods of treatment are presented to retard the deterioration of natural stone used for sculptural and struc- tural purposes in objects of art and archi- tecture. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This paper was written during my leave of absence from the University of Louis- ville and an engagement with Universal Restoration Inc., Washington, D. C. The Universal Restoration also provided the weathered Portland limestone specimens from the St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. I am thankful to Universal and the Univer- sity of Louisville for their resources and 29 facilities made available to me for research on stone conservation. WEATHERING OF STONE The stone exposed to the atmosphere for a period of time commonly develops a zone of weathering which possesses discrete structure developed by the alteration of the parent rock as shown in Figs. 1A and 1B. Fig. 1A symbolizes stone types in which the component grains of rock are compactly packed. Marbles, granites, etc. are examples of such rocks. The compac- tion in these rocks has resulted from high- pressure environment in which these rocks were buried in earth’s interior. These rocks commonly possess less than 2 percent porosity. Fig. 1B symbolizes relatively loosely packed rock varieties in which the lithification has occurred from natural cements. Limestones, sandstones, etc. represent such varieties of rocks. These rocks commonly possess a higher porosity due to a relatively loose packing. The zone of weathering in Fig. 1A is characterized by an acquisition of a thoroughly new texture relative to the texture of the parent material. The grain boundaries in the weathered zone have been obliterated. Solutions and recrystal- lizations have resulted in a reduction of grain size and in the formation of a multi- tude of small granules. The cleavage planes have been widened. All these 30 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) WwW NW h Bae oa: Cross sections showing physical charac- teristics of the zone of weathering and _ its relationship to the parent rock. A. The specimen was obtained from a tombstone made from Carrara marble. The tombstone had been exposed in the Cave Hill Cemetery, Louisville, Kentucky, for nearly 100 years. The zone of weathering in this diagram consists of 1 + 2; 1 represents fine grained product of deterioration; In 2, solutions along the cleavage planes of individual grains have resulted in the widening of these planes and the boundaries between individual grains have become indistinct; 3 is the unweathered portion of calcite grains; 4 represents individual calcite grains which have not at all experienced the effects of weather- ing. Note that the zone of weathering is texturally completely distinct from the unweathered stone. B. The specimen was obtained from St. Paul’s Cathedral where it had weathered for nearly 2 centuries. The specimen formed part of the base of one of the now dismantled urns which were put up in 1707. A in the diagram represents the zone of weathering characterized by complete or partial plugging of pores. Note the schematically changes in texture have led to an increased capillarity of the weathered zone as com- pared with the capillarity of the un- weathered rock shown in Fig. 2A. The zone of weathering shown in Fig. 1B is characteristically different from the zone of weathering in Fig. 1A. This zone (Fig. 1B) is not quite distinctly separated from the underlying unweathered rock, and the original texture of the rock is also maintained to a large degree. The differ- ences that have come into existence relate mainly to plugging of pores in the near surface regions. This plugging is a result of crystallization of salts from solutions formed from chemical decay of the parent stone. As a result of plugging of pores, the curve of capillary rise (Fig. 2B) of water is quite distinct from such a curve shown in Fig. 2A. The higher capillarity towards the exterior of stone is due to surface roughness produced by a larger removal of material at intergranular surfaces. The varied textural developments of the zone of weathering seem to generate from the porosity and permeability characteris- tics of the parent stone. In the case of lime- stone, large capillaries and pores permit an easy inward passage to solutions which have formed by the surface weathering. A part of these solutions is undoubtedly washed away. But from those parts of solu- tions which have entered the pore space, salts are crystallized. In the case of mar- bles, however, such inward movements of ions in solution are restricted due to capil- lary characteristics. Therefore, most of the solutions produced at the surface are re- moved by rainfall, etc. The balance of re- distribution of materials resulting from solution and recrystallization is, in gen- eral, a continual reduction of surface which follows a reduced density and strength and an increased capillarity, porosity, and permeability of the weathered zone. The determination of strength of the represented reduction in grain size in the weathered zone. Note, also, that the texture of the weathered zone is quite similar to the texture of the parent rock (B). eS eee eee PRESERVATION OF STONE—Gauri £1 WS U> WLC” SCW 4<¥— ZW weathered zone and that of horizons within this zone is difficult. Customarily, the com- pressive strength of materials is determined by simple engineering tools which are used to crush the material with a known force. Such strength determinations have little significance in the context of the weathered rock because the zone of weathering is ex- tremely thin and because its strength is not uniformly distributed across its thick- ness. Therefore, indirect methods need to be established to determine the strength of rock at different levels within and be- yond the zone of weathering. Following initial studies by Miller (1965, unpublished master’s thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois) to establish re- lationship of Apparent Specific Gravity (ASG), Shore Scleroscope Hardness (Sh) with compressive strength (c), Ullrich (in Ullrich unpublished master’s thesis, Uni- versity of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, 1971; and Gauri, Hagerty, and Ullrich 1972) determined ASG and Sh at different levels from surface towards depth of the stone for Carrara marble. The marble specimens were obtained from tombstones which had been weathered for about a cen- tury in the Cave Hill Cemetery, Louisville. Ullrich developed the relationship In o (ksi) = 0.914 + 0.014 (ASG)(S). The applica- tion of this derivation to unweathered calcareous rock provided significantly simi- lar values for « as compared with values obtained by actual compression tests. < Fic. 2. Capillary rise of water in a weathered stone. Fig. 2A and 2B represent specimens from Carrara marble and Portland limestone (see explanation of Fig. 1), respectively. Note that the water level in the zone of weathering in Fig. 2B is lower, due to pore plugging, than in the unweathered portion of the rock. Fig. 2A also shows (similar in 2B, but not shown) that an impregnation of the stone by polymer causes a reversal of the curve both in the weathered and the unweathered regions of the stone. SCW: surface in contact with water, T: Treated specimen, U: Untreated specimen, WLC: Water level due to capillarity, WS: Weathered surface, ZW: Zone of weathering. 32 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) On Fic. 3. Normalized (see text) Apparent Specific Gravity, ASG, versus Normalized Depth, Dn, in a weathered specimen of Carrara marble. T: Treated, U: Untreated. After Gauri, Hagerty, and Ullrich 1972. To obtain comparable curves for different specimens, o and the parameters which yielded it were normalized. For normaliza- tion, a constant factor for a given rock specimen, e.g., the thickness of the zone of weathering was made the denominator while the numerator, to determine the nor- malized depth, was the depth from surface at which a given value was determined. For instance, the thickness of the zone of weathering is 2 mm and the depth at which a given property, say ASG, is deter- mined is 0.56 mm. The normalized depth, then, (D,) is 0.5/2 mm = 0.25. In another example, say the Sh of nonweathered zone is 30 and the Sh at a given depth in the weathered zone is 15. The normalized Sh (S,) at the given depth then is 15/30 = 0.5, i.e., 50 percent of the Sh of the non- weathered stone. At D, = 1, the S,, ASG,, and o, will be 1. The loss of ASG, Sh, and co in the weathered region is shown in Figs. 3-5. It is evident that the weathered region of the marble has suffered up to 66, 55, and 20 percent reductions, respectively, in their compressive strength, specific gravity, and Shore hardness as compared with the un- weathered regions of the marble. THE PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF STONE There are 2 basic approaches for the preservation of stone: those which change Fic. 4. Normalized (see text) Shore Scleroscope Hardness, Sn, versus Normalized Depth, Dn, in a weathered specimen of Carrara’ marble. T: Treated, U: Untreated. After Gauri, Hagerty, and Ullrich 1972. the chemistry of the stone so that the re- sultant substance is more resistant to atmo- spheric attack, and those which provide by means of impregnation of synthetic organic materials both protective coating and a cement between dislodged grains. In the first approach, common materials of treatment have been solutions of hy- droxides of calcium, barium, strontium, etc. These solutions are introduced into the stone. On reaction with atmospheric CO: or the CO, obtained by dissociation of media which accompany these solutions, insoluble carbonates of these cations are formed. These solutions are mostly ionic and the penetration of ions into the stone is only a few millimeters. Therefore, gen- erally, they form consolidated crusts in the weathered regions of stone. Such crusts exfoliate due to continuing chemical and mechanical changes behind the treated regions. In the second case, synthetic organic ma- terials carrying curing agents are made to penetrate into the rock where they poly- merize to consolidate the rock. Several factors impede the success of this treat- ment. These factors include the shallow penetration of mostly viscous organic pre- servatives, the sealing of pores which in- hibit essential breathing of the stone and PRESERVATION OF STONE 1.0 ay a lo 0.5 a 0.5 1.0 1.5 Dp Fic. 5. Normalized (see text) Compressive Strength, on, versus Normalized Depth, Dn, in a weathered specimen of Carrara marble. T: Treated, U: Untreated. After Gauri, Hagerty, and Ullrich 1972. the difficulty of removing occluded im- purities from the stone. In the following, a technique is redescribed (Gauri 1970) which mostly overcomes these difficulties. The stone is first immersed in a solvent- water mixture or in the solvent or in a low concentration mixture of a polymer in the solvent. It is then transferred through in- creasing concentrations of polymer in the solvent. The first treatment permits the less viscous solution to penetrate to a greater depth while denser solution of subsequent applications remains in the shallower, weathered, depths of the stone. In this process of treatment, diffusion forces come into play by means of which higher density resin is exchanged for lower density resin to a depth dependent upon the pore size and the time of treatment. For diffusion, above successive applications are made to occur without a time lapse between the applications. After treatment, the impreg- nant polymerizes and thus imparts cementa- tion between grains of both weathered and unweathered regions of the stone. This cementation also anchors the weathered region with the unweathered regions of the stone. The evaporation of the solvent from the impregnant leaves behind porosity which permits subsequent breathing of the Gauri 33" 50 40 30 Output due to combustion 20 CO, Increase in the Atmosphere (%) 0 1880 1900 1950 2000 Fic. 6. Worldwide increase of the CO. content in the Atmosphere due to Fossil Fuel Combustion. After Bolin and Erickson 1959. stone. Because such resins are selected for treatment which have a good bond with the stone components, the films of the resin envelope the grains rather than forming pellets in the pore space. This is essential because grains of treated stone must be secluded from coming in contact with atmo- spheric gases and water which may enter the remaining pore space. The result of the impregnation of the stone is that most of its physical char- acteristics which had altered due _ to weathering are now revisited. Figs. 3-5 show that the specific gravity, Shore hard- ness, and compressive strength are in- creased. The capillarity, porosity, perme- ability, and the water absorption on the other hand have significantly decreased. The restoration, rather the improvement of these properties over the properties of the original stone, enables the stone to resist future atmospheric attack. The chemically active gases which de- compose the stone are increasing in the atmosphere due to increments in the burn- ing of fossil fuels. The burning of coals which contain sulfur results in high dosages of SO, emitted into the atmosphere. The city of Louisville is burning more than 4 million tons of coal annually for the pro- duction of gas and electricity only. This generates approximately 240,000 tons of SO,; alternatively, at least 3,000 ppm SO, 34 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) ee eae a5 20- oO Nw aw WN Ss 15 ep) oO © 3° 10 = A (oe) = 5 C O Se e) | 2 3 Time of Exposure (weeks) Fic. 7. SOz attack on Calcite in concentrated dynamic atmosphere. SO, concentration 700 ppm, Humidity > 80 percent, Flow 400 ml/min. The specimens were obtained from Green Mont, Vermont marble. A: control (untreated), B: treated with an Epoxy Resin (not all epoxy resin enhance Calcite-SO: reactivity), C: treated with a polyvinyl containing fluorine. is being emitted into the atmosphere of this city. Recent studies on the rainwaters of the Eastern United States (Johnson and Reynolds 1972) indicate 4.3 mg/1 of sulfate with an associated pH of 4.4. Similarly, the quantities of CO. have also consider- ably increased as a result of burning of fuels. Bolin and Erickson (1959, Fig. 6) have shown that the output of CO, due to combustion has increased more than 25 per- cent within the present century. As a result of attack of, primarily, these gases Loughlin (1931) estimated surface reduc- tion of limestone at a rate of 1.57 mm in 50 years in New York City. The increased industrial activity has doubtlessly increased the surface removal rates of the carbonate rocks exposed to the ambient. 250 504 1@) 24 48 72 Time of Exposure (hours) Fic. 8. CO: attack on Calcite in concentrated artificial dynamic atmosphere with a 2.27 percent mixture of CO: in air. Note that the treated specimen retarded the CO: attack as compared with the untreated specimen. After Tanjaruphan (unpublished master’s thesis ). The following equations govern the reactions of CO, and SO, with calcite in the presence of moisture. CaCO; + H2,0 + CO, = Ca** + 2 HCO;- SOz CaCOsz are H,O Oz STs CaSO, -2 H.O H,O These reactions are so slow in nature that the reaction rates are difficult to study. We have, therefore, generated artificial con- centrated atmospheres in the laboratory to accelerate the rates of reaction. Presently, we are using these gases individually for reactivity. We plan to study the effect of these gases when they attack stone col- lectively in the reaction chambers. The fact that collective reaction may be different than individual reactions seems logical because changes in reaction environments caused by a given gas reaction may sup- press the reactivity of another reactant. Johnson and Reynolds (1972) have shown that sulfate content in water suppresses COz : PRESERVATION OF STONE—Gauri ap reactivity with calcareous materials. In our later studies we also intend to include the reactivity of NO» with calcareous stone. Our artificial atmospheres consist of mix- tures of known quantities of reactive gases (COz, SO2) and air passed at a given rate of flow through reaction chambers. For SO, reactions, the specimens are hung free in the reaction chamber and the humidity is controlled by several ways; such as bubbling the gas—air mixture through water and/or placing water at the bottom of the reaction chamber in which the specimens are freely suspended. For COz reactions, the specimens are completely immersed in water through which gas—air mixture is bubbled. The concentration of CQO, in water is maintained at a constant level by controlling the CO, partial pressure. The reaction products of calcite and SOsz, namely, calcium sulfite and calcium sul- fate are crystalline compounds. They lend themselves to quantitative analysis by x-ray diffraction. In practice, the inte- grated diffracted intensity, in counts, is measured 10 to 11° for sulfate, 27 to 28.8° for sulfite, and 28.8 to 30° for calcite in 2 6 values. These counts are compared with the counts obtained for corresponding 2 6 values obtained from calibrated samples to obtain percentages of given species of a compound formed as a result of SO: reaction. The rate of reaction is determined by SO, concentration, the level of humidity and flow rate of the reacting atmosphere, and the particle size of the reactant stone. Higher humidity and SO: concentrations accelerate the reaction, slower flow rate and larger particle size decelerate it. In general, however, the pattern of reactions in any set of variable conditions remains the same as exemplified in Fig. 7. In the initial phase, the reaction is quite fast, but it soon attains a steady state beyond which the reaction ceases to proceed. The reason for such a steady state lies in the formation of calcium sulfite at the surface which acts as a protective coating against continued reaction. In nature, however, any calcium sulfite or sulfate that forms is washed away with the next rain. Thus, the plot of re- action for a natural stone would be a straight line, the slope of which is roughly determined in the very initial phases of the reaction. A reaction proceeding under certain laboratory conditions may be augmented by the condensation of moisture on the surface of specimens. This moisture carrying absorbed SO, penetrates into the deeper regions of specimen, thus exposing larger areas to SOs attack. In specimens which had once attained a steady state in reaction chambers and were then wetted with water, a 100 percent transformation of calcite occurred at the surface as com- pared with a 15 mole percent sulfite for- mation in specimens which were exposed to otherwise most rigorous reaction con- ditions. One of the secrets of a successful treatment of stone is thus to use materials which are water repellant. The absence of moisture will not only chemically protect the stone, but also the mechanical stresses caused by freezing and thawing of water and the effects due to wetting and drying will be eliminated. Further, the damage due to increment of volume by hydration of salts such as sulfates and chlorides of sodium and calcium lodged as occlusions in the pore space of stone will also be averted. Fig. 7 shows the effect of treatment by certain polymer species. It is obvious that certain polymers provide more protection than other polymers. Most interesting, however, is the fact that certain polymers enhance the rate of reaction as compared with the reactivity of untreated specimens. For the study of CO».-calcite reactions, the specimens were submerged in water through which a known concentration of CO, in air was passed. Tanjaruphan (1973, unpublished master’s thesis, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky) studied this reactivity as a function of Ca** con- centration of these waters determined by EDTA titration and atomic absorption. Fig. 8 represents the reaction rates of treated and untreated specimens. This study has revealed that the same polymers 36 are effective as protecting agents as those which considerably retarded SO.-calcite reactivity. CONCLUSION This study has shown that effectiveness of protective treatments can be determined by laboratory techniques in a very short time. The conservators for objects of art now do not have to take a chance or to wait for years to see whether or not a treatment will be effective. A judicious selection of preservatives and proper ap- plication techniques can considerably pro- long the life of precious art objects and provide greater strength to withstand the effects of gaseous pollutants and weather controlled mechanical stresses. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) LITERATURE CITED Bouin, B., AND E. Erickson. 1959. Change in the CO: content of the atmosphere and sea due to fossil fuel combustion. pp. 130-142. In: B. Bolin (Ed.), “The Atmosphere and Sea in Motion,’ Oxford University Press, London. Gauri, K. L. 1970. Improved technique for the _ preservation of statuary. Nature 228:882. Gaunt, K. L., D. J. Hacrerty, anp C. R. ULLRICH. 1972. Comparative physical properties of weathered impregnated and unimpregnated marble. Eng. Geol. 6:235-250. Jonson, N. M., anp R. C. ReEyNotps. 1972. Atmospheric sulfur: its effect on the chemical weathering of New England. Science 177: 515-517. Loucuuin, G. F. 1931. Notes on the weathering of natural building stones. Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Mater. 3(11):759-767. impregnation stone i A A Il RE itt Sl } | ) Mammals of Pulaski County, Kentucky Davin J. FAssLER University of Kentucky, Somerset Community College, Somerset, Kentucky 42501* ABSTRACT A survey of the native mammals of Pulaski County, Kentucky, was made between 15 January 1971 and 1 July 1973. During that period, 33 species of mammals were collected, 4 species were observed but not collected, and 13 species remain in questionable status. Notes on reproduction, morphology, distribution, and ecology are given for certain species. INTRODUCTION Few specific areas have been thoroughly studied to determine the status of the native mammalian fauna in the Common- wealth of Kentucky. The most notable study of any location was by Barbour (1951) on Big Black Mountain in Harlan County. Most other studies of mammalian distribution were aimed at a given genus or species. This summary of information on the mammalian fauna of Pulaski County is based on more than 300 specimens gathered from 15 January 1971 to 1 July 1973. The majority of those specimens are in my personal collection, or have been deposited at Morehead State University, Western Kentucky University, or Eastern Kentucky University. Pulaski County is a politically defined area of 243 km? in south-central Kentucky. The Cumberland River, which bisects the southern part of the county, was dammed in 1951, to form Lake Cumberland. Ele- vations above mean sea level within the county range from 220 m at normal pool level of Lake Cumberland to 513 m on the summit of Green River Knob. Geologically, the eastern portion of the county lies on the Cumberland Plateau, an area characterized by Pennsylvanian shales and sandstones. The western part of the county consists of Mississippian limestones. The eastern portion of the county is hilly; the western part is more gently rolling. A more detailed analysis of the county has been treated by Lewis (1974). *Current address: Prudential Insurance Com- pany, 621 South 10th Street, Bozeman, Montana 59715. 3 ry The county has a predominantly mixed mesophytic forest association (Oosting 1956). The county has acidic sandstone- derived soils in the east and alkaline limestone-derived soils in the west. Hem- lock (Tsuga canadensis), pines (Pinus spp.), mountain laurel (Kalmia sp.), and buckeye (Aesculus octandra) are pre- dominant in the sandstone areas, and hack- berry (Celtis occidentalis) and black locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia) are predominant in the limestone areas. Beech (Fagus grandifolia), magnolia (Magnolia grandi- flora), yellow poplar (Liriodendron tuli- pifera), red maple (Acer rubrum), hickory (Carya spp.), and oaks (Quercus spp.) occur in both areas. Sycamore (Plan- tanus occidentalis) occurs throughout the county, but is typically hydrophytic. In those areas where the hardwood trees have been removed, the terrain usually is cov- ered with stands of fescue (Festuca spp.). Scientific nomenclature follows Barbour and Davis (1969) for the Chiroptera and Hall and Kelson (1959) for all other orders. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am especially indebted to the following people for their assistance in locating spec- imens: Delmos Sumner, Richard Q. Lewis, Sr., Wendell Cornett, Larry Hranicky, Larry Adkins, Mark Eubank, Billy C. Clark, Napier Hines, Luther Small, and Emest Daulton. Mr. Richard Q. Lewis, Sr. of the U.S. Geological Survey assisted on collecting trips, provided geological in- formation, and made critical comments concerning the manuscript. Mr. Richard Drabik assisted in producing Fig. 1. Dr. 38 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) Wayne H. Davis made several helpful sug- gestions leading to the final preparation of the manuscript. Part of this study was funded by grant number 102-01-5W100-00000-304 of the University of Kentucky. THe MAMMALS Didelphis marsupialis (Kerr), opossum. The opossum is found in all parts of the county and specimens were collected from 7 locations. A female killed in Somerset on 28 June 1972 contained 9 joeys, 56 mm in crown-rump length. A female captured on 16 April 1973 contained 9 joeys, which were weaned by 14 May 1973. Sorex fumeus (Miller), smoky shrew. A partially mutilated adult was obtained on 27 September 1971 at the Somerside Acres subdivision between Somerset and Burnside, having been caught by a house cat. The shrew presumably lived in the open fields near the subdivision. Moist areas such as those preferred by this shrew are not close to the subdivision. Cryptotis parva (Say), least shrew. Five least shrews, caught by house cats in the city of Somerset, were collected in March, July, October, and December. A female found on 3 July 1972 contained 5 embryos, 9 mm in crown-rump length. This shrew probably is common in open fields throughout the county. Blarina brevicauda (Gapper), short-tailed shrew. This shrew is frequently the prey of house cats. Specimens were collected during all months except January, February, and Sep- tember. This animal is frequently con- fused with a young mole by the local resi- dents. Scalopus aquaticus (Linnaeus), eastern mole. The eastern mole probably is ubiquitous in well-drained soils throughout the county. About 10 percent of my specimens con- tained patches of white on the venter. Parascalops breweri (Bachman), hairy-tailed mole. One badly mutilated, but identifiable, road-killed P. breweri was observed near Plato in northeastern Pulaski County. Plecotus rafinesquii (Leeson), Rafinesque’s big-eared bat. Fassler (1971) reported this bat to be common in Pulaski County. Specimens have been collected at Sloan’s Valley Cave, an unnamed cave 7.7 km east-southeast of Somerset, and at an abandoned house 3.2 km west-southwest of Ingle that was occu- pied by a nursery colony of more than 50 females with their young. Nycticeius humeralis (Rafinesque), eve- ning bat. Fassler (1973) reported collecting of an adult male 3.2 km south-southeast of Jugor- not on 18 April 1972. Lasiurus borealis (Muller), red bat. Red bats have been collected or observed throughout the year. On warm winter days, this animal can be seen flying about in the late afternoon. Davis and Lidicker (1956) reported similar winter behavior in this bat. A male red bat was found hibernating in an abandoned woodpecker hole near Gregory in adjacent Wayne County, Ken- tucky (Fassler 1974). Lasiurus cinereus (Palisot de Beauvois), hoary bat. Fassler (1972) reported finding a male hoary bat in Somerset on 13 November 1971. The specimen was unique because of its rarity in the Commonwealth and its late autumn arrival. (Le Lasionycteris noctivagans Conte ), silver-haired bat. Barbour and Davis (1969) stated that the silver-haired bat is a common migrant in Kentucky during March and April. This species was observed in flight on 1 No- vember 1972. On 14 March 1973, a non- pregnant female was found in a vertical MAMMALS OF PULASKI CouNTy, KENTUCKY—Fassler Bie. 1. Map of Pulaski County showing important physiographic features. 39 PULASKI COUNTY and adjacent counties Plato Sloan’s Valley Cave, Minton Hollow entrance Ingle Jugornot Hail’s Cave Faubush Nancy Eubank Shafter 10. Ruth 11. Nelson Valley 12. Stab pen an pup = 13. Green River Knob 14. Mt. Victory 15. Dumplin Cave Scale 1:290,000 miles The area of the Cumberland plateau is cross hatched. crevice just inside Hail’s Cave. On 15 April 1973, another nonpregnant female was shot 3.2 km south-southwest of Jugornot. The latter animal may have been a late migrant that year due to record low tem- peratures in early April. Eptesicus fuscus (Palisot de Beauvois), big brown bat. During the summer months, I estimated the presence of more than a million big brown bats in nursery colonies in Somerset, but I have been unable to find this species in the same buildings during winter. In the winter of 1972-1973, only 5 male and 11 female big brown bats were found in Pulaski County caves that I examined. The winter disappearance of this species is not unique to Pulaski County since John Whitaker (pers. comm.) has reported the phenomenon in west-central Indiana. The big brown bat begins to appear at its nursery colonies during the latter part of April, and the young usually are born the first week in June. By early July, the young are capable of fending for them- selves. On an afternoon in early July 1972, more than 300 juveniles were found cling- ing to the side of a house at 124 Bourne Avenue, Somerset. Upon observing the phenomenon, I noticed that as the juveniles tried crawling to the entrances leading to the attic, they were promptly turned away by the adults. By the next morning, most exiled juveniles were gone. There are several places in Somerset where E. fuscus is found inhabiting chim- neys; I do not know, however, if this spe- cies coexists with the Chimney Swift (Chaetura pelagica). A single female big brown bat shared a rafter with a colony of P. rafinesquii in the abandoned house 3.2 km west-southwest of Ingle. 40 Pipistrellus subflavus (F. Cuvier), eastern pipistrelle. This probably is the most common bat in Pulaski County and is a very common hibernator in almost all caves. Between 17 October 1972 and 7 May 1973, I banded 154 pipistrelles as follows: Sloan’s Valley Cave, 12 males, 11 females; unnamed cave, 2.8 km east-northeast of Somerset, 1 male, 1 female; unnamed cave beneath Buck Creek Bridge on State Hwy 192, 4 males, 4 females; unnamed cave 2.4 km northwest of Mount Victory, 3 males, 1 female; Dumplin Cave, 2 females; Hail’s Cave, 73 males, 42 females. These sex ratios are in general agreement with those reported by Davis (1959). During the winter 1972-1973, I observed that frequent movement took place within the population as some pipistrelles would leave a given cave to return at a later time. I found no movements between caves. On 25 May 1973, I found only 1 banded pipistrelle in Sloan’s Valley Cave, but 50 other pipistrelles (all males) without bands were also present. The summer distribution of the many banded pipistrelles has not been established. I have shot pipistrelles on only a few occasions. A female was shot on 20 June 1972, 3.2 km south-southeast of Jugornot. She was pregnant with 2 embryos, 23 mm in crown-rump length. A male was shot at the same location on 6 September 1972. On 26 June 1972, a P. subflavus was observed fluttering like a moth around a mercury vapor lamp at a house 0.5 km east of Ruth. On 4 June 1973, at least 24 pipistrelles were seen fluttering above a mercury vapor lamp 1.6 km north of Somerset; a single male was shot. On 22 February 1973, the carcass of a pipistrelle was found at the entrance of an unnamed cave beneath the Buck Creek Bridge on State Hwy 192. The carcass was on a rock ledge near the entrance of the cave with 2 owl pellets containing the re- mains of a Microtus nearby. I surmised that the bat probably was killed by an owl. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) Several pipistrelles found hibernating in February 1971 were infested with 1 to 4 adult ticks. Davis (1964) reported the swarming of pipistrelles at Dixon Cave, Kentucky. This phenomenon was observed 23 August 1972 at Sloan’s Valley Cave. Several hundred bats swarmed at the entrance of the cave; the predominant species was P. subflavus. Myotis leibii (Audubon and Bachman), least brown bat. I have encountered the least brown bat twice in south-central Kentucky. The first occurrence was in Wayne County on 18 June 1973 at the Otter Creek Bridge on State Hwy 90. On 29 June 1973, I found 2 male M. leibii in expansion joints of the Rockcastle River Bridge on State Hwy 192. The bridge is on the boundary between Pulaski and Laurel counties. Myotis sodalis (Miller and Allen), Indiana bat. This species has been observed on occasion in Sloan’s Valley Cave and Hail’s Cave. Increasing disturbances by man may be a factor in the demise of the Indiana bat. On several occasions, I have entered Sloan’s Valley Cave and found vandals throwing rocks at hibernating clusters of bats. At other times, the smoke from spe- lunker’s fires has so completely filled several passages that hibernating bats have aroused and left the caves. Myotis keenii (Merriam), Keen’s bat. This species is rather rare in Pulaski County. Specimens have been collected during March at an unnamed cave 5.6 km south of Hail, and during June and August at Sloan’s Valley Cave. During the winter of 1972-1973, only 4 M. keenii were banded. This species was most frequently en- countered at Sloan’s Valley Cave during the swarming activities in late summer. It ranked second after P. subflavus in num- | bers seen. Myotis lucifugus (Le Conte), little brown bat. fit Ag a crm MAMMALS OF PULASKI CouNTy, KENTUCKY—Fassler Al One of our most common hibernators at Sloan’s Valley Cave is the little brown bat; I have estimated the winter population in excess of 300 bats. During the winter 1972-1973, 142 male and 64 female little brown bats were banded. Upon checking Sloan’s Valley Cave on 25 May 1973, only 8 little brown bats were observed; 4 ex- hibited bands, the others had left. Only at Sloan’s Valley Cave and Hail’s Cave have large numbers of this species been found. The species begins to return to the caverns about mid-September. M. lucifugus has only rarely been taken or seen during June and July. The bridge crossing the Rockcastle River on State Hwy 192 is the most favored roost of summer resident little brown bats observed to date. No colonies of M. lucifugus have been found in attics of houses in Pulaski County, though I do know of such a situation in nearby Williamsburg, Whitley County. Sylvilagus floridanus (J. A. Allen) eastern cottontail. This rabbit is rather common and wide- spread throughout the entire county. Dur- ing the summer of 1972, an eastern cotton- tail that became a “pet” at Somerset Com- munity College was observed with 4 litters. The young were born in mid-March, early May, late June, and mid-August. Marmota monax (Linnaeus), woodchuck. The woodchuck is a very common resi- dent in all parts of Pulaski County. Juve- nile woodchucks taken on 9 April 1972 and 5 May 1973 were having their permanent premolars erupt though the deciduous pre- molars were still present. Tamias striatus (Linnaeus), eastern chip- munk. Both subspecies of chipmunks, T. s. striatus and T. s. ohioensis, are found in Pulaski County. Sciurus carolinensis (Gmelin), gray squirrel. The gray squirrel is a very common in- habitant of the hickory, oak, dogwood, maple, and walnut forests of Pulaski County. Sciurus niger (E. Geoffroy St. Hilaire), fox squirrel. The fox squirrel is rather infrequently en- countered in Pulaski County. It is most likely to be observed in the woods sur- rounding Lake Cumberland or its tribu- taries. There appears to be about equal fre- quency of color phases between red phase and gray phase as reported by Hall and Kelson (1959). A female shot near the Lincoln—Pulaski County line on 28 Decem- ber 1972 was a mosaic individual of the red phase. She had a black facial wash, but her venter was completely melanistic. Her tail was a deep reddish-orange color. A mass of sperm in the vagina indicated that the squirrel had recently copulated. Glaucomys volans (Linnaeus), southern fly- ing squirrel. The southern flying squirrel is a com- mon resident inhabiting hollow snags, beech trees, attics, and birdhouses. A female found in a birdhouse 3.2 km east of Burn- side on 14 May 1973 had 2 young, 172 and 165 mm in total length. The juveniles were capable of gliding on their own and ate limited quantities of beef liver. I suspect the young were about to be weaned. Castor canadensis (Kuhl), beaver. Beavers were natives of Pulaski County before their extermination by fur trappers. Today, a few beaver are found in the Beaver Creek drainage as the Fish and Game Commission tried to reestablish the animal in its former range. Peromyscus leucopus (Rafinesque ), white- footed mouse. This species is the dominant species of Peromyscus in Pulaski County. I have taken it in all habitats, open fields, dense forests, along streams, and dense brush. A female captured on 13 February 1973 con- tained 4 embryos, 18 mm in crown-rump length. P. leucopus shows varying degrees of polymorphism within the population. 42 Neotoma floridana (Ord), eastern wood rat. Wood rats are locally abundant in Pu- laski County. I have collected specimens from 2.1 km southeast of Somerset. I have also seen N. floridana in Hail’s Cave and in an abandoned house south of Burnside. Microtus ochrogaster (Wagner), prairie vole. The occurrence of the prairie vole in Pulaski County represents a slight range extension from that given by Hall and Kelson (1959). This species has been found at Mill Springs National Cemetery in Nancy, 1.6 km east of Science Hill, and 2.1 km southeast of Somerset. A female caught at Mill Springs National Cemetery on 29 April 1972 had 5 embryos, 3 were 10 mm in crown-rump length while 2 were being reabsorbed. Microtus ( Pitymys) pinetorum (Le Conte), pine vole. Two subspecies of the pine vole occur in Kentucky with the type specimen of M. p. carbonarius being reported by Handley (1952) from Eubank. I have collected specimens of presumably M. p. carbonarius from 3 locations in Pulaski County. Ondatra zibethicus (Linnaeus), muskrat. The muskrat is a common inhabitant of the small rivers, streams, and ponds in Pulaski County. Even though the amount of fur trapping in recent years has dimin- ished, several hundred muskrats are still caught by the few remaining professional trappers. Synaptomys cooperi (Baird), southern bog lemming. The range map of Hall and Kelson (1959) excludes the southern bog lemming from Pulaski County. Barbour (1956) described a new subspecies, S. c. kentucki, from north- central Kentucky, the nearest record oc- curring in Richmond, Madison County. S. c. stonei has its closest occurrence at Goldbug, Whitley County. I have collected 2 speci- mens of S. cooperi from 1.6 km east of TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) Science Hill. A specimen collected on 5 November 1972 was a female containing 2 embryos, 10 mm in crown-rump length. The animals were found on a wooded knob with scattered areas of dense undergrowth. Zapus hudsonicus (Zimmerman), meadow jumping mouse. Wallace (1971) reported the presence of Z. hudsonicus from Lyon, Oldham, Daviess, and Madison counties. | In October 1971, a resident near Pitman Creek at Ruth reported seeing a mouse that jumped and had a long tail, but I was unable to obtain any by trapping. On 14 May 1973, I was presented a specimen of this species caught at Nelson Valley, 3.2 km north of Somerset on State Hwy 39. The area is a bottomland along Pitman Creek, 7.2 km by air northwest of Ruth. I sus- pect that additional jumping mice may be caught between Ruth and Nelson Valley along Pitman Creek. Vulpes fulva (Desmarest), red fox. The red fox is rather rare in Pulaski County. The few animals seen usually are present in the more heavily forested por- tions of the county. Urocyon cinereoargenteus (Schreber), gray fox. This species is very common through- out the country. The animals prefer to hunt in the open fields with nearby woods into which they can retreat. Several hundred of these mammals are killed yearly by auto- mobiles in Pulaski County. This species frequently is a vector for rabies, and in adjacent Casey County, the rabies virus has eliminated a number of these animals. There have been no recent reports in Pulaski County of rabid gray foxes. Procyon lotor (Linnaeus), raccoon. The raccoon is frequently observed at night along the larger streams in the county. In the summer, raccoons frequently invade corn fields to feed on the young succulent ears of corn. MAMMALS OF PULASKI CouNTy, KENTucKY—Fassler 43 Mustela vison (Schreber), mink. Local fur trappers encounter the mink along the several tributaries to Lake Cum- berland, and even in swampy and marshy areas. Mink frequently are the casualty of automobiles on major highways. I have collected specimens from north of Somerset and south of Eubank and have also seen mink in the forest east of Mt. Victory. Mephitis (Schreber ), skunk. This skunk lives in the flat open areas of Pulaski County. I collected a specimen from 1.6 km east of Somerset. I suspect that trophic competition between the striped skunk and the opossum may be a restricting factor in the abundance of the skunk. mephitis striped Odocoileus virginiana (Zimmerman), white- tailed deer. This species is hunted locally, with most kills occurring in southern Pulaski County. The number of animals present would be greatly enhanced if out-of-season hunting was reduced and if feral dog packs were eliminated. Certain parts of the county produce extensive browse conducive to the well-being of white-tailed deer. MAMMALS OF QUESTIONABLE OCCURRENCE The presence of 13 species of mammals in Pulaski County remains indefinite. I found no evidence to indicate the presence of Sorex longirostris (southeastern shrew), Sylvilagus aquaticus (swamp _ rabbit), Oryzomys palustris (marsh rice rat), Reithrodontomys humulis (eastern harvest mouse), Peromyscus maniculatus (deer mouse ), Peromyscus (Ochrotomys) nuttalli (golden mouse), Sigmodon hispidus (his- pid cotton rat), Microtus pennsylvanicus (meadow vole), and Spilogale putorius (eastern spotted skunk). Myotis grisescens (gray bat) lives in nursery colonies in nearby Adair and Garrard counties. This bat prefers caves with a good flow of water, several of which occur in Pulaski County. Ursus (Euarctos) americanus (black bear) was supposedly seen by several residents in the Stab community in 1971. However, a search for clues concerning the presence of a bear proved fruitless. Mustela frenata (long-tailed weasel). In talking with local trappers, the last known weasel caught was 5 or 6 years ago. Local poultry specialists have not had recent re- ports of weasels raiding chicken houses. LITERATURE CITED Barsour, R. W. 1951. The mammals of Big Black Mountain, Harlan County, Kentucky. J. Mammal. 32:100—110. 1956. Synaptomys cooperi in Ken- tucky, with description of a new subspecies. J. Mammal. 37:413-416. . 1957. Some additional mammal rec- ords from Kentucky. J. Mammal. 38:140-141. , AND W. H. Davis. 1969. Bats of America. University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. 286 pp. Davis, W. H. 1959. Disproportionate sex ratios in hibernating bats. J. Mammal. 40:16—19. 1964. Fall swarming of bats at Dixon Cave, Kentucky. Bull. Natl. Speleolog. Soc. 26:82-83. , AND W. Z. LipickER, Jr. 1956. Win- ter range of the red bat, Lasiurus borealis. J. Mammal. 37:280-81. FassterR, D. J. 1971. A _ range extension of Rafinesque’s_ big-earred bat in Kentucky. Bat Res. News 12:41. 1972. An additional record of the hoary bat in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Ser. 34:36. 1973. An _ additional evening bat from south-central Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 34:46. 1974. Red bat hibernating in a woodpecker hole. Amer. Midl. Nat. In press. ERALI ep lt: Ra SAND Ke SKEESON.1959:.. The Mammals of North America. The Ronald Press Co., New York, N.Y. 2 vols. HANDLEY, C. O., Jr. 1952. A new pine mouse (Pitymys pinetorum carbonarius) from the southern Appalachian Mountains. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 42:152-153. Lewis, R. Q., Sr. 1974. Geologic map of the Somerset quadrangle, Pulaski County, Kentucky. U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Quad. Map. G.Q. In press. Oostinc, H. J. 1956. The communities. W. H. Freeman Francisco, Calif. 440 pp. Wat.aceE, J. T. 1971. New records of Zapus hudsonicus (Zimmerman) from Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 32:65-69. plant San study of Co., A Phytosociological Study of a Relict Hardwood Forest in Barren County, Kentucky CHRISTINE K. BOUGHER AND JOE E. WINSTEAD Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 ABSTRACT Analysis of a hardwood forest at Bonayer in Barren County, Kentucky, revealed a mature forest system with high tree species diversity and an age in excess of 150 years. The forest may be characterized as an oak forest, primarily due to the importance of Quercus alba in - the stand. Accessory species are Nyssa sylvatica, Carya ovata, Liquidambar styraciflua, and Liriodendron tulipifera. Cornus florida is prevalent in the understory. A high degree of similarity is evident between the tree composition and the younger growth in the forest indicating a relatively stable forest system. Comparison with second and third growth forest stands in the surrounding area reveals that the same species are dominant in the younger developing stands. This suggests that the Bonayer Forest represents the climax vegetation of the area. The mature forest shows a mean dbh of 7.0 inches (17.8 cm), density of 289 trees per acre (713 trees/ha), and a basal area of 138.5 square feet per acre (31.8 m*/ha). INTRODUCTION Although general information is readily available concerning the structure and composition of deciduous forests, especially in the eastern part of the United States, there seems to be little specific information concerning forest composition in the Commonwealth of Kentucky. The lack of phytosociological studies prior to the devel- opment of the land, and the extent of land development of Kentucky, has led to the paucity of information regarding the natural forest vegetation of the Commonwealth. To the authors’ knowl- edge, there are few publications dealing with the vegetational composition of relict or virgin forests in Kentucky. It is apparent that there is a special need for studies of natural areas that have been relatively undisturbed by man. A small wooded area in Barren County, Kentucky, referred to as Bonayer Forest, was chosen for a detailed phytosociological analysis in 1971 after a preliminary investigation indicated that the forest might be representative of the natural vegetation of south central Kentucky. This study was undertaken to describe the vegetational composition of the forest, to gain some insight into the successional development of the stand, to compare the tree composition of the forest with that of representative woodlots in the surround- ing area, and to establish a record of Bonayer Forest as a basis for possible future studies of a structural or functional nature. An underlying aim of this investi- gation was to determine whether or not this small forest is indicative of the vegetational composition that would be present in the region if it were undisturbed by man. The study area consists of approximately 14.5 acres (5.9 hectares) of mature hard- wood forest in Barren County, Kentucky, 25 miles (40.25 km) east of Bowling Green and 6 miles (9.7 km) west of Glasgow on U.S. Highway 68 at the village of Bonayer. This woods was part of a Revolutionary War Grant to the Read family of Glasgow. To the knowledge of the last 3 Read generations (approximately 125 years) there has been no_ timber removed except for dead chestnut trees after the epidemic of chestnut blight in the late 1930's. Prior to 1971, the forest covered some 30 acres (12.1 ha), but during that year, a part of the Cumberland Parkway was cut through the woods, leaving less than half of the former stand. PHytosocioLocy oF ReLicr Forest—Bougher and Winstead 45 Barren County is within the eastern and western Pennyroyal physiographic regions of Kentucky, which are parts of the Mississippian plateau (McFarlan 1943). The plateau is underlain by sedimentary rocks primarily of Mississippian age, with Devonian rocks in some areas. The topog- raphy of the county is predominantly that of a dissected plateau, and varies greatly. Bonayer Forest is on a nearly level section of land within an area of gently rolling topography. According to a soil survey of Barren County (Latham 1969), the soils underly- ing Bonayer Forest have been classified as Dowellton and Taft silt loams. Both are nearly level, poorly drained, acid soils on upland flats. These soils were developed in residual or alluvial material derived chiefly from limestone and partly from sandstone or shale. The natural fertility of Dowellton and Taft silt loams is moderately low; organic matter is low. The area now known as Barren County was settled following an order of the Virginia Convention in 1789, which de- clared that all the lands between the Barren and Green rivers would be given to soldiers of the Continental Army. Barren County was formed from Warren and Green counties in 1789 and originally included all of Metcalfe County, large parts of Hart and Monroe counties, and a part of Allen County. The name of Barren County was derived from the term “barrens” given by the early settlers to a treeless grassland roughly corresponding to the area of karst topography in central Kentucky. According to Shaler (1854) the early settlers con- sidered these lands to be worthless and unproductive since they did not support the magnificent forests expected of fertile land. The lack of trees may have been due to periodic fires set by the Indians to burn off old grass, thus providing better forage for buffalo and other large game. When the Indians no longer made regular hunting expeditions into Kentucky (about 1790), the grassland known as the Barrens was quickly restored (Shaler 1884). It is impossible to determine whether the present study site was a part of what was then the Barrens, or if it was part of the originally forested region which surrounded the Barrens. Franklin Gorin (1876), commenting on the appearance of Barren County in 1798, said: “The country north, northwest, and northeast of Glasgow was mostly barrens, poorly watered and lightly timbered, but the rest of the country . was heavily timbered with oak, black and white walnut, ash, sugar maple, hackberry, cherry, poplar, chestnut, beech, buckeye, etc.” Bonayer Forest is west and_ slightly north of Glasgow, so it would have been near the borderline between the wooded and barren regions as presented by Gorin. However, even if the study site was within the Barrens, it may have been reforested following 1790 (Shaler 1884, Hussey 1876). The history of Barren County, then indi- cates that the study site may have been covered with forest vegetation for 180 or more years. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Special thanks are due Drs. Kenneth A. Nicely and Robert D. Hoyt who helped in confirmation of plant identification and statistical analysis. The authors are very grateful to Mrs. Nellie Read and her family who allowed the study of their property. The research was supported in part by the 1971 Student Research Grant of the Kentucky Academy of Science. MATERIALS AND METHODS The quadrat method (Oosting 1956) was used to determine species composition, relative density, and relative frequency of all size classes of vegetation as well as relative dominance (based on basal area) of tree species. At Bonayer, 23 quadrats of 10 m X 10 m dimensions were placed on 4 transect lines with a 30-m interval be- tween each quadrat. Seven additional 100-m? quadrats were placed at random in the remaining area. The diameter 46 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) breast height (dbh) of each tree species greater than 2 inches (5 cm) dbh was recorded for each 100-m* quadrat. Saplings and shrubs less than 5 cm dbh and greater than 1 foot (30 cm) in height were sampled in 2 20-m? quadrats (2 x 10m) placed within each 100-m? quadrat. Seed- lings less than 30 cm in height were counted and identified to genus in 4 1-m? (1 7:8: 144 Corylus americana Se” Zar 2.6" "Grr Lindera benzion De OL 735455 Asimina triloba GS 0245 JE Geary Aralia spinosa 36 »dgkiyshSar BS Vaccinium stamineum 10 oa 2.4) BA Vitis spp. 6 2 5 i Amelanchier arborea 5 a 5 a4 Rhamnus carolinianus 1 0 2 2 Lonicera japonica 9 When saplings and shrubs are ranked according to relative density plus relative frequency values, 3 genera appear as im- portant understory trees in Bonayer Forest (Table 3). These are Cornus florida (11.4), Carpinus caroliniana (10.1), and Fraxinus spp. (10.0). Euonymus ameri- canus is by far the most important shrub in the woods due to its high density of 6,357 individuals per acre (15,701/ha) and its frequency of 98.3 percent. Other common shrubs are Smilax sp., Corylus americana, Lindera benzion, and Asimina triloba. It is interesting to note that a TABLE 4.—THE NuMBER (N), RELATIVE DENsITY (RD), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), AND RELATIVE Density Pius RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RD&RF) VALUES FOR TREE AND SHRUB SEEDLINGS IN Bo- NAYER Forest. DATA GATHERED FROM 120 SQUARE METER QUADRATS Species N RD RF RD&RF Tree Seedlings Quercus spp. 238 28.9 14.1 43.0 Acer spp. 105 12:8 Tae 25 Liquidambar styraciflua 103 12.5 11.3 23.8 Liriodendron tulipifera 73 ‘69. (ee fi Nyssa sylvatica 31 338°) eae Carya spp. 29 3D Seana Carpinus caroliniana 30° 3:6), gaeoeen Sassafras albidum 30 36 4apo Fraxinus spp. 28 3.4" 2aa ooo Cornus florida 96. 32 a Ulmus spp. 15 ES (aa as Prunus serotina 14. , i, ae Aes Amelanchier spp. 2 2 2 4 Morus rubra 2 Bs 2 A Fagus grandifolia 1 “Tf 2, o Unknown seedlings 6 tLe a rksy Shrub Seedlings Smilax sp. 43 532 70 faz Lindera benzion 2 Sa ees Corylus americana 10° iB en Aralia spinosa S. “ie bsg 65 Vaccinium stamineum 2 2, Db Wi: few Castanea dentata root sprouts are present in the woods. Relative density plus relative frequency values for seedlings in Bonayer Forest (Table 4) show that Quercus spp. (43.0), Acer spp. (25.9), and Liquidambar styraci- flua (23.8) are the most dominant tree seedlings, while Smilax sp. (12.2) and Lindera benzion (8.6) are the most com- mon shrub seedlings. Woody vines present at Bonayer Forest and their frequencies in the seedling stra- tum are Parthenocissus quinquefolia (36.7), Lonicera japonica (10.8), Rhus radicans (10.8), and Vitis spp. (3.3). Herbaceous plants noted in the Bonayer woods are Aralia racemosa, Ariseama_ triphyllum, Athyrium thelyteroides, Boehmeria cylin- drica, Chimaphila maculata, Commelina communis, Desmodium sp., Houstonia sp., Impatiens biflora, Mitchella repens, Ono- clea sensibilus, Osmunda regalis, Panicum PuytTosocioLocy oF ReLicr Forest—Bougher and Winstead 49 TABLE 5.—THE NuMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RevLatrivE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE DoMINANCE (RDo), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) oF TREES OvER 5 CM DBH IN THE SURROUNDING AREA N "RD BE -RDot IV 32 15.6 89 24.4 48.9 44 215 14.8 7.1 43.4 Species Liriodendron tulipifera Cornus florida Quercus velutina 16 7.8 89 17.8 34.5 Nyssa sylvatica 20 98 99 9.9 29.6 Acer rubrum T 6.e, 1.0. 0.0,24.0 Liquidambar styraciflua 13 63 69 5.1 18.3 Carya ovata ths545 SOni hQth Quercus alba 9) 44) 403.404 Sassafras albidum LO, 4.9.40. 2A Lbs Prunus serotina revit 5 AS MewltnyS ingmare S ml 1 ) AY Quercus borealis oe FU ADO IG 49.9 Carya tomentosa 4 20 30 44 9.4 Carya glabra Ot) b.5) -AO-S.O's FA Fagus grandifolia 6532 Oe? Orr Gib Carpinus caroliniana Ae ewes ox Oso Juglans cinerea 1 Va Be 7 Cercis canadensis Dat ViOev2Ous iS CS.0 Fraxinus americana bio tae Oe lho kG Ulmus alata iL 38 ory Oage talk. G Acer saccharum Fl icoeetO4 2:0" Lb Morus rubra AMD Pires es | #50) fy Rhamnus carolinianus fete toe 20) O05 1 Basal area equals 11.85 m2. sp., Podophyllum peltatum, Polystichum acrostichoides, Sanicula canadensis, Smila- cina racemosa, Thelypteris hexagonoptera, and Uvularia perfoliata. Tree data from 6 stands in the vicinity of Bonayer Forest (Table 5) give the total of 22 species which are included in the sample of the Surrounding Area. Of these, 17 species are common to both Bonayer Forest and the Surrounding Area. Surprisingly, Cornus florida, an understory tree, has the second highest importance value (43.4) in the Surrounding Area. This is due to its high relative density (21.5) and frequency (14.8) within the stands. The most important overstory trees in the Surrounding Area are Liriodendron tulipi- fera (48.9), Quercus velutina (34.5), Nyssa sylvatica (29.6) and Acer rubrum (24.0). Liriodendron tulipifera has the greatest relative dominance (24.4) of any species in the Surrounding Area. In comparing the 4 most important overstory species in the 2 forest areas only Nyssa sylvatica is among TABLE 6.—DIAMETERS (IN CENTIMETERS) OF THE 10 Most COMMON TREE SPECIES IN THE SURROUND- ING AREA SHOWING THE NUMBER OF TREES IN EAcH CiAss. Data BASED ON 205 TREES -7T— 27.8— 43.0- 29 45 No 3. 8.5 = to bo Or WAWAASAANIANWDNYN I] gos Species Cornus florida Lirodendron tulipifera Quercus velutina Nyssa sylvatica Acer rubrum Carya ovata Liquidambar styraciflua Prunus serotina Quercus alba Sassafras albidum he OO i) = NS) the most important canopy species in both Bonayer Forest and the Surrounding Area. For the Surrounding Area, 205 individuals with a mean dbh of 15 cm are included in the sample quadrats. These figures give a density of 1,025 stems per hectare and a total basal area of 11.9 m? for trees in the Surrounding Area. Diameter class distri- bution of the 10 most common tree species in the Surrounding Area (Table 6) shows a less even distribution over the various size classes than did the data from Bonayer Forest. No trees are present in the 58.4 cm or greater classification, and only 2 species, Liriodendron tulipifera and Quercus velu- tina are represented in 4 different size classes. Cornus florida is represented by 44 individuals, but they are restricted to the 2 smallest size classes, 5-12.5 and 12.5-27.7 cm dbh. Both forest areas show high Shannonn- Weaver diversity values for tree species. A value of 3.685 was computed for the Surrounding Area; a diversity of 4.057 was found for the Bonayer Forest. Linear regression analysis of tree species data from Bonayer Forest yielded a regression coetfi- cient of slope (b) of 0.0759, which is another measure of diversity. When used in this manner, the smaller the slope the greater the diversity or the more species encountered per given number of indi- viduals. 50 TABLE 7.—GrowtTH Rinc ANALYsIS OF 18 WHITE Oak STUMPS Diameter (cm ) Number of Rings 26.7 69 30.5 80 34.3 71 36.8 63 39.4 147 43.2 108 50.8 163 54.6 158 61.0 81 71.2 (double trunk ) 84 72.4 132, etal 136 76.2 184 78.7 156 88.9 139 99.1 172 104.2 181 116.9 207 The diameter and number of annual rings counted for 18 Quercus alba cut from Bonayer Forest during highway construc- tion (Table 7) indicate a great variation in the number of rings counted for similar sized trees, but provided information as to the age of the trees. Of the 18 white oaks cut during highway construction, 8 had stump widths ranging from 50 to 79 cm and showed from 81 to 184 years of growth. The largest stump analyzed was 116.8 cm in diameter with 207 annual rings. Among the 24 white oaks that fell within the 10- x 10-m quadrats, the range of dbh was 5.3-79.2 cm. Of these, 8 (33%) were of the size class 5.3-24.0 cm; 8 (33%) measured 25.7-47.8 cm; 7 (29%) showed dbh’s of 52.8-71.1 cm; and 1 white oak measured 79.2 cm. A few large white oaks measured outside the quadrats gave dbh’s of 83.8, 74.9, 67.3, 62.2, and 49.0 cm. Eleven random tree height measurements gave an average of 28.5 m for an approxi- mation of canopy height. The dbh was recorded for 7 of the trees, but not for the remaining 4. The species, dbh, and height of the 7 trees were: 1 Fagus grandifolia dbh of 39.8 cm and a height of 22.7 m, 2 Liquidambar styraciflua with TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) dbh’s of 53.3 and 59.2 cm corresponding to heights of 24.8 and 24.2 m, 2 Lirio- dendron tulipifera with dbh’s of 37.8 and 35.6 cm corresponding to heights of 28.5 and 26.5 m, and 2 Quercus alba with dbh’s of 71.1 and 78.7 corresponding to heights of 36.6 and 26.4 m. The 3 remaining Liriodendron tulipifera had heights of 29.9, 30.8, and 31.7 m. One Quercus alba measured 30.8 m in height. The productivity of Bonayer Forest, as determined by collection of litter, seemed to be low, with very little organic matter being added to the forest floor annually. Collections from the 4 litter boxes averaged 251 g of leaves, stems, and fruits per square meter of forest floor. Of that total, leaf litter accounted for 229 g; stems, 15 g; and fruit material, 8 g. Soil analysis of 30 soil samples gave a range of pH from 4.5 to 5.8 with a mean of 5.1. The average sand, silt, and clay con- tent of the first 8 cm of soil was 11.3, 59.8, and 28.9 percent, respectively. The major- ity of the soil samples (22) fell within the silty clay loam texture class, 7 samples were classified as silt loam, and 1 sample was sandy clay loam (Foth and Jacobs 1964). There are no apparent differences in vegetation which may be correlated with differences in soil texture or soil pH within the Bonayer stand. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Data in Table 1 indicate that Bonayer Forest may be characterized as an oak forest, primarily due to the importance of Quercus alba in the stand. Q. alba has the second highest density as well as the highest frequency and dominance of any species there. Other oaks included in data from the Bonayer Forest are Q. velutina, QO. coccinea, and an individual of an un- identified species. Together, the oaks have an importance value of 81.9 which makes up 27.3 percent of the total importance value (300) for all species. Accessory species which follow oak in importance in the Bonayer Forest stand are Nyssa sylvatica, Carya ovata, Liquidambar §sty- | PuytrosocioLocy oF REeLicr Forest—Bougher and Winstead ol TABLE 8.—COMPARISON OF THE 6 Most IMPORTANT TREE, SAPLING, AND SEEDLING GENERA _ IN BONAYER FOREST Trees Saplings Seedlings Genus IV Genus RD&RF Genus RD&RF Quercus 83.5 Acer 8.2 Quercus 43.0 Carya 31.4 Nyssa 8.1 Acer 25.9 Nyssa 29.1 Carya 79 Liquidambar 23.8 Liquidambar 22.1 Quercus Tee Liriodendron FS Liriodendron 20.3 Liquidambar 6.0 Nyssa 9.8 Acer 18.5 Prunus 4.8 Carya 9.5 raciflua, and Liriodendron tulipifera. The understory of the Bonayer Forest is charac- terized by the presence of Cornus florida. Diameter size class distribution of the 10 most common tree species in the Bonayer Forest (Table 2) indicated that reproduc- tion is taking place since canopy species are also present in the smaller size classes. The generally even distribution of trees over several size classes is evidence that the forest has not been disturbed in the recent past. Cornus florida and Carpinus caroliniana are both restricted to only the smallest size class, but this is to be expected, since they are typical understory species. When ovyerstory tree species present in in each size class (tree, saplings, seedlings ) are grouped into their respective genera and subsequently compared, a high degree of similarity is evident between the compo- sition of the canopy and the younger growth in Bonayer Forest (Table 8). Genera which are typically restricted to the understory (Cornus, Carpinus, Fraxinus, and Sassafras) and would not be expected to replace dead or dying canopy trees have been omitted from these data. The 6 most important genera in the canopy of Bonayer Forest are Quercus, Carya, Nyssa, Liquidambar, Liriodendron, and Acer. Of these genera, 5 are present in this relative position in the sapling layer, and all 6 are present in the seedling layer. In the sapling stratum, Liriodendron is not among the 6 most important genera since both Prunus and Fagus have higher relative density plus relative frequency values (Table 5). It is not unusual for Lirio- dendron to be less important in the sapling stage than in the canopy because it is shade intolerant and does not survive well under a closed canopy. The relative importance of the different genera is not the same throughout the seedling, sapling, and tree stages, but many factors affect the numbers, growth, and survival of seedlings so that the relative importance of different genera often changes over time. Nevertheless, it is obvious from an examination of the seedling and sapling composition at Bon- ayer Forest that the same genera are present in these younger stages as in the canopy, indicating that the tree composi- tion of Bonayer Forest probably will be much the same in the future. Euonymus americanus (strawberry bush ) has a greater relative density plus relative frequency value (67.9) than any other sapling or shrub in Bonayer Forest (Table 3). Its unexpected density of 6,357 indi- viduals per acre (15,701/ha) and frequency of 98.3 percent cannot be explained by reference to the literature, since little research has been published on this species. Euonymus americanus deserves further study to determine the reason for its great abundance in Bonayer Forest. Tree data from the Surrounding Area (Table 5) show both similarities and differences in composition when compared to that of Bonayer Forest. In the Surround- ing Area, Liriodendron tulipifera and Quercus velutina are the most dominant tree species in contrast to Bonayer Forest, where Quercus alba is the most dominant. When all the oaks in the data of the Surrounding Area (Q. velutina, Q. alba, and Q. borealis ) are grouped, their collective relative domi- Ut bo TABLE 9.—COMPARISON OF THE IMPORTANCE VALUES OF THE 7 Most IMPORTANT TREE GENERA IN THE BONAYER FOREST AND THE SURROUNDING AREA Surrounding Area Genus IV Bonayer Forest Genus IV Quercus 83.5 Quercus 55.8 Carya 31.4 Liriodendron 48.9 Nyssa 29.1 Cornus 43.4 Liquidambar = _ 22.1 Carya 32.3 Liriodendron =. 20.3 Nyssa 29.6 Acer 28.5 Acer 25.5 i Liquidambar 18.3 Cornus nance value (27.2) and importance value (55.8) are higher than those of Lirio- dendron. The Surrounding Area, then, may be characterized as oak-tulip poplar with Cornus florida, Nyssa sylvatica, Acer rubrum, Liquidambar styraciflua, and Carya ovata as accessory species. It is apparent that oaks are dominant in both Bonayer Forest and the Surrounding Area; Nyssa sylvatica, Liquidambar styraciflua, and Carya ovata are accessory species common to both. Comparison of the 7 most impor- tant genera in the Bonayer Forest and the Surrounding Area (Table 9) shows that the same 7 genera (Quercus, Carya, Nyssa, Liquidambar, Liriodendron, Acer, Cornus ) are the most important in both areas. This similarity in fundamental composition is to be expected of 2 forest areas in the same locality. Two primary differences in composition between Bonayer Forest and the Surround- ing Area seem to indicate that Bonayer Forest is a more mature and less disturbed forest stand than any stand in the Sur- rounding Area. One difference is that the importance values of Quercus alba and QO. velutina are approximately reversed in the 2 areas. In the Bonayer Forest data, Q. alba has an importance value of 61.3 and Q. velutina one of 12.6; in the Sur- rounding Area Q. alba has an importance value of 114 Q. velutina one of 34.5 (Tables 1, 2). A second difference be- tween the areas is that Liriodendron is much more predominant in the Surrounding TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) Area than in the Bonayer Forest. Among _ the 7 most important genera in the Bonayer Forest data, Liriodendron ranks fifth with an importance value of 20.3; in the data | of the Surrounding Area, Liriodendron | approached Quercus in status with an | importance of 48.9 (Table 10). Both | these differences probably are the result of selective cutting in the Surrounding © Area, removing the larger Q. alba, and opening up the canopy so that shade — intolerant Liriodendron and Q. velutina— Bonayer — have become more prominent. Forest shows no indication of previous disturbance by cutting. The composition of the Surrounding Area, in the absence of further disturbance, probably will approach that of the Bonayer Forest in time. Distribution of diameter size classes for the 10 most common trees in the Sur- rounding Area provides further evidence that the stands in the Surrounding Area are younger and more disturbed than those in the Bonayer Forest (Table 6). This is obvious since no trees in the 58.4 cm or greater size class were present as in the data from Bonayer Forest (Table 2). The Surrounding Area shows a less even dis- tribution of trees over the various size classes. In the Bonayer Forest sample, Quercus alba was represented in all 5 size classes, but it was present in only the first 3 classes in the sample of the Surrounding Area. This suggests that the larger Q. alba have been cut out of the Surrounding Area. Growth ring analysis of Quercus alba trees cut during highway construction gives an estimation of the age of Bonayer Forest. From 81 to 184 annual growth rings were counted for 8 white oak stumps with dbh’s of 50-80 cm. One-third of the white oaks included in the sample data showed dbh’s within this same range, implying an equal age for these living trees. It follows, then, that Bonayer Forest has been in existence for more than 150 years. According to ecological theory, quality, larger size, high diversity, and_ stability are typical of mature systems, while the PuytosocioLocy OF ReELIct Forest—Bougher and Winstead 53 opposite characteristics, quantity, small individuals, low diversity, greater produc- tion are typical of young systems. Com- parison of trees from the Surrounding Area, from Bonayer Forest, and from a virgin forest in Indiana support the statement that numbers of individuals decrease and size of individuals increase as a system matures. Lindsey et al. (1958) found that in an impressive virgin forest called Donaldson’s Woods, some trees reached up to 132 cm (52 inches) in dbh, the mean dbh was 29 cm (11.4 inches) there were 294 stems per hectare, and there was a basal area of 28.7 m?/ha. Going from younger to more mature, the Surrounding Area, Bonayer Forest, and Donaldson's Woods show increasing mean dbh’s of | 15.2, 17.8, and 29.0 cm (6.0, 7.0, and 11.4 inches), respectively. Similarly, the 3 forest areas exhibit decreasing numbers of indi- viduals, of 1,025, 713, and 294 stems per hectare (415, 289, and 123 stems per acre), respectively. It seems that basal area of a stand is not necessarily correlated with maturity since the basal area of the Sur- rounding Area of 29.4 m?/ha is almost identical to that of Donaldson’s Woods, while the basal area of Bonayer Forest is greater than either being 31.9 m7?/ha. This comparison of the 3 forest areas sug- gest that although Bonayer Forest is more mature than the Surrounding Area, it does not exhibit a mean dbh and density which are characteristic of a virgin forest. In general, high species diversity is considered characteristic of mature systems. According to Shannonn—Weaver diversity index, Bonayer Forest shows a slightly higher tree species diversity (4.057) than does the Surrounding Area (3.685). Since an almost equal number of species was present in both samples, the lower diversity value for the Surrounding Area is due primarily to less evenness in the apportion- ment of individuals among the species. Linear regression analysis of species data from the Bonayer Forest gave a slope (b) of 0.0759, where lower slope values signify higher diversity. Monk and McGinnis (1966), in a study of forest community types in Florida, found that known successional communities such as sandhills, cypress heads, and flatwoods gave slopes ranging from 0.1275 to 0.2262, while known climax communities such as the southern mixed hardwoods gave slopes of 0.0554 to 0.1160. The slope of 0.0759 calculated for the Bonayer Forest falls within the range of slopes which Monk and McGinnis found characteristic of known climax types. This indicates that Bonayer Forest has a high diversity typical of climax communities. The small amount of litter deposited on the forest floor could be used to support the idea that the Bonayer Forest is a stand that has neared homeostasis. Although the litter samples were limited in number, the amount collected in the litter traps seemed consistent with the appearance of litter on the forest floor. The value of 251 g/m? of litter in 1972-1973 is much less than the 600 g/m? of litter deposition obtained by Bray and Gorham (1964) for warm temperate forests between 34 and 38 de- grees North latitude. This is evidence that the Bonayer Forest has low productivity, or that the community energetics are such that the gross production to biomass ratio (P/B ratio) is low. A low P/B ratio is typical of a mature system, one which is approaching homeostasis. A species list compiled by Hussey (1876 ) from collections in the western part of Barren County, in the cave region, and in Edmonson County contains all of the tree species present in the Bonayer Forest data, as well as 22 of 32 different species of genera of shrubs, woody vines, and herbs. Hussey stated that on the more level parts of Barren County, trees were still small in size and few in species, which he felt was evidence of the recent introduction of forest growth into the region. He noted that the largest trees in this section of Barren County were oaks 15 inches (38 cm) in diameter. This may be contrasted to white oaks which attained enormous development along the Green River, form- ing “immense trunks, reaching to a height o4 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35( 1-2) of eighty feet, where they still seem to be three feet in diameter.” Most of the species present in the Bonayer Forest, then, are identical to those found in the region nearly 100 years ago. The difference in size between trees in Barren County and elsewhere at that time may explain why trees in the Bonayer Forest do not approach the tremendous size expected of a virgin forest. Bonayer Forest is included within the Mississippian Plateau of the Western Mesophytic Forest Region by Braun (1964), which she designated as a transition region characterized by a “mosaic pattern of cli- max vegetation types” rather than a single climax type. Braun indicated the domi- nance of oak forest over much of the Mississippian Plateau. Accessory species which vary from place to place may include sugar maple, beech, tulip tree, chestnut, hickories, white ash, and occasional other species. In sampling the canopy trees at one location in Barren County, Braun found that oaks formed half of the canopy with maple and beech the next most fre- quent. If all trees greater than 30 cm dbh in the Bonayer Forest data are considered, oaks form 51.5 per cent of the canopy with tulip tree as the next most frequent. The designation of Bonayer Forest as an oak forest is therefore consistent with generali- zations and specific data presented by Braun. This study has provided evidence that Bonayer Forest is typical of what the vegetational composition would be in south central Kentucky if this area were left undisturbed by man. The composition of the forest is oak, with black gum, shag- bark hickory, sweetgum, and tulip poplar as accessory species. Bonayer Forest is similar in composition to stands in the Surrounding Area, but is a more mature forest system. The same genera of trees are present in the younger growth stages as are present in the canopy, indicating that the canopy trees are replacing them- selves and that the Bonayer Forest repre- sents a climax vegetation type. LITERATURE CITED Bovyoucos, G. J. 1936. Directions for making mechanical analyses of soils by the hydrom- eter method. Soil Sci. 42:225—-229. Braun, E. L. 1964. Deciduous forest of Eastern North America. Hafner Publishing Co. New York, N.Y. 596 pp. Bray, J. R. AND E. Gornam. 1964. Litter production in forests of the world. In: Adv. Ecol. Res. (J. B. Cragg, ed.) 2:101—157. Curtis, R. T., aNnD R. P. McIntrosu. 1951. An upland forest continuum in the prairie-forest border region of Wisconsin. Ecology 32: 476-496. Fotu, H. D., anp H. S. Jacogss. 1964. Labo- ratory manual for introductory soil science. Wm. C. Brown Co. Dubuque, Ia. GuiEAson, H. A., and A. Cronguist. 1963. Manual of vascular plants of Northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. D. Van Nostrand Co. Princeton, N.J. 810 pp. Gorin, F. 1876. Barren County, Kentucky. Reprinted in 1926 entitled “Times of Long Ago” by J. P. Morton Co. Louisville, Ky. 13ST “pp: Hussey, J. 1876. Report of the botany of Barren and Edmonson Counties. Ky. Geol. Surv. 1:27-58. LatHaM, E. E. 1969. Soil survey of Barren County, Kentucky. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C, 85 pp. Linpsry, A. A., J. D. BARTON, JB AD oe tae Mies. 1958. Field efficiency of forest sampling methods. Ecology 39:428—444. McFarian, A. C. 1943. Geology of Kentucky. Univ. Ky. Lexington, Ky. 531 pp. Monk, C. D., AND J. T. McGinnis. 1966. Tree species diversity in six forest types in north central Florida. J. Ecol. 54:341-344. Oostinc, H. J. 1956. The study of plant communities. W. H. R. Freeman Co. San Francisco, Calif. 440 pp. SHALER, N. S. 1884. Kentucky, a _ pioneer commonwealth. Houghton Mifflin Co. New York, N.Y. 433. pp; WituM, J. L., anp T. C. Dorris. 1968. Biolog- ical parameters for water and quality criteria. Bioscience 18:477-481. WituraMs, C. B. 1964. Pattern in the balance of nature, and related problems in quanti- tative ecology. Academic Press, New York, N.Y. 324 pp. Mussels of the Green River, Kentucky Brtty G. Isom Environmental Biology Branch, Division of Environmental Planning, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660 ABSTRACT Seventy-seven species of unionid mussels and the Asiatic clam (Corbicula) are listed from the Green River, Kentucky, and an additional species from a nearby pond. These data further confirm the conclusions of Ortmann (1926) and Clench and van der Schalie (1944) that the mussels in the Green River belong to either the Ohioan or the interior basin fauna or are of unknown origin. No mussels of Cumberlandian origin have ever been found in the Green River. The Green River Basin presently has one of the most diverse mussel faunas of any stream in the country. Historically, Ortmann (1926) synthesized known infor- mation on mussel fauna of the Green River, Kentucky, drainage. A compilation of historical and recent collections of mussels include those by Ortmann (1926), Clench and van der Schalie (1944), Stansbery (1965), Williams (1969), collec- tions by Isom in 1970 and 1971, and collections in 1961 and 1965 by personnel of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia in the vicinity of the Paradise Steam Plant between Miles 82 and 108 on the Green River under contract with the Tennessee Valley Authority (Table 1). Subspecific designations in Table 1 were retained for the purpose of comparing current data with historical records; how- ever, in the opinion of the author, sub- specific designations noted are questionable. The records of Isom, Stansbery, and Williams probably represent the presently known fauna of the Green River Basin. These rather extensive collections include 77 species and confirm that the mussels in the Green River belong to either the Ohioan or the interior basin fauna or are of unknown origin and also confirm the absence of mussels of Cumberlandian origin as noted by Ortmann (1926) and Clench and van der Schalie (1944). Recently there has been some concern about the mussel fauna of the Green River because of the development of oil fields. Imlay (1971) indicated that potassium contained in “petroleum brine waste” had ruined the commercial mussel harvest from Green River. Based on observations made by Isom in 1970 and 1971 and those by Williams (1969), it is apparent that there is no correlation between mussel popula- tions in the Green River and the presence of potassium from petroleum brine waste. Williams (1969) stated that, “Good beds of living mussels were found just below all dams on the river with the exception of Dam 2 at Calhoun, Kentucky.” He noted that the present Dam 2 was relatively new and was relocated downstream of an original structure that accounted, at least in part, for lack of mussels. In addition, some commercial mussels were harvested on the Green River in 1965, about 5 years after the problem of oil well brine waste was reportedly alleviated. Data on water quality indicate that potassium levels do not exceed 3 mg/1 between Miles 81.8 and 108.0 on the Green River; this is less than the lowest lethal range of 4 to 7 mg/l reported by Imlay (1971) for long-term exposures. However, 3 mg/l could well be exceeded elsewhere in the drainage. Williams (1969) included Lampsilis cariosa in his list of mussels from _ the Green River. This probably is an error, because the distribution of L. cariosa is confined to streams of the Atlantic coast 56 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE 1.—MussEL FAUNA OF THE GREEN RIVER iN KENTUCKY, AS SHOWN BY HISTORICAL AND RE- CENT COLLECTIONS. O = ORTMANN (1926), S = STANSBERY (1965), C = CLENCH AND VAN DER ScHatre (1944), W = Wiiiams (1969), AND I = Isom (coLtiections oF 1970, 1971; AND IN 1961 sy Bates AND 1965 By FULLER OF THE PHILADELPHIA ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES ) Species Collector Cumberlandia monodonta ( Say ) Fusconaia undata Ort. Fusconaia ebenus ( Lea) Fusconaia flava ( Raf.) Fusconaia flava trigona ( Lea) Fusconaia subrotunda ( Lea) Fusconaia subrotunda kirtlandiana (Lea ) Megalonaias gigantea ( Bar. ) Amblema costata Raf. Amblema costata peruviana (Lam. ) Quadrula quadrula ( Raf.) Quadrula pustulosa ( Lea) Quadrula nodulata (Raf. ) OQuadrula metanevra (Raf. ) Quadrula metanevra wardi (Lea) Quadrula cylindrica (Say ) Tritogonia verrucosa ( Raf.) Cyclonaias tuberculata ( Raf. ) Cyclonaias tuberculata granifera ( Lea) Plethobasus cooperianus ( Lea) Plethobasus cyphyus ( Raf. ) Pleurobema clava (Lam. ) Pleurobema cordatum cordatum ( Raf.) Pleurobema cordatum plenum (Lea) Pleurobema cordatum coccineum (Con. ) Pleurobema cordatum pyramidatum ( Lea ) Pleurobema cordatum catillus (Con. ) Elliptio crassidens (Lam. ) Elliptio dilatatus ( Raf.) Lastena lata ( Raf.) Arcidens confragosus (Say ) Lasmigona costata ( Raf. ) Lasmigona complanata ( Barnes ) Anodonta imbecillis (Say) Anodonta grandis (Say ) Anodonta suborbiculata ( Say ) Anodontoides ferussacianus (Lea) Alasmidonta calceolus (Lea) Alasmidonta marginata (Say ) Strophitus undulatus (Say ) Simpsoniconcha ambigua (Say ) Ptychobranchus fasciolaris ( Raf. ) Obliquaria reflexa ( Raf. ) Cyprogenia irrorata ( Lea) Obovaria olivaria ( Raf.) |, Ga) Oi Ge. ie] a — | — = 1 — = | elekevone qh = a =e! 3% NNNI NAIL ANI NN! Gvleion| a eomal WN be QP OE tea = | Gr Ge. Ceoace th, CosGact) Cle ate) NNNNN | CCR col | | | @O.G@ Oo 6 6 6-6 200 SO 6.664 Oo -6O SOOO, 2eO0CCo ©oCoo6 eer in | N Ce Get = | | = TABLE 1. Continued Collector SC Species Obovaria subrotunda ( Raf. ) Obovaria subrotunda lens ( Lea) Obovaria retusa (Lam. ) Actinonaias carinata (Bar. ) Truncilla truncata ( Raf.) Truncilla donaciformis (Lea) Plagiola lineolata ( Raf. ) Leptodea fragilis ( Raf. ) Leptodea leptodon ( Raf. ) Leptodea laevissima (Lea) Proptera alata ( Say ) Proptera capax (Green ) Carunculina parva (Bar. ) Carunculina glans (Lea) Ligumia recta (Lam. ) Ligumia subrostrata (Say ) Villosa fabalis (Lea) Villosa nebulosa (Con. ) Villosa ortmanni ( Walker ) Villosa lienosa (Con. ) Lampsilis anodontoides ( Lea ) Lampsilis anodontoides fallaciosa ( Smith ) Lampsilis radiata siliquoidea ( Bar. ) Lampsilis luteola (Lam. ) Lampsilis ovata ovata (Say ) Lampsilis ovata ventricosa (Bar. ) Lampsilis fasciola ( Raf.) Dysnomia triquetra ( Raf.) Dysnomia sulcata (Lea) Dysnomia torulosa ( Raf.) Dysnomia torulosa gubernaculum (Reeve ) Dysnomia flexuosa ( Raf.) Corbicula manilensis Philippi i 1 NANnNMN| iG Goi Caren | | are tere OO © 1 ee | NANI NI NI NI NNNN! ele f= | (oem Acton Je Fe Deel — a | ©9369 SS OO ies OOO Ose © 4 N|_ NNMNNMN| NH | oH | B leaeeis Segal Saber) Si SS St Sa Sl | 4 | NPYRISHS) | Mey S2e R= .ekeue!| | | | | | (re wOe (2:© ©:On) drainage (Simpson 1914). Williams (1969) listed Lampsilis fallaciosa and Actinonaias ligamentina, but these are listed in this paper as L. anodontoides fallaciosa and A. carinata, respectively. Mussels collected by Isom are deposited at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, those collected by Bates and Fuller for the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia are deposited at the Academy, and those collected by Williams are de- posited at The Ohio State Museum at Columbus. Henry van der Schalie, Curator, Mollusk Division, University of Michigan, confirmed MussELS OF GREEN RIVER, KENTUCKY—Isom 37 identification of some mussels collected from the Green River by the author. LITERATURE CITED CLENCH, W. J., AND H. vAN DER ScHALIE. 1944. Notes on naiades from the Green, Salt, and Tradewater Rivers in Kentucky. Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts, Lett., pp. 223-228. Imuay, M. 1971. Bioassay tests with naiads. Proceedings of a symposium on rare and endangered mollusks (naiads) of the U.S. U.S. Dept. Interior, pp. 38-41. OrTMANN, A. E. 1926. V. The naiades of the Green River drainage in Kentucky. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 17(1):167, 188. Simpson, C. T. 1914. A descriptive catalogue of the naiades or pearly fresh-water mussels. Published by Bryant Walker, Detroit, Mich., 1,540 pp. STANSBERY, D. H. 1965. The naiad fauna of the Green River at Munfordville, Kentucky. Amer. Malacol. U. Ann. Rept. 1965:13-14. Witurams, J. C. 1969. Mussel fishery investiga- tion, Tennessee, Ohio, and Green Rivers, final report, Murray State University, Biological Station, State of Ky. Proj. No. 4-19-R, 107 pp. NEWS AND COMMENT This column will be carried regularly in the forthcoming issues of the TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. It will provide a vehicle for all members of the Academy to offer noteworthy news and comments to their fellow members. News and Comment * This is the first issue of the TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE in its new format as authorized by the Executive Committee of the Academy. The Com- mittee and the Editors will appreciate receiving your comments, either pro or con. It is anticipated that the TRANSACTIONS will continue to be issued twice a year with Numbers 1 and 2 as a single issue and Numbers 3 and 4 as a single issue. Dead- lines for receipt of manuscripts in their final revised form will be 1 April for Numbers 1 and 2, and 1 October for Numbers 3 and 4. We ask your indulgence for the tardiness of this first issue. That delay was caused New Format 58 primarily by the combined changes in format, change in printer, and change in editorial staff. From now on, since we believe that most of the wrinkles have been ironed out, we will make every effort to keep on schedule. As in the past, all manuscripts received will be reviewed by competent scientists in the discipline concerned, and all corre- spondence will be answered promptly. All orders for reprints will be handled through the Editors with all payments to be made directly to The Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas 66044. Orders for reprints by institutions should include a proper purchase order number. This change in policy will relieve the Secretary and Treasurer of these tasks. 1974 The next meeting of the Acad- Meeting emy is scheduled for 1 and 2 November 1974, at Centre College, Danville, Kentucky. Make your reservations early. As a matter of editorial policy, EDITOR’S NOTE all measurements in papers submitted for pub- lication in the TRANSACTIONS OF THE Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE should either be in the metric system or should carry metric equivalents in parentheses. Some of the more common equivalents for weights and measures are listed below. Length:— ee pe inch foot yard mile centimeter meter meter kilometer foot per mile Area:— 1 I 1 1 square inch square foot square yard square mile HE TNL II AME A TT 2.540 centimeters 30.480 centimeters 0.9144 meter 1.6093 kilometers 0.3937 inch 3.2808 feet 1.0936 yards 0.6214 mile 0.1894 meter per kilo- meter 6.452 square centi- meters 0.0929 square meter 0.8361 square meter 2.590 square kilo- meters 59 1 1 1 if square centi- meter square meter square kilo- meter square kilo- meter acre (43,560 feet? ) square foot per acre hectare 0.1550 square inch 10.76 square feet 0.3860 square mile 247.10 acres I| 4,046.48 square meters 0.03759 square meter per hectare = 10,000 square meters Volume and Capacity:— 1 eS Se _ cubic inch cubic foot cubic foot gallon (U.S.) gallon (U:S.) milliliter milliliter acre foot (43,560 feet’) Weight:— 1 1! 1 1 pound per acre ounce pound kilogram = 16.39 cubic centimeters = 28.31625 liters 7.48 gallons (U.S.) 0.1337 cubic foot 3.7853 liters 1.000028 cubic centi- meters 0.061 cubic inch 1,233.49 cubic meters 28.349 grams 453.59 grams 2.2046 pounds 0.18357 kilograms per hectare INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub- lication in the Transactions. 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The heading of the table should be informative of its contents. Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print about 5 X 7 inches. Line drawings in India ink on white paper are acceptable. Photographs should have good contrast so that they can be reproduced satisfactorily. Figures should be numbered in arabic numerals. The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for check- ing all literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly. Ex- tensive alterations on the galley proofs are expensive and such costs are to be borne by the author. Reprints are to be ordered when the galley proofs are returned to the Editor. bol . . » . - CONTENTS oak ? - . Thomas Hunt Morgan. Herbert Parkes Riley Lr ee Oe -A “Container Effect” on We Primary Production n Measurements Bru ce Parker and Gene L..Samsel +. pea! Sete ee Bes The Distribution of Stoneflies (Insecta: pscidters | of site Salt E Kentucky. David S.. White Ta ao ae : I Helminth Parasites of the White Sucker (Pisces: ‘Catostomidae) in Kentucky River Drainage. Glenn White and John P. Harley __ vg oll Ge 5h, = et 4 A New Coding Syten for Hardshelled Turtles, Carl H. Ernst, Mary Hershey, and Roger W. ed gia eee See se 6 Decay and: Its Prevention in | Nate Stone. K. Lal Gauri _. Mammals of ° Pulaski County, Kentucky. David J. Fassler __ 3353 A Phytosociological Study of a Relict Hardwood F aes in Barrell 4 C unty Kentucky. Christine K. Bougher and Joe E. Winsteels > Mussels of the Green avek Kentucky. Billy G. Isom News and ‘Comment’ 2... 420) 38" Sa ae eee Baitors. Note." 2-2 Wa oe ee a Sa eee Le a teks | TRANSACTIONS DF THE ENTUCKY \CADEMY OF SCIENCE ye Be : : ficial Publication of the Academy 1% a 2) Byes x -—? - ee : Cp ¢ ‘S EMITHSINIAD i a MAR 11 1/ 9 : 4 CIGRAKILS Volume 35 ma 7 _ Numbers 3-4 Bo December 1974 The Kentucky Academy of Science Founded 8 May 1914 OFFICERS FOR 1975 President: Ellis V. Brown, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506 — President Elect: Frederick M. Brown, Centre College, Danville 40422 Past President: Donald L. Batch, Eastern Kentucky State University, Richmond 40475 Vice President: Charles Payne, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351 Secretary: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky. State University, Bowling Green 01 ~ Treasurer: Wayne Hoffman, Western Kentucky State University, Bowling Green 42101 Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A. Branson, Eastern Kentucky State University, Richmond 40475 John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506 Boarb OF DirRECTORS Thomas B. Calhoon 1975 Fletcher Gabbard 1977 Charles E. Kupchella “ “TORS John C. Philley (Chm) 1977 Howard Powell 1976 John G. Spanyer 1978 Morris Taylor 1976 Oliver Zandona 1978 EDITORIAL OFFICE Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louis- ville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 Associate Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 Editorial Board: William E. Dennen, Department of Geology, University of Ken- tucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of Louisville, Louis- ville, Kentucky 40208 William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lex- ington, Kentucky 40506 | All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be ad- dressed to the Editor. The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT. Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon nomi- nation, payment of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from the Secretary. The Transactions are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are $6.00. Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $7.00; foreign, $8.00; back issues are $8.00 per volume. The Transactions are issued semiannually. Four numbers comprise a volume. Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Secre- tary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Librarian, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208, who is the exchange agent for the Academy. TRANSACTIONS of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY of SCIENCE December 1 OTA VOLUME 35 NUMBERS 3-4 Substrate Preference of Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Silver Creek, Madison County, Kentucky CATHERINE B. Crisp AND NORMAN H. Crisp Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475 ABSTRACT Field collections of benthic macroinvertebrates were taken with a square-foot Surber stream bottom sampler on 3 different types of substratum during August, September, and October 1973 on 4 occasions in order to determine the respective species diversity and per- centage composition. The boulder substrate was the most productive, followed by the rubble, with sand and gravel the least productive. Thirteen orders and 20 genera of bottom organisms were identified, but a few genera made up the bulk of the standing crops for each station. Stenonema and Isonychia formed the majority of the ephemeropteran nymphs, Chewmatopsyche and Hydropsyche comprised over half the trichopterans, Pentaneura larvae accounted for most dipterans, and Stenelmis made up a large percentage of the Coleoptera. The data include prechannelization and postchannelization conditions. Standing crop for each station was similar before channelization, but afterwards the respective mean numbers declined. INTRODUCTION Substrate preference of macroinverte- brates was studied in a portion of Silver Creek, Madison County, near Richmond, Kentucky. Silver Creek is a permanent stream with a dendritic drainage pattern. Elevation at Station 1 is 210 m above mean sea level (msl). At Stations 2 and 3, the elevation is 204 m msl. Average gradient within the study area is 9.5 m/km. The 3 riffle stations selected for collection are all within fairly close proximity (0.64 km) of each other on Barnes Mill Road, Madison County. Physical characteristics for each station are shown in Table 1; the upstream and downstream boundaries for each station encompassed approximately 15-18 m. Collections of aquatic macroinvertebrates were made on 4 occasions, 13 August, 1 September, 4 October, and 21 October 1972, at the 3 stations in an attempt to determine species density and percentage composi- 61 tion with respect to 3 different types of stream substrate. Substrates were con- sidered as follows: boulders, rocks 30 cm or more in diameter; rubble, 7.5-30 cm; and sand and gravel, less than 7.5 cm. Other workers (Pennak and Van Gerpen 1947) used bedrock as a representative of the boulder type substrate, a type not investi- gated during this study. During the week including 25 September, a portion of Silver Creek, involving Stations 2 and 3 was channelized. Therefore, the first 2 collections (13 August and 1 Septem- ber) represent conditions prior to chan- nelization, while the latter 2 (4 and 21 October) represent those after channeliza- tion. METHODS AND MATERIALS A square-foot (0.093 m?) Surber bottom sampler was utilized for taking quantitative samples. Three samples were taken from 62 Trans. KentucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4) TABLE 1.—SoME PuysICAL PARAMETERS OF COL- LECTION STATIONS IN SILVER CREEK Station 2 Station 1 (sand and Station 3 Parameters ( boulder ) gravel ) (rubble ) Mean Velocity 0.54 0.20 0.67 (m/sec ) Mean Depth 0.12 0.09 0.21 (m) Mean Width 10.06 3.90 3.66 (m) Channel Size 1.18 0.36 0.77 (m*) each type of substrate on each visit, for a total of 36 samples during the study period. Sampling was random along the 15-18 m length and over the entire width of each station in order to minimize sampling errors caused by differences in production po- tential within each station. The benthos were counted and identified following the keys of Pennak (1953) and Ward and Whipple (Edmonson 1959), Burks (1953), Ross (1953), and Usinger (1956). Ephem- eropteran nymphs in very early stages of development were too small for positive identification. Channel size (Table 1) or area of cross section of stream basin, was calculated for each station, based on the formula A = d. — w (Reid 1961). Mean depths and velocity were determined with a Gurley current meter. RESULTS Ephemeropteran nymphs comprised the greatest percentage of the total number of benthos (Table 2) and were most abundant on the boulder substrate (53.51%), and least abundant on sand and gravel (8.69%, Table 4). Ephemeropteran nymphs were by far the most abundant benthic organisms on rubble, with an average percentage oc- currence of 56.72 (Table 2). Stenonema was the most abundant genus in rubble but was scarce on sand. Isonychia, how- ever, consistently occurred at moderate density on each substrate but was lower in overall abundance (Table 3). Four other genera (Heptagenia, Caenis, Baetis, and TABLE 2.—AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF THE FAUNA AND TOTAL DENsITy COLLECTED AT EACH STATION Station 2 Station 1 (sand and _ Station 3 Taxon (boulder ) gravel ) (rubble ) % No. % No. J .No: Ephemeroptera 40.5 351 15.6 57 56.7 248 Trichoptera 17.2 149 194 7 Baas Neuroptera 0.7 6 06 2 az Diptera 6.1 53 33 1202 Coleoptera 10.7 938 240 83 1553-6 Plecoptera 02 2 00 8 = Hemiptera 0.1 21 0D) 2 ee Odonata 04 3- 00 20) eee Gastropoda 90.1 174 32.5918) ise Pelecypoda 06 #5 33° 222s Isopoda 2.1 18 0:0 ORS Decapoda 0.7 6 00° so 23.4 Turbellaria 0.7 6 00) 2 Total 867 366 49 Mean no./m° G71 3:73 4.25 Paraleptophlebia) were present in smaller numbers at each station with the exception of Paraleptophlebia which occurred only on boulders. Trichopterans, the second most abundant insect order were taken from all 3 sub- strates, being most abundant on boulders (Table 4) and least abundant on sand and gravel. At Station 3 (rubble), Trichoptera were the second most abundant taxa, aver- aging 23.5 percent of the total fauna (Table 2). Cheumatopsyche was the most abun- dant caddisfly, with a decreasing relative abundance from boulders to sand to rubble (Table 3). Hydropsyche, however, was most abundant on rubble, boulders, and. sand, respectively. Chimarra, ranking third in trichopteran abundance, was found in fairly consistent numbers on each substrate. Both Polycentropus and Diplectrona were found on each substrate in small numbers only; however, their greatest density per square meter was on the boulder substrate. Corydalus was the only representative of the order Neuroptera (Megaloptera) pres- ent, being most prevalent on boulders where the velocity was high, and least abundant on the sand and gravel substrate (Table 3). Corydalus accounted for only a small percentage of the total (Table 2). conn SUBSTRATE PREFERENCE OF BENTHIC FAuNA—Crisp and Crisp TABLE 3.—MEAN NUMBER OF GENERA PER SQUARE METER ON DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUBSTRATE AT COLLECTING STATIONS Station 2 Station 1 (sand and _ Station 3 Taxon (boulder) gravel ) (rubble ) Ephemeroptera Isonychia 1.07 0.38 0.51 Stenonema 1.23 0.03 0.90 Heptagenia 0.03 0 0.21 Caenis 0.16 0.03 0.22 Baetis 0.27 0.02 0.07 Paraleptophlebia 0.06 0 0 Trichoptera Hydropsyche 0.29 0.13 0.37 Cheumatopsyche 0.62 0.55 0.26 Chimarra 0.18 0.14 0.26 Polycentropus 0.05 0.01 0.01 Diplectrona 0.03 0.01 0.01 _ Neuroptera Corydalus 0.05 0.02 0.03 Diptera Pentaneura 0.11 0.39 0.17 Simulium 0.01 0.02 0.01 Coleoptera Psephenus 0.32 0.39 025 Stenelmis 0.39 0.28 0.34 Plecoptera Acroneuria 0.02 0 0.02 Hemiptera Platygerris 0.01 0 0 Odonata Argia 0.03 0 0.03 Gastropoda Pleurocera ESE 0.92 0.33 Physa 0.03 0 0.03 Pelecypoda Sphaerium 0.04 0.10 0.01 Isopoda Lirceus 0.14 0 0.03 Decapoda Orconectes 0.04 0.03 0.04 Turbeliaria Dugesia 0.04 0 0 Only 2 dipterans were found, both being most abundant on boulders (Table 3). Pentaneura was the most abundant, having a mean number of 0.1, 0.4, and 0.2 per square meter on boulders, sand and gravel, and rubble, respectively (Table 3). Si- 63 TABLE 4.—PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF MACRO- INVERTEBRATE ORDERS AT EACH COLLECTING STA- TION Station 2 Station 1 (sand and Station 3 Taxon (boulder) gravel ) (rubble ) Ephemeroptera 53.5 8.7 37.8 Trichoptera 42.7 20.3 37.0 Neuroptera 66.7 22.2 LET Diptera 58.8 15.6 25.6 Coleoptera 34.8 33.0 32.0 Plecoptera 50.0 0 50.0 Hemiptera 100.0 0 0 Odonata 50.0 0 50.0 Gastropoda EV Ay Sone 12.0 Pelecypoda 27.0 66.7 6.3 Isopoda 78.3 0 AUT Decapoda 33.0 16.7 50.0 Turbellaria 100.0 0 0 mulium was present on all substrates but was most abundant on sand. The order Coleoptera was represented by 2 genera, Psephenus and Stenelmis, both being most abundant on boulders (Table 3). Both adults and larvae of Stenelmis were decreasingly abundant on boulders, rubble, and sand and gravel, respectively, whereas larval Stenelmis were more abun- dant than adults on sand. Acroneuria, the only plecopteran found, was equally abundant on boulders and rubble, but lacking on sand and gravel. Platygerris, the only hemipteran en- countered, was collected at the boulder station only on 21 October 1972. Argia, the only representative of damsel- flies collected, was equally distributed on boulders and rubble, but was absent from sand and composed only a small percentage of the total fauna. Gastropods represented 20.07 percent of the fauna for the boulder substrate, 32.51 percent for sand, and 7.29 percent for rubble. These percentages were largely a result of the abundance of one snail, Pleu- rocera, which averaged 1.3, 0.9, and 0.3 per square meter on boulder, sand and gravel, and rubble, respectively. Physa was present on boulders and rubble in relatively low density, but was absent from the sand and gravel station. The only pelecypod found, Sphaerium, 64 TABLE 5.—ToTAL AND MEAN BENTHIC STANDING Crop PER STATION (TWELVE SAMPLES WERE TAKEN | Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4) FroM Eacu STATION ) Before Channelization 13 Aug 1 Sep Total Mean Total No. No./m* No. Station 1 132 4.09 180 ( boulder ) Station 2 130 4.03 186 (sand and gravel ) Station 3 151 4.65 170 (rubble ) was decreasingly abundant on sand and gravel, boulders, and rubble, respectively. Lirceus, an isopod crustacean, composed a very minute portion of the total fauna, being present only on boulders and rubble, most abundant on the first (Table 3). Lirceus appeared only in the last 2 collec- tions following the decrease in water tem- perature. Orconectes was less abundant on sand than on the boulder and rubble substrates, with the average percentage of the fauna being highest on the rubble substrate (Tables 2, 3). At the boulder station, where the velocity was maximum, Dugesia was collected but was present only in the last 2 collections. DIscuSssION Although 13 orders and 20 genera of invertebrates were identified during this study, a few genera composed the bulk of the standing crops for each station. Stenonema and Isonychia formed the majority of the ephemeropteran nymphs. Cheumatopsyche and Hydropsyche com- prised over half the Trichoptera. Pen- taneura larvae accounted for most Diptera. Stenelmis made up a large percentage of the Coleoptera. Standing crop for each station did not vary appreciably before channelization (Table 5). However, following channeliza- tion, the mean number of organisms per square meter declined while the standing crop for Station 1 (not channelized) in- After Channelization 4 Oct 21 Oct Mean Total Mean Total Mean No./m2 No. No./m2 No. No./m?2 oe 239 7.Al Ho al 9.83 By be — — 44 1.36 5.39 102 3.16 124 3.84 creased (Fig. 1). A reasonable explanation for this rise in number for Station 1 is the © occurrence of fall peaks in the life cycles of many of the insects. Most of the insects of streams have an annual turnover ( Armi- tage 1958). Needham (1934) found the greatest seasonal abundance in both num- bers and weight in May and a lesser peak of abundance in November during a mild winter. Maciolek and Needham (1951) reported an August low and a February high. Stehr and Branson (1938) reported the greatest density in the fall. This study was too limited in duration to indicate the seasonal course of the life cycles of the various species. The varied habitat preferences for re- spective genera within reasonable sampling errors are evident from the data in Table 3. The baetid, Isonychia, for instance, is evidently better adapted, with its coxal gills and fringes of hair on the forelegs, to exist on varied substrates, while Stenonema (Heptageniidae) is less able to maneuver on sand, and prefers to cling to large flat rocks. As a group, the Ephemeroptera seemed to be adapted to a wider range of current speed and exposure in stream habi- tats than other insects collected. The trichopteran, Cheumatopsyche, exhibited an approximate 2:1 ratio in abundance over Hydropsyche within the same habitat. In- terspecific competition probably is present between these species, Cheumatopsyche being better able to compete for available nutrients and space. Plecopteran nymphs were collected only from the surfaces of | | SUBSTRATE PREFERENCE OF BENTHIC FAUNA—Crisp and Crisp 65 rubble and boulders where they were pro- tected from abrasion and the swiftest cur- rent. In viewing the total productivity of each substrate studied, the boulder substrate was the most productive followed by the rubble, with sand and gravel the least productive (Tables 2, 5, Fig. 2). The mean number of organisms per square meter was plotted against the median particle size of each substrate type and the regression line found using the criteria of Freund (1970). This indicated a positive correlation between mean number of organisms per square meter and substrate type. Since the coefficient of correlation (r) between the number of organisms and substrate types was 0.602 and the critical value for r is 0.611 (Freund 1970) at the 95 percent confidence level, it can be assumed that particle size is a determining factor in distribution of the -benthos for the portion of Silver Creek studied. This is reasonable since boulders and rubble provided more space and more diverse habitats than a sand and gravel _ substrate. Studies by Needham (1928, 1929, 1934), Behney (1937), Pate (1932, 1934), Pennak and Van Gerpen (1947), Percival and Whitehead (1929), and Sprules (1947) all concur with this study in indicating a higher standing crop in numbers on rubble than on gravel. Following channelization of Stations 2 and 3 during the week of 25 September, there was a marked decrease in the fauna at those locations. This decrease can only be attributed to channelization since Station | did not show a similar decrease (Table 5, Fig. 1). Station 2 was drastically affected by channelization; however, a small-scale t-test demonstrated that there was a signifi- cant difference between surveys before and after channelization at Station 3. This reduction of the fauna following habitat alteration is similar to that found by Meehan (1971) in Alaskan streams. Waters (1964), however, found that de- nuded bottom areas were often repopulated within 24 hours. Since he reported that drift was the most important factor in recoloniza- 320) ——_—_———;,—— iN 280} 240} 200} Numb! umber 160, 120 \ IN f 80, \. SY \ 40 N\ era 8-13 a \ ay { | K \ x cise \ | \ \ NS | \. I \ — | \ | ety | ‘ 9-1-72 atl \U XN \ | Collecting WSS ‘| \ Date NWN I\\ | | | ] ‘ 10-4.72\ ~™ | 10-21-72 Station Fic. 1. Total number of benthos collected at each station on successive collecting dates. tion and drift is greater in fall, the com- munities of Stations 2 and 3 should have returned to the prechannelization level during the study period. Since the pre- channelization density level was not reached in the relatively long section of the chan- nelized stream, recolonization may have proceeded in a gradual manner down the length of the denuded stream. Thus, the portions of the stream in close proximity to the nonchannelized sections probably were rapidly recolonized, and areas farther from Particle Size 254 (m) Te Ke Kes K 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Mean Number of Organisms /m2 Fic. 2. Relationship between particle size and number of organisms per square meter. 66 the nonaffected areas would be recolonized last. LITERATURE CITED ArmiracE, K. B. 1958. Ecology of the riffle insects of Firehole River, Wyoming. Ecology 39(4):571-580. BeHNEYy, W. H. 1937. Food organisms of some New Hampshire trout streams. In Biological Survey of the Androscoggin, Saco and Coastal watersheds. Surv. Rept. No. 2. N. H. Fish & Game Dept., pp. 77-80. Burks, B. D. 1953. The mayflies, or Ephem- eroptera, of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 26(1):1-216. EpmMonson, W. T. (Ed.) 1959. Ward and Whipple’s Fresh-Water Biology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. 1248 pp. FREUND, J. E. 1970. Statistics, a first course. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 304 pp. MacIo.LEK, J. A., AND P. R. NEEDHAM. 1951. Ecological effects of winter conditions on trout and trout foods in Convict Creek, Cali- fornia. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 81:202—217. MEEHAN, W. R. 1971. Effects of gravel cleaning on bottom organisms in three southeastern Alaskan streams. Prog. Fish. Cult. 33(2): 107-111. NEEDHAM, P. R. 1928. Quantitative studies of the fish food supply in selected areas. A biological survey of the Oswego River System. N.Y. State Cons. Dept., Suppl. 17th Ann. Rept. pp. 220-232. 1929. Quantitative studies of fish food supply of selected areas. A_ biological survey of the Erie—Niagara system. Suppl. 18th Ann. Rept. N.Y. State Cons. Dept. pp. 220-232. TrANS. KeENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4) 1934. Quantitative studies of stream bottom foods. 238-247. Pate, V. S. L. 1932. Studies on fish food supply in selected areas. A biological survey of the Oswegatchie and Black River systems. Suppl. 21st Rept. N.Y. Cons. Dept. pp. 133-149. - 1934. Studies on fish food supply | in selected areas of the Raquette watershed. — A biological survey of the Raquette water- — Suppl. 23rd Ann. Rept. N.Y. State | shed. Cons. Dept. pp. 136—157. PENNAK, R. W. 1953. Freshwater Invertebrates | of the United States. Ronald Press, New York, — N.Y. 769 pp. , AND E. D. Van GERPEN. 1947. Bottom | fauna production and physical nature of the substrate in northern Colorado trout streams. | Ecology 28:42-48. PERCIVAL, E., AND H. WHITEHEAD. 1929. A quan- — titative study of the fauna of some types of | stream-bed. J. Ecol. 17:283-314. Rew, G. K. 1961. Ecology of Inland Waters and | Estuaries. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York ON. Y.. hovoppp: Ross, H. H. 1953. The caddisflies, or Trichoptera, of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 23: 1-326. SpruLes, W. M. 1947. An ecological investigation of stream insects in Algonquin Park, Ontario. Univ. Toronto Stud. 56:1-81. STEHR, W. C., anD J. W. Branson. 1938. An ecological study of an intermittent stream. Ecology 14(2):294-310. UsINGER, ROBERT L. California. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley, Ca. 508 pp. Waters, T. F. 1964. Recolonization of denuded stream bottom areas by drift. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 93:311-315. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 64: 1956. Aquatic Insects of Synthesis of p-[N’,N’-Bis (2-chloroethy]) amino ]-N-sulfinylaniline. WaLTeR T. SmitTH, JR. AND JAMES A. KUHLENSCHMIDT Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ABSTRACT The title compound, an analog of antitumor compounds related to nitrogen mustard, has been synthesized by reaction of N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl )aniline with phosphorus oxychloride followed by nitrosation of the product with nitrous acid; then reduction of the N,N-bis(2- chloroethy] ) -p-nitrosoaniline to the corresponding amine hydrochloride, and subsequent reaction of the dichloroamine hydrochloride with thionyl chloride to give p-[N’,N’-bis(2-chloroethy] ) amino |-N-sulfinylaniline. INTRODUCTION In previous work we have synthesized sulfinylamino derivatives (Ib) of nitrogen mustard (Ia). (CICH2CHz2 )2N-R a,R = CH; b,R=NSO I These compounds showed varying degrees of antitumor activity. Of special interest was N’,N’-bis(2-chloroethy] )-N-sulfinylhy- drazine(Ib), which is active against Walker carcinosarcoma 256 at the 1.6 mg/kg level and in cell culture cytotoxicity tests had an EDs of 6.6 mg/ml (Smith and Chen 1968). As part of a program to modify this active structure, we have synthesized p-[N’,N’- bis (2-chloroethy]) amino ]-N-sulfinylaniline. This structure may be thought of as com- pound Ib in which a benzene ring has been inserted between the nitrogens of the hy- drazine moiety. METHODS The initial approach to the synthesis of this compound was designed to keep the number of synthetic steps to a minimum. N,N-Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)-p-nitroaniline was prepared by reaction of 1-chloro-4-nitroben- zene with 2,2’-iminodiethanol. The some- what low yield obtained in this step was offset by the commercial availability of the reagents. Catalytic reduction of the nitro group readily converted the nitro group to an amino group but considerable difficulty was encountered in obtaining the amino compound in a pure state, due to its very 67 rapid oxidation in air. This problem was eventually overcome by keeping the prod- uct as free from oxygen as possible. This entailed the bubbling of nitrogen through the ethanolic solution of the compound during any pauses in the isolation pro- cedure. It was found that N,N-bis(2-hy- droxyethyl)-p-phenylenediamine was rela- tively more stable in ethereal solution and in dry crystalline form than when dissolved in ethanol. The crystalline product is pref- erably stored in the dark under dry nitro- gen. Several attempts were made to con- vert the above diamine to the desired product in one step. This conversion should be possible since both the conversion of alcohols to alkyl chlorides and of aromatic amines to N-sulfinylamines have been ac- complished by the action of thiony] chloride. Fae Aaa Base Ones Ory 2 VAG CHCla Hc\ After a number of oe conditions were found unsatisfactory for conversion of II to III in one step, it was concluded a more feasible method would be conversion first of IV to VI, then reaction of the latter with thionyl chloride to convert it to the desired N-sulfinyl compound (VII) as shown below. aypen pie al} cl Toe re enol = __S0Cla ee Ela SnCl2z O _ S$0Cle , “ay Hel HCe\ OO. VL a seen route was aiveialnued after 68 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3—4) preparation of V using the procedure that Degutis and Bieksa (1964) used to prepare the meta isomer. The yield for this con- version was low and made a multistep synthetic route involving the p-nitro mus- tard (V) less desirable. It was then decided that N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)aniline (IX) could provide a more efficient route to the desired product. OH Cl cl aia c\ Lo sh eer rattan P 1G : NaNOs, NOz O Ser )SnCla _Sotla, O O a C) Buel NSO % x _ _— xm The N,N-bis(2-chloroethy]) aniline (X) was prepared in reasonable yield by the method of Ross (1949). The light lavender product was reasonably stable except on long ex- posure to light. This aromatic mustard was then nitrosated in good yield by the method of Everett and Ross (1949). The nitroso mustard [N,N-bis(2-chloroethy] )-p-nitroso- aniline] (XI) was unstable on exposure to air and light for a period of several hours. The nitroso mustard was then reduced by the method of Everett and Ross (1949). The resulting phenylenediamine mus- tard [N,N-bis(2-chloroethy] )-p-phenylene- diamine] (XII), was stored as the hydro- chloride which is stable to both air and light, but exerted powerfully vesicant ac- tion on skin. The vesicant action of the mus- tard is destroyed by a 5-10 percent sodium sulfite solution. The decomposition point of the phenylenediamine mustard hydrochlo- ride was found to be broad, ill-defined, and somewhat below that reported by Everett and Ross (1949). Evidence that the struc- ture was correct, however, was provided by elemental analysis, nmr, and ir data. The final, desired product, p-[N’,N’- bis ( 2-chloroethy] ) amino ]-N-sulfinylaniline, (XIII) was prepared by the action of a large excess of purified thionyl chloride on the phenylenediamine mustard hydrochlo- ride under anhydrous, reflux conditions. The product was found to be unstable to atmospheric moisture and light. Nitrogen analysis and spectral data indicated that the desired product had formed. The Beilstein test showed the presence of chlorine, and a sodium fusion followed by lead acetate | treatment indicated the presence of sulfur. | In view of the exceedingly poor stability — of the compound to moisture and light, no — attempt has been made to submit the com- pound for biological testing and efforts to synthesize closely related analogs have been | dropped. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION N,N-Bis(2-chloroethyl)-p-nitroaniline.—An | adaptation of the procedure used by — Degutis and Bieksa (1964) in preparation — of the corresponding meta isomer was em- — ployed. To 5.0 g (0.022 mole) of N,N-bis(hy- — droxyethy])-p-nitroaniline in a 250-ml sin- gle-necked flask fitted with reflux con- denser, magnetic stirrer, and oil bath was added 75 ml of dry, distilled 1,2-dichloro- ethane and 4.5 ml (0.062 mole) of purified thionyl chloride. The mixture was refluxed — with stirring 2 hours. The excess thionyl chloride and solvent were removed by — evaporation under reduced pressure. The residue was treated with 100 ml of chloro- form, the resulting solution was filtered, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness yielding 3.1 g (52%) of unpurified product. The crude crystals were slurried with hot ab- solute ethanol and removed by filtration. The resulting solid (1.2 g, 21%) melted at 192-195° C. From an analogous procedure © a melting point of 198-199° corr. was ob- — tained on recrystallization from acetone. N,N-Bis(2-chloroethyl)aniline—The _proce- dure employed was a modification of the procedure used by Ross (1949). N,N-Bis(2-chloroethyl)-p-nitrosoaniline —A modification of the procedure used by Everett and Ross (1949) was employed. N,N-Bis(2-chloroethyl)-p-phenylenediamine hydrochloride.—A_ larger-scaled modifica- tion of the basic procedure of Everett and Ross (1949) was used. To 22.4 g (0.091 mole) of N,N-bis(2- chloroethy])-p-nitrosoaniline dissolved in 200 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid in a 500-ml Erlenmeyer flask equipped with stirring and cooling, 40.8 g (0.18 mole) SYNTHESIS OF ANTITUMOR ComMPpouNp—Smith and Kuhlenschmidt of stannous chloride dihydrate was added. The amine stannichloride formed as a salmon colored precipitate during the addi- tion. The solid was removed by filtration, dissolved in water, and the solution was made slightly basic with 1N _ sodium hydroxide (ca. 1 1 was required). The aqueous soln was extracted several times with ether and the combined ether layers (ca. 750 ml total) dried over sodium hydroxide pellets. Then hydrogen chloride gas was bubbled through the unstirred ether solution until lustrous silver crystals separated. The crystals were collected by filtration, and hydrogen chloride gas was then bubbled through the filtrate using caution that the brownish dihydrochloride did not separate as well. The crystalline product was dissolved in a small amount of anhydrous methanol and reprecipitated with ether and cooling to yield 12.7 ¢ (52%). A small portion of crystals sub- limed for analysis had an approximate _ decomposition range of 232-242 C (lit mp 250-260 C, decomp); ir (KBr) bands at 2880, 2950, 1610, 1510, 820, and 745 cm7}; nmr (DMSO-dg) 10.25 (s, broad), 7.03 (m), 3.75 ppm (s). It was noted that dissolution of the N,N-bis(2-chloroethy] ) -p-phenylene- diamine hydrochloride in tap water pro- duced a red coloration in the water solu- tion. Distilled water gave no noticeable coloration with the above compound. It was further observed that dilute solutions of ferric nitrate in distilled water did pro- duce a red coloration with the above com- pound. Analysis Caled for CyHi;Cls;N2: C, 44.55; H, 5.61; N, 10.39. Found: C, 44.44; H, 5.68; N, 10.20. p-/ N’, N’-Bis(2-chloroethyl) amino ]-N-sulfi- nylaniline—To 1.0 ml (0.014 mole) of purified thionyl chloride dissolved in 50 ml of dry benzene in a 100-ml round-bot- tomed flask was slowly added 2.0 g (0.0074 mole) of N’,N’bis(2-chloroethy] ) -p-pheny]- enediamine hydrochloride. The reaction mixture was refluxed for 2 hours on a 69 steam bath until the solid starting material was dissolved and the solution was clear dark brown. The excess thionyl chloride and benzene were removed by evaporation to dryness under vacuum to yield 1.8 g (87%) of crude brown solid product. The product was purified by a vacuum distilla- tion carried out in a vacuum sublimation apparatus in oil bath at 105 C bath tem- perature. A large amount of product is lost during the purification procedure. The purified crystalline product was yellow- orange and was found to be unstable to light and atmospheric moisture. The in- stability of the product required that the chemical analysis be performed on a freshly prepared and purified product obtained by procedures analogous to the above prepara- tion. The best melting point range obtained was 78-79 C corrected; ir (KBr) bands at 2966 (very weak), 1597 (aromatic ring), 1505, 1400, 1366, 1290 (NSO), 1260, 1197, 1135 (NSO), 1018, 817, and 742 cm- (C- Cl); nmr (DMSO-d,) 7.35 (m) and 3.82 ppm (s). On a sample obtained using 1.5 g (0.0055 mole) of the phenylenediamine mustard hydrochloride and 1.0 ml (0.014 mole) of thionyl chloride, the Beilstein test showed the presence of chlorine (green flame), and a sodium fusion with subse- quent lead acetate treatment gave a brown- black precipitate of lead sulfide. Analysis Cale’d for CyoHi2CloaN2OS: N, 10.03. Found: N, 10.05. LITERATURE CITED Decutis, J., AND V. Brexsa. 1964. Synthesis of N,N-bis(2-chloroethyl)-m-phenylenediamine and its derivatives. Lietuvos TSR Aukstuju Mokyklu Mokslo Darbai, Chem. ir Chem. Technol. 4:59-64. [Chem. Abstr. 61:9417 g (1964 )]. EvERETT, J. L., AND W. C. J. Ross. 1949. Aryl- 2-halogenoalkylamines. Part II. J. Chem. Soc. 1949:1972-1983. Ross, W. C. J. 1949. Aryl-2-halogenoalkylamines. Part I. J. Chem. Soc. 1949:183-191. SmitTH, W. T., JR., AND W. Y. CHEN. 1968. Some N-sulfinylhydrazine analogs of nitrogen mus- tard. J. Med. Chem. 11:504. Arthropod Ectoparasites and Their Seasonal Occurrences on Microtus ochrogaster and Peromyscus leucopus From Warren County, Kentucky RicHArD L. BUCKNER’ AND LARRY N. GLEASON Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 ABSTRACT A total of 150 Microtus ochrogaster and 155 Peromyscus leucopus was examined for arthropod ectoparasites from November 1970 through November 1971. on both M. ochrogaster and P. leucopus: INTRODUCTION Studies on the ectoparasites of the prairie vole Microtus ochrogaster and the wood mouse Peromyscus leucopus have been sporadic. Most previous studies of the parasites of these rodents have been com- pilations of lists of parasite species. Whita- ker (1968) brought together a literature review for the genus Peromyscus which in- cludes an extensive listing of both arthropod and helminth parasites. Information con- cerning the arthropod parasites of the prairie vole is available from scattered sources, the principal ones being Jameson (1947), Verts (1961), and Whitaker and Wilson (1968). Batson (1965), in a study of the prairie vole, listed some of the arthropod parasites for this species found in central Kentucky. The purpose of this study was to deter- mine the species of arthropod ectoparasites present on M. ochrogaster and P. leucopus in south-central Kentucky, to determine if the numbers of those parasites varied with seasonal changes, and to determine the extent of overlap of the parasitic species between the host species. * Present address: Department of Life Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68508. Fourteen species were found the mites Ornithonyssus bacoti, Androlaelaps fahrenholzi, Laelaps microti, Dermacarus hypudaei, Listrophorus leukorti, Mycoptes sp., Euschoengastia peromysci and Neotrombicula caviola; the tick Dermacentor variabilis; the fleas Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes, Epitedia wenmanni, Orchopeas leucopus, Peromyscopsylla scotti, and Stenoponia americana. The mite Radfordia lemnina and the louse Hoplopleura acanthopus were found only on M. ochrogaster. The mite Radfordia subuliger and the louse Hoplopleura hesperomydis were found only on P. leucopus. 70 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors express their sincere ap- preciation to Dr. Nixon Wilson of the University of Northem Iowa and Dr. William J. Wrenn of the University of North Dakota for their initial identification of the arthropod ectoparasites. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study area consisted of abandoned pastures and woodlots of approximately 121 hectares in size and was large enough to allow variance of trapping sites to prevent overtrapping. Located in Warren County, Kentucky, the area was approximately 0.8 km south of Bowling Green, east of US Highway 31W. Attempts were made to trap and autopsy a minimum of 10 Microtus ochrogaster and 10 Peromyscus leucopus each month from November 1970 through November 1971. Museum Special snap traps and Hay-a-hart live traps were used. Traps were baited with a mixture of peanut butter and oat- meal. During the warm months of the year, DDT was added to the bait to prevent loss to ants (Coleman 1950). Traps were set in the evenings and checked the next morning. Dead animals were placed in individual plastic bags after removal from ARTHROPOD ECTOPARASITES OF SMALL MamMMmMaAts—Buckner and Gleason “1 TABLE 1.—ARTHROPOD ECTOPARASITES AND THEIR SEASONAL OCCURENCES ON MICROTUS OCHROGASTER IN WARREN County, KENTuUCKy, FRoM NovEMBER 1970 THROUGH NOVEMBER 1971. THE NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES BELOW EACH SEASON AND THE TOTAL INDICATE THE NUMBER OF SPECIMENS EXAMINED. THERE WERE AT LEAST 2 KINDS OF CHIGGERS PRESENT. Average Number Per Host (minimum and maximum number per host ) cervical dislocation prior to being placed in the bags. In the laboratory, the animals were washed in a detergent solution and the pelage thoroughly brushed with a tooth- brush to dislodge the ectoparasites. The plastic bag for each animal was rinsed with water and this was added to the detergent Winter Spring Summer Fall Total Parasite (32) (34) (32) (52) (150) Mites Ornithonyssus bacoti 0.03 4.23 (i bes-7) 15.36 pa 2 (0-1) (0-42) (0-516) (0-257 ) (0-516) Androlaelaps fahrenholzi 0.62 5.91 5.50 3.96 4.90 (0-4) (0-50) (0-31) (0-26) (0-50) Laelaps microti 7.84 9.47 3.81 4.78 6.31 (0-41) (0-119) (0-33) (0-34) (0-119) Radfordia lemnina 0 0 0.06 0.11 0.05 (0-1) (0-1) (0-1) Dermacarus hypudaei 106.43 315.26 12224 114.55 161.00 (0-1061) (0-1695) (7-769) (0-597) (0-1695) Listrophorus leukorti 136.46 49.20 114.37 510.65 225.49 (0-1279) (0-778) (0-816) (0-2169) (0-2169) Mycoptes sp. 1.96 2.70 0.62 0.96 1.56 (0-27) (0-27) (0-10) (0-13) (0-27) Chiggers 11.68 18.23 25 7.07 8.33 (0-34) (0-102) (0-3) (0-94) (0-102) _ Ticks Dermacentor variabilis 0.06 0.50 Q.21 0.11 0.21 (0-2) (0-9) (0-5) (0-1) (0-9) Lice Hoplopleura acanthopus 22 8.35 0 0.32 2.62 (0-15) (0-72) (0-21) (0-72) Fleas Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes 0 0.32 0.25 0.59 0.32 (0-3) (0-3) (0-4) (0-4) Epitedia wenmanni 0 0 0 0.03 0.01 (0-1) (0-1) Orchopeas leucopus 0.03 0 0 0 0.01 (0-1) (0-1) Peromyscopsylla scotti 0 0 0.03 0 0.01 (0-1) (0-1) Stenopoma americana 0.03 0.35 0 0.13 0.12 (0-1) (0-7 ) (0-4) (0-7) the traps. Live animals were killed by solution used to wash the animal. The mixture was then filtered through coarse filter paper. The ectoparasites were re- moved from the filter paper and preserved in 70 percent ethanol. Each animal was examined under a dissecting microscope and attached parasites were removed and placed with those obtained from the wash. The parasites were identified to species 72 TRANS. KeENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4) where possible and the numbers of indi- viduals of each species were recorded. Whole mount preparations were made of representative individuals of each species by mounting the specimens in Polyvinyl alecohol-lactophenol. RESULTS During the 13-month period of this study, 150 Microtus ochrogaster (77 males and 73 females) and 155 Peromyscus leucopus (77 males and 78 females) were examined for ectoparasites. The number of M. ochro- gaster trapped per month ranged from 9 to 17 and the number of P. leucopus ranged from 10 to 14. Sixteen species of arthropod ectoparasites were found on, M. ochrogaster (Table 1). The greatest numbers of species were mites: Ornithonyssus bacoti, Androlaelaps fahren- holzi, Laelaps microti, Radfordia lemnina, Dermacarus hypudaei, Listrophorus leu- korti, and Mycoptes sp. In addition to these mites, at least 2 species of chiggers were present: Euschoengastia peromysci and Neotrombicula caviola. Other arthropods present were the tick, Dermacentor vari- abilis; the louse, Hoplopleura acanthopus and 5 species of fleas: Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes, Epitedia wenmanni, Orch- opeas leucopus, Peromyscopsylla scotti, and Stenoponia americana. The most abundant ectoparasite on M. ochrogaster was the mite, L. leukorti, with an average number for the 13-month study period of 225.49 per animal. It was found commonly throughout the year, but was most abundant in the fall. Dermacarus hypudaei was also common on M. ochrogas- ter with an average of 161.0 per animal during the entire study period. However, this species was most prevalent in the spring. The mites O. bacoti, A. fahrenholzi, L. microti, and Mycoptes sp. were also en- countered regularly but with decreased numbers of 23.12, 4.90, 6.31, and 1.56, re- spectively. Ornithonyssus bacoti was found most frequently in the spring, A. fahrenholzi was most common in the spring and sum- mer, and L. microti and Mycoptes sp. were found most frequently in the winter and spring. Radfordia lemnina was encoun- tered rarely, with an average of 0.05 per animal for the 13-month study period. It was found only in the summer and fall. Chiggers, E. peromysci and N. caviola, were found throughout the year but were most common in the winter and spring. For the entire study period, the average number of chiggers per animal was 8.33. Ticks and lice were encountered less fre- quently than mites. The tick D. variabilis was most prevalent in the spring and there was an average of 0.21 per animal for the © study period. Lice were most prevalent in the spring also, and were not found on the voles during June, July, and August. The average number of those ectoparasites for the study period was 2.62. The occurrence of fleas was sporadic (Table 1). The highest average number for the study period was 0.32 per animal for C. pseudagyrtes. Numerically, the fleas were a minor component of the ectopara- sitic fauna. During the study, 16 species of arthropod ectoparasites were found on P. leucopus (Table 2). Of these, 14 were also present on M. ochrogaster, indicating a broad over- lap in the ectoparasite fauna. The 14 spe- cies found on both hosts were: mites—O. bacoti, A. fahrenholzi, L. microti, D. hy- pudaei, L. leukorti, Mycoptes sp., and chiggers (E. peromysci and N. caviola); ticks—D. variabilis; and fleas—C. pseud- agyrtes, E. wenmanni, O. leucopus, P. scotti, and S. americana. The mite Rad- fordia subuliger and the louse Hoplopleura hespermydis were found on P. leucopus but not on M. ochrogaster. The most common ectoparasites of P. leucopus were chiggers of which at least 2 species were present. The average num- ber of chiggers per animal throughout the study was 13.76. These arthropods were most common in the winter. The mite D. hypudaei was also common with an average number per animal for the study period of 4.87. It was most prevalent in the spring. Other mites were not as prevalent. Orni- thonyssus bacoti, A. fahrenholzi, L. microti, R. subuliger, L. leukorti, and Mycoptes sp. ARTHROPOD ECTOPARASITES OF SMALL MAamMMALS—Buckner and Gleason 73 TABLE 2.—ARTHROPOD ECTOPARASITES AND THEIR SEASONAL OCCURRENCES ON PEROMYSCUS LEUCOPUS IN WARREN County, KENTuCKy, FRoM NOVEMBER 1970 THRouGH NOVEMBER 1971. THE NUMBERS IN Pa- RENTHESES BELOW EACH SEASON AND THE TOTAL INDICATE THE NUMBER OF SPECIMENS EXAMINED. THERE WERE AT LEAST 2 KinpDs oF CHIGGERS PRESENT. Winter Parasite (42) Mites Ornithonyssus bacoti 0.18 (0-5) Androlaelaps fahrenholzi 0.92 (0-17) Laelaps microti 0.05 (0-1) Radfordia subuliger 0.02 (0-1) Dermacarus hypudaei 1.30 (0-19) Listrophorus leukorti OU (0-1) Mycoptes sp. 0.19 (0-3) Chiggers 26.83 (0-75) Ticks Dermacentor variabilis 0.02 (0-1) Lice Hoplopleura hesperomydis 225A. (0-25) Fleas Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes 0.04 (0-1) Epitedia wenmanni 0.14 (0-4) Orchopeas leucopus 0.31 (0-4) Peromyscopsylla scotti 0 Stenoponia americana 0.28 (0-6) had average numbers per animal of 0.82, 0.65, 0.38, 0.03, 1.26, and 0.23, respectively, for the entire study period. Ornithonyssus bacoti was most prevalent in the spring and summer, A. fahrenholzi in the winter and spring, L. microti in the spring, L. leukorti in the spring and fall, and Mycoptes sp. in the fall. Radfordia subuliger was rare and found only in the fall and winter. Average Number Per Host (minimum and maximum number per host ) Spring Summer Fall Total (33) (37) (43) (155) 2.16 Lg 0.09 0.82 (0-53) (0-12) (0-1) (0-53) 0.94 0.27 0.53 0.65 (0-5) (0-2) (0-6) (0-17) 1.03 0.32 0.21 0.38 (0-19) (0-9) (0-1) (0-19) 0 0 0.09 0.03 (0-2) (0-2) TAS 0.41 2.28 4.87 (0-424) (0-3) (0-30) (0-424) 1.81 0.27 1.90 1.26 (0-55) (0-3) (0-30) (0-55) 0.09 0.18 0.37 0.23 (0-1) (0-2) (0-8) (0-8) 12.60 2.24 13.04 13.76 (0-75) (0-22) (0-72) (0-75) 1.81 0.13 0.21 0.52 (0-12) (0-2) (0-3) (0-12) 0.63 0.73 6.21 2.98 (0-12) (0-19) (0-252) (0-252) 0.06 0.16 0 0.06 (0-1) (0-5) (0-5) 0 0.13 0.02 0.07 (0-3) (0-1) (0-4) 0.03 0 0.02 0.08 (0-1) (0-1) (0-4) 0 0 0.02 0.01 (0-1) (0-1) 0.27 0 0.04 0.15 (0-4) (0-2) (0-6) Other ectoparasites also occurred in very low numbers on P. leucopus. Dermacentor variabilis occurred most frequently in the spring with an average of 0.52 per animal for the 13-month study period. The louse H. hesperomydis was found most frequently in the fall and winter with an average of 2.98 per animal for the study period. Fleas occurred irregularly (Table 2). DIscussION A total of 18 species of arthropod ecto- parasites was found on Microtus ochrogaster and Peromyscus leucopus during the present study. Of this total, 14 species (77.7%) were common to both rodents, indicating little host speciticity. Host specificity was exhibited only by mites of the genus Rad- fordia and by lice of the genus Hoplopleura. There was, however, a definite host prefer- ence. The ectoparasites were more nu- merous on M. ochrogaster than on P. leucopus. This difference in numbers pos- sibly resulted from the heavier pelage on the voles. The average numbers of ectoparasites obtained for M. ochrogaster and P. leucopus were higher than those reported in the literature. Whitaker and Wilson (1968), in a 3-year study of mites in Indiana, re- ported averages of 0, 0.19, and 0.17, re- spectively, for Ornithonyssus bacoti, An- drolaelaps fahrenholzi, and Laelaps microti on M. ochrogaster and 0.01, 0.003, and 0.62 on P. leucopus, whereas our respective aver- ages were 23.12, 4.90, and 6.31 on M. ochrogaster and 0.82, 0.65, and 0.38 on P. leucopus. Similarly, the above authors re- ported averages of 0.02 for Radfordia lemnina on M. ochrogaster and 0.02 for Radfordia subuliger on P. leucopus, but our findings show averages of 0.05 and 0.03, respectively. Whitaker and Wilson (1968) pointed out that their figures should be taken as minimal because of the methods used for finding mites. In our study, how- ever, we attempted to collect and count all specimens. Seasonal variations in numbers of para- sites were observed for some ectoparasites. Listrophorus leukorti occurred in greater numbers in the fall on M._ ochrogas- ter, but showed little seasonal variation on P. leucopus. On the latter species, the num- bers were much lower throughout the year than on M. ochrogaster. Dermacarus hy- pudaei occurred on both M. ochrogaster and P. leucopus as hypopi, a second nymphal stage with specialized claspers. The adults are free living in the nests of the rodents (Drummond 1957). On both species of TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4) host, the mites were most prevalent in the — spring of the year. Ornithonyssus bacoti | showed a distinct seasonal variation on M. . ochrogaster but not on P. leucopus, where _ it occurred in smaller numbers. The mites were most prevalent on the vole in summer. | This was in contrast to the report of Worth > (1950) who found maximum numbers in | the spring. However, his studies were con-_ ducted in Florida where the optimum tem-_ perature for the mites would likely occur earlier. Chiggers, Euschoengastia peromysci and — common > throughout the cooler months with peak numbers during the spring. There was a dramatic decrease in chiggers during the | summer months. This seasonal pattern was — Neotrombicula caviola, were evident both on M. ochrogaster and on P. leucopus. Chiggers are the parasitic larval stages of free living mites, and during the spring the larvae leave the host and molt to the free living stages. This type of incidence pattern has been described by Farrell (1956). Dermacentor variabilis occurred as im- mature stages, larvae and nymphs, on both hosts. These immature stages were most prevalent during the spring, and this ob-— servation follows the life cycle pattern re- ported by Smith et al. (1946) who found that the activity of the immature forms reached a peak during March, April, and May, after which these forms became rare or absent. The lice, Hoplopleura acanthopus on M. ochrogaster and Hoplopleura hesperomydis on P. leucopus, showed a distinct seasonal variation. Hoplopleura acanthopus was most prevalent in the spring and H. hespero- mydis was most prevalent in the fall. These results are similar to those reported by Cook and Beer (1958) for H. acanthopus on Microtus pennsylvanicus and H. hespero- mydis on Peromyscus maniculatus. Batson (1965) found H. acanthopus to be the most abundant ectoparasite of M. ochrogaster in central Kentucky but this was not the case in the present study. Insufficient numbers of each of the 5 species of fleas were taken to accurately ARTHROPOD ECTOPARASITES OF SMALL MAammats—Buckner and Gleason 75 depict their seasonal incidence. This is true also of many of the mites found during our study. The interpretation of the effects of season upon the numbers of some of the _ species of ectoparasites present on the hosts is severely limited by the low numbers present. In some instances, an abundance of individuals upon a single host dramatically increased the average number of the para- site for that season. Such occurrences ad- versely affect the interpretation of the data. Such effects could be overcome by col- lecting larger numbers of rodents over several years. LITERATURE CITED Batson, J. 1965. Studies on the prairie vole, Microtus ochrogaster, in central Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 25:129—137,. CoLEMAN, R. W. 1950. DDT protects baits from ants. J. Mamm. 31:199. Coox, E. F., anp J. R. Beer. 1958. A study of louse populations on the meadow vole and deer mouse. Ecology 39:645-659. DruMMonp, R. O. 1957. Observations on fluctua- tions of acarine populations from nests of Peromyscus leucopus. Ecol. Monogr. 27:137— 1523 FARRELL, C. E. 1956. Chiggers of the genus Euschoengastia (Acarina: Trombiculidae) in North America. Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 106: 85-235. JAMEsoN, E. W., Jr. 1947. Natural history of the prairie vole. Univ. Kans. Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1:125-151. SmirH, C. N., M. M. CoE, anp H. K. Govuckx. 1946. Biology and control of the American dog tick. U.S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull. 905: 1-7A. Verts, B. J. 1961. Observations on the fleas (Siphonaptera) of some small mammals in northwestern Illinois. Amer. Midl. Nat. 66: 471-476. WuitakeEr, J. O., Jr. 1968. Parasites. In Biology of Peromyscus (Rodentia) Spec. Publ. Amer. Soc. Mamm. 2:254—311. , AND N. Witson. 1968. Mites of small mammals of Vigo County, Indiana. Amer. Midl. Nat. 80:537-542. WortH, C. B. 1950. Observations on ectopara- sites of some small mammals in Everglades National Park and Hillsborough County, Florida. J. Parasit. 36:326-335. An Examination of Opossums and Raccoons in Kentucky for Natural Infections with Trypanosoma cruzi FreD H. WHITTAKER AND LENA JARECKA Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT Fifty-nine raccoons and 24 opossums were live-trapped from 14 counties in Kentucky and examined for the presence of Trypansoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas’ disease. Although none of the mammals was infected with T. cruzi, reasons are stated as to why it is believed that with the examination of additional mammals, the parasite will be found in Kentucky. INTRODUCTION Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of American trypanosomiasis, was first de- scribed by Carlos Chagas in 1909 from in- fected triatomid bugs, wild mammals, and humans in Brazil. In honor of his achieve- ment, this disease is usually referred to as Chagas’ disease. Later studies ( Olivier et al. 1972) showed this organism to be present and pathogenic for humans in most areas of South and Central America. Early work in this country (Kofoid and McCulloch 1916, Wood 1934, Wood and Wood 1941) indicated that the organism was present in triatomids and various reservoir hosts in much of the Southwest. Woody and Woody (1955) reported the first indigenous human infection in a child from Corpus Christi, Texas, which was soon followed by a similar case in Bryan, Texas (Gobel 1958). Later work in Louisiana (Yaeger 1960), in Mary- land (Walton et al. 1958, Herman and Bruce 1962), in Georgia and Florida (Mc- Keever et al. 1958) and in Alabama (Olsen et al. 1964) has extended the known range of this organism into 10 states. Farrar et al. (1963) found definite serological evi- dence of infected humans in certain regions of Georgia, and postulated that at least one death in the region was caused by T. cruzi. These findings suggest that T. cruzi may constitute a potential human health problem in this country. Because of the scanty knowledge of this organism's distribution in the United States, it is seldom considered in the differential diagnosis of a disease. A more thorough 76 knowledge of the distribution of T. cruzi would, in all probability, stimulate the- medical profession to consider the potential for human infection with this disease. With | early diagnosis, the chances for a complete recovery are excellent, but a satisfactory cure for chronic Chagas’ disease has not— been developed. Triatomid vectors and a wide range of known mammalian hosts (such as opossums, raccoons, various species of rats and mice, and gray foxes) are found in Kentucky. There are no major geographic or environ- mental barriers which would prevent T. cruzi from entering this state, and based on © the knowledge of zoodistribution, there is no reason to assume that it should not be found in Kentucky. It should be mentioned that an earlier examination of 41 opossums from central Kentucky by Aliff (1970) was | negative for T. cruzi. When one considers the close proximity certain reservoir hosts maintain with hu- mans, as well as the fact that triatomids are often pests in human habitations where poor living conditions and health standards prevail, the need for this research project | appeared to be warranted. This report — represents the results of an examination of raccoons and opossums in 14 counties of © Kentucky for the presence of Chagas’ | disease caused by T. cruzi. RESULTS From January to May 1972, 59 raccoons and 24 opossums were live-trapped from 14 counties in Kentucky (Table 1). TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI IN KeNTucKy—Whittaker and Jarecka 7a The animals were brought to the labora- tory at the University of Louisville and maintained in cages until necropsied. Each animal was anesthetized with sodium pento- _ barbital, 150 mg/kg intraperitoneally, and a 3-ml blood sample obtained by cardiac puncture. The sample was citrated and added to a screw-top test tube containing 7 ml of a culture medium developed by Nakamura (1967). The thoracic cavity was opened and a small portion of cardiac muscle excised and placed in a tube of Nakamura’s medium. The abdominal cavity was then opened and a small section of kidney tissue excised and placed into another tube of the same medium. To each of the culture tubes were added 500 units of penicillin G and 1.5 pg of streptomycin sulfate per milliliter. All tubes of inoculated media were in- cubated at 24-25 C for 2 weeks before the first examination for trypanosomes. In each case, an uninoculated tube of medium served as a control. Each tube was ex- amined weekly thereafter for 6 weeks. Throughout the period of examination, all culture tubes were negative for any stage of T. cruzi. This suggests absence or rarity of the parasite in those regions of the counties from which the animals were collected. We hesitate to say unequivocally that T. cruzi does not occur in Kentucky. More animals should be examined before any definite conclusions can be reached. Furthermore, the physical and biotic con- ditions of Kentucky are sufficiently similar to those of some of the other states (New Jersey, Maryland, Alabama, and Georgia) in which T. cruzi has been found. Probably, there are no real barriers to prevent a more northward extension of the parasite’s range, provided that among other things the reservoir hosts (raccoons, opossums, etc.) and triatomid insect vector are present. According to Kagan et al. (1966), the northern range of T. cruzi would be de- limited by the range of the insect vector Triatoma sanguisuga. This latter range de- scribes an arc passing from eastern New Mexico northeastwardly through several states, including Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and TABLE 1.—NuUMBER OF RACCOONS AND OPpossuMS CoLLECTED FrRoM EAacu County Number of County Opossums Raccoons Allen 1 4 Bell 3 Bullitt 3 5 Christian 2: 1 Graves I 6 Jefferson 3 8 Lyon 1 McCreary 4 Oldham 4 7 Powell 6 Russell ] 5 Trimble 4 2 Warren Z 2 Whitley 3 5 Totals 24 59 Pennsylvania. This would thus include Kentucky as a potential site for the parasite. It is undoubtedly only a matter of time, and the examination of additional animals before T. cruzi is found in Kentucky. We want to extend our sincere thanks to the Kentucky State Department of Health (Frankfort ), the Arts and Sciences Research Committee of the University of Louisville, and Dr. George Brodschi, Director, Inter- national Center, for financing this project. LITERATURE CITED AuirF, J. V. 1970. A search for Trypanosoma cruzi in Kentucky opossums. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sei. 31:104. CuHacas, C. 1909. Trabalho do instituto de manguinhos sobre uma nova trypanosomiase humana. Ann. Acad. Med. Rio de Janeiro. 75:188—-190. Farrar, W. E., I. G. Kacan, F. D. EVERTON, AND T. G. Sextuers. 1963. Serologic evidence of human infection with Trypanosoma cruzi in Georgia. Amer. J. Hyg. 78:166—-172. GoBEL, F. C. 1958. A comparison of strains of Trypanosoma cruzi indigenous to the United States with certain strains from South America. Proc. 6th Internatl. Cong. Trop. Med. Malar. 3:158-166. HERMAN, C. M., anv J. I. Bruce. 1962. Occur- rence of Trypanosoma cruzi in Maryland. Proc. Helminth. Soc. Wash. 29:55—-58. Kacan, I. G., L. NoRMAN, AND D. ALLAIN. 1966. Studies on Trypanosoma cruzi isolated in the United States: A review. Rev. Biol. Trop. 14:57-73. 78 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4) Koror, C. A., AnD I. McCuxttocw. 1916. On Trypanosoma triatomae, a new flagellate from a hemipteran bug from the nests of the wood rat, Neotoma fuscipes. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 16:113-126. McKeEEVER, S., G. W. GORMAN, AND L. NORMAN. 1958. Occurrence of a Trypanosoma cruzi-like organism in some mammals from southwestern Georgia and northwestern Florida. J. Parasit. 44:583-587. Nakamura, M. 1967. An autoclaved medium for routine cultivation of Trypanosoma cruzi. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 61:792— 794. Ouivier, M., L. OLtvierR, AND D. SEGAL. 1972. A bibliography on Chagas’ disease (1909— 1969). Special Publication No. 2, Index Catalog of Medical and Veterinary Zoology. U.S. Gov. Print. Off., Wash., D.C., 633 pp. OLsEN, F. P., J. P. SHOEMAKER, H. F. TuRNER, AND K. L. Hays. 1964. Incidence of Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas) in wild vectors and reservoirs in east-central Alabama. J. Parasit. 50:599-603. Watton, B. C., P. M. Bauman, L. S. DiaMonp, | AND C. M. HermMaAN. 1958. The isolation and identification of Trypanosoma cruzi from rac- | coons in Maryland. Amer. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 7:603-610. ; Woop, E. D., anp S. F. Woop. J. Trop. Med. 21:335-345. Woop, F. D. 1934. Natural and experimental in- fection of Triatoma protracta Uhler and mam- mals in California with American human Trypanosomiasis. Amer. J. Trop. Med. 14: 497-511. Woopy, N. C., AND H. B. Woopy. 1955. American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas’ Disease) First in- digenous case in the United States. J. Amer. Med. Ass. 159:676—677. YAEGER, R. G. 1960. A method of isolating trypanosomes from blood. J. Parasit. 46:288. 1941. Present knowledge of the distribution of Trypanosoma | cruzi in reservoir animals and vectors. Amer. | Distribution and Life History Notes on the Southeastern Five-Lined Skink, Eumeces inexpectatus Taylor, in Kentucky Eric M. RuNpDQuUIST AND JOSEPH T. COLLINS Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045 Barbour and Ernst (1971) defined the range of Eumeces inexpectatus in Kentucky on the basis of records or literature reports from Barren, Bell, McCreary, Powell, and Whitley counties, mostly in the southeastern part of the state. With the exception of the Barren County specimen, these records are restricted to or along the edge of the mountainous, heavily forested area of east- ern Kentucky. Excepting the Barren County record, this lizard has not been known from western Kentucky, but Barbour (1971) speculated that it might be found as far west in the state as Todd County. Snyder (1972) did not find Eumeces inexpectatus in the Land Between The Lakes (LBL) in Trigg and Lyon counties, southwestern Kentucky, but indicated (p. 84) that there was a “moderate possibility” of its occur- rence in that area. Recent field work in the LBL region and reexamination of specimens of Eumeces in the herpetological collection of the Museum of Natural History at the University of Kansas (KU) have resulted in the discovery of specimens of Eumeces inexpectatus from new localities in western and southwestern Kentucky. During May 1973 one of us (EMR) and Walter E. Boles spent 10 days collecting amphibians and reptiles in southwestern and west-central Kentucky. Six examples of Eumeces inexpectatus were collected at the following Kentucky localities: Epmon- son County: W Horse cave near border Mammoth Cave National Park (KU 154079); Trice County: ca. 7 mi (11 km) ESE Aurora in LBL (KU 154077-078 & KU 154080); ca. 10 mi (16 km) ESE Aurora in LBL (KU 154081-082). In addition, 9 previously overlooked specimens of this liz- ard were discovered from the following Kentucky localities: Harr County: 6-7 mi (10-11 km) NW Cave City near border 79 Mammoth Cave National Park (KU 143707- 708); Lyon County: 7 mi (11 km) N Lyon-Trigg county line on Ky. Hwy. 453 (KU 137757); McCreary County: 6.4 mi (10.3 km) WNW Stearns on Ky. Hwy. 92 (KU 143705-706), 0.7 mi (1.1 km) W Cumberland Falls (KU 144580), no other locality data (KU 144581); Trice County: 0.5 mi (0.8 km) NE jet. eastern shore Kentucky Lake and U.S. Hwy. 68 in LBL (KU 144576-577). The specimens from Edmonson, Hart, and McCreary counties supplement the records of Ernst and Bar- bour (1971), and those from Lyon and Trigg counties extend the range of Eumeces inexpectatus ca. 130 miles (210 km) (air- line) west into southwestern Kentucky (Eig. + By. Virtually nothing is known of the life history in Kentucky of Eumeces inexpecta- tus and its relationships with Eumeces fasciatus, a more wide ranging and (evi- dently ) more abundant species with which it is sympatric over large areas. Only 3 female Kentucky Eumeces inex- pectatus (KU 137757, 143707, 144581) were available for examination. These specimens contained an average of 11 undeveloped ova. This differs little from the ova counts obtained from 4 female Eumeces fasciatus taken in sympatry with Eumeces inexpecta- tus in Kentucky, although our sample size is too small to be conclusive. Analysis of stomach contents of 12 E. inexpectatus and 13 E. fasciatus from their area of sympatry in Kentucky showed no appreciable difference in the diet of these species. Both species consumed large num- bers of spiders compared to other inverte- brate diet items which included (in de- scending order of item occurrence ) crickets, cockroaches, caterpillars, grasshoppers, ants, beetle larvae, snails, and moths. Although our data sample is small, these 80 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) Fic. 1. Known localities from which Eumeces inexpectatus has been collected in Kentucky. The solid squares represent records reported by Barbour and Ernst (1971). The solid circles are new localities based on specimens reported in this paper. observations tentatively indicate little dif- ference in reproductive potential or diet in these 2 lizards. More specimens and, par- ticularly, associated microhabitat data are needed to determine what, if any, non- morphological differences separate Ken- tucky Eumeces inexpectatus and Eumeces fasciatus in areas of sympatry. We wish to thank Walter E. Boles and George R. Pisani for their assistance during field work in Kentucky. George W. Byers of the Department of Entomology, Univer- sity of Kansas, identified insect remains from the stomachs of lizards cited here. To him we are most grateful. Field work was supported by the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas and the Ken- tucky Academy of Science (J. T. Collins, principal investigator). LITERATURE CITED Barsour, R. W. 1971. Amphibians and reptiles of Kentucky. Univ. Press Kentucky, Lexing- ton, Ky. 334 pp. Barsour, R. W., AnD C. H. Ernst. 1971. The distribution of Eumeces in Kentucky. J. Herp. 5( 1-2) :71-72. SnyDER, D. H. 1972. Amphibians and reptiles of Land Between the Lakes. TVA Publ. 90 pp. — SS Additional Observations on the Effects of Strip Mining on Small-Stream Fishes in East-Central Kentucky BRANLEY A. BRANSON AND DONALD L. BATCH Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475 ABSTRACT Continued siltation from strip mine operations in 2 streams tributary to the North Fork of the Kentucky River has prevented the recovery of fish populations in those streams. All species reported from Leatherwood Creek in 1972 have been forced downstream, and 6 of those species are now absent from that stream. Two other species are now missing from both streams. Populations of Semotilus atromaculatus apparently are on the increase, perhaps because of the removal of competing species. INTRODUCTION This report continues the observations on the effects of siltation from strip mines on the fish life of 2 small streams in east-central Kentucky commenced in an earlier paper (Branson and Batch 1972). That work covered a 17-month period (May 1967 through September 1969), whereas the present contribution extends from Novem- ber 1971 through December 1972. Our study area, in Breathitt County, in- cludes Leatherwood Creek (5.63 km long), tributary to Quicksand Creek, and Bear Branch (3.22 km long), tributary to Buck- horn Creek, all segments of the North Fork of the Kentucky River. These streams were originally selected because strip mine spoil banks in the area are very low in acid- producing substances, making them ad- mirable for the purpose of studying silt ef- fects (Branson and Batch 1972). Both study streams comprise order I and II tributaries. Six stations, equally distributed from head- waters to mouth, were established on each stream. Detailed information on the bottom conditions and water quality were presented in the previous study. During each visit to these stations fish were collected by 30 min of intensive seining, and were then identified and released (Table 1). Weekly determinations of turbidity are here presented as averages and monthly *Conducted in cooperation with the North- eastern Forest Experiment Station, U.S. Forest Service, Berea, Kentucky. 81 ranges (Fig. 1, Table 2). There were, of course, as previously observed by us (loc. cit.), corresponding fluctuations in sediment loads and sulfate (SOx) concentrations, varying with peak flow values. Sulfate loads are never very high in either stream during any season of the year, but they are high enough to permit utilization for the purpose of indexing surface disturbance. It is apparent from the graph and the data in Table 1 that the silt load in Bear Branch, during the study period, was in the main higher than that in Leatherwood Creek. Mining operations commenced in_ the Leatherwood drainage 15 August 1967, ceased temporarily on 17 December 1968, then resumed for several months in late 1970. During the latter period, a rather massive silt retention dam (92 m long and 12-15 m deep) was constructed across the flow channel below our Station 3, com- pletely eliminating the upper 3 collecting sites and effectively eliminating the head- waters of the stream. The rejuvenated mining operation, plus the construction dis- turbance of dam building, dumped tons of silt into Leatherwood Creek, reducing by narrowing of the flow channel and by bottom filling the main channel by 60 to 75 percent, from midway in the stream to its mouth. In Bear Branch, mining started in mid- August 1969, and it was still in progress in August 1973. By September 1972 our Station 4 had become completely obliter- ated by silt, including vast quantities of 82 TrANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4) TABLE 1.—CoMPARISON OF FisH FAUNAS AT 6 SITES EACH IN LEATHERWOOD AND BEAR BRANCH CREEKS, | BREATHITT County, Kentucky. Upper Row oF SYMBOLS, FOR EACH SPECIES, LEATHERWOOD SAMPLES; Lower Row, BEAR BRANCH. VISITATION DATES FOR LEATHERWOOD CREEK: 3 OcTOBER 1971, 14 AucusT | 1971, AND 12 DecEMBER 1972; AND 7 NOVEMBER 1970, 4 SEPTEMBER 1971, AND 9 SEPTEMBER 1972 FoR BEAR BrancH. + INDICATES PRESENCE; — INDICATES ABSENCE. Species Collecting Stations 1 2 3 4 Semotilus atromaculatus Campostoma anomalum Ericymba buccata Notropis ardens Notropis chrysocephalus Notropis photogenis Notropis volucellus Pimephales notatus Nocomis micropogon Hypentelium nigricans Percina maculatum Etheostoma flabellare Etheostoma caeruleum Etheostoma nigrum -—— Etheostoma variatum Etheostoma Saggita --- Etheostoma blennioides Etheostoma species large gravel and rocks up to boulder size. Previous accounts of siltation in these 2 drainages were reported by us in 1972. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Comparison of the results presented in Table 1 [in which a minus sign (-) indi- cates the absence of a species and a plus sign (+) indicates its presence] with those obtained during the first study (loc. cit.) demonstrates not only that the fish fauna of the 2 streams has not been able to recover to any extent, but also that some species have been eliminated from the fauna. Notropis photogenis, Nocomis micropogon, Etheostoma nigrum, E. variatum, E. blen- nioides, and the emerald darter (Etheostoma sp.) are now missing from the Leatherwood Creek fauna, and Hypentelium nigricans and Percina maculata are absent from both streams. Furthermore, with the exception of the creek chub, Semotilus atromaculatus, all species have been forced downstream until only nominal populations are present in short stretches above the mouth. In Leatherwood Creek, this is a particularly sad commentary, since Quicksand Creek itself is heavily afflicted with silt, and hence shall be unable to act as an efficient reservoir from which fishes may reinvade Leatherwood Creek. Populations of Semotilus atromaculatus, EFFECTS OF TURBIDITY ON FisHes—Branson and Batch 83 TaBLE 2.—HicH AND Low Tursibiry READINGS (JAcKsOoN Tursipity UNITS) Iv LEATHERWOOD AND BEAR BRANCH CREEKS, BREATHITT COUNTY, KEN- Tucky, BasED Upon WEEKLY DETERMINATIONS DuRING THE STuDy PERIOD Month Leatherwood Creek Bear Branch November 1971 16-20 22-310 December 1971 26-97 26-6r January 1972 290-880 282-2156 February 1972 64-184 1024 March 1972 26-95 22300 April 1972 8-233 32-168 May 1972 65-140 51-193 June 1972 4—860 8-128 July 1972 A—\2, 12-629 August 1972 20-30 12-39 September 1972 20-39 20-47 October 1972 8-36 162375 however, following abatement of active silt- ation, appear to be increasing, particularly at downstream sites. In our judgement, this reflects the removal of competing fish spe- cies, but it is a problem which should be studied in more detail for verification. We thank Messrs. Frank Howard and Bruce Bauer for field assistance, and par- ticularly Mr. Willie Curtiss, U.S. Forestry Service, for providing us with weekly water quality determinations. JACKSON TURBIDITY UNITS NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT Fic. 1. Turbidity (Jackson Turbidity Units) in Leatherwood (filled circles, solid line) and Bear Branch (filled stars, broken line) creeks during the last 2 months of 1971 and the first 10 months of 1972. Averages of 4 or 5 samples (1 per week) according to the number of weeks per month. (See text for additional discussion. ) LITERATURE CITED BRANSON, B. A., AND D. L. Batcu. 1972. Effects of strip mining on small-stream fishes in east-central Kentucky. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 84:507-517. Floristic Survey Grant of the KAS dent who NEWS AND COMMENT Through the generosity of an anonymous donor, the KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE is autho- rized periodically to award a cash grant of $500.00 to any stu- is a member of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE and who is enrolled in a course of study with emphasis in botanical science at any college or university within the Commonwealth. The recipient of the grant would be expected to utilize the funds in support of research to survey and docu- ment the flora of any county in the state that has not had a published county flora within the last 50 years. The following re- quirements and/or restrictions must be met by the grantee: is bo The floristic survey of the county chosen must be under the supervision of a quali- fied biologist of one of the colleges or universities in Kentucky. The super- visor of such work would not necessarily have to be from the same college or uni- versity as the student chosen for the grant. As a general rule it would be expected that a minimum of 500 different vascu- lar plant species would be collected. Prepared specimens of each species would be made in minimums of three with an average of five, recognizing on occasion only one or two specimens might be available. For each species collected over 500, an additional $1.00 will be made available at the end of the grant period by the donor. To ensure documentation of the flora for future reference, and in order to build and stimulate botanical interest regionally, the deposition of correctly prepared specimens is to be made at a national herbarium with an _ identical group deposited in a working herbarium of the Regional Colleges and Universi- ties of Kentucky. The selection of both a national herbarium and regional site 84 Ol of deposition is to be made by the Flo- ristic Survey Grant Committee. Upon completion of the work (a period not to exceed 24 months from date of grant receipt) a written summary of the project including a complete listing of the county’s flora in a conventional for- mat will be submitted to the Floristic Survey Grant Committee. The choice of the student to receive this grant will be at the discretion of the: Floristic Survey Grant Committee to be composed of the following individuals. The person in charge of this committee will be designated from the following by the President of the Kentucky Academy of Science. a. Chairman (or his designate ) of the Department of Biology at Western Kentucky University. b. Chairman (or his designate) of the Department of Biology at Mur- ray State University. c. A Biologist from any other college or university in Kentucky to be appointed by the President of the Kentucky Academy of Science. The funds provided by this grant are to be utilized to defray travel costs and costs of materials and supplies needed to undertake and complete the work. The grantee will be required to obtain and maintain a separate checking account in his/her name with the funds from this grant and to provide proper records of expenditures annually to the Floristic Survey Grant Committee. Any excess funds at the end of the 24-month period will be returned by check to the Trea- surer of the Kentucky Academy of Sci- ence for inclusion in the next Floristic Survey Grant. If for any reason continu- ing funding for the Floristic Survey Grant would be terminated, any excess funds would be added to the general revenue of the Kentucky Academy of Science. ACADEMY AFFAIRS Tue SIXTIETH ANNUAL BusINEsS MEETING OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, CENTRE COLLEGE OF KENTUCKY, DANVILLE, KENTUCKY 1 and 2 November 1974 Host: Dr. Frederick M. Brown, Professor of Psychology MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING The meeting was called to order by President Donald Batch at 8:15 A.M., 2 November, in Room 101, Young Hall. About 65 members were in at- tendance. As the first item of business, the motion by Sec- retary Prins and second by W. Martin, to approve the Minutes of the 59th annual business meeting at Transylvania University, carried. Secretary Prins then announced that membership to date stood at about 516 regular members and 30 institutional subscribers. W. J. Meijer moved that the 66 new members be formally accepted into the Academy. H. Powell second the motion and it carried. Secre- tary Prins then read the names of the following deceased members: E. B. Penrod, R. C. Jett, W. Blackburn, and Anna Hoffman. Both Drs. Penrod and Blackburn played active roles in the Academy affairs, including serving terms as President of the K.A.S. President Batch requested a moment of tribute to the deceased members. The Treasurer's report was distributed to the members present which was certified as accurate by the audit committee consisting of Drs. W. H. Strobe, E. E. Hegen, and E. O. Beal (Chm). The committee also commended the Treasurer Hoffman for maintaining excellent records. Treasurers Report to the Audit Committee, Kentucky Academy of Science, for the period 1 October 1973-8 October 1974. Cash in Citizens National Bank Bowilng Green, Kentucky ________ $1,378.67 RECEIPTS: Subsidy from State $3,000.00 Membership Dues _____-- 1,581.00 LestiS 194.50 Annual Meeting 766.50 Transactions Subscriptions 214.50 University of Louisville Purchase of Transactions 300.00 AAAS Research Grant _____ 128.00 Miscellaneous (Private Jo!)), 2 80.00 6,264.50 $7,643.17 DISBURSEMENTS: esearch, Grants $ 200.00 Annual Meeting 476.92 Publication of Transactions 3,757.61 Mis Dives! seen S At iy 23.75 85 Stationery, Printing _____ 115.84 HOT AS? See SER SPY, 300.00 Miscellaneous 30.54 4,904.66 $2,738.51 Check Outstanding KJAS $ 300.00 Cash in Citizens National Bank ____. $2,738.51 (a) Savings Account—Lexington Federal Savimesneosl Oat tel A ahi) (key oaks 1,147.00 (b) Thomas Hunt Morgan Fund _._ 176.617 TOTATASS EES ( 20 28k. Shr 20 ace Cae 4,062.12 R. Prins moved and F. Toman seconded the motion to approve the Audit Committee’s and Treasurer’s reports. Motion carried. Dr. Batch then tumed to the business of the Standing Committees. The committees that had reports distributed copies in writing to the mem- bership present to facilitate action on them. 1. Committee on Membership. No report. 2. Committee on Publications. The written re- port of Dr. Krumholz (Editor) essentially stated that the 1975 issues of the Transactions will be dis- tributed in April and October and that members of all disciplines are urged to submit papers. H. Pow- ell moved and F. Six seconded the motion to ap- prove the report. Motion carried. 3. Committee on Legislation. The primary work of the Committee in 1974 was directed toward fol- low-up of the Task Force on Scientific Manpower and Needs in Kentucky. Dr. T. George moved to accept the report. Dr. E. Brown seconded the motion. Motion carried. 4. Committee on Distribution of Research Funds. The Committee, chaired by H. Powell, announced that Mr. Steven Zeil of Thomas More College was being recommended to receive the total $124.00 for a research proposal entitled: “Birefringence in Piezoelectric Crystals.” The Committee also recommended that _ recipients henceforth submit progress reports to the Com- mittee upon completion of the project or by the next annual meeting, whichever comes first. S. Jones moved and T. Coohill seconded the motion to adopt both the recommendations of the committee. Motion carried. There were only six applicants for the grant this year. After disposing of the Standing Committee re- ports, Dr. Batch then asked for consideration of 1 Account cancelled. 86 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4) other reports, copies of which were submitted to the membership present. l. The Junior Academy. Dr. Wm. Martin sum- marized the 1974 activities of the KJAS, and announced that regional meetings were going to be held at seven institutions in Kentucky this fall. He also announced the appointment of Dr. Truman Stevens ( University of Kentucky) to the Govern- ing Committee of the Junior Academy, joining H. Leopold (WKU). Dr. Batch announced that the Junior Academy books had been audited and found to be in order. After a motion and second by G. Wilson and H. Powell, respectively, the report was accepted. Dr. Batch then announced that the Exec- utive Committee had accepted Dr. Martin’s letter of resignation as Director of the Junior Academy, effective in the Spring of 1975, after a replacement is named. A tribute of appreciation was extended to Dr. Martin for doing a fine job. 2. There were no reports from the AAAS repre- sentatives. Q 3. The Board of Directors was very active in 1974. Dr. C. Kupchella (Chm), distributed a lengthy report which proposed possible activities for the Board and constitutional changes to clarify the intended role of the board. The Executive Committee will consider the suggestions at a subse- quent meeting. A motion to accept the report (W. Martin), duly seconded by L. A. Krumholz, car- ried. 4. The Teachers Certification Committee, T. George (Chm), finished its work in 1974, and sub- mitted a lengthy report on “Recommendations for Teacher Certification.” This report has been sub- mitted to the State Committee on Teacher Certifi- cation and will be defended by representatives of the K.A.S. committee this fall. Dr. Batch com- mended Dr. George and his committee whereupon the report was accepted after a motion and second by C. Kupchella and L. A. Krumholz, respectively. There was no old business to come before the Academy. Under new business, President Batch announced that the Executive Committee had accepted a pro- posal to establish a grant for Floristic Studies in the Commonwealth of Kentucky. This grant of ap- proximately $600.00 will be entirely funded by an anonymous donor. Details about the grant will be announced elsewhere (see News and Comment). The membership endorsed the action of the Execu- tive Committee through a motion by W. Martin and a second by C. Covell. The following Resolution was accepted through a motion and second by H. Powell and L. Elliott, respectively: RESOLUTION The Kentucky Academy of Science takes this opportunity to recognize the outstanding role of Centre College in furthering higher education and, in particular, the sciences. Recognition is made of the following as repre- sentative of an illustrious history: 1. In 1819, Presbyterian leaders. decided to orga- nize a new college and Isaac Shelby was the first chairman of the Board. Centre College of Kentucky opened in fall 1820, and about ten years later natural sciences were added to the curriculum. 3. Centre College’s alumni have made very note- worthy contributions. Among the alumni have been ten Vice-Presidents of the United States, one Chief Justice of the United States, one As- sociate Justice of the Supreme Court, and thirteen United States Senators. 4, In more recent years, Centre College’s excellent faculty and alumni have made noteworthy con- tributions. bo The Kentucky Academy of Science recognizes Centre College’s long and illustrious history and its viable and significant role today. Be it resolved that the Kentucky Academy of Science expresses its most sincere appreciation to Centre College for the opportunity to convene on its fine campus and for the gracious hospitality it has extended during this 1974 Annual Session. The slate of officers for 1975 was submitted by the nominations committee, M. Taylor, Chairman, as follows: President: Ellis V. Brown, University of Ken- tucky President Elect: Frederick M. Brown, Centre College Vice President: Charles Payne, Morehead State University Secretary: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University Treasurer: Wayne Hoffman, Western Kentucky University AAAS Representatives: Branley Branson, 1974— 1975 John Carpenter, 1974—1977 Board of Directors: Howard Powell, Eastern Kentucky University (finish the term for Charles Payne) John G. Spanyer, Brown Forman Distilleries, 1978 Oliver Zandona, Ashland Oil and Refineries, 1978 Dr. Batch opened the floor to additional nomina- tions. Hearing none, W. Wagner moved that nom- inations close and that the slate be accepted by acclamation. R. Martin seconded the motion which carried unanimously. The President then ordered the Secretary to declare the nominees elected by acclamation. President Batch then announced that an invita- tion from the University of Louisville Health Sci- ence Center to hold the 61st Annual Meeting of ACADEMY AFFAIRS 87 the Academy there was accepted by the Executive Committee. Dr. C. Covell expressed satisfaction and gratifica- tion to outgoing officers. This was endorsed by applause from the members present. President Batch then introduced the new Presi- dent of the Academy, Dr. Ellis V. Brown of the University of Kentucky who, in turn, expressed thanks to Dr. Batch for the work he did in 1974. There being no further business, G. Wilson moved to adjourn. The motion carried after a second by H. Powell. The Sixtieth Annual Busi- ness Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science adjourned at 9:10 A.M. Rudolph Prins, Secretary Kentucky Academy of Science PROGRAM Friday, 1 November 1:00- REGISTRATION: Foyer, 7:00 PM = Arts Center 1:00 SECTIONAL MEETINGS 3:30 STANDING COMMITTEE MEET- INGS Membership: Room 402 Grant Hall Legislation: Foyer of Regional Arts Center Distribution of AAAS Funds: 101 Grant Hall Publications: Room 156 Young Hall Resolutions: Room 154 Young Hall Nominations: Room 152 Young Hall Board of Directors: Room 101 Young Hall EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE & SEC- TIONAL CHAIRPERSONS: Isaac Shelby Room Regional Arts Center BANQUET: Cowan Dining Commons Presiding: Dr. Donald Batch, Pres- ident, Kentucky Academy of Sci- ence Speaker: Dr. George Sands, Langley Research Center, National Aero- nautic and Space Administration Regional Room 4:30 7:30 Saturday, 2 November 8:00- REGISTRATION: Lobby, Young Hall 9:00 AM 8:00- CAFETERIA CONTINENTAL 9:00 BREAKFAST: Venetian Room, Cowan Dining Commons 8:00- 60th ANNUAL BUSINESS MEET- 9:30 ING: Auditorium, Room 101 Young Hall 9:30— GENERAL SESSION: “Research in 10:30 Kentucky” Auditorium, Room 101 Young Hall 10:30- SECTIONAL MEETINGS 12:30 11:30- CAFETERIA LUNCH: Venetian 1:30 Room, Cowan Dining Commons ANTHROPOLOGY Room 252 Young Hall D. Van Gerven, Chairman, Presiding Michael B. Collins, Secretary Saturday, 2 November 1974 10:30 Reciprocity and the concept of being be- holden. C. Richards, Department of Soci- ology and Anthropology, Transylvania Uni- versity 10:50 Quantitative cross-cultural comparison of narrative content. R. Levy, Department of Anthropology, University of Kentucky 11:10 Wild plant utilization, identification and classification among selected low-income central Kentucky families. J. D. Wyss, De- partment of Anthropology, University of Kentucky 11:30 Takelma generative verb morphology. M. Britton, Western Kentucky State University BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY Room 101 Doherty Hall Harold E. Eversmeyer, Chairman, Presiding Joe E. Winstead, Secretary Saturday, 2 November 10:30 The comparison of two methods for nitrate determinations in Barren River and _ its tributaries. P. Elliott and F. R. Toman, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky State University A dry season (summer) count of total and fecal coliform bacteria in Wilmore Branch of Jessamine Creek above and below the site for the sewage disposal plant of Wil- more, Kentucky. E. Walker (sponsored by H. H. Howell), Department of Biology, Asbury College Sterol metabolism in the fungi Pythium and Phytophthora. J. W. Hendrix, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky Autecology of local populations of Liquid- ambar styraciflua L. W. R. Randel and J. E. Winstead, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky State University Diameter distribution of dominant tree taxa in a mature eastern Kentucky forest. W. H. Martin, General Studies Science Pro- gram, Eastern Kentucky State University The flora of Jessamine Gorge. J. Mac- Gregor and W. Meijer, Department of Botany, University of Kentucky Seasonal variations in the flora of Raven Run, Fayette County, Kentucky. C. Andre and W. Meijer, Department of Botany, Uni- versity of Kentucky Flora and vegetation of the Lexington— Metro Area in relation to urban develop- ment. W. Meijer, Department of Botany, University of Kentucky Analysis of a climax forest system and tor- 10:45 11:00 11:15 11:30 11:45 12:00 12:15 12:30 88 Friday, 1:20 1:40 2:20 3:00 3:20 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF nado damage in northern Kentucky. M. E. Held and J. E. Winstead, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky State Univer- sity Carnes Mill, a southern Indiana outlier of the mixed mesophytic forest. R. R. Van Stockum, Jr. (sponsored by A. T. Hotch- kiss ), Department of Biology, University of Louisville CHEMISTRY Room 203 Grant Hall Joseph Hendon, Chairman, Presiding James C. Letton, Secretary 1 November The general harmonic force field of fluoro- form. M. Wilt, Department of Chemistry, Centre College Oxygen determination in Kentucky #9 coal. L. L. Chyi, C. Hamrin, Jr., P. S. Maa, and W. D. Ehmann, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky Transition of metal complexes of diethyl- amino acetonitrile. F. Wells and H. M. Smiley, Department of Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky State University Partial kinetic resolution of a-phenylbu- tyric acid using chiral primary amines and their salts. A. W. Gordon and A. F. Bridges, Department of Chemistry, Murray State University Cyclic neutron activation analysis tech- niques as applied to the elemental analysis of lunar samples. M. S. Maa and W. D. Ehmann, Department of Chemistry, Uni- versity of Kentucky Electron inpact mass spectra of bromo- quinolines and isoquinolines, methylquino- lines, and haloalkylquinolines. M. Gordon, J. Butler, and P. C. Goodley. Department of Chemistry, Murray State University Radiation chemistry of peroxydiphosphate anions. G. Levy, Department of Chemistry, Berea College Saturday, 2 November 10:40 11:00 11:20 Excess volumes of n-hexadecane and the isomers of hexane. J. Reeder, Department of Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky State Uni- versity Activity coefficients in the absorbed phase: carbon disulfide-acetone on two carbons. Preliminary results. M. T. Coltharp and S. Furnish, Department of Chemistry, Ken- tucky State University Enhancement of atomic absorption sensi- tivity for copper, cadmium, antimony, ar- senic, and selenium by means of solvent extraction. B. E. McClellan and J. C. Chambers, Department of Chemistry, Mur- ray State University 1:40 2:40 3:00 3:20 SCIENCE 35( 3-4) Oxidation of tin(II) by hydrogen peroxide. J. Niewahner, Department of Chemistry, Northern Kentucky State College Cobalt(I) complexes with aromatic iso- cyanides and trialkylphosphites. C. Becker (sponsored by J. C. Letton), Department of Chemistry, Kentucky State University Studies on the mechanism of the reaction of osmium tetroxide with alkenes. R. L. Clark, Department of Chemistry, Somerset Community College The phenyl proton chemical shift of para- substituted benzenediazonium compounds complexed with inorganic salts. C. Girard, Department of Chemistry, Centre College Catalytic hydrogenation in a_ series of | 3-substituted quinolines. E. V. Brown, L. Hough, D. W. Schluter, and H. H. Bauer, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky The long-range effects and interrelation- ships of specific fatty acids and vitamin E on the absorption of water. I. Ahmad, J. C. Letton, and D. Comelius, Department of Chemistry, Kentucky State University GEOGRAPHY Room 405 Grant Hall Charles M. Dupier, Jr., Chairman, Presiding Dennis L. Spetz, Secretary Friday, 1 November 1:30 1:50 2:30 3220 3:40 4:00 4:20 Louisville’s black community: a preliminary spatial investigation. J. L. Anderson, Geog- raphy Department, University of Louisville A socioeconomic appraisal of the substate administrative system in Kentucky. J. V. Panayotoff, Geography Department, East- erm Kentucky State University People and politics: the distribution of pop- ulation in Kentucky and its effects on Ken- tucky politics. J. A. Singleton, Eastern Kentucky State University Effective employment as a relative mea- sure of economic development. C. M. Dupier, Jr., Geography Department, Cum- berland College Means of evaluating impact of the Ohio River on economic development within the Louisville SMSA. D. E. Bierman, Geogra- phy Department, University of Louisville Kentucky’s major highway routes and corri- dors, 1955-1974. W. A. Withington, Geog- raphy Department, University of Kentucky Exurban commuting and energy consump- tion in Kentucky. P. D. Phillips, Geography Department, University of Kentucky Secular changes in local mean tempera- tures: the case of Kentucky. C. M. Dupier, Jr., Geography Department, Cumberland College ACADEMY AFFAIRS Saturday, 2 November 10:30 11:00 Friday, 1:00 1:30 1:45 2:05 2:25 2:45 3:05 3225 3:45 Geography Section Business Meeting and Election of Officers Discussion of Special Projects in Geography GEOLOGY Room 409 Grant Hall Harry P. Hoge, Chairman, Presiding Armin L. Clark, Secretary 1 November An earthquake history of Kentucky. G. R. Keller, Department of Geology, University of Kentucky, and B. R. Fish, Department for Natural Resources and Environmental Protection, Frankfort, Kentucky Geologic aspects of coal mine roof control. D. K. Hylbert (sponsored by J. C. Philley), Department of Geology, Morehead State University A gravity and magnetic study of the south- ern bluegrass region, Kentucky. J. K. Green- berg, A. E. Bland, G. R. Keller, H. E. Adams, and L. L. Covert (all sponsored by G. R. Keller), Department of Geology, Uni- versity of Kentucky Volcano—Tectonic evolution of the north- eastern part of the Mogollon—Datil volcanic field, New Mexico. E. Deal (sponsored by H. P. Hoge), Department of Geology, East- ern Kentucky State University Petrographic analysis of the Boyle dolomite (Devonian) of eastern Kentucky. H. P. Hoge, Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky State University, and S. W. Berk- heiser, Atlantic Richfield, Denver, Colo- rado Preliminary conodont biostratigraphy of the Boyle dolomite (Devonian) of eastern Ken- tucky. C. T. Helfrich, Department of Ge- ology, Eastern Kentucky State University Holocene history of Cape Canaveral, Flor- ida. N. C. Hester, Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky State University Bedding plane conodont assemblages from the New Albany Shale of east-central Ken- tucky. P. B. Wigley, Department of Geol- ogy, Eastern Kentucky State University Conodonts from the St. Louis member of the Newman formation of east-central Ken- tucky. P. B. Wigley, Department of Geol- ogy, Eastern Kentucky State University, and R. A. MacGill, Florida Geological Sur- vey, Tallahassee, Florida Correlation of Kentucky coal seams. L. Chiyi (sponsored by A. L. Clark) and G. E. Smith, Institute for Mining and Minerals Research, University of Kentucky 89 PHYSICS Room 201 Doherty Hall Frank Butler, Chairman, Presiding William E. Maddox, Secretary Friday, 1 November 2:50 3:00 3:10 3:20 3:30 3:40 Rapid variations in the optical brightness of compact extragalactic radio sources of the lacterid class. K. R. Hackney and R. L. Hackney, Department of Physics, Western Kentucky State University, A. G. Smith, R. L. Scott, R. J. Leacock, B. Q. McGim- sey, and P. L. Edwards, Rosemary Hill Observatory, University of Florida Anti-procrastination incentives in PSI. M. S. Longmire, K. R. Hackney, and N. F. Six, Department of Physics, Western Kentucky State University An analysis of energy consumption at Thomas More College. L. S. Schuster and G. K. Miner, Department of Physics, Thomas More College Computer simulation of expressway traffic. D. W. Schuetz and J. E. Lang, Department of Physics, Thomas More College A secondary standard neutron detector. K. K. Sekharan, H. Laumer, and F. Gabbard, Department of Physics, University of Ken- tucky Millimeter wavelength galactic astronomy at the University of Kentucky. R. A. Stokes, Department of Physics, University of Ken- tucky Saturday, 2 November 11:00 E10 11:20 11:30 11:40 11:50 12:00 Antiknock additives: Cyclopentadienyl com- pounds. M. A. Theissen and D. J. Boyle, Department of Physics, Thomas More Col- lege Instrumentation for characterization of highway traffic noise. G. E. Paptzum, T. W. Backers, P. S. Nienaber, and D. J. Boyle, Department of Physics, Thomas More College An AC apparatus for measurement of superfluid critical velocities. B. B. Sabo, Department of Physics, Thomas More Col- lege Fraunhofer’s optical glassworks. J. A. Gwinn, Department of Physics, University of Louisville Experiences with purchasing a scanning electron microscope. F. Butler and M. McPherson, Department of Physics, North- ern Kentucky State College It’s all done with mirrors. O. Wilson and S. Powell, Department of Physics, Berea College Building a low cost planetarium. O. Wil- son, Department of Physics, Berea College 90 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4) PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS, AND PHARMACOLOGY SECTION Room 401 Grant Hall Sanford Jones, Chairman, Presiding James L. Voogt, Secretary Friday, 1 November 2:00 Interpretation of abnormal activities of alkaline phosphatase in sera of elderly pa- tients. M. S. Jones, Cynthiana Hospital, Cynthiana, Kentucky Calcitonin in the adrenalectomized rat. M. Lineberry and L. Wiate, Department of Pharmacology, University of Louisville Plasma prolactin levels in ovariectomized rats following subcutaneous and _intraca- rotid injection of estradiol. D. Wood and J. Vogt, Department of Physiology, Uni- versity of Louisville :45 Quantitating brain microtubules by elec- tron microscopy—a progress report. F. R. Toman, Western Kentucky State University, and P. Filner, Michigan State University :00 Analog estimation of whole nerve bundle activity. J. R. Riehm and J. R. Meyer, Department of Physiology, University of Louisville bo — Ut bo (oy) S bo Go Saturday, 2 November 11:00 Hormone receptors in breast carcinoma. R. Hahnel, King Edward Memorial Hos- pital for Women, Perth, Western Australia. A special 60-minute “state of the art” talk by this visiting professor at the University of Louisville PSYCHOLOGY Room 106 Young Hall Richard D. Kahoe, Chairman, Presiding Francis H. Osborne, Secretary Saturday, 2 November 10:30 The effects of hippocampal lesions on the acquisition of a learned taste aversion with CS preexposure. D. J. McFarland, K. M. Hines, J. Kostas, and W. G. Drew, Depart- ment of Psychiatry, University of Kentucky Medical School The effects of THC on the acquisition of a learned taste aversion with CS preexposure. D. J. McFarland, J. Kostas, K. M. Hines, and W. G. Drew, Department of Psychiatry, University of Kentucky Medical School A preliminary evaluation of a contingency contractin approach to the introductory statistics course. F. H. Osborne, W. K. Redmon, and J. W. Moore, Department of Psychology, Morehead State University Training college students as nonprofes- sional helpers. R. W. Genthner and H. Page (sponsored by W. Watkins), Depart- 10:45 11:00 11:15 ment of Psychology, Eastern Kentucky State University The psychological effects of expressway noise pollution on learning. M. J. Schmidt, R. J. Linz, C. L. Gabel, J. M. Cahill, and C. E. Rolfsen (sponsored by G. W. Men- 11:30 zer), Department of Psychology, Thomas — More College Psychological bases of the two-child norm. R. D. Kahoe, Department of Psychology, Georgetown College Business Meeting and Election of Officers 11:45 12:00 SCIENCE EDUCATION Room 205 Doherty Hall Betty J. Stoess, Chairwoman, Presiding Robert J. Miller, Secretary Saturday, 2 November 10:45 Survey of Kentucky Teachers of Science- Analysis. G. K. Miner, Thomas More Col- lege 11:00 Preliminary findings survey of instructional materials utilized in Kentucky county ele- mentary schools. B. J. Stoess, Eastern Ken- tucky State University Preliminary findings: Survey of inservice science education in Kentucky county ele- mentary schools. R. J. Miller, Eastern Ken- tucky State University 11:30 SOCIOLOGY Room 206 Young Hall Alban Wheeler, Chairman, Presiding Henry Chang, Secretary Friday, 1 November 1:00 What is a family. J. S. Wittman, Jr., West- ern Kentucky State University 1:25 Overcoming survey syndrome in eastern Kentucky. V. Arnett, University of Ken- tucky 1:50 The children of southern Appalachia. H. Chang, Morehead State University 3:00 Panel Discussion: Developmental change in Kentucky: The 1940’s and 1970’s com- pared. Organizer: H. W. Beers, University of Kentucky Saturday, 2 November 10:30 Student evaluation of faculty: The other side—corruption of faculty and social work responsibility. C. P. Wilson and D. A. Miller, University of Kentucky Post-hospital experiences of former mental patients and stigma in the occupational setting. J. G. Odom, University of Ken- tucky Group definition through use of the obser- vational unit act. T. T. McKinney, Eastern Kentucky State University 10:55 11:20 ACADEMY AFFAIRS 91 ZOOLOGY Room 102 Young Hall Ben T. Feese, Chairman, Presiding Robert A. Kuehne, Secretary Friday, 1 November 1:15 1:30 1:45 2:00 2:30 2:45 3:00 Kentucky leafhoppers. P. H. Freytag, De- partment of Entomology, University of Ken- tucky Leafhoppers and their allies as nematode hosts. C. A. Sperka, Department of Ento- mology, University of Kentucky Studies on the immune state produced in mice by the dwarf tapeworm, Hymenolepis nana. S. Patton, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky A study of some of the ecological factors affecting the occurrence of water willow (Justicia americana) in Jessamine Creek. H. H. Howell, L. Martin, and B. Christen- sen, Department of Biology, Asbury College Insect survey in Kentucky. D. Barnett, De- partment of Entomology, University of Kentucky Response of arctic amphipods to environ- mental stress. M. Busdosh and R. M. Atlas, Department of Biology, University of Louis- ville Preliminary studies on nestling barn swal- low energetics. B. A. Lensing, Department of Biology, University of Louisville Speed of recovery in a small creek after sewage pollution abatement. R. Kuehne, Department of Biological Sciences, Univer- sity of Kentucky Saturday, 2 November 10:30 10:45 11:00 SS 11:30 11:45 12:00 Surface morphology of elasmobranch ces- todes by scanning electron microscopy. F. H. Whittaker, Department of Biology, Uni- versity of Louisville Cucurbit resistance to the two-spotted spider mite. P. A. Knipping, C. G. Patter- son, J. G. Rodriguez, and D. E. Knavel, Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky Real and potential problems from the pres- ence of Corbicula manilensis in Kentucky. E. Hartowicz, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky State University Chemical factors in tomato resistance to the two-spotted spider mite. C. G. Patterson, R. R. Kemp, J. G. Rodriguez, and D. E. Knavel, Department of Entomology, Uni- versity of Kentucky Butterfly captures by Malaise traps in Ken- tucky. C. V. Covell, Jr., Department of Biology, University of Louisville Preliminary observations on Kentucky Pso- coptera (Insecta). L. K. Haag, Depart- ment of Biology, University of Louisville Ichthyophthirius multifilis Fouquet 1876 (Ciliatea, Hymenostomatida): Natural and artificial infections. T. R. Kozel, Depart- ment of Biology, University of Louisville KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Sectional Officers 1974—1975 Anthropology Richard Levy (Chm) Department of Anthropology University of Kentucky Lexington, KY 40506 M. B. Collins (Sec) Department of Anthropology University of Kentucky Lexington, KY 40506 Botany and Microbiology Harold E. Eversmeyer (Chm ) Department of Biology Murray State University Murray, KY 42072 Joe E. Winstead (Sec) Department of Biology Western Kentucky University Bowling Green, KY 42101 Chemistry Dr. James Letton (Chm) Department of Chemistry Kentucky State University Frankfort, KY 40601 Dr. Joseph Hendon (Sec) Department of Chemistry Murray State University Murray, KY 42072 Geography Dennis L. Spetz (Chm) Department of Geography University of Louisville Louisville, KY 40208 Wilford A. Bladen Department of Geography University of Kentucky Lexington, KY 40506 Geology Randy Keller (Chm) Department of Geology University of Kentucky Lexington, KY 40503 Charles T. Helfrich (Sec ) Department of Geology Eastern Kentucky University Richmond, KY 40475 92 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4) Physiology, Biophysics, Pharmacology James L. Voogt (Chm ) Department of Physiology & Biophysics University of Louisville Medical School Louisville, KY 40201 Sanford L. Jones (Sec) Department of Biological Sciences Eastern Kentucky University Richmond, KY 40475 Science Education J. Truman Stevens (Chm) Department of Curriculum and Instruction University of Kentucky Lexington, KY 40506 Ronald Atwood (Sec) Department of Education University of Kentucky Lexington, KY 40506 Sociology James S. Whittman (Chm) Department of Sociology & Anthropology Western Kentucky University Bowling Green, KY 42101 Craig Taylor (Sec) Department of Sociology & Anthropology Western Kentucky University Bowling Green, KY 42101 Psychology Francis H. Osborne (Chm) Department of Psychology Morehead State University Morehead, KY 40351 Brent C. White (Sec) Department of Psychology Centre College Danville, KY 40422 Zoology J. G. Rodriguez (Chm ) Department of Entomology University of Kentucky Lexington, KY 40506 Henry H. Howell (Sec) Biology Department Asbury College Wilmore, KY 40390 Acanthocephala, 24 Acanthocephalus jacksoni, 24 Acer rubrum, 37, 47 A. saccharum, 47 Acroneuria, 63 A. arida, 19 Actinonaias carinata, 56 A. ligamentina, 56 Aesculus octandra, 37 Alasmidonta calceolus, 56 A. marginata, 56 Allocapnia forbesi, 19 A. vivipara, 19 Amblema costata, 56 A. c. peruviana, 56 Amelanchier arborea, 47 Androlaelaps fahrenholzi, 70 Anodonta grandis, 56 A. imbecilis, 56 A. suborbiculata, 56 Anodontoides ferrussacianus, 56 Aralia racemosa, 48 A. spinosa, 48 Arcidens confragosus, 56 Argia, 63 Ariseama triphyllum, 48 Arthropod ectoparasites, 70 Athyrium thelyteroides, 48 Baetis, 62 BARBOUR, ROGER W., 27 Bat, big brown, 39 evening, 38 gray, 43 hoary, 38 Indiana, 40 Keen’s, 40 least brown, 40 little brown, 40 Rafinesque’s big-eared, 38 red, 38 silver-haired, 38 BATCH, DONALD L., 81 Bear, black, 43 Beaver, 41 Blarina brevicauda, 38 Boehmeria cylindrica, 48 BOUGHER, CHRISTINE K., 44 Brachyptera fasciata, 19 BRANSON, BRANLEY A., 81 BUCKNER, RICHARD L., 70 Caenis, 62 Campostoma anomalum, 82 Capniidae, 20 Carbon 14 uptake, 9 Carpinus carolina, 47 Carunculina glans, 56 C. parva, 56 INDEX TO VOLUME 35 Carya, 37, 48 C. glabra, 47 C. ovata, 44 C. tomentosa, 47 Castanea dentata, 48 Castor canadensis, 41 Catostomidae, 24 Catostomus commersoni, 24 Celtis occidentalis, 37 Cercis canadensis, 48 Cestoidea, 39 Chaetura pelagica, 39 Chagas’ disease, 76 Chelydra serpentina, 27 Cheumatopsyche, 61 Chiggers, 71 Chimaphila maculata, 48 Chimarra, 62 Chipmunk, eastern, 41 Chlamydomonas, 10 Chlorella, 10 Chlorophyll a, 10 Cladophora, 10 Clinostomum marginatum, 24 Coleoptera, 61 COLLINS, JOSEPH T., 79 Commelina communis, 48 Containers, glass, 9 Contracaecum, 24 Cornus florida, 44 Corydalus, 62 Corylus americana, 48 Cottontail, eastern, 41 Corbicula manilensis, 56 CRISP, CATHERINE B., 61 CRISP, NORMAN H., 61 Cryptotis parva, 38 Ctenophthalmus pseudogyrtes, 70 Cumberlandia monodonta, 56 Cyclonaias tuberculata, 56 C. t. granifera, 56 Cymbella, 10 Cyprogenia irrorata, 56 Decapoda, 62 Decay in stone, 29 Deer, white-tailed, 43 Dermacentor hypudaei, 70 D. variabilis, 70 Desmodium, 48 Didelphis marsupialis, 38 Dinobryon, 14 Diplectrona, 62 Diptera, 62 Dugesia, 63 Dysnomia flexuosa, 56 D. sulcata, 56 D. torulosa, 56 D. t. gubernaculum, 56 93 D. triqueta, 56 Editor’s Note, 59 Ephemeroptera, 62 Elliptio crassidens, 56 E. dilatatus, 56 Epitedia wenmanni, 70 Eptesicus fuscus, 39 Ericymba buccata, 82 ERNST, CARL H., 27 Etheostoma blennioides, 82 E. caeruleum, 82 E. flabellare, 82 E. nigrum, 82 E. sagitta, 82 E. variatum, 82 Euglena, 10 Eumeces fasciatus, 79 E. inexpectatus, 79 Euonymus americanus, 48 Euschoengastia peromysci, 70 Fagus grandifolia, 37, 47 FASSLER, DAVID J., 37 Festuca, 37 Forest, Bonayer, 44 relict hardwood, 44 Fox, gray, 42 red, 42 Fraxinus americana, 47 F, nigra, 47 F.. pennsylvanica, 47 Fusconaia ebenus, 56 F. flava, 56 F, f. trigona, 56 F. subrotunda, 56 F. s. kirtlandiana, 56 F. undata, 56 Gastropoda, 62 GAURI, K. LAL, 29 Glaridacris catostomi, 24 Glaucomys volans, 41 GLEASON, LARRY N., 70 HARLEY, JOHN P., 25 Hemiptera, 62 Heptagenia, 62 HERSHEY, MARY FAITH, 27 Hoplopleura acanthopus, 70 H. hesperomydis, 70 Houstonia, 48 Hunterella nodulosa, 24 Hydropsyche, 61 Impatiens biflora, 48 Insecta, 17 ISOM, BILLY G., 55 Isonychia, 61 Isoperla burksi, 17 I. clio, 19 I. nana, 19 94 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35(3-4) Isopoda, 62 JARECKA, LENA, 76 Juglans cinerea, 49 Juniperus virginiana, 48 Justicia americana, 19 Kalmia, 37 KUHLENSCHMIDT, JAMES A., 67 Laelops microti, 70 Lampsilis anodontoides, 56 L. a. fallaciosa, 56 L. fasciola, 56 L. luteola, 56 L. ovata ovata, 56 L. o. ventricosa, 56 L. radiata siliquoidea, 56 Lasionycteris noctivagans, 38 Lasiurus borealis, 38 L. cinerea, 38 Lasmigona complanata, 56 L. costata, 56 Lastena lata, 56 Lemming, southern bog, 42 Leptodea fragilis, 56 L. laevissima, 56 L. leptodon, 56 Ligumia recta, 56 L. subrostrata, 56 Lindera benzoin, 48 Liquidambar, 51 L. styraciflua, 44, 50 Lirceus, 64 Liriodendron, 51 L. tulipifera, 37, 44, 50 Lissorchis attenuatum, 24 Listrophorus leukorti, 70 Lonicera japonica, 48 Macroclemys temminckii, 27 Magnolia grandiflora, 37 Mammals, 37 Marmota monax, 41 Megalonaias gigantea, 56 Melosira, 10 Mephitis mephitis, 43 Microtus ochrogaster, 42, 70 M. pennsylvanicus, 74 M. ( Pitymys) pinetorum, 42 Mink, 43 Mitchella repens, 48 Mole, eastern, 38 hairy-tailed, 38 Monobothrium hunteri, 24 MORGAN, THOMAS HUNT, 1 Morus rubra, 48 Mouse, deer, 43 eastern harvest, 43 meadow jumping, 42 white-footed, 41 Muskrat, 42 Mussels, 55 Mustela frenata, 43 M. vison, 43 Mycoptes, 70 Myotis griseus, 43 M. keeni, 40 M. leibi, 40 M. lucifugus, 40 M. sodalis, 40 N,N-bis(2-chloroethy] )analine, 68 N’,N’-bis( 2-chloroethy] )-N- sulfinylhydrazine( Ib), 68 N,N-bis( 2-chloroethy] ) -p-nitro- aniline, 68 N,N-bis( 2-chloroethy] )-p-nitro- soaniline, 68 N,N-bis(2 chloroethy] )-p- phenylenediamine hydro- chloride, 68 N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethy] ) ani- line, 67 Nawvicula, 10 Neascus, 24 Nematoda, 24 Nemoura nigritta, 20 Nemouridae, 20 Neoperla clymene, 19 Neotoma floridana, 42 Neotrombicula caviola, 70 Neuroptera, 62 News and Comment, 58, 84 Nitrogen mustard, 67 Nycticeius humeralis, 38 Nyssa, 51 N. sylvatica, 44, 50 Obliquaria reflexa, 56 Obovaria olivaria, 56 O. retusa, 56 O. subrotunda, 56 O. s. lens, 56 Ochrotomys, 43 Octospinifer macilentus, 24 Odocoileus virginiana, 43 Odonata, 62 Oedogonium, 10 Ondatra zibethicus, 42 Onoclea sensibilus, 48 Opossum, 38, 76 Orchopeas leucopus, 70 Orconectes, 63 Ornithonyssus bacoti, 70 Oryzomys palustris, 43 Osmunda regalis, 48 Ostrya virginiana, 48 Oxydendrum arboreum, 47 p-[N’,N’-bis(chloroethyl)amino]- N-sulfinylanaline, 67 Pandorina, 10 Panicum, 48 Paraleptophlebia, 62 Parascalops breweri, 38 Parasites, arthropod, 70 helminth, 24 PARKER, BRUCE C., 9 Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 48 Pelecypoda, 62 Pentaneura, 61 Perlesta placida, 19 Perlidae, 21 Perlodidae, 21 Peromyscopsylla scotti, 70 Peromyscus leucopus, 41, 70 P. maniculatus, 43, 74 P. (Ochrotomys) nuttalli, 43 Philomena cylindracea, 24 Phosphorous oxychloride, 67 Phyllodistomum lysteri, 24 Physa, 63 Pinus, 37 Pipistrellus subflavus, 40 Pitymys, 42 Plagiola lineolata, 56 Plagiopus serotinus, 24 Platanus occidentalis, 37 Platygerris, 63 Plecoptera, 62 Plecotus rafinesquii, 38 Plethobasus cooperianus, 56 P. cyphus, 56 Pleurobema clava, 56 P. cordatum catillus, 56 P. c. coccineum, 56 P. c. cordatum, 56 P. c. plenum, 56 P. c. pyramidatum, 56 Pleurocera, 63 Podophyllum peltatum, 49 Polycentropus, 62 Polystichum acrostichoides, 49 Preservation of stone, 29 Primary production, 9 Procyon lotor, 42 Proptera alata, 56 P. capax, 56 Prunus serotina, 47 Psephenus, 63 Ptychobranchus fasciolaris, 56 Pulaski County, mammals of, Sil Quadrula cylindrica, 56 QO. metanevra, 56 QO. m. wardi, 56 Q. nodulata, 56 QO. quadrula, 56 Quercus, 37, 47 Q. alba, 44 QO. borealis, 47 QO. coccinea, 47 QO. velutina, 47 Rabbit, swamp, 43 Raccoon, 42, 76 Radfordia lemnina, 70 R. subuliger, 70 Rat, eastern wood, 42 hispid cotton, 43 marsh rice, 43 Reithrodontomys humilis, 43 Relict hardwood forest, 44 Rhamus carolinensis, 48 Rhus radicans, 48 RILEY, HERBERT PARKES, 1 Robinia pseudo-acacia, 37 RUNDQUIST, ERIC M., 79 Salt River, stoneflies of, 17 SAMSEL, GENE L., 9 Sanicula canadensis, 49 Sassafras albidum, 47 Scalopus aquaticus, 38 Sciurus carolinensis, 41 S. niger, 41 Semotilus atromaculatus, 81 Shrew, least, 38 short-tailed, 38 smoky, 38 southeastern, 43 Sigmodon hispidus, 43 Silver Creek, macroinvertebrates of, 61 chemical parameters of, 62 Simpsoniconcha ambigua, 56 Simulium, 63 Skink, five-lined, 79 INDEX TO VOLUME 35 Skunk, spotted, 43 striped, 43 Smilax, 48 Smilacina racemosa, 49 SMITH, WALTER T., JR., 67 Sorex fumeus, 38 S. longirostris, 43 Sphaerium, 63 Spilogale putorius, 43 Spirogyra, 10 Squirrel, fox, 41 gray, 41 southern flying, 41 Standing crop, invertebrates, 61 Stenelmis, 61 Stenonema, 61 Stenoponia americana, 70 Stoneflies, 17 Strip mining, effects on fishes, 81 Strophitus undulatus, 56 Substrate, preference by macro- invertebrates, 61 Sucker, white, 24 Sylvilagus aquaticus, 43 S. floridanus, 41 Synaptomys cooperi, 42 Taeniopterygidae, 20 Taeniopteryx burksi, 19 T. parvula, 19 Tamas striatus, 41 Thelepteris hexagonoptera, 49 Trematoda, 24 95 Trichoptera, 62 Triganodistomum attenuatum, 24 Truncilla donaciformis, 56 T. truncata, 56 Trypanosoma cruzi, 76 Tsuga canadensis, 37 Turbellaria, 62 Turtles, hardshelled, 27 Ulmus alata, 47 U. rubra, 47 Urocyon cinereoargenteus, 42 Ursus ( Euarctos) americanus, 43 Uvularia perfoliata, 49 Vaccinium stramineum, 48 Villosa fabalis, 56 V. lienosa, 56 V. nebulosa, 56 V. ortmanni, 56 Vitis, 48 Vole, pine, 42 Vulpes fulva, 42 Weasel, long-tailed, 43 WHITE, DAVID S., 17 WHITE, GLENN, 25 WHITTAKER, FRED H., 76 WINSTEAD, JOE E., 44 Woodchuck, 41 Zapus hudsonicus, 42 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 35, NOS. 1-4, 1974 Thomas Hunt Morgan. Herbert Parkes Riley ...2.. st eee A “container effect” on “C primary production measurements. Bruce C. Parker and Gene T,. Sense ee ke I eee The distribution of stoneflies (Insecta: Plecoptera) of the Salt River, Kentucky. David S. Willie 2? ee YE PR ene elim Nie. beso 2 Helminth parasites of the white sucker (Pisces: Catostomidae) in the Kentucky River drain- age. Glenn White and John P. Harley _.. A new coding system for hardshelled turtles. Carl H. Ernst, Mary Faith Hershey, and Rover W. Barbour’ ee Se eee Decay and its prevention in natural stone. K. Lal Gauri _.—...____..__ 2 ee Mammals of Pulaski County, Kentucky. David J. Fassler _.._- __ »__ =~ A phytosociological study of a relict hardwood forest in Barren County, Kentucky. Chris- tine K. Bougher and Joe E. Winstead ___. Mussels of the Green River, Kentucky. Billy G. Isom 2.2. ss ss. 3 eee News and Corament 2022.00 ie VOR ee a pts Editor's Note Geet ee EE ee ee ee re Substrate preference of benthic macroinvertebrates in Silver Creek, Madison County, Ken- tucky. Catherine B: Crisp and Norman H. Crisp st Synthesis of p-[N’,N’-bis(2-chloroethy] )amino]-N-sulfinylaniline. Walter T. Smith, Jr., and James A. Kuhlenschmidt 2 | EE ee Arthropod ectoparasites and their seasonal occurrences on Microtus ochrogaster and Pero- myscus leucopus from Warren County, Kentucky. Richard L. Buckner and Larry N. Gleason 22 | OE Ee be An examination of opossums and raccoons in Kentucky for natural infections with Trypano- soma cruzi. Frederick H. Whittaker and Lena Jarecka _____.__ Distribution and life history notes on the southeastern five-lined skink, Eumeces inexpec- tatus Taylor, in Kentucky. Eric M. Rundquist and Joseph T. Collins Additional observations on the effects of strip mining on small-stream fishes in east-central Kentucky. Branley A. Branson and Donald L. Batch _.____ ors News and Comment 22 ee 2 ee eee Acabemy Affaire: (20) A eS Sectional Officers 1974-1975 Index to Volume 35 96 INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub- lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received. Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be re- viewed by one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and, once accepted, an attempt will be made to publish papers in the order of their acceptance. Manuscripts should be typed, double spaced throughout, on good quality white paper 8% x 11 inches (216 x 279 mm). The original and one copy should be sent to the Editor and the author should retain a copy for his own use in correcting proof. 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Reprints are to be ordered when the galley proofs are returned to the Editor. CONTENTS Substrate Preference of Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Silver Creek, Madison == County, Kentucky. Catherine B. Crisp and Norman H. Crisp — 61 | Synthesis of p-[N’,N’-Bis(2 chloroethyl )amino]-N-sulfinylanaline. Walter T. Smith, Jr. and James A. Kuhlenschmidt ncn nanan * Arthropod Ectoparasites and Their Seasonal Occurrences on Microtus ochro- gaster and Peromyscus leucopus from Warren County, Kentucky. Rich- a ard L. Buckner and Larry N. Gleason __._ 4... 2 1705 An Examination of Opossums and Raccoons in Kentucky for Natural Infec tions with Trypanosoma cruzi. Fred H. Whittaker and Lena Jarecka ___. 16 Distribution and Life History Notes on the Southeastern Five-Lined Skink, — oe Eumeces inexpactatus Taylor, in Kentucky, Eric M. Rundquist and Joseph T. Gollins © Sa a Brey: EE Additional Observations on the Effects of Strip Mining on Small-Stream fe me Fishes in East-Central Kentucky. Branley A. Branson and Donald L. Batch 22. ose ee EE ee SL. News and Comment —.W.20... 84 Academy Affairs 2.2 2!) 3. 2 ee Sectional Officers 1974-1979 _.. 0 eee Index to Volume 35 oo eS Sa ee “7 TRANSACTIONS OF THE basis by the Kentucky Department of Eco- nomic Security, therefore excluding extra- regional employment sources. This study will use 1970 data and will concentrate on the Commonwealth of Ken- tucky as a base region for planning. The data will be presented on the county level which will permit a usable scale for intra- state regionalization. METHOD OF ANALYSIS Analysis will be accomplished by the use of a linear regression model so that the co- variance between total personal income and total employment can be established and EMPLOYMENT IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT—Dupier 3 the residuals from regression analyzed for the purpose of establishing regions of em- ployment effectiveness. The regionalization of employment ef- fectiveness should help to determine the most and least effective structural diversity of or total reliance upon certain employ- ment sources. This determination can be of significant value to Area Development Dis- tricts and local citizen groups who are en- gaged in the recruitment of employment sources for their areas. This method of de- termining employment effectiveness will not identify the quantity of impact on a particular employment source (such as an industrial type) on the various sectors of the economy, but it will identify broad em- ployment sources as potentially having either positive or negative impact on the effective employment of a region. ANALYZING THE DATA Application of the Statistical Model Total personal income data are available from the Office of Business Economics, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washing- ton, D.C. (1970). Total employment data are available from the Kentucky Depart- ment of Economic Security, Frankfort, Ken- tucky (Kentucky Directory of Manufactur- ers 1969). The principal problems encountered in working with these data were the skewness of the distributions. Both distributions were finally brought into normality by reducing each variable to the log (log [log(x)]). The data for Jefferson County (Louisville), in both cases, had to be dropped because it could not be pulled into the normalized distributions. A Monroe 1766 W-1 programmable cal- culator was used to process the data. The results of the regression model were (Fig. it): r=.975 est = $25,000,000 Y = -.00011177 + .732484 (X) Where X = total employment Y = total personal income Analysis of the Results Those counties which were identified as being either 1 standard estimate of error above or below the trend line were exam- ined as to their manufacturing employment source makeup. Those above 1 standard estimate of error have a predicted total per- sonal income greater than normal (very ef- fective employment); those below 1 stan- dard estimate of error had predicted total personal income less than normal (very in- effective employment). The following counties had very effective employment sources (Kentucky Directory of Manufacturers 1969): Boyd County,—70 percent of all industrial employment is in SIC 33 (primary metals). Campbell County,—43 percent of all in- dustrial employment is in SIC 34-38 (fabricated metals, machinery, electrical machinery, transportation equipment, and instruments ). Christian County,—49 percent of all indus- trial employment is in SIC 33-38; 15 percent of the total labor force is in Federal Civil Service positions at Fort Campbell. Hardin County,—60 percent of all industrial employment is in SIC 28 (chemicals and allied products ), and SIC 34-38; 21 per cent of the total labor force is in Federal Civil Service positions at Fort Knox. Kenton County,—60 percent of the total in- dustrial labor force is in SIC 28 and 33-38. Meade County,—93 percent of the total in- dustrial labor force is in SIC 28. The following counties had very ineffec- tive employment sources (9): Franklin County,—62 percent of the total industrial labor force is in SIC 20 (food and kindred products ) and SIC 23 (apparel and related products); 23 percent of the total labor force are in State Civil Service posi- tions and custodial services contracted to state agencies. Warren County,—42 percent of the indus- trial labor force is in SIC 20 and SIC 24-25 4 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) KENTUCKY .e) Fic. 2. Employment effectiveness surface for Kentucky, 1970. (lumber and wood products, and furniture and fixtures) and SIC 23. Nearly 30 per- cent of all industrial jobs are filled by fe- males. The Employment Effectiveness Surface The above counties provide peaks or de- pressions in the total employment effective- ness surface of Kentucky. When all the residuals from regression are plotted and the complete surface illustrated (Fig. 2), 4 primary regions are evident. The most effective employment in the state is in the region along the Ohio River corridor from Cincinnati-Covington—New- port to Paducah, and encompasses all but 2 counties in western Kentucky. Two other regions of very effective employment are (1) from Portsmouth, Ohio, to Lawrence County, south of the Huntington—Ashland SMSA and (2) the 6 counties comprising the heart of the Eastern Kentucky Coal Fields. These regions contain 71 percent of all industrial employment, 90 percent of all employment in SIC 28-30, 92 percent of all employment in SIC 3, and 74 percent of all employment in SIC 34-38. The region of least effective employment includes the Pennyroyal area, the Central Bluegrass, and most of the Eastern Moun- tain and Coal Fields. The points of least effectiveness in this region are Bowling Green, Somerset, Frankfort, Lexington, and Richmond. This region has only 29 percent of all industrial employment in the state, 26 percent of all employment in the region is in SIC 34-38, 8 percent of all employment in the region is in SIC 33, and 10 percent of all regional employment is in SIC 28-30. It has 59 percent of all employment in the state in SIC 22, 23, and 31 (apparel, textiles, and leather products ). CONCLUSIONS The method of investigation which has been described adequately specifies, ac- cording to these preliminary investigations, the regions where employment most and least effectively generates personal income in Kentucky. The methodology can easily be replicated in other states. Use of this methodology does not, of course, give us a complete analysis of the economic base or the intersectoral flows of income; but it does adequately set forth an index of planning priorities between and within regions which can be readily accom- plished and grasped by lay interests as well as the more sophisticated personnel in- volved in regional economic development. According to the case in point, the region of least effective employment—southern, EMPLOYMENT IN Economic DEVELOPMENT—Dupier 5 central, and eastern Kentucky—has only one-third of all industrial employment in the state and 59 percent of all the least ef- fective industrial employment sources in the state, and should, therefore, become a focal region in state planning for the selec- tive recruiting of more effective employ- ment sources. The economic needs of less effective re- gions cannot be cured overnight or even within a decade, under normal circum- stances; but information concerning selec- tive industrial recruitment can be more clearly disseminated to the ADD districts and local citizen groups. This is one way to effectively orient local and regional de- velopment interests to an economic growth plan which will ensure greater effectiveness in employment growth. The need is imminent because these areas are currently opening up by way of new transportation routes which will be es- pecially inviting to the more mobile and less effective employment sources which usually descend upon new areas of advan- tage with many promises of quick success and few apologies for leaving in the middle of the night. LITERATURE CITED CHARLESWORTH, H. K., AnD M. O. Curtey. 1971. Kentucky personal income study. Office of Development Services and Business Research, College of Business and Economics, Univer- sity of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. 4 pp. HANSEN, W. L., AND C. M. TiEspoutT. 1963. An intersectoral flows analysis of the California economy. Rev. Econ. Stat. 45:409-418. KENTuUCKy DrRECTORY OF MANUFACTURERS. 1969. Department of Commerce, Frankfort, Ky. Pp. 139-244. KENTUCKY PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT OFFICE. 1970. A guide for multi-county planning and de- velopment. Frankfort, Ky. Mrernyk, W. 1965. The elements of input—out- put analysis. Random House, Inc. New York, N.Y. NoursE, H. O. 1968. Regional economics. Mc- Graw-Hill Book Co. New York, N.Y. TiEBouT, C. M. 1962. The community economic base study. Suppl. Pap. No. 16. (Committee for Economic Development, Dec. 1962). UnITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. 1970. Personal income by major sources and earnings by broad industrial sector. Regional Economics Information System, Office of Business Economics. Washington, D.C. Books I through V. A Distributional Study of the Caddisflies of Kentucky’ Vincent H. ResH? Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT Distributional records and range of adult capture are presented for 175 species of caddis- flies (Trichoptera), representing 15 families and 53 genera, collected in Kentucky. Most species belong to the families Hydropsychidae, Hydroptilidae, and Leptoceridae. Based on particle size preference in feeding, most species of Kentucky caddisflies should be classified either as predators or collectors, rather than as typical shredders of the family Limnephilidae. The paucity of nontemporary pool limnephilids, mainly in the subfamily Limnephilinae, may be related to the quality of allochthonous material in Kentucky streams. Immature and adult stages have been associated for 40 percent of the species of caddisflies from Kentucky. Life history features of several leptocerid and hydroptilid caddisflies are frequently characterized by multiple cohorts and a variety of behavioral mechanisms. The use of faunal collections in environmental assessments is recommended. INTRODUCTION Caddisflies have long been of interest to naturalists because of the unusual case building activity of the larvae and the strik- ing color pattern of certain species in the adult stage. To the aquatic biologist, cad- disflies are extremely important as indi- cators of water quality, and also as a major component in the diet of fishes. The dis- tribution and morphology of several species of Trichoptera has also been used by sys- tematists in analyzing zoogeographical pat- terns of dispersal and mechanisms of speci- ation. There have been few studies of caddis- flies that included specimens or records from Kentucky, and Ross (1944) listed only 46 species from the state. This was ob- viously a small percentage of the total cad- disfly fauna when compared to the number of species then known from nearby mid- western states. Since then, descriptions of new species by Ross (1959), Ross and Yamamoto (1965), and Resh (1974) have included specimens from Kentucky in the type series. Etnier (1973) reported range extensions of three species into Kentucky, 1 Contribution No. 172, (New Series) from the Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208. * Present Address: Department of Biology, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306. and ecological studies by Minckley (1963) on Doe Run, Minshall (1968) on Morgans Creek, and Resh and Haag (1973) on the Salt River, have supplied additional distri- butional information. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to several people for as- sistance through this study. Dr. Herbert H. Ross, University of Georgia, provided numerous distributional records, specimens, and encouragement in completing this study. The original impetus for developing a faunal list for Kentucky came from the statewide collections made by Dr. Charles Covell, Jr., University of Louisville. Drs. Paul Freytag, University of Kentucky, and David Etnier, University of Tennessee, also provided specimens that increased the com- prehensiveness of this work. Several tax- onomists assisted in confirming the identi- fication of difficult species. I thank Dr. John Unzicker, Illinois Natural History Sur- vey, for his general assistance, particularly with females of Hydropsyche and Drs. John Morse and Elizabeth Ann Gordon, Univer- sity of Georgia, for their respective assis- tance with Nyctiophylax and Cheumato- psyche. Drs. Stuart Neff and David White, University of Louisville, aided in the col- lection and sorting of specimens. I thank Dr. Freytag, Dr. Morse, and Dr. Louis A. CADDISFLIES OF KENTUCKY—Resh 7 Krumholz, University of Louisville, for re- viewing the manuscript. The work on which this report is based was supported by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Water Resources Research, as authorized under the Water Resources Act of 1964, Contract No. 14-31-0001-3286, Project No. B-022-KY. THE CApDpDISFLY FAUNA In this study, records are provided for 175 species that represent 15 families and 53 genera collected in Kentucky. This al- most quadruples the number of species pre- viously reported from the state ( Ross 1944). The localities of these collections are indi- cated in Fig. 1. The largest number of species (57) was collected in Spencer County. Although it is one of the smallest counties in the state, two of its streams, Brashears Creek and the Salt River, have been the subject of de- tailed biological investigations since 1967 (Neff and Krumholz 1973). In descending order, the following counties had the ma- jority of caddisfly species: Breathitt Co., 41 species; Anderson Co., 32 species; Bell Co., 30 species; Johnson Co., 29 species; Fay- ette Co., 26 species; Rockcastle Co., 24 spe- cies; Jefferson Co., 20 species; Oldham, Trigg, and McCreary Cos., 19 species each. All other counties from which collections are known had fewer than 19 species. The caddisfly fauna of Kentucky is ex- tremely diverse. In areas where detailed studies have been made, large numbers of species have been collected. However, sev- eral areas in Kentucky have been entirely overlooked by collectors. From Fig. 1, it can be seen that the Licking River and Ty- garts Creek drainages in Northern Ken- tucky, and the Green River drainage in Western Kentucky are gaps that must be filled before the distribution of Kentucky caddisflies can be described accurately. In numbers of species, the present fauna of Kentucky is comparable to that reported from adjacent midwestern states (Ross 1944, Leonard and Leonard 1949, Etnier 1965, Unzicker et al. 1970, Longridge and Hilsenhoff 1973). With the exception of the Sericostomatidae, all North American caddisfly families are represented. How- ever, the small number of caddisfly records in the Limnephilidae is quite unusual. In most faunal studies, this is the dominant caddisfly family, contributing both the maximum number of species and a higher percentage of individuals than most of the other families. For example, in light trap collections from the Salt River basin in central Kentucky that extended from early spring through late fall, more than 87,000 adult specimens were collected, but only a single specimen, a Limnephilus female, be- longed to the Limnephilidae. The limnephilids reported in this study are typical of the species in this family that utilize the temporary pool and stream habi- tat, particularly the genera Ironoquia and Neophylax (Clifford 1966, Wiggins 1973). It should also be noted that the largest sub- family, the Limnephilinae, is composed largely of shredders, that is, detritivores that decompose particles of vascular plant tissue larger than 1 mm (Cummins 1973). Using this same classification scheme, the majority of Kentucky caddisflies should not be classi- fied as shredders but rather as predators, such as the Rhyacophilidae and Hydropsy- chidae, or collectors, those species that fil- ter or scrape algal cells and decomposing organic matter less than 1 mm in particle size. The Limnephilinae have undergone great speciation in the Western United States (Nimmo 1971, Schmid 1955). It is very likely that the quality of the leaf fall or allochthonous input, in the woodland streams has also affected their success in the western states and influenced the rela- tively sparse fauna in the midwestern and southern states. Faunal lists are a valuable source of base- line data that can be used in the preparation of an environmental assessment of an area and in monitoring temporal changes in en- vironmental quality (Resh and Unzicker 1975). An example of the latter appli- cation of these lists and collections can be seen by examining the temporal change in the distribution of Neophylax ayanus, origi- nally described from collections from Bear- Baye...) grass Creek in 1937 (Ross 1938). This ur- ban stream that traverses Louisville has undergone many changes due to increases in domestic sewage and industrial dis- charges. The absence of N. ayanus from collections taken at the same localities 35 years later (1972) indicates the low toler- ance of this species to the environmental changes that have occurred. Immature Stages and Specific Level Identification A critical problem in studies of aquatic insects is the lack of association of the im- mature aquatic stages with the taxonomi- cally known aerial adult stage (Wiggins 1966). Since keys for identifying larval or pupal stages to species have yet to be devel- oped for most genera, specific level identifi- cations must be based on either specimens that have been reared to adults, or on adult collections. Preserved benthic samples are of little use in providing distributional in- formation because of our inability to iden- tify these larval specimens to the species level. This is especially true in Kentucky where such common genera as Cheumato- psyche and Hydropsyche are very poorly known in the larval stages. Adult caddisflies, however, are quite easily collected, using a variety of ultra- violet light traps. Since most adults are evening fliers, daytime sweeping can be Map of Kentucky indicating localities TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) of caddisfly collections used in this study. done in typical resting places as on the un- dersides of bridges, and on tree trunks. While this type of collecting can be produc- tive, a good deal of experience and exper- tise is required if a representative collection | of the caddisflies in the area is to be made. However, certain daytime fliers will not be attracted to light, and a program of day- time sweeping is the only way of collecting them. During the course of the present study, immature and adult stages were associated for over 40 percent of the species reported here. In addition, detailed life history in- formation was gathered on species of Cera- clea (= Athripsodes) and Cheumatopsyche, the polycentropodid Nyctiophylax affinis, and several hydroptilids. Caddisflies rarely have the simple life histories that have been generalized from the few North American species that have been previously exam- ined. Instead, populations are often charac- terized by multiple cohorts, and in a single caddisfly genus a variety of casemaking, feeding, and behavioral mechanisms may be present. Of particular interest among the Kentucky caddisflies are the unusual fea- tures of the life cycle of Ceraclea transversa and C. resurgens, as both species feed di- rectly on freshwater sponge (Porifera: Spongillidae). In an equally bizarre fash- ion, larvae and pupae of the hydroptilid caddisfly, Dibusa angata, attach their leath- CADDISFLIES OF KENTUCKY—Resh 9 ery cases directly to the thallus of the fresh- water red alga, Lemanea. These and other life histories of Kentucky caddisflies will be reported in more detail elsewhere. THE CADDISFLIES OF KENTUCKY The records used in this distributional study are from the collections of the Water Resources Laboratory (WRL) and the Har- vey B. Lovell Memorial Insect Collection of the University of Louisville (UL), and the Entomology collections of the Univer- sity of Kentucky (UK), University of Ten- nessee (UT), and the Illinois Natural His- tory Survey (INHS). The WRL collections were made during preimpoundment sur- veys, particularly in central and eastern Kentucky. The following list is based on collections from light traps and larval and pupal rear- ings (Resh 1972). As with any attempted faunal delineation, this list is by no means complete and is intended to serve as a basis for other studies. The dates refer to the range of adult capture, while those anno- tated with “imm” refer to collections of im- mature specimens and those species reared in the laboratory. For several species, “nr” has been in- serted prior to the specific name, indicating that the specimens examined were near or closest to that described species. This usu- ally represented an identification based on a small series of specimens that did not agree totally with diagnostic or descriptive characters of the closest related species. These specimens may represent undescribed species, or variations in previously de- scribed species. These specimens have been examined by Trichoptera specialists and are presented in the hope that future collecting and analysis of a larger series of specimens from these localities, will help determine their correct taxonomic status. The nomenclatural changes in the Lepto- ceridae follow those of Flint (1974) and Morse (1975). RHYACOPHILIDAE Rhyacophila appalachia Morse and Ross Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK). Rhyacophila carolina Banks Anderson Co., Salt R., 7-14 May (WRL); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest (Falling Rock Cr.), 18 May—14 June (UK); Fayette Co., Lexington (Tates Cr.), 8 June (UK); Jessa- mine Co., Indian Falls, 29 April (UK); Mc- Creary Co., Cumberland Falls State Park (Eagle Cr.), 16 March (UK); Menifee Co., Murder Cave, 23 October (INHS); Powell Co., Natural Bridge State Park, 13 July (UL); Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 11-14 May (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 11 May (WRL). Rhyacophila carpenteri Milne Hart Co., Mammoth Cave National Park (Good Springs), 20 May (INHS); Madison Co., Dog Foot Springs, 6 June (UK); Meade Co., Otter Cr. Park (Morgans Cr.), imm (INHS). Rhyacophila fenestra Ross Fayette Co., Steeles Run, 24 April (UK); Shelby Co., Shelbyville (Brashears Cr.), 20 April (WRL). Rhyacophila glaberrima Ulmer Hart Co., Mammoth Cave National Park, 8 April-20 May (INHS); Johnson Co., Paints- ville (Paint Cr.), 21 June (WRL). Rhyacophila ledra Ross Fayette Co., Evans Mill (Raven Run), 27 May (INHS); Wayne Co., Little Fork of Cumberland R., 18 May (UT). Rhyacophila lobifera Betten Fayette Co., Raven Run, 6 May (INHS) and Boone Cr., 10 May (UK); Jefferson Co., May (UL); Jessamine Co., Indian Falls, imm (UK); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 7 May (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 30 April (WRL). Rhyacophila minor Banks McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS); Menifee Co., Red R., 17 April (UK). Rhyacophila otica Etnier and Wray Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK). Rhyacophila parantra Ross Fayette Co., Lexington, 9 June (UK); Gar- rard Co., Buena Vista (Ison Cave), 31 May (INHS); Hart Co., Mammoth Cave (Spring Run), 20 May (INHS); Madison Co., Dog Foot Springs, 6 June (UK); Meade Co., Morgans Cr., 7 June (INHS). Rhyacophila torva Hagen Jessamine Co., Indian Falls, 29 April (UK). GLOSSOSOMATIDAE Agapetus hessi Leonard and Leonard Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R., 18 May (Etnier 1973). Agapetus illini Ross Christian Co., Hopkinsville, 26 April (INHS): Fayette Co., 24 April (UK); Jessamine Co., Indian Falls, imm (UK); Mercer Co., Har- rodsburg, 10 July (INHS). 10 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) Agapetus nr rossi Denning Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R.., 18 May (UT). Agapetus tomus Ross Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Green Co., 4 May (INHS). Glossosoma intermedium Meade Co., Morgans Cr., 15 March (INHS). Glossosoma nigrior (Banks ) Hart Co., Hardyville (Zoo Springs), 16 June (INHS); Meade Co., Doe Run, 7 November (INHS). Matrioptila jeanae (Ross) Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.), 13 June (INHS); McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May—12 June (INHS); Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R., 18 May (UT). Protoptila alexanderi Ross Union Co., Sturgis, 22 August (INHS). Protoptila maculata (Hagen) Anderson Co., Salt R., 30 April—21 September (WRL); Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.), 24 June (INHS); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 7 May—20 September (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 31 May—1 October (WRL). Protoptila palina Ross Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.), 28 Au- gust (INHS). PHILOPOTAMIDAE Chimarra aterrima Hagen Anderson Co., 3 July (UK); Fayette Co., Lexington, 19 May (UK), Raven Cr., May (INHS), Steeles Run, imm (UK) and Boone Creek, imm (UK); Harlan Co., 12 June (INHS); Jefferson Co., Louisville (Beargrass Cr.), 2 June (INHS); Jessamine Co., Indian Falls (Hickman Cr.), 24 April (UK) and Marble Cr., imm (UK); McCreary Co., Cum- berland Falls State Park, imm (Eagle Cr.), (UK); Oldham Co., Covered Bridge Boy Scout Camp, 19 April (UL). Chimarra feria Ross Fayette Co., Lexington (Tates Cr.), 8 June (UK). Chimarra obscura ( Walker ) Anderson Co., Salt R., 7 May—27 September (WRL); Breathitt Co., Quicksand, 8 May (INHS); Fayette Co., Lexington, 13 April— 30 July (UK); Jefferson Co., Beargrass Cr., 16 June (INHS); Jessamine Co., Kentucky R., imm (UK); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June-31 August (WRL); Powell Co., Natural Bridge State Park, 11 August (INHS); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 1 May-19 September (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 11 May—19 September (WRL); Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24 June (UK). Chimarra nr obscura ( Walker ) Fayette Co., Lexington, 30 June (UK). Chimarra socia Hagen Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.), 13 June (INHS). Dolophiloides distinctus (Walker ) Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Powell Co., Natural Bridge State Park, 8 Feb- ruary—l March (UK); Wolfe Co., Mill Cr., 2 March (UK). Wormaldia moesta (Banks ) Jackson Co., Hicksey Cave, 5 June (INHS); Meade Co., Otter Creek Park (Morgans Cr.), 1 February (INHS); Menifee Co., Murder Cave, 23 October (INHS); Powell Co., Nat- ural Bridge State Park, 1 March (UK); Wolfe Co., Mill Creek, 2 March (UK). Wormaldia nr moesta (Banks ) Whitely Co., Anvil Bridge (Cumberland R.), imm (UK). Wormaldia shawnee Ross Christian Co., Hopkinsville, imm (INHS). PsYCHOMYIIDAE Cernotina nr calcea Ross Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL); Spen- cer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr. and Salt R.), 9 July (WRL). Lype diversa (Banks) Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS); Meade Co., Doe Run, 30 April—1 June (INHS); Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL); Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R., 18 May (UT). Psychomyia flavida (Hagen) Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.), 24 June— 28 August (INHS); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Henderson Co., Hen- derson, 27 June (INHS); Laurel Co., Living- ston (Rockcastle R.), 16 June (INHS); Mc- Creary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS); Meade Co., Doe Run, 17 June-21 July (INHS, WRL, UL); Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL). POLYCENTROPODIDAE Cyrnellus fraternus (Banks) Anderson Co., Salt R., 10 June—20 September (WRL); Fayette Co., Lexington, 10 June— 25 August (UL); Fulton Co., Bondurant, 27 August (INHS); Hart Co., Hardyville (Green R.), 15 June (INHS); Johnson Co., Paints- ville (Paint Cr.), 21 June (WRL); Lyon Co., Eddyville (Cumberland R.), 6 August (INHS); Meade Co., Otter Cr. Park (Morgans Cr.), 14 September (INHS); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 2 June—21 September (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 10 June—20 September (WRL); Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes (L. Barkley), 12-13 September (INHS); Union Co., Caseyville, 28 August (INHS). CADDISFLIES OF KENTUCKY—Resh 1h Neureclipsis crepuscularis (Walker ) Breckinridge Co., Camp Breckinridge, 10 May (INHS); McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS). Neureclipsis parvulus Banks Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Lyon Co., Eddyville (Cumberland R.), 6 August (INHS). Nyctiophylax affinis (Banks ) Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr. and Salt R.), 11 May—9 September (WRL). Nyctiophylax celta Denning Reported by Morse (1972) from southeastern Kentucky. Nyctiophylax uncus Ross Reported by Morse (1972) from southeastern Kentucky. Phylocentropus carolinus Carpenter McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS). Phylocentropus hansoni (Root) Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL). Phylocentropus placidus (Banks ) Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL). Polycentropus barri Ross and Yamomoto Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Jackson Co., John Rogers Cave and Blowing Springs Cave, 20: May—14 July (UK) (INHS). Polycentropus blicklei Ross and Yamomoto Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24 June (UK). Polycentropus cinereus (Hagen) Anderson Co., Salt R., 31 May—30 September (WRL); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Lyon Co., Eddyville (Cumber- land R.), 6 August (INHS); Oldham Co., Harrods Cr., 20 May-30 August (WRL); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Creek, 6 May-—7 October (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 7 May—8 October (WRL). Polycentropus confusus Hagen Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL). Polycentropus crassicornis Walker Breckinridge Co., Camp Breckinridge, imm (INHS). Polycentropus elarus Ross Barren Co., Beckton (Bryant Edmonds Cave), 14 April (INHS); Elliot Co., Gimlet (Tar Kiln Cave), 23 May (INHS); Fayette Co., Lexington (Tates Cr.), 8 June (UK); Wayne Co., Blowing Cave, 21 August (INHS). Polycentropus maculatus Banks Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK). Polycentropus remotus Banks Spencer Co., Taylorsville (WRL). Polycentropus sp. a Christian Co., Hopkinsville, 28 April (INHS), cited in Ross (1944). (Salt. RY), imm HyYDROPSYCHIDAE Aphropsyche doringa Milne Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 13 May (WRL). Cheumatopsyche analis (Banks ) Anderson Co., Salt R., 30 April-20 Septem- ber (WRL); Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 18 May-—14 June (UK); Christian Co., June (UK); Fayette Co., Steeles Run and Lexington, 25 April-8 August (UK); Gallatin Co., Warsaw, 14 June-3 August (INHS); Green Co., Greensburg (Camp Branch Cave), 19 April (INHS ); Jefferson Co., Louisville, 10 April— 15 June (WRL); Jessamine Co., Indian Falls (Hickman Cr.), 24 April (UK); Johnson Co., Big Sandy R. (Open Fork) and Little Paint Cr., 9 May-—3 August (WRL); Lyon Co., Eddyville (Cumberland R.), 6 August (INHS); Mercer Co., Harrodsburg, 10 June (INHS); Metcalfe Co., Sulfur Cr. Cave, 16 April (INHS ); Oldham Co., Horner Bird and Wild- life Sanctuary and Covered Bridge Boy Scout Camp, 14 April-18 August (WRL, UL); Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL); Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24 June (UK). Cheumatopsyche aphanta Ross Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK). Cheumatopsyche burksi Ross Oldham Co., 5 August (UL). Cheumatopsyche campyla Ross Christian Co., 8 June (UK); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Bullitt Co., Smithville (Salt R.), 23 May (UL) and 27 September (INHS); Fayette Co., Lexington, 3: July (UK); “Oldham Co. 25 May. (UL): Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 30 April-1 October (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 24 April-7 October (WRL); Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24 June (UK). Cheumatopsyche goera Denning Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24 June (UK). Cheumatopsyche harwoodi harwoodi Denning Bell Co., Pineville, (Gordon 1972 unpub- lished doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga.). Cheumatopsyche helma Ross Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS). Cheumatopsyche minuscula (Banks ) Pulaski Co., Burnside, 11 June (INHS). Cheumatopsyche nr rossi (Gordon nn. unpub- lished doctoral dissertation ) Fayette Co., Lexington, 20 April-1 May (UK). Cheumatopsyche oxa Ross Jefferson Co., 1 May (UL); Jessamine Co., Indian Falls, 29 April (UK); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June—3l August (WRL); Leslie Co., Pine Mountain (Greasy Cr.), 25-26 April (INHS); Powell Co., Nat- 12 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(1-2) ural Bridge State Park, 11 August (INHS), and Slade, 8 May (INHS); Warren Co., 18 June (UK). Cheumatopsyche pasella Ross Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June—28 August (INHS); McCreary Co., Cumberland 12 May (INHS); Spencer Co., Salt R., 16 June (WRL). Cheumatopsyche sordida (Hagen) Bell Co., Pineville, 28 August (INHS); Mc- Creary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS); Rockcastle Co., Livingston (Rock- castle R.), 15-16 June (INHS). Diplectrona modesta Banks Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, imm (UK), Jackson, imm (UK), and Quicksand, 8 May— 14 June (INHS); Bullitt Co., 23 May (UL); Edmonson Co., Mammoth Cave (Good Springs), 20 May (INHS); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 31 August (WRL); Meade Co., Morgans Cr., 7 September (INHS) and Doe Run, (Minckley 1963); Oldham Co., 14 July-6 August (UL); Owsley Co., Boone- ville, imm (INHS); Wolfe Co., 1-13 July CWE). Hydropsyche betteni Ross Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Bullitt Co., 23 May—28 July (UL); Jessamine Co., Indian Falls, 29 April (UK); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 31 August (WRL); Oldham Co., Horner Bird and Wildlife Sanc- tuary, 18 May—-18 August (WRL, UL); Rus- sell Co., Jamestown, 18-25 May (UL); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 6 May-7 June (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 7 May— 16 July (WRL); Wolfe Co., 13 July (UL). Hydropsyche bronta Ross Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, (WRL). Hydropsyche cheilonis Ross Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 25-26 June (WRL). Hydropsyche depravata (Hagen) Caldwell Co., Princeton (Eddy Cr.), 20 April (INHS); Lyon Co., Eddyville (Cumberland R.), 3 August (INHS); Meade Co., Doe Run, 2 February—21 July (INHS, UL); Warren Co., 18 June (UK). Hydropsyche dicantha Ross Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Rock- castle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 21 June—14 September (WRL). Hydropsyche hageni Banks Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Mc- Creary Co., Cumberland Falls, 27 April—12 May (UK, INHS). Hydropsyche incommoda Hagen Fayette Co., Lexington, 20 July (UK); Rock- castle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 25 June—10 July (WRL). Hydropsyche morosa Hagen Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, (WRL). 14 June 14 June Hydropsyche orris Ross Christian Co., June (UK); Fayette Co., Lex- ington, 26 June—3 August (UK); Fulton Co., Bondurant, 6 September (INHS); Lyon Co., Eddyville (Cumberland R.), 6 August (INHS); Oldham Co., Horner Bird and Wild- life Sanctuary, 18 May—5 August (WRL, UL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 31 May (WRL); Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24 June (UK). Hydropsyche phalerata Hagen Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Mc- Creary Co., Cumberland Falls, 24 April (UK). Hydropsyche simulans Ross Breathitt Co., Quicksand, 6 May (INHS); Breckinridge Co., Camp Breckinridge, imm (INHS); Caldwell Co., Princeton (Eddy Cr.), 3 August (INHS); Christian Co., June (UK); Jefferson Co., 13 July (UL); Hender- son Co., 27 June (INHS); McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 27 April (UK); Spencer Co., Salt R., 7 June—21 September (WRL). Hydropsyche sparna Ross Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Leslie Co., Lilley Cornett Woods, 11-12 July (UL); Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL). Hydropsyche valanis Ross Spencer Co., Salt R., 16 July (WRL). Hydropsyche venularis Banks Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS). Macronemum zebratum Hagen Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.), 24 June (INHS), Harlan Co.; 12 June (INHS). Potamyia flava (Hagen) Ballard Co., 24 May (UK); Fayette Co., Lexington, 20 July (UK); Fulton Co., Bon- durant, 23 August-l1 September (INHS); Gallatin Co., Warsaw (Ohio R.), 1 July-3 August (INHS); Hart Co., Hardyville (Green R.), 15 June (INHS); Henderson Co., Hen- derson, 12 May (INHS); Jefferson Co., 9 May-13 July (UL); Lyon Co., Eddyville (Cumberland R.), 6 August (INHS); Old- ham Co., 14 June (UL); Spencer Co., Bra- shears Cr., 9-15 July (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 7 July-22 August (WRL); Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24 June (UK); Union Co., Sturgis, 4 July-31 August (INHS) and Caseyville, 28 August (INHS). HyYDROPTILIDAE Agraylea multipunctata Curtis Meade Co., Doe Run (Minckley 1963). Dibusa angata Ross Jessamine Co., Indian Falls, 24-29 April (UK); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 8 May (WRL); McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS). Hydroptila ajax Ross Spencer Co., Brashears Cr. May-9 September (WRL). and Salt R., CADDISFLIES OF KENTUCKy—Resh 13 Hydroptila nr ajax Ross Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June (WRL). Hydroptila amoena Ross | Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL). - Hydroptila angusta Ross Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL); Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr. and Salt R.), 7 June—24 September (WRL). Hydroptila armata Ross Anderson Co., Salt R., 31 May—9 September (WRL): Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 25 May—9 September (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 21 May—20 September (WRL). Hydroptila consimilis Morton Anderson Co., Salt R., 24 June (WRL); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK). Hydroptila nr consimilis Morton Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK). Hydroptila delineata Morton Whitley Co., Cumberland Falls, 27 April (UK). Hydroptila grandiosa Ross Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June— 14 July (WRL). Hydroptila hamata Morton Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June (WRL); Mercer Co., Harrodsburg, 10 June (INHS); Rockcastle Co., Livingston, 16 June (INHS); Spencer Co., Salt R., 9 September (WRL); Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24 June (UK). Hydroptila perdita Morton Anderson Co., Salt R., 1 May—7 October (WRL); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 14 July (WRL); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 30 April—1 October (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 27 April—7 October (WRL). Hydroptila spatulata Morton Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R., 18 May (Etnier 1973). Hydroptila vala Ross Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK). Hydroptila virgata Ross Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK). Hydroptila waubesiana Betten Spencer Co., Brashears Cr. and Salt R., 10 June-19 September (WRL). Ithytrichia mazon Ross Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Salt R.), 10-16 June (WRL). Mayatrichia ayama Mosely Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS). Neotrichia collata Morton Ross (1944) cited as from Kentucky, no lo- cality or data given. Neotrichia minutisimella (Chambers ) Rockcastle Co., Livingston, 16 June (INHS). Neotrichia okopa Ross Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL); Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr. and Salt R.), 2 June-15 July (WRL). Neotrichia riegeli Ross Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June— 31 August (WRL). Ochrotrichia anisca (Ross ) Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK). Ochrotrichia confusa (Morton) Jessamine Co., Indian Falls, 29 April (UK). Ochrotrichia shawnee (Ross) Larue Co., 16 June (UK). Ochrotrichia spinosa (Ross ) Mercer Co., Harrodsburg, 10 June (INHS); Spencer Co., Brashears Cr., 2 June (WRL). Ochrotrichia tarsalis (Hagen) Spencer Co., Brashears Cr. and Salt R., 10 June—1 October (WRL). Ochrotrichia nr unio (Ross ) Meade Co., Morgans Cr., 1968 ). Ochrotrichia xena (Ross) Spencer Co., Brashears Cr., 11 May (WRL). Orthotrichia aegerfasciella (Chambers ) Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Fulton Co., Bondurant, 27 August (INHS); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June (WRL); Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr. and Salt R.), 25 May-19 September (WRL); Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes (Lake Barkley), 12-13 September (INHS). Orthotrichia cristata Morton Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL); Spencer Co., Brashears Cr., 9 July (WRL). Oxyethira pallida (Banks ) Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June—9 September (WRL); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr. ), 21 June—4 August (WRL). Stactobiella delira (Ross ) McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 17 April— 12 May (UK, INHS); Rockcastle Co., Horse- lick Cr., 17 May (WRL). Stactobiella palmata (Ross) Anderson Co., Salt R., 2 May—25 June (WRL); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr., and Little Paint Cr.), 31 May—21 July (WRL); McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 7 May-16 June (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 1 May-—29 June; Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R., 18 May (UT). ( Minshall imm PHRYGANEIDAE Agrypnia vestita (Walker) Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 16 July (WRL). Banksiola dossuaria (Say ) Pike Co., Shelby Gap, 8-9 June (UK). Phryganea sayi Milne Bullitt Co., 28 July-7 September (UL); Bul- 14 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) litt Co., Shepherdsville, 25 July (WRL); Meade Co., Otter Cr. Park, 25 July (WRL); Oldham Co., 6-18 August (UL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 1-29 August (WRL). Ptilostomis ocellifera (Walker ) Oldham Co., 12 May (UL). Ptilostomis semifasciata (Say ) Bell Co., Pineville, 28 August (INHS); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK). LIMNEPHILIDAE Pseudostenophylax uniformis (Betten) Johnson Co., Paint Cr., 8 May (WRL). Ironquia punctatissima (Walker) Carroll Co., Butler State Park, 11 October (WRL); Jefferson Co., 4 October (UL); Spencer Co., Rivals, imm (WRL). Neophylax autumnus Vorhies Meade Co., Morgans Cr., 26 October (INHS). Neophylax ayanus Ross Jefferson Co., Louisville (Beargrass Cr.), 8 October (INHS). Neophylax concinnus MacLachlan Oldham Co., 25 November (UL); Spencer Co., Rivals, imm (WRL). Neophylax consimilis Betten Pike Co., Fishtrap Lake, 10 July (WRL). Neophylax nacatus Denning Spencer Co., Rivals, imm (WRL). Platycentropus radiatus (Say) Pike Co., Fishtrap Lake, 19 June (WRL). Pycnopsyche gentilis MacLachlan Leslie Co., Pine Mountain, 23 October (UL); Whitely Co., Cumberland Falls State Park (Cumberland R.), 15 March (UK). Pycnopsyche guttifer (Walker ) Fayette Co., Boone Cr., (UK); Jefferson Co., Louisville, 9 October (UL). Pycnopsyche lepida (Hagen) Oldham Co., Covered Bridge Boy Scout Camp, 20 September—21 October, (WRL, UL): ODONTOCERIDAE Psilotreta rufa (Hagen) Hart Co., Mammoth Cave National Park, 20 May (INHS). LEPTOCERIDAE Ceraclea ( Athripsodina) ancylus (Vorhies ) Anderson Co., Salt R., 10 May—1 July (WRL); Oldham Co., Harrods Cr., (WRL); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 7 May—29 June; Spencer Co., Salt R., 7 May—1 July (WRL). Ceraclea (C.) transversa (Hagen) (= Athripsodes angustus (Banks) See Morse (1975). Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 May—10 September (WRL); Jefferson Co., Louisville (Beargrass Cr.), 16 June (INHS); Spencer Co., Taylors- ville (Brashears Cr. and Salt R.), 21 May—15 September (WRL). Ceraclea (Athripsodina) nr annulicornis (Stephens) Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24 June (UK). Ceraclea (C.) cancellata (Betten ) Anderson Co., Salt R., 10 June—3 August (WRL); Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Jefferson Co., 18 August (UL); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June—-14 July (WRL); Rockcastle Co., Livingston, 16 June (INHS); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 13 May-6 August (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 25 May—10 August (WRL). Ceraclea (Athripsodina) flava (Banks ) Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Rock- castle Co., Livingston, 16 June (INHS). Ceraclea (C.) nr fulva (Rambur) Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr.), imm (WRL). Ceraclea (C.) neffi (Resh) Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., imm (WRL). Ceraclea (C.) resurgens (Walker) Jefferson Co., Harrods Cr., 19 May (WRL); McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS). Ceraclea (Athripsodina) tarsipunctatus (Vorhies ) Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Breck- enridge Co., Camp Breckenridge, imm; Chris- tian Co., June (UK); Fayette Co., Lexington, 9 June-20 July (INHS, UK); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June (WRL); McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS); Rockcastle Co., Livingston, 16 June (INHS); Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr. and Salt R.), 15 June—-4 July (WRL); Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23-24 June (UK). Ceraclea (C.) maculata (Banks) (= Athripsodes transversus (Hagen), See Morse (1975) Anderson Co., Salt R., 21 May—9 September (WRL); Barren Co., 3 July (UK); Fulton Co., Bondurant, 6 September (INHS); Hen- derson Co., Henderson, 27 June (INHS); Jefferson Co., 10-13 July (UL); Lyon Co., Eddyville (Cumberland R.), 6 August (INHS); Oldham Co., Horner Bird and Wildlife Sanc- tuary, 18 May—5 August (UL, WRL); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 31 May—10 September (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 21 May-15 September (WRL); Trigg Co., Lake Barkley, 23 June—13 September (INHS, UK). Nectopsyche nr albida (Walker ) Anderson and Spencer Cos., Salt R., 25 June— 19 September (WRL). Nectopsyche candida (Hagen) Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Salt R.), 21 June— 24 September (WRL). Nectopsyche exquisita ( Walker ) Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June—28 August (INHS); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June (WRL); Spencer Co., 19 June (UL); Spen- CADDISFLIES OF KENTUCKY—Resh 15 cer and Shelby Cos., Brashears Cr., 7 May-— 10 October (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 11 May-16 August (WRL). Nectopsyche pavida (Hagen) Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Rock- castle Co., Livingston (Rockcastle R.), 16 June (INHS). Mystacides sepulchralis (Walker ) Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R., 18 May (UT). Oecetis avara (Banks ) Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June—28 August (INHS). Oecetis cinerascens (Hagen) Anderson Co., Salt R., 15 May—10 September (WRL); Fayette Co., Lexington, 26 June (UK); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June (WRL); Oldham Co., 18 August (UL); Spencer Co., Brashears Cr. and Salt R., 11 May—19 September (WRL); Trigg Co., Lake Barkley, 12-13 September (INHS). Oecetis ditissa Ross Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June (WRL); Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr. and Salt R.), 2 June—19 September (WRL); Trigg Co., Lake Barkley, 23 June-13 Septem- ber (UK, INHS). Oecetis inconspicua (Walker) Anderson Co., Salt R., 31 May—1 October (WRL); Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Bullitt Co., 23 May (UL); Caldwell Co., Princeton (Eddy Cr.), 3 August (INHS); Carroll Co., Gen. Butler State Park and Car- rollton (Kentucky R.), 30 June—11 October (UL); Christian Co., June (UK); Fayette Co., Lexington, 10 May—25 August (UK, INHS); Fulton Co., Bondurant, 23 August (INHS ); Jefferson Co., 28 May—13 July (UL); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June- 31 August (WRL); Lyon Co., Eddyville (Cumberland R.), 6 August (INHS); Mer- cer Co., Harrodsburg, 10 June (INHS); Old- ham Co., Horner Bird and Wildlife Sanctuary, 18 May—5 August (WRL, UL); Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr. and Livingston (Rock- castle R.), 17 May-16 June (WRL, INHS); Shelby and Spencer Cos., Brashears Cr., 11 May-1 October (WRL); Spencer Co., Salt R., 7 May—7 September (WRL); Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes (Lake Barkley), 23 June-13 September (UK, INHS); Union Co., Sturgis, 31 August (INHS); Wolfe Co., 15 julys (GUL): Oecetis nocturna Ross Anderson Co., Salt R., 31 May—1 October (WRL); Fayette Co., Lexington, 10 May-— 17 June (UK); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June-31 August (WRL); Spencer Co., Brashears Cr. and Salt R., 25 May-7 October (WRL); Trigg Co., Land Be- tween the Lakes, (WRL, INHS). Oecetis persimilis ( Banks ) Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL); Bar- ren Co., 8 July (UK); Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr. ), 21 June—4 August (WRL); Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Salt R.), 10 June-16 August 16 June-13 September (WRL). Setodes incertus (Walker) Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June-28 August (INHS). Triaenodes abus Milne Jefferson Co., 20 May (UL). Triaenodes connatus Ross Bell Co., Pineville (Cumberland R.), 24 June (INHS); Spencer Co., Taylorsville (Salt R.), 1 August—14 September (WRL). Triaenodes nr dipsius (Ross ) Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK). Triaenodes flavescens Banks Trigg Co., Land Between the Lakes, 23 June (UK). Triaenodes ignitus (Walker ) Spencer Co., Salt R., 25-26 June (WRL). Triaenodes injustus (Hagen) Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK). Triaenodes melacus Ross Anderson Co., Salt R., 25 June (WRL); Spen- cer Co., Taylorsville (Brashears Cr., and Salt R.), 31 May—16 August (WRL). Triaenodes tardus Milne Fayette Co., Lexington, 15 May—26 June (UK, INHS); Johnson Co., Paintsville (Paint Cr.), 21 June—4 August (WRL); Oldham Co., Hor- ner Bird and Wildlife Sanctuary, 18 May—18 August (WRL, UL); Spencer Co., Taylors- ville (Brashears Cr. and Salt R.), 2 June—l October (WRL); Union Co., Sturgis, 22 Au- gust (INHS). GOERIDAE Goera calcerata Banks Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R., 18 May (UT). Goera stylata Ross McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS). LEPIDOSTOMATIDAE Lepidostoma griseum (Banks ) Jackson Co., Blowing Springs Cave, 24 Sep- tember (INHS). Lepidostoma togatum (Hagen) Edmonson Co., Mammoth Cave, 3-20 May (INHS); Rockcastle Co., Livingston (Rock- castle R.), 16 June (INHS). Theliopsyche melas Edwards Fayette Co., Lexington, 9 June (UK). 16 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) BRACHYCENTRIDAE Brachycentrus lateralis (Say ) Jefferson Co., Louisville (Ohio R.), May (INHS). Brachycentrus numerosus (Say ) Jefferson Co., Louisville (Ohio R.), May (INHS). Micrasema bennetti Ross Fayette Co., Steeles Run, 28 March (UK). Micrasema rusticum (Hagen) Jessamine Co., Indian Falls, imm (UK); Mc- Creary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS); Rockcastle Co., Horselick Cr., 17 May (WRL); Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R., 18 May (UT). Micrasema wataga Ross McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 May (INHS ). HELICOPSYCHIDAE Helicopsyche borealis (Hagen) Bell Co., Pineville, 24 June (INHS); Breathitt Co., Robinson Forest, 14 June (UK); Bullitt Co., 8 July (UL); Jefferson Co., Louisville (Beargrass Cr.), 16 June—8 October (WRL); McCreary Co., Cumberland Falls, 12 June (INHS); Meade Co., 21 July (UL); Menifee Co., Wolfpen Cr., imm (UK); Nelson Co., Beech Fork of Salt R., imm (WRL); Oldham Co., Covered Bridge Boy Scout Camp (Har- rods Cr), 14 May-—8 October (UL); Wayne Co., Little So. Fork of Cumberland R., 18 May (UT). LITERATURE CITED CuirrorpD, H. F. 1966. The ecology of inverte- brates in an intermittent stream. Invest. Ind. Lakes Streams. 7:57—98. Cummins, K. W. 1973. Trophic relations of aquatic insects. Ann. Rev. Ent. 18:183-206. Ernier, D. A. 1965. An annotated list of the Trichoptera of Minnesota with description of a new species. Entomol. News 74:141-152. . 1973. Extensions of the known ranges of Northern Trichoptera into the Southern Ap- palachians. J. Ga. Entomol. Soc. 8:272—274. Fuint, O. S., Jk. 1974. The Trichoptera of Suri- nam. In The Fauna of Suriname and Other Guyanas, No. LV:]-151. LEONARD, J. W., AND F. A. LEONARD. 1949. An annotated list of Michigan Trichoptera. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 522:1-35. LONGRIDGE, J. L., AND W. L. HitsENHOFF. 1973. Annotated list of Trichoptera in Wisconsin. Trans. Wisc. Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 61:173-183. Mincxkxey, W. L. 1963. The ecology of a spring stream, Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. Wildl. Monogr. 11:1-124. MinsHaLL, G. W. 1968. Community dynamics of the benthic fauna in a woodland spring- brook. Hydrobiologia 32:305-339. Morse, J. C. 1972. The genus Nyctiophylax in North America. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 45: 172-181. 1975. Fic. 1. Cross section through the giant nucleus stained with osmium tetroxide. The oblong nucleus appears to be divided into 2 distinct regions: a dark staining lobed peripheral region (pr), and a cen- tral region (cr) containing 1 large vesicle and an extensive fiber network. 300. Fic. 2. Cross section through the giant nucleus stained by the Feulgen reaction. The transverse la- cunar canal below the giant nucleus bifurcated to form a lacunar reservoir (Ir) on each side of the nu- cleus. Many tubular structures (ts) may be noted in the central region. 400. Fic. 3. Electron micrograph of the peripheral area and a portion of the central region. At the top is a layer of dermal material (dm) with the outer membranous structure below it. An invagination forms a canal (c) leading into the interior of the giant nucleus. These invaginating canals divide the peripheral region into peripheral lobes (pl). Below the left peripheral lobe is a tubular structure typical of those seen in the central region. 3,000. Fic. 4. Electron micrograph of the peripheral region of the giant nucleus and lacunar reservoir. The lacunar reservoir is separated from the dermal material by a highly convoluted membrane (cm). A lobe of the peripheral region containing large electron dense granules may be noted below the dermal mate- rial. 5,500. 20 Giant NucLEt oF NEOECHINORHYNCHUS—Leslie ok ae a | a ie * ‘ * 22 TRANS. KeNTuCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) Southern Biological Supply Company. Im- mediately prior to experimentation, turtles were sacrificed and the worms removed from the intestine. Disposition of the worms after removal depended upon the specific study to be conducted. Portions of the worms containing giant nuclei were embedded in paraffin and sec- tioned at 10 yw. The sections were stained with osmium tetroxide, or the Feulgen re- action as described by Humason (1967) for study with the light microscope. Sec- tions of female worms bearing eggs were used for the Feulgen reaction, and selected sections of the mature female worms were designated as controls. The DNA was re- moved by rinsing the tissue in 0.5 N per- chloric acid for 25 min. The experimental sections remained in distilled water for the same time period. For electron microscopic study, whole worms were placed in 0.85 percent saline, and the giant nuclei carefully excised, re- moving as little excess dermal material as possible. The giant nuclei were fixed in 5 percent glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M_ sodium cacodylate buffer (pH 7.2). Postfixation was completed in 1 percent osmium tetrox- ide in the same buffer for 20 min and then stained with 0.5 percent uranyl acetate for 2 hours. The giant nuclei were dehydrated in an ethanol and propylene oxide series fol- lowed by embedding in Epon 812. The nuclei were sectioned on a Sorvall MT-2 microtome and examined with a Ziess elec- tron microscope, Model 9A. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION When stained with osmium tetroxide, the nuclei appeared oblong in shape and varied in size depending upon location within the worm. A gradual reduction in size was noted from the large anteriorly located nuclei to the smaller posterior nu- clei. Light microscopy indicated 2 distinct nuclear regions within the giant nuclei of Neoechinorhynchus sp.: a dark staining peripheral region and a lighter staining cen- tral region (Fig. 1). The peripheral region — consisted of large lobes around the perim- eter of the giant nucleus. The lobes were not always continuous around the entire periphery and sometimes were absent ( Figs. 1, 2). This may indicate that not all of the giant nuclei in the same worm have similar structure due to the age, nutritional state of the worm, or the location of the giant nu- cleus in the worm. In many cases, fibrous networks of the central regions were ob- served and appeared to be continuous with the dark peripheral region (Fig. 1). At the level of light microscopy, numerous tubular structures, appearing vesicular in nature, were observed in the central region. An ex- tensive fiber network was also observed ex- tending throughout the region (Figs. 1, 2). The tubular structures of the central region varied in size, shape, and number. In most of the nuclei observed there was a large spherical vesicle containing a fine granular background substance (Fig. 1). This large vesicle may be analogous to the nucleolar vacuole Robinson (1973) reported in the giant nucleus of Moniliformis dubius. Usually, there were 3 or 4 transverse la- cunar canals in close proximity to a giant nucleus. Serial sectioning demonstrated that most of these transverse lacunar canals near a giant nucleus bifurcate to form la- cunar reservoirs above and below the giant nucleus (Fig. 2). These extensions of the lacunar canals encompassing the giant nu- clei would indicate a close association between the giant nuclei and the lacunar system. The controls for the Feulgen reaction Fre, 5. with the giant nucleus. Fic. 6. contain some small granules and the cortex appears fibrous. Fic. 17 dense granules and a disrupted tubular system interlacing the granules. > The convoluted membrane that separates the lacunar reservoir and dermal material associated x 12,000. A tubular structure within the central region. The medulla of this tubular structure appears to 3,900. This second type of tubular structure within the central region appears to contain electron <5.200: Fic. 8. Ultrastructure of the packed fiber network within the central region. 7,000. S 7, A) W] ! S ee S = > rs pe S = — ea S is S) s z Py fe) : S Zz - Z 4 OC 24 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) showed no positive reaction for DNA in the giant nuclei, dermal material, or eggs of the worm. The experimental sections showed a positive reaction for the presence of DNA in the eggs of the worm. No posi- tive reaction could be detected within the giant nuclei or dermal material even though the procedure was repeated using nuclei from several different worms. Under the present experimental conditions, these re- sults indicate that no DNA is present within the giant nucleus of adult Neoechinorhyn- chus sp. This does not preclude the possi- bility that small quantities of DNA may be present at a concentration too low to be de- tected by this procedure. These results are in contrast to previous reports. Van Cleave (1951) reported a positive Feulgen reaction in the giant nuclei of Neoechinorhynchus. Marshall (1973) found the giant nuclei of larval Moniliformis dubius to be in a poly- ploidy state, and Robinson’s (1973) study of the early stages of the worm support Mar- shall’s work. The absence of DNA within the giant nuclei of Neoechinorhynchus sp. coupled with the complex structure present indicate that in the adult worm the giant nuclei have differentiated into unique or- ganelles of unknown function. With electron microscopy, as in light microscopy, the peripheral region appeared to consist of a series of lobes along the out- side border of the nucleus (Fig. 3). The outermost portion of the giant nucleus ap- peared to be a membranous structure that separates the lobes from the dermal material of the worm. Invaginations separate the lobes forming canals that extend deep within the interior of the nucleus (Fig. 3). The outer lobes contain electron dense masses ranging from 0.7 to 3.6 mw in diam- eter and a fibrous background substance (Figs. 3, 4). The canals often appeared to contain small electron dense masses similar to those in the outer lobes. Electron micrographs revealed an inter- esting relationship between the giant nuclei and the lacunar reservoirs. There appeared to be a layer of dermal material between the giant nucleus and the lacunar reservoir approximately 6.0 to 10.0 u thick. Between the edge of the dermal material and the la- cunar reservoir is a highly convoluted mem- brane (Figs. 4, 5). The lacunar reservoirs appeared to be filled with a clear back- ground substance and a few large electron dense amorphous masses. The presence of this convoluted membrane between the la- cunar reservoir and the giant nucleus indi- cates the possibility of a highly developed transport system involving both structures. This close relationship between the lacunar system and the giant nuclei suggests that they may act as storage depots for nutri- ments. Electron microscopy of the central region revealed 2 types of structures tubular in nature, and a packed fibrous network. One type of tubular structure appeared to have a fibrous cortex and a loosely arranged medulla (Figs. 3, 6). These tubular struc- tures contained dispersed electron dense masses 0.2 to 0.6 uw in diameter. A second type of tubular structure consisted of elec- tron dense masses ranging from 0.2 to 1.0 w in diameter, apparently interlaced by a network of tubules (Fig. 7). Both types of tubular structures varied in size but were consistent in their oblong shape. These structures seemed to be associated with the internal canal system that extends to the exterior of the giant nucleus. The fiber sys- tem of the central region appeared to be a packed network of fibers running parallel along a common axis (Fig. 8). Small elec- tron dense masses and small canals were noted among the fiber network. LITERATURE CITED Humason, G. L. 1967. Animal Tissue Tech- niques. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, Cal. 9, 309-311 pp. MARSHALL, J., R. N. CALL, anpD W. L. NICHOLAS. 1973. A microspectrophotometric study of the DNA of the embryonic and larval nuclei of Moniliformis dubius (Acanthocephala). J. Parasit. 59:130—135. Roprnson, E. S. 1973. Growth and differentia- tion of giant nuclei in Moniliformis (Acantho- cephala). J. Parasit. 59:678-684. Van Cueave. 1951. Giant nuclei in the sub- cuticula of the thorny headed worm of the hog (Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus). Tr. Am. Micr. Soc. 70:37-46. Abatement of Pollution in Hite Creek, Jefferson and Oldham Counties, Kentucky’ Louis A. KRUMHOLZ AND STUART E. NEFF Department of Biology and Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT Hite Creek, a spring-fed stream with a natural discharge that ranges from 0.2 to 75 cubic feet per second (cfs) (0.056-2.1 m*/sec) depending on precipitation, was overwhelmed dur- ing the summer of 1970 by the constant discharge of about 1.2 million gallons per day (4.542 million liters) (about 1.9 cfs, 0.055 m/sec) in combined sewage and industrial wastes from a large industrial plant. That burden rendered the stream unsuitable for aquatic life and caused the waters of the stream to become a hazard to public health. In September 1970, a cease and desist order was issued against the plant, and measures were taken to divert the discharges from the plant to a new, modern sewage treatment facility under construction in the area. Concurrently, a detailed study of the physical, chemical, and biological character- istics of the stream was undertaken. At low flow (late summer), the waste materials from the plant contributed as much as 10 times the volume of flow of the stream to the stream channel. Dissolved oxygen concentrations were extremely low, and extensive beds of sewage fungus indicated severe pollution below the points of discharge from the plant. Above those points of discharge, levels of dissolved oxygen were high and there was a normal abundance and diversity of benthic aquatic organisms. At stations downstream from the discharges, gradual recovery occurred through natural processes, and, at the mouth of Hite Creek, some 4 miles (6.4 km) downstream from the discharges, there was ample dissolved oxygen to support aquatic life, and there was a reasonably good abundance and diversity of bottom organisms, including larvae of beetles, caddisflies, midges, and other aquatic insects. In November 1970, the sewage disposal facility began to accept all waste discharges from the plant. Winter rains flushed the stream, the sewage fungus disappeared, and the polluted areas of Hite Creek gradually became repopulated with aquatic organisms. Since that time, the industrial plant has made extensive efforts to control all discharges from the plant into Hite Creek. By the summer of 1972, interceptors had been installed in all facili- ties and parking lots so that the only material that entered Hite Creek from the plant site was runoff from rainfall on completely vegetated areas of the plant property. INTRODUCTION Hite Creek, a small spring-fed stream that rises in northeastern Jefferson County, Ken- tucky, became a site of controversy in Sep- tember 1970 because of pollution attributed to waste effluents that issued from the Ken- tucky Truck Plant of the Ford Motor Com- pany near the source of the stream. At the suggestion of the Governor of Kentucky, we undertook a detailed study of the extent of pollution and its effects, if any, on the wel- fare of the stream. The Plant cooperated fully and allowed laboratory personnel free * Contribution No. 162 (New Series) from the Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208. 25 access to all parts of the stream on Plant premises to collect samples of water, bot- tom materials, plants, and other information germane to the study. In 1967, when the Ford Motor Company decided to construct a major truck plant in northeastern Jefferson County, the County agreed to build a modern sewage treatment facility to satisfy the needs of the Truck Plant and any forseeable developments in that area. The Ford Motor Company agreed to pay part of the costs of construction of the facility with the proviso that it be in full operation by the time the Truck Plant went into production, or no later than 1 January 1970. 26 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) However, the Truck Plant went into limited production in August 1969 and reached full production early the following spring, but the sewage treatment facility did not become fully operative until No- vember 1970. During the interim, the Met- ropolitan Sewer District (MSD) constructed 2 primary sewage treatment lagoons on the property of the Truck Plant to serve as a stopgap until the sewage treatment facility could be completed. The effluent from those lagoons emptied directly into Hite Creek. The total daily discharge from the Plant into the stream was about 1.2 million gallons (1.86 cfs, 0.052 m/sec) of effluent consisting of 800,000 gallons (3.028 million liters) of industrial wastes, 150,000 gallons (567,750 1) of domestic sewage wastes from the MSD lagoons, and about 250,000 gallons (946,250 1) of clean water as a diluent and carrier for the wastes. That situation continued until September 1970 at which time it was obvious that Hite Creek was being overwhelmed by the dis- charges. Formal complaints lodged by the landowners downstream from the Plant led the State Water Pollution Control Commis- sion to issue an order to the Truck Plant to “cease and desist” from polluting the stream. At that point (10 September 1970), our laboratory was asked to determine the ex- tent of damage to the stream and its biota. The Truck Plant removed the sludge from the bottom of the industrial waste lagoons so that the aerators could be operated more efficiently. All industrial wastes were re- tained in a temporary basin, and none en- tered the stream between 0800 on 12 Sep- tember and 1300 on 15 September. Throughout that period, however, large amounts of clean water were released through the storm water system into Hite Creek in an effort to dilute the effluent from the sewage lagoons. On 17-19 Septem- ber, a spring having a strong odor of hydro- gen sulfide near the north waste lagoon was capped and a pump installed to lift the wa- ter into the lagoon. By 1 October, the Ford Motor Company had diverted all effluents from the industrial waste lagoons through a 15-inch (38 cm) line into the permanent 24-inch (61 cm) line leading from the Truck Plant to the sewage treatment facility, and also diverted — the effluents from the sewage lagoons di- rectly into the main line, so that no such wastes entered Hite Creek at the Plant site. On 2 November 1970, The Hite Creek Sew- age Treatment Plant began to accept raw sewage from the Truck Plant. In April 1971, the Metropolitan Sewer District drained the 2 sewage lagoons on the Ford property and graded and seeded the area. During the remainder of 1971, the Ford Motor Company made concerted efforts to prevent any kinds of industrial or domestic wastes from the Truck Plant from entering Hite Creek. Curbings, interceptors, and guard posts were installed at all appropriate locations on the Plant property to prevent wastes from those areas escaping into the stream. A foam interceptor system with 3 20,000-gallon (75,700 1) holding tanks was installed to prevent any high expansion fire fighting foam from entering the storm water system and being carried into the stream. An oil interceptor adjacent to the paint and oil house dock was constructed to prevent spillage of oily products from entering the storm water system. By the end of 1971, it was obvious that the newest concepts of pol- lution prevention available had been put into practice. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are deeply indebted to the following students who assisted in the field work and laboratory analysis: Edmond J. Bacon, Jr., Stephen B. Crider, Jerry S. Parsons, Vincent H. Resh, David S. White, and Bruce R. Wil- son. We are very grateful to Mr. John Van Vactor, Plant Manager, and Mr. Henry P. Conn, Supervisor, Facilities Engineering Department, Kentucky Truck Plant, Ford Motor Company, for their excellent cooper- ation and assistance throughout the study. MATERIALS AND METHODS Description of Hite Creek Hite Creek rises in northeastern Jefferson County, Kentucky, as a spring about 3.2 km POLLUTION OF A KENTUCKY STREAM—Krumholz and Neff 27 South Fork Harrods Creek Station 5 HITE CREEK JEFFERSON AND OLDHAM COUNTIES KENTUCKY nity > Scale: 3 Kilomet «Seu wae OL RS (== SS SS SS eS ee | . ORE Maddox Farm Interstate 7| MSD Facility MS Km 4 ee cadiidrasuillacRaad Station 3 Km 6 Station 2 Westport Road Collins Lane (Km 8 Fic. 1. Hite Creek, Jefferson and Oldham counties, Kentucky, showing stream kilometers, collecting sta- tions, and locations of the Kentucky Truck Plant and the Sewage Treatment Plant. Station | north of the town of Anchorage. The water through a culvert under Collins Lane, Hite from the spring flows through a marsh liter- Creek becomes identifiable as a stream. ally choked with watercress (Nasturtium From that point it flows in a northwesterly officinale) and into a small impoundment. direction for about 4 km over limestone At the outlet of the pond, where it flows bedrock and broken rubble, and then flows 28 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) s ° il MSD Facility \ Maddox Farm \ 190- y 1g80- I70- Sleepy Hollow Meters Above Mean Sea Level 160-4 Ballardsville Road ay T ieee 0 | 2 3 4 Collins Lane Plant Outfall Westport Road x \ \ y EE 5 6 7 8 9 Stream Kilometers Above Mouth Bie. 2. due north over bedrock strata and rubble and boulders for about 4.8 km to empty into the South Fork of Harrods Creek just be- low the dam of Sleepy Hollow Lake in Old- ham County (Fig. 1). The land through which the stream flows is gently rolling, and gradually slopes to the west as indicated by the numerous tributaries that enter the stream from the east and the essential lack of any entering from the west. In its upper 3 km the stream flows through open mead- ows with gently sloping banks, but as it ap- proaches Harrods Creek the valley becomes deeply dissected with steep, heavily wooded banks nearly 60 m high. The spring source is at an elevation of 225 m above mean sea level (msl) and emp- ties into the South Fork at about 146 m above msl, a total fall of 79 m over its course of 8.9 km, an average fall of about 8.9 m/km (Fig. 2). Throughout its course, and par- ticularly through its lowermost 2.4 km, the stream traverses a series of cataracts that range in height to about 1.5 m. In its upper 6.4 km, the average fall is about 6.6 m/km, whereas in the lowermost 2.4 km as it passes over the series of cataracts, the descent is about 12.7 m/km. Near its source (Collins Lane, Fig. 1) at minimal flow, the stream is about 1.2 m wide with an average depth of about 10 cm, Longitudinal profile of Hite Creek, Jefferson and Oldham counties, Kentucky. and has an average discharge of less than 0.055 m/sec. Along its course it receives several spring-fed tributaries so that at its mouth it is 3.75-4.25 m wide with pools ranging in depth to 45 cm with a discharge of about 0.1 m*/sec following a heavy rain- fall. The Kentucky Truck Plant occupies about 200 hectares (ha) near the source of Hite Creek, entirely within the drainage basin of the stream. Of that property, about 65 ha are either under roof or are paved as parking lots or concrete ramps and runways where runoff is essentially complete. In addition, there is a test roadway about 2 km long. The remainder of the area is in per- manent grassy cover or trees where runoff is minimal. On 10, 11, 12, and 13 September 1970 the stream was cruised, particularly within the Truck Plant property, samples of water and bottom sediments were collected at various sites, and regular sampling stations were established. Major areas of pollution were below the outfalls of the industrial waste lagoons and the sewage lagoons constructed on the property by the Metropolitan Sewer District (Fig. 1). By 18 September 1970, it became obvious that regular sampling near the source of the stream and at 4 loca- tions downstream from the outfalls would POLLUTION OF A KENTUCKY STREAM—Krumholz and Neff 29 provide adequate information on water quality and diversity and abundance of aquatic organisms on which to base sound judgments on the condition of the stream. Accordingly, each of those areas was sam- pled at irregular intervals for the next 15 months. A description of each area from which samples were collected follows: Station 1—Immediately downstream from Collins Lane (Fig. 1), the stream is about 1 m wide and 10 cm deep, the bottom is sandy with small gravel and some silt. Al- gal forms present were Spirogyra sp. and Cladophora sp., and the principal vascular plants were the rush Scirpus validus, the cat-tail Typha latifolia, a spike-rush (FEle- ocharis sp.), and a sedge (Carex sp.). The station was not shaded by trees. Station 2.—This station was near the north edge of the Truck Plant property about 10 m downstream from the outfall of the sew- age lagoons (Fig. 1). In this area, the stream had been straightened and chan- neled with the widening of Westport Road and was about 3 m wide and 15 cm deep. The bottom is compact clay with small slabs of broken limestone scattered over the streambed. Cat-tails and sedges were com- mon, but the outstanding characteristic of this station was the carpet of sewage fungus (Sphaerotilus natans) several inches thick that completely covered the bottom and ex- tended downstream for more than 100 m. On 3 October, this collecting site was moved downstream about 75 m to just outside the Truck Plant property to eliminate checking in and out through the security gates. The new site was just above and below West- port Road. The banks were grassy. Station 3.—In the vicinity of the bridge for State Highway 22 over Hite Creek (Fig. 1), the stream flows due north through pasture- land and ranges in width from 3 to 4 m with an average depth of 25 cm. The collecting site was about 15 m south of the bridge. The bottom was largely gravel and rubble mixed with sand and mud. The banks were lined with trees but there were no higher aquatic plants. Spirogyra and Cladophora were the dominant algae. There was no sewage fungus at this station. Station 4—Most samples were collected just upstream from the bridge on the dirt road leading to the Maddox farm. In that vicinity, the stream was about 3-4 m wide and 25 cm deep. The banks were heavily forested and the streambed was flat lime- stone bedrock with numerous small cata- racts and low gravelly riffles. There were no higher aquatic plants, and, as at Station 3, the dominant algae were Spirogyra and Cladophora. Also, there was no sewage fun- gus at this station. Station 5.—This station was near the bridge over Hite Creek leading to Sleepy Hollow, about 75 m upstream from the stream’s con- fluence with the South Fork of Harrods Creek. The stream was 34 m wide and 20-30 cm deep with pools ranging in depth up to 50 cm. The streambed was covered with rubble and boulders interspersed with sand and gravel. The banks were heavily forested but there were no aquatic vascular plants. The rocks in the stream were cov- ered with diatoms (unidentified) that im- parted colors to the rocks ranging from bronze to deep chocolate brown. Although the same kinds of algae were present as at Stations 3 and 4, here, again, there was no sewage fungus. Physical, Chemical, and Biological Methods Measurements of the physical and chem- ical characteristics of the water were deter- mined in the field or in the laboratory ac- cording to accepted limnological methods. Flow was measured with an Ott current meter, type 12.053; dissolved oxygen con- centration was measured with a YSI Model 54 oxygen meter that had been calibrated against the azide modification of the Wink- ler method; specific conductivity was mea- sured with a Beckman Model RB3 Solu- bridge portable conductivity meter; alkalin- ity was measured titrimetrically (American Public Health Association, Standard Meth- ods) using mixed bromcresol green—methy] red indicator to a pH of 4.8 and checked potentiometrically; hardness was checked 30 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) using the EDTA titrimetric method (Stand- ard Methods, Method B) with Hach Chemi- cal Co., combined butfer—indicator powder; pH was read from an IL Model 175 field pH meter; temperatures were measured with a Taylor mercury stem thermometer and the above-mentioned YSI oxygen meter; chlorides were measured by Mohr titration (Standard Methods, Method C). A Perkin- Elmer Model 303 Atomic Absorption Spec- trophotometer was used to determine con- centrations of various cations, following procedures outlined in Perkin-Elmer Ana- lytical Methods (1968). Concentrations of calcium were determined _titrimetrically with EDTA (Standard Methods, Method C) and checked with atomic absorption. Magnesium was taken as the difference be- tween calcium hardness and total hardness. Square-foot samples of the bottom mate- rials were collected with a Surber sampler at irregular intervals and were preserved in ethanol and taken to the laboratory for sort- ing and counting. All organisms were iden- tified to species whenever possible, and their abundance and distribution were re- corded, PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS oF HitTE CREEK So far as we can determine, there is no previous information available on the physi- cochemical characteristics of the water in Hite Creek. We have assumed that the por- tion of the stream above the outfalls for the industrial and sewage wastes from the Truck Plant was not affected by those ef- fluents or by the construction of the plant. Our first visit to the stream was on 10 Sep- tember. At that time, the stream at West- port Road was highly polluted and foul smelling, obviously because of the constant flow of supernatant liquids from the sewage lagoons. Although the neutralized indus- trial wastes also were entering the stream, they did not appear to contribute to the odor. When those same wastes were diverted to the unfinished sewage treatment facility on 1 October, they were released into the stream without further treatment, the net effect being to relieve about 4 km (2.5 miles) of Hite Creek (essentially from West- port Road to Interstate Highway 71) from the burden of those effluents and to shift that burden to the lowermost 3.2 km of the stream. At the same time, it provided an opportunity to study, even though for a very limited time, the sequence of events in the recovery of the stream as they took place following the sudden and complete cessa- tion of massive pollution. It is well known that rainfall accelerates the recovery of a stream from pollution by flushing out the watercourse and removing accumulated debris, the greater the rain- fall, the greater the flushing action. In areas of continuing pollution, the rainfall also serves as a diluent, lessening the effects of pollution and ameliorating the conditions for aquatic life. During the early part of the current study period, the total rainfall was well above the average for that time of year. At Anchorage, Kentucky, (about 3.2 km south of the Truck Plant), only 0.94 cm of rain fell between 10 and 20 September, but from 21 September to 20 October, there was 17.83 cm of rain, more than twice the average for that period. If the rainfall at the Truck Plant was equivalent to that at Anchorage, a total of about 117 million liters of water fell on the 65 ha under roof or with hard surface where complete runoff is expected. In addition, there must have been some runoff from other areas follow- ing such heavy rainfall. Assuming that the total effluent of 4.65 million liters a day from the Truck Plant continued uninter- ruptedly for the same period, the total ef- fluent would have been about 135 million liters. Thus, the total runoff into Hite Creek from rainfall from 21 September to 20 Oc- tober probably was at least as great as the total contribution of effluents from the Truck Plant. About 10 cm of that rain fell after the effluents had been diverted from the Truck Plant to the unfinished treatment plant on 1 October. There is a close correlation between the amount of rainfall and the turbidity of wa- ter in a stream, especially in an area where the surface of the soil has been disturbed. | | ) | | POLLUTION OF A KENTUCKY STREAM—Krumholz and Neff ol TABLE 1.—WAaATER TEMPERATURES (C) aT VARI- ous STATIONS IN HITE CREEK, JEFFERSON AND OLD- HAM CouNTIES, KENTUCKY, SEPTEMBER 1970 THROUGH AuGusT 1971 Station Number 1 2 3 4 5 1970 11 Sep 29.0 25.9 1p; 25:06) 22.0%) 23.0 20.0 14 Past? 26a 27.6 145) 0p 23:0" 26:0 “27:0 26:0 16 ZOOetecoa lay. 626.2" 23.2 18 fo Loon Zon: Zool 22:8 pA | PAM G6 At PAG 12203 (22.2, 29 Do On L24.077 20:0 18:5" 16:0 @ Oct eons 107s 15.02.47 .2 . 15:8 8 13:08 19.02 517.5 16.8 14:0 14 NO: Sib 19.5 C1910) 118.0 20 1308 LAOR1140 T1410) 14.0 28 TAOrr 13.581 14.0 ~-15.08 14.0 7 Nov eos 12087136. 10:2 Ja One la sear i3.5 “1S. 12:5 18 9.0 10.0 9.0 9.5 9.0 24 3.0 3.0 DAS 2.0 1.0 7 Dec 5.0 Bs: 4.0 4.5 2.0 15 5.0) 10:5 7.0 7.5 5.0 DAE 8.0 6.5 6.2 7.0 1.0 HOF 1 D1. Jan 4.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 16 Feb 8.0 9.0 FAW 9 Mar 8.5 14d 7.0 6.5 16 Apr Oe I3-5e 7 21:0’ - 195 18:0 24 May Hieo) t 20:0) § 23.0..,.21:0) 20.0 23 Jun Pies, 240 84:5 695.0) 95.5 27 Jul ZERO 295 F240 23.0% 21.0 31 Aug DOO 25.50) 26:0 « (25.3: 23.0 On the north side of Westport Road imme- diately opposite the Truck Plant property, a new subdivision has been under construc- tion since mid-1970. In that area, there has been extensive disturbance of the soil sur- face that is directly correlated with turbid- ities in Hite Creek during and following rainfall. As mentioned earlier, the upper reaches of Hite Creek within the Truck Plant property are protected by a perma- nent grassy cover on the watershed, and there is little siltation following even rela- tively heavy rainfall. Turbidities of the wa- ter in Hite Creek in that area ranged from 0.2 to 39 mg/I of silicon dioxide for an aver- age of about 14.5 mg/l. At Station 2, just below Westport Road, the range in turbidity was from 0.2 to 252 mg/l with an average of 28.5 mg/l, and at Stations 3, 4, and 5, the ranges were from 1.25 to 295, 3.1 to 178, and TABLE 2.—DIsSOLVED OXYGEN, AS PERCENTAGE SATURATION, AT VARIOUS STATIONS IN HITE CREEK, JEFFERSON AND OLDHAM COouNTIES, KENTUCKY, SEPTEMBER 1970 THROUGH Aucust 1971 Station Number 1 2 Bee A 5 1970 11 Sep 110.39 38-2 12 102-47 © 70.1° 46.1 81.3 14 110.8 81.4 De 16:01 708 15 OZ. oo-orn ou.) SLZy S02, 16 Toga UG. fi. S29, 872 18 79.0 30.1 46.9 81.6 A (2-om. oft) oL.6 ., 50.8%) 70.6 29 ISoometo.00854.9 G6GLSe 85.7 3 Oct IZ5:00M bS:SA107.4 434.3 T7.1 8 2D00tMU( Lien tio. TA Sse 14 Soule 9131 89.6. 8L.b¢ 92:5 20 OF. UGE S9 Ore 92.1 S27) 96:0 28 90.2 99.0 93.0 96.1 7 Nov 95.09 HOG. 3121.4 1944 184A 1, IT SOR TO4 91239" FI6.2)~ 86:8 18 10355102798 95:7 - 99:6; 89:6 24 173 elope. 6G. 109 55 1049 te Dec 1222 EGeel hi ktO:9 | 98%5 ibs ZA OT Feel 20:0: ELSO4 . 98:4 21 LO2Ge 7 92288 9725. 95:85 102-5 197 Zi yan 106.2" 101.6":100.8 95.4° 101-5 16 Feb 11.0 100:0 90.8 9 Mar LOL 1080 .<99.2 ~ 97.9 16 Apr L7O:S2120:07160-8 13:07 1063 24 May 130.2 122.2 165.2 113.9 96.0 23 Jun 98.9 109.5 118.6 102.4 102.4 Zi aval 31 Aug 116.0 144.5 145.7. 976 90.6 2.9 to 233 mg/I, respectively, with respective averages of 30.3, 24.6, and 26.2 mg/l. From this information, it appears that the primary cause of turbidity in Hite Creek originated from construction taking place outside the Truck Plant property. Water temperatures in Hite Creek mir- rored the seasonal air temperatures through- out the study (Table 1). Although the principal source of the stream is a spring, a small impoundment near the source has an ameliorating effect on water tempera- ture. In this study, we considered the out- let of that pond at Collins Lane as the source of Hite Creek (Station 1, Fig. 1). As in most streams, temperature was not a limiting factor; the range for all measure- ments recorded during the study was from 1.0 C in late November 1970 to 29.5 C in July sLOZ. 32 TRANS. KeENntucKyY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) TABLE 3.—ConpbucTiviry (MHOS) OF WATER AT Various STATIONS IN HirE CREEK, JEFERSON AND OLDHAM CouNTIES, KENTUCKY, SEPTEMBER 1970 THROUGH AvuGustT 1971 Station Number 1 2, 3 4 5 1970 11 Sep 250 12 370 510 720 880 14 260 430 320 15 355 620 190 420 220 16 330 750 700 520 400 18 360 890 820 750 21 100 750 570 680 780 29 230 920 450 540 720 3 Oct 380 500 490 950 850 8 245 190 310 740 1100 14 315. 340) 975 . 275) 4360 20 350 118 220 350 410 28 385 250 295 580 450 7 Nov 395 450 425 600 620 12 400 360 440 575 725 18 395 405 410 615 570 24 385 375 370 415 420 7 Dec 390 380 340 750 520 15 380 390 420 750 690 21 355 290.0) 180°. 235) 235 1971 21 Jan 350 350 325 510 550 16 Feb 725 550 440 9 Mar 330 335 520 470 16 Apr 310 370 295 850 750 294 May 340 425 265 675 590 23 Jun 370 350 395 675 575 27 Jul 400 400 360 590 680 31 Aug 370 280 360 900 775 Even though temperature itself was not a limiting factor, the influence of tempera- ture on dissolved oxygen in water is impor- tant. The solubility of atmospheric oxygen in fresh waters ranges from 14.6 mg/] at 0 C to about 8 mg/I at 30 C. Still, the salu- brious effect of lower stream temperatures, the continuing agitation and mixing of the water by the current, and the turbulence provided by the many small cataracts in Hite Creek tend to assure dissolved oxygen values close to or in excess of saturation (Table 2). Our observations in Hite Creek indicate that there were satisfactory con- centrations of oxygen at all times in the stream above the Truck Plant. However, in the area below the discharges of sewage and industrial wastes prior to 1 October, there was a marked depletion of dissolved oxygen to as little as 19 percent saturation TABLE 4.—BICARBONATE ALKALINITY (MG/1) OF WATER AT VARIOUS STATIONS IN HITE CREEK, JEF- FERSON AND OLDHAM CouNTIES, KENTUCKY, SEP- TEMBER 1970 THROUGH AucusT 1971 Station Number 1 2 3 +4 5 1970 11 Sep 108 82 12 147-129’ 106 136 14 156." T18"* 128 15 96 128); alain 2s 16 178. 1290°-186 4255243 18 168 134. 72 148 on 196.106 “152 7 16a eae 29 175 140 ~152)° 9 efeea e2 SOG 112. 172) (146 ae 8 160 62. 114., Be ao 14 184 122 . 124) 130 20 167 42 12 TOUS Tg 28 188 11S 12d See 7 Nov 190 180 S182 ayes 12; 190 168 ~ 182) ister 18 192 177 \ Yi sist os 24 164. 151.” 155 eee 7 Dec 170 145. 142° 94677 a0 15 186 172 166° Siiseeeas 21 164 80 62 74 84 1971.21) Jan 156 147, 138 )aSGetiss 16 Feb 87 160 129 9 Mar 123 122) Wea 16 Apr 138 = 120° "1 Waste taG 24 May 143 11% =102) sates 23 Jun 27 Fal 175~— 155. ~ 162) See 31 Aug 169 +100: > 34 98 122 (1.6 mg/l) on 29 September (Table 2). Once those wastes were diverted, there was a marked resurgence of dissolved oxygen at Stations 2 and 3, between the Truck Plant and the new facility, with a continued de- pression at Stations 4 and 5 below the new facility where the untreated wastes entered the stream. Again, as soon as the new sew- age treatment facility began to process the wastes early in November, there was a dra- matic increase in dissolved oxygen at Sta- tions 4 and 5, and those high levels per- sisted at all stations for the remainder of the study. Hydrogen ion concentrations (pH) were slightly alkaline at all stations and ranged from 7.2 to 8.9 throughout the study. Conductivities (total electrolytes or total ions ) showed expected values for streams of the region (Table 3). The increase in elec- POLLUTION OF A KENTUCKY STREAM—Krumholz and Neff 33 TABLE 5.—RANGES AND AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS OF MAjyoR CATIONS AND CHLORIDES AT VARIOUS STATIONS IN HITE CREEK, JEFFERSON AND OLDHAM COUNTIES, KENTUCKY Station Number it) Calcium Range 8.6—-17.7 18.2—52.5 Average 14.8 Sane Magnesium Range 10.9-20.9 10.6—22.3 Average 15.4 14.9 Iron Range 0.00-0.78 0.04—5.26 Average 0.24 0.64 Manganese Range 0.02—0.44 0.00—1.41 Average 0.19 0.37 Potassium Range 1.01-3.32 Average 1.68 Copper Range 0.00—0.07 Average 0.02 Chloride Range 3.6—-175.3 Average Pale) 3 4 5 19.2-64.9 22.1-67.9 18.8-62.5 37.5 45.6 44.7 9.2-24.] 5.8-20.7 11.0-23.1 15.2 14.0 15.1 0.05-10.18 0.02-4.65 0.05-5.35 0.93 0.58 0.52 0.00—2.05 0.00—2.44 0.01-0.18 0.44 0.35 0.07 1.22-3.44 2.40-6.33 2.01-7.88 2.12 4.03 3.87 0.00-0.10 0.00—0.10 0.00-0.14 0.03 0.04 0.04 4,2-90.9 8.5-290.0 9.7-231.5 19.5 106.9 90.2 trolytes below the outfalls of the Truck Plant during September 1970 is not surpris- ing, particularly in light of the fact that the effluents from the industrial waste lagoons comprised more than two-thirds of the total discharge of the stream at that time. Those wastes contained many electrolytes that had been brought to neutral hydrogen ion con- centration by buffering prior to discharge. As with dissolved oxygen, the diversion of all wastes to the sewage treatment facility on 1 October merely transferred the burden downstream, and the high values at Station 2 in September became manifest at Station 4 thereafter (Table 3). The high value for conductivity at Station 2 on 16 February 1971 was traceable to a special incident. Following a heavy snowfall, the Truck Plant used about 20 tons of salt (sodium chloride) to aid in snow and ice removal from some ramps and roadways. As the snow melted, it carried the salt into the stream. Bicarbonate alkalinity at the source of Hite Creek (Station 1, Table 4) ranged from 112 to 217 mg/1] during the study pe- riod, with an average value of 169 mg/l. These values are within the normal range of alkalinity for streams in the region. The values for stations farther downstream showed rather wide variations, and re- flected the influence of effluents from the Truck Plant. On some occasions, those ef- fluents contained rather concentrated chem- ical wastes, at other times, they were pri- marily large discharges of clean water used as a diluent. After the new treatment plant became operative early in November 1970 and began processing all waste materials from the Truck Plant, the fluctuations be- came of lesser magnitude (Table 4). Since Hite Creek is a limestone stream, it was expected that the calcium carbonate hardness was moderately high and within the usual range for other streams in the re- gion. As with the other chemical parame- ters, the effects of dilution following rain- fall were readily manifest. The relatively 34 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) low values for hardness on 8 and 20 Octo- ber, along with those on 21 December, were directly correlated with heavy rainfalls at those times. Each of the major cations, calcium, mag- nesium, iron, manganese, and potassium were present in amounts comparable to those of other limestone streams in the re- gion (Table 5). Total iron was most abun- dant during periods of high discharge and retlected the iron suspended in sediments, particularly in samples collected on 8 and 20 October. Samples analyzed for zine revealed that concentrations ranged from 0 to 0.12 mg/l, but in most samples the amounts were so small as to be barely de- tectable. Among the anions, chlorides showed the greatest range of concentration (Table 5). As mentioned earlier, the single high value at Stations 2 and 3 resulted from salting ramps and runways following a heavy snow- fall in February 1971. The high values at Stations 4 and 5 did not become manifest until the sewage treatment plant became operative and began chlorination of wastes in November 1970. Prior to that time, chlo- rides were relatively low throughout the stream. Sulfates were fairly high early in the study period probably because of the industrial wastes issuing from the Truck Plant, but dropped markedly as soon as the treatment plant was in full operation. Ni- trates, nitrites, and phosphates were within the expected ranges for limestone streams of the region throughout the study period. BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HITE CREEK The numbers and kinds of organisms in a stream community usually indicate the quality of living conditions, and provide a sound basis for assessing the extent of deg- radation of the environment long after the physical and chemical causes of the degra- dation have disappeared (Hynes 1960, 1970). These organisms can also document the recovery of the stream from environ- mental insult. Some organisms are quite tolerant to low concentrations of dissolved oxygen while others may require levels near saturation. Some insect larvae are quite tolerant to relatively high levels of organic | pollution, others may feed clean waters | for their livelihood. Accordingly, much | time and effort was expended in obtaining adequate samples of the different organisms at all stations in Hite Creek so that changes _ in the populations could be documented. From the beginning of the study, it was readily obvious that the upper reaches of | the stream were not polluted. There may | have been minimal effluents from the farm | property near the spring source, but any | untoward effects would have been amelio- rated as the water passed through the small impoundment just outside the property of the Truck Plant. Below the effluents from | the industrial waste and sewage lagoons, it was obvious that there was gross pollution | of the stream. On 11 and 12 September, 2 square-foot bottom samples were collected at Stations 1, 2, 3, and 5 and just below the outfall from the industrial waste lagoons. In those collec- tions, the kinds and numbers of aquatic ani- mals present upstream from the point where the first effluents from the Truck Plant en- tered the stream were about as expected © for that size stream at that time of year (Ta- ble 6). the stream below the outfall of the indus- trial waste lagoons, and only relatively few at Station 2. At Station 3, however, the ef- fects of the effluents had been ameliorated | to some extent and the stream had recoy- ered sufficiently to support large numbers of midges and black flies that feed primar- ily on detritus or particulate matter, an in- dication that the stream was beginning to to assimilate the materials that entered some distance upstream. The numbers and kinds of organisms collected at Station 5 reflect the more diverse nature of the stream sub- strate made up of stones and rubble and a much more stable community of aquatic organisms. At Station 1, all but one of the 10 major groups of organisms listed in Table 6 were represented, and in addition there was an abundance of freshwater sponges, an indi- cation of relatively high quality water. Also There were no such organisms in | | | | POLLUTION OF A KENTUCKY STREAM—Krumholz and Neff 35 TABLE 6.—NUMBERS OF SPECIES AND INDIVIDUALS OF BOTTOM ORGANISMS TAKEN IN BOTTOM SAMPLES AT DIFFERENT STATIONS IN HITE CREEK, JEFFERSON AND OLDHAM CouNTIES, KENTuUCKy, 11 ANpD 12 SEPTEMBER 1970. STraTION 1-D Was IMMEDIATELY BELOW THE OUTFALL OF THE SEWAGE LAGOONS Station 1 Station 1-D Station 2 Station 3 Station 5 No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Diptera 2 195 0 0 3 8 2, 48 B, 23 Trichoptera 3 253 0 0 ih 6 0 0 1 1 Ephemeroptera 1 143 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 Megaloptera i il 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Odonata ik li 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hemiptera il il 0 0 1 1 0 0 I 1 Coleoptera 1 12 0 0 0 0 if 2 1 1 Mollusca 1 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other il 10 0 0 0 0 0) 0 1 3 Totals 1, 632 0 0 5 15 4 53 vf 29 at that station there were more different verted on 1 October, the bacterial carpet species of organisms than at any other sta- began to disintegrate and had completely tion indicating a relatively high diversity disappeared within 2 weeks. At Station 2, and a well-balanced community. Just be- 5 of the 10 major groups were represented low the outfall of the sewage lagoons, the by 7 species and a total of 30 individuals. unbroken carpet of sewage fungus showed The most numerous were members of the beyond doubt that the materials issuing more tolerant midges. At Station 3, 7 of from those lagoons was the primary source the 10 major groups were represented by of organic pollution in Hite Creek. That 11 species among which the midges and kind of bacterial growth develops best in blackflies were most numerous, but there running waters where it feeds principally were relatively large numbers of snails and on organic matter, particularly carbohy- some dragonfly larvae. At Station 4, only drates. But it also requires large quantities 6 of the 10 groups were represented by 8 of nitrogen that it obtains from both or- species, but as mentioned previously, the ganic and inorganic sources. As soon as the gradient of the stream and the resulting effluents from the sewage lagoons were di- substrate at that station precluded the oc- TABLE 7.—NUMBERS OF SPECIES AND INDIVIDUALS OF BOTTOM ORGANISMS TAKEN IN BOTTOM SAMPLES IN Hire CREEK, JEFFERSON AND OLDHAM COouNTIES, KENTuCKy, DuRING OcTOBER 1970 Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Diptera 3 43 1. 130 5 106 4 725 3 1069 Trichoptera 1 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 108 Ephemeroptera 2 2, 0 0 0 0 1 i 9. 36 Megaloptera 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Odonata 0 0 0 0 1 f 0 0 0 0 Hemiptera 2, 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 i 1 Coleoptera 1 10 0 0 1 i 0 0 1 1 Plecoptera 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oligochaeta 1 18 1 540 1 126 1 11 0 0 Mollusca 3 60 0 0 2 69 2 258 1 1 Crustacea 4 151 0 0 1 GE 4 146 1 Z Other iE i! 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 18 293 p) 670 6 ioe) = _ — bo — | —_ — "| — © p—_ bo —" 36 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) TABLE 8.—SurRvEY OF HITE CREEK, JEFFERSON AND OLDHAM CouNTIES, KENTUCKY. NUMBERS OF SPE- CIES AND INDIVIDUALS TAKEN IN BOTTOM SAMPLES FROM NOVEMBER 1970 TO SEPTEMBER 1971 Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Species Organisms Diptera 5 835 7 826 7 241 8 955 6 581 Trichoptera 1 20 1 1 Li 5 2 Tas: 1 116 Ephemeroptera 2 28 2 3 2 | 1 10 2 18 Megaloptera 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 | 1 3 Odonata 2 2, 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 Hemiptera 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Coleoptera 3 6 2 4 2, 2 4 5 5 14 Plecoptera 0 0 0 0 ih if 0 0 2 3 Oligochaeta 1 89 if ar 1 1018 1 64 1 10 Mollusca 3 5 1 i: 3 86 3 236 1 i Crustacea 4 132 0 0 1 2 0 0 4 7 Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 z 0 0 Total 21 1117 14 2012 18 1362 Dap 1288 23 ips currence of organisms adapted to living in silty, sandy, or gravelly bottoms. It is well documented in the literature that streams rapidly regain populations of bottom dwelling organisms when pollution is abated, thereby reestablishing the com- plex foodwebs that make up a healthy stream community. It is also well known that rainfall accelerates the recovery of a stream from pollution by flushing out the watercourse and removing accumulated de- bris and making the stream more amenable to occupancy by the bottom fauna. How- ever, the establishment of populations of bottom organisms depends to a great extent on a favorable reproductive season. With the diversion of waste effluents from the Truck Plant to the sewage treatment facil- ity on 1 October followed by heavy rain- fall, that portion of Hite Creek between Stations 2 and 4 began to recover. Although there are no great differences in the kinds or organisms collected in September and October from various stations in Hite Creek (Tables 6, 7), the stage had been set for the rejuvenation of the populations of bot- tom organisms. Collections of bottom organisms were continued until September 1971 and there was a dramatic resurgence of the numbers and kinds of animals, especially in the area immediately below the Truck Plant (Station 2. Table 8), following the diversion of the waste discharges. In October 1970 (Table 7), only 2 of the most tolerant forms were found whereas in the following 10 months there were indications that at least 14 kinds of organisms were establishing colonies. The abundance of oligochaetes at Station 2 were indicative of the lingering effects of the earlier pollution, but by September 1971, most of those had disappeared. Preliminary sorting of our collections from Hite Creek included at least 57 differ- ent kinds of bottom organisms as follows: 1 planarian, 1 or more tubificids, 1 leech, 2 isopods, 2 amphipods, 1 crayfish, 4 snails, 1 fingernail clam, and 44 different kinds of insects ( 2 stoneflies, 4 mayflies, 2 damsel- flies, 6 dragonflies, 3 hemipterans, 1 mega- lopteran, 4 caddisflies, 14 true flies, and 8 beetles). In all likelihood, other kinds of invertebrates are present in the stream or will become established as environmental conditions continue to improve. Streams as small as Hite Creek do not or- dinarily support extensive fish populations, but during the course of our investigation we collected 3 kinds of minnows, the stone- roller Campostoma anomalum, the river shiner Notropis blennius, and the common shiner Notropis cornutus; 3 kinds of sun- fishes, the bluegill Lepomis macrochirus, the longear sunfish Lepomis megalotis, and the largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides; the blackstripe topminnow Fundulus no- PoLLUTION OF A Kentucky STREAM—Krumholz and Neff 37 tatus, and the black bullhead Ictalurus melas. DISCUSSION This study provided an opportunity to document the sequence of events in Hite Creek while the stream was overwhelmed by industrial and domestic wastes and fol- lowing the abatement of that pollution. The changes in the physical and chemical char- acteristics of the water as soon as the wastes from the Truck Plant were diverted to the sewage treatment facility provided an early indication that the quality of the water un- derwent a sudden and dramatic improve- ment. Populations of aquatic insects be- came reestablished very quickly when enviromental conditions became suitable. Even though aquatic insects contribute a major portion to the assemblage of bot- tom organisms, there are a great many other invertebrates that perform a relatively im- portant role in the functioning of the stream ecosystem as outlined by Krumholz and Neff (1970), Macan (1963), Coker (1954), Hynes (1960, 1970), and many others. In a stream like Hite Creek where there has been a gross insult to the environment fol- lowed by an abrupt cessation of that insult, it is difficult to evaluate the changes as they occur and to predict the time required for the reestablishment of all segments of the biota. Many workers have pointed out the difficulties in adequately sampling bot- tom fauna (Macan 1958, 1961; Hynes 1960; Cummins 1962; Armitage 1961; Elliott 1967; Minshall 1968; Minckley 1963; Niel- sen 1950, and others ). In the present study, only selected sites were sampled routinely and it is quite likely that many kinds of or- ganisms not reported here live and thrive in Hite Creek, and will continue to do so as long as conditions remain favorable. In spite of the paucity of data gathered from the limited number of sampling sites, it is obvious from the data in Tables 6, 7, and 8 that Hite Creek was well on its way to recovery within a year following the abate- ment of pollution. In many ways, Hite Creek is typical of small streams throughout the nation that have been the recipients of noxious wastes. We believe that most such streams can recover, at least partially, to their former states when pollution is abated. LITERATURE CITED AMERICAN Pusiic HEALTH ASSOCIATION. 1971. Standard methods for the examination of wa- ter and wastewater. Thirteenth edition. Wash- ington, D.C. 874 pp. ARMITAGE, K. 1961. Distribution of riffle insects of the Firehole River, Wyoming. Hydrobio- logia 17:152-174. Coxer, R. E. 1954. Lakes, Streams, Ponds. Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, N.C. 347 pp. Cummins, K. W. 1962. An evaluation of some techniques for the collection and analysis of benthic samples with special emphasis on lotic waters. Amer. Midl. Nat. 67(2):477—504. Exuiotr, J. M. 1967. Invertebrate drift in a Dartmoor stream. Arch. Hydrobiol. 63:202— Dots Hynes, H. B. N. 1960. The biology of polluted waters. Liverpool Univ. Press, Liverpool, En- gland. 202 pp. 1970. The biology of running waters. Liverpool Univ. Press, Liverpool, England. 55D pp: KruMuHoiz, L. A., AND S. E. Nerr. 1970. The freshwater stream, a complex ecosystem. Water Resources Bull. 6(2):163—174. Macan, T. T. 1958. Methods of sampling the bottom fauna in stony streams. Mitt. int. Ass. theor. appl. Limnol. 8:1—21. 1961. A review of running water Verh. int. ver. Limnol. 14:587—602. . 1963. Freshwater Ecology. John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York, N.Y. 338 pp. MinckieEy, W. L. 1963. The ecology of a spring stream, Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. Wildl. Monogr. No. 11:1—124. MinsHALL, G. W. 1968. Community dynamics of the benthic fauna of a woodland spring- brook community. Hydrobiologia 32:305-339. NIELSEN, A. 1950. The torrential invertebrate fauna. Oikos 2:176-196. PERKIN-ELMER CoRPORATION. 1968. Analytical methods for atomic absorption spectrophotem- etry. Lombard, Illinois. Looseleaf manual. studies. NEWS AND COMMENT The In 1974, The Kentucky Junior Kentucky Academy of Science spon- Junior sored 3 major events for the Academy student membership: a state- of Science wide talent search, the second 1974—1975 KJAS Spring Symposium, and a series of regional seminars that met concurrently in the late fall. The symposium was held in April at Transylvania University, Lexington. Fifty- one papers were presented in areas of the biological and physical sciences. The nat- ural sciences were divided into 8 sections for the symposium: animal physiology, be- havioral science, biochemistry and medi- cine, botany, chemistry, ecology and earth science, microbiology, and physics. The physics section had the most participation with 10 papers presented. Students in each section presented their papers before a panel of judges, and a cash award of $30.00 was presented to the author of the best paper in each section; second and third prizes received $10.00 each. The first prize winners in each section were: P. C. Wagner, Wag- gener High, Louisville Animal Physiology John Meisenheimer, Jr., Model Labora- tory, Richmond Joy Arnold, Owen Behavioral Science Biochemistry and Medicine County, Owenton Botany Suzie Yaste, Marion County, Lebanon Chemistry Evelyn Goodin, Marion County, Lebanon Ecology and Earth Connie Mitchell, Science Augusta High, Augusta Microbiology James Harris, Model Laboratory, Richmond 38 Physics Terry Rogelstad, Warren East, Bowling Green Francis Ballard, Marion County High School, won the state science talent search award of $75.00. Her paper, entitled “Noise Pollution,’ was entered in the nationwide Westinghouse Science Talent Search. The winner of the 1975 State Talent Search will | be announced at the spring meeting in April. This was the second consecutive year that KJAS sponsored a spring symposium. Hopefully, attendance and_ participation will continue to increase along with an im- provement in quality of papers. Clubs belonging to KJAS now receive a cash award of $40.00 for the best scrapbook of club activities with the award going to the club with the best presentation and the most activities. Evarts High School’s club (Harlan County) received the 1974 award at the spring meeting. For the academic year 1974-1975, KJAS awarded $248.00 in research grants to stu- dents from 7 senior high schools. In the fall, KJAS members submitted research pro- posals to a selection committee of KAS members. A total of 18 proposals was sub- mitted with 7 students receiving individual grants ranging from $19 to $50. This finan- cial support will be used to purchase equip- ment, travel to college libraries and labora- tories, and as travel funds for field work. Recipients are expected to report their re- sults or make a progress report in the 1975 symposium. In December 1974, KJAS sponsored a one-day seminar with the theme, “Natural Resources of Our Kentucky.” The seminar was held at 7 institutions over Kentucky, viz., Alice Lloyd College, Eastern Kentucky University, University of Louisville, More- head State University, Murray State Uni- versity, Thomas More College, and Western Kentucky University. Students and teachers from all secondary schools in the state were invited to participate with the KJAS mem- NEws AND COMMENT 39 bership. Each seminar dealt with regional problems on land use, endangered habitats and species, and the use and abuse of other regional resources. At each _ institution, KAS members presented talks or led dis- cussions to provide general information in these problem areas and point out possible research projects that could be conducted by individual students, teachers, or science clubs. A total of 40 schools and more than 380 students and teachers attended these programs. This attendance figure is one of the largest ever for a KJAS-sponsored ac- tivity. Hopefully, the meetings generated interest and enthusiasm that will be trans- lated into activities designed to investigate our natural resources at a regional level. The 1975 symposium will be held Satur- day, 26 April at The Centre College of Ken- tucky, Danville. KAS members are urged to participate as judges if they are con- tacted by a KJAS representative. Present membership in the Junior Acad- emy stands at 38 clubs and 4 individual members. Four new clubs added this year are Russellville High School in Russellville, Madison ( Co.) Central in Richmond, Lloyd Memorial in Erlanger, and St. Mary’s in Paducah. In recent years, club membership has been increasing at an annual rate of 10 percent. For the ecologists, geographers, and demographers, this rate represents a doubling time of 7 years! In this case, growth is slow when one realizes that there are over 300 senior high schools in the state! The elected officers of KJAS are an asset to the organization and they have been quite active in its activities. The officers for 1974-1975 are: President—Ray Hislope, Marion County High School Vice-President—Joy Arnold, Owen County High School Secretary—Connie Mitchell, Augusta High School William H. Martin, Director Eastern Kentucky University Report Background and Aims from the In 1973, the Kentucky Sci- Kentucky ence and Technology Com- Task Force mission joined with the Ken- on Public — tucky Academy of Science Science and jn a statewide study of the Technology status of science and tech- nology. This study has been carried out principally by 2 task forces. The Task Force on Private Science and Technology, under the direction of Mr. Charles Hoertz of Ashland Oil, has under- taken a study of the private sector. This is a summary report of the second task force, the Task Force on Public Science and Tech- nology concerned with public sector as- pects, under the direction of Dr. William G. Lloyd, Department of Chemistry, West- ern Kentucky University. Our general mandate was described by Damon Harrison, Commissioner of Com- merce and Chairman of the Science and Technology Commission, in these words: “As a starter, we need to document Ken- tucky’s current scientific and technological resources and to find ways to better utilize these resources to solve problems and stimu- late growth.” Our efforts have been coor- dinated by Dr. Marvin W. Russell, Past President of the Kentucky Academy of Sci- ence and a member of the Kentucky Science and Technology Commission. The Main Projects Four main projects have been undertaken by groups of task force members: Kentucky's Needs in the Area of Public Science and Technology. This study, con- ducted in 1973, required development of a questionnaire in which the questions were nondirective. Each respondent was also asked to spell out ‘the one or two most im- portant problem areas which might be helped by the better application of science and technology in the public sector’. About 600 questionnaires were sent out to 6 groups of respondents: members of the Kentucky legislature, state agency supervisors and technical people (drawn mainly from de- 40 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 1-2) partments with responsibilities of a techno- logical nature ), municipal and county tech- nical people (engineers, agricultural agents, public health official), academic scientists and engineers (every thirtieth name on an alphabetical list), scientists and engineers in private industry (a list provided by our sister task force), and a group representing the general public. Responses have been analyzed in detail in a 42-page report en- titled “Kentucky Needs in the Area of Pub- lic Science and Technology. This study was carried out by Donald Rowe and Wil- liam Lloyd. The 1974 Kentucky Scientific Manpower Registry. A simple questionnaire identify- ing areas of scientific and technological ex- pertise was developed and sent to every academic scientist and engineer in the state. Instead of making our own analysis of what seemed important to us from these returns, the task force has done something we hope will be of greater value: it has placed this information in the state com- puter system and has developed a simple search system (the SMART system, Scien- tific Manpower Access—Retrieval) which permits fast searches for individuals pos- sessing any particular scientific of engineer- ing expertise, or expertise in any combina- tion of fields, or any combination of expertise with geographic area, institu- tional affiliation, degrees held, research activity, or any of several other character- istics. Searches can be run from any ter- minal of the state computer system. A 33- page manual has been written, explaining in detail how to use this system: The 1974 Kentucky Scientific Manpower Registry: Manual for the SMART Access—Retrieval System. This manual was prepared by Michael Furlong and William Lloyd. Scientific Dissertations and Theses in Ken- tucky Since 1950. The most neglected of all the scientific resources in this or any state has been the academic dissertation. In Kentucky alone, since 1950, thousands of man-years have been spent in painstak- ing observation and interpretation of scien- tific and engineering data. The reason for ignoring this mine of information is easy | to grasp: those involved in research and | development studies, whether in the public ; or the private sectors, have no quick and — easy way to find out if and where there may be dissertations in areas of relevance to present problems. Borrowing heavily — from the programming of the manpower | registry described above, the task force has — created a START (Scientific Thesis Access— _ Retrieval) index which now contains over | 4700 scientific and engineering disserta- | tions and theses, from 1950 through 1973. Dissertation titles can be located by a sim- — ple computer search query, according to | specialty or a combination of specialties, — using other optional criteria such as insti- tution, author name, degree level, or year of degree. These searches can be made from any terminal of the state computer system. A 30-page manual has been writ- ten, explaining what can be gotten from the START index and how to do it: Scientific Dissertations and Theses in Kentucky, 1950-74: Manual for the START Access- Retrieval System. The manual was pre- pared by Michael Furlong and William Lloyd. Federal R&D Funding in Kentucky. The bulk of research and development funding of academic institutions and nonprofit in- stitutes, and an important part of industrial R&D funding, comes from 9 departments and agencies of the federal government. A study of Kentucky’s general scientific and technological capabilities, vis a vis those of neighboring states and those elsewhere in the nation, has been made with special ref- erence to federal R&D funding in recent years. All data used are from federal agency reports. Kentucky, according to a number of criteria, ranks as ‘adequate’ to ‘very good’. The one area in which, year after year, Kentucky has ranked very low, is in the share of federal R&D dollars spent here. A 45-page report of this study has been prepared: Federal R&D Funding in Kentucky. This study was made by William Lloyd. NEws AND COMMENT 4] Reports Available The 4 major reports of the task force, noted above, have been published. Persons desiring a copy of any of these reports should write or call: Mrs. Ann M. Badham Kentucky Department of Commerce Capitol Plaza Building Frankfort, KY 40601 (606) 564-4270 In addition to these reports, Mr. Russell Powell of the University of Kentucky, un- der the joint sponsorship of both task forces, has prepared a detailed report on scientific and technological book and journal hold- ings in public and private libraries through- out the state. Copies of this report may also be obtained through Mrs. Badham at the above address. The Task Force on Public Science and Technology has now completed its mission. It is our hope that these studies will prove useful to Kentucky’s growing research and development community, and to others concerned with the development of our state’s scientific and technological potential. William G. Lloyd Task Force Director The following persons have been appointed to Standing Committees of the Academy by President Ellis V. Brown: Standing Committees Membership Joseph Hendon 1977 Murray State University— Chairman Frank Butler 1975 Northern Kentucky University Amiya Mohanty 1976 Eastern Ken- tucky Univer- sity Legislation Marvin Russell 1975 Western Kentucky University— Chairman Harold Eversmeyer 1976 Murray State University 1977 Western Kentucky University and Univer- sity of Ken- tucky William Lloyd Distribution of Research Funds William Dixon 1976 Kentucky State Uni- versity— Chairman Patricia Malik (Pearson ) 1975 Bowling Green Morehead State University Jerry Howell, Jr. Lone Publications Louis A. Krumholz ( Editor-Chairman ) Varley E. Wiedeman ( Assoc. Editor ) William F. Wagner 1975 University of Kentucky J. Hill Hamon 1975 Transylvania University G. E. McClellan 1977 Murray State University Annual Meeting The Annual Meeting of the Academy is scheduled for 7-8 November 1975 at the Health Sciences Center of the University of Louis- ville. Charles E. Kupchella and John R. Meyer will serve as co-hosts. INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub- lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received. Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be re- viewed by one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and, once accepted, an attempt will be made to publish papers in the order of their acceptance. Manuscripts should be typed, double spaced throughout, on good quality white paper 8% x 11 inches (216 x 279 mm). The original and one copy should be sent to the Editor and the author should retain a copy for his own use in correcting proof. Metric and Celsius units are to be used for all measurements instead of, or in addition to, English and Fahrenheit units. Format and style may vary somewhat depending on the scientific discipline, but the basic pattern of presentation will be consistent for all manuscripts. The Style Manual of the Council of Biological Editors (CBE Style Manual), the Handbook for Authors of papers in the Journals of the American Chemical Society, the Handbook for Authors of the Amer- ican Institute of Physics, Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, and A Manual of Style (Chicago University Press) are most useful guides in matters of style, form, and spelling. Only those words intended to be italicized in the final publication should be underlined. The sequence of material in the manuscript should be: titie page, abstract, body of the manuscript, literature cited, tables with table headings, and figure legends and figures. l. The title page should include the title of the paper, the author’s name and address, and any footnote material concerning credits, changes of address, and so forth. 2. The abstract should be concise and descriptive of the information contained in the paper. It should be complete in itself without reference to the body of the paper. 3. The body of the manuscript should include the following sections: Introduction; Ac- knowledgments (if applicable), Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, Summary, and Literature Cited. In manuscripts of only a few pages, there is no need to break it up - into sections, except for the Literature Cited. All tables and figures, as well as all litera- ture cited must be referred to in the text. 4. All references in the Literature Cited must be typewritten, double spaced, and should provide complete information on the material referred to, as in the following examples: Article: Jounson, A. E., anp E. V. Harrety. 1962. An analysis of factors governing density patterns in desert plants. J. Bot. 44(3):419-432. Book: Dar.incTON, P. J., Jr. 1965. Biogeography of the southern end of the world. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 236 pp. 5. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in arabic numerals, and set on a separate page. The heading of the table should be informative of its contents. Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print about 5 X 7 inches. Line draw- ings in India ink on white paper are acceptable. Photographs should have good contrast so that they can be reproduced satisfactorily. Figures should be numbered in arabic numerals. The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for checking all literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly Extensive alterations on the galley proofs are expensive and such costs are to be borne by the author. Reprints are to be ordered when the galley proofs are returned to the Editor. CONTENTS Effective Employment as a Relative Measure of Regional Economic De ment, Ci M,»-Dupter, Jf.) 2 3) Ma Se ee ee . A Distributional Study of the Caddisflies of Kentucky. Vincent H. R esh Unusual Behavior of the Eastern Chipmunk. Pierre N. Allaire - The Leech Piscicolaria reducta Parasitizing some Percid Fishes. ° ee Bauer and Branley A. Branson So ee ee a A Micrographic Study of the Giant Nuclei of Necechinorhynchas 9 © Ly (Ae thocephala). Byaotd. H. ULeste ». fea eee | Abatement of Pollution in Hite Creek, jackin” and Oldham Cot ti tucky. Louis A. Krumholz and Stuart E. Neff _ ee a ? News and Comment... os a Se ae 4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 4 Micial Publication of the Academy aa a 3 A fal i a ’ x j a - a. A FNTASONT SS \ NOV -3 wy5 LBRAK (Temeyte olume 36 Numbers 3-4 September 1975 The Kentucky Academy of Science Founded 8 May 1914 OFFICERS FOR 1975 President: Ellis V. Brown, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506 President Elect: Frederick M. Brown, Centre College, Danville 40422 Past President: Donald L. Batch, Eastern Kentucky State University, Richmond 40475 Vice President: Charles Payne, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351 Secretary: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky State University, Bowling Green 42101 Treasurer: Wayne Hoffman, Western Kentucky State University, Bowling Green 2101 | Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A. Branson, Bustos Kentucky State University, Richmond 40475 John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506 Boarp OF DIRECTORS Thomas B. Calhoon 1975 Fletcher Gabbard 1977 Charles E. Kupchella 1975 John C. Philley (Chm) IS?7 am Howard Powell 1976 John G. Spanyer 1978 5 Morris Taylor 1976° . Oliver Zandona 1978 EDITORIAL OFFICE Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louis- — ville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 Associate Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 Editorial Board: William E. Dennen, Department of Geology, University of Ken- tucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of Louisville, Louis- ville, Kentucky 40208 we William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, eh of Kentucky, Lex- » ington, Kentucky 40506 ‘ All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be ad-— lressed to the Editor. | The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT. Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon nomi- __ nation, payment of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from __ the Secretary. The Transactiias are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual oor are de . $6.00 for Active Members; Student Membership is $4.00. Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $7.00; foreign, $8.00; back issues ee! $8.00 per volume. tail tng The Transactions are issued semiannually.- Four numbers comprise a volume. Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Sena 20 tary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Librarian, o University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208, who is the exchange agent for the Academy. __ TRANSACTIONS of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY of SCIENCE September 1075 VOLUME 36 NUMBERS 3-4 Some Ecological Factors Affecting the Occurrence of Water Willow Justicia americana in Jessamine Creek, Kentucky Henry H. HOWELL Department of Biology, Asbury College, Wilmore, Kentucky 40390 ABSTRACT Efforts were made to determine what environmental conditions are conducive to the occur- rence of water willow Justicia (= Dianthera) americana beds along the course of Jessamine Creek, which had been receiving about 650,000 gal/day (2,460 m*/day) of secondary sewage effluent through 2 tributaries. There were no beds of water willow in the upper or lower extremities of the stream; beds were present only in a 12.7-km stretch downstream from the point where the sewage effluent first entered the main stream, and more than half the dense stands occurred within the uppermost 3.2 km of that stretch. Elevations in that stretch fell 70.1 m, yet the size of the beds did not seem affected by elevational changes. East or west flow seemed conducive to development of more extensive and dense beds. NPK did not appear limiting. Depth of gorge and length of available sunlight did seem to affect size and density of beds. Minor flooding seemed to increase riffle and patch size where beds already occurred; however, heavy flooding may have had an adverse effect on some stands. From 1971 to 1974, species composition and diversity of benthos and other animals more than doubled at one station where samples were taken both years. Sewage disposal plants release effluents into 2 tributaries of the stream, Town Fork and Wilmore Branch (Fig. 1). In the last 5 years, a number of industries have moved into the drainage basin. For the past 18 years, I have been in- terested in the water quality and biota of Jessamine Creek. I have seen darter (Etheostoma) and stonefly (Plecoptera ) populations eliminated from parts of the stream, and the bottom become extremely INTRODUCTION Jessamine Creek flows through one of the outstanding scenic gorges within the Blue Grass Physiographic Region of Kentucky (Dearinger 1968). Its course lies entirely within the Inner Blue Grass Subregion, cen- tered around the city of Lexington in Fay- ette County. The stream originates 6.4 km south of the Fayette County line in Jessa- mine County, and empties into the Ken- tucky River without ever leaving Jessamine County. Jessamine Creek is a fifth-class stream (Kuehne 1962), and has cut its way through nearly 122 m of limestone to main- tain its flow into the river. It is 30.9 km long, and for the last 9.7 km the stream flows through a narrow, heavily wooded valley with high cliffs on one or both sides. 43 slippery in riffles; yet, in the last 5 years, stream conditions have improved with ref- erence to desirable fauna, and it appears that the changing flora may have been related to the improvement, since there has been a rapid extension of beds of water willow Justicia (= Dianthera) americana in TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4) tt ee ) = ao JESSAMINE CREEK < <— . y WATERSHED 2 a ) / 2 | 2 a 4 / A ee 2 eee . ( Kilometers ‘ies : < | . ) a C = ( ‘ =. ‘ - a 2 : y Ne c & og a if NICHOLASVILLE oe WILMORE eo Ai ‘ Wi/more é ( J | S ) Branch Ve J \ CC X < ot cy et aN ; ECs =a ee Se eee Ne i VER ( a =) ) ) © ) ‘ d ~) /\ ‘ es Gee SS ¥ A Fic. 1. Map of Jessamine Creek watershed showing the locations of the sampling stations (indicated by numbers ), Town Fork, and other principal tributaries. | WATER WILLOW IN JESSAMINE CREEK—Howell spring and summer along the course of the stream, and the presence of huge mats of filamentous algae during the winter. This paper discusses the results of data gathered largely from 1 July through 15 October 1974, in what was an effort to determine the ecological role of the extensive patches of water willow in Jessamine Creek, and to see if they could possibly be contributing to the improvement of water quality. Water willow is one of the most com- monly occurring angiosperms in the shallow waters of lakes, ponds, and streams in east- ern United States and southern Canada (Fassett 1969). It is an emergent perennial herb, rather frequently found in dense and extensive stands. Numerous workers have studied the production, mineral nutrient ab- sorption, and assimilation of aquatic flower- ing plants. Westlake (1963) and Boyd (1968, 1969) have summarized the rather extensive literature. Boyd (1969), in par- ticular, found that stands of water willow in lentic and lotic situations in Alabama had high biomass productivities and mineral up- take during spring and early summer, with standing crops that averaged 3.75 times higher in the 2 lakes studied than in the 3 streams. Krumholz (1971), Krumholz and Neff (1972), White (1974), and Woodling (1970, unpublished master’s thesis, Univer- sity of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky) all sensed the need for an intensive study of the large Justicia beds in the Salt River, Ken- tucky, to ascertain their contribution to the overall economy of the river. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research was made possible by a grant from the Asbury College Alumni Foundation. Dr. L. A. Krumholz, Univer- sity of Louisville, rendered valuable pro- fessional advice. I am also very grateful to the many students who have helped in the studies on Jessamine Creek, particularly those whose research was germane to this study: D. K. Irish, C. W. Spencer, E. O. Walker, K. A. Vaughn, C. J. Kusche, R. L. Noland, L. W. Martin, and B. S. Christen- sen. The last 2 students compiled much of the raw data. 45 RECENT INVESTIGATIONS IN THE STupy AREA Since 1963, 18 undergraduate students at Asbury College have conducted brief inde- pendent investigations on Jessamine Creek, most work being done since 1970. One of the chief conclusions gathered from those reports is that total and fecal coliform counts increased below the Wilmore and Nicholasville sewage outfalls, with more rapid recovery in Wilmore Branch than in Town Fork, even though a higher count had been present below the Wilmore plant. In all reports, the total coliforms usually were higher than 5,000/100 ml. In 2 unpublished reports by M. W. Jones, chemical analyses were run on water sam- ples from selected stations; other than be- low the outfalls, orthophosphate ranged from 1.12 to 4.25 mg/I, and nitrate nitrogen from 4.25 to 7.08 mg/l. Other parameters determined were pH, sulfate, metaphos- phate, conductivity, alkalinity, hardness, total dissolved solids, and dissolved oxygen. None of those factors were considered criti- cal. One of the most comprehensive studies was done in the fall of 1973 by Barcelo, who used stationary periphyton samplers to study the extent of colonization on glass slides placed in riffles for 4 exposure peri- ods. She identified 46 genera in the sam- ples, mostly diatoms. The dry weight per slide ranged from 0.5 to 13.3 mg, and the ash-free weights ranged from 0.1 to 9.6 mg. The ash-free weights averaged 57.5 percent of the dry weight, and at the station below the sewage outfalls, the weights were more than double those upstream from the out- falls. In the summer of 1971, I had the assis- tance of 2 college seniors and 2 high school students under the National Youth Corps Program, and a paper entitled “Some of the effects of domestic sewage discharged into Hickman and Jessamine Creeks in Jessa- mine County, Kentucky” by Howell and Jones was presented to the Kentucky Acad- emy of Science that fall, and again in March 1972 to the Midwest Benthological Society. The information used came from § riffle stations on Hickman Creek and 13 on Jessa- 46 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4) TABLE 1.—RELATIVE ABUNDANCE, NUMBER OF STEMS PER SQUARE METER, PATCH SIZE (M’*), DIRECTION | oF STREAM FLOw, AND TyPE OF VEGETATIONAL COVERAGE OF SURROUNDING SHORES, FOR WATER WILLOW BED AT EACH STATION IN JESSAMINE CREEK, KENTUCKY Station Relative Number Number Abundance of Stems 1 Sparse to very thick 64-334 | 2 Thick to very thick 360-476 3 Medium thick 256" 4 Medium thick D2, 5 Sparse - 6 Sparse 60° Size of Direction Shoreline Patch of Flow Vegetation 367 W & NW Open field 1800 W. Open field 232 S Open field 203 W Woods with little overhang 900 SW Partial canopy | 200 W Partial canopy 1 Floods made accurate count difficult. 2 Too much flood damage to estimate. mine Creek, and included data on water chemistry, coliforms, benthos, and fishes. Hickman Creek was judged more polluted than Tessamine Creek largely on the basis of the diversity of benthos and fishes. Hick- man Creek was receiving about 1.3 million gal/day (4,920 m?/day) of sewage efflu- ent from the Lexington area, and Jessamine Creek was receiving about 650,000 gal/day (2,460 m?/day) from Nicholasville and Wil- more. In addition to the above-mentioned inves- tigations, studies on the flora of the county have been made by members of the Depart- ment of Botany at the University of Ken- tucky. A master’s thesis entitled “Vascular plants of Jessamine County, Kentucky” was written in 1941 by MacFarland, who listed 661 species including a number of rare spe- cies from the gorge. In 1974, MacGregor, a graduate student, presented a paper to the Academy on “The flora of Jessamine Gorge.” He listed 344 species as occurring in the gorge, with 68 species being consid- ered rare or near rare. The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (1974) compiled a thor- ough study of the environmental resources of the Lexington Urban Area, and in the section dealing with flora, some special notes from Meijer (1974) were included, with comments on 15 rare species from the gorge. METHODS To determine the extent of water willow and other angiosperm beds in Jessamine Creek, the creek bed was cruised for its entire length, including Town Fork and | Wilmore Branch. Whenever a patch of | plants or an algal mat was found, its location | was plotted on a 7.5-min topographic map. | The size of each patch in square meters was — determined from the length and average — width. Relative density of the emergent stalks was recorded as very thick, thick, me- _ dium, or sparse. The direction of stream — flow was recorded as N, S, E, W, NW or SE, NE or SW, along with the extent of overhead cover, whether there were open fields along banks, partial canopy, or full © canopy. The presence or absence of notice- — able current, the depth of water, and the type of substrate were also recorded. | After cruising the stream, 6 collecting — stations were established (Fig. 1) at which © detailed studies of water willow communi- | ties were made using 0.25-m? square metal | frames to determine the average numbers — of emergent stems per square meter and the average wet and dry weights of harvested stems. When collecting stems, an effort was made to collect benthos from around the roots. In addition, total dissolved solids using a Hach meter, total coliforms using the Millipore technique, and other chemical tests were determined as time permitted. Efforts were made to determine the size and composition of the fish, snake, and crayfish populations in and around the water willow beds. RESULTS By the end of July, 59 vegetational patches had been mapped. Extremely WATER WILLOW IN JESSAMINE CREEK—Howell AT TABLE 2.—NUMBERS AND SIZES OF PATCHES OF WATER WILLOW BETWEEN STATIONS IN JESSAMINE CREEK, TOGETHER WITH DISTANCES AND DIFFERENCES IN ELEVATION (MSL) BETWEEN STATIONS Distance Between Stations Stations mi km (m7?) (meters ) m/km Ft/mi 1-2 19 0.74 1.20 4,330 241.1-237.4 3.04 16.1 2-3 10 0.89 1.43 3,910 237.4-225.6 8.29 43.9 3-4 20 2.74 AAI 3,154 225.6-199.7 5.86 30.9 4-5 9 1.83 2.95 1,768 199.7-183.9 5.36 28.4 5-6 5 2.31 3.72 202 183.9-164.2 5.31 28.1 Totals 63 S5r as 71 13,364 241.1-164.2 heavy rains fell on the watershed the first 2 weeks in August, and by the end of the month there was an excess of 7.95 inches (20.19 cm) over the average rainfall of 3.50 inches (8.89 cm). September had one of the highest rainfalls on record, with an ex- cess of 6.47 inches (16.43 cm). The lower 4.83 km of the creek was not visited until late August and September; flood damage had been extensive. Station 6 was selected on 22 September. The upper reaches of Jessamine Creek above Town Fork were not visited until October. There were no beds of water willow in Town Fork, Wilmore Branch, or in Jessa- mine Creek above the mouth of Town Fork even though there were suitable riffle sites for such beds. There were occasional patches of lizard’s tail Saururus cernuus up- stream from the mouth of Town Fork, pri- marily along the margins of pools. Although there were no beds of water willow in Jessa- mine Creek upstream from the mouth of Town Fork, there were 63 beds downstream from that point. The extremely high flood- waters could have eliminated a few small beds before the lower reaches of the stream were surveyed. The 6 stations for intensive study were selected because of the sizes of water willow beds and ease of access. At Station 1, 5 small beds were lumped together. The densest and largest beds were at or near Station 2, and although it cannot be stated conclusively because of the severe flooding, the density of the stands appeared to dimin- ish downstream. The abundance, coverage, direction of flow, and adjoining riparian vegetation at each station are shown in Ta- ble 1. At Station 2, driftage was found almost 2 m above normal pool level, and at Station 4 it was nearly 3 m above normal pool level. The abundance and distribution of water willow beds in relation to declivity in Jessamine Creek are shown in Table 2, and Fig. 2 shows the profile of the stream and the relationship between station loca- tions and declivity. Assuming that the por- tion of the stream that contains water wil- low beds is 13,720 m (8.52 miles) long and the average width is 10 m, the beds cov- ered nearly 10 percent of the total stream- bed. Those beds covered 36 percent of the streambed between Stations 1 and 2, 27 percent between Stations 2 and 3, and only 7 percent between Stations 3 and 4. At the first 4 stations, the beds covered 60-95 per- cent of the streambed. The declivity of the streambed did not appear to influence the location of the beds. At Station 1 and in several vegetational beds downstream, there was a mixture of water willow and lizard’s tail. In 4 of 8 mixed beds, lizard’s tail comprised 50 per- cent of the total coverage, in 3 other beds, lizard’s tail was the only plant. Seven of the 11 beds of lizard’s tail were along the stream bank. An east or west flow may be conducive to enlarging the size of beds, since nearly 60 percent of all beds occurred in such loca- tions (Table 3). Flow in either of those directions normally allows greater exposure to direct sunlight, especially in the gorge 48 TRANS. KeNTuCcKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4) 300 200 Elevation Above Mean Sea Level, Meters te) 3) 10 Owilmore Branch Town Fork 15 20 25 30 Distance Above Mouth, Kilometers Fic. 2. Profile of Jessamine Creek showing the locations of the sampling stations and the points of confluence of Town Fork and Wilmore Branch. portion. Only 23 percent of the water wil- low coverage was in areas of north-south flow. In all larger beds, the water willow grew in riffle areas where the water was 2.5-7.5 cm deep. Of the 63 beds recorded, only 14 (22 %) were in shallow water along the banks of pools; the remaining 49 beds were in riffles and the coverage ranged from 2 to 1,800 m?. The pattern of flow within each bed varied greatly. In a few beds it was almost impossible to see any flowing water without separating the dense willow shoots. Usually, in naturally occurring separations, larger volumes of water imparted a braided appearance to the stream. Horizontal run- ners attached the plants to the substrate, and almost any combination of boulders, rubble, gravel, sand, and silt was found | associated with the beds. | The wet weight of the standing crop on | 1 August in a medium dense bed at Station 4 was 2,917 g/m’; the dry weight was 522 | g/m?. The latter figure falls within the | range cited by Boyd (1969) in 3 Alabama | streams (322-802 g/m? dry wt). Produc- — tion from a dense stand in Jessamine Creek — was not determined. High waters had a very adverse effect on — beds of water willow. All stems were bent — TABLE 3.—SUMMARIES OF WATER WILLOW COVERAGES IN SQUARE METERS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO DIRECTION OF STREAM FLOW. NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE NUMBERS OF PATCHES No. of Stations Patches E or W 1-2 19 3689 (8) 2-3 10 3213 (4) 3-4 20 180 (6) 4—5 9 593 (5) 5-6 5 198 (3) 63 7873 (26) Totals NorS NE or SW NW or SE 266 (3) 876 (8) 97 (3) 5 (2) 600 (1) 2528 (8) 214 (5) 232.( 0) 15542) 900 (1) 120°(4) 1541) 4 (1) 3061 (17) 1119 (7) 1332412.) WATER WILLOW IN JESSAMINE CREEK—Howell 49 double with the exception of those at the upper ends of large beds where the stems brought about retardation of the current and rapid deposition of sediment that held the stems upright. Stems not broken, fre- ~ quently became upright after flow receded to near normal for a few days. At the upper end of Station 2, 30.48 cm of sediment was deposited on top of the earlier exposed hori- zontal runners; at the lower end of the same bed, 10.16 cm of sediment had been depos- ited. The smaller volume of floodwater at Stations 1 and 2 allowed the beds there to survive the floods with less destruction. Only 2 quadrat samples for benthos were taken, and only a small part of the known fauna was collected. In the associated riffles, 3 species of darters, a sculpin, 2 cyprinids, a sucker, and a smallmouth bass were taken by agitating the rubble. In the pools below, 2 species of crayfish, Orco- nectes rusticus and O. juvenilis, were col- lected. Prior to the flooding, large numbers of crayfish were seen in the pools below the water willow beds. Below Station 2, 96 adult crayfish were collected with a 10-foot seine. In the 0.25-m? benthos quadrat in the water willow bed at Station 2, 4 small cray- fish (16/m?) were taken. The water willow beds possibly served as nurseries for small crayfish. Those same riffles, with their many rocks and rubble, may also serve as hiding places during winter, since no cray- fish were found in any of the pools after the first frost. In the gorge area between Stations 4 and 5 where water funneled quite rapidly over a bedrock strip, large crayfish were arrayed in a military spacing 20-25 cm apart, all facing upstream and remaining motionless. Were they waiting drift organisms, filter feeding, or carrying on some unknown phys- iological activity? In May 1974, 3 Natrix sipedon sipedon were taken in a seine from a riffle at Station 3. Subsequent effort to census the Natrix population at 4 collecting stations was un- successful. About a dozen were seen during the season, most of them in pools. From the 49 water samples collected from Stations 1 through 4 from 17 July through TABLE 4.—MEAN ToTraL COLIFORM COUNTS PER 100 ML FoR JESSAMINE CREEK ABOVE AND BELOW CONFLUENCE WITH TOWN BRANCH, AND BETWEEN CoLLECTING STATIONS, 15 JuLy—5 Aucustr 1974 Station Count Jessamine Creek (above confluence ) 7,962 Town Branch (above confluence ) 31,928 Between Stations 1-9 9,575 2-3 10,575 3-4 7,811 6 August 1974, conductivity ranged from 452 to 616 wmhos/cm, with the higher fig- ure at Town Branch just above its conflu- ence with Jessamine Creek and the lower one from Jessamine Creek just above its confluence with the Kentucky River. Total and fecal coliform counts from the same samples are listed in Table 4. DISCUSSION The occurrence of water willow in Jessa- mine Creek may be related directly to the increased urbanization within the county, particularly in and around Nicholasville where increased amounts of water are being shunted directly into the stream, thereby increasing its silt carrying capacity. Simi- larly, the increased sewage load has resulted in a higher BOD in the discharge (pers. comm. from operator). It appears that the existing beds are being extended at both ends of the area they now occupy. In the lower gorge, the larger volume of water tended to retard the extension of the beds because of the narrower floodplains and the increasingly scouring action of the current, and, perhaps, less exposure to direct sun- light. No reasons could be found for the ab- sence of water willow plants in the waters of Town Fork which carried the sewage effluent from Nicholasville, or in the rela- tively clean waters of Jessamine Creek above the mouth of Town Fork since there were many locations that appeared suitable so far as substrate is concerned. Chemical analyses provided no clues, but it may be 50 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4) that data on BOD, and more specifically on dissolved organic materials would provide insight. In many pool areas, the bottom is bedrock and establishment of water willow beds or other plant communities would be difficult; still, some of the smaller beds were found in cracks and fissures within the shallow pools less than 30 cm deep. As with several other streams in the Inner Blue Grass, the entire flow goes underground during the late summer and early fall, so that only dry riffles and occasional pools remain. Jessa- mine Creek disappears 0.8 km below Station 3 and remains underground for about 1.4 km. It is not known how effective water wil- low plants are in removing the nutrients from sewage having undergone secondary treatment. Law and Kerr (1969), over a 60-week period in Oklahoma, used fescue and rye grasses in hydroponic culture tanks with nutrient rates of 8,664, 4,560, and 4,833 Ib NPK/acre (1,590, 837, and 887 kg/ha), respectively, with gravel beds to ascertain the effectiveness of mineral removal. They reported that grasses were minor contribu- tors to nutrient removal from wastes when compared to the total quantity of nutrients that passed through the tanks. They also concluded that there was greater reduction of COD (50%), BOD (85%), and total nitrogen (55%) than the NPK by passage through the tanks. Interestingly, removal in the control tanks on organic materials and total nitrogen was about the same as in the experimental tanks with the grasses. Such information allows for the possibility that an indirect benefit of the increasing sizes of the water willow beds may be the fur- nishing of increased size to the gravel beds where flora and fauna would tend to reduce COD, BOD, and total nitrogen as well as total bacterial counts. LITERATURE CITED Boyp, C. E. 1968. Some aspects of aquatic plant ecology. Pp. 114-129. In Reservoir Fishery Resources Symposium, Amer. Fish. Soc., Washington, D. C. 1969. Production, mineral nutrient absorption, and biochemical assimilation by Justicia americana and Alternanthera philox- eroides. Arch. Hydrobiol. 67:78-85. DEARINGER, J. A. 1968. Esthetic and recrea- tional potential of small naturalistic streams near urban areas. Univ. Ky. Water Res. Inst., Res. Rept. No. 13. 260 pp. Fassett, N. C. 1957. A manual of aquatic plants. Univ. Wis. Press, Madison, Wis. 405 pp. KruMuotz, L. A. 1971. A preliminary ecologi- cal study of areas to be impounded in the Salt River Basin of Kentucky. Univ. Ky. Water Res. Inst., Res. Rept. No. 43. 35 pp. , AND S. E. Nerr. 1972. A preliminary ecological study of areas to be impounded in the Salt River Basin of Kentucky. Univ. Ky. Water Res. Inst., Res. Rept. No. 48. 25 pp. KuEHNE, R. A. 1962. A classification of streams illustrated by fish distribution in an eastern Kentucky creek. Ecology 43:608-614. Law, J. P., Jn., AnD R. S. Kerr. 1969. Nutrient removal from enriched waste effluent by the hydroponic culture of cool season grasses. Water Res. Cent., Ada, Okla., Fed. Water Qual. Admin. Prog. No. 16080. Meijer, W. 1974. Some notes on flora and vegetation of the Lexington, Kentucky, urban area. P. 49. In Environmental resources in- ventory of the Lexington area. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Louisville District, Louis- ville, Ky. U. S. ArMy Corps oF ENGINEERS. 1974. Envi- ronmental resources inventory of the Lexing- ton, Kentucky, urban area. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Louisville District, Louisville. Kentucky. Pp. 48-56. WestLakeE, D. F. 1963. Comparisons of plant productivity. Biol. Rev. 38:385-—425. Wuire, D. S. 1974. The distribution of stone- flies (Insecta: Plecoptera) of the Salt River. Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35:17—23. Why Mature Women Return to School: ‘Reasons’ and “Motives” CAROLINE F. MARTIN Department of Sociology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT This paper, written by a mature woman student as her senior thesis in Sociology, investigates the levels of rationalization employed by a sample of 51 mature women students at the Univer- sity of Louisville in explaining their decision to return to school. The hypothesis, based on con- cepts of behavior and reasoning by past theorists, that these explanations would fall into two distinct levels, superficial ‘reasons’ and latent ‘motives, is supported by the research. The results suggest that disruptive conditions or events are important factors in the decision of older women to go back to school, and that education serves an important function in their lives. INTRODUCTION Individuals exhibit multiple levels of ra- tionalization in explaining important deci- sions. This research investigates two of these levels through analysis of the experi- ence of mature women who return to school. In the past, many theorists have remarked upon the ways in which any human behav- ior is influenced. They noted that actions are affected by both reasoning and emo- tions; that behavior is not always con- sciously determined and recognized; and, that justifications of actions often cover motivations. Pareto (1935:88), for instance, felt that logical actions are in large part the result of processes of reasoning, whereas actions which originate chiefly in psychic states, subconscious feelings, and the like are non- logical. Timasheff (1967:163) summarized this in the following statement: “According to Pareto, an action is logical if its end is objectively attainable and if the means used are objectively united with the end in the framework of the best knowledge available; all other actions are nonlogical.” Pareto (1935:104) also said that the human being has a weakness for adding logical develop- ment to nonlogical behavior and, according to Timasheff (1967:163), some men “justify their actions by formulating nonlogical the- ories which their advocates consider to be highly logical.” Every social phenomenon, therefore, may be considered under two aspects: as it is in reality, and as it presents itself to the mind of the human being (Pareto 1935:76). Thus, it cannot always 51 be counted on that what people say about their actions is entirely factual or enlight- ening. Timasheff (1967:164) agreed that “,.. to explain actions by accepting at face value what men say about their behavior is, of course, a procedure void of scientific validity—a principle long recognized by stu- dents of human life.” Merton (1957:24) also believed that it need not be assumed that the reasons ad- vanced by people for their behavior are one and the same as the observed conse- quences of these patterns of behavior. Mer- ton (1957:51) used the terms manifest and latent; manifest being the intended and rec- ognized form of behavior, and latent being neither intended nor recognized. Timasheff (1967:225) phrased it this way: “Manifest functions refer to the objective consequences of a specific social cultural unit which con- tribute to its adoption or adjustment and were so intended by the participants; latent functions refer to unintended and unrecog- nized consequences.” Another theorist, Weber (in Timasheft 1967:178), acknowledged that considerable social conduct is marked by the person's inarticulate half-consciousness or even un- awareness of its meaning. This usually occurs, he felt, when the conduct is a social habit or when it involves personal feelings. “Lack of awareness of meaning is quite common, in fact, when behavior is tradi- tional, that is, determined by social custom, or when it is affective, that is determined by emotion.” In studying decision making, it has been o2 found that ‘stereotype’ questions often bring stereotyped or superficial answers. Accord- ing to Goode and Hatt (1952:167-168), a question that begins “Why did you—?’ in an attempt to find out why the respondent made a certain choice, usually elicits that which comes to the respondent’s mind most quickly, and is likely to be a justification of the decision, rather than a true disclosure of the circumstances that led to it. Cliches come quickly to mind as they are a large part of social communication and they are no exception in the interview. “In the interview, as in daily conversation, the re- spondent’s verbal habits are likely to be in cliche form” (Goode and Hatt 1952:163). It is necessary to probe more deeply if the cliches which are used to cover motivations are to be avoided (Goode and Hatt 1952: 200). In view of the concepts regarding behav- ior and reasoning already discussed, it is to be anticipated that the accounts given by individuals of important events and deci- sions in their lives will be found to have two more or less distinct aspects: a superficial one containing ‘reasons or ‘explanations’ easily given in response to questionnaire or interview items, and a latent one involving ‘motives (distinctively different from the superficial material) linked to important needs, tensions, and issues in their personal lives. To evaluate this supposition, the present study focuses upon an important life decision of the mature woman—that of going back to school. Little research has been done in the area of the mature female student. Feldman’s (1972:993) study concerning graduate stu- dents and marital status found that the most committed and active students were the divorced women. “It is almost as if they were making up for lost time by becoming fully immersed in the student role.” Clem- ents (1974:23) reported that older women were more effective academically and had more emotional equanimity and compe- tence than the younger students. It was expected that the reasons for returning to school given by the mature students on first contact would be the super- TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4) ficial-manifest or rationalized reasons, and the latent reasons or actual motives would have to be probed for. That these motives would involve impor- tant needs, tensions, and issues in the per- sonal lives of these mature women students is based on the observation that people more or less consciously attempt to attain some basic routine, as a normal state of affairs, in their daily living. This routine lends equilibrium to their lives and, once it is achieved, they seldom voluntarily disrupt — it. To deliberately change the routine is to invite disequilibrium and its accompanying costs in anxiety, confusion, and readjust- ment. Of course, disequilibrium can also occur involuntarily, due to unforeseen or | uncontrollable events which yield new | issues, needs, and tensions. A new routine then becomes necessary in order to regain the desired equilibrium and sense of well- being. It is the presumption of this study that the mature woman student’s decision to return to school after a gap of years represents a characteristic reaction to some sort of dis- ruption in her life. In other words, some disruptive condition or event upset her routine thereby threatening her equilibrium. The decision to go back to school is a form of adaptive response to these changed cir- cumstances. Not all change, of course, is disruptive. For the woman whose children grow up and leave home, there is change but it is natural, gradual, expected, and usually prepared for through the years. Unexpected and un- planned for change, however, can violently disrupt routine and cause considerable dis- equilibrium. A woman does not, presum- ably, anticipate marital problems, for ex- ample, when she promises to be a wife ‘until death do us part.’ Yet, when these problems threaten her wifely routine, her equilibrium is adversely affected. Perhaps some diffi- culties with children in their teenage years might be expected, but these become dis- ruptive problems when they involve delin- quent behavior. Illness may be natural and death inevitable but when loved ones are stricken, the life and routine of every { MATURE WOMEN IN CoLLEGE—Martin woman is disrupted. Being uprooted from her home is also an upsetting experience for a woman. She leaves behind her established routine, her familiar neighborhood, and old friends and acquaintances. This can be gradual and eased by frequent visits and telephone calls if the move was not too distant. A major shift in residence, however, results in an abrupt change in secure sur- roundings, associations, and daily routine. In her search for a new routine and restored equilibrium, the mature woman may be forced to seek a new role. For the women in this study, that new role is the role of a student. The hypothesis to be tested in this study, therefore, is that mature women students, when asked why they returned to college (a major life decision), will typically offer rea- sons that could be classified as superficial. However, when interviewed in depth, their answers will contain a large proportion of reasons classified as latent, involving dis- ruptive conditions or events in their per- sonal lives. METHODS The research was carried out in Louis- ville, Kentucky, at the Belknap Campus of the University of Louisville during the fall semester 1974. At the beginning of the semester, a list of names and addresses of 143 women over 30 years of age who had been registered in the University during the spring of 1974 was obtained from the office of the Dean of Students. However, because of the time limit of one semester, it was decided to contact only those women on the list who were enrolled in the College of Arts and Sciences, a total of 85 persons. In order to test the hypothesis, it was decided that the first contact would be by telephone, followed by a personal interview with a random subsample of the telephone respondents. The responses received in both telephone and personal interviews were expected to fall into two categories, swper- ficial reasons and latent reasons. Those rea- sons classified as superficial included: intel- lectual stimulation, a desire to upgrade or change jobs, to increase skills or effective- a3 ness, looking for independent alternatives, and such phrases as ‘ had time on my hands, ‘I just wanted to, ‘I always planned to continue, ‘I didn’t like to work, ‘I didn’t want to stay at home, and ‘It gave me an interest in common with my husband.’ Those circumstances classified as latent in- cluded: marital problems, problems with teenagers, family illness, death in the fam- ily, and a major shift in residence. Telephone numbers of the 85 students in the sample were obtained, but of those, 14 were unavailable and were dropped from the roster, leaving a total of 71 names with telephone numbers. Of that 71, 1 had mar- ried and moved away, 9 numbers were either wrong or had been reassigned, 7 were no longer in service, and 3 were never answered during the time allotted for data collection, even though calls were made at varying hours of the day throughout the week. A final total of 51 mature women students were successfully contacted by telephone. When calling, I explained how I had secured the respondent's name and identified myself as a fellow mature student working on my senior thesis in sociology. Each respondent was asked why she had decided to return to school, and all re- sponses were noted. From those 51 students, a subsample was drawn at random and consisted of 21 num- bers (41 % of the total). Of that 21, 3 re- fused to be interviewed personally, pleading lack of time in their busy schedules. Two more pleaded lack of time at the present, but offered to accommodate me at a later date, but the time limit on data collection precluded accepting their offers. Sixteen of the subsample agreed to be interviewed per- sonally and appointments were made with each one. Of that 16, only 1 failed to keep her appointment. The rest, 29 percent of the total sample, were interviewed as sched- uled. Questions in the interview were de- signed to remind the respondent of the conditions in her life at the time she decided to return to school, such as her marital status, the ages of her children, and her place of residence at the time of her deci- sion, not at the time of the interview. She 54 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4) TABLE 1.—ToraL NUMBER AND PERCENTAGES OF SUPERFICIAL AND LATENT REASONS BY TELEPHONE AND IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS, 51 MatTuRE WOMEN STUDENTS, UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE, FALL, 1974 Phone Interview In-depth Interview Reasons N % N % Superficial 46 90 1. oet Latent 5 10 oS a5 Totals 5b, :-160 15 200 was then asked to tell me how it happened that she decided to return to school. All responses were recorded, and both the telephone and personal interviews were tabulated and summarized according to the previously established criteria. RESULTS The contact by telephone elicited the largest number (46) and the largest per- centage (90 %) of superficial reasons (Ta- ble 1). Not only were the majority of re- sponses superficial, but many respondents (15 of 51, 29 % of the total) offered more than 1 superficial reason for returning to school, giving a total of 67 superficial re- sponses (Table 2). Only 1 respondent, after giving an initial superficial reason, followed it with one classified as latent. Of the 4 who responded initially in the latent category, only 1 gave more than 1 reason, and that, too, was classified as latent. The majority of students interviewed personally, however, gave latent reasons for their decision to return to school (Table 1). Of the 15 stu- dents interviewed personally, 7 (47 7%) gave reasons classified as superficial and 8 (53 %) gave reasons classified as latent. All of the 7 responding superficially gave more than 1 superficial reason. Of the 8 who gave latent responses, 2 gave initial responses that were superficial but their secondary responses, as the interview pro- gressed, fell into the latent category. One of these asked for further reassurance of confidentiality before emitting her latent response. Her request came abruptly, near the middle of the interview. She had been asked about the timing of her return to TABLE 2.—SUPERFICIAL AND LATENT REASONS RE- CEIVED IN TELEPHONE AND PERSONAL INTERVIEWS, 51 Mature WoMEN STUDENTS, UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE, FALL, 1974 Responses Telephone Personal Interview Interview Beeane Ist 2nd 3rd Ist 2nd Superficial Intellectual stimulation i | Always planned to continue 12 2 1 4 Increase skills or effective- ness 10 4 Desire to upgrade or change job 8, tage Search for independent al- ternative 2 > 2 Time on my hands 5 et Soule Just wanted to 5 uaa Didn’t want to stay athome 3 1 en | Didn't like to work 1 1 Need common interest with husband 3 2 Totals 47, 1S5igb 9 Latent Marital problems 2 Lek Problems with teenagers 1 Illness in the family 2 1 Death in the family 1 Uk 444! Major shift in residence 1 Bo ie Totals A 12. 6 school; “Why then, not sooner or later?’ She began to answer, citing the extra time on her hands that her child’s entrance into school allowed, when suddenly she stopped. With lowered voice she questioned whether her answers would, indeed, be kept in con- fidence. When this was confirmed, she ad- mitted to having a personal problem and talked for some time about its effect on her life. Later she commented on feeling better about the personal interview than she had about the telephone interview because, she said, she had been more truthful. The other case of a secondary latent response was less dramatic, evolving quite naturally through the respondent’s reflecting back over time. Of the remaining 6 latent responders, 3 gave | MATURE WOMEN IN COLLEGE—Martin 55 only 1 response and 3 gave 2 responses. Thus, a total of 16 superficial reasons and 11 latent reasons were given by the respon- dents during the personal interviews. It must be acknowledged here that I, a student, was an inexperienced interviewer. It is felt in retrospect that the first few inter- views (which elicited superficial responses ) suffered from that lack of experience and that had they been conducted either at a later time or by a more experienced inter- viewer the results might have been even more decisive. The loss from the sample of 6 women, 5 who lacked the time for the interview and 1 who failed to keep her ap- pointment, might also have biased these re- sults. Their loss leaves in question whether the remaining 15 were actually representa- tive of the total population. The results are also limited in terms of the small size of the sample available. Allowing for these pos- sible limitations, a chi-square test of signifi- cance was performed on the data in Table 1. The test yielded a chi-square value of 11.6578 which is significant at beyond the .001 level of confidence. CONCLUSION The above results indicate that disrup- tive conditions or events in her personal life are often important factors in the mature woman's decision to return to school. Not only are these factors important, but the research also suggests that the woman her- self is either not aware of their influence or suppresses them as reasons, feeling, per- haps, that they are either illogical or socially unacceptable. The number of cliches elicited on first contact illustrates the woman’s un- awareness or rationalization through stereo- typed answers or justifications. The con- centration of superficiality in the phrase, ‘I always planned to continue, implies an unawareness of the decision making process itself. If it had always been planned, no decision or any explanation would have been necessary. Increasing skills and effec- tiveness, the category which had the next most responses, is certainly a socially ac- ceptable reason for returning to school for anyone, especially in this culture where self improvement is so highly regarded. On the other hand, those who gave latent reasons when called were those who appeared to recognize and find logical the relationship between their return to school and the dis- ruptive conditions or events in their per- sonal lives. They seem to have had no need for repression or self-justification, but their number was few. The fact that the personal interview brought out latent reasons in a majority of subjects is not surprising. Different meth- odologies can result in different responses. The relaxed atmosphere of face-to-face con- tact with a fellow mature student who has ‘been there’ might be expected to be more conducive to openness, requiring less self- justification and defensiveness than the con- tact by an unknown voice on the telephone. Several respondents commented on their lack of honesty when they were first con- tacted, saying that they didn’t even remem- ber what they had said on the telephone or that they wondered after they hung up why they had said what they did. Not all of those interviewed personally gave latent reasons, however. This may have been due to unawareness of their be- havior as a consequence of disruptive con- ditions or events or, if aware, an inability or unwillingness to admit it to others. There is a possibility that in some cases none of these disruptive conditions did exist. There is also the possibility that some women had many reasons for returning to school and some were expressed in the telephone inter- view and others in the personal interview. In the majority of the personal interview cases, however, there were disruptive condi- tions or events. This study supports the conclusion that their occurrence influenced the return to school of these older women. It suggests that intellectual activity in the form of continuing education may act as a balm for emotional distress. A mind busy acquiring new knowledge cannot dwell on painful experience or memories. There may be security in the student role with its regu- larity of routine. Scheduled classes, assign- ments, and deadlines direct the mind and body outward, away from the emotions, 56 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(34) while healing time passes. It might also mean that emotional stress is a major ele- ment in motivating people to change their roles. In the case of the mature woman, education would appear to serve a transi- tional or adaptive function in that change. Being a student for a time not only increases her skills and enhances her self-confidence, but also makes the role change a more grad- ual process. She may move, for example, from the security of home to the secure but competitive campus to the competitive world of employment. Thus, she adapts by stages and over a period of time. These older women who return to school have so far been virtually ignored in current research literature. Many aspects of the situation of the mature women students appear worthy of investigation. It might prove fruitful, for example, to study their goals. What are they and are they achieved? Also of interest would be a comparison of the students cited in this study with others enrolled in other universities and colleges. Do older women who choose a community or church affiliated college have the same reasons and motives as those enrolled in a state university? Another interesting topic of investigation would be the socioeconomic background of the women who go back to school. Does one class predominate? How important is income? A study of the aca- demic achievement of mature women stu- dents might also prove interesting. How do they compare academically with their younger counterparts and/or with their past school performance? It is hoped that in the future more will be learned about these mature women students. LITERATURE CITED CLEMENTS, K. 1974. Emotional characteristics of mature women students in education. Res. Educ. 9(7):23. FELDMAN, S. D. 1972. Impediment or stimu- lant? Marital status and graduate education. Amer. J. Sociol. 78:982—994. Goong, W. J., AND P. K. Hatr. 1952. Methods in social research. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N. Y. 376 pp. Merton, R. K. 1957. Social theory and social structure. Free Press, Glencoe, Ill. 645 pp. Pareto, V. 1935. The mind and society. Har- court, Brace, and Co., New York, N. Y. 4 Vol., 2033 pp. TiMASHEFF, N. S. 1967. Sociological theory. Random House, New York, N. Y. 335 pp. Auchenorrhynchus’ Hosts of Mermithid Nematodes in Kentucky” CHRISTINA SPERKA AND PAuL H. FREYTAG Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ABSTRACT About 60,000 specimens of auchenorrhynchus Homoptera collected from various habitats in Kentucky during 1972-1974 were examined for parasites. More than 200 specimens of uniden- tified larval mermithid nematodes were dissected out from auchenorrhynchs representing at least 37 species in 7 families. Overall rate of parasitism was about 0.3 percent. Mermithids did not appear host specific, and collection site and date appeared more important in determining rate of parasitism than species of auchenorrhynchs present. Mermithid parasites did not produce measurable effects in genitalia or other external structures; however, abdominal distention, color changes, and absence of internal organs were observed. Dryinid (Hymenoptera) larvae and halictophagid (Strepsiptera) adults and larvae were sometimes found coexisting with mermithid parasites. INTRODUCTION Insects are the commonly reported hosts of the nematode family Mermithidae (Nickle 1972). Although there are more than 23,000 species of Homoptera belonging to the sub- order Auchenorrhyncha (cicadas, leafhop- pers, spittlebugs, and planthoppers), few members of this group are recorded as hosts for mermithids. Zwaluwenberg (1928) re- ported Aenolamia varia saccharina Distant (Cercopidae) from Trinidad as parasitized by Mermis sp. LaRivers (1949) discussed Agamermis unka Kaburaki and Inamura from Japan and its araeopid (delphacid) hosts, Nilaparvata oryzae Matsumura and Liburnia furcifera Horvath. Weaver and King (1954) stated that the grasshopper mermithid, Agamermis decaudata Cobb, Steiner, and Christie, was found in the meadow spittlebug, Philaenus spumarius (L.) in Ohio. In this paper, we report the results of a study conducted in Kentucky from 1972 to 1974 which yielded data con- cerning the incidence of mermithid nema- todes in auchenorrhynchus hosts. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank J. P. Kramer, Systematic Ento- mology Laboratory, Agric. Res. Ser., Wash- * Homoptera: Auchenorrhyncha. * The investigation reported in this paper (No. 75-7-77) is in connection with a project of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station and is published with approval of the Director. o7 ington, D.C.; F. W. Mead, Florida Dept. Agric., Gainesville, Fla.; and Lois O’Brien, Florida A & M Univ., Tallahassee, Fla. for aid in the identification of fulgoroid speci- mens, and R. A. Chapman, Dept. Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexing- ton, Ky. for the identification of the nema- tode parasites. Suggestions and literature provided by W. R. Nickle, Plant Nematol- ogy Laboratory, Agric. Res. Ser., Beltsville, Md., were appreciated. Gratitude also is expressed to D. E. Barnett and V. Johnson, graduate students in the department, for collection data. Travel expenses of the senior author were defrayed by a Dissertation Research Travel Grant (1972-1973) awarded by the Univer- sity of Kentucky Graduate School. MATERIALS AND METHODS About 60,000 specimens of adult and nymphal auchenorrhynchus Homoptera (ex- cluding Cicadidae) were collected, mainly from grassy pastures and old field habitats, from 81 Kentucky counties during 1972- 1974 (Mar—Dec). Samples usually were obtained by sweep net collection, although hand, shrub beating, and blacklight collect- ing methods were also used. All specimens were preserved in 80 percent ethanol. Sam- ples were sorted to species or higher groups, and all specimens in each group were dis- sected and examined for parasites. TABLE 1.—AUCHENORRHYNCHUS Hosts Host Cercopidae Clastoptera sp. Philaenus spumarius (L.) Cicadellidae Acertagallia sanguinolenta (Provancher ) Agallia constricta Van Duzee Agallia quadripunctata ( Provancher ) Alebra albostriella (Fallen ) Amblysellus curtisi ( Fitch) Balclutha abdominalis (Van Duzee ) Chlorotettix unicolor (Fitch) Coelidia olitoria (Say ) Cuerna costalis ( F.) Draeculacephala antica ( Walker ) D. mollipes (Say) Draeculacephala spp. (undetermined females and nymphs ) Empoasca sp. Forcipata loca DeLong & Caldwell Graminella nigrifrons ( Forbes ) Graphocephala versuta (Say ) Idiocerus pallidus Fitch Laevicephalus orientalis DeLong & Davidson Latalus sayi (Fitch) Macrosteles fascifrons Dorst Paraphlepsius irroratus (Say ) P. tenessa (DeLong ) Polyamia weedi (Say ) Psammotettix striatus (L.) Stirellus bicolor (Van Duzee) Tylozygus bifidus (Say) Cixiidae Oliarus ecologus Caldwell O. sablensis Caldwell Delphacidae Delphacodes lutulenta (Van Duzee ) Delphacodes spp. Delphacidae (undetermined species ) Dictyopharidae Scolops sulcipes Say Issidae Thionia simplex (Germar ) Membracidae Campylenchia latipes (Say ) Stictocephala bubalus ( F.) S. lutea (Walker ) TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3—4) Counties in Which Hosts with Mermithids Were Collected Wayne Grayson Fayette Barren, Breathitt, Fayette, Green, Jeffer- son, Mercer, Monroe, Oldham, Taylor Anderson Breathitt Fayette Breathitt Grant Fayette Fayette Boyle, Fayette, Grant, Green, Hart, Henry, Marion, Meade, Mercer, Metcalfe, Old- ham, Shelby, Spencer, Taylor, Warren Fayette Breathitt, Fayette, Henry, Jefferson, Meade, Oldham, Shelby, Spencer, Trimble, Warren, Wayne, Woodford Boyle, Fayette, Mercer, Oldham, Rock- castle Breathitt, Fayette, Henry Fayette, Hancock Boyle, Fayette, Mercer Fayette Larue Fayette, Henry Breathitt, Fayette Fayette, Spencer Boyle Fayette Boone, Breathitt, Fayette, Warren Fayette Pendleton, Shelby Boone, Shelby Boone Boone Boone, Fayette Fayette Wayne Oldham Scott Gallatin Jefferson, Spencer OF MERMITHID NEMATODES IN KENTUCKY Range of Collection Dates 18 Jul 13 Jun 13 May 13 May—15 Aug 13 Jun 6 Jul 7 Jul 29 Jun 15 Aug 23 Jul 23 Jul 19 May—29 Oct 1-9 Aug 10 May—14 Sep 17 Jun—-15 Aug 22 Jun—9 Oct 3 Jun—10 Oct 9-12 Aug 24 Jun 17 May 13 May-15 Aug 19 May—14 Jun 4 Jun—-15 Aug 12 Aug 22 Jun-9 Oct 10 May—29 Oct 6 Jun 27 Jun—15 Aug 27 Jun—15 Aug 27 Jun 27 Jun 27 Jun—29 Oct 22 Jun—24 Aug 22 Jul 15 Aug 19 Jul 19 Jul 15 Aug Hosts oF MermituHip NeMatopes—Sperka and Freytag a9 RATKES Seumege ENS Fic. 1. Distribution of auchenorrhynchus specimens parasitized by mermithid nematodes in Kentucky. Stippled areas represent counties sampled for auchenorrhynchs. Filled circles indicate counties from which mermithids were collected. During 1973-1974 about 8,000 specimens of living auchenorrhynchs were collected for parasite rearing studies. Mermithids which emerged from their hosts were incu- bated at 27 + 3 C on damp sand. Adult mermithids, necessary for identification, were not obtained. RESULTs AND DISCUSSION Hosts More than 200 specimens of larval mer- mithid nematodes were dissected out from NUMBER PER 100 SWEEPS MAK 24 JUN JUN JUN JUN JUN JUL Jut JUL JUL AUG 29 2 18 22 30 7 16 20 SAMPLING DATE JUNI 3 10 auchenorrhynchus specimens representing at least 37 species in the Cercopidae, Cica- dellidae, Cixiidae, Delphacidae, Dictyoph- aridae, Issidae, and Membracidae (Table 1). Distribution Mermithid parasites were found in collec- tions from 31 counties, primarily in the cen- tral third of the state (Fig. 1). Although the western third of the state was well sam- pled and collections usually yielded auche- BEE HOSTS HOST SPECIES Fic. 2. Trend of abundance of mermithid parasitized hosts and number of host species involved. Fayette County, 1973. “-prseydoyorey apeutay Jo xexoyjoreydeo (FI) ‘soxrquie prseydoyorey Jo syodseko (9) :piseydozorey opeutoyz pravss YY voYUD DpDYdaov)ndaDIqq jo A}IAvo [eurTULOpge sulieys pryyutoyy “g “OIg ‘ds vospodwiy fo (v) snuv oY} BIA SUIS1OUIO OpO}VUION ‘G ‘OI *(9) APAVO [eUTWIOpge pue ‘(q) A}AvO o1ovioyy “(v) peoy OFUL SuIpUs}xe pryyuttout YA ‘ds yjpydaopjnoapug jo yduiAN ‘fF “OLY ‘APAVO [RUILUOPAe Ul PIYULIoUL YYIM xajdwis muoIyYT, “E ‘OL ANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4) TR 60 Hosts or MermitHip NeMatopes—Sperka and Freytag 61 norrhynchus specimens similar to those in the central portion of the state, few mermi- thids were found in that area. A visual inspection of these data indicate that this distributional pattern is not correlated with maps of mean annual rainfall, generalized geology, or major soil areas. Mermithids were found in their hosts from 10 May until 29 October. These early and late collection dates indicate that mer- mithids can overwinter in their hosts. Re- sults from weekly sampling at a Fayette County site during 1973 indicate that mer- mithids were most common from late June through August (Fig. 2). Rate of Parasitism and Host Specificity Of the nearly 60,000 specimens examined, only about 200 were parasitized by mermi- thids. This represents an overall rate of parasitism of approximately 0.3 percent. Although more than a fourth of the mermi- thids collected were parasitic in the leaf- hopper genus Draeculacephala, the rate of parasitism by mermithids in this group was not higher than the overall rate. Little is known of the host specificity of most mermithid species; however, it is ap- parent that those which attack the leafhop- pers and their allies are not species specific. Collection site and date appeared more im- portant in determining rate of parasitism than species of auchenorrhynchs present. At most localities sampled, if more than 1 parasitized host was found in a sample, more than 1 host species was involved usu- ally in a ratio proportional to the number of auchenorrhynch species collected. This is exemplified by data from Fayette County (Fig. 2). Mermithids in Their Hosts The mature larval mermithid fills the abdominal cavity of its host (Fig. 3). Fre- quently, coils of the nematode also extend into the thoracic and head areas, completely filling the body of the host (Fig. 4). Most hosts examined could be placed in 2 size groups: those about 3 mm long and those 7-8 mm long. The longest nema found in the small-host group was 38 mm in length from a female cicadellid, Psammotettix stri- atus, which was 3.4 mm long. The average mermithid length for the small-host group was about 26 mm (S.E. 7.8 mm, n= 20). The longest nema found in the larger hosts was 84 mm long in an 8.5 mm membracid, Stictocephala bubalus. The average mermi- thid length in this host size class was about 45mm (5.8. 12.2 1m, nol), Usually, only 1 mermithid was found in each host; however, up to 4 were observed. Nemas from superparasitized hosts fre- quently were shorter than the average length of a nema from the same host species when that species was singly parasitized. Parasitism by mermithids seldom pro- duced measurable effects in the genitalia or other external structures of their hosts; however, abdominal distention and color changes were observed in a few specimens. Internal organs usually were absent or greatly reduced, and “parasitic castration” was evident. Rearing studies showed that death of the host occurred either shortly before or after the emergence of the mermithid from the body of the host. The nematode emerged from the host usually via a hole in the intersegmental membrane of the abdominal sclerites or through the anus (Fig. 5) or genital openings. Association of Mermithids with Other Parasites Although the mermithid usually renders its auchenorrhynchus host sterile, it does coexist with certain insects which are also parasitic in the Auchenorrhyncha. Both larvae of the Dryinidae (Hymenoptera ) and adults and larvae of the Halictophagi- dae (Strepsiptera) were found in hosts par- asitized by mermithids. Several specimens were found bearing well-developed mermi- thids and female halictophagids which had reproduced as evidenced by their burden of triungulin larvae (Fig. 6). Although the mermithids parasitize many of the same host species as do the larvae of the Pipuncu- 62 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4) lidae and Tachinidae (Diptera), no mermi- thids were found in association with these larvae. LITERATURE CITED LaRivers, I. 1949. Entomic nematode _litera- ture from 1926 to 1946 exclusive of medical and veterinary titles. Wasmann Collector 7(5):177-206. NickLE, W. R. 1972. A _ contribution to our knowledge of the Mermithidae (Nematoda). J. Nematol. 4(2):113-146. ! WEAVER, C. R., AND D. R. Kinc. 1954. Meadow | Spittlebug. Ohio Agric. Expt. Sta. Res. Bull. 741. 99 pp. | ZWALUWENBURG, R. H. Van. 1928. The inter- relationships of insects and roundworms. Bull. Expt. Sta. Hawaii Sugar Planters’ Ass., Ento- mol. Ser. 20:1-68. The Fishes of West Kentucky. Ill. The Fishes of Bayou de Chien Davin H. WEBB AND MorcGAn E. Sisk Hunter Hancock Biological Station, Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071 ABSTRACT An annotated list of fishes representing 16 families and 53 species taken from Bayou de Chien is presented. Numbers of 3 rare and/or endangered species from Kentucky ( Etheostoma histrio, E. asprigene, and Percina uranidea) may be large enough to ensure their continued existence under present conditions, but 2 other species (Lepomis symmetricus and Hybognathus hayi ) are recommended for inclusion on the state’s rare and endangered list of fishes. An observation indicates that Bayou de Chien may serve as a nursery area for Polyodon spathula. INTRODUCTION Published accounts of the fishes in the Jackson Purchase region of western Ken- tucky are sparse. The first published collec- tions from this area are those of Woolman (1892), which he collected from Mayfield and Obion creeks and Bayou de Chien dur- ing 3 days. Those collections were limited to 1 or 2 stations along each stream and do not approximate total species composition of any of the above drainage systems. A summary of all ichthyological work done in the Tennessee and Kentucky regions was produced by Evermann (1918) and in- cluded Woolman’s (1892) work. Recent studies by Clay (1962), Sisk (1969), and Smith and Sisk (1969) have included notes on the ecology and distribution of fishes in the Purchase area. The works of Forbes and Richardson (1920), Baker (1937, 1939a, 1939b), Baker and Parker (1938), Pflieger (1971), Resh et al. (1973) relate to fishes from regions bordering the Jackson Pur- chase. These studies are applicable because western Tennessee, southeastern Missouri, southern Illinois, and western Kentucky are geographically similar, and historically shared a common piscine fauna. This study of Bayou de Chien was under- taken as part of a regional survey to estab- lish the extant piscine fauna of western Kentucky. Bayou de Chien is in the south- western portion of the Jackson Purchase and drains 216 square miles (559 km?) (Schwendeman 1958) in Graves, Hickman, 63 and Fulton counties. The basin is about 48 km long and 16 km wide with an east-west orientation. The source of the stream is in southwestern Graves County from whence it flows some 47 km to its confluence with the Mississippi River. All but the terminal 8-10 km of Bayou de Chien have been sub- jected to channelization in the past. The present mouth of the stream is about 1.6 km north of Hickman, Kentucky. The general supposition, supported by Loughridge (1888), is that Obion Creek and Bayou de Chien once formed a single stream that flowed near the base of the bluffs at Hickman, and then continued southwesterly into Tennessee. A change in the channel of the Mississippi from west to east of Island No. 6 has resulted in the obliteration of a bottom which was present near the Hickman bluffs in 1842 (Lough- ridge 1888). Thus Obion Creek and Bayou de Chien, now with separate outlets to the Mississippi River, once coursed through the Reelfoot Lake area and were tributaries of the Obion River system of western Tennes- see. An old stream channel, known as Run- ning Slough, may today be seen along State Highway 94 for several kilometers south- west of Hickman. Running Slough can be traced to Reelfoot Lake where its channel is called the old Bayou de Chien. Sisk (1973) suggested that the old channel serves as a route of reinvasion for fishes from Reelfoot Lake, following periods of drought, into streams of southwestern Ful- ton County, Kentucky. 64 TABLE 1.—RESULTS OF WATER ANALYSIS OF BAYOU DE CHIEN, 1972-1973 Range Min Max Mean Oxygen (ppm) 5 14 8.9 pH 6.0 8.9 tel Turbidity (JTU )* 5 800 80.3 Chlorides (ppm) 5 35 7.8 Temperature (°C) 5 32 18.4 1 Jackson turbidity units. Basic water quality parameters were mea- sured quarterly during this survey and are summarized in Table 1. Tests for nitrogen and phosphorus were omitted due to inade- quate field methods for analysis. MATERIALS AND METHODS Gill nets, hoop nets, fish traps, an electric shocker, creel census, and seines were used in sampling the fishes of Bayou de Chien. Specimens were killed and fixed in formalin and preserved in alcohol. Collections are in the Murray State University Vertebrate Museum. Twenty major collecting sites, sampled on a quarterly basis, were selected along the course of Bayou de Chien and its tributaries. The selection of sampling stations was based primarily on accessibility and were generally near highways or roads. Twelve additional collections were made at various localities during the course of the study in an effort to sample all aquatic habitats. The results of this study are based on a total of 103 collections. Listed below are the sampling stations followed by the dates on which collections were made. 1. Bayou de Chien near its confluence with the Mississippi River, 1.6 km NE of Hickman, Fulton Co. 19:VIII:1972, 28:V:1973, 8:XII:1973. . Little Mud Creek, 3.2 km E of Hickman, Fulton Co., at Kentucky Highway 94. 24:%:1972; 19: VI:1973, 19:1X:1973. 3. Mud Creek, 6.4 km E of Hickman, Ful- bo Ol 9: 10. ae 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4) ton Co., at Kentucky Highway 94. 6:X: 1972,_19:V1:1973,- 14: VII: 1973; 72 1973. Fulton Co., at Kentucky Highway 1129. 9:TX:1972, 11:XT:1972, Sse TSy see VI:1973. . Tributary of Mud Creek, 3.2 km SW of . Samson Creek, 4.8 km NW of Cayce, | Cayce, Fulton Co., at Kentucky High- | way 1128. 2:IX:1972, 28:V:1973, 2:X: 1973. . Little Bayou de Chien, 4.8 km N of Cayce, Fulton Co., at Kentucky High- way 239. 2:1X:1972, 6:X;19725 0-11; 1973, 21:V:1973, 28: V-1973 eee ore . Little Bayou de Chien, 3.2 km NE of | Cayce, Fulton Co., at Kentucky High- | way 1907. 22:VII:1972, 16:VIII:1972, | 24:11:1973, 19: V1I:1973, 13:X1:1973: . Little Bayou de Chien, 7.2 km SE of Cayce, Fulton Co., at Kentucky High- | way 1125. 7:VIII:1972, 2:1X:1972, 2A: I1:1973, 19: VL:1973, 1320s: Bayou de Chien, 6.4 km N of Cayce, Fulton Co., at Kentucky Highway 239. | 9:1X:1972, 30:IX:1972, 9:111:1973. Bayou de Chien, 0.8 km N of Moscow, Hickman Co. 6:VIIT:1972, 13:X:1972)8 21:X:1972, 24:11:1973, 16:V1:1973, Tim VIII:1973. Bayou de Chien, 4.8 km SE of Clinton, — Hickman Co., at U.S. Highway 51. 16: VIII:1972, 23:1X:1972, 24:1T:1973, 16: — VI:1973. Cane Creek, 6.4 km SE of Clinton, © Hickman Co., at Kentucky Highway 1529. 13:X:1972, [7 stS rae 1973 TSO Aketo Te Cane Creek, 8.0 km SE of Clinton, | Hickman Co., at U.S. Highway 51. 16: VI:1972, 23:1X:1972, STE TSise zy 1973. Bayou de Chien, 4.8 km SW of Fulgham, Hickman Co. 30:07: 1973, 7: Vili 1sie Bayou de Chien, 4.8 km S of Fulgham, Hickman Co., at Kentucky Highway © 307. 16:VI:1972, 29: VITI:1972, 23:Dg 1972, 21:X:1972, 3:11:1973. 13:1VetSisae 18: VII:1973. Sand Creek, 4.0 km S of Fulgham, Hick- | 30:IX:1972, 2:10:1973 vg 18. 19. 20. 21. 27. 28. 29. 30. FisHes oF BAyou DE CHtEN—Webb and Sisk 65 man Co., at Kentucky Highway 307. 62121972; 23:1X: 1972, 221: V:1973. Bayou de Chien, 4.8 km N of Water Valley, Hickman and Graves cos., at Kentucky Highway 1283. 7:VI:1972, 27-V11:1972, 30:1X:1972, 2:11:1973, 30: TIT:1973. Bayou de Chien, 1.6 km NW of Water Valley, Graves Co., at U.S. Highway Baee te V121972, 22:VII:1972, 23:IX: 1872, 17:11:1973, 13:1V:1973. Bayou de Chien, 3.2 km NE of Water Valley, Graves Co., near Bayou de Chien Church. 30:V:1972, 6:X:1972, P1973, 27:V:1973. South Fork Bayou de Chien, 2.4 km E of Water Valley, Graves Co. 30:V:1972, aewe-1972.-2-X:1972, 17:11:1973, 27:V: 1973. Bayou de Chien, 4.8 km W of Moscow, Fulton Co., near the Adam’s mounds. 2tVUlT: 1973. . Bayou de Chien, 3.2 km W of Moscow, Fulton Co. 1:1X:1973. . Drainage ditch, 6.1 km N of Cayce, Hickman Co., at Kentucky Highway mo. 21X 1972. . Bayou de Chien, 6.4 km SW of Fulgham, Hickman Co. 4:X1:1972. . Slough, 4.8 km W of Moscow and S of the Adams mounds, Fulton Co. 27: wm 1973. 1:1X:1973. . Jackson Creek, 2.0 km NE of Water Valley, Graves Co., at U.S. Highway 45. 7:VII:1972. Tributary to Bayou de Chien, 0.5 km S of Water Valley near Illinois Central RR, Graves Co., at Kentucky Highway Eee 2g: VEIT: 1972. Tributary to South Fork of Bayou de Chien, 5.6 km S of Water Valley, Graves Co., at Kentucky Highway 94. 30:V: 1972. Rush Creek, 4.8 km NW of Cayce, Ful- ton Co., at Kentucky Highway 1129. 9:1X:1972. Slough N of Moscow, Hickman Co. 18: VI:1973, 14:VII:1973. RESULTS This survey resulted in the capture of specimens of the following fishes, repre- senting 16 families and 53 species. The scientific name is followed by the common name, collecting sites, and notes on the dis- tribution and abundance of each species. The nomenclature and arrangement of taxa are those of Moore (1968) and Bailey et al. (1970). List OF SPECIES POLYODONTIDAE 1. Polyodon spathula (Walbaum). Pad- dlefish. Stations 1 and 21. Rare and confined to the extreme low-gradient portions of the drainage. LEPISOSTEIDAE 2. Lepisosteus oculatus (Winchell). Spot- ted gar. Station 22. Apparently rare in the system as only a single specimen was collected, that being from a quiet inlet just off the main stream. 3. L. platostomus Rafinesque. Shortnose gar stations.) oS. G10. 11 21 aaeand 30. Fairly common in the low-gradient portions of the drainage and were par- ticularly abundant following the ex- tensive flooding caused by backwaters of the Mississippi River in the spring of 1973. AMUDAE 4, Amia calva Linnaeus. Bowfin. Stations 2, 6, 13, and 30. Rare in streams with flowing water and mainly confined to the quiet waters of sloughs, borrow ditches, and intermittent pools of the lowlands. CLUPEIDAE 5. Dorosoma cepedianum (Lesueur ). Giz- Zand ‘shad. iStations 1's. 6, 10, 11, 21, and 22. Common in the low-gradient portions of the drainage and frequently captured in sloughs, borrow ditches, and main stream pools. ESOcIDAE 6. Esox americanus vermiculatus Lesueur. Grass pickerel. Stations 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 17, 18, 20, and 25. Distributed 66 | 10. Ee 13. 14. . Carassius auratus (Linnaeus). TRANs. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3—4) throughout the drainage and frequently seen lying in debris and vegetation bor- dering streams and flooded areas. CyYPRINIDAE Gold- fish. Station 3. Only one specimen was taken and probably represents an intro- duction rather than an established pop- ulation. . Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus. Carp. Sta- tions 1, 3, 6, 7, 9-12, 25, and 29. Com- mon in the low-gradient portions of the drainage and a frequent inhabitant of sloughs and pools of streams. . Hybognathus hayi Jordan. Cypress min- now. Stations 3, 4, 6, and 22. Rare, and collected only in low-gradient streams from pools and areas with little or no current. H. nuchalis Agassiz. Silvery minnow. Stations 6, 7, 9, and 10. Uncommon, and a lowland species which was most often taken from side pools of the main stream. Notemigonus crysoleucas (Mitchill). Golden shiner. Stations 2, 3, 5-12, 14, 15, 18, 25, and 30. Widely distributed. . Notropis emiliae (Hay). Pugnose min- now. Stations 4, 9, 11, 12, 14, and 15. Most captures from the lowland areas of the system. Although widely dis- tributed, this species was never col- lected in large numbers. N. fumeus Evermann. Ribbon shiner. Stations 6-12, 14-18, and 21-24. The most numerous shiner in the drainage. Prefers quiet water and pools in both high- and low-gradient portions of streams. N. lutrensis (Baird and Girard). Red shiner. Stations 9 and 17. Confined to riffles where it is occasionally taken in fairly large numbers. Dr. Glen Clem- mer (pers. comm.) suspected that some of the specimens collected during this study are N. lutrensis x N. venustus hybrids. . N. spilopterus (Cope). Spotfin shiner. Station 17. Rare. Only a few specimens were collected from a riffle with sand bottom. 16. 1s 18. 19: 20. 21. 22. . Minytrema_ melanops N. venustus (Girard). Blacktail shiner. Stations 14 and 15. An inhabitant of riffles in the high-gradient portions of the stream and apparently rare. Phenacobius mirabilis (Girard). Suck- ermouth minnow. Stations 5, 14-18, and 24. Common in the high-gradient por- tions of the drainage and usually taken in or below swift riffles with sand and gravel bottoms. Frequently taken with Percina uranidea. Pimephales promelas Rafinesque. Fat- head minnow. Stations 2 and 5. An inhabitant of intermittent pools and quiet waters of the lowlands where it is rare. Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchill). Creek chub. Stations 5, 13-20, and 25-27. Confined mainly to the high-gra- dient portions of the system and often the most abundant species of extreme headwater streams with continuous flow. CATOSTOMIDAE Erimyzon oblongus (Mitchill). Creek chubsucker. Stations 4, 15, and 18-20. A common occupant of pools in head- waters and high-gradient portions of the stream. Ictiobus bubalus (Rafinesque). Small- mouth buffalo. Stations 1, 3, 4, 6, 10, and 25. Fairly common in the low- gradient portions of the drainage where most captures were from sloughs, bor- row ditches, and pools of the main stream. I. cyprinellus (Valenciennes). Big- mouth buffalo. Stations 6 and 25. Un- common and taken only from sloughs and borrow pits in the lowlands. (Rafinesque). Spotted sucker. Stations 14 and 17. Several large individuals sighted at Sta- tion 17 in the early spring of 1974, but apparently rare in the drainage at other times of the year. ICTALURIDAE . Ictalurus furcatus (Lesueur). Blue cat- fish. Although no specimens were col- lected, this species is reported by com- 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. dl. 32. 33. FisHes OF BAyou DE CHiEN—Webb and Sisk mercial fishermen of the area to ascend Bayou de Chien and Little Bayou de Chien in early spring. I. melas (Rafinesque). Black bullhead. Stations 1-6, 8, 9, 13, 20, 25, 29, and 30. Common in the lowlands and seems to prefer the same general habitat as I. natalis. I, natalis (Lesueur). Yellow bullhead. Stations 1-4, 6-18, 20, 23, and 25. Com- mon throughout the system and fre- quently taken from pools and areas with little or no current. I. punctatus (Rafinesque). Channel catfish. Stations 1, 9-11, and 22. A low- land species that local fishermen re- ported from several localities other than those listed above. Noturus gyrinus (Mitchill). Tadpole madtom. Stations 4, 6, 9, and 10. Re- stricted to the lowlands where it is usu- ally found under overhanging banks or in clumps of leaves and other debris. N. nocturnus Jordan and Gilbert. Freckled madtom. Stations 9, 10, 14, and 22. Uncommon and collected from the same general habitat as N. gyrinus. Pylodictis olivaris (Rafinesque). Flat- head catfish. Taken near our Station 21. Sight record of the head of a speci- men taken by local fisherman and re- portedly weighed 45 pounds (20.4 kg). CYPRINODONTIDAE Fundulus olivaceus (Storer). Black- spotted topminnow. Stations 1-4, 6-20, and 23-29. One of the most common species, distributed throughout the sys- tem and preferring quiet pools. POECILIIDAE Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard). Mosquitofish. Stations 1-29. Probably the most abundant species in the sys- tem. An inhabitant of intermittent pools, borrow pits, backwaters, and pools of the main stream. APHREDODERIDAE Aphredoderus sayanus (Gilliams). Pi- rate perch. Stations 2-4, 6-13, 18, 21, 22, 28, and 29. Fairly common in the 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 67 lowland portion of the drainage and most frequently taken in vegetation and debris along the margins of streams, flooded areas, and sloughs. PERCICHTHYIDAE . Morone chrysops (Rafinesque). White bass. Station 1. Known to ascend the main stream in early spring during flood periods. CENTRARCHIDAE Centrarchus macropterus (Lacépede). Fier. Stations 2-4 6, 11) 25, and 30. Fairly common in the lowlands in sloughs and pools. Elassoma zonatum Jordan. Banded pigmy sunfish. Stations 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 14, and 17. Not common although sev- eral specimens were taken in all parts of the drainage. This species was collected in large numbers at Station 11 only during the spring of 1973. Lepomis cyanellus Rafinesque. Green sunfish. Stations 2-5, 7-11, 13, 15-20, and 25-27. Common throughout the system with the largest populations oc- curring in the high-gradient portion of the drainage. L. gulosus (Cuvier). Warmouth. Sta- tions 2-4, 6-17, 21, 22, and 24. Fairly common throughout the drainage system except in extreme headwater streams. L. humilis (Girard). Orangespotted sunfish. Stations 3, 5, 6, and 10. Con- fined to the lowlands where it is fairly common in pools, sloughs, and ditches. L. macrochirus Rafinesque. Bluegill. Stations 1-20, 23, 25, and 29. Abundant throughout the drainage system and most frequently taken from pools. L. symmetricus Forbes. Bantam sun- fish. Stations 6 and 11. Rare, collected only from borrow ditches and a flooded area in the low gradient portion of the stream. . Micropterus salmoides (Lacépede). Largemouth bass. Stations 1, 3, 4, 6, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, and 30. Fairly common throughout the drainage although not in large numbers. Most specimens taken 68 43, 44, 46. 47. 48. 49. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3—4) with seines were small, but creel census data showed that individuals of 2-3 pounds (4.4-6.6 kg) are not uncommon in the lowland parts of the system. Pomoxis annularis Rafinesque. White crappie. Stations 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11, 22, and 30. Common and collected mainly from pools of streams, borrow pits, sloughs, and flooded areas. P. nigromaculatus Lesueur. Black crap- pie. Stations 3, 4, and 11. Not as com- mon as P. annularis with most captures from masses of vegetation in flooded areas and ditches. PERCIDAE . Etheostoma asprigene (Forbes). Mud darter.’ Stations) i 9:10: 21;and+ 22. Confined to the lowland portion of the main stream where most captures were from riffles and matted roots along the bank. E. chlorosomum (Hay). Bluntnose darter. Stations 1, 3, 4, 6, 10-15, 17, 18, and 22-24. Common and usually found in sloughs, pools, and other areas lacking noticeable current. This species repre- sents the E. nigrum reported by Wool- man (1892), (pers. comm. R. M. Bailey 1974). E. gracile (Girard). Slough darter. Stations 1-20, 23, 24, 26, and 29. The most common percid encountered in this survey. Occurring throughout the drainage system with the greatest con- centration in the lowlands. E. histrio Jordan and Gilbert. Harle- quin darter. Stations 9, 10, 14, and 15. Relatively rare, although common in riffles at Station 10 during certain times of the year. E. squamiceps Jordan. Spottail darter. Stations 9, 10, and 14-19. Fairly com- mon in the high gradient portions of the stream with occasional specimens being taken from lowland streams with mod- erate flow. . Percina sciera (Swain). Dusky darter. Stations 9 and 11. Confined to the low- lands where it is rare and most often found in fibrous roots bordering riffles. O1. Percina uranidea (Jordan and Gilbert). Stargazing darter. Stations 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 17, and 24. Fairly common in riffles of the high-gradient portion of the stream where it was usually collected over a sand and gravel substrate. Often collected with Phenacobius mirabilis. . Stizostedion canadense (Smith). Sau- ger. Station 1. One specimen was taken in a gill net and probably was a migrant from the Mississippi River. Ol bo SCIAENIDAE 53. Aplodinotus grunniens Rafinesque. Freshwater drum. Stations 1 and 9. Confined to the lowlands where it is probably more abundant than is indi- cated by this study. DISCUSSION The collections of Woolman (1892) from Bayou de Chien included several species of fishes intolerant of high turbidity. These include Lepomis megalotis, Labidesthes sicculus, Micropterus dolomieui, Notropis whipplei, Percina caprodes, and P. macu- lata. Extensive clearing of native forests of the area and the conversion of the land for agrarian use may account for the in- creased silt load in the stream system. Ab- sence of these fishes from the present study may be the result of an increase in stream turbidities since the 1890's. Another reason these species are absent in our collections may not be misidentification by Woolman as much as an increase in taxonomic and systematic expertise since Woolman’s time. The absence of Centrarchus macropterus, Lepomis humilis, Gambusia affinis, Icta- lurus natalis, I. melas, and Etheostoma grac- ile from Woolman’s collections is also surprising since all are common lowland species inhabiting the Coastal Plain. Cypri- nus carpio, an inhabitant of all major drain- ages of the United States and recently re- ported from Canada, is not among the species reported by Woolman (1892). The appearance of C. carpio in the Jackson Pur- chase region may postdate 1890, since Wool- man did not report it from any part of Kentucky west of the Tenessee River. FisHes OF BAyYou DE CuteEN—Webb and Sisk 69 Miller (1972) placed 3 species of fishes taken during this study on the rare and endangered species list for Kentucky. Etheostoma histrio and E. asprigene are re- garded as rare and endangered while Per- cina uranidea is listed as rare. Populations of E. asprigene and P. uranidea in Bayou de Chien probably are large enough to ensure their continued existence barring major stream changes. E. histrio is much rarer and exhibits a more limited distribution and narrower habitat requirements than the other 2 percids. Any type of dredging or channelization of Bayou de Chien would seriously threaten existing populations of E. histrio. Two other fishes collected during this study, Lepomis symmetricus and Hybogna- thus hayi, appear in danger of extirpation from the northern limits of their ranges. Both are inhabitants of the Coastal Plain (Moore 1968), and are thus restricted in the Commonwealth to the extreme western half of the Jackson Purchase. L. symmetricus is on the rare and endangered species list of Missouri and Illinois ( Miller 1972) and in Missouri is restricted to a single locality in the southeastern portion of the state (Pflie- ger 1971). H. hayi has not been collected in Missouri since the 1940's (Pflieger 1971) and is possibly extinct in the state. Past studies by Smith and Sisk (1969), Sisk (1973), and the present study indicate that H. hayi and L. symmetricus are rare in the Jackson Purchase region of Kentucky and that protective measures need to be insti- tuted to ensure their existence in the state. Little was known about the spawning habits of Polyodon spathula until Purkett (1961) observed the species spawning over gravel bars in Missouri’s Osage River. The spawning habits of P. spathula in Kentucky are unknown (Clay 1962). In August 1973, a 23-cm specimen was taken from Bayou de Chien at Station 21. According to the studies of Purkett (1961), and Houser and Bross (1959) this juvenile was probably spawned in May 1973. If this specimen was not spawned over gravel and sand bars that are 13-16 km upstream from the point of collection, then it appears that Bayou de Chien at least serves as a nursery for the young paddlefish. It should be noted that such species as Umbra limi, Notropis maculatus, Fundulus chrysotus, F. notti, Menidia audens, Etheo- stoma fusiforme, and E. proeliare were ab- sent in collections from Bayou de Chien. All these fishes were reported by Sisk (1973) from nearby Running Slough and lakes of the lowlands southwest of Hick- man, Kentucky, and may be suspected of occurring in the Bayou de Chien drainage system. LITERATURE CITED BAtmEY. Be M., J. HE. Prren, FE. S, Heratp, E. A. LACHNER, C. C. Linpsry, C. R. RosBins, AND W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of common and scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. No. 6:1—150. Baker, C. L. 1937. The commercial, game and rough fishes of Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee. Rept. Reelfoot Lake Biological Station, J. Tenn. Acad. Sci., 12(1):9-59. . 1939a. Additional fishes of Reelfoot Lake. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 14(1):6-40. . 1939b. Key to Reelfoot Lake fishes. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 14(1):41—45. , AND M. V. Parker. 1938. The fishes of Reelfoot Lake. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 13(2): 160-163. Cray, W.M. 1962. A field manual of Kentucky fishes. Ky. Dept. Fish. Wildl. Resources. The Dunne Press, Louisville, Ky. 147 pp. EVERMANN, B. W. 1918. The fishes of Kentucky and Tennessee: A distributional catalogue of the known species. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 35: 293-368. ForBEs, S. A., AND R. E. RicHARDsON. 1920. The fishes of Illinois. 2nd ed., Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv., Dept. Regist. Educ., Springfield, Ill. 359 pp. Houser, A., AND M. G. Bross. 1959. Observa- tions on growth and reproduction of paddle- fish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 88(1):50-52. LoucHripcE, R. H. 1888. Report on the geo- logic and economic features of the Jackson Purchase Region embracing the counties of Ballard, Calloway, Fulton, Graves, Hickman, McCracken, and Marshall. Geol. Surv. Ky., Frankfort, Ky. 357 pp. Mitter, R. R. 1972. Threatened freshwater fishes of the United States. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 101(2) :239-252. Moore, G. A. 1968. Fishes. 144 pp. In Verte- brates of the United States, 2nd ed., McGraw- Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y. 70 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4) Prurecer, W. L. 1971. A distributional study of Missouri fishes. Univ. Kans. Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist. 20( 3) :225-570. Reso, V. H., C. R. BAker, AND W. M. Cray. 1973. A preliminary list of fishes of the Land Between the Lakes, Cumberland and Tennes- see river drainages. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 33 (3-4) :73-80. SCHWENDEMAN, J. 1958. Geography of Ken- tucky. Harlow Publ. Co., Oklahoma City, Okla. 213 pp. Sisk, M. E. 1969. The fishes of west Kentucky. I. Fishes of the Clark’s River. Acad. Sci. 30(3-4) :54—59. 1973. Six additions to the known piscine fauna of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 34(3-4) :49-50. SmitH, P. L., anp M. E. Sisk. 1969. The fishes of west Kentucky. II. The fishes of Obion Creek. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30(3-4) :60-68. WooLMaN, A. J. 1892. Report of an examina- tion of the rivers of Kentucky, with lists of the fishes obtained. Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. 10: 249-288. Trans. Ky. Distribution and Life History Notes on the Taillight Shiner Notropis maculatus in Kentucky Brooxs M. Burr AND LAWRENCE M. PAGE Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana, Illinois 61801 ABSTRACT Notropis maculatus is present in Ohio River oxbows in Ballard and McCracken counties, Kentucky. Populations in these oxbows are the northernmost known of the species, and life history characteristics are compared to those of a central Florida population. Citing 3 localities, Sisk (1973) recorded the presence of Notropis maculatus in ex- treme southwestern Kentucky, and _ ex- pressed the opinion that these localities represented the northernmost limit in range of the species. In fact, however, N. macu- latus also occurs, sometimes commonly, in the series of oxbow lakes lining the southern edge of the Ohio River in Ballard and Mc- Cracken counties in western Kentucky ( Fig. 1). These oxbows are deep, have cypress swamp margins, and at least some of them are contiguous with the Ohio River during periods of flood. In the Ohio River oxbows, N. maculatus was found mainly in marginal vegetation and in accumulations of sticks and debris in shallow water. Specimens collected have been deposited in the Illinois Natural His- tory Survey (the number of specimens is given in parentheses): KENTUCKY, Bal- lard Co.: Mitchell Lake, 2 km NW Oscar, 29 August 1970 (6); 27 September 1973 (1); Butler Lake, 5 km NW Oscar, 14 Au- gust 1969 (3); Fish Lake, 5 km W Barlow, 10 September 1968 (2); Prairie Lake, 5 km W Gum Corners, 30 August 1970 (20); slough, 5 km W Gum Corners, 31 August 1970 (43). McCracken Co.: Crawford Lake, 3 km N Ragland, 14 August 1969 (4); Metropolis Lake, 5 km N Grahamville, 9 September 1967 (5); 10 September 1969 (10); 28 May 1972 (83); 26 April 1975 (5). Other fishes collected with N. maculatus in those lakes were Polyodon spathula, Lepi- sosteus osseus, Amia calva, Dorosoma cepe- dianum, Esox niger, Hybognathus hayi, H. nuchalis, Notemigonus crysoleucas, Notro- pis emiliae, N. spilopterus, Noturus gyrinus, fal Fundulus notatus, F. olivaceus, Gambusia affinis, Labidesthes sicculus, Aphredoderus sayanus, Lepomis cyanellus, L. gulosus, L. humilis, L. macrochirus, L. megalotis, L. microlophus, L. punctatus, Micropterus sal- moides, Pomoxis annularis,.P. nigromacu- latus, Etheostoma asprigene, E. chloroso- mum, E. gracile, E. proeliare, and Percina caprodes. The new localities (Fig. 1) apparently represent the northernmost limit in range of N. maculatus. A large amount of unsuccess- ful effort has been expended in searching for the species on the Illinois side of the Ohio River. Pflieger (1971, 1974) discussed the probable extirpation of the species from Missouri where it has not been found in more than 30 years. The general range of N. maculatus is described by Cowell and Barnett (1974). The hiatus between the Ohio River ox- bow records and the Mississippi River back- water pond records in southwestern Ken- tucky (Fig. 1) may be due to a lack of ade- quate collecting; however, an examination of topographic maps for the region of the hiatus reveals an apparent lack of suitable habitat for N. maculatus (i.e., few oxbows, sloughs, or backwater ponds) in this region and the species may actually be absent. Collections of N. maculatus in the Ohio River oxbows have been made in April (5 specimens), May (83), August (77), and September (21), and some comparisons with life history characteristics of the spe- cies in central Florida as described by Cow- ell and Barnett (1974) can be made. In Metropolis Lake, McCracken County, on 28 May 1972, a school of N. maculatus —~] bo i, MISSOURI seer -! |] 1 . ‘ TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4) Fic. 1. Known localities from which Notropis maculatus has been collected in Kentucky. The southwest- ern records are those reported by Sisk (1973). The Ohio River oxbow localities are based on specimens reported in this paper. was discovered spawning beneath or adja- cent to a large log in water 15 to 30 cm deep. The breeding males were extremely brightly colored, with a suffusion of red over much of the body and head, in the iris of the eye, and distally on the dorsal, pelvic, anal, and caudal fins. The basicaudal black spot, the subdistal anterior black dorsal fin blotch, and the black midlateral band were all prominent (Fig. 2). Except for occasional gravid females with pale red snouts, females lacked red pigment. Small, white tubercles were variously present on the lateral snout, lower head, chin, and dorsally along the anterior rays of the pectoral fins. Breeding females were without tubercles. Florida breeding males were described as having red on the dorsal and pelvic fins and tuber- cles on the snout. Douglas’ (1974) descrip- tion of breeding males in Louisiana, “with much red on the head and body (especially the tips and edges of all fins),” is much more in agreement with the pigmentation of the Kentucky specimens. Cowell and Barnett (1974) stated that in Florida, nonreproductive males larger than 30 mm total length could be distinguished from females by the presence in males of a “band of dusky spots along the anterior mar- gin of the dorsal fin.” This band was rarely evident on Kentucky specimens, being clearly developed only on a few males col- lected in August. Although in Florida the species breeds from March to early October, with mature females and ripe males taken in every col- lection during these months, there is no indication of such a protracted spawning period in Kentucky. Young of the year were collected in April, and spawning individuals in May, indicating a spawning period ex- tending at least from March to May; how- ever, none of the individuals collected in August and September were in breeding condition. In Florida, the number of mature ova (those over 0.8 mm in diameter) in 47 fe- males ranged from 72 to 408 and averaged 163. In Kentucky, the number ranged from 25 to 431 and averaged 246 in 21 females collected on 28 May 1972. As in the Florida population, the largest females produced TAILLIGHT SHINER IN KenTucky—Burr and Page 73 Fic. 2. Notropis maculatus tuberculate breeding males collected in Kentucky (Metropolis Lake, 5 km N Grahamville, McCracken Co., 28 May 1972). the most eggs; the higher average number of eggs found for the Kentucky specimens probably was primarily a result of larger females being examined (11 of the 21 fe- males were over 53 mm total length). The relationship between the number of mature ova (F) and the standard length (L) was log F =-5.808 + 5.013 log L, with r = 0.53, and between the number of mature ova and the total length (T) was log F =-5.105 + 4.319 log T, with r = 0.47. The sex ratio of the 190 N. maculatus ex- amined from Kentucky was 0.8 females to 1 male (7 = 2.10, ns.), of the 106 speci- mens from Metropolis Lake was 0.5 females to 1 male (,” = 9.66, p < .005), and of the 83 specimens collected in Metropolis Lake on 28 May 1972 (the spawning school) was 0.4 females to 1 male (x? = 18.32, p < .005). Although females were found to outnumber males in Florida, males were relatively more common along the shoreline; all of our specimens were captured near shore. As in Florida, females averaged signifi- cantly larger than males. The average total length of 22 females collected in Metropolis Lake on 28 May 1972 (range = 42.1 to 60.6 mm) was 52.7 mm, that of 61 males (range = 40.9 to 60.3 mm) was 48.6 mm (t = 4.16, p < .005). All were mature individuals and apparently about 1 year old. Although these averages are larger than those given for mature N. maculatus in Florida (mean total length for females = 44.4 mm, for males = 41.6 mm), younger fish may have been in- cluded in the Florida sample. The average standard length of the Kentucky females was 42.0 mm (range = 33.7 to 48.1 mm), of males was 39.6 mm (range = 32.6 to 47.8 mm). The largest specimen examined from Kentucky was a 48.1-mm SL, 60.6-mm TL female. No annulus formation was discernible in Florida. In Kentucky, a weak annulus was visible on some individuals but aging by this method was not feasible. However, it 74 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36( 3-4) TABLE 1.—STANDARD LENGTH FREQUENCIES OF NOTROPIS MACULATUS COLLECTED IN OxBOW LAKES IN KENTUCKY Month of Collection Standard Length, mm 48 46 45 44 43 42 = ~ om Aug Sep Apr oy) de CO oS bt SPD BRAT B® ATER -10 WD O1W Wb COD HE bo hr Ol fool appears from the size distribution of the specimens collected (Table 1) that the spe- cies lives a maximum of less than 2 years in Kentucky as well as in Florida. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We wish to thank Philip W. Smith for critically reading the manuscript, J. A. Boyd, E. Christian, E. L. List, J. C. Marlin, P. W. Smith, C. C. Swift, J. A. Tranquilli, and J. Weise for their assistance in collecting speci- mens. LITERATURE CITED CowEL., B. C., anp B. S. BArnetr. 1974. Life history of the taillight shiner, Notropis macu- latus, in central Florida. Amer. Midl. Nat. 91:282-293. Dovucias, N. H. 1974. Freshwater fishes of Louisiana. Claitor’s Publ. Div., Baton Rouge, La. 443 pp. Prurecer, W. L. 1971. A distributional study of Missouri fishes. Univ. Kans. Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist. 20:225—570. . 1974. Fishes. In: EF. FT) Bole ek Keefe, W. H. Lewis, W. L. Pflieger, and M. H. Sullivan (eds.). Rare & endangered spe- cies of Missouri. Mo. Dept. Cons., U. S. Dept. Agric., Soil Cons. Service n.p. Sisk, M. E. 1973. Six additions to the known piscine fauna of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 34:49-50. The Probability of Annual Extreme Winter Temperatures in Kentucky Jerry D. Hiti National Weather Service, Office for Agriculture, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ABSTRACT The minimum winter temperatures were examined for several different locations in Kentucky having long periods of record. The cumulative frequency distribution of the temperatures was compared with the normal and the Fisher—Tippett Type I extreme value distributions to deter- mine which provided the best approximation to the data. The Kolmogoroy—Smirnoy test for goodness of fit did not allow either distribution to be rejected at the .10 probability level. Further tests were made for asymmetry in the data using the coefficient of skew. Five loca- tions tested failed to exhibit significant skew at the .10 probability level which would be characteristic of the extreme value distribution. In the absence of significant skew, the normal distribution was then selected for use in the estimation of temperatures to be expected for various return periods. Observed temperatures from 33 locations were used to estimate the parameters of the normal distribution for each and predict coldest temperatures to be expected with return periods of once in 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 years. INTRODUCTION An analysis of the probability of extreme winter temperatures has far-reaching impli- cations for anyone involved in long-range planning. The agriculturist must select va- rieties of winter grain or fruit trees for their ability to withstand a particular degree of cold. Builders must be able to anticipate the extent of cold their structures will have to withstand and still provide a measure of comfort. The coldest temperature ever re- corded at official observing stations in Ken- tucky, -37 C at Cynthiana and at Bonnie- ville in Hart County, may be an extremely rare event or it might be expected to occur several times in a normal lifetime. A study of the record of extreme cold temperatures can reveal the frequency of occurrence of any particular value. The climate of Kentucky is characterized by 2 factors which determine the coldest temperatures usually experienced during the winter season. The first is the move- ment of cold air masses across the state which provide the conditions necessary for occasional frigid readings. The second is a more local factor characterized by the state’s irregular terrain, which allows uneven night- time cooling and the drainage of cold air 75 into low-lying areas. Because of the local effects, it is difficult to generalize and as- sume the coldest temperatures will always occur in the northern portions of the state or in the higher elevations of the eastern sec- tions. The probability of extreme values must be investigated separately for each location where temperatures have been re- corded. SOURCE OF DATA Climatological weather observing stations in Kentucky have been established by the National Weather Service for the purpose of gathering daily temperature data at about 80 locations and rainfall data at about 180 locations. The instruments are installed either at the home of a volunteer observer or at a cooperating organization such as a water plant, radio station, etc. Maximum and minimum thermometers are read once a day in order to determine the extremes during the preceding 24-hour period. These thermometers are mounted inside a stan- dard, ventilated instrument shelter at a height of 5 feet above a grass surface. While sites are selected to minimize any modify- ing influences, the location may occasionally be near a body of water or prone to cold air drainage. 76 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4) Normal Distribution f (x) x Fic.1, A total of 33 well-distributed temperature observing stations were chosen for this study, all of which have periods of record extending from 20 to more than 75 years. The coldest single temperature reached during each year was used to define a set of extreme temperature observations for the period of record at every location. METHODS In any study of probability, it is necessary to find a theoretical frequency distribution which represents the data under considera- tion. In a study of extreme temperatures in Ohio (Miller and Weaver 1970), the well- known normal distribution was used to pre- pare tables of temperatures occurring at selected probability levels. In many design problems where annual extremes are being considered, the Fisher-Tippett Type I ex- treme value distribution (Thom 1966) has been widely used. While the normal distri- bution is symmetrical with equal probabil- ity on either side of the mode, the extreme value distribution is skewed and, in the case of minimum values, has a greater probabil- ity of values below the mode than above (Fig. 1). The extreme value distribution was used to determine the probability of TABLE 1.—RESULTS OF KOLMOGOROV—SMIRNOV Tests AT 3 LOCATIONS Value of D: Critical Value of Length of Extreme D at Location Record Normal Value Level .10 Greensburg 75 years .07 abd .139 Murray Alyears .09 .05 .187 Beaver Dam 36 years .06 .06 .199 f (x) Extreme-Value Distribution (for minimum values) x Comparative shape of normal and extreme value frequency distributions. extreme winter temperature in Tennessee (Bailey 1965). To prepare tables of probabilities or re- turn periods of extreme winter temperatures for Kentucky, it is necessary to determine which of these frequency distributions best represents the population from which the observed data have been drawn. As a pre- liminary test, data from Greensburg, Beaver Dam, and Murray were analyzed, and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (Feller 1948) applied to determine if either the normal or extreme value distribution could be re- jected. In order to reject the hypothesis that the data are from a particular distribu- tion under consideration the test requires that D, the maximum deviation between the theoretical cumulative distribution function and the sample cumulative distribution function, exceed a critical value. The value depends upon the number of observations and the level of confidence to be placed in the test. For this investigation, a rather lib- eral 10 percent confidence level was chosen for all statistical tests. The results of the test using both the normal distribution and the extreme value distribution functions proved inconclusive in differentiating be- tween the two possibilities (Table 1). Further testing was done to determine if the samples exhibited certain qualities unique to the assumed theoretical frequency distributions. An obvious test is for sym- metry since the normal distribution is sym- metrical with the mode, mean, and the me- dian values equal while the extreme value distribution is asymmetrical. A useful mea- sure of symmetry is the coefficient of skew, sk (Panofsky 1965) defined in standard statistical notation as: EXTREME WINTER TEMPERATURES IN KENTUCKY—Hill be TABLE 2.—RESULTS OF TESTS FOR SYMMETRY Location Mean Median - Bowling Green -17.8 C —17.8 C Greensburg —19.6 —20.0 ' Anchorage —20.8 —20.8 Richmond -18.9 -19.2 Williamsburg -17.8 —17.8 N Sigs)? en No? A sample of data with more values below the mode than above will be skewed to the left and have a negative coefficient of skew. The normal distribution has a coefficient of skew equal to 0. Tests of symmetry were made using data from 5 stations each with periods of record extending over 70 years or more. All exhib- ited a negative coefficient of skew, however, most of the differences from 0 were small. In order to test whether the differences were significant, a t-test was made (Snede- cor 1956) where the f statistic was formed as: oe sk —0 Standard error of sk The standard error of sk can be estimated (Brooks and Carruthers 1953) as approxi- mately \/6/N. To evaluate whether the skew is significant, the hypothesis can be formed that the data were drawn from a sample with a coefficient of skew equal to 0. If the value of t exceeds the appropriate tabled values at the selected level of signifi- cance, the hypothesis can be rejected. Table 2 gives the results of these tests. Critical t Skew t at Level .10 —0.258 912 1.289 —0.335 1.184 1.289 —0.054 .190 1.289 —0.083 293 1.289 —0.015 .053 1.289 Since the ¢ values all fail to exceed the critical limit, the hypothesis cannot be re- jected. This would imply that the normal distribution reasonably represents the popu- lation although the data for Greensburg ex- hibit a near significant skew at the 10 per- cent level. As a further check on the distributional assumption, temperatures corresponding to various return periods were estimated using the normal and extreme value distributions, then compared to observed data. The results are shown in Table 3 where only Greens- burg exhibited evidence which would ques- tion the use of the normal distribution function. In the data from Greensburg, temperatures occurring with intermediate return periods of once in 10 to 25 years agree more closely with the normal proba- bilities while less frequent occurrences on the order of once in 50 to 75 years are skewed considerably and favor the extreme- value distribution. DIscuUSSION None of the data presented here provides overwhelming conclusive proof for the se- lection of one distribution function or the other; however, the absence of pronounced TABLE 3.—CoLpEsST WINTER TEMPERATURES °C PREDICTED AND OBSERVED FOR GIVEN RETURN PERIODS. N = NorMaL, EV = ExTrREME VALUE, O = OBSERVED VALUE Coldest Temperature Reached or Greensburg Bowling Green Exceeded 9 ————______— One Yearin: N EV O N EV O 5 -23 -23 -23 -22 -21 -21 10 -26 -26 —-25 -23 -24 -24 20 —-27 -29 —-27 —-25 -27 -26 25 -28 -30 -27 -26 -28 -27 40 -28 -32 -32 -27 -29 -29 50 —-29 -33 -33 -27 -3l -29 75 -31 -33 -34 -28 -32 -29 —2 Anchorage Richmond Williamsburg EV O N EV O N EV O 4 -24 -24 -23 -22 -23 —22 -21 -23 —26 27 —-26 -24 -26 -24 -23 -24 -—-24 -27 -28 -28 -26 -28 -26 -25 -27 -24 -29 -29 -27 -29 -26 -26 -28 -25 -29 -32 -29 -28 -31 —-29 -27 -29 -26 -32 -30 -28 -32 -31 —-27 -31l -26 —33 ~ -29 -33 -31 -28 -32 -28 78 20 IRVINGTON HENDERSON : OWENSBORO LEITCHFIELD 20 BEAVER DAM MADISONVILLE “19 19 LOVELACEVILLE PRINCETON GREENVILLE 18 BOWLING GREEN 19 18 HOPKINSVILLE RUSSELLVILLE -18 MAYFIELD -17 MURRAY Fic. 2. Locations used in the study and their mean annual minimum temperature, °C. skew in most sets of data favor the normal distribution. Therefore, the normal distri- bution has been used to estimate the coldest annual temperature expected to occur with frequencies ranging from once in 2 years (the mean) to once in 100 years for the locations shown in Fig. 2. Those tempera- tures are presented in Table 4. It is interesting to note that the coldest mean annual minimum temperature among all stations shown is at Somerset, in south- eastern Kentucky at an elevation of approx- imately 330 m. The weather instruments are located about 2 km north of the city in a broad valley favorable for cold air drain- age. The observing station at Farmers has a similar exposure and also shows a ten- dency to favor cold temperatures. Data from Ashland have been collected since 1916 by the U.S. Corps of Engineers at their dam on the Ohio River. The moder- ating effect of the large body of water is evident in reducing the temperature ex- tremes expected at the dam. The values are slightly more temperate than those indi- cated for Russellville which is at approxi- mately the same elevation but a full 2 de- grees of latitude further south. SUMMARY The coldest temperature expected during the winter at any location in Kentucky is determined not only by the latitude but also TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF ANCHORAGE 1 SHELBYVILLE BARDSTOWN ) DANVILLE -19 GREENSBURG COVINGTON 20 WILLIAMSTOWN 19 FRANKFORT LEXINGTON 22 SOMERSET TABLE 4.—CoLpEstT ANNUAL TEMPERATURE PECTED FOR SELECTED RETURN PERIODS AT RICHMOND -18 WILLIAMSBURG SCIENCE 36(3-4) MAYSVILLE 21 HEIDELBERG MANCHESTER 21 FARMERS -18 MIDOLESBORO ASHLAND LECTED LOCATIONS IN KENTUCKY Ex- SE- Coldest Temperature °C Reached or Exceeded One Year in: Location ® 5 Anchorage —2] -24 Ashland —18 -21 Bardstown Se Ses Beaver Dam —20 -—24 Berea —19 ~-22 Bowling Green -18 —-22 Covington -21 -23 Danville —19 —97, Farmers as Frankfort =I9 9-23 Greensburg -19 -23 Greenville —19,4=93 Heidelberg Su Sk Henderson = ea Hopkinsville -19 -22 Irvington -20 -23 Leitchfield oa Lexington -19 -23 Lovelaceville SS 225 Madisonville =o 5 Manchester a, ao Mayfield -18 -21 Maysville -19 -23 Middlesboro Se Murray -17 -20 Owensboro —19 —23 Princeton -19 -23 Richmond —19 -23 Russellville —1§ —22 Shelbyville —2] -24 Somerset —22 -26 Williamsburg —-18 -22 Williamstown —20 —23 10 —26 —23 —26 —26 —24 —23 —25 —23 —27 —24 —26 —24 —26 —24 —24 —25 —24 —24 —24 —24 —27 —23 —24 —23 —22 —24 —26 —24 —24 —26 —28 —23 -25 25 —28 —24 —28 —28 —26 —26 —27 —26 —29 —26 —28 —26 —28 —26 —27 —27 —26 —26 —27 —27 —28 —25 —27 —25 —24 —26 —28 —27 —26 —28 -30 —26 —27 50 —29 —26 —29 -30 -27 —27 —28 —27 -31 -27 —-29 —28 —29 —27 —28 —28 —28 -27 —28 —28 —29 —26 —28 —26 -25 —28 —29 -28 —27 —-29 -31 —27 —28 100 —30 —-27 -31 EXTREME WINTER TEMPERATURES IN KENTUCKY—Hill 79 the topography of the location. For most locations the long-term weather records show that extreme low temperatures occur with a frequency which can be approxi- mated by the normal distribution function. Tables of the normal distribution can be used to calculate the extreme winter tem- peratures expected to occur with any given frequency. LITERATURE CITED Baitey, M. H. 1965. Extreme winter tempera- tures in Tennessee. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 40: 18-21. Brooks, C. E. P., anp N. CarruTHERs. 1953. Handbook of statistical methods in meteorol- ogy. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. London, Eng. 412 pp. FELLER, W. 1948. On the Kolmogorov—Smirnov limit theorems for empirical distributions. Ann. Math. Stat. 19:279-281. Mitier, M. E., anp C. R. Weaver. 1970. Ex- treme monthly and annual temperatures in Ohio. Ohio Agric. Res. Dev. Cent., Res. Bull. 1041. 35 pp. PanoFsky, H. A., AND G. W. Brier. 1965. Some applications of statistics to meteorology. Penn. St. Univ., University Park, Pa. 224 pp. SNEDECOR, G. W. 1956. Statistical methods. Iowa St. Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 534 pp. Tuom, H.C. S. 1966. Some methods of climato- logical analysis. World Meteorol. Organ., Geneva, Switzerland. Tech. Note 81. 52 pp. Populational Differences in Survival Patterns of Sweetgum JoE E. WINSTEAD Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 ABSTRACT Exposure of progeny from 6 different populations of Liquidambar styraciflua to climatic conditions of south-central Kentucky for a 2-year period indicated different survival rates between the populations. Populations from sites of origin outside of a general latitude range of 34—37° N. Lat. showed very low survival values in a transplant garden near Bowling Green, Kentucky. INTRODUCTION In recent years, studies in the interactions of a species to its environment have shown that even though a species type may be morphologically identical throughout its geographical distribution, the species may show different populational patterns in re- gard to a population’s response to the condi- tions of a selected habitat. In studies of plants, one of the first indications of such genetic diversity was by Turesson (1922), where reciprocal transplanting of different populations of several herbaceous species led to the development of the ecotype concept. Following his work, a multitude of experimental ecologists have documented the fact that ecotypes are populations of a species genetically adapted to a given habi- tat. The most recent review of scientific literature by Hiesey and Milner (1965), concerning experimental evidence of the evolution of genetically different popula- tions of a species, indicates that selection of genetic variants of a species is the rule rather than an exception. Academically, such knowledge has been valuable in an- swering questions of how an organism sur- vives in its habitat, and has led ecologists to move away from emphasis on studies of what is located where. Due to man’s influ- ence on environmental quality as well as quantity in the last few years, serious ques- tions have arisen about conservation prac- tices that may require answers developed from the knowledge of just how much genetic diversity is present in a species type. It is the purpose of this report to show that experimental knowledge of ecotypes in 80 a species type may be utilized in a practical application to show the value of retention of populational diversity. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Special thanks are due Dr. R. D. Wil- liams, Jr., who aided in the planting of the various populations. MATERIALS AND METHODS From January to March 1969, 1-year-old seedlings of sweetgum Liquidambar styra- ciflua were supplied by Forestry Depart- ments of Ohio, Illinois, North Carolina, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Upon arrival in the labortory, the packaged seed- lings were stored in the dark in a cold room maintained at a constant temperature of 4 C to prevent bud bursting before planting. The various forestry departments indicated the source of the seeds from which the seed- lings were germinated and it was found that the material from North Carolina was grown from seeds collected from trees at an un- known site in Tennessee. In March 1969, the seedlings were removed from the cold chamber and planted in a level plot pro- vided by the University Farm. Twenty seed- lings of each population (with the excep- tion of the Kentucky material where only 18 seedlings were available) were planted in rows with a distance of 1 m separating each row and each seedling. Upon plant- ing, each seedling was watered and native grasses removed in the vicinity of the plant. Seedlings were periodically watered until the end of April, at which time it was felt that the seedlings were sufficiently estab- | ' | SURVIVAL OF SWEETGUM SEEDLINGS—W instead 81 lished to begin the survival test. Observa- tions were made on the test plot over the next 2 years, and the test was terminated when indiscriminate spraying for thistles in the area on 19 May 1971 seriously damaged the surviving trees. RESULTS By 30 September 1969, a general trend of survival by seedling populations whose ori- gins were between 34 and 37° N latitude was evident (Table 1). The populations from Mississippi and Louisiana showed the lowest survival value during that time. A frost on 31 March 1969 (low -6 C) caused severe damage to the stem tips of the 2 southern populations, but the seedlings later showed partial recovery, and leaves were produced on the lower portions of the stems. After a very wet June (28.2 cm rainfall), followed by a very dry July with rainfall of only 4.03 cm, only 2 seedlings each of these populations survived. The Ohio population seemed to also be affected by the dry month. Only the Illinois, Tennessee, and Kentucky populations showed survival pat- terns of 50 percent or more during the first growing season in the transplant garden. A similar pattern was observed during 1970, and when the program was terminated in 1971, 27 seedlings of the original 58 planted from Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee had survived. Other very subtle differences between the seedlings that survived were apparent in the falls of 1969 and 1970. By mid-October 1969, the seedlings from Ohio, Illinois, Ten- nessee, and Kentucky were showing some fall coloration patterns in their leaves; but the 4 surviving plants from Louisiana and Mississippi were still green. The next year, noticeable coloration differences were not apparent, but surviving populations from Tennessee and northward were noticed to exhibit patterns of leaf fall in November before the seedlings from Mississippi and Louisiana. Also in 1970, the surviving seed- lings from Ohio were the first to show evi- dence of dormant terminal buds, where bud scales had formed in those seedlings by the last week in July. By the first week in Sep- tember 1970, the Illinois and Tennessee TABLE 1.—SuURVIVAL PATTERNS OF TRANSPLANTED SWEETGUM SEEDLINGS Percentage Survival Latitude of Origin Number 30Sep 30Sep 19 May Population (°N) Planted 1969 1970 1971 Ohio 39.5 20 35 10 10 Illinois ov 20 50 50 50 Kentucky 36.5 18 94 55 50 Tennessee 34-36 20 70 45 40 Mississippi 31 20 10 10 10 Louisiana 31.5 20 10 a 5 seedlings were 65-70 percent dormant, but the seedlings from Kentucky, Mississippi, and Louisiana had not shown evidence of forming dormant apical buds. DISCUSSION The results demonstrated by this survival test indicate greater coherence and similar- ity of those populations whose origins were in similar habitats. The [linois, Kentucky, and Tennessee populations are adapted to growing conditions similar to those in the Bowling Green area in relation to length of growing season and annual climatic cycles. Those populations from Mississippi and Louisiana have a naturally longer growing season (approx. 235) than the usual frost- free period of south central Kentucky (approx. 204). It is the adaption to such a longer growing season that probably re- sulted in later leaf coloration, leaf fall, and dormant bud formation of the more south- ern populations in this test, although the low survival of those populations does not allow such a statement to stand unchal- lenged. The low survival value of the Ohio population also poses the question of why an organism adapted to a shorter growing season (approx. 170 days) would not flour- ish if subjected to a longer growing season. Laboratory experiments of Liquidambar under controlled and uniform growing con- ditions by the author (1968 unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas, Austin, Texas ) and by Williams and McMil- lan (1971), where seedling progeny from the full range of geographical distribution of this species was tested, showed that seed- lings from more northern provenances were 82 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3-4) more sensitive to cooler temperatures and shorter photoperiods. This could account for the demonstration of the surviving Ohio seedlings showing earlier dormant bud for- mation as the photoperiod in Kentucky would be shorter during the growing season than in Ohio. Although this test involved only seedlings from 6 different locations, it confirms the results of the previous works, and is an indirect reflection of the effects of natural selection upon different Liquidam- bar populations, ensuring survival of the species in various habitats. Such a practical demonstration as this would seem to be obvious when involving populations of plant species that have been demonstrated under laboratory conditions to be composed of ecotypes. The question is raised of just how important such knowl- edge is. Recently, Odum (1970) has sug- gested that biotic diversity of ecosystems is important in maintaining physical stability. It would seem that the diversity present in different populations of the same species type is equally important in the mainte- nance of the species when it has widespread distribution. An important conservation practice could well be to ensure that suffi- cient genotypes of a species are maintained to assure their replacement or reestablish- ment in areas that have been or will be dis- turbed by man. It is evident from the sim- ple survival test shown here that large reserves of sweetgum in Mississippi and Louisiana would not ensure the successful replanting of such a species in more north- ern areas if needed. The evolution of popu- lations of species like Liquidambar to spe- cific habitat requirements has required hundreds if not thousands of years. As more and more natural resources are removed, there may be the danger of removing eco- types that would not be easily replaced. It is hoped that as more knowledge is gained through ecological studies of species inter- actions with environmental parameters, logical and practical applications can be made with such information. LITERATURE CITED Hresry, W. M., AND H. W. MILNER. 1965. Physi- ology of ecological species. Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. 16:203-216. Opum, E. P. 1970. The strategy of ecosystems development. Science 164:262—270. Turesson, G. 1922. The species and the variety as ecological units. Hereditas 3:100-113. WILuiaMs, G. J., AND C. McMitaAn. 1971. Phe- nology of six United States provenances of Liquidambar styraciflua under controlled con- ditions. Amer. J. Bot. 58:24-31. The Occurrence of Cotylogasteroides occidentalis (Trematoda: Aspidobothrea) in Kentucky FreD H. WHITTAKER AND THOMAS R. KOZEL Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT The occurrence of a single specimen of an aspidobothrean trematode Cotylogasteroides occidentalis in a snail Goniobasis sp. from Oldham County is the first record of occurrence of this parasite in Kentucky. In the fall of 1974, during the examination of 120 specimens of the prosobranch snail Goniobasis sp. from Harrods Creek, about 230 m east of Covered Bridge Road in Old- ham County, a single specimen of a mature, but nonovigerous aspidobothrean trematode was recovered from the tissue within the spire of one of the snails. The trematode was studied alive for several hours in 0.6 percent saline, then heat killed, fixed in AFA, stained with Harris’ hematoxylin, cleared in terpineol, and mounted in Eu- paral vert. The specimen, 7.5 mm long and 1.5 mm wide, has 2 testes arranged in tandem in the posterior region of the opisthator or ventral sucker. The latter structure consists of 34 median and 108 marginal alveoli, and is 4.5 mm long and 1.5 mm wide. A cirrus pouch is absent, and the tubular vitellaria are pre- dominantly lateral. These and other ob- served characters of taxonomic importance, as well as the specific snail host ( Dicker- man 1948, R. M. Cable, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind., pers. comm.) are considered sufficient to justify assignment of the trematode to Cotylogasteroides occi- dentalis Yamaguti, 1963. C. occidentalis has been reported pre- viously from Goniobasis sp. by Dickerman (1948) and Cable (pers. comm.). Kelly (1926) found several specimens in the freshwater clam Lampsilis luteola, and Nick- erson (1902) initially reported the species as a parasite of the freshwater drum Aplo- dinotus grunniens. It is noteworthy that the examination of more than 4,000 specimens of Goniobasis sp. and other operculate snails from Har- rods Creek and other streams in Jefferson, Oldham, and Meade counties over the past 9 years has yielded only a single specimen of C. occidentalis. Like a few other aspidobothrean trema- todes which can become ovigerous in cer- tain mollusks as well as in certain poikilo- thermic vertebrates, C. occidentalis can become gravid in both a snail Goniobasis sp. and a fish Aplodinotus grunniens, but pri- marily in the latter host (Dickerman 1948). The fish becomes infected by feeding on infected snails, but it is not known if the fish can acquire the parasite by ingesting the trematode eggs. This report represents the first occurrence of Cotylogasteroides occidentalis in the snail Goniobasis sp. in Kentucky. LITERATURE CITED DIcKERMAN, E. E. 1948. On the life cycle and systematic position of the aspidogastrid trem- atode, Cotylogaster occidentalis Nickerson, 1902. J. Parasit. 34:164. Ketty, H. M. 1926. A new host for the aspido- gastrid trematode, Cotylogaster occidentalis. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 33:339. Nickerson, W. S. 1902. Cotylogaster occiden- talis n. sp. and a revision of the family Aspido- bothridae. Zool. Jahrb. Syst. 15:597-624. YaAMAGUTI, S. 1963. Systema Helminthum. IV. Monogenea and Aspidocotylea. Interscience Publ. Div., John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y. 699 pp. A Study of the Abnormal-1 and the Poky Strains of Neurospora crassa for Complementation EpwaArp J. MULLANEY' AND DAN R. VARNEY Department of Biology, Eastem Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475 ABSTRACT An investigation to determine if 2 slow-growing cytoplasmic, respiratory deficient mutants, poky and abnormal-1, inositol, would show complementation when mitochondria carrying these mutant traits were brought together in the same cytoplasmon. To do this, it was first necessary to cross poky to an auxotroph, p-aminobenzoic acid, to obtain the double mutant, poky, p-amino- benzoic acid. Poky, p-aminobenzoic and abnormal-1, inositol were then placed on a minimal medium on which neither would grow alone, but growth would only occur as the result of the fusion of hyphae. This would determine whether a heteroplasm could be formed and whether complementation could occur at the cytoplasmic level. A series of controls were established to show if any increase in growth rate was due to heterosis between the nuclear components. Measurement of the growth rate of the heterokaryotic homoplasmon clearly showed no increase in the growth rate, and indicated that complementation did not occur between the poky and abnormal-1 mitochondria. INTRODUCTION Bertrand and Pittenger (1972a) advanced a scheme for the classification of all the known extranuclear cytochrome deficient mutants in Neurospora crassa. This classifi- cation is partially based on the ability of members of 3 groups in this classification to show complementation only with mem- bers of another group in heteroplasmosis. This has been shown to be true in all cases investigated to date, except one (Bertrand and Pittenger 1972b). Two members of the third group, abnormal-1 and abnormal-2, have not been tested. It was the purpose of this paper to determine if there was com- plementation between abnormal-1 and a member of the first group (poky). MATERIALS AND METHODS Various media were used according to the growth requirements and the type of spore production desired. All cultures were maintained in stock on BBL Neurospora culture agar except for abnormal-1 which was maintained on plates of BBL potato dextrose agar. Difco Neurospora minimal + Present address, Department of Plant Pathology and Plant Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602. medium with 2 percent BBL granulated agar was used for measuring growth rates and forcing heterokaryons, except where otherwise indicated. Difco Cornmeal agar (B 386) was the medium for all crosses. The standard St. Lawrence strains of N. crassa 74 A and 77 a, were obtained from Dr. K. E. Papa of the University of Georgia. An auxotroph for inositol with mating type A was acquired from Colorado State Uni- versity. The Fungal Genetics Stock Center supplied the following strains: p-amino- benzoic acid (pab-1) No. 1633 A and a, inositol (inos) No. 37401 a, poky (mi-1)mi- 1-1.8 a, and abnormal-l inositol (abn-l, inos) No. 37401 a. Strains, poky aminoben- zoic and poky inositol, could not be obtained from any source and were produced by crossing (Mitchell et al., 1953). A poky (pab-1) mutant with type a mating type and a poky (inos) mutant with mating type a were then isolated. The cytoplasmic genetic determinants are given in brackets, e.g., [poky], with the nuclear genotype given in parentheses, e.g.. (pab-1) and therefore (pab-) [poky] would mean the strain is a nuclear mutant for aminobenzoic acid and also has the cyto- plasmic poky growth trait. A series of controls would be necessary (Pittenger 1956, Bertrand and Pittenger Poxy STRAINS OF NEUROSPORA CRASSA—Mullaney and Varney 85 180 mm. ie) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Fic. 1. The growth rates of 77 a ( @ ) and (inos) [abn-1] a + (pab-1) [poky] a (CO) on Neurospora minimal medium at 35 C. 1972b) if complementation was observed to prove it was due solely to cytoplasmic interaction. The linear growth rate for this study was determined by growth tubes modelled after the ones used by Ryan et al. (1943) with slight modifications. In measuring growth rates, the growth tubes were inoculated with conidia and (or) hyphae of the desired strain or strains of N. crassa. The growth tubes were al- lowed to incubate at 35 C for 24 hours and then the mycelial frontier was marked on the glass tube with a felt pen. The position of the advancing mycelial frontier was marked at regular time periods afterward, and the growth rate was measured in milli- meters per hour. The normal growth rate of N. crassa at 35 C was determined by measuring the growth rate of 77 a. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The growth rate for 77 a (Fig. 1) was 4.99 mm per hour on minimal medium. The growth rate of the heterokaryotic hetero- plasmon (pab-1) [poky] a+ (inos) [abn-1] a (Fig. 1) averaged only 1.44 mm per hour. This indicates that complementation oc- curred on the nuclear level since neither of these auxotrophs would grow on minimal medium alone, but the slow growth rate means that complementation has not oc- curred on the cytoplasmic level. These results indicate that complementa- tion between poky and abnormal-1 does not occur with the method applied in this study. This indicates that each one of these muta- tions does not represent a part of different mitochondrial cistrons. While poky has shown complementation with other cytoplasmic mutants, abnormal-1 has not. The apparent failure of it to show complementation with poky in this study indicates the need to know if it will show complementation with any of the other cytoplasmic mutants. LITERATURE CITED BERTRAND, H., AND T.° Hi. Prrrencer. ’ 1972a. Isolation and classification of extranuclear mutants of Neurospora crassa. Genetics 71: 521-533. , AND 1972b. Complemen- tation among cytoplasmic mutants of Neuros- pora crassa. Molec. Gen. Genet. 117:82—90. MircHEeLL, M. B., H. K. MrrcHeELL, ANpD A. TIis- sIeERES. 1953. Mendelian and non-Men- delian factors affecting the cytochrome system in Neurospora crassa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 39:606-613. PIrTENGER, T. H. 1956. Synergism of two cytoplasmically inherited mutants in Neuros- pora crassa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 42: 147-752. Ryan, F. J., G. W. BEADLE, AND E. L. Tatum. 1943. The tube method of measuring the growth rate of Neurospora. Amer. J. Bot. 30: 784-799. NEWS AND COMMENT The Annual Meeting of the Ken- tucky Academy of Science will be held on 7 and 8 November 1975 at the Health Sciences Center of the University of Louisville, Louisville, Ken- tucky. Our Academy is virtually the only unifying voice of Science in Kentucky, and as such it needs the support of every indi- vidual who believes the advancement of science is a worthwhile pursuit. The An- nual Meeting affords an opportunity for scientists of a great diversity of backgrounds and disciplines to advance their individual specialties and to exchange ideas and dis- cuss problems of mutual concern. In view of this, we call your attention to two spe- cial events to be held on Friday, 7 Novem- ber in addition to the usual presentation of research findings. 1. There will be a special session Friday afternoon concerned with environmental problems in Kentucky, to be held in the Auditorium of the Health Sciences Center. 2. Dr. Theodore Fujita, Professor of Meteorology and Director of Satellite and Mesometeorology Research Projects, Uni- versity of Chicago, will be the featured speaker following the Annual Banquet Fri- day evening at the Holiday Inn, Midtown. His subject will be Tornadoes and Severe Weather Phenomena. In addition to these events, information will be available at the Information Desk regarding a wide variety of activities and attractions in the Louisville area. Annual Meeting 86 We hope to make this the largest and — most informative meeting in the history of | the Academy. You can make a significant — contribution through early registration, pro-_ moting the event with your colleagues, and | active participation in the scientific ses- _ sions. Such a meeting is an ideal place for — students to meet and mingle with each | other and their teachers. | The University of Louisville takes this opportunity to offer you a warm welcome, and we look forward to seeing you at the Annual Meeting. Charles Kupchella John R. Meyer Trimble The Louisville Gas and Electric County Company is sponsoring an en- Study vironmental study of Trimble County, Kentucky, and is seek- ing information on all aspects of the flora and fauna of the area. If you have any such information, and wish to release it, please get in touch with Dr. Louis A. Krumholz, Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208. Proper acknowledgment will be given. In cooperation with the U. S. Fish and Wild- life Service, the Bedford Route of the Ken- tucky Summer Breeding Bird Survey was established and the first formal count, sponsored by the Louisville Gas and Electric Company, was made in June 1975. Acanthocephala, 20 Acertagallia sanguinolenta, 58 Aenolamia varia saccharina,_ 57 Agallia constricta, 58 A. quadripunctata, 58 Agameris decaudata, 57 A. unka, 57 Agapetus hessi, 9 A. illini, 9 A. nr rossi, 10 A. tomus, 10 Agraylea multipunctata, 12 Agrypnia vestia, 13 Alebra albostriella, 58 BaeAthH, PIERRE N.; 17 Amblysellus curtisi, 58 Amia calva, 65, 71 Amiidae, 65 Annual meeting, 41, 86 Aphredoderidae, 67 Aphredoderus sayanus, 67, 71 Aphropsyche doringa, 11 Aplodinotus grunniens, 68, 83 Aspidobothrea, 83 (=Athripsodes ), 8 (=A. angustus), 14 (=A. transversus), 14 ( Athripsodina), 14 Auchenorrhynchus, 57 Balclutha abdominalis, 58 Banksiola dossuaria, 13 Bass, largemouth, 67 white, 67 BAUER, BRUCE H., 18 Bayou de Chien, fishes of, 63 Bluegill, 36, 67 Bowfin, 65 Brachycentridae, 16 Brachycentrus lateralis, 16 B. numerosus, 16 BRANSON, BRANLEY A., 18 Buffalo, bigmouth, 66 smallmouth, 66 Bullhead, black, 67 yellow, 67 BURR, BROOKS M., 71 Caddisflies of Kentucky, 6 Campostoma anomalum, 36 Campylenchia latipes, 58 Carassius auratus, 66 Carp, 66 Catfish, blue, 66 channel, 67 flathead, 67 Catostomidae, 66 Centrarchidae, 67 INDEX TO VOLUME 36 Centrarchus macropterus, 67 Ceraclea, 8 C. ancylus, 14 nr annulicornis, 14 . cancellata, 14 flava, 14 . or fulva, 14 . maculata, 14 . neffi, 14 . resurgens, 14 . tarsipunctatus, 14 . transversa, 14 Cercopidae, 57 Cernotina nr calcea, 10 Cheumatopsyche, 8 . analis, 11 . aphanta, 11 burksi, 11 . campyla, 11 goera, 11 harwoodi, 11 helma, 11 minuscula, 11 nr rossi, 11 oxad, 11 . pasella, 12 . sordida, 12 Chimarra aterrima, 10 C. feria, 10 C. obscura, 10 C. nr obscura, 10 C. socia, 10 Chipmunk, eastern, 17 Chlorotettix unicolor, 58 Chub, creek, 66 Chubsucker, creek, 66 Cicadellidae, 58 Cixiidae, 58 Clastoptera sp., 58 Clupeidae, 65 Coelidia olitoria, 58 Coleoptera, 35 Committees, standing, 41 Cotylogasteroides occidenta- lis, 83 Crappie, black, 68 white, 68 Crustacea, 35 Cuerna costalis, 58 Cyprinidae, 66 Cyprinodontidae, 67 Cyprinus carpio, 66 Cyrnellus fraternus, 10 aaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaa Darter, bluntnose, 68 dusky, 68 harlequin, 68 mud, 68 slough, 68 S7 spottail, 68 stargazing, 68 Delphacidae, 58 Delphacodes lutulenta, 58 (=Dianthera), 43 Dibusa angata, 8, 12 Dictyopharidae, 58 Diplectrona modesta, 12 Diptera, 35, 62 Dolophiloides distinctus, 10 Dorosoma cepedianum, 65, 71 Draeculacephala antica, 58 D. mollipes, 58 Drinidae, 61 Drum, freshwater, 68 DUPIER, CG: MIR, 1 Economic development, 1 Effective employment, 1 Elassoma zonatum, 67 Empoasca sp., 58 Ephemeroptera, 35 Erimyzon oblongus, 66 Esocidae, 65 Esox americanus vermicula- tus, 65 E. niger, 71 Etheostoma, 43 E. asprigene, 63, 71 . blennioides, 18 caeruleum, 18 . chlorosomum, 68, 71 . fusiforme, 69 gracile, 68, 71 histrio, 63 proeliare, 69, 71 squamiceps, 68 . stigmaeum, 18 . virgatum, 18 . zonale, 18 Py ey oe et Flier, 67 Forcipata loca, 58 FREYTAG, PAUL H., 57 Fundulus chrysotus, 69 F. notatus, 36, 71 F. notti, 69 F. olivaceus, 67, 71 Gambusia affinis, 67, 71 Gar, shortnose, 65 spotted, 65 Glossosoma intermedium, 10 G. nigrior, 10 Glossosomatidae, 9 Goera calcerata, 15 G. stylata, 15 Goeridae, 15 Goldfish, 66 Goniobasis sp., 83 88 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 36(3—4) Graminella nigrifrons, 58 Graphocephala versuta, 58 Halictophagidae, 61 Helicopsyche borealis, 16 Helicopsychidae, 16 Hemiptera, 35 HILL, JERRY BP. Yo Hite Creek, Jefferson and Old- ham counties, 25 HOWELL, HENRY H., 43 Hybognathus hayi, 63, 71 H. nuchalis, 66, 71 Hydropsyche, 8 H. betteni, 12 H. bronta, 12 cheilonis, 12 deprawata, 12 . dicantha, 12 hageni, 12 . incommoda, 12 morosa, 12 orris, 12 phalerata, 12 . simulans, 12 . sparna, 12 valanis, 12 . venularis, 12 Hydropsychidae, 11 Hydroptila ajax, 12 nr ajax, 13 amoena, 13 angusta, 13 armata, 13 consimilis, 13 nr consimilis, 13 delineata, 13 grandiosa, 13 hamata, 13 perdita, 13 . spatulata, 13 vala, 13 . virgata, 13 waubesiana, 13 Hydroptilidae, 12 Hymenoptera, 61 poy a a a ys py Ictaluridae, 66 Ictalurus furcatus, 66 I. melas, 18, 37, 67 I. natalis, 67 I. punctatus, 18, 67 Ictiobus bubalus, 66 I. cyprinellus, 66 Idiocerus pallidus, 58 Tronoquia, 7 I. punctatissima, 14 Issidae, 58 Ithytrichia mazon, 13 Jessamine Creek, Jessamine County, 43 Justicia americana, 43 Kentucky Junior Academy of Science, 38 Kentucky Task Force on Public Science and Technology, 39 KOZEL, THOMAS R., 83 .- KRUMHOLZ, LOUIS A., 25 Labidesthes sicculus, 68, 71 Laevicephalus orientalis, 58 Lampsilis luteola, 83 Latalus sayi, 58 Leech, 18 Lemanea, 9 Lepidostoma griseum, 15 L. togatum, 15 Lepidostomatidae, 15 Lepisosteidae, 65 Lepisosteus oculatus, 65 L. osseus, 71 L. platostomus, 65 Lepomis cyanellus, 67, 71 . gulosus, 67, 71 . humilis, 67, 71 . macrochirus, 18, 36, 67, 71 . megalotis, 36, 68, 71 . microlophus, 71 . punctatus, 71 symmetricus, 63 Leptoceridae, 14 LESLIE, DAVID. He 20 Liburnia furcifera, 57 Limnephilidae, 14 Limnephilus, 7 Liquidambar styraciflua, 80 Lype diversa, 10 al oll lal Macracanthorhynchus_ hirudina- ceus, 20 Macronemum zebratum, 12 Macrosteles fascifrons, 58 Madtom, freckled, 67 tadpole, 67 MARTIN, CAROLINE F., 51 Matrioptila jeanae, 10 Mayatrichia ayama, 13 Megaloptera, 35 Membracidae, 58 Menidia audens, 69 Mermis sp., 57 Micrasema bennetti, 16 M. rusticum, 16 M. wataga, 16 Micropterus dolomieui, 68 M. salmoides, 36, 67, 71 Minnow, cypress, 66 fathead, 66 pugnose, 66 silvery, 66 suckermouth, 66 Minytrema melanops, 66 Mollusca, 35 Moniliformis dubius, 20 Morone chrysops, 67 Mosquitofish, 67 MULLANEY, EDWARD J., 84 Mystacides selpuchralis, 15 Natrix sipedon sipedon, 49 Nectopsyche nr albida, 14 N. candida, 14 N. exquisita, 14 N. pavida, 15 NEFF, STUART E., 25 Nematodes, mermithid, 57 Neoechinorhynchus, 20 Neophylax, 7 . autumnus, 14 . ayanus, 7 . concinnus, 14 . consimilis, 14 . nacatus, 14 Neotrichia collata, 13 N. minutisimella, 13 N. okapa, 13 N. riegeli, 13 Neureclipsis crepuscularis, 11 N. parvulus, 11 Neurospora crassa, abnormal-1 and poky strains, 84 News and Comment, 38, 85 Nilaparvata oryzae, 57 Notemigonus crysoleucas, 18, 66, 71 Notropis blennius, 36 N. cornutus, 36 N. emiliae, 66, 71 N. fumeus, 66 N. lutrensis, 66 N. maculatus, 69, 71 N. spilopterus, 66, 71 N. venustus, 66 N. whipplei, 68 Noturus gyrinus, 67, 71 N. nocturnus, 67 Nyctiophylax affinis, 8 N. celta, 11 N. uncus, 11 ZZ 22S Ochrotrichia anisca, 13 . confusa, 13 . shawnee, 13 . spinosa, 13 . tarsalis, 13 .nr unio, 13 . xena, 13 Odonata, 35 Odontoceridae, 14 Oecetes avara, 15 O. cinerascens, 15 O. ditissa, 15 O. inconspicua, 15 SES YO eho xe) O. nocturna, 15 O. persimilis, 15 Oliarus ecologus, 58 O. sablensis, 58 Oligochaeta, 35 Orconectes rusticus, 49 O. juvenilis, 49 Orthotrichia aegerfasciella, 13 O. cristata, 13 Oxyethira pallida, 13 Paddlefish, 65 PAGE, LAWRENCE M., 71 Paraphlepsius irroratus, 58 _ P. tenessa, 58 Perch, pirate, 67 Percichthyidae, 67 Percid fishes, 18 Percidae, 68 Percina caprodes, 18, 68, 71 P. evides, 18 P. maculata, 18, 68 P. phoxocephala, 18 P. sciera, 68 P. uranidea, 63 Phenacobius mirabilis, 66 Philaenus spumarius, 57 Philopotamidae, 10 Phryganea sayi, 13 Phryganeidae, 13 Phylocentropus carolinus, 11 P. hansoni, 11 P. placidus, 11 Pickerel, grass, 65 Pimephales promelas, 66 Pipunculidae, 61 Piscicolaria reducta, 18 Platycentropus radiatus, 14 Plecoptera, 35, 43 Poeciliidae, 67 Pollution abatement, 25 Polyamia weedi, 58 Polycentropidae, 10 Polycentropus barri, 11 P. blicklei, 11 P. cinereus, 11 P. confusus, 11 P. crassicornis, 11 P. elarus, 11 INDEX TO VOLUME 36 P. maculatus, 11 P. remotus, 11 Pe sp. a, 11 Polyodon spathula, 63, 71 Polyodontidae, 65 Pomoxis annularis, 68, 71 P. nigromaculatus, 68, 71 Potamyia flava, 12 Protoptila alexanderi, 10 P. maculata, 10 P. palina, 10 Psammotettix striatus, 58 Pseudostenophylax uniformis, 14 Psilotreta rufa, 14 Psychomyia flavida, 10 Psychomyiidae, 10 Ptilostomis ocellifera, 14 P. semifasciata, 14 Pycnopsyche gentilis, 14 P. guttifer, 14 P. lepida, 14 Pylodictis olivaris, 67 RESH, VINCENT H., 6 Rhyacophila appalachia, 9 R. carolina, 9 R. carpenteri, 9 R. fenestra, 9 R. glaberrima, 9 R. ledra, 9 R. lobifera, 9 R. minor, 9 R. otica, 9 R. parantra, 9 R. torva, 9 Rhyacophilidae, 9 Saururus cernuus, 47 Sciaenidae, 68 Scolops sulcipes, 58 Semotilus atromaculatus, 66 Setodes incertus, 15 Shad, gizzard, 65 Shiner, blacktail, 66 golden, 66 red, 66 ribbon, 66 spotfin, 66 taillight, 71 89 SISK, MORGAN E., 63 SPERKA, CHRISTINA, 57 Stactobiella delira, 13 S. palmata, 13 Stictocephala bubalus, 58 S. lutea, 58 Stirellus bicolor, 58 Stizostedion canadense, 68 Strepsiptera, 61 Sucker, spotted, 66 Sunfish, banded pigmy, 67 bantam, 67 green, 67 longear, 67 orangespotted, 67 Sweetgum, survival patterns, 80 Tachinidae, 62 Tamias striatus, 17 Temperatures, extreme winter, 75 Theliopsyche melas, 15 Thionia simplex, 58 Topminnow, blackspotted, 67 Trematoda, 83 Triaenodes abus, 15 T. connatus, 15 T. nr dipsius, 15 T. flavescens, 15 T. ignitus, 15 T. injustus, 15 T. melacus, 15 T. tardus, 15 Trichoptera, 35 Tylozygus bifidus, 58 Umbra limi, 69 VARNEY, DAN R., 84 Warmmouth, 67 WEBB, DAVID H.., 63 WHITTAKER, FRED H., 83 Willow, water, 43 Women, mature, in school, 51 Wormaldia moesta, 10 W. nr moesta, 10 W. shawnee, 10 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 36, NOS. 1-4, 1975 Effective employment as a relative measure of regional economic development. C. M. Dumier, Jt. cn a ee ee eee A distributional study of the caddisflies of Kentucky. Vincent H. Resh Unusual behavior of the eastern chipmunk. Pierre N. Allaire The leech Piscicolaria reducta parasitizing some percid fishes. Bruce H. Bauer and Branley A. Branson 4.22 BA ee eee ae A micrographic study of the giant nuclei of Neoechinorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala). David H:Geslieones! Ee ee Abatement of pollution in Hite Creek, Jefferson and Oldham counties, Kentucky. Louis A. Krumholz and Stuart E. Neff 2222 es eee News’ and).Commentijq228 2 eee n Some ecological factors affecting the occurrence of water willow Justicia americana in Jessamine Creek, Kentucky. Henry H. Howell 2 EEE Why mature women return to school: “Reasons” and “Motives.” Caroline F. Martin _ Auchenorrhynchus hosts of mermithid nematodes in Kentucky. Christina Sperka and Paul HH. Freytag 222 ee Se eee The fishes of west Kentucky. III. The fishes of Bayou de Chien. David H. Webb and Morgan EF: Sisk, 20 -.. Ladiri 0. ere Re Se ee ee Distribution and life history notes on the taillight shiner Notropis maculatus in Kentucky. Brooks M. Burr and Lawrence M. Page _...._») S38) Sw. eee The probability of annual extreme winter temperatures in Kentucky. Jerry D. Hill —— Populational differences in survival patterns of sweetgum. Joe E. Winstead __.......___ The occurrence of Cotylogasteroides occidentalis (Trematoda: Aspidobothrea) in Ken- tucky. Ered H. Whittaker and Thomas R. Kozel 22°20.) a eee A study of the abnormal-1 and the poky strains of Neurospora crassa for complementation. Edward J; Mullaney and Dan R. Varney 2-2 2 EEE News ‘and ‘Gomment 12°). fachoslo 20) lethal pea 2 Index to Volume 36 — eee eee 90 INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub- lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and - announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received. Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be re- viewed by one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and, once accepted, an attempt will be made to publish papers in the order of their acceptance. Manuscripts should be typed, double spaced throughout, on good quality white paper 814 x 11 inches (216 x 279 mm). The original and one copy should be sent to the Editor and the author should retain a copy for his own use in correcting proof. Metric and Celsius units are to be used for all measurements instead of, or in addition to, English and Fahrenheit units. Format and style may vary somewhat depending on the scientific discipline, but the basic pattern of presentation will be consistent for all manuscripts. The Style Manual of the Council of Biological Editors (CBE Style Manual), the Handbook for Authors of papers in the Journals of the American Chemical Society, the Handbook for Authors of the Amer- ican Institute of Physics, Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, and A Manual of Style (Chicago University Press) are most useful guides in matters of style, form, and spelling. Only those words intended to be italicized in the final publication should be underlined. The sequence of material in the manuscript should be: title page, abstract, body of the manuscript, literature cited, tables with table headings, and figure legends and figures. 1. The title page should include the title of the paper, the author’s name and address, and any footnote material concerning credits, changes of address, and so forth. 2. The abstract should be concise and descriptive of the information contained in the paper. It should be complete in itself without reference to the body of the paper. 3. The body of the manuscript should include the following sections: Introduction, Ac- knowledgments (if applicable), Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, Summary, and Literature Cited. In manuscripts of only a few pages, there is no need to break it up into sections, except for the Literature Cited. All tables and figures, as well as all litera- ture cited must be referred to in the text. 4. All references in the Literature Cited must be typewritten, double spaced, and should provide complete information on the material referred to, as in the following examples: Article: Jounson, A. E., anp E. V. Harrety. 1962. An analysis of factors governing density patterns in desert plants. J. Bot. 44(3):419-432. Book: DaruincTon, P. J., Jr. 1965. Biogeography of the southern end of the world. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 236 pp. 5. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in arabic numerals, and set on a separate page. The heading of the table should be informative of its contents. Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print about 5 x 7 inches. Line draw- ings in India ink on white paper are acceptable. Photographs should have good contrast so that they can be reproduced satisfactorily. Figures should be numbered in arabic numerals. The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for checking all literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly Extensive alterations on the galley proofs are expensive and such costs are to be borne by the author. Reprints are to be ordered when the galley proofs are returned to the Editor. CONTENTS Some Ecological Factors Affecting the Occurrence of Water Willow Justicia 7 americana in Jessamine Creek, Kentucky. Henry H. Howell —____ . 43 Why Mature Women Return to School: “Reasons” and “Motives.” Caroline F. Martin Auchenorrhynchus Hosts of Mermithid Nematodes in Kentucky. Christina Sperka and Paul H. Freytag _. _.. 2 at The Fishes of West Kentucky. III. The Fishes of Bayou de Chien. David H. Webb and Morgan E. Sisk ss ee Ee = 71 | Distribution and Life History Notes on the Taillight Shiner Notropis macula- tus in Kentucky. Brooks M. Burr and Lawrence M. Page ________-__ The Probability of Annual Extreme Winter Temperatures in Kentucky. Jerry D. Hall 2) 8 Populational Differences in Survival Patterns of Sweetgum. Joe E. Winstead 80 The Occurrence of Cotylogasteroides occidentalis (Trematoda: Aspidobo- threa) in Kentucky. Fred H. Whittaker and Thomas R. Kozel —______ b> 8ay 4) A Study of the Abnormal-1 and the Poky Strains of Neurospora crassa for ;. Complementation. Edward J. Mullaney and Dan R. Varney _____ 5 OA News and -Comment 2. 2 ei ee ee ee eee $ one ee U Index to Volume 36 _-.___.. 4 ee 87 : Oa LN at ANSACTIONS F THE -NTUCKY CADEMY OF SCIENCE *. IC ficial Publication of the Academy i ss ip aM Volume 37 Numbers |-2 March 1976 The Kentucky Academy of Science Founded 8 May 1914 OFFICERS FOR 1976 President: Frederick M. Brown, Kentucky State Hospital, Danville 40422 , President Elect: Charles Payne, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351 — Past President: Ellis V. Brown, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506 S, Vice President: Charles E. Kupchella, Cancer Center Planning Office, apis! of Louisville 40208 Secretary: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101 ¢ Treasurer: Wayne Hoffman, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101 Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky Uni- — versity, Bowling Green 42101 Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A. Branson, Eastern Kentucky Uni- — versity, Richmond 40475 John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky, — Lexington 40506 BOARD OF DIRECTORS Howard Powell 1976 John G. Spanyer 1978 Morris Taylor 1976 Oliver Zandona 1978 Fletcher Gabbard 1977 Thomas B. Calhoon 1979 John C. Philley 1977 Harold Eversmeyer 7 1979 EDITORIAL OFFICE Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louis- ville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 Associate Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 Editorial Board: William E. Dennen, Department of Geology, University of Ken- — tucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ; Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of Louisville, Louis- — ville, Kentucky 40208 : William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lex. re ington, Kentucky 40506 | 3 All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be ade a dressed to the Editor. The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT. Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon none nation, payment of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained faa the Secretary. The Transactions are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are $6.00 for Active Members; Student Membership is $4.00. . Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $7.00; foreign, $8.00; back issues are $8.00 per volume. omg The Transactions are issued semiannually. Four numbers comprise a volume. Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Suet tary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Libraniaeliad University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208, who is the exchange agent for the Acadecnian in i ry ae TRANSACTIONS of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY of SCIENCE March 1076 VOLUME 37 NUMBERS 1-2 Age Structure, Growth Patterns, and Food Habits of the Southern Redbelly Dace Chrosomus erythrogaster in Kentucky WituiaAM H. SETTLES’ AND ROBERT D. Hoyt Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 ABSTRACT Various aspects of the biology of the southern redbelly dace Chrosomus erythrogaster were intensively studied on a population in Ivy Creek, Warren County, Kentucky from 1971 to 1972. The normal life span of the southern redbelly dace was about 2 years with a few individuals living into the autumn of their third year (26-30 months). Males disappeared from the population slightly earlier than females. Age Group 0, or individuals in their first year, constituted 76.8 percent of the total catch. Growth in length was greatest during the first year of life while growth in weight was greatest during the second and third years. No statistically significant deviation was ob- served between the theoretical cubic response of growth in weight to length and that observed among the specimens in Ivy Creek. Coefficient of condition values were greater for males than females when gonad weight was excluded, but converse results were observed when the gonads of both sexes were included in the determinations. Seasonally, condition coefficients for both sexes combined were greatest during the spawning season, lower during the warmwater months, and lowest during the cold- water months. Food habits were generally nonspecific with combinations of algal forms (filamentous chlorophytes and diatoms), and organic detritus constituing the major gut contents. Aquatic insects were commonly found in the digestive tracts of larger specimens. INTRODUCTION _ The southern redbelly dace Chrosomus erythrogaster was first described in 1820 by Rafinesque from specimens collected from the Kentucky River drainage. However, since that time, little information has been reported on the biology of the species, es- pecially in Kentucky. This paper represents an attempt to describe the age structure, growth patterns, and food habits of an iso- lated population of southern redbelly dace in Ivy Creek, a small springfed stream in Warren County, Kentucky. *Present Address: Science Department, Saint Mary’s College, Saint Mary’s, Kentucky 40063. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of David Abel, David Bell, Don- ald Hall, Leslie Lovett, Arthur Searcy, and John Wright in the collection of speci- mens. Special thanks go to Mr. Rodney McCurry for photographing the figures. MATERIALS AND METHODS Taxonomy The taxonomy of the genus Chrosomus has been subject to much revision since Rafinesque’s 1820 description. Confusion over the generic status of this group con- tinues with the suggestion by Banarescu 2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37( 1-2) (1964) that Chrosomus and Phoxinus are congeneric, and, since Phoxinus held page priority over Chrosomus, it should be re- tained. In 1970, the American Fisheries So- ciety followed suit by formally adopting Phoxinus as the generic name for those spe- cies previously listed under Chrosomus and Pfrille (Bailey et al. 1970). However, McPhail and Lindsey (1970) referred to the Canadian species as Chro- somus eos and Pfrille neogaea, and asserted that the merger of Chrosomus into Phoxinus was not warranted by existing evidence. This view is shared by G. L. Phillips, based on extensive work on both the northern and southern redbelly daces in Minnesota, who believes (pers. comm.) that Chrosomus should be retained until substantial data can be amassed which will cast more light upon the taxonomic status of this complex. However, because the finescale dace is somewhat different from the other species of Chrosomus, Phillips suggests that it be reassigned to Pfrille, as done by McPhail and Lindsey (1970), or possibly to Phoxi- nus. It is our opinion that the usage of Phoxi- nus as opposed to Chrosomus, at least for the 3 closely related species Chrosomus erythrogaster, C. eos, and C. oreas, is argu- mentative, and that further study is needed before absolute assertions can be made re- garding the North American species. In this light, the genus Chrosomus is retained in this study, and the southern redbelly dace shall be referred to as Chrosomus erythrogaster. Habitat and Study Area The habitat specificity of the southern redbelly dace requiring cold, springwater habitats or permanent, clear headwater streams (Forbes and Richardson 1920, Trautman 1957), has a direct influence on the distribution of the species in Kentucky. Branson (1973) stated that the redbelly dace “inhabits clear, springfed creeks in Eastern Kentucky and to a lesser extent similar streams elsewhere in the state.” The species does not occur in the Tennessee River drainage in the extreme western part of Kentucky and is quite rare in tributaries" of the Cumberland River in that area ( Mor- | gan Sisk 1971 pers. comm.). Ivy Creek is a small, springfed tributary of the Green River, originating in northern Warren County, Kentucky (37°09’N, 86°25’ W). It flows northwest for 7.1 km before entering the Green River. Ivy Creek is fed primarily by 2 small source streams which converge approximately 1.1 km from their origins. Numerous seepage streams also | flow into Ivy Creek along its course. The stream flows through mildly karstic topog- raphy, which characterizes the region, at elevations from 160 to 164.5 m above mean > sea level at its sources, to 131 m at its | mouth. The average gradient is 4.73 m/km. The study area extended downstream from > just below the confluence of the source streams for about | km. Within the study area, Ivy Creek ranged in width from 0.9 to 3.7 m. Depths varied from 5 cm at riffles to 1 m in deeper pools. The study area was characterized by fre-— quent riffles separating long pools of mov- ing water, generally from 0.3 to 0.6 m deep. During the study period, stream dis- charge ranged from less than 1.7 m?/min_ to an observed maximum of 24.5 m?/min. | Monthly averages ranged from 0.8 m?/min in September and October to 24.5 in Feb- ruary. Observed extremes in stream tem- perature were 5 C in December and 25 C in September. Dissolved oxygen concentra- | tions averaged from 8 to 12 mg/1, but fell to 6.2 and 5.0 mg/1 during September and October, respectively, when the stream was choked with decaying leaf litter. pH was relatively stable with values ranging from 7.5 to 8.1. Total alkalinity and total hardness ranged from 75 to 148 mg/1 and 101 to 190 mg/1, respectively. The Collections The study was initiated in November 1970, with intensive sampling carried out from 5 February 1971 through 8 January 1972, and included 27 collections of red-_ belly dace. All collections were made by | seining. A 0.3-cm mesh nylon seine was | used to capture adults and a fine-meshed ) THE SOUTHERN REDBELLY Dace IN KENTUCKy—Settles and Hoyt 3 = February ] n=I13 fish 2 7 _| March cf a mm n=165 ° —— = J April n=lI9 May n=122 June n=*77 July neli7 |e Frequency oo 8 ] September n=l06 Percentage October ne{3I ‘November nell5S December n=|00 January n=88 oh ~ 10 20' 30 40 50 60 70 Standard Length, Millimeters Fic. 1. Length—frequency distribution at monthly intervals for southern redbelly dace from Ivy Creek, Warren County, Kentucky, February 1971 to Jan- uary 1972. seine was used in collecting young of the year. A total of 814 specimens was col- lected and fixed in 10 percent formalin while 534 additional dace were measured in the field and returned to the stream. All length and weight measurements were made within 3 hours after capture. Specimens were blotted to remove excess water, weighed to the nearest 0.01 g on an electric, single-pan balance, and total (TL) and standard (SL) lengths measured using methods described by Hubbs and Lagler (1964). Standard length was used consis- tently throughout the study. A total to standard length conversion factor based on 225 specimens may be expressed as TL/SL el. Length frequencies, verified by the scale method, were used to determine the age groups of 1,348 redbelly dace. Scales ex- amined for annuli were taken between the 70 : [I6R'*. off = 60 _° = nea E ES aa 2 1 dal Ss I Age Gro II am 50 g up io) = Age Group | , -40 = 1970 30 O — ‘o} UO c 20 Age Group O \e) _— Y) Months Fic. 2. Average monthly standard lengths of 3 year classes of southern redbelly dace based on measurements of 1,348 specimens from Ivy Creek, Warren County, Kentucky, February 1971 to Jan- uary 1972. anterior base of the dorsal fin and the lat- eral line series on the left side of the fish. The relationship of standard length to total body weight was determined for 864 speci- mens using the formula of Lagler (1956) Wal or loc W—loe a+n lor die Length-weight data were also arranged according to sex (328 males and 350 fe- males), and according to season of capture (spawning season, March through June, N = 405; warmwater season, July through October, N = 176; and coldwater season, November through February, N = 283). Methods outlined by Lagler (1956) were used to test length-weight regressions to determine the degree of adherence to the theoretical cubic response of growth in weight to growth in length. Analysis of co- variance, patterned after Snedecor (1962), was used to determine any statistical differ- ences among sexes or among specimens taken during different seasons. The coefficient of condition (K) was cal- culated for each of 269 male and 322 female dace using the equation K = W X 10°/L’. + TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37( 1-2) TABLE 1.—EsTIMATED AGE GROUP COMPOSITION AT MONTHLY INTERVALS FOR SOUTHERN DACE FROM Ivy CREEK, WARREN COUNTY, KENTUCKY, FEBRUARY 1971 To JANUARY 1972 1971 Age @ Age Group N Sample Group Feb - - - 0 Mar - - ~ 0 Apr — - - 0 May - - - 0 Jun — - - 0 Jul 0 44 37.6 I Aug 0 37 38.9 I Sep 0 70 66.0 I Oct 0 114 87.0 I Nov 0 93 80.9 I Dec 0 65 65.0 I Jan 0 fs) 83.0 I 1JIn March, 2 specimens of Age Group II, Year Class 1968, were collected and represented 1.2% of the total sample. | To determine the effects of the gonadal component of the total weight on the con- dition coefficient, the K value of each speci- men was calculated with gonads intact and with gonads excised. Specimens examined for gut contents were selected randomly from collections taken throughout the study period. The entire alimentary tract was excised and the contents examined microscopically in a wet mount. TABLE 2,.—AVERAGE MONTHLY STANDARD LENGTHS AND RANGES FOR 3 YEAR CLASSES OF SOUTHERN REDBELLY DACE, BASED ON 1,348 SPECIMENS FROM Ivy CREEK, WAREN CouNTy, KENTUCKY, FROM FEBRUARY 1971 To JANUARY 1972 Year Spawned 1971 Age Range Mean Age Group (mm ) (mm ) Group Feb - - - 0 Mar - — — 0 Apr — - ~ 0 May - — — 0 Jun - ~ - 0 Jul 0 14-25 18 I Aug 0 14-36 23 I Sep 0 18—35 26 I Oct 0 21-41 OL I Nov 0 25-43 o2 I Dec 0 26-44 34 I Jan 0 25-44 33 I 1In March, 2 female dace of Age Group II, Year Class 1968, were captured. Their standard lengths were 63 and | 65 mm, respectively. Year Spawned REDBELLY 9 1970. 1969 | Jo Age Jo N Sample Group N Sample 102 90.3 I ab 9.7 135 81.8 I 28 17.05 114 95.8 I 5 4.2 1 Pe) 92.6 I 9 7.4 15 97.4 I 2 2.6 12 61.5 II 1 0.9 50 52.6 II 8 8.4 33 oil II 3 2.8 7 13.0 — - - 22, 19.1 = - - oD 35.0 - - —- | 15 17.0 ~ - - | RESULTS An evaluation of length frequency dis- tributions indicated the presence of 2 dis-- tinct age groups in Ivy Creek, with isolated individuals representing a third age group: 0 (spawned in 1970) represented the domi-. nant age group in Ivy Creek and comprised | 81.8 to 97.4 percent of each sample (Table. 1). During the same period, Age Group I 1970 1969 Range Mean Age Range Mean (mm ) (mm ) Group (mm) (mm ) 20-43 32 I 45-58 bz, 22-43 Sy I 46-60 53" 22—45 32 I 52-60 56 23—45 36 I 48-57 52 29-44 37 I 50-53 a2 37-52 44 DE P56 56 40-53 45 II 56-58 57 40-54 48 II 57-61 60 45-52 48 - - = 45-53 50 - - = 45-56 50 - - - 46-57 51 - - - THE SOUTHERN REDBELLY Dace IN KeNntucky—Settles and Hoyt 5 dace declined rapidly in relative numbers and most had disappeared by June. The tonly Age Group II specimens represented + during that time period were 2 females, 63 mm and 65 mm SL, captured in March. In July, age group composition was al- }tered as a result of recruitment of young- | of-the-year individuals into the general pop- ulation. From July through September, Age Groups 0 (recruited young of the year ) and I, with very few individuals of Age Group IJ, were found in Ivy Creek. By October, only Age Groups 0 and I were collected. It was likely that some Age Group II individuals were present, but were so rare that none were taken. | Young-of-the-year redbelly dace were | first collected in July and had a SL range of 14 to 25 mm, with a mean SL of 18 mm (Table 2). Growth among Age Group 0 individuals was rapid through October at which time lengths ranged from 21 to 41 and averaged 31 mm. Some growth occurred during the winter, but did not resume ap- preciably until April (Fig. 2). At the end of their first year of life (ie., in June), red- belly dace ranged from 29 to 44 mm SL and averaged 37 mm. Age Group I dace grew slowly and av- eraged over 50 mm SL at the end of the second year. Insufficient numbers of Age Group I specimens prevented an accurate determination of their mean _ standard length. Age Group II dace collected in September ranged from 57 to 61 mm SL and averaged about 60 mm, while a single individual 60 mm long was collected in No- vember. The oldest Age Group II specimens were collected in March and averaged 64 mm. The greatest absolute growth in length occurred during the first year of life with a gradual decline in the growth rate in the second and third years. The length-weight equation yielded the following data for 3 seasonal periods in Ivy Creek Spawning Period (March-June) W =1.177 X 10-°L?-°%*, or log W =-4.9293 + 3.096 log L Standard Length, mm. Fic. 3. Relationship between standard length and body weight of southern redbelly dace during three seasonal periods in Ivy Creek, Warren County, Kentucky, February 1971 to January 1972. A. Spawning season (March—June); B. Warmwater period (July—October); C. Coldwater period ( No- vember—February ). Warmwater Period (July—October) W = 1.360 X 10°L?-°, or log W =-+4.8665 + 3.045 log L Coldwater Period (November—February ) W = 1.457 < 10°L3-S, or log W =-4.8356 + 3.006 log L. An analysis of covariance revealed no significant deviation from the theoretical cubic response of increase in weight to the increase in length (P = 0.05) for any of the seasonal equations. However, some visu- ally discernible differences among the 3 seasonal periods were apparent with the highest length-weight values. being re- corded during the spawning period and the lowest during the coldwater period (Fig. 3). 6 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(1-2) 4.00 Females 3.00 grams 2.00 Welght, Total 1.00 Females = eo An emales Males = A AE 30 40 Standard Length, mm. Fic. 4. Relationship between standard length and body weight in male and female southern redbelly dace from Ivy Creek, Warren County, Kentucky, February 1971 to January 1972. Length-weight equations for each sex Females W = 2.220 x 10°L?-°!® or log were as follows: W = -4.6537 + 2.916 log L. Males W=3.332 x 10°°L?-5, or log An analysis of covariance revealed no W =-4.4774 + 2.809 log L significant deviation from the cubic re- | | TABLE 3.—MONTHLY AVERAGES OF COEFFICIENTS OF CONDITION (K) FOR MALE AND FEMALE SOUTH- ERN REDBELLY DACE WITH GONADS INTACT AND WITH GONADS EXCISED Males Females Gonads Gonads Gonads Gonads Month in situ excised in situ excised Feb 1.21 120 1.25 1.24 Mar 1.43 1.42 1.49 1.46 Apr eo 1.80 Cie May 180 1.78 meat eS Jun R15 1.74 FO 1.59 Jul 1.56 1.56 1.51 1.49 Aug 1.69 1.69 1.64 1.61 Sep 157 1.56 157 1.55 Oct IGS 1.64 1.60 1.56 Nov 1.61 1.60 1.64 1.59 Dec ey! 1353 Lon 1.45 Jan 1.58 ey 1.57 1.52 sponse at the 0.05 level of probability. -However, calculated values indicated male southern redbelly dace in Ivy Creek to be proportionally heavier than females until approximately 46 mm in standard length (Fig. 4). At that length, a reversal of the trend occurred as illustrated by the crossing _ of the regression line in Fig. 4. _ The overall length-weight relationship for 864 southern redbelly dace from Ivy Creek was: ee 10° L933, or log W =-4.8502 + 3.033 log L. Coefficients of condition calculated from empirical data indicated that body condi- tion was lowest during coldwater months and immediately after spawning (Table 3). Highest K values were recorded directly prior to spawning and during the warm- water period following recovery from the spawn. With the exceptions of February and March, males were generally more robust than females (Fig. 5). During May, fe- males had higher overall coefficients of con- dition, but much of the weight component used to calculate their K values was due to the gonadal component. Condition coeffi- cients calculated with gonads excised indi- cated that males were more robust than females (Fig. 5). THE SOUTHERN REDBELLY Dace IN KENTUCKy—Settles and Hoyt 7 1.90 Z a moles Y 1.80 gems: BY Females 1.70 4|Aa| B Al\|Al| wa fs = Ai\GiA\ Ba GF a lige Z\A\ g g Oo ° A\4\4\. Al enw G Z = ZAl\4A\|4A\B Bl BA 2 Z AiG Gia Bibl al dia @ = Z | Z Zam = 1.50 A|\A|A| 4a Ala Al 4| BG 741414|\|43 4@14|14164) Bi Ge © saZ Alaig|B4@latreal gig ° 1/4|4|4141 4! 4! Gl Gl al 6 4\4\4\4\4|\4\ Al al eG AlAaAl| AIlYg| algal ali aionga SALA Alia ALaAl al AlaAarsg B14\414|4\ al @i ai al @l a AA ° Z Zama A Ai 6 g = A\A\A4\4A4\4\4@\4@\4a@\4\4aleg = A\4\4\|414|14|4!l 4l 4! 4l a = 4A\4\|\4\|4\4141|4!|4!1 641614 ZC 4\4\|4|4|4\14!14!|4!1 42 g c A\4\4\4a\4al\4l 4i | Bl al 4 e130 Al\4|\4\4\4\4|\4\4\4l\alea A\A\4\|\414@14141414161 6 o A\4\4\414\414\4|14!1 ale A\A\|4\14|14\| 41414! G4! GI e Alg4a|4|\|4|\4|\4|\4|4!|4!141 4 aAaYg|Aal\g|4\4\4\14|14!1464141 4 A|4\|\4\4|14|141641464!1614! 4 AlalAalia|l|4l\eal!l Baie ez ZS IAalAatialaltalaltlartay Alea 4 1200, Fl A|Al|A4@la4l|4l14ig!e24ia4aig4i gz A\/4|\|4\14|41416414146416!1 62142 Alg|A4@l4lea4iga!s Baie! Bi eB Z 4A414\|4\141414161614614! 4! 2 AMA AINAllaA Ala Ala An!) 4 4A14\|414\1414141464!16!14!/ 214 41|4\|4\|4141416416414146!1 816 41|4\|4\41414|1424164!\414'1612 414|4|414! 2 Al\a| Bl Bl @ oAl\4\4| 414! Al 4! Al Al AI | 2 Bea Mie Se AVe IM) peeves ol eA 8 Si OS SiN & De oa Fic. 5. Monthly averages of coefficients of con- dition (K) for male and female southern redbelly dace from Ivy Creek, Warren County, Kentucky, February 1971 to January 1972. Stippled bar seg- ments represent gonadal components of total con- dition values. Absolute growth in weight proceeded very slowly during the first year of life, but accelerated during the second and _ third years. Redbelly dace in Ivy Creek attained only 18 percent of their total weight poten- tial during their first year of life and 34 and 48 percent during the second and third years, respectively. Sand, silt, and detritus represented the only consistently ingested materials for southern redbelly dace in Ivy Creek. Bi- otic components were represented chiefly by the diatoms Navicula spp., Cocconeis spp., Gomphonema spp., Nitzschia spp., Cymbella spp., and Melosira spp. Among the specimens smaller than 35 mm SL, dia- toms apparently provided the major com- ponent of the diet. Medium-sized dace (35 to 50 mm SL) also depended heavily on microscopic foods, but midge larvae (Chironomidae ) often were found in the gut contents. Larger dace, those longer than 50 mm SL, frequently ingested immature mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies. 8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37( 1-2) | From May through August, specimens of all sizes ingested large quantities of the filamentous green alga Spirogyra, and in some specimens, large masses of that alga filled most of the alimentary tract. DISCUSSION At the time of this writing, no extensive reports concerned with the age and growth of C. erythrogaster could be found in the literature. Trautman (1957) reported that young-of-the-year redbelly dace in Ohio ranged from 18 to 36 mm in October. Using the calculated factor of 1.23 (TL/ SL), it was concluded that redbelly dace reported by Trautman (1957) ranged from 15 to 31 mm SL in October. During the present study, young-of-the-year southern redbelly dace ranged from 21 to 41 mm in October. Trautman (1957) also reported that dace in Ohio ranged from 25 to 46 mm at the end of about a year, with standard length calculated to be 20-37 mm. Stan- dard lengths ranged from 29 to 44 mm for year-old dace in Ivy Creek. In regard to older dace, Trautman (1957) reported that “adults” ranged in length from 38 to 76 mm with standard length equiv- alents from 31 to 62 mm. Ivy Creek speci- mens ranged from 37 to 65 mm SL during their second and third years. It appeared that southern redbelly dace in Ivy Creek grew somewhat faster during their first year than did their Ohio counter- parts. Barlow (1961) reported that “dif- ferences between populations of a fish spe- cies are environmentally induced, unless a genetic basis can be established experi- mentally.” He further stated that “northern representatives of a species grow slower... than do their southern counterparts.” It is feasible then that differences in environ- mental factors may have resulted in vari- ations in growth rates between dace in Ohio and those in Ivy Creek. Since length ranges for adults reported by Trautman (1957) were relatively consistent with those of Ivy Creek, it was also assumed that length max- ima were comparable, though they may have been reached earlier in life among Ivy Creek representatives. | Age groups were assigned to 900 southern | redbelly dace, collected on 2 occasions in. Oklahoma during July by Hill and Jenssen § (1968). Specimens up to 24 mm SL were | assigned to Age Group 0, from 30.0 to 39.5_ mm to Age Group I, and individuals 40 to” 55 mm SL to Age Group IJ. Assignments of the Age Group 0 specimens appeared valid since they were distinct on the length. frequency distribution. This range closely coincided with the 14 to 25 mm range ob-. served for Age Group 0 specimens collected” | from Ivy Creek in July. However, Hill and Jenssen (1968) used the acquisition of secondary sexual char- | acteristics to separate Age Groups I and II, stating that dace 30.0 to 39.5 mm lacked such characteristics and were thus repre- sentatives of Age Group I. Individuals 40! mm SL and longer were sexually mature and were thus designated to Age Group II. This criterion was invalid for dace in Ivy Creek because most Age Group I fish were sexually mature and ranged to 50 mm in July. This might also have been applied to— specimens studied by Hill and Jenssen be- | cause they lacked long-range length fre-. quency data on which to base their conclu- sions. | It was observed that Oklahoma and Ivy Creek representatives of C. erythrogaster acquired secondary sexual characteristics at approximately the same lengths (39-40 mm SL) and had comparable size ranges for young-of-the-year specimens. It was. thus concluded that rates of growth and_ maturation followed the same chronological sequence for Oklahoma and Ivy Creek southern redbelly dace. Length-weight data revealed that south- ern redbelly dace in Ivy Creek adhered statistically to the cube law, or the tendency to acquire weight in proportion to the cube of length. There were no statistical dif-_ ferences in cubic regressions among the 3 designated seasonal periods, or between the. sexes. However, it was observed that speci- | mens were generally more robust during | the spawning period due to gonadal de- | velopment. Specimens collected during the warmwater period were proportionally heavier than those collected during the coldwater period. That difference may be attributed to the availability and acquisition of food, which varied greatly between the 2 latter seasonal periods. Coefficients of condition reflected the length-weight relationships. Values were highest during the spawning season for both sexes and for both somatic and overall condition. Condition declined sharply im- mediately after spawning and then re- covered during the warmwater period. Somewhat lower conditions were observed during the coldwater period. Though the length-weight relationships between males and females were basically similar, it was observed that males were slightly heavier bodied until standard lengths greater than about 40 mm were at- tained. At such lengths, females tended to overtake the males and become heavier pro- portionally. Because sexual maturity oc- curred at approximately 39 mm SL, it was concluded that increase in ovarian devel- opment accounted for the apparent reversal in the length-weight relationships between males and females. With few exceptions, males were more robust than females. Feeding behavior among dace in Ivy Creek appeared to have been a nonselective ingestion of sand and silt which contained algae and nondescript bits of organic ma- terial, as well as some predation on insects. This was consistent with the findings of Forbes and Richardson (1920) who stated that, among specimens collected in Illinois, food “...is evidently obtained by nibbling or sucking the surface slime from stones and other objects on the bottom. It con- sists ... mainly of mud containing algae...” Similar observations were recorded by Phillips (1969). Because of the tendency toward random, nonselective feeding behavior, it might be expected that materials ingested by dace should have reflected that which was avail- able in the stream at the time of capture. Our collections indicated that algal forms most frequently found among the gut con- THE SOUTHERN REDBELLY Dace IN KENtTUcKy—Settles and Hoyt 9 tents of southern redbelly dace in Ivy Creek were also most abundant in the stream. Phillips (1969) reported that Navicula was the most abundant dietary component for redbelly dace in Minnesota. This was also the case for specimens from Ivy Creek. Similarly, Phillips (1969) reported Gom- phonema and Nitzschia to be frequently found in the diets of dace, as was the case for Ivy Creek specimens. From May through August, Spirogyra was used extensively as food by southern redbelly dace in Ivy Creek. Records for that period indicated that the appearance of that alga in the diet coincided with its profuse growth along the stream’s edge. In regard to the utilization of Spirogyra as food, Phillips (1969) found it to be “nutri- tionally unimportant to C. erythrogaster in the stream” but that it was “readily eaten in aquarium experiments.” During periods of abundance, Spirogyra formed a signifi- cant component of the diet for redbelly dace in Ivy Creek. Cladophora, another green alga, grew abundantly in Ivy Creek, but was rarely found in the diet of redbelly dace. Phillips (1969) stated that this alga was eaten by C. erythrogaster in Minnesota “... only when starved and when no other food was present.” This he attributed to the rough texture of Cladophora and its thick-walled cells. Faunal components of the diet of dace in Ivy Creek included immature forms of various aquatic insects. When only frag- ments of such forms were observed in the guts of specimens, it was difficult to tell whether the entire insect had been eaten or if those fragments had been passively in- gested with silt and sand. However, on some occasions, entire bodies of aquatic insects were found partially digested in the alimentary tracts of dace. The size of the fish appeared to dictate the size of the food item consumed. It was assumed that such insects were actively pursued and ingested. Needham (1908) reported that C. erythro- gaster in New York actively preyed upon midge larvae. 10 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37( 1-2) LITERATURE CITED BAiery..R.. MM... EB. Frres. ES. Herartp._E. A. LACHNER, C. C. LINDsEy, C. R. ROBINS, AND W. B. Scorr. 1970. * 006255005 Juglans sp. 1 0010" 200620012 Morus rubra 1 .0010 O0G2. 220072 Totals 951 .9981 .9746 1.9727 difficult to make positive identifications of saplings and seedlings of such complex § genera as Acer and Quercus and others, no attempt was made to differentiate be-_ tween species of several taxa. Thus, in | tabulating and discussing the data above | and elsewhere, all individuals of several | genera are treated collectively. | The 5 important genera in all 3 size classes | in the complete forest are compared in— Table 4. There were 3 dominant genera — in each size class; Acer, ranked first in | all size classes, Ulmus, and Fraxinus. Cel- tis was an important genus in the tree and © sapling classes. In the disturbed area of Dinsmore’s — Woods, 10 tree species were recorded in | an area of 4 circular plots and were in- — cluded in the analysis of the complete | forest. The tree species of the disturbed area are ranked according to their impor- | tance values in Table 5, where the 5 pre- dominant species were: Celtis occidentalis, | Juglans nigra, Ulmus rubra, Fraxinus amer- icana, and Cercis canadensis. CuiMAx Forest SystremM—Held and Winstead 61 TABLE 4.—COMPARISON OF THE 5 DOMINANT TREE SPECIES, SAPLING, AND SEEDLING GENERA, WITH THEIR IMPORTANCE OR RELATIVE DENSITY PLUS RELATIVE FREQUENCY VALUES, AT DINSMORE’s Woops, BoonE County, KENTUCKY Tree IV Sapling RD + RF Seedling RD-+ RF Acer saccharum 9194 Acer saccharum 4856 Acer spp. 0395 Fraxinus americana 4448 Ulmus rubra 3916 Ulmus rubra R351 be Quercus spp. 3314 Asimina triloba 2084 Fraxinus americana 2241 Celtis occidentalis 2988 Fraxinus americana .1954 Prunus serotina .1228 Ulmus rubra 2293 Celtis occidentalis STS Carya sp. .1134 Among saplings of the disturbed area, listed according to their relative density plus relative frequency values in Table 6, the 5 leading genera were Ulmus, Acer, Celtis, Fraxinus, and Prunus. In the seed- ling size class of the disturbed area (Table 7), the 5 dominant genera, ranked accord- ing to their relative density plus relative frequency values, were Fraxinus, Acer, Prunus, Celtis, and Gleditsia. The leading individuals of the disturbed area in all 3 vegetational size classes are compared in Table 8. Celtis and Fraxinus occurred in all 3 classes, and Acer, Prunus, and Ulmus were found in 2. Comparison of Tables 4 and 8 shows that Fraxinus was the dominant genus in all 6 size classes of both the complete forest and the disturbed area. Acer, Ulmus, and Celtis occurred as leading genera in 5 size classes. TABLE 5.—THE NUMBER In the tornado damaged area, 12 tree species occurred in 5 circular plots. Of those, 7 were damaged to some extent by the high winds. All trees of the tornado area and their importance values are pre- sented in Table 9, and the 5 leading species were Acer saccharum, Ulmus rubra, Celtis occidentalis, Tilia americana, and Fagus grandifolia. The trees damaged by the tornado and their importance values are listed in Table 10. The 5 leading species were Acer saccharum, Fraxinus americana, Cercis canadensis, Celtis occidentalis, and Tilia americana. Only 3 dominant species of all trees in the damaged area were rep- resented among the important damaged trees, Acer saccharum, Celtis occidentalis, and Tilia americana. The lengths of all trees uprooted were recorded to give an approximation of can- opy height. The average height was 20 (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDO), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF'), AND THE IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) FOR TREES OVER 10 CM DBH IN THE DISTURBED AREA AT DINSMORE’S Woops, BOONE County, KENTUCKY Species N RD Celtis occidentalis 12 3243 Juglans nigra 4 1081 Ulmus rubra 5 aol Fraxinus americana 3 .0810 Cercis canadensis 3 .0810 Gleditsia triacanthos 3 .0810 Acer negundo 3 .0810 A. saccharum 2 .0540 Maclura pomifera 1 .0270 Robinia pseudo-acacia 1 .0270 Totals 37 9995 RDo RF LY, .2975 .0714 .6933 -1031 .1428 3041 .0470 .1428 3250 .1705 .0714 3230 .1282 .0714 .2807 .0638 0714 .2163 .0626 .0714 .2151 0159 .1428 .2128 .0924 0714 .1908 .0184 .1428 .1883 9994 .9996 2.9994 62 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4) TABLE 6.—THE NUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE DEN- SITY PLUS RELATIVE FREQUENCY VALUE (RD + RF), FOR THE SAPLINGS OF THE DISTURBED AREA AT DinsMoRE’s Woops, BOONE County, KENTUCKY Species N RD RF RD-+ RF Ulmus rubra OY 1nd002 4 l500 Oo 53802 Acer saccharum 13.1830) =.2500 ~=—«.4300 Celtis occidentalis 7,.0985 \ .1500 ».|.2485 Fraxinus americana 6 .0845 .1000 .1845 Prunus serotina S L126 0500 \\\* ON NES aN YAS 4 Sr 6 eel rN rc} GE ] oO YY, \ £ 4 a Sey oo =r Sn unl ye ax = equational line > oO © A = B Qa ~o = \ SENS NANN an - Wand Ss ~ | TINESNINWN SST LENT NaS ra \ \ 8 N TN 4N EES \ RRR Yd EER a SL N £ Le) 5 4 3 7 1 “ovata phenotypic ratings Fic. 4. A-—D, specimens of Justicia from North Carolina plotted according to their double index. Shaded areas indicate those specimens in which all 5 characteristics are within the published ranges of either species. The number of specimens plotted at each point is recorded at that point. The equational line is an arbitrary line defined by “americana—ovata” phenotypic ratings of equal mag- nitude. A, all specimens from North Carolina. B, specimens from the southern half of the Coastal Plain. C, specimens from the northern half of the Coastal Plain. D, specimens from areas west of the Coastal Plain. representatives in northeastern North Car- LITERATURE CITED olina, would be an excellent subject for ENDLER, J. A. 1973. Gene flow and population experimental analysis and that the species Gar eabiaiion, Science 179-243-950. herein discussed might fit the theoretical Euruicu, P. R., anp P. H. Raven. 1969. Dif- pattern discussed by Ehrlich and Raven ferentiation of populations. Science 165: 1228-1232. (1969 ) and modelled by Endler (1973) FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray’s Manual of Botany. very closely. Amer. Book Co. New York, N.Y. 1632 76 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4) Gieason, H. A. 1952. The New Britton and Raprorp, A. E., H. E. AHLEs, AND C, R. BELL. Brown Illustrated Flora. Vol. 3. Lancaster 1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the } Press, Inc., Lancaster, Pa. 595 pp. Carolinas. Univ. N. Carolina Press. Chapel | KLEexowskl, E. J., AND E. O. Beau. 1965. A study Hill, N.C. 1183 pp. | of variation in the Potamogeton capillaceus— SMaA.Lu, J. K. 1933. Manual of the Southeastern diversifolius complex (Potamogetonaceae). Flora. Univ. N. Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, Brittonia 17(2):175—181. N.C. 1554 pp. Notes on the Flora of the Sinking Creek System and Elkhorn Source Areas in the Inner Blue Grass Region of Kentucky WILLEM MEIJER Thomas Hunt Morgan School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ABSTRACT Little known relict plant communities investigated in the Inner Blue Grass Region along Sinking Creek between Jessamine Creek and Roaring Springs and along outliers of South and North Elkhorn creeks suggest that before the arrival of the first white settlers the area was partly covered by swamp forests possibly still in connection with those along the lower Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Three localities of Taxodiuwm distichum, 2 with trees over 200 years old, 6 localities of Quercus bicolor, 1 with about 200 trees, and 1 locality of Quercus lyrata were discovered in the area. The orchid Spiranthes cernua var. odorata is locally common along Sinking Creek, in association with Chelone glabra and Carex hyalinolepis. The mimosoid legume Desmanthes illinoensis has its most eastern locality along Sinking Creek in Woodford County. INTRODUCTION This paper is a preliminary floristic note on the relict flora of the Inner Blue Grass Region investigated in cooperation with members of the Buckley Hills Audubon Wildlife Society and Woodford County Save the Land Association, especially along a series of sinkholes and sinking creeks that stretches from Ashgrove Pike near the Lexington—Nicholasville road west of the Hickman Creek sewage disposal plant through the northern part of Jessamine County, along Versailles and towards Mid- way in Woodford County, and ending in Roaring Springs in northeastern Franklin County. Part of this system was described by Jillson (1945). Increased interest in this area has been shown by landowners who benefit from clearwater springs from caves and under- ground streams, feeding creeks and natural ponds. Problems of land use and zoning and the great lack of open space for nature rec- reation in the Inner Blue Grass Region have raised new interest in the geology, flora, and fauna of this karst landscape. Encroaching housing developments, trailer parks, and industrial development threaten tf the last remains of the once rich swamp flora of the creeks and sinkholes along this system. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Field work was done during the spring and summer of 1974 in cooperation with Mr. Ellwood Carr, Mr. Van Ship, Mrs. Alex Bowen, Mrs. El. Jones, and Mrs. Pa- tricia DeCamp of the Buckley Hills Audu- bon Society who acted as guides and com- panions in the area and who introduced the author to landowners on the farms around Sinking Creek. My former students John MacGregor and Max Leach, the latter now forester in Madisonville, directed me to localities of Taxodium distichum in Jessa- mine and Fayette counties. Mr. Harold R. Wallace, District Conservationist for Jes- samine and Fayette counties, joined me in exploration of the Delaney Ferry Road section of Sinking Creek. METHODS The study area was divided into sections on the basis of topography, and separate lists of floristic notes and herbarium col- lections were kept for each area. Identi- 78 Trans. KENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4) oy, eae ta tz a ES ett Fic. 1. Taxodium distichum near Old Frankfort Pike, Mr. Proctor’s home, Lexington, Kentucky. fications of specimens were made in the field or later in the herbarium. The project stimulated renewed studies of the difficult genus Carex of which around 85 species are known from Ken- tucky. A combination of an unpublished key for this genus for Kentucky (Meijer unpublished), text and _ illustrations by Mackenzie (1931, 1940) for the Flora of North America, and authentic specimens in the herbarium made it possible to identify species in a reliable way. RESULTS Bryophyta Fissidens grandifrons Brid.—This is an aquatic moss observed in Cogar Springs south of Midway, in Gay Spring, and in the Alexander Spring and along a creek near Parkers Mill Road, Lexington. Crum (1973) mentioned it from the Great Lakes forest in Michigan and referred to it as widespread in North America south to Guatemala. No specimens were reported from Kentucky by Fulford and Shacklette (1942). This moss seems to be typical for clear water in cold springs in limestone. According to Dr. A. J. Sharp (Univ. Ten- nessee, pers. comm.) it has been found at similar locations in Tennessee. The range given by Grout (1936) is southern Can- ada, Alberta to Ontario, Washington to California, east to New York, West Vir- ginia, and Tennessee. Gymnosperms Taxodiaceae Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich, Bald Cy- press.—A population of 5 trees was discoy- ered along Beals Branch on the Crosbey’s farm just south of the Old Frankfort Pike southwest of Midway in Woodford County. Measurements of trees at breast height were: Girth Diameter feet inches cm inches cm No. 1 16 8 510 63 160 No. 2 12 366 45.8 116 No. 3 10 305 38 96 No. 4 ) 2 279 35 89 No. 5 7 Ay 225 28 a According to Fowells (1965), second growth stands of Taxodium distichum in Maryland have trees 100 years of age with diameter of 21.3 inches (54 cm) and a diameter increase of about 2 inches (5 cm) every 10-year period. Fowells (1965) stated that there is good evidence that diameter growth in Louisi- ana also is 2 inches (5 cm) in 10 years. Even if we assume that on the fertile soils of the Inner Blue Grass Region this tree would grow 0.25 inch (6 mm) per year instead of 0.20 inch (5 mm) as in Mary- land and Louisiana, the estimated age of the tree with 63 inches diameter would be more than 200 years. At an increase in diameter of 2 inches in 10 years, the age would be around 300 years. A second relict locality of Taxodium distichum was discovered by John Mac- FLORA OF SINKING CREEKS AND ELKHORN SOURCE AREAS—Meijer ia Gregor along Linden Lane in Jessamine County in southern Nicholasville just west of Highway 27 near a former pond still shown at the northern margin of Little Hickman Topographic Quadrangle, 1952 edition. Two trees measuring 91 and 86.5 inches (227.5 and 215 cm, respectively ) in girth, approximately 120-140 years old, grew here in company of Platanus occi- dentalis, Quercus macrocarpa (girth, 10 feet; 3.05 m), Juglans nigra, and Carya laciniosa in a former farmland without any trace of planted trees around them. The third locality of bald cypress (Fig. 1) discovered by Max Leach is in Fayette County along the Old Paris Pike west of Interstate 75 northwest of Bryan Station High School on the land of Mr. Proctor. The girths of the trees were: No. 1—21 feet 6 inches at base ca 15 feet at main bole 655 cm No. 2—9 feet, 2 inches 279 cm No. 3—6 feet, 9 inches 206 cm No. 4—7 feet 213 cm No. 5—9 feet 274 cm No. 6—17 feet 518 cm No. 7—4 feet, 5 inches 122 cm No. 8—6 inches 15 cm Several trees grow around a natural pond fed by a spring. The young tree of 6-inch (15-cm) girth shows that the spe- cies is still regenerating at this locality. On the adjacent property of Mr. Owen Hitt, the girths of the following trees were: Feet Inches cm No. 1 8 Ek ie No. 2 bi 4 345 No. 3 a re) 236 No. 4 12 7 383 No. 5 13 8) 419 If we assume that trees of about 12 feet (366 cm) girth are about 200 years old at the growth rate of 2 inches per 10 years then there are at least 4 out of a population of 13 trees older than 200 years. From these data it seems well established that bald cypress grew in the Inner Blue Grass Region before the arrival of the Fic. 2. The historical specimen of Heteranthera limosa collected by C. W. Short in 1838 near Cole’s Tavern on the Frankfort Road in Woodford County. first white settlers. The localities in the Inner Blue Grass Region are disjunct from the main range of this species. (See map S4E in Little 1971.) Monocotyledons Pontederiaceae Heteranthera limosa (Sw.) Willd., Smaller Mud Plantain—A specimen in the Her- barium of the School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky collected by C. W. Short in 1838 (Fig. 2) is labeled “A Pond near Cole’s Tavern on the Frankfort Road, never seen elsewhere.” This is the only locality of this plant reported from Ken- tucky. Lucy Braun (1943) reported it as being in the University of Cincinnati Her- barium without locality. The genus ranges from the tropics to North America. Fer- nald (1950) reported the range of this species as Florida to New Mexico, north 80 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4) Fic. 3. Spiranthes cernua var. odorata Correll in swamp along Lees Branch, Woodford County, 28 September 1974. to Kentucky, southern Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Colorado. A good illustra- tion is given by Mohlenbrock (1970). The map in Muenscher (1944) is incomplete though it added Virginia to the range. Through the kind assistance of Mr. and Mrs. Richard DeCamp, Lexington, I con- tacted Mr. W. Julian Walden, Versailles Pike near Nugents Cross Roads at the junction of the Old Frankfort Pike with the Versailles-Midway Road, who informed me that Cole’s Tavern was the Black Horse Tavern at the stage stop near the cross- roads. There is a pond along Lees Branch just east of this place but I could not find any specimens of Heteranthera there. A more systematic search of natural farm ponds or old oxbow lakes in Kentucky might well turn up new localities of this rare water plant. Orchidaceae Spiranthes cernua (L.) Richard.—This or- chid (Fig. 3) occurs abundantly in wet . | f # q § 3 <_< F nd dea SS fat x ” § Fic. 4. Chelone glabra turtlehead. In swamp along Lees Branch, Woodford County. meadows, around swamps filled with tur- tle head Chelone glabra (Fig. 4), Lobelia cardinalis, Asclepias incarnata, and Leersia oryzoides along the margin of the swampy valley along Lees Branch just south of the Old Frankfort Pike in Woodford County. It formed impressive colorful vegetation in September 1974 in places full of blue flowering Lobelia siphilitica. Lucy Braun (1943) only mentioned it in Laurel, Letcher, Menifee, Montgomery, and Rowan counties. Recent discoveries were made of this orchid near Clay City in Powell County and along Chimney Creek in Wolfe County in the Red River Gorge. As a consequence of mowing in the locality in October 1974, or the dry summer of 1975 or too much grazing, no flowering plants could be found along Lees Branch in September 1975. It is unlikely that the flora at this locality, unique for Woodford County, will survive with continued heavy grazing. Cyperaceae The Sinking Creek System is the best | place in the Blue Grass Region to study © FLORA OF SINKING CREEKS AND ELKHORN SOURCE AREAS—Meijer 81 genera and species of this much neglected family. The greatest concentration of spe- cies can be found along Lees Branch where the cool, clear, running creek is lined with a swamp community of Scirpus lineatus, Scirpus atrovirens, Scirpus validus, Cyperus strigosus, Eleocharis palustris (pos- sibly new for Kentucky, at the southern boundary of its range, see Map 162 in Muenscher [1944] ), Eleocharis obtusa, and species of Carex. The latter genus contains at least 85 species in Kentucky (Braun 1943). It is one of the most suitable genera to indicate species diversity of natural areas. The distribution of species of Carex in the 2 most swampy sections of the Sinking Creek system is as follows (+ only one colony, X fairly common, XX common): Lees Branch Delaney Ferry C. blanda x _ C. stipata xX xX C. shortiana x x C. granularis xx box C. lurida x x C. lupulina xX < C. hyalinolepis + 7 (= C. riparia var. lacustris ) C. normalis xx Ke C. vulpinoidea xx eX C. frankii = * C. leavenworthii — x C. amphibola == x C.cephalophora — x C. jamesii x Carex lupulina has also been recorded in the Brannon—Catnip section which needs further investigation of its Carex flora during spring. The rarest Carex among these species is C. hyalinolepis Steudel syn. C. riparia var. lacustris (Willd.) Kiikenth. This form is so far only known from western Kentucky where it was collected by Jim Conrad and Amy Boyarsky, Coll. No. 1660, 16 June 1971 in Marshall County, 2 miles (5.2 km) south-southwest of Ken- tucky Dam Village State Park, in Muehlen- berg County (Jim Conrad Coll. No. 635), and from a swamp in the Backbone old bend of the Elkhorn Creek northeast of Frankfort. This species is closely related to, if not identical with, the European Carex riparia, well known to the present author from swamps in the Netherlands. Dicotyledons Ranunculaceae Ranunculus, section Batrachium, Water Crowfoot.—From records in Muenscher (1944) and Fernald (1950), it appears that only 1 species of white flowering water crowfoot Ranunculus longirostris Godron is known from Kentucky. It has flowers with about 16 pistils which may carry 8 achenes with wrinkled more or less glob- ular base and a curved beaked apex. The leaves have stipular sheaths which are from one-half or, more generally, three- fourths to entirely adnate to the petiole. Submerged leaves stay firm when lifted from the water. On 10 May 1974, we col- lected flowering and fruiting material of this species in Lees Branch quite near the Old Frankfort Pike in clear running cool water. Later on we discovered extensive patches of this species further south, some in quite shallow water on very muddy blackish soil. Muenscher (1944) mapped this species only for western Kentucky. Lucy Braun (1943) did not mention it for the state. Short (1829) mentioned river crowfoot from the Elkhorn Creek on the Georgetown Road under the obsolete name Ranunculus fluviatilis (syn. R. pantothrix Elliott). Ap- parently, R. fluviatilis Pursh, Flora Am. Sept. 2:395, is a synonym of R. aquatilis Linn. Since Lees Branch is part of the Elkhorn Creek catchment area, this record may refer to R. longirostris also. Fagaceae Quercus bicolor, Swamp White Oak.—The main distribution area of this species is from western Kentucky along the lower Ohio River towards Missouri, Iowa, south- eastern Minnesota, Wisconsin, southern 82 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4) Fic. 5. One of the largest trees of Quercus bi- color swamp white oak along Lees Branch, Woodford County. Michigan, southern Ontario and Quebec, and New England. Localities in Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia are rather scattered. The map of the distribution given by Little (1971) shows the absence of this species in the Eastern Coal Fields (Cumberland Plateau) in Kentucky, ex- cept in Laurel and Whitley counties and in parts of the Inner Blue Grass Region. However, Anderson County, where Dr. William Bryant showed me this tree in swamp forests along an old course of the Kentucky River, has to be added, and a new locality was discovered by the author with John MacGregor and Charles Andre in the Broadhead Quadrangle, Rockcastle County; to this can be added a locality in Trumbo Bottom south of Frankfort, Franklin County, a collection by Dr. Mary Wharton along the Kentucky River in Henry County (University of Kentucky, School of Biological Sciences Herbarium), and a locality west of Georgetown dis- covered by Mr. J. W. Singer of Singer’s | Garden, Stamping Ground and others along - Elkhorn Creeks and the Kentucky River north of Frankfort surveyed by me in Au- gust-September 1975. Swamp white oak occurs in Kentucky as far south as the — lower Licking River flats, in Fleming and — Bath counties, Little Laurel River in Laurel — County, Caney Creek in Lincoln County, } the headwaters of the Dix River near Crab Orchard, and the headwaters of the Green River in Casey and Adair counties. The Sinking Creek system of the Inner Blue Grass Region contains Quercus bicolor in all sections where there is a rather wide valley developed: Ashbrook Pike, Brannon- — Catnip, Delaney Ferry, and Lees Branch. | A rather well preserved locality is the Delaney Ferry section where this species — occurs scattered through forest dominated by Fraxinus americana. Along Lees Branch, 1 large tree (Fig. 5) was found in the north- — ern part a few minutes walk from the Old | Frankfort Pike, and a much larger stand of about 200 trees in the southern part of the forested area. In the Brannon—Catnip section, the spe- — cies might be hybridizing with Quercus — lyrata, and in the very small forest along | Ashbrook Pike, 1 tree is a probable hybrid — with nearby Quercus muehlenbergii and — another with Quercus macrocarpa. The largest sized tree among a population of 10 trees is here about 13 feet (4 m) girth. | The species occurs in Woodford County also in the company of Nyssa sylvatica — and Acer rubrum in the abandoned War- © wick channel of the Kentucky River near — Cloverbottom, mapped by Jillson (1947b, — 1948) and along Clear Creek north of | Stonehedge Farm 2 miles (3.2 km) south- west of Pinckard, Keene Top Quadrangle, only 3 miles (4.8 km) west-southwest from — the Delaney Ferry section of the Sinking — Creek in Jessamine County. | The suspected hybrids of swamp white | oak along Ashgrove Pike and south of | Brannon Road would suggest that fruits are not dispersed very far from the mother | trees by water or rodents. However, long- distance dispersal of this species over the FLORA OF SINKING CREEKS AND ELKHORN SOURCE AREAS—Meijer 83 Fic. 6. Quercus lyrata overcup oak, from swamp forest near Brannon Road, Jessamine County. postglacial plains north of the Ohio River might well be done by wood ducks (Fow- ells 1965). Seeds float in the water below the trees in the fall. Quercus lyrata, Overcup Oak.—A colony of 3 trees (Fig. 6) was discovered 20 Au- gust 1974 in a swamp forest with per- manently stagnant water with Alisma subcordata, Boehmeria cylindrica, Lysi- machia ciliata, Carex lupulina, Lobelia cardinalis, and Scutellaria lateriflora, 1 mile (16 km) south of the middle of Brannon Road in Jessamine County. The tree flora at and around this site consisted of Carya laciniosa, Fraxinus amer- icana, Acer rubrum, A. saccharinum, A. negundo, Asimina triloba, Tilia americana, Quercus macrocarpa, Q. muehlenbergii, Platanus occidentalis, Ulmus americana, and Celtis occidentalis. This locality of Quercus lyrata, a coastal plain species, similar in distribution to Tax- odium distichum, is 150 miles (250 km) east of the main range of this species in western Kentucky and 80 miles (130 km) from a locality mapped by Little (1971) in Jefferson County, apparently in the Scottsburg lowlands. » It is remarkable how little the distribu- tional areas of swamp Q. bicolor and Q. lyrata overlap; mainly in the lower Ohio River drainage and near the junction with the Mississippi Valley. From a close study of individual trees and leaf shapes it would appear that hybridization with Q. bicolor has taken place at this locality. Leguminosae Subfamily Mimosoideae Desmanthus illinoensis, Illinois Mimosa.— Lucy Braun (1943) reported this species from river banks in Boone, Fulton, Gallatin, Hickman, and Oldham counties. The lo- cality along Lees Branch, south of Old Frankfort Pike along the old Versailles Georgetown railways track is at the eastern margin of the range of this species (Isely 1973, with map). DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS A floristic survey of the Sinking Creek System, more or less parallel with the South Elkhorn Creek would suggest that it is part of what was once a continuous river drainage system similar to the former Mesozoic course of the Kentucky River across the Blue Grass Region as delineated by Jillson (1963). Further hydrological and geological work is needed to test this assumption. The streams which run at present through the Sinking Creek System are far too small to explain the extensive accumulation of alluvium and colluvium in Lees Branch and at other places. A soil depth of 12 feet (365 cm) has been established by me in a recent sinkhole on a side branch of Lees Branch south of Mid- way. Mr. Walden picked up a rounded granite boulder at his farm near Nugents Crossroads which must have been trans- ported by ariver. This suggests the possible existence of sandy alluvium and gravels in underground water courses with good con- sequences for filtration of water. A search 84 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4) can be made for alluvial deposits in nearby caves which could supply pollen samples which could give clues to the vegetational history of the area. Out of a pure floristic research there might arise a combined study of landforms and vegetational history of the Blue Grass which could lend support to land use efforts to prevent the Sinking Creeks from becoming stinking creeks. LITERATURE CITED 1943. An Annotated Catalog of the Spermatophytes of Kentucky. Swift Printing Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. 161 pp. Crum, H. 1973. Mosses of the Great Lake Forest. Univ. Herbarium, Univ. Mich., Ann Arbor, Mich. 404 pp. FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray’s Manual of Botany. American Book Co., New York, N. Y. 1632 pp. Fowe tts, H. A. 1965. Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States. Agriculture Handbook 971. US. Govt. Punt “OF. Washineton: D.C: 162; pp. FuLForpD, M., anpD H. T. SHackLETTE. 1942. A list of Kentucky Mosses. Bryologist 45:125-— 134. Grout, A. J. 1936. Moss flora of North America. Vol. 1. Publ. by Author, Newfane, Vermont. IseELy, D. 1973. Leguminosae of the United Braun, E. L. States: I. Subfamily Mimosoideae. Mem. New York Bot. Gard. 25:1—152. Jittson, W. R. 1945. Geology of Roaring Spring. Roberts ‘Printing Co., Frankfort, Ky. 44 pp. . 1947. Warwick Abandoned Channel of the Kentucky River. Roberts Printing Co., Frankfort, Ky. . 1948. Geological excursions in Ken- tucky. Roberts Printing Co., Frankfort, Ky. 59 pp. 1963. Delineation of the Mesozoic Course of the Kentucky River Across the Inner Blue Grass Region of the State. Rob- erts Printing Co., Frankfort, Ky. 24 pp. LitrLte, E. L. 1971. Atlas of United State Trees I. U.S. Dept. Agric. Misc. Publ. 1146. Mackenzig, K. K. 1931. Cyperaceae. Tribe 1. Cariceae. North American Flora Vol. 18(1): 1-478. 1940. North American Cariceae illus- trated by Harry Charles Creutzburg. I. Plates 1-269. II. Plates 270-539. New York Bot. Garden, New York, N.Y. 547 pp. Moutensrock, R. H. 1970. The Illustrated Flora of Illinois. Flowering Rush to Rushes. S. Ill. Univ. Press, Carbondale, Ill. 272 pp. MueEnscuer, W. C. 1944. Aquatic Plants of the United States. Comstock Publ. Co., Ithaca, N.Y. © 374 spp: Suort, E. H. 1829. Florula Lexingtoniensis. Faciculus IV. Transylvania Journ. Med. 2: 438—453. Fisheries Investigation of a Channelized Stream, Big Muddy Creek Watershed, Kentucky Martin F. GOLDEN AND CLINTON E. TWILLEY Dames & Moore, Environmental Consultants, 1150 West Eighth Street, Cincinnati, Ohio 45203 ABSTRACT This preliminary survey was undertaken to broaden the data base on the fishes of the Big Muddy Creek watershed, Butler and Logan counties, Kentucky. Fish collections and water quality characteristics are reported for 4 stations in the watershed for August 1974. Thirty-one species of fishes were collected during the survey, bringing the total kinds of fishes known from the Big Muddy Creek drainage to 40. Biomass and number of species were reduced significantly in channelized areas as compared to unchannelized areas. This indicates full recovery has still not occurred after 33 years, since the last channel maintenance was completed in 1941. Water quality was generally within acceptable limits established by the state of Kentucky for all sampling stations. Therefore, habitat alteration is the likely cause for the reductions in fish diversity and biomass. INTRODUCTION Data concerning the aquatic ecosystem of the Big Muddy Creek watershed, But- ler and Logan counties, Kentucky, appar- ently are limited to a cooperative recon- naissance survey conducted by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources (pers. comm. 3 April 1962, Wal- ter A. Gresh, Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife, Atlanta, Georgia). This preliminary survey was undertaken to broaden the data base by characterizing the fish communities of the Big Muddy Creek watershed and their relation to water quality and past channelization (Fig. 1) to be used in evaluating future plans for stream alteration. Past channelization of the main stem was initiated in 1929 and maintained until 1941, to improve drainage in the lower basin for agricultural purposes. This project resulted in shortening the stream about 16-24 km (10-15 miles) (Butler County Soil Conservation District et al. 1962). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project was sponsored in part by funds from the U.S. Soil Conservation Ser- vice (Lexington, Kentucky) in relation to the Big Muddy Creek Watershed Project. 85 The authors also wish to express their thanks to the late Dr. Morgan Sisk of Murray State University for supplying por- tions of the data on fishes. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA The Big Muddy Creek watershed lies in Butler and Logan counties, Kentucky, within 2 physiographic regions, the West- ern Coal Field and the Mississippian Pla- teau. Topography varies from 224 m (735 feet) to 91 m (300 feet) in elevation and is characterized by broad, gently rolling slopes. Soils within the region are com- posed of 4 principal associations, 1 upland and 3 lowland soil types, and are formed from limestone, sandstone, and shale (But- ler County Soil Conservation District et al. 1962). Floodplain usage is predom- inantly agricultural. Big Muddy Creek originates in north- central Logan County about 2.7 km (1.7 miles) east-northeast of Homer, Kentucky, and flows northward to its confluence with the Green River near Mining City, Ken- tucky, a distance of about 38 km (24 miles). The total watershed area of Big Muddy Creek is 26,362 ha (65,140 acres). The gradient of the upland 12.9 km (8 miles) of Big Muddy Creek is approxi- mately 4.9 m/km (25.5 feet/mile); the 86 TRANS. KeNTucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4) CTE DA 7Oet Say, OK AI TY saneWlietalaace LL EoG pee ———Channelized Area @ Sampling Station | (0) | Mile ee es } | Fic. 1. Sampling stations in Big Muddy Creek watershed, Butler and Logan counties, Kentucky. | Adapted from Butler County Soil Conservation District et al. (1962). FISHERIES INVESTIGATION OF A CHANNELIZED STREAM—Golden and Twilley 87 TABLE 1.—ToOTAL FISH BIOMASS AND COMPOSITION BY FAMILY AT THE 3 STATIONS IN Bic Muppy CrEEK, 14-15 Aucust 1974 1 0.012 ha (0.03 acre) Family kg/ha _ I|b/acre % Clupeidae 0.57 (0.5) 1.8 Esocidae’ = - - Catostomidae 16.70 (14.7) 49.3 Ictaluridae’ 5.34 (4.7) 15.8 Centrarchidae 5.00 (4.4) 146 Sciaenidae 5.80 (sry 170 Other* 0.57 (0.5) 15 Total Biomass 33.97 (29.9) 1Juvenile specimens collected were reported in “‘other.” 2 Excludes the tadpole madtom, genus Noturus. 3 Includes minnows, topminnows, shiners, etc. floodplain portion has an average gradient of about 0.4 m/km (2.3 feet/mile). Typ- ically, the stream morphology ranges from shallow riffles to pools of about 1 to 2 m (3 to 6 feet) in depth. The substrate varies from coarse gravel in the headwaters to hard clay overlain by mud deposits in downstream areas. MATERIALS AND METHODS Four stations were established for fish and water quality sampling (Fig. 1). To determine the effects of past channel- ization, 3 stations were established on the main stem of Big Muddy Creek. Stations 1 and 2 were in the channelized area and Station 3 was upstream. These stations, along with Station 4 on Duncan Creek, are representative of major stream habitats in the basin. The maximum water depth at the sampling stations ranged from 1.35 to 0.75 m (4.5-2.5 feet) from Stations 1 to 4, respectively. Maximum stream width at Stations 1 and 2 was approximately 6 m (20 feet) and about 3 m (10 feet) at Stations 3 and 4. Generally, the length of stream sampled at each station varied from a minimum of about 30 m (100 feet) at Station 1 to a maximum of 60 m (200 feet) at Stations 3 and 4. Variation in area sam- pled (Table 1) reflects efforts to include both pool and riffle habitats. Station 2 was the only one that did not include a riffle area. 2 0.020 ha (0.05 acre) Sampling Station 3 0.016 ha (0.04 acre) kg/ha Ib/acre Ts kg/ha Ib/acre % 3.41 (3.0).7 29.1 1.14 (1.0) 2.0 - ~ - 0.91 (0.8) LZ 3.41 (3:0). 7 129-2 C20 (64), 12:4 - - - 4.66 (4.1) 7.9 3.98 (3) oo4 BAAD, (30.3) 358.9 — — — 7.16 (63),° 12:5 1.02 (0.9) 8.4 2.95 (2.6) 5.0 193" 10:5) 58.508 | (bE) Selected water quality parameters were determined at all stations during August 1974 (Table 2). Sediment samples 2.5 cm (1 inch) in diameter and 46 cm (18 inches ) deep were also obtained at the stations on Big Muddy Creek for analysis of residual pesticides. Dissolved oxygen, temperature, specific conductance, and pH were deter- mined in the field. Dissolved oxygen was measured with a Yellow Springs Instru- ment Company polarographic oxygen meter (Model 57), specific conductance and tem- perature were measured with a Yellow Springs Instrument Company S-C-T meter (Model 33), and pH was measured with a Fisher-Accumet pH meter (Model 120). All other analyses were performed in the laboratory according to Environmental Protection Agency Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for Analysis of Pollutants (Federal Register, 16 October 1973). The sediment samples were analyzed for re- sidual pesticides by Analytical Bio-Chem- istry Laboratories, Incorporated, Columbia, Missouri. Fish collections at the 3 Big Muddy Creek stations were quantitatively sampled by treating a blocked area with Pro-Noxfish (S. G. Penick Company, New York, N.Y.), a rotenone emulsion. Potassium perman- ganate was used to neutralize the toxicant downstream. Each group of fishes (e.g., catostomids) was subsequently weighed to estimate biomass or standing crop. The 88 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4) TABLE 2.—WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS AT 4 LOCATIONS IN THE Bic Muppy CREEK DRAINAGE, | Kentucky, 16 Aucust 1974. ALL VALUES ARE EXPRESSED IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER EXCEPT WHERE NOTED Sampling Station 1 2 3 4 Alkalinity, Total (as CaCOs) 71.3 96.7 103 164 pH 7.4 7.5 7.5 TA Biochemical Oxygen Demand 127 17, 1.6 2:2, Chemical Oxygen Demand ies 1.2 LS PLS Chloride 4.52 3.90 3.74 6.33 Fecal Coliform (col/100 ml) 600 700 1100 400 Fecal Streptococci (col/100 ml) 730 560 1300 490 Dissolved Oxygen 31 6.2 6.4 5.7 Hardness, Total (as CaCOz) 105 108 tet 188 Ammonia (as N) 0.24 0.16 0.16 O72 Nitrate (as N) 0.26 0.15 0.22 0.29 Nitrite (as N ) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.02 Nitrogen, Total Organic (as N) 1.20 0.89 1.40 0.73 Nitrogen, Soluble Organic (asN) 0.31 0.29 0.29 0.28 Orthophosphate (as P ) 0.024 0.024 0.023 0.024 Phosphorus, Total (as P) 0.104 0.050 0.060 0.062 Specific Conductance 170 915 220 360 (umhos/cm ) Sulfate 21.8 123 8.6 19.3 Temperature, Air C 30 30 28 29 Temperature, Water C 25 25 pas) 24 Total Dissolved Solids 12 126 132 224 Total Suspended Solids 76 53 136 tb Turbidity (FTU) 67 33 49 7 Iron, Total 4.5 2.0 3.) 0.5 Potassium 3.8 2.3 aa 3:3 Sodium 3.9 2.8 25) 3.9 station on Duncan Creek was sampled qualitatively using a Smith and Root Model VII backpack electroshocker. The total shocking time at this station was 27.75 min. Nomenclature of fishes follows Bailey et al. (1970). RESULTS AND DIscCUSSION Water Quality Water quality standards for waters of the Commonwealth of Kentucky have been established by Regulation WP-41-1 of Au- gust 1971. The only water quality param- eter observed to be below the acceptable limits was dissolved oxygen (4.0 mg/1) at Station 1 (Table 2); this may be attrib- uted to drainage from a lumber mill saw- dust pile 2.4 km (1.5 miles) upstream. However, agricultural runoff and domestic wastes from floodplain residents may also be a contributing factor to the low down- stream dissolved oxygen. Big Muddy Creek and Duncan Creek waters were moderately hard, as defined by Sawyer and McCarty (1967), ranging from 105 to 188 mg/] total hardness. Nutrients such as _ phos- phorus and nitrogen were high enough to support algal blooms and indicate the effect of agricultural runoff. Specific con- ductance ranged from 170 to 360 pmhos/ cm and was well within limits (150 to 500 pmhos/cm) suggested by Ellis et al. (1946) for an unpolluted freshwater eco- system. Residual pesticide concentrations in bottom sediments were below detection limits (Table 3). On the basis of the water quality param- eters observed, the overall water quality is good at stations upstream from the bridge over State Highway 70 about 1.6 km (1 mile) west of Dunbar. However, downstream (Station 1), an almost two- FISHERIES INVESTIGATION OF A CHANNELIZED STREAM—Golden and Twilley 89 TABLE 3.—RESULTS OF SEDIMENT ANALYSIS FOR RESIDUAL PESTICIDES AT 3 LOCATIONS IN Bic Muppy CrEEK, Kentucky, 16 Aucust 1974. ALL VALUES EXPRESSED AS PARTS PER MILLION Sampling Station 1 2 3 Mirex <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 PCB's =< 02 <0.04 F. americana, 57, 59-64, 82, 83 Fundulus notatus, 41, 89 Gambusia affinis, 89 GARRETT, LINDA S., 20 Gaylussacia brachycera, 32 Gelditsia triacanthos, 59-64 Gloeocystis gigas, 20 GOLDEN, MARTIN F., 85 GOODLEY, PAULETCsnid Goose, Canada, 91 Hutchins, 91 Todds, 91 GORDON, MARSHALL, 11 Gymnodiniales, 25 Gymnodium fuscum, 25 G. palustre, 25 Gymnosperms, 78 HELD, MICHAEL E., 57 Heteranthera limosa, 79 Heterococcales, 24 Heteropus, 38 Heterotrichales, 24 HOYT, ROBER ED. 1 Hyalotheca dissiliens, 23 H. mucosa, 23 Hymenostomatida, 41 Ichthyophthirius multifilis, 41 Ictaluridae, 87, 89 Ictalurus natalis, 89 I. punctatus, 41, 89 Ilex opaca, 31 Inner Blue Grass, 77 Insects, trapping of, 94 Isochrysidales, 25 Jack-in-the-pulpit, 68 Juglans, 60 J. nigra, 59, 63, 79 Justicia, 72 J. americana, 72-75 J. ovata, 72-15 KELLER CARE aso Kentucky Academy of Science Annual business meeting, 45 News and comment, 54 Program, 47 Sectional officers, 53 Kirchneriella lunaris, 22 KOZEL, THOMAS R., 41 Labidesthes sicculus, 89 LANDRY, LARRY M., 98 Leersia oryzoides, 80 Leguminosae, 83 Lepocinclis acuta, 24 L. ovum, 24 Lepomis cyanellus, 89 L. gulosus, 89 L. macrochirus, 41, 89 L. megalotis, 89 Lernaea sp., 90 Lindera benzoin, 60, 62 Liquidambar styraciflua, 104 Liriodendron tulipifera, 31, 60 LITTLE, MICHAEE E26 Lobelia cardinalis, 80, 83 L. siphilitica, 80 Lodinus, 38 Lysimachia ciliata, 83 Maclura pomifera, 59, 61 Magnolia macrophylla, 31 Mallomonas acaroides, 25 M. caudata, 25 Mecysmus, 39, 40 Megaloptera, 26 MEIJER, WILLEM, 77 Mephitis mephitis, 103 Micrasterias denticulata, 23 M. fimbriata, 23 M. laticeps, 23 M. pinnatifida, 23 M. radiata, 23 Micropterus dolomieui, 89 M. punctulatus, 89 M. salmoides, 89 Mimosa, Illinois, 83 Mimosoideae, 83 Minytrema melanops, 89 Monocotyledons, 79 MOORE, SHARON P., 20 Morus rubra, 60, 62 Moxostoma erythrurum, 89 Neohermes concolor, 26, 27 Netrium digitus, 22 NICELY, KENNETH, A., 29 Nigronia serricornis, 26 North Carolina, 72-75 Notemigonus crysoleucas, 43, 89 Notibius, 40 Notropis atherinoides, 89 N. cornutus, 89 N. emiliae, 89 Noturus gyrinus, 89 Nyssa sylvatica, 31 Oak, overcup, 83 swamp white, 81, 82 Oedogoniales, 21 Oedogonium crassiusculum, 21 O. suecicum, 21 Oocystis elliptica, 21 O. parva, 21 Ophiocytium capitatum, 24 O. parvulum, 24 Orchidaceae, 80 Organic compounds Industrial, 11 in water and sediments, 11 Oscillatoria princeps, 25 O. splendida, 25 Oscillatoriales, 25 Ostrya virginiana, 59, 60 Oxydendron arboreum, 31 Pachycladon umbrinus, 21 Palmodictyon varium, 20 Pandorina morum, 20 Pediastrum boryanum, 21 P. duplex, 21 var. clathratum, 21 var. cohaerens, 21 P. tetras, 21 Penium margaritaceum, 22 Perca flavescens, 41 Perch, 41 Percidae, 89 Percina caprodes, 89 P. macrocephala, 89 P. maculata, 89, 90 P. sciera, 89 Peridiniales, 25 Peridinium cinctum, 25 P. willei, 25 P. wisconsinense, 25 Pfrille neogaea, 2 Phacotus lenticularis, 20 Phacus anacoelus, 24 P. brevicaudata, 24 P. helikoides, 24 P. longicauda, 24 P. orbicularis, 24 P. pleuronectes, 24 P. pseudoswirenkoi, 24 P. segretii var. ovum, 24 P. suecicus, 24 Phaeoplaca thallosa, 25 Phaeoplacales, 25 Phoxinus, 2 Pimephales notatus, 89 P. vigilax, 89 Pinus echinata, 32 Planktosphaeria gelatinosa, 21 Plantain, smaller mud Platanus occidentalis, 79, 83 Pleurotaenium trabecula, 22 Poeciliidae, 89 Pomoxis annularis, 89 Pontederiaceae, 79 Prunus serotina, 31, 59-64 Quercus, 60-62 QO. alba, 31, 32, 59, 63, 64, 66 INDEX TO VOLUME 37 . bicolor, 77, 81-83 . lyrata, 82, 83 . macrocarpa, 79, 82, 83 montana, 31 muehlenbergii, 59, 63, 82, 83 . prinus, 59, 63 . rubra, 31, 59, 63 . stellata, 32 . velutina, 32 DOOD OOOO RANDEL, W. R., 104 Ranunculaceae, 81 Ranunculus, 81 R. fluviatilis, 81 R. longirostris, 81 R. pantothrix, 81 RENEAU, WILLIAM J., 91 Rhipidodendron splendidum, 25 Roaring Springs, 77 Robinia pseudo-acacia, 59-62 RUDERSDORF, WARD, 91 Sassafras albidum, 60 Scenedesmus abundans, 22 S. arcuatus, 22 S. bijuga, 22 S. brasiliensis, 22 S. dimorphus, 22 S. quadricauda, 22 Schizothrix calcicola, 25 Sciaenidae, 87, 89 Scirpus lineatus, 81 S. atrovirens, 81 S. validus, 81 Scutellaria lateriflora, 83 Selenastrum minutum, 21 Semotilus atromaculatus, 89 SETTLES, WILLIAM H., 1 Shad, gizzard, 41 threadfin, 41 Shiner, golden, 43 SISK, MORGAN E., 33 Skunk, eastern spotted, 103 striped, 103 SMITH, BURTON J., 94 SMITH, WALTER T., JR., 16 Society of Kentucky Lepi- dopterists, 56 Sorastrum spinulosum, 21 Spilogale putorius, 103 Spiranthes cernua, 80 var. odorata, 77, 80 Spirogyra cleveana, 22 S. decimina, 22 S. suecica, 22 Spirulina subsalsa, 25 Spondylomorum quaternarium, 20 109 Staurastrum alternans, 23 . crytocerum, 23 . cuspidatum, 23 . gladiosum, 23 . lunatum, 23 . margaritaceum, 23 . minnesotense, 23 . orbiculare, 23 . paradoxum, 23 . setigerum, 23 Stigeoclonium flagelliferum, 21 S. lubricum, 21 Stizostedion canadense, 89 STOLTZ, LEONARD P., 16 Sweet gum, 104 Cold treatment of, 104 Budbursting in, 104 Synura sphagnicola, 25 S. uvella, 25 RNRANNNNUHAWNWV TARTER, DONALD C., 26 Taxodiaceae, 78 Taxodium distichum, 77, 78, 83 Tech Aqua Summer Program, 56 Tenebrionidae, 35 Tetraedron caudatum, 22 T. minimum, 22 T. muticum, 22 T. planctonicum, 22 T. regulare, 22 T. trigonum, 22 Tetragoniella gigas, 24 Tetraspora gelatinosa, 21 Tetrasporales, 20 Tetrastrum heterocanthum, 22 Tilia americana, 59, 60, 63, 64, 83 Tonibiastes, 40 Tonibius, 40 Topminnow, blackstripe, 41 Trachelomonas allia, 24 . bernardinensis, 24 . cylindrica, 24 . ensifera, 24 . hispida, 24 . playfairii, 24 . robusta, 24 . rugulosa, 24 . similis, 24 . superba, 24 . volvocina, 24 Trapping insects, 94 Tribonema minus, 24 Trichoton, 39 Tsuga canadensis, 31 TWILLEY, CLINTON E., 85 ap: ells: Bela bane ler aces ae Pa le 110 Ulmus, 60 U. americana, 83 U. rubra, 59-64 Ulus, 39 Uroglena volvox, 25 Volvocales, 20 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37(3-4) Volvox aureus, 20 WATKINS, WILLIAM D., 26 WEBB, DAVID H., 33 Westella botryoides, 21 WIEDEMAN, VARLEY E., 68 WINSTEAD, JOE E., 29, 57, 104 Xanthidium cristatum var. leiodermum, 23 Xanthophyceae, 24 Zygnematales, 22 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 37, NOS. 1-4, 1976 Age structure, growth patterns, and food habits of the southern redbelly dace Chrosomus erythro- earcmim Kentucky. Wiliam H. Settles and Robert D. Hoyt —.... 1 Characterization of industrial organic compounds in water. Paul C. Goodley and ee, GIGI SNS SVS Se EE ke Pe a Sea es er 11 Soluble proteins in Dieffenbachia. Susamma Cherian, Walter T. Smith, and Leonard P. Stoltz _. 16 Kentucky algae. II. Gary E. Dillard, Sharon P. Moore, and Linda S. Garrett —__---_-_-_____ 20 Distribution, including new state records, of fishflies in Kentucky (Megaloptera: Corydalidae). DonndiGtarter, Wiliam D. Watkins, and Michael L. Little .... 26 A preliminary study of a virgin forest tract of the Cumberland Plateau in Laurel County, Kentucky. irareeasicag. and. Kenner A. Nicely 2... 29 Distribution and habitat preference of Etheostoma histrio in Kentucky. Morgan E. Sisk and David I gu rg FP ee ec nt) Ee ee TE os I Rs 33 A review of the genus Blapstinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Jerry C. Davis 35 The occurrence of Ichthyophthirius multifilis (Ciliata: Hymenostomatida) in Kentucky waters. a PIAA ol) arrears Ned ON Nv cis BD es BG sD a BI 4] PEE SES ASSESS el a a a ee cee ee ae 45 arek sae) DC UMPEDSaE te M SIa tn a c 54 Structure and composition of a climax forest system in Boone County, Kentucky. Michael E. Held aei GE MEME STC (iC gee re ee Se Fe gt ee A 57 Description and breaking of dormancy in corms of jack-in-the-pulpit Arisaema spp. Tim T. Ellis Cente MR RemIEC IME COC TING T| yim wrth ete Yo ee en i 8 Noe es ee eee 68 The genus Justicia L. (Acanthaceae) in North Carolina. E. O. Beal and S. F. Brown __. T Notes on the flora of the Sinking Creek System and Elkhorn source areas in the Inner Blue Grass memmmeumicntuicky. Willem Meyer 2-8 it Fisheries investigation of a channelized stream, Big Muddy Creek watershed, Kentucky. Martin F. err te PEM EELOTUME el WUTC 2 a A Be ee 85 The sex, age, and weight structure of the Canada goose flock of Ballard County, Kentucky. William RRC HCHO MILACTSGOTf 22-8 91 Eenew appication im the pitfall trapping of insects. Burton J. Smith 94 Eye lens weight as an age indicator of white-tailed deer in central Kentucky. Carl J. Keller and Delete EA TE SeRCUHy ase 21" oS AIC NNT eI ee Ee Pench eR ne CAMO Sele et 98 Sighting of an eastern spotted skunk in Henderson County, Kentucky. Gary H. Richins and Richard dat) aman tN nae ES a ee ee Re ee ee 103 Cold treatment and budbursting in sweet gum from south-central Kentucky. W. R. Randel and Joe Pr ss Ree ee eek te he oe 104 See Reds OD EDEOSETC 0) Lead NN is ae ee oe oe ew 106 sas tee 8 rpg, GU ona 0 AR SR ee Sa rae eee one ne Oe enn OO 107 111 5 : ial 7 7 if ae Ghee * Soa ; er —) Owe j a ee hab hs , fname varnnetty cnet a | oh. Tee raft mi malt ua £ fui happens Arcee EGS es % > geen + eae om ach) iaeeugnied hingan Me + a «A povade Anoiith 5 igat ‘ in) oon take wee | bt vs es oul a % t spicy Boe ‘srmck = b ; Cera tency J ‘hen ‘teow ,% i fenton in DST echo Ae in? Jes pind ay iste pe nt Mi Pri : , } orcad } glial ares alt 2 wires ols omiuclh & ehlacrey) Nati. ce ’ notivrt en = ' F @) . =® a - ‘ _ INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub- lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received. Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be re- viewed by one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and, once accepted, an attempt will be made to publish papers in the order of their acceptance. Manuscripts should be typed, double spaced throughout, on good quality white paper 84% x 11 inches (216 x 279 mm). The original and one copy should be sent to the Editor and the author should retain a copy for his own use in correcting proof. Metric and Celsius units are to be used for all measurements instead of, or in addition to, English and Fahrenheit units. Format and style may vary somewhat depending on the scientific discipline, but the basic pattern of presentation will be consistent for all manuscripts. 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The body of the manuscript should include the following sections: Introduction, Ac- knowledgments (if applicable), Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, Summary, and Literature Cited. In manuscripts of only a few pages, there is no need to break it up into sections, except for the Literature Cited. All tables and figures, as well as all litera- ture cited must be referred to in the text. 4. All references in the Literature Cited must be typewritten, double spaced, and should provide complete information on the material referred to, as in the following examples: Article: Jounson, A. E., anp E. V. Harretzt. 1962. An analysis of factors governing density patterns in desert plants. J. Bot. 44(3):419—432. Book: Dar.incTON, P. J., Jk. 1965. Biogeography of the southern end of the world. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 236 pp. 5. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in arabic numerals, and set on a separate page. The heading of the table should be informative of its contents. Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print about 5 X 7 inches. Line draw- ings in India ink on white paper are acceptable. Photographs should have good contrast so that they can be reproduced satisfactorily. Figures should be numbered in arabic numerals. The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for checking all literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly Extensive alterations on the galley proofs are expensive and such costs are to be borne by the author. Reprints are to be ordered when the galley proofs are returned to the Editor. CONTENTS Structure and composition of a climax forest system in Boone County tucky. Michael E. Held and Joe E. Winstead — Notes on the flora of the Sinking Creek System and Elkhorn source a! the Inner Blue Grass Region of Kentucky. Willem Meijer ______. Fisheries investigation of a channelized stream, Big Muddy Creek wa Kentucky. Martin F. Golden and Clinton E. Twilley _______ The sex, age, and weight structure of the Canada goose idlooks of County, Kentucky. William J. Reneau and Ward Rudersdorf __ A new application in the pitfall trapping of nS Burton J. me. Sighting of an eastern Botted skunk in Henderson County, Kentuck H, Hac and Biplard. Panke, ee x Cold treatment and budbsfstiie in sweet gum. from south santa 4 ie ‘Randel and Joe E. Winstead _____- OS, Mle i ae Oa ay News — Comment , om gt 3 Index to Volume 37 tue A I a . VD 1 TRANSACTIONS a et i <= t \ aia “7 “ale NTS. Ys | MAY 977 Lut NES Volume 38 Numbers I-2 March 1977 The Kentucky Academy of Science Founded § May 1914 OFFICERS FOR 1977 President: Charles Payne, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351 President Elect: Charles E. Kupchella, Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louisville 40202 Past President: Frederick M. Brown, Kentucky State Hospital, Danville 40422 Vice President: Sanford L. Jones, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475 Secretary: Thomas N. Seay, Georgetown College, Georgetown 40324 Treasurer: Bartlett G. Dickinson, Georgetown College, Georgetown 40324 Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky Univer- sity, Bowling Green 42101 Representative to AAAS Council: Branley A. Branson, Eastern Kentucky Uni- versity, Richmond 40475 John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506 Boarp OF DIRECTORS Fletcher Gabbard 1977 Thomas B. Calhoon 1979 John C. Philley 1977 Harold Eversmeyer 1979 John G. Spanyer 1978 Gertrude Ridgel 1980 Oliver Zandona 1978 Ivan Potter 1980 EDITORIAL OFFICE Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Office of Academic Affairs, University of Louis- ville, Louisville 40208 Associate Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville 40208 Editorial Board: William E. Dennen, Department of Geology, University of Ken- _ tucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of Louisville, Louis- ville, Kentucky 40208 William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lex- ington, Kentucky 40506 All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be ad- dressed to the Editor. The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT. Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon nomi- nation, payment of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from the Secretary. The Transactions are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are $6.00 for Active Members; Student Membership is $4.00. Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $7.00; foreign, $8.00; back issues are — : $8.00 per volume. The Transactions are issued semiannually. Four numbers comprise a volume. Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Secre- tary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Librarian, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208, who is the exchange agent for the Academy. TRANSACTIONS of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY of SCIENCE March 1977 VOLUME 38 NUMBERS 1-2 Digenetic Trematodes from Kentucky Fishes’ Joun V. ALIFF Department of Biology, Georgia College, Milledgeville, Georgia 31061 ABSTRACT In 1971-1972 and 1974, 3,059 fishes, representing 91 species, were taken from major river drainages of Kentucky including the Big Sandy, Licking, Kentucky, Cumberland, Salt, Tennessee, and Green rivers. Twenty-three species of adult digenetic trematodes occurred in 16.5 percent or 538 host fishes representing 40 species. A list of parasites (new host record ) includes (fish species in parentheses): Allocreadiidae: Allocreadium lobatum ( Notropis whipplei, Rhinichthys atratulus); Crepidostomum cooperi; C. cornutum (Lepomis megalotis ); C. isostomum (Etheostoma blennioides); Azygiidae: Leuceruthrus micropteri (Lepomis macrochirus, L. megalotis); Proterometra macrostoma (Ictalurus melas, Noturus gyrinus, Lepomis gulosus, Micropterus dolomieui, M. punctulatus, M. salmoides, Cottus carolinae); Bucephalidae: Paurorhynchus hiodontis; Rhipidocotyle septpapillata (Lepomis megalotis); Bucephalopsis sp.; Cryptogonimidae: Acetodextra amiuri; Gorgoderidae: Phyllodistomum caudatum (Hypentelium nigricans, Etheostoma blennioides); P. etheostomae (Ambloplites rupestris, Etheostoma caeruleum, E. spectabile); P. lacustri (Noturus flavus); P. lysteri (Moxostoma macrolepidotum); P. nocomis (Semotilus atromaculatus); P. staffordi; Lissor- chiidae: Lissorchis attenuatum; L. simeri (Minytrema melanops); Macroderoididae: Allo- glossidium corti (Micropterus salmoides); Opecoelidae: Plagioporus cooperi (Pimephales notatus, P. promelas); P. serotinus (Pimephales notatus); P. sinitsini (Campostoma anom- alum, Notropis ardens, Moxostoma anisurum, N. chrysocephalus, N. rubellus, N. whipplei, Pimephales notatus, Rhinichthys atratulus, Hypentelium nigricans, Gambusia affinis); Podo- cotyle boleosomi (Etheostoma blennioides, E. caeruleum, E. flabellare, E. spectabile); and Paramphistomatidae: Pisciamphistoma stunkardi (Lepomis megalotis, Etheostoma blennioides ). INTRODUCTION The sparsity of records of trematode fauna from Kentucky presents an imper- ative for this and future studies. Cable (1935) described larval trematode cercar- iae from Madison County, Harley and Keefe (1971) reported Crepidostomum cooperi from Lepomis spp. in Madison County, Patton (1973) recovered Leu- ceruthrus micropteri from Micropterus spp. 1From a dissertation submitted to the Graduate School, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ken- tucky, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. in Fayette County, and recent studies by White (1974) recorded Plagioporus ser- otinus from Catostomus commersoni in the Kentucky River drainage. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank Dr. Robert A. Kuehne, Univer- sity of Kentucky, and Drs. James Small, Jr., Rollins College, for their aid in the identi- fication of many host fishes; Barry and Bruce Shaffer, University of Kentucky, for their help in seining and processing some collections; Dr. J. H. Fischthal, SUNY at Binghamton, for his review of trematode bo Fic... 1. specimens and helpful comments, and es- pecially Prof. J. M. Edney, University of Kentucky, my major professor, who pro- vided much assistance. Recognition is made to Georgia College for a leave of absence stipend in 1971 and to the Faculty Research Fund of Georgia College for grants in 1971, 1972, and 1974. Special thanks to the survey teams of the Ken- tucky State Division of Fisheries which provided much cooperation. METHODS Most collections were made by me using a minnow seine, under the scientific col- lecting permit granted by the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Re- sources, Division of Fisheries. The Divi- sion of Fisheries provided 709 fishes taken by their stream survey teams in eastern and western Kentucky. My personal air- craft served as a means of rapid transporta- tion from those areas. Collections were made from June through November 1971, August 1972, and May 1974, in 7 major river drainages throughout Kentucky (Fig. 1). A representative sampling of fishes was attempted at each site. Every effort was made to bring live fish to the laboratory, including the adjustment of water temper- ature in the carrying tanks by use of ice. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) Map of Kentucky indicating the locations of collections used in this study. The Little Sandy River site was negative and not included in the survey totals. Fish were placed in several aerated 20- gallon (75-liter) aquaria to await post-— mortem examination. All fish that died after capture were immediately placed on ice and examined within 48 hours of reach- ing the laboratory. Live fish were prepared for examination by pithing. The procedure was as follows: (1) host weight and species data were’ taken and a specimen code number formu- — lated and recorded, (2) fish were examined | for external parasites, and (3) the abdom- inal cavity was opened with dissecting: scissors and the organs removed and exam- ined under a dissection stereomicroscope’ capable of 30x magnification. The eyes, gills, liver and gall bladder, ovaries, kid- neys, ureters, urinary bladder, and intestine were placed in separate petri dishes. In smaller fishes, those organs were teased apart under stereomicroscopic observation. | Fish in excess of 100 g were dissected with fine scissors. The body wall was examined before carcass disposal. The worms from each host thus found were transferred into separate numbered holding vials with a small amount of saline. Most Trematoda were fixed under slight coverslip pressure flattening with an 80 C| solution of Bouin’s fixative. All worms were subsequently transferred from the wet fixing slide to a vial of Bouin’s fluid where TREMATODES FROM KENTUCKY FIsSHEsS—ALIiff 3 TABLE 1. LOCATION, HOST—PARASITE INTENSITY, AND INCIDENCE OF DIGENETIC TREMATODE PARA- SITES OF FISHES FROM MAJOR RIVER DRAINAGES IN KENTUCKY. NEGATIVE HOSTS ARE FISHES WITH NO PARASITES. Location : Intensity, No. hosts—No. species Host, mean weight, g Trematode Incidence BIG SANDY RIVER DRAINAGE Beaver Creek, Floyd County 254-38 Lepomis megalotis, 41 Pisciamphistoma stunkardi P5323 ab6 Negative hosts (no.): Dorosoma cepedianum (2), Esox americanus vermiculatus (3), Campostoma anomalum (11), Ericymba buccata (24), Notropis atherinoides (6), N. chrysocephalus (16), N. heterolepis (2), N. spilopterus (2), N. stramineus (17), Pimephales notatus (9), P. promelas (3), Rhinichthys atratulus (6), Semotilus atromaculatus (16), Carpiodes cyprinus (2), Catostomus commersoni (4), Hypentelium nigricans (17), Minytrema melanops (5), Moxostoma anisurum (3), M. erythrurum (4), Ictalurus melas (1), I. natalis (2), L. punctatus (6), Noturus miurus (2), Pylodictis olivaris (2), Labidesthes sicculus (6), Ambloplites rupestris (15), Lepomis gibbosus (17), L. macrochirus (6), L. microlophus (2), Micropterus dolomieui (3), M. punctulatus (8), M. salmoides (4), Pomoxis annularis (2), Etheostoma blennioides (4), E. caeruleum (9), E. flabellare (2), Percina caprodes (5). LICKING RIVER DRAINAGE Licking River, Rowan and Menifee counties 51-17 Minytrema melanops, 113 Lissorchis sp. L Torti Micropterus punctulatus, 191 Crepidostomum cornutum 40,5 0f 5 Negative hosts (no.): Anguilla rostrata (2), Campostoma anomalum (1), Cyprinus carpio (2), Notropis atherinoides (10), N. volucellus (1), Hypentelium nigricans (3), Ictiobus cyprinellus (1), Moxostoma anisurum (2), M. erythrurum (7), M. macrolepidotum (1), Ictalurus punctatus (1), Lepomis macrochirus (2), L. megalotis (1), Aplodinotus grunniens (1). Stoner Creek, Bourbon County 45-9 Ambloplites rupestris, 232 Crepidostomum cornutum a Ford | Lepomis macrochirus, 1 Proterometra sp. 45 Hot 1 Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (5), Notropis ardens (8), N. boops (1), N. chryso- cephalus (12), Labidesthes sicculus (6), Etheostoma blennioides (6), E. caeruleum (4). Fleming Creek, Nicholas County 27-10 Noturus flavus, 14 Phyllodistomum lacustri 6, 2 of 6 Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (3), Notropis rubellus (2), N. whipplei (3), Ethe- ostoma blennioides (3), E. caeruleum (4), E. flabellare (2), E. zonale (1), Percina caprodes (2), P. phoxocephala (1). Licking River, Nicholas County 60-12 Micropterus dolomieui, 31 Leuceruthrus micropteri 2. Lorl Negative hosts (no.): Dorosoma cepedianum (1), Campostoma anomalum (2), Hybopsis aesti- valis (4), Notropis rubellus (1), N. whipplei (9), Hypentelium nigricans (1), Noturus flavus (5), Etheostoma zonale (14), Percina caprodes (7), P. copelandi (5), P. evides (1), P. phoxocephala (9). KENTUCKY RIVER DRAINAGE Line Fork, Letcher County 62-15 Notropis ardens, 2.5 Plagioporus sp. 8, 3 of 8 Semotilus atromaculatus, 34 Plagioporus sp. 2,2 0f6 Moxostoma macrolepidotum, 115 Crepidostomum cornutum* 2,1 of 4 Ambloplites rupestris, 44 Crepidostomum cornutum 4.5, 2 of 14 Etheostoma flabellare, 6 Phyllodistomum etheostomae 2,20f8 Etheostoma spectabile, 1 Phyllodistomum etheostomae 2,1o0f8 Cottus carolinae, 11 Proterometra sp. 1,lof5 Negative hosts (no.): Nocomis micropogon (1), Notropis chrysocephalus (2), Carpiodes cyprinus (4), Ictalurus punctatus (4), Lepomis gibbosus (2), L. macrochirus (2), L. megalotis (2), Microp- terus dolomieui (2). Rockhouse Creek, Letcher County 27-11 Moxostoma macrolepidotum, 102. Phylodistomum lysteri 21a 2 Micropterus punctulatus, 199 Crepidostomum cornutum 2.5, 2 of 2 4 TrANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2) TABLE 1, Continued. tensity, Incidence Ambloplites rupestris, 183 Proterometra sp. 4,lof2 Negative hosts (no.): Notropis chrysocephalus (2), Moxostoma erythrurum (3), Hypentelium nig- ricans (2), Noturus flavus (4), Pylodictis olivaris (1), Lepomis megalotis (3), Micropterus dolo-: mieui (2). Location No. hosts—No. species Host, mean weight, g Trematode Dix River, Lincoln County 103-26 Notropis ardens, 2.5 Plagioporus sinitsini 4.5, 4 of 7 Notropis chrysocephalus, 16 Plagioporus sinitsini 1, 1 of 14: Ictalurus melas, 2.8 Proterometra sp. 6, lofZ Ambloplites rupestris, 159 Proterometra sp. L lof? Lepomis cyanellus, 40 Proterometra sp. 4, lofts Lepomis macrochirus, 70 Proterometra sp. 1, 1 of 4) Lepomis megalotis, 61 Proterometra sp. 1,2 0f6 Micropterus salmoides, 220 Proterometra sp. 1,1 of Si Negative hosts (no.): Dorosoma cepedianum (1), Campostoma anomalum (6), Cyprinus carpio’ (2), Notropis atherinoides (2), N. boops (1), Pimephales notatus (1), Semotilus atromaculatus (14), Hypentelium nigricans (1), Moxostoma erythrurum (3), Morone chrysops (6), Micropterus dolo-- mieui (1), M. punctulatus (5), Etheostoma blennioides (1), E. caeruleum (2), E. flabellare (6), Percina caprodes (5), Aplodinotus grunniens (1), Cottus carolinae (1). | Red River, Powell County 100-30 Hiodon tergisus, 198 Hypentelium nigricans, 40 Hypentelium nigricans, 65 Moxostoma erythrurum, 71 Lepomis macrochirus, 62 Lepomis megalotis, 11 Percina caprodes, 9 Negative hosts (no.): Lepisosteus osseus (2), Anguilla rostrata (2), Dorosoma cepedianum (5),. Campostoma anomalum (5), Cyprinus carpio (2), Nocomis effusus (1), Notropis boops (5),: N. chrysocephalus (1), N. photogenis (3), Pimephales notatus (3), Moxostoma carinatum (8), M. duquesnei (3), M. macrolepidotum (2), Ictalurus punctatus (1), Ambloplites rupestris (4),. Lepomis gibbosus (1), Micropterus punctulatus (2), Pomoxis annularis (1), Etheostoma blennioides: (6), E. caeruleum (2), E. flabellare (3), E. variatum (12), E. zonale (6), Percina maculata (2), Aplodinotus grunniens (3). Boone Creek, Fayette County 142-17 Notropis ardens, 2.8 Notropis chrysocephalus, 15 Notropis chrysocephalus, 12 Pimephales notatus, 12 Semotilus atromaculatus, 7.5 Catostomus commersoni, 148 Gambusia affinis, 2.5 Lepomis macrochirus, 23 Lepomis macrochirus, 27 Micropterus dolomieui, 1.3 Micropterus dolomieui, 3.3 Etheostoma blennioides, 2.1 Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (18), Hypentelium nigricans (3), Lepomis cyanellus: (5), Etheostoma caeruleum (4), E. flabellare (11), E. nigrum (5), E. spectabile (3), Cottus car-. olinae (3). East Hickman Creek, Fayette County 40-12 Pimephales notatus, 3.4 Lepomis cyanellus, 17 Etheostoma blennioides, 3.1 Etheostoma caeruleum, 2.0 Etheostoma flabellare, 1.5 Paurorhynchus hiodontis 17, 1 of 1 Phyllodistomum caudatum 1.4, 5 of 7/ Plagioporus sinitsini 2. 2 of Fa Clinostomum ( metacercariae ) 4,1 of 53 Proterometra sp. Leuceruthrus micropteri Crepidostomum isostomum , Plagioporus sinitsini 3, 3 of 17] Allocreadium lobatum 3, 6 of 26° Plagioporus sinitsini 2,5 of 26 Plagioporus serotinus 9,3 of 18 Phyllodistomum nocomis 2. 1 of 10) Lissorchis attenuatum 3, ore Plagioporus sinitsini 24, 1 of 3) Leuceruthrus micropteri 2, 2 of 44 Proterometra sp. 5, 3 of 4 Leuceruthrus micropteri Proterometra sp. 1, 1 of 2) Podocotyle boleosomi Plagioporus sinitsini 4,1 of 3 Proterometra sp. 1.5, 2 of 6 Phyllodistomum caudatum Loft Z Proterometra sp. 8, lof 3 Proterometra sp. 2.5, 2 of 3 TREMATODES FROM KENTUCKY FisHEs—AIiff TaBLE 1, Continued. Location | No. hosts—No. species Host, mean weight, g Negative hosts (no.): Notropis ardens ( Lepomis macrochirus (1), L. megalotis (5 Jessamine Creek, Jessamine County 144-24 Notropis chrysocephalus, 34 Notropis chrysocephalus, 27 Catostomus commersoni, 223 Ictalurus melas, 40 Ambloplites rupestris, 89 Lepomis cyanellus, 28 Lepomis gulosus, 18 Lepomis macrochirus, 34 Lepomis megalotis, 54 Micropterus salmoides, 71 Etheostoma blennioides, 0.5 Trematode Allocreadium lobatum Plagioporus sinitsini Lissorchis attenuatum Phyllodistomum caudatum Crepidostomum cornutum Proterometra sp. Proterometra sp. Proterometra sp. Proterometra sp. Leuceruthrus micropteri Podocotyle boleosomi Intensity, Incidence 5), N. chrysocephalus (6), Semotilus atromaculatus (2), ), Etheostoma nigrum (3), Cottus carolinae (1). 5, 3 of 10 6, 4 of 10 1,1 0f 4 Tl, Bots oO. tf of 1 3.4, 7 of 10 3, lof 1 5. LE ot 12 T Zot 13 2 bor? LP of tt Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (3), Cyprinus carpio (1), Notropis ardens (5), N. photogenis (7), Pimephales notatus (10), Hypentelium nigricans (6), Moxostoma erythrurum (4), Noturus flavus (1), Micropterus punctulatus (1), Etheostoma caeruleum (20), E. flabellare (11), Percina caprodes (1), Cottus carolinae (4). Grier Creek, Woodford County 11-4 Notropis chrysocephalus, 53 . Notropis chrysocephalus, 52 Allocreadium lobatum Plagioporus sinitsini 8,3 0f 5 55 ACT: we Negative hosts (no.): Notropis ardens (2), Hypentelium nigricans (3), Catostomus commersoni (1). South Elkhorn Creek, Fayette County 110-9 Notropis ardens, 2.6 Notropis ardens, 2.5 Notropis chrysocephalus, 13 Notropis chrysocephalus, 15 Rhinichthys atratulus, 2 Semotilus atromaculatus, 17 Lepomis macrochirus, 42 Etheostoma blennioides, 3.3 Etheostoma flabellare, 2.2 Cottus carolinae, 2.3 Negative host (no.): Pimephales notatus (5). North Elkhorn Creek, Fayette County 722-34 Notropis ardens, 4.5 Notropis ardens, 2.4 Notropis ardens, 2.0 Notropis chrysocephalus, 16 Notropis chrysocephalus, 26 Notropis chrysocephalus, 37 Pimephales notatus, 1.7 Pimephales notatus, 3.3 Rhinichthys atratulus, 2.4 Semotilus atromaculatus, 12 Semotilus atromaculatus, | Ictalurus melas, 112 Ambloplites rupestris, 147 Ambloplites rupestris, 87 Ambloplites rupestris, 27 Lepomis cyanellus, 18 Lepomis gulosus, 21 Lepomis macrochirus, 14 Lepomis megalotis, 50.4 Micropterus dolomieui, 6 Micropterus dolomieui, 6.9 Plagioporus sp. Plagioporus sinitsini Allocreadium lobatum Phyllodistomum nocomis Plagioporus sinitsini Allocreadium lobatum Proterometra sp. Podocotyle boleosomi Proterometra sp. Proterometra sp. Allocreadium lobatum Plagioporus sp. Plagioporus sinitsini Allocreadium lobatum Plagioporus sinitsini Bucephalopsis sp.” Plagioporus sinitsini Allocreadium lobatum Allocreadium lobatum Allocreadium lobatum Plagioporus sp. Acetodextra amiuri Crepidostomum cornutum Phyllodistomum etheostomae Proterometra macrostoma Proterometra macrostoma Proterometra macrostoma Proterometra macrostoma Proterometra macrostoma Leuceruthrus micropteri Proterometra macrostoma 5, 3 of 46 5, 18 of 46 2.4, 7 of 20 3, 1 of 20 12, bot2, lL; Lot 4 20, 2 of 2 Tt hort 4.2,50f 8 1.3, 6 of 14 LA, 1S of 121 6, 29 of 121 4.4, 72 of 121 2.3. VR GEZD 7, 2 of 25 Lj1.of 25 5, 3 of 67 1.3, 4 of 67 2. Per its 3, 2 of 12 6, 1 of 12 4,lof7 21, 2 of 26 4.3, 3 of 26 8, 8 of 26 6, 11 of 45 7, 50f5D 3.4, 26 of 52 1, 1 of 28 6.5, 2 of 5 5.5, 2085 6 TrANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) TABLE 1, Continued. Location No. hosts—No. species Host, mean weight, g Micropterus salmoides, 82 Micropterus salmoides, 139 Micropterus salmoides, 17 Micropterus salmoides, 139 Etheostoma sp., 1 Etheostoma caeruleum, 1 Etheostoma caeruleum, 1.7 Etheostoma flabellare, 0.9 Etheostoma flabellare, 1.1 Etheostoma flabellare, 0.9 Etheostoma nigrum, 1 Etheostoma spectabile, 1.4 Etheostoma spectabile, 1.1 Etheostoma spectabile, 1.3 Cottus carolinae, 4.1 Cottus carolinae, 1.5 Negative hosts (no.): Salmo gairdneri (3), rubellus (4), N. photogenis (4), Pimephales promelas (2), telium nigricans (13), Moxostoma anisurum (1), Campostoma anomalum (41), Trematode Alloglossidium corti Crepidostomum cooperi Proterometra macrostoma Rhipidocotyle sp.” Proterometra sp. Podocotyle boleosomi Proterometra sp. Phyllodistomum etheostomae Podocotyle boleosomi Proterometra sp. Proterometra sp. Allocreadium lobatum Podocotyle boleosomi Proterometra sp. Proterometra macrostoma Proterometra sp. Gambusia affinis (21), Labidesthes sicculus (18), Pomoxis annularis (11), latus (10). North Elkhorn Creek, Scott County 335-30 Notropis ardens, 2.5 Notropis ardens, 1.2 Notropis boops, 2 Notropis chrysocephalus, 17 Pimephales notatus, 1 Pimephales notatus, 1.1 Pimephales promelas, 1.8 Rhinichthys atratulus, 1.0 Semotilus atromaculatus, 2.1 Moxostoma anisurum, 48 Ictalurus melas, 23.4 Ictalurus natalis, 0.8 Lepomis cyanellus, 29 Lepomis cyanellus, 20.5 Lepomis cyanellus, 25 Lepomis gulosus, 72.5 Lepomis gulosus, 72.5 Lepomis macrochirus, 25 Lepomis megalotis, 27 Micropterus salmoides, 4.2 Cottus carolinae, 7.2 Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (2), Notemigonus crysoleucas (1), Notropis ather- inoides (5), N. hudsonius (5), N. whipplei (5), rurum (2), Fundulus notatus (4), Gambusia affinis (2), punctulatus (2), Pomoxis annularis (3), Etheostoma blennioides ( (2), E. spectabile (18). Elkhorn River, Franklin County 96-17 Campostoma anomalum, 2 Notropis ardens, 1.9 Notropis chrysocephalus, 16 Notropis whipplei, 6.6 Notropis whipplei, 6.6 Ambloplites rupestris, 6.1 Lepomis cyanellus, 12 Lepomis gulosus, 88 Allocreadium lobatum Plagioporus sp. Plagioporus sinitsini Allocreadium lobatum Plagioporus cooperi Plagioporus sinitsini Plagioporus cooperi Allocreadium lobatum Plagioporus sp. Plagioporus sinitsini Acetodextra amiuri Acetodextra amiuri Crepidostomum cooperi Proterometra sp. Phyllodistomum nocomis'* Proterometra sp. Allocreadium lobatum' Proterometra sp. Proterometra sp. Leuceruthrus micropteri Proterometra sp. Catostomus commersoni (3), Moxostoma eryth-~ Labidesthes sicculus (9), Micropterus 1), E. flabellare (6), E. nigrum Plagioporus sinitsini Plagioporus sinitsini Allocreadium lobatum Allocreadium lobatum Plagioporus sinitsini Proterometra sp. Proterometra sp. Proterometra sp. Intensity, Incidence L.5e2of 1s Oe tof 18 10, lof 13. 1, lof 13) 1, 1 of 4} 4.9, 7 of 28 | 1.8, 6 of 28 1, 4 of 50) De 10 of 50) 94. 21 of SO) 2, 16 of 43) 1.6, 7 of 19 bap 2 of 43) Notropis boops (1), N.} Catostomus commersoni (19), Hypen- Ictalurus natalis (4), Fundulus notatus (2),. Micropterus punctu-- 2,1 of 39: 3.1, 9 of 39) 10, 1 of 2) 2, 1 of 4! bile ie 27) 13, 2 of OT; 6, 1 of 12) 2. Ticks 1, ok 2, lof 1 4,1 of 7: Lott 10, 2 of 60 3, 21 of 60 Tor 60 1 ofan 1, lof ll 8.8, 17 of 39: 3, 5 of 17) 1.5, 2 of 24 8, lof 4 TREMATODES FROM KENTUCKY FIsHES—AIiff 7 TaBLE 1, Continued. Location Intensity, No. hosts—No. species Host, mean weight, g Trematode Incidence Lepomis macrochirus, 30 Proterometra sp. 5.4, 14 of 17 Micropterus salmoides, 20 Leuceruthrus micropteri 4,6 of 16 Negative hosts (no.): Carassius auratus (5), Cyprinus carpio (1), Notropis boops (1), N.. spil- opterus (8), Pimephales notatus (2), Catostomus commersoni (2), Ictalurus natalis (9), Microp- terus dolomieui (2). _ Eagle Creek, Scott County 105-17 Notropis chrysocephalus, 22 Allocreadium lobatum 1 Dot 1, Lepomis cyanellus, 29 Proterometra sp. 2H, OGL Ae, Lepomis megalotis, 19 Proterometra sp. 1,2 0f6 Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (4), Notropis ardens (8), Pimephales notatus (6), Semotilus atromaculatus (11), Catostomus commersoni (2), Hypentelium nigricans (2), Fundulus notatus (1), Ictalurus melas (5), Labidesthes sicculus (1), Micropterus punctulatus (3), M.. sal- moides (1), Etheostoma flabellare (16), Percina caprodes (4), P. maculata (5). CUMBERLAND RIVER DRAINAGE Horselick Creek, Jackson County 49-17 Notropis chrysocephalus, 21 Allocreadium lobatum 3, lof 4 Notropis rubellus, 2.9 Plagioporus sinitsini 6, 1 of 4 Micropterus dolomieui, 6.5 Leuceruthrus micropteri IAL eF2 Etheostoma caeruleum, 3.4 Proterometra sp. Le Dots Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (1), Notropis atherinoides (1), N. galacturus (5), Pimephales notatus (4), Ambloplites rupestris (2), Lepomis macrochirus (2), L. microlophus (2), Etheostoma blennioides (7), E. camurum (4), E. flabellare (2), E. stigmaeum (1), Percina caprodes (1), P. maculata (1), Cottus carolinae (1). Rockcastle River, Rockcastle and Laurel counties 88-11 Etheostoma blennioides, 9.3 Crepidostomum isostomum be Rotel Etheostoma blennioides, 7.1 Podocotyle boleosomi A oxo OF LE Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (3), Nocomis micropogon (1), Notropis chryso- cephalus (12), Pimephales notatus (2), Semotilus atromaculatus (1), Hypentelium nigricans (1), Ambloplites rupestris (2), Lepomis megalotis (2), Etheostoma camurum (1), Percina caprodes (2). Buck Creek, Pulaski County 55-14 Notropis chrysocephalus, 28 Allocreadium lobatum Lol of 10 Notropis chrysocephalus, 19 Plagioporus sinitsini 7,4 of 10 Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (1), Notropis boops (1), Pimephales notatus (4), Hypentelium nigricans (1), Noturus flavus (1), Fundulus catenatus (4), Ambloplites rupestris (2), Lepomis cyanellus (5), L. macrochirus (4), L. megalotis (4), Etheostoma caeruleum (12), E. flabellare (4), E. virgatum (2). Pitman Creek, Pulaski County 49-16 Ambloplites rupestris, 13 Proterometra sp. 1,1 of4 Ambloplites rupestris, 18 Rhipidocotyle sp.’ 11, lof 4 Etheostoma caeruleum, 2.1 Phyllodistomum etheostomae }, Wok kd. Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (1), Notropis ardens (5), N. chrysocephalus (1), N. spilopterus (5), Pimephales notatus (3), Hypentelium nigricans (1), Fundulus catenatus (1), Lepomis macrochirus (1), L. megalotis (1), Micropterus dolomieui (1), Etheostoma blennioides (1), E. flabellare (1), E. obeyense (8), E. rufilineatum (4). Fishing Creek, Pulaski County 31-10 Etheostoma blennioides, 2 Pisciamphistoma stunkardi 1, lof 1 Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (1), Fundulus catenatus (2), Lepomis macrochirus (4), L. megalotis (3), Micropterus punctulatus (2), Etheostoma caeruleum (1), E. flabellare (1), E. rufilineatum (12), Percina caprodes (2). Lake Barkley, Trigg County 41-11 Ictiobus bubalus, 1,341 Rhipidocotyle sp.* 6, 2 of 7 Lepomis macrochirus, 92 Crepidostomum cornutum 10, 1 of 8 Negative hosts (no.): Cyprinus carpio (8), Minytrema melanops (2), Ictalurus natalis (2), I. nebulosus (1), I. punctatus (1), Lepomis megalotis (5), Micropterus salmoides (3), Pomoxis annularis (4), Aplodinotus grunniens (5). 8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) TABLE 1, Continued. Location Intensity, No. hosts—No. species Host, mean weight, g Trematode Incidence SALT RIVER DRAINAGE Salt River, Anderson County 48-11 Lepomis cyanellus, 8.3 Proterometra sp. 1.8, 8 of 7 Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (4), Notropis ardens (4), N. boops (1), N. whipplei (2), Pimephales notatus (2), Fundulus notatus (1), Ambloplites rupestris (3), Etheostoma blen- nioides (8), E. flabellare (15), Cottus carolinae (1). Chaplin River, Boyle County 63-9 Notropis ardens, 1.5 Plagioporus sinitsini 2,3 0f9 Pimephales notatus, 2.8 Plagioporus sinitsini 2.3, 8 of 10 Lepomis cyanellus, 3.2 Proterometra sp. 6; 50fS Lepomis macrochirus, 2.8 Proterometra sp. 1:5; 2 of 4. Negative hosts (no.): Campostoma anomalum (2), Notropis boops (12), N. chrysocephalus (14), Labidesthes sicculus (2), Lepomis macrochirus (5). ; Chaplin River, Mercer County 32-12 Catostomus commersoni, 91 Rhipidocotyle sp.” 8,1lof3 | Moxostoma erythrurum, 284 Rhipidocotyle sp.” L Lobia Ictalurus natalis, 8 Phyllodistomum staffordi 6, lofl_ Lepomis macrochirus, 1.6 Proterometra sp. 1, 2 of 4 | Lepomis megalotis, 48 Crepidostomum cornutum 9,lof4 Lepomis megalotis, 38 Rhipidocotyle septpapillata 12,3 0f 49 Etheostoma flabellare, 1.6 Podocotyle boleosomi 1,20£87 Etheostoma flabellare, 1.4 Phyllodistomum etheostomae 2.3 of Sal Negative hosts (no.): Notropis atherinoides (1), N. chrysocephalus (4), Pimephales notatus (2), : Semotilus atromaculatus (1), Micropterus punctulatus (2), Etheostoma caeruleum (1). GREEN RIVER DRAINAGE Green River, Casey County 148-26 Minytrema melanops, 129 Lissorchis simeri 9,lofl | Noturus gyrinus, 5.5 Proterometra sp. 41 of Vi} Lepomis cyanellus, 2.1 Proterometra sp. 2, 1 of 2 | Lepomis macrochirus, 7.2 Proterometra sp. 9) oF Sa Lepomis megalotis, 18 Proterometra sp. 2,3 of 8 | Lepomis megalotis, 21 Rhipidocotyle sp. 10,4 0f 8 | Micropterus punctulatus, 24.7 Proterometra sp. 2,1 of 3 | Pomoxis annularis, 92 Proterometra sp. 3, Lof 1 | Etheostoma blennioides, 4.4 Crepidostomum isostomum 2: 2. of 24a Etheostoma blennioides, 3.9 Podocotyle boleosomi 2.5, 2 of 24 | Negative hosts (no.): Dorosoma cepedianum (2), Campostoma anomalum (8), Cyprinus carpio — (3), Notropis ardens (4), N. chrysocephalus (6), N. spilopterus (7), N. whipplei (2), Pimephales — notatus (1), Moxostoma erythrurum (1), Fundulus catenatus (9), Labidesthes sicculus (1), Am- | bloplites rupestris (3), Micropterus salmoides (2), Etheostoma bellum (30), E. caeruleum (9), E. flabellare (8), E. zonale (8), Percina caprodes (2). | Green River Reservoir, Taylor County | 18-7 Minytrema melanops, 232 Phyllodistomum sp? 21,2 0f5 Negative hosts (no.): Cyprinus carpio (1), Moxostoma anisurum (8), Lepomis cyanellus (1), L. megalotis (2), Micropterus salmoides (5), Pomoxis annularis (1). TENNESSEE RIVER DRAINAGE Kentucky Lake, Marshall County | 53-17 Ictiobus bubalus, 74 Rhipidocotyle sp. 5, lof 1) Ictalurus punctatus, 1,039 Phyllodistomum lacustri 2.8, 4 of 7. Negative hosts (no.): Alosa chrysochloris (3), Hiodon alosoides (1), Cyprinus carpio (3), Hy- | bopsis storeriana (5), Minytrema melanops (4), Morone mississippiensis (2), Lepomis macro- | chirus (2), L. megalotis (4), L. microlophus (1), Micropterus punctulatus (2), M. salmoides (7), | Pomoxis annularis (2), Percina caprodes (1), Stizostedion canadense (2), Aplodinotus grunniens (6). | 1 Probably accidental. 4 Immature specimens. TREMATODES FROM KENTUCKY FIsHES—ALiff 9 they remained overnight, then decanted and refilled with 70 percent ethyl alcohol and 0.5 percent lithium carbonate to re- move excess picric acid, finally to a solu- tion of 70 percent ethyl alochol and 5 per- cent glycerine for storage. Adult trematodes were stained regres- sively with Harris's haematoxylin. Subse- quent destaining and neutralization, dehy- dration, clearing, and mounting steps were accomplished by standard technique. All measurements are reported in milli- meters. The sucker size ratio compares the size of the oral sucker with that of the acetabulum (i.e., 2-1, 0.53-1), respec- tively. Sucker sizes were determined by averaging length and width, therefore com- paring the general sizes of those structures (Manter 1969). The term “mean intensity” refers to the average number of adult trematode speci- mens per infested host fish. The term “in- cidence” (i.e., 5 of 6) refers to the number of infested host fishes as compared to the total number examined at each location. Fish taxa are listed in the order and nomen- clature of Bailey et al. (1970). Trematode taxa are referenced in Yamaguti (1971) and follow the order of Hoffman (1967). RESULTS Taxonomic information and records of collection are presented in alphabetical order of trematode family, genus, and spe- cies. Total mean intensity and incidence data (i.e., 2.6, 50 of 110) from appropriate locations are presented for each parasite Elable 1). ALLOCREADIIDAE Allocreadium lobatum.—Specimens were recovered from Notropis chrysocephalus (2.8, 37 of 126). New host records occur from N. whipplei (1, 1 of 11), Rhinichthys atratulus (2, 2 of 15), and 1 probably accidental occurrence in Lepomis gibbosus. Many immature (nongravid) specimens of A. lobatum were collected from N. chryso- cephalus. Those specimens demonstrated testicular lobation even when sparse testic- ular primordia were present. A. lobatum was recovered from host fish in the Ken- tucky and Cumberland river basins. Also, specimens possessing an entire or slightly indented ovary were recovered from N. ardens (1.4, 19 of 186), Pimephales notatus (1.3, 4 of 99), Semotilus atromaculatus (2.3, 3 of 26), and Etheostoma spectabile (1, 2 of 37) from North and South Elkhorn creeks. Host induced variation may explain the ovarian structure. Crepidostomum cooperi.—One anatomical variation present in smaller C. cooperi (0.58-0.65 mm long) is a posterodorsal de- pression. As worm length increased in fixed specimens, the depression gradually dis- appeared. This form occurred only at 1 site on North Elkhorn Creek, Scott County, near Stamping Ground, 20 specimens re- covered from 2 Lepomis cyanellus hosts. Specimens were recovered from the intes- tine and primarily the intestinal caeca of L. cyanellus (10, 2 of 105) and Microp- terus salmoides (21, 1 of 27) from North Elkhorn Creek. Crepidostomum cornutum.—Specimens were recovered from the intestine of Am- bloplites rupestris (10, 6 of 42), Lepomis macrochirus (10, 1 of 76), L. megalotis (9, 1 of 56), and Micropterus punctulatus (30, 7 of 28). The report from L. megalotis con- stitutes a new host record. C. cornutum was recovered from the Licking, Kentucky, Salt, and Tennessee river drainages. Crepidostomum — isostomum.—Specimens were discovered parasitizing the intestine of Etheostoma blennioides (1, 3 of 41) from the Red River in the Kentucky River drainage and Percina caprodes (1, 1 of 5) from the Cumberland River basin. E. blen- nioides is a new host record. AZYGIIDAE Leuceruthrus micropteri—Specimens were recovered from the cardiac stomach of Lep- omis macrochirus (2, 2 of 127), L. mega- lotis (immature, 3, 1 of 63), Micropterus dolomieui (3.8, 5 of 12), and M. sal- moides (3.2, 9 of 54). Fourteen M. punc- tulatus at appropriate locations were nega- tive. The reports from L. macrochirus and 10 L. megalotis constitute new host records. L. micropteri was recovered from the Ken- tucky, Licking, and Cumberland river basins. Proterometra sp.—Generally adult morpho- logical characteristics of Proterometra sp. do not provide sufficient means for identi- fication. Anderson and Anderson (1967) and Yamaguti (1971) suggested that morpho- logically distinct types of cercariae pro- vide the best criteria for identification as differences at any phase of development must be significant. Proterometra macrostoma.—This form probably is the only large Proterometra in North Elkhorn Creek, Fayette County, as snail hosts that produce these cercariae have been collected by J. M. Edney (pers. comm.), parasitology students since 1948, and me yearly since 1971 (identity con- firmed by M. G. Anderson, pers. comm. ). Many other collecting sites yielded P. macrostoma-like adults, as distinguished by ovoid testes, vitellaria extent, sucker size ratio, and size (about 1.4 mm after fixa- tion). Including data from appropriate sites, where P. macrostoma and P. macro- stoma-like specimens were collected, the mean intensity and incidence figures in Table 1 could indicate a relative fitness of the host-parasite relationship. P. macrostoma and P. macrostoma-like specimens demonstrated a mean intensity of 5.1 and an incidence of 53 percent (83 of 157) in Lepomis macrochirus, L. cyanel- lus demonstrated a mean intensity of 3 and incidence of 38 percent (60 of 157), but L. megalotis demonstrated a mean intensity of 1.9 and an incidence of 15 percent (15 of 101). Those figures suggest a lower host-parasite fitness for L. megalotis. Other comparative figures, less significant by reason of smaller numbers of hosts examined, are 2.8 and 21 percent (11 of 52) for Ambloplites rupestris, 2.1 and 32 percent (24 of 76) for Cottus carolinae, and 4.2 and 6 percent (6 of 105) in Microp- terus (4, 3 of 17 for M. dolomieui, 2, 1 of 27 for M. punctulatus, and 5.5, 2 of 63 for M. salmoides). Proterometra sp. was also Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) recovered from Ictalurus melas (6, 1 of 47), Noturus gyrinus (1, 1 of 1) L. gulosus (5.3, | 8 of 8), and Pomoxis annularis (3, 1 of 16). The records for I. melas, N. gyrinus, L. | gulosus, M. dolomieui, M. punctulatus, M. salmoides, and C. carolinae designate new | hosts for P. macrostoma. Host locations | were the Kentucky, Licking, Cumberland, — Salt, and Green rivers, thus placing it as the most ubiquitous adult digenetic trema- tode genus in Kentucky. The Proterometra sp. from Etheostoma caeruleum (1.8, 9 of 38), E. flabellare (2.7, 28 of 63), E. spectabile (1.6, 7 of 19), and | Cottus carolinae (2, 2 of 59) is smaller (0.8 mm after fixation) than the P. macro- | stoma-like specimens and is thought to be a new adult and cercarial form (pending publication). BUCEPHALIDAE Paurorhynchus hiodontis——Specimens were found in the body cavity of 1 Hiodon ter- gisus (17, 1 of 1) from the Red River, Ken- tucky River drainage. Rhipidocotyle septpapillata—This form was found in the intestine of Lepomis megalotis (12, 3 of 4) from the Salt River | drainage, a new host record. This trema-_ tode was differentiated on the basis of | the pentagonal cap and excretory vesicle | flexure just posterior to the rhynchus. Rhipidocotyle sp. was recorded from the following hosts which harbored sterile im- mature forms: Catostomus commersoni (8, 1 of 3), Ictiobus bubalis (6, 3 of 8), Moxo- stoma erythrurum (1, 1 of 1), Ambloplites rupestris (11, 1 of 7), Lepomis megalotis (12, 3 of 10), and Micropterus salmoides (1, 1 of 26); it was chosen as generic iden- tity for the presumed immature forms by reason of similarity of many nonpapillate forms recovered simultaneously with ma- ture P. septpapillata from a single host L. megalotis. Because of the uncertain identity | of many specimens, no new host records © are claimed. Rhipidocotyle sp. was re- | covered from the Cumberland, Salt, Green, and Tennessee river drainages. | | TREMATODES FROM KENTUCKY FisHES—ALiff il Bucephalopsis sp.—One gravid specimen was recovered from Notropis chrysoceph- alus (1, 1 of 25). The specimen is a pro- genetic metacercaria similar to that de- scribed by Hoffman (1953). Some discussion of bucephalid morphol- ogy is required at this juncture. Wood- head (1930) and Van Cleave and Mueller (1934) reported morphological changes due to host induced variation and age of trematode specimens. Bucephalid genera parasitizing fishes are differentiated ac- cording to rhynchus structure as follows: rhynchus without appendages, Bucephalop- sis; rhynchus weakly developed, Pauro- rhynchus; rhynchus with tentacular ap- pendages, Bucephalus; and rhynchus with pentagonal cap, Rhipidocotyle. Metacercariae, immature, and young gravid bucephalids generally do not exhibit appendages and are therefore difficult to identify. The metacercariae occur in fishes susceptible to predation by larger fishes such as Micropterus salmoides which serve as definitive hosts. CRYPTOGONIMIDAE Acetodextra amiuri.—Specimens were ob- tained from the gas bladder of Ictalurus melas (4, 1 of 28) and I. natalis (7, 1 of 1) from 2 locations in North Elkhorn Creek, Kentucky river basin. Large numbers of eggs frequently obscure the midposterior organs of gravid Acetodextra. GORGODERIDAE Phyllodistomum caudatum.—Specimens were recovered from the urinary bladder of Hypentelium nigricans (1.4, 5 of 26), Icta- lurus melas (7.5, 2 of 12), and Etheostoma blennioides (1, 1 of 8) from the Kentucky River drainage. New host records occur for H. nigricans and E. blennioides. Phyllodistomum etheostomae.—The Ken- tucky specimens demonstrate consistent but slight anatomical differences from those described originally in that the testes, and especially the ovary, exhibit a greater ex- tent of lobation, and the sucker ratio is somewhat larger (1.0-0.68 for specimens from Kentucky and 1.0-0.85 for specimens from Wisconsin). Both forms have 2 pairs of folds on the discoidal hindbody. This form occurred in Ambloplites rupestris (4.3, 3 of 44), Etheostoma caeruleum (1, 1 of 39), E. flabellare (6, 9 of 61), and E. spec- tabile (2, 1 of 22) from the Kentucky and Cumberland river drainages. The reports for A. rupestris, E. caeruleum, and E. spec- tabile constitute new host records. Phyllodistomum lacustri—Specimens were found parasitizing the urinary bladders of Ictalurus punctatus (2.8, 4 of 7) and No- turus flavus (6, 2 of 6) from the Licking River and Cumberland River (Lake Bark- ley) drainages, respectively. The occur- rence in N. flavus is a new host record. Phyllodistomum lysteri—Specimens were recovered from Moxostoma macrolepido- tum (1, 1 of 2) from Rockhouse Creek of the Kentucky River drainage, a new host record. Phyllodistomum nocomis.—Adults occurred in the urinary bladder of Notropis chryso- cephalus (3, 1 of 46) and Semotilus atro- maculatus (2, 1 of 10), new host records, and a broken specimen (from ingestion of former host?) in the intestine of Lepomis cyanellus (1, 1 of 60). All specimens were from the Kentucky River drainage. Phyllodistomum _ staffordi—Specimens were taken from the urinary bladder of an Ictalurus natalis (1, 1 of 1) from the Salt River. LISSORCHIIDAE Lissorchis (Triganodistomum) attenuatum. —Individuals were found in the intestine of Catostomus commersoni (3, 1 of 3) from Boone Creek, Kentucky River drainage. Lissorchis (Triganodistomum) — simeri.— Specimens were recovered from the intes- tine of Minytrema melanops (9, 1 of 1) from the Green River, a new host record. The Lissorchis sp. from M. melanops (1, 7 of 11) from the Licking River is thought to be a new form. 12 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) MACRODEROIDAE Alloglossidium corti—Adults were recov- ered from the intestine of Micropterus salmoides from North Elkhorn Creek, Ken- tucky River drainage, a new host record. OPECOELIDAE Plagioporus cooperi—Specimens were re- covered from the intestines of Pimephales notatus (11, 1 of 27) and P. promelas (6, 1 of 12) from a single location on North Elkhorn Creek in Scott County. Both hosts are new records. One significant morpho- logical difference occurred in P. cooperi specimens in this study, that of 3 to 5 ovarian lobes. A second difference was a smaller egg size of 0.067 x 0.044 mm for the Kentucky specimens as compared to 0.086 < 0.047 in the specimens of the original description. There was some variation in anatomy in the 11 specimens from P. no- tatus; they had fewer posttesticular vitel- laria, and 8 of the 11 had caeca extending to the posterior margin of the posterior testis. Plagioporus serotinus.—Adults were recov- ered in 1971 from the gall bladder of Pi- mephales notatus (9, 3 of 18) from Boone Creek, Fayette County. There were curious cuticular ridges in many of the specimens. However, Dobrovolny (1939a) noted cu- ticular striations similar to those ridges. J. H. Fischthal (pers. comm.) stated that “the projections are tegumental extensions of unknown nature.” in reference to those specimens. Plagioporus sinitsini—Adults were taken from the gall bladders of host fishes as follows: Campostoma anomalum (2, 1 of 76), Notropis ardens (4.3, 104 of 259), N. boops (10, 1 of 23), N. chrysocephalus (4.8, 18 of 103), N. rubellus (6, 2 of 7), N. whip- plei (11, 1 of 16), Pimephales notatus (5.8, 6 of 124), Rhinichthys atratulus (12, 1 of 17), and Gambusia affinis (24, 1 of 26) from the Kentucky, Cumberland, and Salt river drainages, and all constitute new rec- ords. Those specimens designated Plagiop- orus sp. from N. ardens (2.8, 4 of 21) of the Kentucky River drainage are thought to be a new form. Podocotyle boleosomi—Specimens were recovered from Etheostoma_blennioides (2.9, 10 of 54), E. caeruleum (4.9, 7 of 25), E. flabellare (4.9, 7 of 62), and E. spectabile (3, 2 of 22) from the Kentucky, Salt, and Green river basins. Pearse (1924) described Allocreadium boleosomi. Study of the type specimen USNM #7622 shows that the esophagus of P. boleosomi has 1 loop and therefore it — could appear to be longer than the pharynx — in a slightly coverslip pressed specimen. Peters (1957) synonymized P. (Allocre-— adium) boleosomi with Podocotyle (Plagi-— oporus) lepomis (Dobrovolny 1939b) but Pritchard (1966) reinstated P. lepomis and — P. boleosomi as distinguished by ova size, 0.080-0.114 by 0.051-0.077 vs. 0.064-0.085 — by 0.035-0.045 mm, respectively. Pritchard — (1966) excluded P. boleosomi from the Opecoelidae because it was spined. How- ever, Yamaguti (1971) retained the desig- — nation Podocotyle boleosomi. The Kentucky specimens are aspinous. Three specimens of Podocotyle boleosomi have been depos- ited in the Manter Collection, University of | Nebraska State Museum No. 20311. | Importantly, this survey and Pearse > (1924) recorded apparent host specificity — of P. boleosomi from percids Etheostoma spp. and Percina spp. Dobrovolny (1939b) attempted experimental infestation of P.— lepomis with cyprinid, centrarchid, and percid hosts, succeeding only with Lepomis spp. The survey records of Dobrovolny (1939a, 1939b) also indicated host speci- ficity for Lepomis spp. PARAMPHISTOMATIDAE Pisciamphistoma stunkardi.—Specimens were obtained from Lepomis megalotis (1.5, 2 of 9) from the Big Sandy River drainage. | The host constituted the only adult di- genetic trematode found in the drainage (254 fishes sampled). Mine acid in this | drainage probably has reduced the mol-_ luscan (host) populations drastically. One nongravid P. stunkardi was recovered from Etheostoma blennioides (1, 1 of 15) from : TREMATODES FROM KENTUCKY FIsHES—AIiff 13 Fishing Creek, Cumberland River drain- age. Both are new host records. DIscussiION The apparent decrease in certain stream fauna and the relative scarcity of parasite records from Kentucky provided impetus for this study to describe the adult di- genetic trematode fauna of Kentucky fishes. But the aquatic biologist may be faced with a race against time when attempting to describe the flora and fauna of many fresh- water streams in the world. A vivid ex- perience brings this situation into focus. While travelling with the Kentucky De- partment of Fisheries survey team in Au- gust 1971, a survey was attempted on a small mountain creek in Pike County. The creek was adjacent to a roadside park, and at first glance it appeared to be a clear, free-flowing stream. Subsequent ex- amination of 40 m of stream revealed iron pyrite sedimentation on the bottom, a pH of 3.8, and not a single living fish or other aquatic organism. Furthermore, of 254 fishes collected from the Big Sandy River drainage in eastern Kentucky, an area of heavy strip mining, only 2 Lepomis mega- lotis harbored adult digenetic trematodes. Yamaguti (1971) listed approximately 5,000 species of digenetic trematodes. Of those, 1,500 were recorded from fishes, 1,000 from marine species and 500 from freshwater species. Manter (1969) sug- gested that “the total number from fishes must be very much greater, perhaps 10- fold.” Many large surveys have been under- taken during the last 40 years to expand our knowledge of fish parasites. Van Cleave and Mueller (1932, 1934) conducted a very thorough survey at Lake Oneida, New York, in which 1,227 fishes of 34 species were examined. Fischthal (1947) collected 2,059 fishes of 44 species and listed 30 species of adult Digenea. Bangham and Adams (1954) conducted the largest fresh- water survey in British Columbia, collect- ing 5,456 fishes of 36 species that yielded 12 species of Digenea. Those studies may be compared to this survey of 3,059 fishes of 17 families and 91 species from which 23 species of adult di- genetic trematodes comprising 8 families have been identified. The collection rec- ords confirm a generalization (Manter 1969) about host specificity of freshwater Digenea which suggests that few species are known to consistently infest fishes of different families. The most prevalent parasites wer Pro- terometra spp. and Plagioporus spp. Their prevalence is due to the widespread occur- rence of Goniobasis and Pleurocera snails in upland streams of Kentucky. The well-known rule for distribution of adult Digenea is that they parallel the distribution of their molluscan hosts. Yama- guti (1971) and Hoffman (1967) listed the following molluscan hosts for the species recovered in addition to Proterom- etra spp. and Plagioporus spp.: Allocre- adium lobatum in Pisidium clams, Crep- idostomum cornutum in Musculium and Sphaerium clams, C. isostomum in Sphae- rium, Leuceruthrus micropteri in Gonio- basis and Pleurocera snails, Rhipidocotyle septpapillata in Lampsilis clams, Phylo- distomum caudatum in Musculium clams, and Alloglossidium corti in Helisoma snails. LITERATURE CITED ANDERSON, M. G., aND F. M. ANpDERSON. 1967. The life histories of Proterometra albacauda and Proterometra septimae, sp. n. (Trematoda: Azygiidae) and a redescription of Proterom- etra catenaria Smith, 1934. J. Parasitol. 53 (1):31-87. Baimey. Bi MO JM. Pires: —&. S. Herannp, .E. A. LaAcHNER, C. C. LinpsEy, C. R. ROBINS, AND W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of the common and scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 6:1—-149. BancHaM, R. V., AND J. R. Apams. 1954. A survey of the parasites of freshwater fishes from the mainland of British Columbia. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 11(6):673-708. CaBLE, R. M. 1935. Cercaria kentuckiensis n. sp., first representative of the Vivax group known to occur in the United States. J. Parasitol. 21:441. Dosrovotny, G. G. 1939a. Life history of Plagioporus sinitsini Mueller, and embryology of new cotylocerous cercariae (Trematoda). Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 58(2):121—155. . 1939b. The life history of Plagioporus 14 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) lepomis, a new trematode from fishes. J. Parasitol. 25(6):461—470. FISCHTHAL, J. H. 1947. Parasites of northwest Wisconsin fishes. I. The 1944 survey. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 37:157—220. Har.ey, J. P., AND T. L. KEEFE. 1971. Helminth parasites of four species of sunfishes (Cen- trarchidae) from Lake Wilgreen in Kentucky. Trans: Ky. . Acad. “Se. o2(3—4 271-74. HorrMan, G. L. 1953. Parasites of fish of Turtle River, North Dakota. Proc. N. D. Acad. Sci. 7:12-19. 1967. Parasites of North American freshwater fishes. Univ. California Press, Berkeley, Cal. 485 pp. MantTerR, H. W. 1969. Pp. 93-104. In G. D. Schmidt (Ed.). Problems in systematics of trematode parasites. University Park Press, Baltimore, Md. Patron, S. 1973. Some studies of Leuceruthrus micropteri (Marshall and Gilbert, 1905). Ass. Southeast. Biol. Bull. VI. 20(2):74—75. PrearsE, A. S. 1924. Observations on parasitic worms from Wisconsin fishes. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 21:147-160. Peters, L. E. 1957. An analysis of the trema- tode genus Allocreadium (Looss) with the description of Allocreadium neotenicum sp. nov. from water beetles. J. Parasitol. 48(2): — 136-142. PrircHarp, M. H. 1966. A revision of the genus Podocotyle (Trematoda: Opecoelidae). Zool. Jahrb. Syst. 93:158—-172. VAN CLEAVE, H. J., AND J. F. MUELLER. 1982.. Parasites of the Oneida Lake fishes. Part I. Descriptions of new genera and new species. Bull. N. Y. St. Coll. For., Roosevelt Wild Life Ann. 3(1):5-71. Nh . 1934. Parasites of Oneida Lake fishes. Part III. A_ biological and ecological survey of the worm parasites. Bull. N. Y. St. Coll. For., Roosevelt Wild Life Ann. 3(3-4) :161-334. | WuitE, G. E. 1974. Parasites of the common | white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) from | the Kentucky River drainage. Trans. Amer. | Microsc. Soc. 93( 2) :280-282. WoopHEapD, A. E. 1930. Life history studies on the trematode family Bucephalidae. II. Trans. | Amer. Microsc. Soc. 49(1):1-17. | YAMAcutTI, S. 1958. Systema Helminthum. Inter- — science Publ., New York, N. Y. Vol. 1. 1,575 pp. . 1971. Synopsis of digenetic trematodes | of vertebrates. Keigaku, Tokyo, Japan Vol. I O74. pp; | spectra. INTRODUCTION The bromination of isoquinoline in the gaseous phase at 450 C gives small amounts of 1-bromoisoquinoline, as well as much carbonized material (Jansen and Wibaut 1937). The tendency toward bromination at the position a, rather than £, to the ring nitrogen with increase in the reaction tem- perature is seen to be the same with iso- quinoline as with quinoline. It is possible that bromine atoms are the reacting species ‘at the higher temperatures. 4-Bromoisoquinoline is obtained by heat- ing the perbromide of isoquinoline or its salts (Edinger and Bossung 1891, Bergstrom and Rodda 1940, Craig and Cass 1942). No completely satisfactory explanation of the bromination of isoquinoline on the 4- position has been presented. In isoquino- line, as well as quinoline, electrophilic substitution would be expected to take place most readily on the 5- or 8-positions; however, in both compounds, bromination occurs not in the benzenoid ring but in the pyridinoid ring, 8 to the nitrogen. An ex- planation involving the attack of bromine radicals rather than positively charged bro- mine ions is not satisfactory, since a radical attack is expected to occur more readily at the 1-position of isoquinoline than at the 4-position. Eisch’s bridged bromonium ion transition state cannot be extended to the isoquinoline molecule, since substitution occurs at the 4-position and this position does not have adjacent carbons with low z-electron densities (Eisch 1962). Competitive experiments have shown Preparation of Monobromoisoquinolines Jerry L. BuTLer, Forrest L. BAYER, AND MARSHALL GORDON Department of Chemistry and Geology, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071 ABSTRACT During the course of other investigations, it became necessary to synthesize the l1-, 3-, 4-. 5-, 6-, 7-, and 8-bromoisoquinolines. 6- and 7-Bromoisoquinoline are new compounds. Details of the preparation of each isomer include kinds and amounts of chemicals used and the various steps taken. Each compound was purified by preparative gas chromatography. Mass spectra were obtained using a Varian Model HC-7 single focusing spectrometer. Structural identities of isomers were confirmed with infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance that the 5-position in isoquinoline is 25 times more reactive than in quinoline (Dewar and Maitlis 1957). In spite of the fact that isoquinoline appears more reac- tive than quinoline, very few substituted iso- quinolines are known. The preparation of isoquinoline compounds is somewhat stifled because there are no ring closure proce- dures which even come close to the use- fulness of the Skraup synthesis in preparing substituted quinolines. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Partial support of this research by the Murray State University Committee on Institutional Studies and Research is grate- fully acknowledged. MATERIALS AND METHODS Each compound prepared was purified by preparative gas chromatography using a column packed with 10 percent QF-1 coated onto Chromosorb G, AW, 60/70 mesh. Mass spectra for purposes of identifica- tion were obtained using a Varian, Model HC-7 single focusing mass spectrometer. Pure samples were injected by means of a direct insertion probe and were suf- ficiently volatile under 75 C (5 X 10° torr) to produce good spectra. All spectra were obtained using an ionization voltage of 70 ev, resolution of at least 1200, and a fila- ment current of 1000 »A. Publication of a detailed study of the mass spectra is planned. To further confirm the structural iden- 16 tities of the bromoisoquinoline isomers, infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectra were obtained. All infrared spectra were obtained on a Perkin-Elmer, Model 137 Spectrophotometer. Spectra of all sam- ples were obtained in the neat form. Even though many of the compounds are solid at room temperature, their low melting points permitted each to be run as liquids between heated potassium bromide plates. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectra were obtained using a Varian A60-A and a JEOL 100 MH, nmr spectrometer. Preparation of Monobromoisoquinoline Isomers Preparation of 1-Bromoisoquinoline 1-Isoquinolinol (isocarbostyril) (5.0 g, 0.034 mole) and phosphorus pentabromide (17.2 g, 0.04 mole) were mixed by mechan- ical stirring, heated to 120 C for 15 min, and then to 150 C for 30 min. Upon cooling, water was added to the solidified mixture to hydrolyze any unreacted phos- phorus bromides while dissolving the solid mass. The mixture was made basic with sodium hydroxide and filtered. The pre- cipitate was dried and sublimed (80 C/0.05 mm) which gave 6.81 g (94.2%) of 1- bromoisoquinoline as white crystals, mp 96-97 C. Preparation of 3-Bromoisoquinoline (a) Preparation of 1,3-Dibromoisoquino- line. 1,3-Isoquinolinediol (8.05 g, 0.05 mole) and phosphorus pentabromide (51.6 g, 0.12 mole) were refluxed with mechanical stir- ring for 5 hours. After cooling, the black pasty mixture was poured onto cracked ice and made basic with sodium hydroxide. After standing at room temperature for 13 hours, the mixture was filtered and the pre- cipitate dried. The dried precipitate was refluxed with absolute ethanol and filtered to remove inorganic material. The filtrate, upon removal of the solvent, gave crude 1,3-dibromoisoquinoline which was recrys- tallized from methanol giving 7.2 g (50.2%) of 1,3-dibromoisoquinoline as white crys- tals, mp 144-146 C (Osburn et al. 1956, mp 147-147.5 C). Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) the method (1948). In a 50-ml three-necked, round- bottomed flask equipped with a reflux con- denser, mechanical stirrer, and thermom- | eter, 1,3-dibromoisoquinoline (3.0 g), red phosphorus (powdered, 1.0 g), and acetic © acid (glacial, 14 ml) were refluxed for 6 hours. The cooled mixture was basified with aqueous sodium hydroxide and steam | distilled. The material, which solidified in — the initial runnings, was collected, dissolved in 2 N hydrochloric acid, and filtered from the insoluble 1,3-dibromoisoquinoline. The — filtrate was basified with aqueous sodium © hydroxide and filtered. The dried pre- cipitate was sublimed (45 C/0.15 mm) which gave 0.87 g (40.4%) of 3-bromoiso- quinoline as colorless needles, mp 62-63 C (Osburn et al. 1956, mp 63-64 C). Preparation of 4-Bromoisoquinoline Isoquinoline (38.7 g, 0.3 mole) was dis- solved in concentrated (48% ) hydrobromic acid (25 ml) and evaporated almost to dryness. Liquid bromine (48 g, 0.3 mole) was added slowly, and the mixture heated for 7 hours at 180 C. Upon cooling, the © solution was made basic with aqueous so- | dium hydroxide and steam distilled. The distillate was extracted with benzene and the solvent removed to leave a brown oil which was vacuum distilled giving 2 frac- tions. The second fraction of 16.1 g boiled at 122-125 C (4.5 mm) and consisted chiefly of 4-bromoisoquinoline. The crude product was sublimed (30 C/6.0 mm) which gave 15.2 g (24.3%) of 4-bromoiso- quinoline as white needles, mp 39-40.5 C (Craig and Cass 1942, mp 38-39 C). Preparation of 5-Bromoisoquinoline (Robinson 1947a) (a) 5-Aminoisoquinoline (3.0 g) in concen- trated (48%) hydrobromic acid (12 ml) and water (10 ml) was diazotized at 0 C with sodium nitrite (1.5 g) in water (10 ml). The diazonium solution was slowly added to a stirred solution of cuprous bromide — (3.6 g) in hydrobromic acid (25 ml) at | Sen rch sd (b) Preparation of 3-Bromoisoquinoline. 1,3-Dibromoisoquinoline was reduced by | of Haworth and Robinson © PREPARATION OF MONOBROMOISOQUINOLINES—Butler et al. 17 75 C. After 2 hours at room temperature, the solution was basified and extracted with diethyl ether. After removal of the solvent, the residue was sublimed (75 C/0.10 mm) which gave 2.78 g (64.1%) of 5-bromoiso- quinoline as white needles, mp 83-83.5 C (Osburn et al. 1956, mp 82-84 C). (b) 5-Bromoisoquinoline was also pre- pared by the method of Gordon and Pear- son (1964). Isoquinoline (54.5 g, 0.42 mole) was added dropwise to stirred an- hydrous aluminum chloride (113.4 g, 0.85 mole) in a three-necked flask equipped with a stirrer, condenser, and a dropping funnel. Considerable heat was evolved and the mixture passed through a pasty tran- sition phase, needing manual stirring, be- fore the complex was formed completely. The temperature was maintained at ap- proximately 75 C until all of the isoquino- ine was added. After all of the isoquino- line was complexed, liquid bromine (44.8 g, 0.28 mole) was added in the vapor phase over a period of 8 hours. The mixture was heated to 100 C and stirred for an addi- tional hour. The black fluid mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and poured carefully onto hand stirred cracked ice. The acidic aqueous solution was fil- tered at 75 C to remove all insoluble ma- terial. The acidic filtrate was made strongly _ basic by adding concentrated aqueous so- dium hydroxide. The addition was done rapidly since aged precipitates of aluminum hydroxide do not dissolve readily in alkali. The basic solution was extracted with di- ethyl ether and the solvent removed. The residue was distilled under vacuum giving 40.46 g (57.2%) of 5-bromoisoquinoline, bp 108-112 C (0.05 mm). Preparation of 5-, 6-, 7-, and 8-Bromoisoquinoline All the benzenoid ring bromoisoquino- lines were prepared according to the proce- dure given by Tyson (1939) for a modified Pomeranz-Fritsch reaction. No physical constants were given by him as the com- pounds were converted directly to the carboxylic acids. (a) Preparation of the Bromobenzalim- TABLE 1.—PREPARATION OF 3 ISOMERIC BROMO- BENZALIMINOACETALS Bromo- Bp of Acetal benzaldehyde Acetal Sa % used, g Yield, g °C mm Yield 14, ortho- 18.0 118-123 0.15 81.1 14, meta- 19.3 134-139 0.45 85.7 14, para- 21.2 160-164 4.00 93.3 inoacetals. Aminoacetal (aminoacetalde- hyde diethyl acetal) was mixed in excess (15%) with the required amount of the desired bromobenzaldehyde, heated for 2 hours on a steam bath and allowed to cool. Water which formed from this condensa- tion was removed by an alternate addition and distillation of benzene. The crude Schiff base was distilled under reduced pressure giving colorless liquids in each case. Essential information on the prepara- tion of the 3 isomeric bromobenzalimino- acetals is given in Table 1. In each case the bromobenzaliminoace- tals were sealed in ampoules under a nitro- gen atmosphere to prevent oxidation before use. (b) Preparation of the Bromoisoquino- lines. The bromobenzaliminoacetal was added to 9 times its weight of concentrated sulfuric acid maintained at 0-5 C. This mixture was added with mechanical stir- ring, during 10 min, to a mixture of 10 g of concentrated sulfuric acid and 20 g of phosphoric anhydride maintained at 160 C. Stirring and heating were continued for 35 additional min. The mixture, while still acidic, was steam distilled to remove any aldehyde present as a result of hydrolysis of the unreacted Schiff base. The mixture was made basic with aqueous sodium hy- droxide and steam distilled a second time to remove the bromoisoquinoline. The workup of each isomer was carried out as given below. (1) 6-Bromoisoquinoline (starting with p-bromobenzaldehyde ) The distillate was cooled to 5 C and the white solid material filtered. The crude product was dried in a vacuum desiccator and sublimed (45 C/0.001 mm) which gave 6-bromoquinoline as colorless crystals 18 (37% yield), mp 81 C (Gordon 1964, un- published doctoral dissertation, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, mp 67 C). Anal. Caled. for CsHgNBr: C, 51.92; H, 2.88. Found: GC, 51.84; H, 2.93. (2) 8-Bromoisoquinoline (starting with o-bromobenzaldehyde ) The distillate was cooled to 5 C and the white solid material filtered. The crude product was dried in a vacuum desiccator and sublimed (60 C/0.2 mm) which gave 8-bromoisoquinoline as white crystals (21% yield), mp 85-87 C. (3) Mixture of 5- and 7-Bromoisoquino- line (starting with m-bromobenzaldehyde ) The distillate was extracted with diethyl ether and the ether removed leaving a brownish oil which solidified upon stand- ing. An attempt to separate the isomers by fractional crystallization of the mixture of nitrates obtained by dissolving the free bases in I N nitric acid failed. The highest melting fraction (mp 153-155 C) was way short of the authentic 5-bromoisoquinoline nitrate, mp 196-198 C. Preparation of 7-Bromoisoquinoline (a) Preparation of N-Formyl--phenethyl- amine. #-Phenethylamine (100 g, 0.826 mole) was heated with formic acid (100 ml. 87%) on a steam bath for 2 hours. The formic acid was evaporated in vacuum and the procedure repeated. The resulting crude formylamino compound still con- tained some amine which was removed by extraction with dilute acetic acid. The crude product was distilled (bp 152-155 C, 0.5 mm) giving the N-formyl-8-phenethy]l- amine (97 g, 77.4%) as a colorless oil. Infrared analysis exhibited the character- istic stretching bands for the N-H and C=O along with the band for a monosub- stituted benzene ring. (b) Preparation of 3,4-Dihydroisoquino- line (Synder and Werber 1950). N-Formy]- B-phenethylamine (95 g, 0.638 mole) and PPA (150 g) prepared as given by Reagents for Organic Synthesis, Vol. I, were placed in a 250-ml flask. The solution was heated at 145 C with efficient stirring for 2 hours. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) The hot reaction mixture was decomposed | with ice; concentrated hydrochloric acid (20 ml) was added; and the neutral com- ponents extracted with diethyl ether. The aqueous acidic solution was neutralized with concentrated aqueous ammonia and | the liberated oil extracted with benzene. | After drying (Na 2SO,) and removal of the | benzene, the residual oil was distilled under | vacuum (bp 115-120 C, 0.5 mm) giving | the 3,4-dihydroisoquinoline in 67.1 percent | yield as a colorless oil. The picrate salt, | after 2 recrystallizations from 95 percent ethanol, melted at 175-176 C (Synder and — Werber 1950, mp 176-177 C; Spith et al. © 1930, mp 175-176 C). (c) Preparation of 7-Nitro-3,4-Dihydro- — isoquinoline (McCoubrey and Mathieson | 1951). 3,4-Dihydroisoquinoline (10 g) in concentrated sulfuric acid (25 ml) was added to potassium nitrate (10 g) in con- | centrated sulfuric acid (20 ml), the tem- | perature being kept at 0 C. This solution } was allowed to attain room temperature, | then was heated with stirring at 60 C for | 4 hours. The solution was poured onto cracked ice and neutralized with concen- trated aqueous ammonia. The brown pre- | cipitate was filtered, dried, and used di- | rectly in the next step. (d) Preparation of 7-Nitroisoquinoline | (McCoubrey and Mathieson 1951). 7- | Nitro-3,4-dihydroisoquinoline, as prepared | above, was refluxed with decalin (150 ml) | containing palladium on charcoal (3 g, | 5% ) for 2.5 hours. After cooling, an equal volume of chloroform was added and the mixture extracted 3 times with 400-ml por- tions of 2 N hydrochloric acid. The acidic extract was evaporated to half its original volume and neutralized with solid potas- sium hydroxide, with ice cooling. The brown precipitate was filtered, dried, and sublimed (150 C/0.1 mm) giving 7-nitro- isoquinoline (1.42 g) as pale yellow nee- dles, mp 178 C (McCoubrey and Mathie- | son 1951, mp 177-178 C). (e) Preparation of 7-Aminoisoquinoline. A solution of 7-nitroisoquinoline (1.4 g, 8.04 moles) in absolute ethanol (100 ml) containing palladium on charcoal (2.0 g, 2 — oe 2G i a o_o orl! — eS PREPARATION OF MONOBROMOISOQUINOLINES—Butler et al. 19 5% ) was reduced by hydrogen using a Parr hydrogenator at room temperature. After 1 hour, the pressure had dropped to a con- stant value which was 2.5 psi less than the starting value. The calculated amount of hydrogen for this reduction was 1.6 psi. The solution was filtered and the ethanol evaporated. The residue was sublimed (150 C/0.1 mm) which gave 7-aminoiso- quinoline (1.07 g, 92.9%) as pale yellow prisms, mp 202-203 C (McCoubrey and Mathieson 1951, mp 201-202 C). (f) Preparation of 7-Bromoisoquinoline. 7-Aminoisoquinoline (1.0 g) in concen- trated (48%) hydrobromic acid (5 ml) and water (5 ml) was diazotized at 0 C with sodium nitrite (0.5 g) in water (5 ml). The resulting diazonium solution was added slowly to a stirred solution of cu- prous bromide (1.2 g) in concentrated (48%) hydrobromic acid (10 ml) at 75 C. After 20 hours at room temperature, the solution was basified and _ filtered. The filtrate was extracted with chloro- form and the chloroform removed. The resulting residue was combined with the precipitate and sublimed (45 C/0.15 mm) which gave 7-bromoisoquinoline (0.67 g, 49.1%) as colorless crystals, mp 70 C. Anal. Caled. for CgHgNBr: C, 51.92; H, 2.88; Br, 38.46. Found: C, 51.92; H, 2.87; Br, 38.59. Preparation of 8-Bromoisoquinoline (a) Preparation of 5-Bromo-8-nitroiso- quinoline (Osburn et al. 1956). Potassium nitrate (4.8 g) in concentrated sulfuric acid (40 ml) was added over a period of 15 min to 5-bromoisoquinoline (8.2 g) in concen- trated sulfuric acid (35 ml) at 20 C. After 4 hours of stirring at room tempera- ture, the solution was poured onto cracked ice and made basic with aqueous ammonia. The resulting yellow precipitate was fil- tered and dried. Recrystallization from an ethanol-water solvent pair gave 10.3 g (99%) of 5-bromo-8-nitroisoquinoline as yellow needles, mp 138.5-140 C (Osbum et al. 1956, mp 139-141 C). (b) Preparation of 8-Aminoisoquinoline (Gordon and Pearson 1964). A solution of ammonium acetate (20 g) and 5-bromo-8- nitroisoquinoline (15.0 g) in acetic acid (glacial, 300 ml) containing 8.0 g of 5 percent palladium on calcium carbonate (Englehard Industries, Inc., Newark, N. J.) was reduced by hydrogen using a Parr hy- drogenator at room temperature. Hydrogen was absorbed rather rapidly (45 min) but the process was continued for 15 hours. A total of 19.5 psi (caled. 16.5 psi) of hydro- gen was absorbed. The solution was fil- tered to remove the catalyst, poured onto cracked ice, and made basic with aqueous sodium hydroxide. The precipitate which formed was filtered and dried. The filtrate was extracted with chloroform and the chloroform removed. The precipitate and residue from the chloroform extract were combined and sublimed (130 C/0.15 mm) which gave 6.75 g (79.7%) of 8-aminoiso- quinoline as pale yellow crystals, mp 173- 174 C (Osburn et al. 1956, mp 171-172 C: Gordon and Pearson 1964, mp 170-172 C; Robinson 1947b, mp 174 C; Ahmad and Hey 1961, mp 173-174 C). (c) Preparation of 8-Bromoisoquinoline. 8-Aminoisoquinoline (2.0 g) in concen- trated (48%) hydrobromic acid (12 ml) and water (12 ml) was diazotized at 0 C with sodium nitrite (1.2 g) dissolved in water (10 ml). The resulting diazonium solution was slowly added to a stirred solution of cuprous bromide (2.4 g) in con- centrated hydrobromic acid (30 ml) at 75 C. After 12 hours at room temperature, the solution was made basic with aqueous so- dium hydroxide and filtered. The dried precipitate was sublimed (55 C/0.1 mm) which gave 2.43 g (84.7%) of 8-bromoiso- quinoline as white crystals, mp 86-87 C. RESULTS AND DiIscussION 1-Bromoisoquinoline was prepared by the action of phosphorus pentabromide on 1-hydroxyisoquinoline. The desired prod- uct was obtained in the pure form in a 94 percent yield. The desirability of reac- tions of this type is that the bromo- com- pounds are easily obtained in the pure form. The melting points of the hydroxy- compounds are greater than 200 C which 20 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) permits easy removal of the bromo- com- pounds by fractional sublimation. Isoquinolines with only a substituent in the 3-position are rare, however, 3-bromo- isoquinoline was prepared by first synthe- sizing 1,3-dibromoisoquinoline from the 1,3-dihydroxy- compound. The 1,3-di- bromo- compound was then reduced to give the 3-bromoisoquinoline in a 40 per- cent yield. 4-Bromoisoquinoline was prepared by the addition of bromine to isoquinoline hydrobromide. The reaction was lengthy and gave the desired product in a low yield (24%). The procedure of Kress and Costantino (1973) gave 3-bromoquinoline in a very high yield and would most likely be best suited for the preparation of 4- bromoisoquinoline. 5-Bromoisoquinoline was prepared by 3 different reactions. The ring closure reac- tions for preparing benzenoid substituted isoquinolines are noted for their low yields. A ring closure reaction, starting with m- bromobenzaldehyde, gave a mixture of 5- and 7-bromoisoquinoline in a very low yield. This reaction is not suited for au- thentic sample preparation because of its low yields and the difficulty encountered in separating the isomeric products. 5- Aminoisoquinoline, by the Sandmeyer reac- tion, gave the desired product in a 64 per- cent yield. Also, the swamping catalyst technique employed by Gordon and Pear- son (1964) gave 5-bromoisoquinoline in a 57 percent yield. 6-Bromoisoquinoline was prepared by a ring closure reaction reported by Tyson (1939). No physical constants were given by him as the compounds were converted directly to the corresponding carboxylic acid. The procedure, although lengthy, gave the desired product in a 37 percent yield. 7-Bromoisoquinoline was prepared as prepared as previously described giving a mixture of 5- and 7-bromoisoquinoline. However, the yield was very low and attempts to separate the isomeric products failed. Thus, 7-bromoisoquinoline was pre- pared by a Sandmeyer reaction on 7-amino- isoquinoline. LITERATURE CITED Aumap, Y., AND D. H. Hey. 1961. 8-Phenyliso- quinolines. J. Chem. Soc. 3882-3885. BERGSTROM, F. W., AND J. H. Roppa. 1940. The preparation and properties of some 4-substi- tuted isoquinolines. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 62: 3030-3032. Craic, J. J.. AND W. E. Cass. 1942. Derivatives | of aminoisoquinolines. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. | 64:783-784. | Dewar, M. J. S., anp P. M. Marruis. 1957. Elec- | trophilic substitution. Part XI. Nitration of | some six-membered _nitrogen-heterocyclic | compounds in sulphuric acid. J. Chem. Soc. | 9591-2528. EDINGER, A., AND Bossunc. 1891. J. Prakt. Chem. | 43(2):190. | E1scu, J. J. 1962. Aza-aromatic substitution. I. | The selective bromination of the quinoline nucleus. J. Org. Chem. 27:1318-1328. | Gorpon, M., and D. E. Pearson. 1964. The swamping catalyst effect. VI. The halogena- tion of isoquinoline and quinoline. J. Org. Chem. 29:329-332. | Hawortu, R. D., AND S. Ropinson. 1948. Syn- | thetic antimalarials. Part XXVII. Some de- rivatives of phthalazine, quinoxaline, and iso- quinoline. J. Chem. Soc. 777—782. JANSEN, H. E., AND J. P. Wrpaur. 19387. The bromination of quinoline, isoquinoline, thia- zole and benzothiazole in the gaseous phase. Rec. Trav. Chim. 56:699-708. Kress, T. J., AND S. M. Costantino. 1978. Selective brominations in nitrobenzene. A con- | venient synthesis of 38-bromoquinoline, 4- bromoisoquinoline, and 4-phenyl-5-bromo- } pyrimidine. J. Hetero. Chem. 10:409-410. | McCousrey, A., AND D. W. Martuieson. 1951. | Isoquinolines. III. The nitration of 3,4-di- | hydro- and_ 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-isoquinolines. | J. Chem. Soc. 2851-2853. a OsBurN, A. R., K. SCHOFIELD, AND L. N. SHORT. 1956. Studies of the aminoisoquinolines, -cinnolines, and -quinazolines. J. Chem. Soc. 4191-4206. RosBinson, R. A. 1947a. 5-(y-Diethylaminopro- pylamino )-isoquinoline. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 69:1942-1943. 1947b. 7-(y-Diethylaminopropylami- no)-isoquinoline. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 69: 1944. SpATH, D., F. BERGER, AND W. Kuntara. 1930. Synthesis of isoquinoline derivatives. Ber. | 63B:134-141. SynpDER, H. R., AND F. X. WERBER. 1950. Poly- phosphoric acid as a dehydrating agent. I. | The cyclodehydration of some a-acylamino- | B-arylopropionic acids. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. } 72:2962—2965. Tyson, F. T. 1939. Synthesis of isoquinoline acids. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 61:183-185. | The Big Clifty Prairie, a Remnant Outlier of the Prairie Peninsula, Grayson County, Kentucky WILLIAM S. BRYANT Department of Biology, Thomas More College, Ft. Mitchell, Kentucky 41017 ABSTRACT The Big Clifty Prairie, an outlier of the Prairie Peninsula, contains 118 species of plants representing 44 families. Andropogon scoparius and A. gerardi are the dominant grasses, while forbs include members of the Compositae, Leguminosae, Labiatae, and Cyper- aceae. Woody plants are confined to the prairie edge. Minor disturbances to the prairie have occurred as evidenced by numerous weedy species. The overall prairie community is maintaining itself within a forested region, partially because of local soil conditions. INTRODUCTION In Kentucky, a vegetational type that has received little scientific attention is the prairie. That prairies once occupied a sig- nificant area of land in the state is well ‘documented. Transeau (1935) in his map of the Prairie Peninsula, showed prairies as occurring in a narrow band across west- ern and west-central Kentucky (Fig. 1). ) | : : McInteer (1946) estimated that the Big Barrens prairies ranged from 8,000 to 9,600 km?. Garman (1925) stated that the great meadows (prairies) in Kentucky had largely disappeared with tall grasses being replaced by weeds. Today, only small, scat- tered remnants of the original prairie remain. Previous workers in the Kentucky prai- ries, Garman (1925), Sauer (1927), Dicken (1935), McInteer (1942, 1946), and Braun (1950) described certain aspects of the prairies, however, much of those works centered on the possible origins of the grasslands. Except for Garman (1925), who discussed the resemblance of the Kentucky prairies to those in Illinois, and MclInteer (1946), who gave a brief list of tree species, no thorough vegetational de- scriptions have been given. The present paper is an attempt to de- scribe the vegetational and floral composi- tion of one small prairie outlier of the Prairie Peninsula in Kentucky. Neither Transeau (1935) nor MclInteer (1946) showed prairies in Grayson County, but they did show extensive prairie tracts in 21 Hardin County. The Big Clifty Prairie lies a few hundred meters west of the Hardin County line. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Special thanks are due Dr. Willem Mei- jer, University of Kentucky, who aided with plant identifications. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA The Big Clifty Prairie is on a nearly level plain, approximately 4.0 km (2.5 miles) east of the village of Big Clifty, Grayson County. The prairie, less than 1 ha in extent, occurs as a narrow strip within the rights-of-way of US Highway 62 and the Illinois Central Railroad. Be- cause of that protected location, the prairie has not been broken by the plow. The northeastern section of Grayson County, in which Big Clifty Prairie lies, is in the Pennyroyal physiographic area. The underlying rock is Big Clifty Sandstone, a member of the Golconda Formation. The soil is Sadler Silt Loam, a loess soil under- lain with a slowly permeable fragipan (Whitaker et al. 1972). The climate of Grayson County is tem- perate; the average annual temperature is 14.4 C, and the annual precipitation is 122.7 cm (Whitaker et al. 1972). METHODS Twenty-five 1x<1l-m quadrats, spaced at 10-m intervals, were established along a straight-line transect through the center bo bo TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) Fic. 1. Map of Kentucky showing the approximate location of the Prairie Peninsula. The location of the Big Clifty Prairie, an outlier, is indicated by an X. of the prairie. The presence of plant spe- cies in each quadrat was recorded. Fre- quencies of occurrence were then deter- mined. Plants were collected on numerous occa- sions from 1968 to 1976. Voucher speci- mens of many of the plants are held in my personal collection. PLANTs OF Bic CLirry PRAIRIE A total of 118 species of plants represent- ing 44 families was collected from the prairie and identified. The dominant fam- ilies were the Compositae with 24 species; Gramineae, 13; Leguminosae, 12; Cypera- ceae, 8; and Labiatae, 5 (Table 1). Andropogon scoparius and A. gerardi, with frequencies of 100 and 44, respec- tively, were the dominant prairie grasses (Table 2). Native forbs Strophostyles um- bellata (68), Solidago missouriensis (48), Aster sp. (48), A. patens (28), Potentilla simplex (28), Pycnanthemum flexuosum (20), Cassia fasciculata (12), and Parthe- nium integrifolium (12) were abundant. Members of various genera of sedges and rushes, Carex, Scleria, Cyperus, and Ele- ocharis, also were abundant. Invader spe- cies, Smilax rotundifolia, Achillea mille- folium, Chrysanthemum — leucanthemum, and Poa pratensis, indicated some degree of disturbance as having occurred. Native (Modified from Transeau 1935.) species and noninvaders outnumbered the invaders. Shrubs and small trees, Corylus ameri- cana, Salix humilis, S. nigra, Nyssa sylva- tica, Diospyros virginiana, and Rhus co- pallina, were abundant in a ditch at the edge of the railroad. Oaks, Quercus stel- lata, Q. velutina, and Q. marilandica, were represented by a few individuals. No analysis of soil was attempted, how- ever, a thorough analysis of the Sadler Silt. Loam was presented by Whitaker et al. (1972). DIscussION In his discussion of the xerothermic pe- riod, Gleason (1923) pointed to one of its effects as being the extension of the prairie flora to the east. He cited as evidence of this the relict prairie colonies in the eastern deciduous forest region. Transeau (1935) stated that distinctive prairie flora and iso- lated typical prairie communities occur as far south as Kentucky and Tennessee. Mc- Inteer (1946) noted that the prairies in Kentucky were once extensive, but those once extensive tracts have all but disap- peared (Meijer 1970). | The location and subsequent ecological | study of those relicts is of utmost impor- | tance since prairies have not been well defined in Kentucky. In Wisconsin, Curtis Bic Curry Prairie, Kentucky—Bryant 23 TABLE 1.—A PRELIMINARY LIST OF VASCULAR PLANTS COLLECTED AT Bic CLiFtTy PRAIRIE, GRAYSON County, KeENtucky. NOMENCLATURE FOLLOWS FERNALD (1950) ANACARDIACEAE Rhus copallina APOCYNACEAE Apocynum cannabinum ASCLEPIDACEAE Asclepias incarnata A. syriaca A. verticillata BETULACEAE Corylus americana CALLITRICHACEAE Callitriche deflexa CAMPANULACEAE Specularia perfoliata CAPRIFOLIACEAE Lonicera japonica CARYOPHYLLACEAE Dianthus armeria Saponaria officinalis ASTERACEAE Achillea millefolium Aster patens Aster sp. Bidens sp. Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Coreopsis tripteris Erigeron annus Eupatorium altissimum E. serotinum Gnaphalium purpureum Helenium flexuosum Helianthus hirsutus Helianthus mollis Lactuca canadensis Parthenium integrifolium Ratibida pinnata Rudbeckia hirta Seriocarpus asteroides Silphium integrifolium S. perfoliatum Solidago missouriensis S. juncea Tragopogon dubius Vernonia missurica CoRNACEAE Nyssa sylvatica CYPERACEAE Carex complanata C. frankii C. vulpinoidea Cyperus ovularis Cyperus sp. Eleocharis tenuis Scirpus atrovirens Scleria pauciflora EBENACEAE Diospyros virginiana EUPHORBIACEAE Euphorbia corollata E. supina FAGACEAE Quercus marilandica QO. stellata QO. velutina GENTIANACEAE Sabatia angularis GERANIACEAE Geranium carolinianum POACEAE Andropogon gerardi A. scoparius Bromus tectorum Elymus virginicus Festuca elatior Panicum nitidum Paspalum sp. Phleum pratensis Poa compressa P. pratensis Secale cereale Setaria lutescens Sorgastrum nutans HYPERICACEAE Ascyrum hypericoides Hypericum sphaerocarpum JUNCACEAE Juncus sp. LAMIACEAE Lycopus virginicus Prunella vulgaris Pycnanthemum flexuosum Salvia lyrata Scutellaria parvula LAURACEAE Sassafras albidum LEGUMINOSAE Cassia fasciculata Desmanthus illinoensis Desmodium ciliare D. laevigatum D. sessilifolium Lespedeza virginica Medicago lupalina Melilotus alba Psoralea psoralioides Strophostyles umbellata Tephrosia virginiana Trifolium procumbens LILIACEAE Hemerocallis fulva Smilax rotundifolia LINACEAE Linum virginianum LOBELIACEAE Lobelia puberula L. spicata ONOGRACEAE Ludwigia alternifolia ORCHIDACEAE Spiranthes vernalis OXALIDACEAE Oxalis stricta PLANTAGINACEAE Plantago aristata P. lanceolata PLATANACEAE Platanus occidentalis POLAMONIACEAE Phlox maculata POLYGALACEAE Polygala sanguinea P. verticillata POLYGONACEAE Rumex acetosella R. conglomeratus RANUNCULACEAE Anemone virginiana RHAMNACEAE Ceanothus americanus ROSACEAE Potentilla simplex Rosa setigera Rubus flagellaris RUBIACEAE Diodia teres Galium pilosum SALICACEAE Salix humilis S. nigra SCROPHULARIACEAE Chaenorrhinum minus Verbascum thapsus SOLANACEAE Physalis sp. ULMACEAE Ulmus alata VERBENACEAE Verbena simplex VIOLACEAE Viola sagittata VITACEAE Vitis cinerea 24 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) TABLE 2.—FREQUENCY OCCURRENCE OF PLANT SPECIES AT Bic CLirry PRAIRIE, GRAYSON CouNTY, KENTUCKY, BASED ON 25 1X1-M QUADRATS Species Frequency Andropogon scoparius 100 Smilax rotundifolia re Strophostyles umbellata 68 Chrysanthemum leucanthemum 56 Achillea millefolium 56 Solidago missouriensis 48 Aster sp. 48 Andropogon gerardi 44 Panicum nitidum 36 Aster patens 32 Scleria pauciflora 28 Potentilla simplex 28 Carex complanata 24 Pycnanthemum flexuosum 20 Poa pratensis Salix humilis Cassia fasciculata Eleocharis tenuis Parthenium integrifolium Rubus flagellaris Anemone virginiana Carex sp. Scutellaria parvula Prunella vulgaris Apocynum cannibidum Polygala sanguinea Lactuca canadensis Cyperus ovularis Linum virginianum Euphorbia corollata Polygala verticillata Desmodium sessilifolium Elymus virginicus Festuca elatior Gnaphalium purpureum Rhus copallina Oxalis stricta Ascelpias verticillata Vitis cinerea Melilotus alba Lobelia puberula Sassafras albidum Salvia lyrata Dianthus armeria Sabatia angularis Nyssa sylvatica Vernonia missurica Cyperus sp. Se ee LA AA RABRAKBABRAKRRWDWDMDDDOHODHDWOOWHONNNNNNNN ADDS and Greene (1949) found that prairie relicts were on atypical sites, so far as the great bulk of original prairie was con- cerned, and had persisted because of such locations. They found the relicts that most nearly approached the typical condition on railroad rights-of-way where railroads were laid out on grade through large flat areas of high prairie. Garman (1925) stated that probably few prairies in Kentucky have been exterminated, but were still to be found in bits of waste ground and along railroads and highways. Whether typical or not for Kentucky, the Big Clifty | Prairie fits those descriptions. In their extensive study, Curtis and | Greene (1949) found low prairies on | poorly drained flat lands to support the © highest numbers of species, 179. The Big | Clifty Prairie also occupies a flat plain with | poor internal drainage resulting from the | shallow fragipan. The 118 plant species at Big Clifty Prairie, considering its small size, is quite remarkable. Of the 10 spe- cies listed as most likely in low prairies in Wisconsin, 4 were present here. The most characteristic grass at Big Clifty Prairie © was Andropogon scoparius, but Curtis and © Greene listed A. gerardi as most charac- | teristic for Wisconsin. MclInteer (1946) — named the tall bluestem A. gerardi as the — dominant grass of the Barrens. In southern © Illinois, Voigt and Mohlenbrock (1964) | found A. scoparius to be the most common — grass. Since no quantitative studies were > performed by the early workers in Ken- tucky’s prairies, and dominance was deter- mined by observation alone, perhaps the large size and conspicuousness of A. ger- | ardi, as viewed by the early writers, over-_ shadowed its true place in the prairie asso- ciation of the Barrens. In southern Illinois, the railroad and highway rights-of-way are dominated by Indian grass Sorgastrum nutans that usu- ally indicates a mild disturbance such as frequent burning (Voigt and Mohlenbrock | 1964). Only a few scattered individuals of S. nutans were present at Big Clifty Prai- rie, however, that does not rule out past burning as a type of disturbance. In fact, burning has often been mentioned as one | of the primary factors in maintaining prai- | ries. The main disturbance at Big Clifty | Prairie is the periodic mowing by highway crews. The clippings are left on the Bic Ciirty Prairie, KEnrucky—Bryant 25 ground, and undoubtedly produce a smoth- ering effect on some of the more fragile plants. Since no set schedule for mowing is followed from year to year, the plants have most likely been disturbed at most stages of their life cycles. Invader species, like Smilax rotundifolia, Achillea millefo- lium, Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, and Poa pratensis, take advantage of such dis- turbances. Weaver (1968) found that the removal of bluestem by mowing is dis- tinctly advantageous for the growth of bluegrass, both in fall and spring. The abundance of sedges and rushes was encouraged by the nature of the soil and fragipan. There is a tendency for water to collect in the level areas of the Sadler Silt Loam in both winter and early spring (Whitaker et al. 1972). Garman (1925) also noted that rushes and sedges occurred in wet areas of prairies. Although several species of trees and shrubs were present near the edge of Big Clifty Prairie, no trees were established in the prairie proper. Garman (1925) and MclInteer (1946) mentioned the presence of scattered trees including black jack oak Quercus marilandica, dwarf willows Salix spp., hazel Corylus sp., and sumac Rhus spp., as well as wild grapes Vitis spp. in the prairies of Kentucky. Those species were primarily near the edge of Big Clifty Prairie. Weaver (1968) reported Corylus americana to be an invader at the edge of many prairies in Nebraska. Seedlings of Salix humilis were recorded in quadrats, but there were no signs of further estab- lishment after invasion by that species or other woody plants. The persistence of prairie relicts, such as Big Clifty Prairie, in regions of high rainfall and forest vegetation is due largely to local soil and/or drainage conditions. Wistendahl (1975) stated that the Buffalo Beats Prairie in southeastern Ohio within forest vegetation appeared to be related to local soil characteristics. Garman (1925) also noted the establishment of turf that resisted the penetration of forests. At Big Clifty Prairie, water remains on the soil surface where it is least available, and evaporates before it can be efficiently uti- lized by plants. Because of this condition and the prairie’s protected location, the grasses and forbs have been able to main- tain themselves with only minor distur- bances since xerothermic times. Further research on Kentucky’s prairies is needed before this important ecosystem is elim- inated from the state. An all-out effort should be made to locate, preserve, and study the remaining prairie remnants. LITERATURE CITED Braun, E. L. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern North America. The Blakiston Co., Phila- delphia, Pa. 596 pp. Curtis, J. T., AND H. C. GREENE. 1949. A study of relic Wisconsin prairies by the species— presence method. Ecology 30:83-92. Dicken, S. N. 1935. The Kentucky barrens. Bull. Geogr. Soc. Phila. 43:42-51. FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. Eighth Ed. American Book Co., New York, IN? YREGS82"pp: GarRMAN, H. 1925. The vegetation of the barrens. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 2:107—111. GLEAson, H. 1923. The vegetational history of the middle west. Ann. Ass. Amer. Geogr. 12:39-85. McINnTEER, B. B. 1942. The barrens of Ken- tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 10:7-12. 1946. A change from grassland to forest vegetation in the “Big Barrens” of Kentucky. Amer. Midl. Nat. 35:276—-282. Meyer, W. 1970. The flora and vegetation of Kentucky as a field for research and teaching. Castanea 35:161—-176. SAUER, C. 1927. Geography of the Pennyroyal. Ky. Geol. Surv. Ser. 6, 25. 30 pp. TRANSEAU, E. N. 1935. The prairie peninsula. Ecology 16:423-437. VoictT, J.. AND R. H. MoHLENBROCK. 1964. Plant communities of southern Illinois. Southern Illinois Univ. Press, Carbondale, Ill. 202 pp. WeAveER, J. E. 1968. Prairie plants and their environment. Univ. Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebr. 276 pp. WHITAKER, O. J., F. R. Cox, Jr., H. T. Converse, {eile Ladlaynor: yer Vsi Bente: /jr., anp E. H. Jacoss. 1972. Soil survey of Grayson County, Kentucky. USDA Soil Cons. Serv., Washington, D. C. 81 pp. WISTENDAHL, W. A. 1975. Buffalo Beats, a relict prairie within a southeastern Ohio forest. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 102:178-186. External Morphology of Adult Leafhoppers of the Genus Scaphoideus Dovuc.as E. BARNETT Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ABSTRACT The external morphology of leafhoppers in the genus Scaphoideus is treated. Morphology of the external sclerites and their terminology is discussed and illustrated. The literature pertaining to the origin, morphology, and terminology of the head sclerites and genital structures is treated in detail. INTRODUCTION Few general works treat the external morphology and terminology of members of the Cicadellidae (DeLong 1926; Evans 1946a, 1947b, 1957; Oman 1949), but com- plete and intensive studies of the external morphology are few. Further, some confu- sion exists in the terminology applied to various structures. Earlier, considerable weight was placed on information drawn from morphological studies on related fam- ilies, especially the Cicadidae. Unfortu- nately, the transfer of information from related families was not always reliable as Orian (1964) noted after completing work on the morphology of Abricta ferru- ginosa. (Homoptera: Cicadidae). Also, there is considerable variation or modifi- cation of structures within the family Cica- dellidae. Most authors, in trying to find a common morphological basis among the orders of insects and an explanation of the extremely diversified structures present, have sug- gested a change in the morphological no- menclature. Hence a diverse set of ter- minology exists. The terminology in this paper follows that of the majority of work- ers currently treating species of cicadellids or favors terminology in use by morpholo- gists. Alternate terms for many structures are also included. MATERIALS AND METHODS Material for study was collected in Ken- tucky. Various combinations of water, ethyl alcohol, and ethyl ether were tested 26 as the clearing solution. The following so- lution was best and consisted of 5 ml of ethyl ether, 50 ml of 70 percent ethyl al- cohol, and 50 g of potassium hydroxide. The specimens were placed in the clearing solution until clear and the viscera and muscle were soft, about 20-40 min. Then the head and abdomen were disjointed from the thorax. Seventy percent alcohol was jetted into the head, thorax, and ab- domen with a hypodermic syringe to re- move the softened contents. The clearing solution was withdrawn, and the cleared material washed twice with distilled water. Then the prepared insect material was transferred to glycerine for study. The var- ious structures were illustrated using a pro- jecting microscope. Musculature was studied by dissecting fresh material and examining stained serial sections. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The head in dorsal aspect exhibits the triangular crown and posterolateral com- pound eyes (Fig. 1). The crown may be pointed or rather bluntly pointed, and the anterior crown margin in lateral aspect usually is rather sharply angled, but in certain species in the oriental region the anterior margin may be rounded, approach- ing the condition in the genus Osbornellus. In lateral view, the dorsal margin of the head is not completely flat (Fig. 2). A single ocellus is situated on the crown mar- gin near each compound eye. The ocelli may be large (0.16 mm) or small (0.04 mm). A coronal suture originates at the MorRPHOLOGY OF ILEAFHOPPERS—Barnett oF TINIE MUSCLE ee PECL EEOC ECCT CCL OCELLUS : Sc apaehy id A pees CROWN 2 Hebe x A Saar 22. EYE Lah MANDIBLES Ee ia CORONAL SUTURE AND 2. 0 Die SSS PRONOTUM BREE EE, 2 oo Tn eee MESOSCUTELLUM SMM POST CLYPEUS .SMM cere e eee e eee e ence eens enanes secre sceanenas ANTECLYPEUS Poe eer rrr rrr LABIUM HEAD AND THORAX, LATERAL ASPECT LABIUM, VENTRAL-LATERAL ASPECT Saath) Ger ovswoll pect tale 6 ) LEFT MANDIBLE, LATERAL ASPECT -25M 7 te re FLAGELLUM TIP OF MANDIBLE, LATERAL ASPECT jf pongecee Cece Ae GSE CRCOCECECREER EEE PEDICEL SCAPE ANTENNAL SOCKET ANTENNAL SUTURE |.35MM OS 8 : MAXILLA, LATERAL aspect OCELLUS FRONS EYE ANTENNA POS® GEYPEUS GENA LORUM ANTECLYPEUS =S——————_ 9 APEX OF MAXILLA -45MM HEAD, ANTERIOR ASPECY Fics. 1-9. General morphology of Scaphoideus ( Scaphoideus) titanus. 1. Head and thorax, dorsal aspect. 2. Head and thorax, lateral aspect. 3. Antenna, dorsal aspect. 4. Head, anterior aspect. 5. Labium, ventrolateral aspect. 6. Left mandible, lateral aspect. 7. Apex of mandible, lateral aspect. 8. Maxilla, lateral aspect. 9. Apex of maxilla. 28 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) posterior center of the crown and extends about half the distance to the anterior margin where it divides and each arm turns laterally. The antennae are setaceous and long (Fig. 3). The scape is cup shaped and frequently ornamented with scale-like sculpturing (Fig. 3). A single seta is pres- ent on the first, second, and third flagellar segments. Sensory structures as noted by Hansen (1890) were not found. The face is composed of a median frontal area, clypeal regions, and lateral to the clypeal regions, the “lorea” and genae (Fig. 4). The postclypeus is separated from the ante- clypeus by a “transclypeal suture,” a seg- ment of the epistomal suture. The epi- stomal suture originates at the anterior ten- torial pits and delineates the lorae, joins the anteclypeal sutures laterally near the ventral portion of the anteclypeus, and proceeds dorsally to the “transclypeal su- ture.” In contrast, Kramer (1950) illus- trated Aulacizes irrorata and showed the epistomal suture as originating at the frontal sutures. However, the lorae have been variously interpreted. Evans (1946a, 1946b ) and Kramer (1950) interpreted the lorae as parts of the clypeus; later Evans (1957) called them paraclypeal lobes. Snodgrass (1938, 1944) and Butt (1943) interpreted the lorae as a part of the hypo- pharynx. But Pesson (1951), using nerve innervation and embryological evidence, refuted that association. Arora and Singh (1962) stated that the lorae were composite plates formed by the fusion of clypeal, tri- tocerebral, and mandibular parts. In the genus Scaphoideus, the lorae are contin- uous with the genae. The frontal sutures extend dorsally from the lateral margins of the transclypeal suture to near the an- tennal sockets where they become some- what indistinct. They appear to pass the antennae medially and continue to the ocelli where they divide and pass on either side of each ocellus becoming indistinct af- ter passing over the anterior crown margin. Hence, the crown appears to be composed of portions of the frons and vertex. The most lateral areas of the face are the genae. Cogan (1916) indicated that the area was an amalgamation of genae and maxillary plate. However, no exact demarkation is visible anteriorly. The anterior tentorial pits are low on the face. The epistomal suture on leaving the anterior tentorial pit dips nearly to the ventral margin before joining the frontal suture, suggesting that most if not all lateral portions of the face are genae. DuPorte (1962) illustrated the genae as being shortened as the tentorial pit and genital suture of the Cicada rose. However, in Scaphoideus it seems to be lowered, considerably elongating the genae. The proximal portion of the maxillary stylets are associated with the maxillary lever, the anterior tentorial pits, and hypopharyngeal wings, and not with the lateral portions of the face. Hence, those areas are desig- nated genae. The maxillary stylet has 2 protractor muscles (Arora and Singh 1962) inserted at the ventral margin of the face and immediately adjacent to the ante- clypeus. There is no demarkation between | genae and maxillary plate on the face, but | certainly the maxillary plate is reduced | and restricted to a small area ventrally, if present at all anteriorly. Posteriorly, a — median suture divides the upper genal por- | tion from what may be the maxillary plate | ventrally. Pits on the genae are represented internally by tube- or saclike structures of unknown function. Those saclike struc- tures are heavily sclerotized and appear to bridge the anterior and posterior surfaces. | The labium consists of 4 segments, the most apical of which bears several distal setae — (Fig. 5). The mandibles (bristles or sty- | lets) are extremely long, thin, laterally flattened, and expanded proximally (Fig. — 6). The distal tenth is dentate (Fig. 7). The maxillae are similar to the mandibles but are hooked distally (Figs. 8, 9). The labrum is triangular and reduced (Fig. 10). Cogan (1916) referred to that struc- ture as the epipharynx. However, the epi- | pharynx probably is very reduced and — coalesced to the posterior region of the | labrum. | The pronotum is sublunate in dorsal view (Fig. 11). Laterally, the episternum is un- divided (Fig. 12). The prosternum is MorPHOLOGY OF LEAFHOPPERS—Barnett 29 | MM ANTECLYPEUS I | NOTUM, FIRST THORACIC SEGMENT, 18MM DORSAL ASPECT LABRUM .25MM I) STERNUM, FIRST THORACIC SEGMENT, LABRUM AND ANTECLYPEUS VENTRAL ASPECT aw" PRESCUTUM PRESCUTOSCUTAL SUTURE...” .PREALAR ARM PRONOTUM can, oe SCUTAL EPISTERNUM SUTURE, aww PARAPSIDAL SUTURE 1mm EPIMERON Mf) ee ERIMERON NON cecartes ANTERIOR NOTAL PROCESS TROCHONGER lb Noy fo Tet ee cone “TRANSVERSE SUTURE IMM ; RIGHT PLEURON, FIRST THORACIC SEGMENT, “SCUTELLUM , 14 EV ES Takia Sa NOTUM, SECOND THORACIC SEGMENT, DORSAL ASPECT TERGAL POSTERIOR PREALAR SCLERITE WING NOTAL é AREA PROCESS 25MM. _ ie _TEGULA TERGAL WING GROOVE bt Se PARAPSIDAL SUTURE NR a | oy | Ona oe PREALAR BRIDGE POST AXILLARY SCLERITE™” \ N— (ss ta Re ie SamebeaniOne \ A. A La PLEURAL SUTURE POINT 1MM Pe “PLEURAL WING SUTURE EPIMERON =” = ™ COXA 16 15 STERNUM, SECOND THORACIC SEGMENT, RIGHT PLEURON, SECOND THORACIC SEGMENT, LATERAL ASPECT VENTRAL ASPECT Fics. 10-16. External morphology of Scaphoideus (Scaphoideus) titanus. 10. Labrum and _ ante- clypeus, dorsal aspect. 11. Notum, first thoracic segment, dorsal aspect. 12. Right pleuron, first thoracic segment, lateral aspect. 13. Sternum, first thoracic segment, ventral aspect. 14. Notum, second thoracic segment, dorsal aspect. 15. Right pleuron, second thoracic segment, lateral aspect. 16. Sternum, second thoracic segment, ventral aspect. 30 TrANS. KENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) _- PHRAGMA : 25MM | .« ARTICULATION PROCESS bed. SECOND THORACIC SEGMENT, POSTERIOR ASPECT FRONT WING -25MM META SCUTUM ---* METASCUTELLUM [hee cee -- SCUTOSCUTELLAR SUTURE Ae or eee POSTNOTUM Seen Sear FORAMEN “ EPIMERON C+Sc R NOTUM AND PLEURON, THIRD THORACIC SEGMENT. CORSO-POSTERIOR VIEW 2A 3A HIND WING 20 Fics. 17-20. External morphology of Scaphoideus (Scaphoideus) titanus. 17. Second thoracic segment, posterior aspect. 18. Notum and pleuron, third thoracic segment, dorsoposterior aspect. 19. Front wing. 20. Hind wing. MorPHOLOGY OF LEAFHOPPERS—Barnett 31 deeply excavated anteriorly and much re- duced (Fig. 13). The shape of the pro- sternum varies considerably in cicadellid genera and is triangular in Idioscopus clypealis (Srivastava 1958). The mesonotum is dorsally rhomboid and incised anterolaterally by the parap- sidal suture (Fig. 14). The prescutoscutal suture is anterior to the parapsidal suture and completely separated from it, a con- dition known to occur in the genus Aula- cizes (Matsuda 1970). A central median scutal suture originates anteriorly and ex- tends about one-third of the distance to the posterior apex. The transverse suture separates the scutum from the scutellum. A depressed lateral extension of the scutel- lum forms the tergal wing groove. The mesothoracic segment in lateral view exhibits the dorsal outline as 2 convex areas (Fig. 15). The episternum is about as large as the epimeron and is more dor- sal. The tegula is nearly the same size and form as the prealar sclerite and both are long thin sclerites that are oriented verti- cally. The mesosternum is 3 times the size of the prosternum and is somewhat rectangular with the lateral margins pro- jected to points (Fig. 16). Internally, the mesothorax is incised dorsally by the phragma which occupies about half of the cavity (Fig. 17). The dorsal pleural apoph- ysis nearly joins a lateral extension of the phragma. The ventral pleural apophysis _ joins the well-developed Y-shaped furca. The metathoracic segment is oriented in a nearly vertical plane and is best seen in caudal aspect (Fig. 18). The meta- scutum and postnotum are subrectangular. Many areas of the metathoracic segment become membranous and are difficult to distinguish. The metascutum usually has 2 caudoventral processes. The pleural sclerites are much narrowed and somewhat indistinguishably fused to each other and to the metanotal sclerites. The venation of the mesothoracic wing (Fig. 19) and metathoracic wing (Fig. 20) are relatively similar for all species in the genus. In the mesothoracic wing, the costa and subcosta are fused and have trans- verse ridges on the distal three-fourths. The radius divides in the distal third into Re, Rs, Ry, and R;, or Rs may join M for a short distance before it separates from M. Rs; may or may not reach the wing margin. Re, Rs, Ry, and R; are often termed re- flexed veins. The first and second r—m veins are present. The medius separates from Cu, in the proximal fourth of the wing and continues unbranched to the wing mar- gin. Cu, parallels Cu, and divides into Cu,. and Cuy,, in the distal fourth of the wing. Cu,, turns anteriorly, closes the dis- tal end of the Cu, cell, touches M, and turns sharply to the posterior. Cu,, joins Cu, at a right angle. Cuz (claval vein or suture) is unbranched. There are 2 anal veins (claval veins of some homopterists ) ; 1A may be branched, but usually neither branch reaches the wing margin. The appendix is well developed. The posterior wing margin is commonly called the com- missural vein or line. An earlier terminol- ogy existed and is as follows: R before it branches was designated the first sector by some workers, and R was often called the outer branch of the first sector after the juncture of the r—m crossvein. M was called the inner branch first sector after the junc- ture of the r—m crossvein and the second sector before the juncture of the r—m cross- vein. The first Rs cell was known as the outer anteapical, the first R; as the central anteapical cell, and the second M as the inner anteapical cell. Cu,. was known as the first apical cell. The third M cell was called the second anteapical cell. The second R; cell was termed the third ante- apical cell and the second Rgz cell, the fourth anteapical cell. The Cu, cell was sometimes designated the brachial cell. In the metathoracic wing, the costa and subcosta are fused. R_ branches in the distal third into Rz:; which zigzags to the anterior margin and Ry:; which proceeds to the wing apex. The medius divides in the midportion of the wing into M,+. and M3,4 and both extend to the apex. Cu; and Cup are undivided. Cuz is considerably enlarged apically. The anal vein is divided medially, and 1A is thickened; 3A is pos- 32 TRANS. KeNTuCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2) PT EE FP yo so sara sentenaa bene eek gy cae FURCAL ARM COXAL SUTURE DG ee FEMUR sein ee at Ae ee) eee een as (er rs me COXA BGOMA. 10 WIR LIR™ foc re) Ca meee Vee FEMUR TROCHANTER TES) ARUBA OT ey tN eres TROCHANTER Wee esto otc TIBIA A eee TIBIA RIGHT LEG, FIRST THORACIC SEGMENT, POSTERIOR ASPECT -* . a . - - beg tions a -25 MM 235 RIGHT LEG AND PLEURON, SECOND THORACIC SEGMENT ifGee ao CATERAL sASPEGH. gfe be Boe oot ee ts aoe eee ee” jee = lips leeonoe SPIRACLE Phas ‘GENITAL CAPSULE "GENITAL CAPSULE MALE ABDOMEN, DORSAL ASPECT 25 MALE ABDOMEN, VENTRAL ASPECT Fics. 21-25. External morphology of Scaphoideus (Scaphoideus) titanus. 21. Right leg of third thoracic segment, ventral aspect. 22. Right leg, first thoracic segment, posterior aspect. 23. Right leg and pleuron, second thoracic segment, lateral aspect. 24. Male abdomen, dorsal aspect. 25. Male abdomen, ventral aspect. MorPHOLOGY OF LEAFHOPPERS—Barnett terior to the anal fold, undivided, and does not reach the wing margin. The leg consists of the coxae, trochanter, femur, tibia, 3 tarsal subsegments, pretar- sus, pulvillus, and 2 claws (Fig. 21). The procoxae are rather cylindrical, but the mesocoxae and metacoxae are quadrate, and flattened against the ventral body sur- face (Figs. 22, 23). The trochanter is sub- triangular and ventral to the coxae and femur. The hind femur is long with the hind femoral setal formula 2-2-1. The tibia is about twice the length of the femur and has 4 rows of setae, most of which are sculptured. There are platellae at the apex of the tibia and at the apices of the 3 tarsal subsegments. The numbers of platellae are intraspecifically and_bilater- ally variable. The tarsi may or may not have setae. A short pretarsus is present from which originates apically 2 simple - unornamental claws (ungues). A bilobed _ pulvillus without setae is present. The abdomen joins the thorax narrowly, then expands immediately and appears broadly joined. The abdomen continues to increase in width and height to a little before the middle, where it decreases in both height and width to the caudal apex. A cross section has a semicircular outline. The terga are arched and form the dorsal and lateral sides; the laterotergites and sterna are flat and form the ventral side of the semicircle. The lateral edges of the terga are bent slightly dorsad before joining the sterna or the laterotergites. The first and second abdominal terga are mi- nute. In dorsal aspect, the first abdominal tergum is divided into 2 pieces, the first diamond shaped (Fig. 24), and the second transversely rectangular with 2 small ante- rior projections. The second abdominal tergum is a close reproduction of the second piece of the first abdominal tergum. The third abdominal tergum is broadly rect- angular and each successive tergum to the eighth is progressively more quadrate ex- cept for the female eighth tergum which usually is triangular. The laterotergites are absent from ab- dominal segments 1 and 2 (Fig. 25); how- 33 ever, a pair of spiracles is present in the membranous region where they would be situated. The third abdominal segment usually has an undivided laterotergite, but segments 4 through 8 have the lateroter- gite divided into 2 pieces. The most lateral piece of the laterotergites is the largest and contains the spiracle in the caudal portion. Spiracles are present in lateroter- gites 4 through 7. Abdominal sterna 1 and 2 are trans- versely oriented and extremely long and thin. Sterna 3 through 8 in ventral aspect follow the same form as terga 3 through 8. A cluster of small setae usually is pres- ent on the third sternum. The female eighth sternum usually is triangular and fitted into a pocket dorsal to the seventh sternum. The male genitalia were discovered to be of considerable taxonomic value in the Cicadellidae in the early 1900’s. Until that time, little morphological work had been completed on the genitalia of the group and only a few structures had terms as- signed to them. Taxonomists adopted the few terms available and/or proposed new terms. Generally, taxonomists did not com- plete extensive morphological, embryolog- ical, or comparative studies. Consequently, homologous terms did not always agree with homologous structures. The confusion was amplified by diverse terms applied to the same structure, or further compounded by designating 2 different structures by the same name. Newell (1918) attempted to clarify the situation for the various orders of insects, and Kershaw and Muir (1922) and Singh-Pruthi (1925) did the same for the auchenorrhynchous Homoptera. Tuxen (1970) listed the various terms applied to genital structures. Considerable contro- versy existed earlier as to the origin of the genital structures and, consequently, their terminology. Many workers argued that the genital structures were of appendicular origin, others that they were a combination of appendicular and adjacent segmental papillae. Still others believed that genital structures were outgrowths of the sterna. Excellent reviews of the proponents of each 34 TrANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) 025MM MALE PYGOFER, LATERAL ASPECT O.1MM 30 O.1MM SEVENTH STERNUM PYGOFER OVIPOSITOR 36 FEMALE GENITALIA, VENTRAL ASPECT Fics. 26-36. Morphology of genital structures of several Scaphoideus species. 26. Male pygofer, lateral aspect. 27. Right plate, ventral aspect. 28. Right plate, ventral aspect. 29. Right style, ventral aspect. 30. Right style, ventral aspect. 31. Connective and paraphyses, ventral aspect. 32. Connective and paraphysis, lateral aspect. 33. Aedeagus, lateral aspect. 34. Aedeagus, lateral as- pect. 35. Aedeagus, lateral aspect. 36. Female genitalia, ventral aspect. MorPHOLOGY OF LEAFHOPPERS—Barnett 35 theory and their individual terminologies were given by Nel (1929), Gustafson (1950), Matsuda (1958) and Scharov (1966). However, application of the proper terminology depends upon homol- ogy which probably can best be derived and interpreted from comparative morphol- ogy as observed during embryology and/ or preadult development. Until recently, most terminology inferences were drawn from the study of adult specimens. Smith (1969) suggested that the components of the external genitalia of both sexes of ec- tognathous insects are homologous in all orders and that the genitalia consist of presumed telopodites or for males perhaps exites of the genital coxopodite. But Helms (1968) determined that the genital struc- tures of Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cic- _ adellidae) were of sternal origin. He found _ that primary phallic rudiments in the cen- ter of the ninth sternum began to dif- _ ferentiate during the third and fourth stadia into 2 pairs of structures. The lateral struc- tures became the style rudiments, and the median pair of structures became fused on their dorsal and ventral margins to form the aedeagal rudiment. The connective (first phallobase) was not discussed by Helms, but from the position of the rudi- mentary styles, aedeagus, accessory glands, and ejaculatory duct, it seems reasonable that the connective is of sternal origin, perhaps formed from the rudimentary me- dian mesomeres. The same possibly is true of the paraphyses (= parameres of some authors) which are paired distal structures associated with the connective and aedea- gus. Other studies (Kershaw and Muir 1922, Singh-pruthi 1925, George 1925, Met- calf 1932, and Dupis 1949) showed the same kind of development in members of the auchenorrhynchous Homoptera. Studies in most other orders of insects have indi- cated that the genitalia are of sternal origin (see Matsuda 1958, Smith 1969, and Snodgrass 1963 for references concerning the other orders and the exceptions that exist ). In members of the genus Scaphoideus, segments 9 through 12 in the male and 8 through 12 in the female are modified into genital or anal structures. The male external terminalia, commonly called the genital capsule (Fig. 26), are composed of a pygo- fer formed of 2 large lateral pieces con- nected by a dorsal bridge, a ventral valve (hypandrium of Crampton 1922), and 2 apical ventral plates (hypovalves) that are mirror images. The lateral walls of the pygofer have a narrow membranous suture from the anterior ventral margin to the middle of the pygofer along an imaginary line from the anterior ventral corner to near the dorsal posterior margin. Setae on the pygofer and plates frequently are sculptured. Spines occur ventrocaudally on the pygofer in some species. The number of setae on structures on the right half of the individual may differ from the left. Frequently, the pygofer apex has 2 tufts of large long setae. The anterior margin of the male plate is membranously attached to the posterior margin of the valve, and the anterolateral apex of the plate is artic- ulated to the lateral apex of the valve. The plates may be bluntly rounded (Fig. 27) or rather sharply pointed (Fig. 28). The valve also is articulated to the pygofer anterolaterally and is obtusely triangular. The male internal genitalia are partially enclosed by the pygofer, valves, and paired plates, and are composed of the paired styles, paraphyses, anal collar, a connective, and an aedeagus. The anal collar may be broad or narrow and is situated in the caudal membrane of the pygofer. The anal collar extends from near the dorsal margin to a little below the middle of the pygofer. The connective is almost entirely internal. The styles are anteriorly internal and cau- dally external. The aedeagus is external. The styles may be long and attenuated or short and bluntly pointed and broad or narrow at the base (Figs. 29, 30). Setae are present on the styles of some species. The connective is always bifid anteriorly and may be bifid posteriorly. In species that have the connective fused to the paraphyses, the bifid nature of the con- nective is often indistinguishable (Fig. 31). Dorsal apodemes usually are present on the 36 connective and sometimes are greatly ex- tended (Fig. 32). The connective is a sclerotized shaft articulated with the styles anterolaterally and fused or articulated posteriorly with the paraphyses. The pa- raphyses may be small and membranous or large, well sclerotized, and heavily tanned (Fig. 31). They are almost entirely ex- ternal. The paraphyses are the most spe- cifically unique structures in the genus and take numerous forms distinct for each spe- cies. The aedeagus is free and attached only membranously to the connective. The caudal apex of the aedeagus usually is ex- panded laterally sometimes into spine-like processes. The aedeagal shaft may be long and narrow or short and enlarged (Figs. 33, 34). The dorsal apodeme (paired or double paired) and the preatrium may be pronounced or reduced. A few species have atrial rim processes (Fig. 35). The gono- pore is apical on the aedeagus. There ap- pears to be no endotheca or endophallus in species of this genus. The female external genitalia include segments 8 and 9 (Fig. 36). Segment § consists only of a cone-shaped tergum com- monly called the pygofer. The ovipositor is fitted into a small narrow ventrocaudal slit in the pygofer. The pygofer tapers to a caudal apex with only the ovipositor in its circular form. The ovipositor is approxi- mately the same width over its entire length and narrows only at the apex. The ovipositor consists of 3 pairs of valvulae numbered I, II, and III. Valvulae II are innermost and are fused to the valvifer attached to the anterior ventral pygofer. Valvulae I surround Valvulae II in lock-and-key fashion and form the cylin- drical tubelike ovipositor sheaths. Valvulae I are membranously attached to the eighth sternum. No valvifer is distinguishable. Valvulae III are much broader than Val- vulae I or II and usually bear a group of minute setae on the caudal fifth. Valvulae III are attached to the posterior of the trian- gular valvifer which is articulated medially to the pygofer and anterolaterally to Valvu- lae II. The apical two-fifths of Valvulae II are slightly enlarged and bear dorsally a TRANS. KentTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) number of teeth near the apex. A single isolated tooth is near the middle. In most species, internal ducts are visible in the caudal portion. The rami of Valvulae I and II are curled dorsally. The ovipositor usually extends beyond the pygofer. The anal tube is composed of 3 segments, 10, 11, or 12 in both sexes near the dorsal apex of the pygofer. The tenth segment is tubular, and may or may not be divided dor- sally. The eleventh segment usually is di- vided into an anterior and posterior section. The posterior section consists of 2 pairs of oval pieces laterally. The twelfth segment (the telson or anal papilla of Britton 1923 or anopapilla of Crampton 1922) is elongate and is called the flicker by some homop- terists. It bears the anal opening or ano- labii as a dorsal slit. Usually, the anal slit is flanked laterally by small setae and bears several long setae apically. LITERATURE CITED Arora, G. L., AND S. StincH. 1962. Morphology © and musculature of the head and mouth parts of Idiocerus atkinsoni Leth. (Jassidae, Homoptera). J. Morph. 110:131-140. Britton, W. H. 1923. Papers on the leafhoppers — (Cicadellidae) of Nova Scotia. Proc. Acadian Entomol. Soc. 1922:57-72. Butt, F. H. 1943. Comparative study of mouth | parts of representative Hemiptera-Homoptera. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Mem. 254:3-20. Cocan, E. S. 1916. Morphological studies of the | 16:299— | superfamily Jassoidea. Ohio J. Sci. 325. Crampton, G. C. 1922. The genitalia of the males of certain Hemiptera (Heteroptera) and Homoptera. Bull. Brooklyn Entomol. Soc. 17(2):46-65. DeLonc, D. M. 1926. A monographic study of the North American species of the genus Deltocephalus. Ohio St. Univ. Univ. Studies Contr. Zool. Entomol. 2( 13) :1-129. Dupis, C. 1949. Contribution a l’etude morph- ologique des Homoptera. Stades préimag- inaux de Ledra aurita (L.). Remarques sur le developpement des organes genitaux ex-_ ternes. Can. Nat. 4:43-47. DuPortre, E. M. 1962. The anterior tentorial | arms in insects and their significance in in- | terpreting the morphology of the cranium of | the cicadas. Can. J. Zool. 40:137-144. Evans, J. W. 1946a. A natural classification of leafhoppers (Jassoidea, Homoptera). Trans. Roy. Entomol. Soc. Lond. 96(3):47-60. MorRPHOLOGY OF LEAFHOPPERS—Barnett 37 1946b. A natural classification of leaf- hoppers (Homoptera, Jassoidea) Part 2: Aetalionidae, Hylicidae, Eurymelidae. Trans. Roy. Entomol. Soc. Lond. 97(2):39-54. . 1957. Some aspects of the morphology and interrelationships of extinct and recent Homoptera. Trans. Roy. Entomol. Soc. Lond. 109(9):17-294. GrorcE, C. J. 1928. The morphology and devel- opment of the genitalia and genital ducts of Homoptera and Zygoptera shown in the life histories of Philaenus and Agrion. Quart. J. Microsc. Sci. 72:447—485. GusraFson, J. F. 1950. The origin and evolution of the genitalia of the insects. Microentomol- ogy 15(2):35-67. Hansen, H. J. 1890. On the morphology and classification of the auchenorrhynchous Ho- moptera. Transl. by G. W. Kirkaldy. 1900-— 1903 Entomologist. 33:116-120, 169-172, 834-887; 34:149-154; 35:214-217, 234-236, 260-263; 36:42-44, 64-67, 93-94. Hetms, T. J. 1968. Postembryonic reproductive systems development in Empoasca _ fabae. : Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 61(2):316-332. ' Kersuaw, J. C., AND F. Mum. 1922. The gen- italia of the auchenorrhynchous Homoptera. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 15:201-212. Kramer, S. 1950. Morphology and phylogeny of the auchenorrhynchous Homoptera (Insecta). III. Biol. Monogr. 20(4):1-111. ’ Matsupa, R. 1958. On the origin of the external genitalia of insects. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 51:84—94. . 1970. The insect thorax. Entomol. Soc. Can. 76:1-431. Metrcatr, Z. P. 1932. Notes on the structure and development of the reproductive organs in Philaenus spumarius L. Quart. J. Microsc. Sci. 75:467-481. Mem. NEL, R. 1929. Studies of the development of the genitalia and genital ducts in insects. I. Female of Orthoptera and Dermaptera. Quart. J. Microsc. Sci. 73:25—85. NeweE:L, A. G. 1918. A comparative morphology of the genitalia of insects. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 11(2):109-142. Oman, P. W. 1949. The nearctic leafhoppers (Homoptera: Cicadellidae). A generic clas- sification and check list. Wash. Entomol. Soc. Mem. 3:1—253. OrtANn, A. J. E. 1964. Morphology of the male genitalia of Abricta ferruginosa (Stal). Proc. Roy. Entomol. Soc. Lond. (A) 39( 1-3) :1-4. Pesson, P. 1951. Ordre des Homopteres. In P. Grasse. Traite de Zoologie. 10(2):1390-1656. Scuarov, A. G. 1966. Basic Arthropodan Stock. Pergamon Press, Oxford, Eng. 271 pp. SincH-Prutui, H. 1925. The morphology of the male genitalia in Rhynchota. Trans. Roy. Entomol. Soc. Lond. 1925:127—267. SmirH, E. L. 1969. Evolutionary morphology of external insect genitalia, I. Origin and re- lationships to other appendages. Ann. Ento- mol. Soc. Amer. 62(5):1051—1078. Snoperass, R. E. 1938. The loral plates and the hypopharynx of Hemiptera. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 40:228-236. 1944. Feeding apparatus of biting and sucking insects affecting man and ani- mals. Smithson. Misc. Coll. 104(7):1—-113. 1963. A contribution toward an ency- clopedia of insect anatomy. Smithson. Misc. Coll. 146(2):1=146. Srivastava, B. K. 1958. On the external mor- phology of Idiocerus clypealis Leth. (Homop- tera: Jassidae). Beit. Entomol. 8(5/6):732— 744, Tuxen, S. L. 1970. Taxonomists’ glossary of gen- italia. 2nd. Ed. J. Jorgensen and Co. Munks- gaard, Copenhagen, Denmark. 359 pp. Reactivity of Treated and Untreated Marble in Carbon Dioxide Atmospheres K. L. GaAurt, PREEYAPORN TANJARUPHAN, Maprrayu AppA RAO, AND THORNTON LIPSCOMB University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT Marble specimens were impregnated with certain epoxies and fluorocarbon—acrylic copoly- mers. The treated and untreated specimens were exposed to, while immersed in deionized water, 0.983, 6.2, 8.28, and 11.02 percent pCO, at 20 C in a dynamic system. The concen- tration of leached Ca** in the water was determined by EDTA titrations and atomic absorption. The values obtained by those methods were nearly identical. The rate of reaction was based on the increment in Ca*™* concentration as a function of time. The equilibrium constant K, calculated from the experimental data, had a value of 1.49 x 10°, and compared well with the value of 1.58 x 10° given by Garrels and McKenzie (1971). Specimens treated with fluorocarbon—acrylic compounds revealed only one-half reactivity relative to untreated specimens in the initial phases of reaction. Certain epoxies provided protection, other epoxies actually enhanced the rate of reaction. It is proposed that pertinent data generated in the course of this study be used as a basis for quantitative performance criteria for stone and concrete preservative treatments. INTRODUCTION Carbon dioxide is a prominent agent of stone decay. When dissolved in water, car- bon dioxide (CO,) generates hydrogen (H*) ions that are responsible for dis- sociation of calcareous and silicate min- erals, essential ingredients of most building stones. The equilibrium concentration of COs: in water is a function of temperature and its partial pressure in the atmosphere. The past 100 years have witnessed an increment of 13 percent in the CO, budget of the atmosphere due to an increase in the com- bustion of fossil fuels (Bolin and Erick- son 1959). That situation has necessitated development of preservative materials and methods for building stones. But, while such materials and methods have multi- plied, the development of criteria for their performance has lagged behind seriously. One of the purposes of this paper is to present means to preservation technologists for a rapid laboratory evaluation of pro- posed preservative treatment against CO, attack. Another purpose of this paper is to show that careful laboratory testing of pre- servative materials is necessary to deter- mine whether a given material will provide 38 protection since it is likely that certain so- called preservatives may enhance the re- activity. In our continuing studies since 1970 on deterioration and preservation of stone, we have reported earlier on sulfur dioxide calcite reactivity (Gauri et al. 1973, Gauri and Sarma 1973), on the usefulness of cer- tain industrial resins as stone preservatives (Gauri 1974b, Gauri et al. 1973, 1974), on a technique for in-depth impregnation | (Gauri 1970, U. S. Patent 1974), and on | comparative physical properties of certain treated and untreated calcareous stones (Gauri 1974a, Gauri et al. 1974). This sup- plements our earlier studies, and has yielded data for determining the equilib- rium constant of CO.—CaCOs; reactions. Inferences have been drawn from this study to show that the initial reaction rate rather than the equilibrium concentration is useful in predicting the CO.—CaCOs; _ reactivity in the ambient. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank Dr. Louis A. Krumholz, Di- | rector of the Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, and the Air Pollu- tion Control Board, Jefferson County, for | | | REACTIVITY OF MARBLE IN CARBON Di0oxipbE—Gauri et al. 39 the use of their Atomic Absorption Spec- trometers. MATERIALS The test samples were rectangular blocks, 4.5 X 3.2 X 0.5 cm, cut from Alabama white and Vermont green marbles. Those marble species were selected because of their higher reactivity with chemically active gases. The final grinding finish on the blocks was obtained with 400-grit silicon carbide powder. The specimens were cleaned ultrasonically; the control was cleaned before exposure to concentrated atmosphere, and other specimens were cleaned before treatment. TREATMENT The experimental specimens were treated with epoxies such as aliphatic diepoxides and bisphenol-A diglycidal ether. Fluoro- carbons and acrylics also were used for treatment. Treatment varied from surface coatings to in-depth impregnations. While the surface coatings were made by short- term immersion or brushing of polymers, the in-depth impregnations were obtained by sequential immersion of specimens in polymer-solvent mixtures of increasing polymer concentration (Gauri 1970, U. S. Patent 1974). Specifically, the treatments for each kind of marble were: Specimen A.—Treatment with bisphenol-A epoxy resin: immersion in acetone, 10 min, followed by immersion in 50 per- cent and 80 percent epoxy solution in acetone, 20 min each. Specimen B.—Treatment with bisphenol-A epoxy resin: immersion in acetone, 10 min, followed by immersion in 50 percent epoxy solution in acetone, 30 min. Specimen C.—Treatment with bisphenol-A epoxy resin followed by coating with a fluorocarbon: immersion in acetone, 10 min, followed by immersion in 50 percent epoxy; surface cleaned with acetone; after epoxy polymerization surface coated with 15 percent fluorocarbon in methyl ethyl ketone (MEK). Specimen D.—Treatment with aliphatic diepoxide: immersion in 50 percent epoxy in acetone, 30 min. Specimen E.—Control. Specimen F.—Treatment with aliphatic diepoxide: immersion in absolute epoxy, 20 min. Specimen G.—Treatment with fluorocar- bon-acrylic copolymer: immersion in 2.5 percent resin in 1:1 MEK-cellusolve ace- tate, 10 min, followed by immersion in 15 percent resin, 10 min. The bisphenol-A epoxy and the aliphatic diepoxide were obtained from Celanese Speciality Coatings, P.O. Box 857, Louis- ville, Ky. 40201; the fluorocarbon and the acrylic were obtained from E. I. Dupont de Nemours & Company, Inc., Wilmington, Del. 19898. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP All specimens, both treated and un- treated, were completely immersed in de- ionized water for a minimum of 24 hours to insure that they did not absorb water when exposed to CO, atmosphere in an immersed state. The experimental work was conducted in 2 phases: (1) the Ver- mont green marble was immersed in 20 ml of water in a 50-ml beaker such that about half of the specimen was immersed while the other half was above water, and (2) the sample of Alabama white marble was completely immersed in 45 ml of water. Then specimens were placed in the reac- tion chamber (Fig. 1). After a known period of time, as given in respective figures, the beakers were removed and analyzed for Ca** ion by titrating a known volume of sample with standard EDTA solution using Eriochrome Black T as an indicator. The total Ca?* ion concentration in the case of the half-submerged specimen for a given period of time is lower than that of a fully immersed specimen. The results, however, are comparable within each phase of the work. Magnesium chlo- ride solution was added before the titra- tion for a better resolution of the endpoint. The volume of EDTA required to neu- tralize the Mg** ions was subtracted from 40) TrANs. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) pa Nbr ae oe Gauge <<. Precalibrated COpo-inert gas mixture Flowmeter Reaction |Exhaust Chamber Fic. 1. Schematic detail of dynamic reaction chamber. the total titer value. The Ca?* ion concen- tration also was determined by atomic ab- sorption for some runs, and the results obtained by both methods agreed to within 5 percent. The temperature throughout the reaction was maintained at 20 C. The experiment was repeated for various time periods and the concentration of Ca?* ions was plotted as a function of time (Figs. 2-6). The concentration of COs, in the cylinder was determined by absorbing CO, in ascarite (Hamilton and Simpson 1952: 351). The cylinders with known COs: con- centration in air or nitrogen were provided by Air Products and Chemicals Inc., 733 West Broad Street, Emmaus, Pa. 18049, who determined the CO, concentration by gas chromatography. The CO, concentra- tion was checked both at the entrance of the gas in the reaction chamber as well as at the exit by the standard method of reacting the gas with ascarite. A fairly small concentrational difference between the gas at the entrance and the exit was maintained by exposing only a small num- ber of specimens in the reaction chamber. REACTION KINETICS Extensive studies have been conducted on the calcium carbonate—carbon dioxide— water reactions. The study by Miller (1952), though conducted for the geolog- ical implications of this reaction, is out- standing for several reasons; it includes a comprehensive literature survey on the subject, and it contains experimental work on 3 different sources of CaCO, with dis-— tilled water, NaCl solution, and sea water used as solvent. It also contains data on — CaCOs solubility as a function of tempera- — ture and COs, pressure. Some of the reactions taking place in — the CaCO;-CO,:-H:O system could be written as: H,O == CO. — H.COs; (1) H.COs; = ide HCO," (2) HCO; = H*+ Co?” (3) CaCO, + H+ = Ca2i— iG Hougen et al. (1959:1062-1069) consid- ered several other possible reactions and plotted the concentration of Ca?*, HCOs,, CO,°-, H+, OH-, and H,CO3(aq) as a func- tion of the partial pressure of COz. They concluded that at CO, pressures above. 10-* atmospheres the concentrations of (OH-), (CO3?-), and (H*) were negligible | in comparison to the Ca?*, HCOs, and H.COs. In that range, they proposed that REACTIVITY OF MARBLE IN CARBON Di0ox1ipE—Gauri et al. 4] the reaction takes place according to the stoichiometric equation: CaCO; (s) a= H,O (1) ar CO. (g) == @ a7" +> 2HCO.- (5) This equation could also be obtained by combining Equations 1, 2, and 4. Equa- tion 3 was neglected since there was no detectable trace of COs? as ascertained by titrating with HCl using the double in- dicator method. The equilibrium constant for Equation 5 may be written as: Ca2*) (aHCO;-)2 ‘ aan (g)) : (6) Since this deals with very dilute solu- tions, the activities can be replaced by the respective concentrations. Also by replac- ing aCO? by the partial pressure of COs c= ' the equation can be written: (Ca?*) (HCO;-)? er HCO; (7) From the stoichiometry of the equation we have 2(Ca?*+) = (HCO3;°7). Hence, Equa- tion 7 becomes: 4(Ca?*)3 aero pCO, (8) As shown in Fig. 2, the Ca** concen- tration increased with time, asymptotically reaching the equilibrium value. That equi- librium value of Ca?* was substituted in Equation 8 and the value of K was cal- culated for each COs pressure (Table 1). The average value of equilibrium constant, kK, is 1.49 x 10°. Garrels and McKenzie (1971) reported a value of 158 x 10° for reaction at room temperature. Hougen TABLE 1.—REACTIVITY OF CALCITE IN CO: ATMO- SPHERES OF VARIABLE CONCENTRATIONS Ca’ ug/ml (ae etka pCO, at equilibrium pCO, 9.83 x 10° 62.8 oD CkOr 6.20 x 10° 1138 1.45 107 o.20)< 107 121 1.34 x 10° f10-s< 107 141 £59 ><.107 160 Mp s M.06% Cb, /2o = 3270, ae es a ea /0 0.983% Cb, 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 loo TIME , HRS Fic. 2. Reaction rate for untreated Vermont green marble specimens at different CO. partial pressures. et al. (1959) obtained a value of 0.6 x 10-6 from thermodynamic calculations. They selected the following reactions: CaCOs (s) = Ca?+ + CO,?- K, =5 x 10° = (Ca?*) (CO;?-) H,0 (1) = H*+OH- K, = 1074 = (H*) (OH-) H2CO; (aq) = H+ + HCO,- K; = 4.2 x 1077 = (H+) (HCO;-)/H.CO, H.COs (aq) = H2O + COs (g) K, = 29.6 = CO, (g)/H2CO; HCO; = H+ + CO,?- K; = 4.8 x 10-4 = (H*) (CO 3?-)/(HCO,-) 42 TrANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) G é My / me 0 20 40 60 80 Joo TIME - HOURS Fic. 3. Effect of different treatment on reaction rate at 6.2 percent CO: concentration on Alabama white marble. The treatments were (A) _ treat- ment with bisphenol-A epoxy resin: immersion in acetone, 10 min followed by immersion in 50 percent and 80 percent epoxy solution in acetone, 20 min each; (B) treatment with bis- phenol-A epoxy resin: immersion in acetone, 10 min, followed by immersion in 50 percent epoxy solution in acetone, 30 min; (C) treatment with bisphenol-A epoxy resin followed by coating with a fluorocarbon: immersion in acetone, 10 min, followed by immersion in 50 percent epoxy; sur- face cleaned with acetone; after epoxy polymer- ization surface coated with 15 percent fluoro- carbon in methyl ethyl ketone; (D) treatment with aliphatic diepoxide: immersion in 50 per- cent epoxy in acetone, 30 min; (E) control. Combining Equation 7 with the above equations yields: K oll (Ca?*) (HCO;-)? +3 K,Ks; = COs (g) KAK; = 1.48 x 10° This value compares favorably with the experimental value of 149 x 10°°. More recent values for carbonate equilibria cal- culations given by Thrailkill (1976, Table 1) yield a value of 1.6 x 10°. TIME , HOURS Fic. 4. Effect of different treatments at 8.28 percent COz concentration on Alabama white mar- ble. The treatments were the same as in Fig. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This study has produced the following significant results: 1. Treatment with certain polymers, e.g., bisphenol A type epoxies, acrylics, and fluorocarbons provided protection to the marble blocks, but the treatment with ali- phatic diepoxide increased CO.—CaCO; reactivity in the earlier runs of reactions. The increased CO.-CaCOs _ reactivity for specimens treated with aliphatic di- | epoxide is parallel to results previously re- ported for SO.,-CaCOsz reactivity (Gauri and Sarma 1973). The increased reactivity may be due to absorption of COs, by the polymer film, as in the case of SOs, or due to the polymer film acting as a semiper- meable film to COz permeation. We have determined experimentally that the ali- phatic diepoxide film does not absorb COs. The other likely explanation then is that CO, permeates selectively through the polymer film and thus builds a larger con- centration at the calcite-polymer interface. The COs concentration outside the film remains constant. This phenomenon, i.e., the concentration of CO, at polymer—CaCO; interface, must have been of a shorter REACTIVITY OF MARBLE IN CARBON D10xIpbE—Gauri et al. 43 0 20 40 60 G0 /00 TIME - HOURS Fic. 5. Effect of different treatments at 11.06 per- cent CO: concentration on Alabama white marble. The treatments were the same as in Fig. 38. duration because the reaction equilibrium of treated and untreated marble occurred at the same level of Ca?* concentration. The reduced initial CO.-CaCOs: reactivity of other treated specimens probably is due to the reduced rate of water absorption as given in the following section. 2. Marble specimens treated with the same polymer but with in-depth impregnation initially showed lesser reaction than those with shallow impregnation or those with no treatment at all. The phenomenon seems directly related to the rate of water movement into the specimen. The impreg- nation, by partially causing closure of cer- tain pores and partially by being of water repellent materials, reduces the capillary movement of water into the stone. Yet in the long run, so much calcite is available that the reaction finally reaches equilib- rium. By corollary of the above, considerable protection can be provided to the stone by drastic reduction in the rate of flow of water. In nature, other than upward mi- gration of ground water, the water of con- sequence for CO.—CaCOs reactivity is rain- water. The approximate duration of the TIME - HOURS Fic. 6. Effect of different treatments at 0.983 per- cent CO: concentration on Alabama white marble. The treatments were: (E) control (F) treatment with aliphatic diepoxide: immersion in absolute epoxy, 20 min; (G) treatment with fluorocarbon— acrylic copolymer: immersion in 2.5 percent resin in 1:1 MEK-cellusolve acetate, 10 min, followed by immersion in 15 percent resin, 10 min. reaction is during the showers. The prod- ucts of reaction do not accumulate. There- fore, with each new shower, the reaction begins anew. The actual CO.—-CaCOsz re- activity in nature thus may be correlated with the initial reaction rate. The treat- ments, especially in-depth impregnation, therefore are very useful in retarding CO.- CaCOsz reactivity. 3. The comparisons of reaction rates in the initial phases of reaction may form the basis for performance criteria of treatments for calcareous stone and concrete. For in- stance, a performance requirement may read as follows: a film deposited on cal- careous substrate from 10 percent solids of polymer in solution shall reduce the CO.-CaCOs; reactivity by at least one- half in the first 5 hours of reaction as com- pared with a similar untreated specimen exposed in the same environment for the same duration. LITERATURE CITED Bouin, B., AND E. Erickson. 1959. Changes in the COz content of the atmosphere and sea due to fossil fuel combustion. Pp. 130-142. In B. Bolin (Ed.). The atmosphere and sea in motion. Oxford Univ. Press, London, Eng. GaRRELS, R. M., AND F. T. McKEnziz. 1971. Evo- lution of sedimentary rocks. W. W. Norton Co., Inc. New York, N. Y. 897 pp. 44 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) Gauri, K. L. 1970. Improved impregnation tech- nique for the preservation of stone statuary. Nature (London) 228:882. 1972. Cleaning and impregnation of marble. Pp. 231-237. In Treatment of stone, Centro per la Conservazione delle Sculture Allaperto. Bologna, Italy. 1974a. Decay and its preservation in natural stone. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35(1- 2) :29-36. 1974b. Efficiency of epoxy resins as stone preservatives. Stud. Cons. 197:100-101. Amsterdam, Netherlands. , M. V. Appa Rao, anp H. J. Gapiyar. 1974. Certain epoxies, silicones, and vinyls as stone preservatives. P. 750. In Symposium on preservation of stone. Geol. Soc. Amer. 1974 Ann. Meet. (abs.). , G. C. Doprrer, N. T. Lipscoms, AnD A. C. Sarma. Reactivity of treated and un- treated marble specimens in an SO, atmo- sphere. Stud. Cons. 18:25-35. Amsterdam, Netherlands. 1972. D. J; Hacerty, “ann G:—R.” Unies. Comparative physical properties of treated and untreated marble. Engin. Geol. 6:235-250. , AND A. C. Sarma. 1978. Controlling weathering of marble in a dynamic atmo- sphere. Pp. 209-223. In Third Ann. Environ. Engin. Sci. Conf., Louisville, Ky. Hamiiton, L. F., anp S. G. Srweson. 1952. Quantitative chemical analysis. Tenth Ed. The Macmillan Co., New York, N. Y. 529 pp. Hovucen, O. A., K. M. WATSON, AND R. A. RAGATZ. 1959. Chemical process principles (Part 2). John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y. 1072 pp. Minter, J. P. 1952. A portion of the system cal- cium—carbon dioxide—water, with geological implication. Amer. J. Sci. 250:161-208. THRAILKILL, J. 1975. Carbonate equilibria in karst waters. Pp. 745-771. In Karst hy- drology and water resources. Proc. US-— Yugoslav. Symp., Dubrovnik, Yugo. U. S. Patent 3,795,533. 1974. Preservation and strengthening of porous solids. The Fishes of Goose Creek, Jefferson County, Kentucky: A Stream Under the Influence of Urban Development’ Davi S. Wuite’, FrReperRicK C. Hinu®, anp Kim H. Haac?’ Department of Biology and Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT Goose Creek is a small, springfed stream beginning to show the influence of urban devel- opment along its banks. During the study, 63 species of fishes were collected in Goose Creek and annotations are given for each. Although sedimentation and discharges from sewage treatment plants are beginning to affect the distribution of fishes, the populations were extensive and possibly even enhanced by the additional nutrients that entered the stream during the study period. At present, Goose Creek not only has an assemblage of fishes that inhabit small streams, but is utilized by many species from the Ohio River as a breeding and foraging ground. INTRODUCTION Although much is known of the fishes and limnology of the Ohio River and its larger tributaries, little has been published on the numerous small streams directly trib- utary to the river. Krumholz et al. (1962) examined the fish populations at the mouths of many of the smaller streams in the Louisville area and listed the species inhabiting those areas. Minckley’s (1963) study on Doe Run, a torrent spring stream 60 km downstream from Louisville, allows - some comparisons with Goose Creek; how- ever, Doe Run is atypical of most streams entering the Ohio River. Other published records of smaller streams along this sec- tion of the Ohio are extremely limited. Within the counties in Kentucky and Indiana comprising the greater metropol- itan area of Louisville, 42 first to fourth order (Horton 1945, Kuehne 1962) trib- utaries enter the Ohio River. In the course of the developing city, most of those trib- _utaries have been drastically altered as habitats for fishes and other aquatic ani- mals, and, unfortunately, we know little 1 Contribution No. 184 (New Series) from the De- partment of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208. 2 Present address: University of Oklahoma Biological Station, Kingston, Oklahoma 73439. 3 Present address: Department of Biology, Bloomsburg State College, Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania 17815. 4Present address: Department of Biology, Pertanian, Selangor, Malaysia. Universiti 45 of the original faunas and the changes that have occurred. Goose Creek, although beginning to feel the pressures of urban expansion, is one of the few remaining streams in the Louis- ville area along which there are relatively undisturbed reaches. This paper provides a detailed account of the fishes and lim- nological data of Goose Creek so that we may note the changes that take place within the next few years as urbanization continues. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Our thanks to Drs. Edmond Bacon, Vin- cent Resh, Messrs. Bruce Wilson, Tom Weber, Daryl Jennings, Johnny Baker, Peter Bersell, Steve Elbert, and Ms. Sabra Noyes. Water chemistry measurements were taken with the capable assistance of Mr. Jerry Parsons and Dr. Andrew Miller. Our greatest appreciation goes to Dr. Louis A. Krumholz who provided impetus for the study, aided and encouraged us during the project, and critically reviewed the manu- script. Financial assistance was provided by the U. S. Department of the Interior through its Office of Water Resources Re- search, Contract Nos. 14-31-0001-3286 (B-022-KY) and 14-31-0001-3891 (B-031- KY ) through the Water Resources Research Institute of the University of Kentucky. 46 TRANS. KeNtucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) —— Bridge | Stream Kilometers Brownsboro jz Rd. 12 9 Station ig ee. Ce Fic. 1. Map of Goose Creek, Jefferson County, METHODS From September 1971 to July 1973, fish were collected at least monthly from 23 stations on Goose Creek with occasional samples from Little Goose Creek at Bar- bour Lane (Fig. 1). A boat equipped with an electrofisher (Larimore et al. 1950) was used to collect fishes from the deeper pools and backwaters. In the shallower portions of the stream, a handheld shocker, common sense seines, bag seines, and dip nets were used in the collections. Both the handheld and boat electrofishers were powered by a Sears 1250-watt alternator. Records and measurements were taken in the field to prevent reduction or elimina- tion of less abundant types; however, rep- resentatives of each species were preserved and deposited in the University of Louis- ville Fish Collections, Louisville, Kentucky. Identifications were made using Traut- man (1957), Clay (1962), and Eddy (1969). With the exception of Notropis cornutus chrysocephalus (Resh et al. 1973), both the scientific and common names follow those given by Bailey et al. (1970). In February, April, July, and October 1972, population estimates were made at Stations 2, 9, and 15 using successive re- Goose Creek GOOSE CREEK and LITTLE GOOSE CREEK JEFFERSON CO., KY. Little Goose Creek Simcoe Rd. Hounz Ln, * Stone Gate Rd, al 2/, fé ee aaa Rd Everiieen Ay. Kentucky, showing locations of sampling stations. moval (DeLury 1947). Using an IBM-360a computer and programs developed by the Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, weights (kg/ha) and numbers (no/ha) were calculated for each popu- lation estimate. Physical and chemical parameters of Goose Creek were analyzed following the procedures given in Standard Methods for the Examination of Waste and Waste Water (American Public Health Associa- tion 1971). Discharge, conductivity, pH, | total alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, and chlo- rine were measured in the field. In addition to the data from this study, a collection by Krumholz et al. (1962) in June 1958, Cat. No. 9228, University of Louisville, from the area of Station 2 was used as a comparison. Field notes were supplied by Krumholz. Stupy STREAM At its mouth, Goose Creek (Fig. 1) is a | fourth order (Horton 1945, Kuehne 1962) tributary to the Ohio River that drains © approximately 60 km? of woods, fields, and } residential areas in northeastern Jefferson County, Kentucky. Arising near Anchor- age, Kentucky, the main stem flows west FisHes OF GoosE CREEK, KENtTucKy—White et al. 47 then northwest for approximately 22 km. The principal tributary, Little Goose Creek, parallels Goose Creek for more than 15 km and joins the main stem 0.8 km upstream from the Ohio River. Goose Creek can be divided into 4 dis- tinct regions by physical characteristics and by the extent of urban development. Sta- tions 1 and 2 are in backwaters of the Ohio River, with Station 1 extending from the mouth to the River Road bridge. During the summer, numerous boats are moored along the banks and it is common to see much of the surface covered by gasoline and oil. The boat traffic and wakes from passing barges on the Ohio River often cause considerable turbulence throughout this station. Station 2 essentially is a con- tinuation of Station 1; however, the bridges at River Road coupled with several large _ log jams provide a barrier against turbu- lence from the mouth. Station 2 extends _ from the River Road bridges to the con- _ fluence of Goose and Little Goose creeks. This portion of the backwater is 10-20 m wide and 2-7 m deep with a substrate of deep silt to hard mud with occasional patches of sand. The riparian lands of Stations | and 2 are primarily pasturage. At the confluence of the 2 streams, there is a shallow mud riffle distinctly separating the backwater from the continuous pool stations. The pool, Stations 3-9, is in the floodplain of the Ohio River, ranging from 10 to 2 m wide and from 3 to 0.5 m deep over a substrate of hard mud with occa- sional deposits of silt and sand. Individual stations were created by dividing the long pool into 7 sections, each approximately 250 m long. Station 9 consists of 7 small pools separated by shallow sand riffles. This station resembles the riffle pools of Stations 10-15; however, with the slightest high water, and for some time after each rain, Station 9 becomes indistinguishable from the long pool. There has been little urban development along this portion of the stream and it contains some very old undisturbed stands of cottonwood, syca- more, maple, and walnut. The stream at Stations 10 to 15 flows over Lower and Middle Silurian limestones and Corydon soils (McFarlan 1943). Bot- tom materials are gravel and rubble with occasional outcroppings of bedrock. This section is characterized by numerous pools up to 5 m wide, 20 m long, and 1 m deep connected by fast-flowing riffles. A few small farms border the stream between Stations 12 and 15, but, although there are several private homes along the creek, the area has not been developed exten- sively. In its upper 10 km (Stations 16-23), the stream flows over bedrock of Middle De- vonian limestone and Lower and Middle Silurian shales, limestones, and shaley lime- stones (McFarlan 1943). In most places, the stream is no more than a few centi- meters deep with occasional gravel bot- tomed pools up to 0.5 m deep. Above Sta- tion 15, urban development has increased rapidly in the past 20 years. U. S. Geo- logical Survey maps (corrected in 1950) showed fewer than 100 homes and build- ings within 1 km of Goose Creek. By 1971, the number of homes and buildings within 1 km of the creek had increased to more than 300 with an additional 1,000 new buildings within the drainage basin. Although the stream bed at Stations 16- 23 had not been changed greatly, it now flows in and around numerous apartment complexes, back yards, schools, and small parks. Though many of the private homes are 20 to 30 years old, most of the schools and apartment complexes have been con- structed within the past 10 years. To handle wastes from this developing area, 2 municipal sewage treatment plants and 19 package treatment plants were empty- ing their effluents into Goose and Little Goose creeks as of late 1972. There is little aquatic vegetation along most sections of Goose Creek, though many of the pools are lined with duckweed Lemna minor during late summer. The major components of the benthic inverte- brate fauna consist of Lirceus spp. and Asellus militaris (Isopoda); Gammarus sp. and Crangonyx sp. (Amphipoda); Baetis spp. and Stenonema spp. (Ephemeroptera); 4§ TABLE 1.—PHyYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF GOOSE CREEK AT STATIONS 2, TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) NUMBER OF SAMPLES IN PARENTHESES Station 2 Range Mean Discharge (m*/sec ) aa od Turbidity (SiO. ppm) 17—145 34 (11) Conductivity (umho/em) 275-410 350 (8) pH 6.2-7.8 — (8) Total hardness ( ppm ) 132-168 150 (8) Total alkalinity (ppm) 82-125 98 (8) Dissolved oxygen (% sat) 56-72 —— (14) Calcium ( ppm) 32.2-44.8 386.8 (8) Magnesium (ppm) 9.1-18.6 12.1 (8) Iron (ppm) — 0.0 (1) Sulfate (ppm) 8.0=75:0) *24.0 (8) Nitrate (ppm) 0521 ast (8) Nitrite (ppm) 0.00-0.08 0.01 (8) Chlorine (ppm ) 0.0-tr 0.0 (8) Total phosphate (ppm) 1.0-5.2 3.6 (8) 5-28 13.6 (21) Temperature (°C) t Cheumatopsyche spp. (Trichoptera); Sim- ulium vittatum and several genera of Chi- ronomidae (Diptera); Stenelmis sexlineata (Coleoptera); and Physa integra, Sphae- rium spp., and Corbicula manilensis (Mol- lusca). Though occasional shells of Ano- donta grandis were noted, no live unionids were found. A summary of the physical and chemical characteristics of Goose Creek is given in Table 1. The discharges from tributaries and effluents during 1972 were composed primarily of ground water, with more than half the volume coming from 18 major trib- utary springs. In the period of lowest re- corded flow (17 August 1972), approxi- mately a third of the total discharge at Station 9 was estimated to come from the municipal and package sewage treatment plants. Because Station 2 is in the back- water of the Ohio River, discharge could not be measured satisfactorily. The net flow in the backwater is quite small and results in stagnation during the summer. Most chemical properties are well within the ranges given for other streams in this area of Kentucky (Minckley 1963, Neff and Krumholz 1973, Krumholz and Neff 1975). Except in the backwater, oxygen levels were at or above saturation. Levels of nitrites, nitrates, and total phosphates 9: AND lb: Station 9 Station 15 Range Mean Range Mean 0.14-0.68 0.30 (10) 0.06-0.38 0.12 (4) 9-140 25 (11) 15-298 145 (4) 380-475 430 (8) 380-440 400 (4) 7.0-7.6 — (8) 7.2-7.6 — (4) 140-200 175 (8) 120-183 170 (4) 129-168 152 (8) 140-168 152 (4) 100-140 — (14) 100-108 — (4) 40.5-55.0 50.2 (8) 40.2-48.1 45.2 (4) 10.2-17.9 15.6 (8) 6.1-15.3 11.5 (4) —— 0.3 (1) — 0.6 (1) 6.0-67.0 23.0 (8) 27.3-73.2 44.5 (4) 5.0-214.3 47.6 (8) 6.5-250.0 68.7 (4) 0.00-1.60 0.31 (8) 0.038-2.19 0.77 (4) 0.0-0.5 0.2 (8) 0.2-0.8 0.5 (4) 1.8-19.5 8.3 (8) 3.7-23.7 9.1 (4) 4-25 13.0 (21) 6-22 14.0 (4) occasionally were quite high because of inefficient operation of one or more treat- ment plants; however, no fish kills were reported or observed. The stream always is slightly turbid and colored. After each rain, the turbidity in- creases rapidly, particularly at Station 15 because of construction along the upper portions of Goose Creek. The distribution of water temperatures for Goose Creek at Stations 2, 9, and 15 are shown in Fig. 2. The springs keep the water temperature below air tempera- ture in the summer and rarely is there ice during winter. The temperatures at Station 2 reflect the temperatures of the Ohio River, i.e., elevated in summer as a result of little net flow. 20 WATER TEMPERATURE °C “T Jan Tres "mar | apr! may | un ' oul! aus ' sep ' oct ' nov bec! 1972 Fic. 2. Water temperatures of Goose Creek, Jef- ferson County, Kentucky, during 1972: Station 2 ( ), Station 9 (———) and Station 15 (x).]| FisHes OF GoosE CREEK, KENTUCcKy—White et al. 49 ANNOTATED List OF FISHES Sixty-three species representing 37 gen- era and 15 families of fishes were collected. The following list includes the species from Goose Creek and 2 species collected only from Little Goose Creek. Those marked with an asterisk (*) were taken also in the 1958 collection (UL 9228) from Sta- tion 2, and all species taken then were collected during this study. LEPISOSTEIDAE Lepisosteus osseus. Longnose gar.—Small specimens up to 200 mm _ occasionally taken from lower stations. Most abundant in early fall. Adults abundant in Ohio River but rarely enter Goose Creek. Lepisosteus platostomus. Shortnose gar.— One 320-mm adult taken in fall from back- water area. ANGUILLIDAE Anguilla rostrata. American eel.—One large specimen netted after being injured by boat. CLUPEIDAE Alosa chrysochloris. Skipjack herring.— Large specimens occasionally taken from backwater area. Common in Ohio River but rarely enters Goose Creek. Dorosoma cepedianum. Gizzard shad*.— Abundant from Stations 1 to 15. Both an immigrant from the Ohio River and a per- manent resident in Goose Creek. Large schools containing several hundred young of the year often seen. In fall, schools of several hundred adults enter Goose Creek from the Ohio River to forage in the lower reaches of the stream. ESOCIDAE Esox americanus vermiculatus. Grass pick- erel—Two small specimens taken from backwater area. CYPRINIDAE Campostoma anomalum. Stoneroller.— Present in most collections from Stations 9 to 20. Most abundant in deeper pools from Stations 9 to 15. Breeding not ob- served anywhere in the stream, but tuber- culate males had freely flowing milt until until. early June. Carassius auratus. Goldfish—Occasionally taken from backwater area. One large specimen weighed over 6 kg. Cyprinus carpio. Carp*.—Abundant in lower reaches of stream. Large gravid fe- males entered from the Ohio River during early spring. Males rarely taken. A second population of 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old fish was present at Stations 13 to 16 in pools below major sewage effluents. Ericymba buccata. Silverjaw minnow.—Not abundant. Collected from pools at Sta- tions 9 to 15. Hybopsis storeriana. Silver chub*.—One specimen taken from backwater. Notemigonus crysoleucas. Golden shiner*. —Two specimens, one from Station 3 and another from Station 9. Notropis ardens. Rosefin shiner.—Occa- sional specimens taken from Stations 10 to 15. One male with tubercles and in breed- ing- coloration taken in early May. No breeding observed. Notropis atherinoides. Emerald shiner.— Most abundant fish in stream. Schools containing several thousand fish were pres- ent throughout the year. Numbers de- creased from Stations 1 to 9. Replaced at Station 9 by the bluntnose minnow. Notropis blennius. River shiner*.—Occa- sional immigrants from the Ohio River taken from backwater area. Notropis cornutus chrysocephalus. Striped shiner.—Occasional specimens taken from pools at Stations 9 to 15. Notropis spilopterus. Spotfin shiner.— Taken with, but not as abundant as, the rosefin or striped shiners. Notropis stramineus. Sand shiner.—One specimen taken from backwater area. Pimephales notatus. Bluntnose minnow*.— 50 TRANS. KeNTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2) Most abundant species above Station 9. Breeding observed in early May in tribu- tary to Station 15. Rhinichthys atratulus. Blacknose dace.— Abundant in riffles and tributaries at Sta- tions 13 to 16. Breeding observed in early June in shallow pools with sand and fine gravel. Semotilus atromaculatus. Creek chub.— Occasionally taken between Stations 9 and 16. Large, tuberculate males taken in early May but no spawning observed. CATOSTOMIDAE Carpiodes carpio. River carpsucker*.— Large specimens taken from backwater area. Very abundant in the Ohio River. Carpiodes cyprinus. Quillback.—Four spec- imens taken in backwater area. Catostomus commersoni. White sucker*.— Occasionally taken with golden redhorse and spotted sucker from Stations 1 to 9. Replaces those species above Station 9 where it is quite abundant. Breeding ob- served in late May over riffles at Stations 13, 14, and 15. Very tolerant of sewage effluents entering around those stations. Hypentelium nigricans. Northern hog sucker.—Very common in the riffles at Sta- tions 9 to 15. Breeding observed in early April. Young of the year abundant in shallow areas of pools by first of August. Ictiobus bubalus. Smallmouth buffalo.— Three large specimens taken from _back- water area. Ictiobus niger. Black buffalo.—sSeveral large specimens taken throughout the year from backwater area. Minytrema melanops. Spotted sucker*.— Most abundant catostomid at Stations 1 to 9. Often taken in association with golden redhorse and white sucker. Breeding ob- served in riffles at Station 9. Young do not leave breeding area until second or third year. Moxostoma anisurum. Silver redhorse.— One small specimen taken from backwater area. Moxostoma carinatum. River redhorse.— One large specimen taken from backwater area. Moxostoma duquesnei. Black redhorse.— Occasional large specimens taken at Sta- tions 1 to 5. Moxostoma erythrurum. Golden redhorse*. —Common in deeper pools at Stations 1 to 9. Most abundant below the log jams at Stations 4, 5, and 6. Breeding observed in early May in riffles at Station 9. ICTALURIDAE Ictalurus melas. Black bullhead*.—Com- mon in pools at Stations 9 to 15. Occa- sionally taken from backwater area. Ictalurus natalis. Yellow bullhead.—One large specimen taken from deep pool at Station 15. Ictalurus nebulosus. Brown bullhead.— Two specimens, one each at Stations 9 and 15. Ictalurus punctatus. Channel catfish.— Specimens up to 2 kg common in early spring at Stations 1 to 4. Most abundant when Ohio River rises. Noturus gyrinus. Tadpole madtom*.—Oc- | casionally taken with the brindled mad- © tom at Stations 2 to 9. | Noturus miurus. Brindled madtom.—Occa- sionally taken at Stations 2 to 9. Pylodictis olivaris. Flathead catfish.—One large specimen taken from backwater area. APHREDODERIDAE Aphredoderus sayanus. Pirate perch— Three specimens taken from backwater area. CYPRINODONTIDAE Fundulus notatus. Blackstripe topminnow~*. —Common from Stations 1 to 16. Most abundant in areas of little or no flow. Spec- imens were observed but not collected at FisHes oF GoosE CREEK, KENTucKy—White et al. 51 Stations 1 to 9 as this species is resistant to electrofishing gear. POECILIIDAE Gambusia affinis. Mosquitofish—Common throughout length of stream. Most abun- dant in patches of duckweed. PERCICHTHYIDAE Morone chrysops. White bass.—Several small specimens taken in early spring from backwater area. CENTRARCHIDAE Ambloplites rupestris. Rock bass.—Col- lected in deeper pools at Stations 2 to 15 but never abundant. Lepomis cyanellus. Green sunfish*.—Sev- eral large specimens taken at Stations 2 to 15. Lepomis gulosus. Warmouth*.—Taken in moderate numbers from deeper pools at Stations 2 to 15. Lepomis humilis. Orangespotted sunfish*. ' —Four specimens taken at Stations 2 to 5. Lepomis macrochirus. Bluegill*.—Very abundant and taken at all stations. Young of the year and adults present together around stumps, log jams, and undercut areas of the bank. Nests built and spawn- ing observed at Stations 9 to 16 in late June. Lepomis megalotis. Longear sunfish*.— Abundant and usually taken with blue- gill. Not found above Station 16. Fish active on nests; spawning observed at same time and in same pools as bluegill. Young of the year taken from backwater area in early August. Lepomis microlophus. Redear sunfish.— Occasionally taken at Stations 2 to 15 with bluegill and longear sunfish. Micropterus dolomieui. Smallmouth bass.— Five small specimens taken at backwater area. Micropterus punctulatus. Spotted bass*.— Several small specimens taken at Stations 2 to 9 with occasional specimens taken from deep pools at Stations 11 and 15. Not as abundant in backwater area where largemouth bass was dominant. Micropterus salmoides. Largemouth bass*. —Most common of the 3 blackbasses. Sev- eral up to 1.3 kg taken from backwater area. Found in deeper pools at Stations 1 to 15. Spawning observed at Stations 10 and 11 in early June. Pomoxis annularis. White crappie.—Occa- sional specimens taken at Stations 2 to 15. Pomoxis nigromaculatus. Black crappie— One large specimen taken from backwater area. PERCIDAE Etheostoma blennioides. Greenside darter. —Three specimens taken from Little Goose Creek. Etheostoma caeruleum. Rainbow darter. —Abundant in riffles at Stations 9 to 15. Breeding observed in deeper areas of riffles during late April. Etheostoma flabellare. Fantail darter*.— Most abundant of the darters. Present in the riffles at Stations 9 to 23. Males with breeding colors and tubercles present in April. Breeding not observed. Etheostoma nigrum. Johnny darter.—A few specimens taken from Little Goose Creek. Percina caprodes. Logperch.—Three large specimens taken from backwater area. Stizostedion canadense. Sauger.—A few small specimens taken from backwater area. Common in Ohio River. SCIAENIDAE Aplodinotus grunniens. Freshwater drum*. —Abundant in backwater area during spring. Several also taken at Stations 3 to SF COTTIDAE Cottus carolinae. Banded sculpin.—Five specimens taken from Little Goose Creek. Ot bo RIFFLE-POO BEDROCK 2 13 14 S/i6 I7 18 19 20 at 22 2 MA FLABELLARE RHINICHTHYS ATRATULUS | <=> Fic. 3. Distribution of the common fishes in Goose Creek, Jefferson County, Kentucky. Width of line represents relative abundance of a species but not relationships between species. DISCUSSION The fish populations of Goose Creek do not differ notably from those of other north-central Kentucky streams (Charles 1957, Turner 1959, Minckley 1963, Hoyt et al. 1970). Distribution and habitats of the species were similar to the descriptions by Forbes and Richardson (1920), Trautman (1957), and Minckley (1963); and all spe- cies collected in Goose Creek had been re- ported previously from Ohio River tribu- taries by Gerking (1945), Trautman (1957), Krumholz et al. (1962) and others. Physically, the stream can be divided into 4 distinct regions each with its charac- teristic species. Fig. 3 depicts the range and relative abundance of the more abun- dant fishes in each region of Goose Creek during 1972. Only Lepomis macrochirus and Gambusia affinis were collected at every station. Other than Dorosoma cepe- dianum and Notropis atherinoides, very few fish of any species were collected at Station 1. Boat traffic within that section of the creek and the wakes from barges and other boats on the Ohio River together with the extremely silty substrate was not favorable for either the stream or river fishes. The Trans. KeENtucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) large log jams at the foot of Station 2 pro- vided a good habitat for Cyprinus carpio and the larger Centrarchidae. The only sport fishing ever observed on Goose Creek was at Station 2 where many people fished from the River Road bridges and from the banks; however, no creel census was attempted. Of the 63 species in Goose Creek, 46 were collected in the backwater of Stations 1 and 2. Twenty of the 46 were recorded only from the backwater, most of which were waifs from the Ohio River including Morone chrysops, Pylodic- tis olivaris, Moxostoma carinatum, Ictiobus bubalus, and others. Above Station 2 there was a more orderly longitudinal succession of stream fishes. Most species were confined to or were most abundant in one particular region of the stream. Minytrema melanops and Mox- ostoma erythrurum were most numerous in Stations 1 to 6 and were replaced in the riffle—pool stations by Catostomus commer- soni and Hypentelium nigricans. The major predators of the pool stations, Micropterus punctulatus and M. salmoides, were re- placed in the riffle-pool region by Lepomis megalotis and L. gulosus. The most abun- dant species of the backwater and pool, Dorosoma cepedianum and Notropis ather- inoides, were replaced in the riffle—pools by Campostoma anomalum and Pimephales notatus. Only six of the 63 species were taken above Station 15. At the bedrock | stations, the water usually was too shallow — to support any but the smallest species (Fig. 3). The intrastream distribution of the Goose Creek fishes closely parallels what Minckley (1963) observed for Doe Run. The species collected in Goose Creek did not utilize the stream equally but can be divided artificially into 3 groups (Table 2): (1) fishes that completed their life cycle in Goose Creek, not normally found in the Ohio River except as waifs; (2) species with permanent populations in both Goose Creek and the Ohio River; and (3) those using Goose Creek during only cer- tain parts of the year or their life cycle. Noturus and some Ictalurus (bullheads) are FisHes OF GoosE CrEEK, KeENtucky—White et al. 53 TABLE 2.—CLASSIFICATION OF THE FISHES OF GOOSE CREEK AS INDICATED BY THEIR UTILIZATION OF THE STREAM: (1) THOSE COMPLETING THEIR LIFE CYCLE IN GOOSE CREEK AND NOT NORMALLY FOUND IN THE OHIO RIVER; (2) FISHES WITH PERMANENT POPULATIONS IN BOTH GOOSE CREEK AND THE Onto RIVER; AND (3) THOSE SPECIES USING GOOSE CREEK DURING ONLY PARTS OF THE YEAR OR OF THEIR LIFE CYCLE i 2 Esox americanus vermiculatus Campostoma anomalum Ericymba buccata Notropis ardens N. cornutus chrysocephalus N. spilopterus Pimephales notatus Rhinichthys atratulus Semotilus atromaculatus Catostomus commersoni Hypentelium nigricans Minytrema melanops Fundulus notatus Gambusia affinis Ambloplites rupestris Lepomis cyanellus L. gulosus Etheostoma blennioides E. caeruleum E. flabellare E. nigrum Percina caprodes Cottus carolinae Cyprinus carpio L. megalotis L. microlophus M. salmoides not included in the categories as we felt our collection methods did not sample their populations adequately. Group (1) is the characteristic stream fauna usually not taken in larger rivers (Trautman 1957, Forbes and Richardson 1920, Krumholz et al. 1962). Of the 63 species collected, 22 fell into this category. Most of them prefer the riffles or small pools between Stations 8 and 15; although, others such as Minytrema are backwater and pool fishes. Group (2) contains 11 of the 63 species. These are river and lake species found year round in the Ohio River and in the back- water and pool stations of Goose Creek. Even though they exist in great numbers in the Ohio River, most, particularly the Centrarchidae, return to a smaller stream to spawn. Group (3) is composed primarily of those fishes that have sporadic migrations into Goose Creek. As indicated in the Dorosoma cepedianum Carassius auratus Notropis atherinoides Moxostoma erythrurum Lepomis macrochirus Micropterus punctulatus Pomoxis annularis 3 Lepisosteus osseus L. platostomus Anguilla rostrata Alosa chrysochloris Hybopsis storeriana Notemigonus chrysoleucas Notropis blennius N. stramineus Carpiodes carpio C. cyprinus Ictiobus bubalus I. niger Moxostoma anisurum M. carinatum M. duquesnei Ictalurus punctatus Pylodictis olivaris Aphrododerus sayanus Morone chrysops Lepomis humilis Micropterus dolomieui Pomoxis nigromaculatus Stizostedion canadense Aplodinotus grunniens annotations, many were represented by 1 specimen or by a single collection, usually from the backwater; and thus, they might not be counted as true residents of the creek. At times, the transient species were quite numerous at Station 2. In the win- ter and spring, Group (3) species com- posed as much as 90 percent by weight of the total catch, the most abundant being Ictalurus punctatus and Aplodinotus grun- niens. The transient species utilized Goose Creek for spawning, seasonal foraging, pro- tection during periods of high water, and as a refuge for the young. Group (3) also includes many species that are not common in either Goose Creek or the Ohio River, e.g., Moxostoma anisurum and Aph- redoderus sayanus. With many of the species that spend their entire life cycles in Goose Creek, there were seasonal intrastream migrations, especially during spawning periods. This was most noticeable in the migrations of o4 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2) : X— Station not sampled | Number of Specimens ef a t Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr I9 7 May June July Aug Sep Sige. Fic. 4. Average number per month of adult Minytrema melanops taken in Stations 1 to 9 in Goose Creek, Jefferson County, Kentucky. Minytrema melanops (Fig. 4). While 1- and 2-year-old Minytrema were found through- out the year at Station 9, adults were pres- ent there only in the spring when they usually were absent from the lower pool stations. During the remainder of the year, the adults were most abundant at Stations 2 to 4. This pattern was similar for many Goose Creek species, though the times of migration varied greatly. TABLE 3.—NUMBER OF _ SPECIES, ESTIMATED WEIGHTS (KG/HA), AND ESTIMATED POPULATIONS AT 3 STATIONS ON GOOSE CREEK DURING 1972 Number of Station Month species kg/ha no/ha 2 Feb 8 355 8,490 Apr 10 265 8,250 Jul 10 190 8,180 Oct 9 180 4,270 9 Feb 1d 145 5,680 Apr 14 200 7,150 jul 10 130 6,900 Oct 10 110 4,800 15 Feb 7 65 3,920 Apr 10 80 4,720 Tul 7 9 700 Oct 5 6 660 Standing crops of the fishes from Goose Creek (Table 3) were calculated on the basis of the DeLury (1947) type estimates. Throughout the year, Station 2 had the greatest populations both in terms of num- bers and weights. The 355 and 265 kg/ha recorded for February and April reflect the immigration of Cyprinus carpio, Icta- lurus punctatus, and Aplodinotus grun- niens from the Ohio River. | Station 9 had its greatest populations of fishes in April and July. The high weight in April (200 kg/ha) resulted from the spawning migrations of Minytrema mela- nops and Moxostoma erythrurum compared to July when spawners were mainly cen- trarchids. Station 15, when sampled in February and April, had numerous schools of min- nows, darters, and small sunfishes. In spring 1972, Goose Creek above Station 15 (Westport Road) was channelized and received a tremendous amount of silt from the construction of an apartment complex. The pools, which originally were 0.5 to 1.0 m deep with gravel over bedrock bottoms, had been covered completely by 25 to 30 FIsHES OF GOOSE CREEK, cm of silt. Population estimates made in July and October 1972 showed a tremen- dous decrease in both the weights and numbers, although, most species previously collected were still present. The siltation eliminated all darters between Stations 12 and 16. The effects of numerous sewage treat- ment plants on Goose Creek have not been investigated adequately enough to allow more than speculation on their present role in the stream ecology. No fish kills were seen by us or were reported during the study period. Even though large amounts of untreated sewage periodically entered Goose Creek, oxygen levels except in the backwater area were always at or above 100 percent saturation (Table 1). At present levels, the amount of sewage entering Goose Creek may be aiding fish production. For the total stream, Goose Creek averaged 143 kg/ha of fish. This is higher than 90 kg/ha determined for the Salt River (Hoyt et al. 1970) and in general is higher than other north-central Kentucky streams cited by Charles (1957) and Turner (1959). LITERATURE CITED AMERICAN PuBLIC HEALTH AsSOCIATION. 1971. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 13th ed. Amer. Public Health Ass., Washington, D. C. 874 pp. BaiLey, R. M., J. E. Fircu, E. S. HERAxp, E. A. LACHNER, C. C. LinpsEy, C. R. RosBins, AND W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of common and scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada. 3rd ed. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 6:1—150. CHARLES, J. R. 1957. Final report on population manipulation studies in three Kentucky streams. Proc. Southeast. Ass. Game Fish Comm. 11:155-184. Ciay, W. M. 1962. A field manual of Kentucky fishes. Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frankfort, Ky. 147 pp. DeLury, D. B. 1947. On the estimation of bio- logical populations. Biometrics 3:145-167. Kentucky—White et al. 55 Eppy, S. 1969. How to know the freshwater fishes. Wm. C. Brown, Co., Dubuque, Iowa. 253 pp. ForBEs, S. A., AND R. E. RicHArpson. 1920. The fishes of Illinois. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv., Urbana, Ill. 358 pp. Gerkinc, S. D. 1945. The distribution of the fishes of Indiana. Invest. Ind. Lakes Streams 3:283-309. Horton, R. W. 1945. Erosional development of streams and their drainage basins; hydro- physical approach to quantitative morphol- ogy. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 56:275-370. Hoyt, R. D., S. E. NeErr, anp L. A. KRUMHOLZ. 1970. An annotated list of the fishes from the upper Salt River, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 31:51-63. KruUMHOLZ, L. A., J. R. CHARLES, AND W. L. MINcKLEY. 1962. The fish population of the Ohio River. In: Aquatic life resources of the Ohio River. Ohio River Valley Water Sanit. Comm., Cincinnati, Ohio. 218 pp. KrRuMHOLZz, L. A., AND S. E. Nerr. 1975. Abate- ment of pollution in Hite Creek, Jefferson and Oldham counties, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36:25-37. KuEHNE, R. A. 1962. A classification of streams, illustrated by fish distribution in an eastern Kentucky creek. Ecology 43:608-614. LarimoreE, R. W., L. DuRHAM, AND G. W. BEN- NETT. 1950. A modification of the electric fish shocker for lake work. J. Wildl. Manage. 14:320-323. McFaruan, A. C. 1943. Geology of Kentucky. Univ. Ky. Press, Lexington, Ky. 531 pp. Minck Ey, W. L. 1963. The ecology of a spring stream, Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. Wildl. Monogr. 11:1—124. NerF, S. E., anp L. A. Krumuouz. 1973. A detailed investigation of the sociological, eco- nomic, and ecological aspects of proposed reservoir sites in the Salt River Basin of Ken- tucky. Univ. Ky. Water Res. Inst., Res. Rept. 67. 66 pp. ResH, V. H., R. D. Hoyt, ann S. E. Nerr. 1978. The status of the common shiner, Notropis cornutus chrysocephalus (Rafinesque), in Kentucky. Proc. Southeast. Ass. Game Fish Comm. 25:550-556. TuRNER, W. R. 1959. Pre-impoundment surveys of six Kentucky streams. Ky. Fish Bull. 24. 43 pp. TRAUTMAN, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio St. Univ. Press, Columbus, Ohio. 683 pp. Studies on the Passive Transfer via Serum of Immunity to Hymenolepis nana in the Mouse Mus musculus’ SHARON PATTON® Thomas Hunt Morgan School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ABSTRACT Five experiments were conducted to investigate the passive transfer via serum of immunity to Hymenolepis nana in the white mouse. Serum collected from mice that received 5,000 H. nana eggs by mouth 14 days before bleeding (Type I serum) was used in 3 experiments. Serum collected on Day 28 from mice that received 1,000 eggs on Day 0 and 10,000 eggs on Day 14 (Type I serum) was used in the fourth experiment. Serum collected on Day 42 from mice that received 1,000 eggs on Day 0, 5,000 eggs on Day 14, and 10,000 eggs on Day 28 (Type III serum) was used in the fifth experiment. The sera were injected intraperitoneally into 6- to 8-week-old mice, and the recipients were challenged orally with 10,000 eggs. Control mice were challenged after the injection of normal serum. Fewer cysticercoids developed in the mice treated with 1 ml of Type I serum immediately prior to the administration of eggs than in controls injected with normal serum before egg administration. The duration of the protection afforded by Type I serum lasted less than 6 hours and was not prolonged by increasing the amount of serum injected to 2 ml. The injection of Type II and Type III serum extended the protective period to 35 days. The extended period of resistance from Type II and Type III sera suggests an anamnestic response following a second exposure to eggs. The transient nature of the pro- tection indicated that the passive resistance probably was antibody mediated. INTRODUCTION Hymenolepis nana, the dwarf tapeworm of man and rodents, is an exception among cestodes in that it does not require an inter- mediate host although it may utilize one in an alternate indirect life cycle (see Heyneman 1962a for a review). Eggs in- gested directly by the vertebrate host hatch in the duodenum and release onchospheres that invade the mucosal lining and develop into cysticercoids in the intestinal villi. The cysticercoids become fully developed in 96 hours, begin leaving the villi at approx- imately 102 hours, migrate into the ileum, evaginate, attach, and develop into mature worms. When an infection is induced by eggs, a tissue invasive stage is involved and host resistance to reinfection is acquired. An infection of just 200 to 500 eggs can elicit a lasting immunity, which is first discern- 1From a dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Kentucky in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 2Present address: Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506. 36 ible 9 hours after initial infection, marked at 12 hours, and practically absolute after 24 hours (Hearin 1941). White mice were resistant to a challenge of H. nana eggs after intraperitoneal in- jections of serum from experimentally in- fected donors (Hearin 1941). It is not clear if this actually demonstrated passive — transfer of immunity because the persis- tence of the protection was not investi- gated. Weinmann (1966) reported that serum from infected mice had varying degrees of protection against oral chal- lenges of H. nana eggs. A humoral basis for the immunity was demonstrated by DiConza (1969) when he found that serum from mice infected with H. nana contained IgG (7S) immunoglobulin fraction which had a strong antiparasitic activity against subcutaneously injected, growing H. nana larvae. The sera of mice that received a single oral injection of eggs acquired sig- nificant immune activity within 7 days; the maximum level was reached at 14 days and maintained until Day 28. The present PASSIVE TRANSFER OF IMMuUNITY—Patton 504 study was conducted to evaluate further the role of serum in the immunity to H. nana in mice and to measure the duration of the passively transferred protection. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank the Graduate School of the Uni- versity of Kentucky for financial assistance in the form of a Dissertation Year Fellow- ship and a research grant during the last year of this research. Special thanks and appreciation are extended to Professor J. M. Edney, School of Biological Sciences, for his suggestions and encouragement throughout the study. Also, I am grateful to Dr. J. H. Drudge, Department of Vet- erinary Science, for advice concerning the preparation of the manuscript. MATERIALS AND METHODS A breeding colony of Swiss albino mice was purchased from Maxfield Supply, Cin- cinnati, Ohio, established, and maintained under Hymenolepis free conditions. Only those animals negative for H. nana, as de- termined by fecal examinations over a 6- week period, were used to establish the initial colonies. The experimental mice were isolated from the colonies when ap- proximately one month old. Initial infections of mature tapeworms were established from an exogenous source of H. nana eggs secured from Carolina Biological Supply Co., Burlington, N. C.; thereafter, hosts with patent infections of worms were killed to obtain eggs. Desired numbers of eggs for administration to ex- perimental animals were prepared by Hey- nemen’s (1962a) egg dilution count. Eggs were administered to the animals via stom- ach tube while mice were lightly anes- thetized with ether. Cysticercoids that developed in the small intestine of infected mice were counted by the method of Hun- ninen (1935). The following nonpara- metric statistical tests were used to deter- mine the significance of the observed differences in the numbers of cysticercoids recovered from the serum treated and the nontreated groups: (1) Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test (Wilcoxon et al. 1963) when compar- ing 2 groups, (2) Kruskal-Walis One-Way Analysis of Variance for Ranks (Spence et al. 1968) when comparing more than 2 groups, and (3) Dunn Multiple Compari- son Test for Rank Sums (Dunn 1964). Serum was obtained from blood drawn from mice by cardiac extravasation. Blood was allowed to clot at room temperature for 1 to 3 hours and the serum separated by centrifugation at 2,500 rpm for 10 min. Serum from within a group of mice was pooled and frozen at —20 C without pre- servatives. Before inoculation the serum was thawed and mixed thoroughly. Serum was collected from mice 14 days after an initial infection of eggs or 14 days after a challenge dose of eggs was admin- istered. Three schedules for drawing blood were coordinated with administration of H. nana eggs: (1) Type I serum was derived from blood collected on Day 14 from mice that received 5,000 eggs on Day 0, (2) Type II serum was prepared from blood collected on Day 28 from mice that re- ceived 1,000 eggs on Day 0 and 10,000 eggs on Day 14, (3) Type III serum was prepared from blood collected on Day 42 from mice that received 1,000 eggs on Day 0, 5,000 eggs on Day 14, and 10,000 eggs on Day 28. Uninfected mice were bled to provide normal sera. The sera were injected intraperitoneally into 6- to 8-week-old mice. Those mice received an oral challenge of 10,000 eggs at various specified times following serum injection. Control mice were challenged after injection of normal serum. Ninety- six hours after the challenge doses of eggs were administered, cysticercoids in each group were counted as an index of the manifestation of the immune response. Experimental Design for Type I Serum In Experiment A, 3 groups of 5 mice each were used. Each mouse received 1 ml of serum. Type I serum was inoculated into the mice of Groups 1 and 2, and normal serum was injected into Group 3 mice. Eggs were administered to the mice of Groups | and 3 immediately after injection of serum and to the mice of Group 2, 6 hours after inoculation of serum. 58 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) 500 cc = Challenge Controls 400 Mean Number Of Cysticercoids ores oe Gace, Oe ExperimentA deeee sedans sttee 6 ce Experiment C 0) 6 Hours Between Final Serum Inoculation And Egg Challenge Fic. 1. Effect of intraperitoneal injection of Type I serum on the number of H. nana cysticercoids developing in the intestinal villi of white mice following a 10,000-egg challenge. In Experiment B, 4 groups of 5 mice each were used. Each mouse was inoculated with 2 ml of serum. Type I serum was ad- ministered to the mice of Groups 1, 2, and 3, and normal serum was administered to the mice of Group 4. Eggs were admin- istered to the mice of Groups 1 and 4 im- mediately after injection of serum; to the mice of Group 2, 6 hours after injection of serum; and to the mice of Group 3, 12 hours after injection of serum. In Experiment C, 4 groups of 5 mice each were used. Each mouse was injected with 0.5 ml of serum on successive days. Group 1 mice received 2 injections of Type I serum; Group 2 mice received 3 injections of Type I serum; Group 3 mice received 4 in- jections of Type I serum; and Group 4 mice received 4 injections of normal serum. Eggs were administered 6 hours after the last dose of serum to the mice of all groups. Experimental Design for Type II Serum In Experiment D, 12 groups of 10 mice each were used. One-half of the mice were injected with 1-ml amounts of Type II serum and the other half were inoculated with 1-ml amounts of normal serum. Eggs were administered immediately, 12 hours, 1, 3, 7, 10, 12,14; 21, 28::353;eneeeays after sera were injected. Experimental Design for Type III Serum In Experiment E, 3 groups of 10 mice each were used. One-half of the mice were injected with l-ml amounts of Type III serum and the other half were inoculated with 1-ml amounts of normal serum. Eggs were administered 28, 35, or 42 days after the sera were injected. RESULTS In Experiment A, there was a significant difference in the number of cysticercoids that developed among the 3 groups (P = 0.01). Fewer cysticercoids developed in those treated with the Type I serum im- mediately prior to egg inoculation (Fig. 1). The protective effect lasted less than 6 hours (P = 0.1). PASSIVE TRANSFER OF IMMuUNITY—Patton 59 200 140 . Normal Serum Mean Number Of Cysticercoids 3 i=] a0 Type Ii Serum Ont 3 7 10 12 14 21 28 35 42 Number Of Days Between Serum Injection And Egg Inoculation Fic. 2. Effect of intraperitoneal injection of 1l-ml doses of Type II serum on the number of H. nana cysticercoids developing in white mice after a 10,000-egg challenge at intervals during a 42-day period after serum injection (Experiment D). Similarly, in Experiment B there was a significant difference in the numbers of cysticercoids that developed among the 4 groups of mice (P = 0.01). Fewer cysti- cercoids developed in the mice of Group 1 which were treated with Type I serum and inoculated with eggs immediately thereafter (P = 0.1). As shown in Fig. 1, the number of cysticercoids was reduced in the group of mice given eggs 6 hours after the injection of serum; however, this was not statistically significant (P = 0.1). The number of cysticercoids that de- veloped in the mice of the 4 groups of Ex- periment C were not significantly different (P = 0.1); therefore, the multiple injections were not effective against the H. nana challenge (Fig. 1). The mean numbers of cysticercoids that developed in each group of mice of Ex- periment D are shown in Fig. 2. The num- bers of cysticercoids in the animals injected with Type II serum and inoculated with eggs immediately to 28 days later were significantly fewer than the numbers in the control animals that received eggs at the same time intervals after the injection of normal serum (P = 0.01). Although still detectable, that difference was not as marked at 35 days (P = 0.1), and had disappeared by 42 days (P = 0.1) (Fig. ra The mean numbers of cysticercoids that developed in each group of mice of Ex- periment E are shown in Fig. 3. A similar number of cysticercoids developed in each group that received the normal serum (P = 0.1), but there was a significant difference among groups that received the Type III serum (P = 0.01). Fewer cysticercoids developed in the animals treated with Type III serum 28 days (P = 0.01) and 35 days (P = 0.1) prior to the administration eggs than in the corresponding control groups. There was not, however, a significant dif- ference between the numbers of cysticer- coids that developed in the 2 42-day groups Ost.) DISCUSSION Type I serum collected from donor white mice 14 days after an initial dose of eggs and injected intraperitoneally into homol- ogous recipients was effective for less than 6 hours in decreasing the number of cysti- cercoids that developed following a chal- 60 TRANS. KeENTuCcKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) MEAN NUMBER OF CYSTICERCOIDS DAYS BETWEEN SERUM INJECTION AND EGG INOCULATION KS NORMAL SERUM [a TYPE II| SERUM Fic. 3. Effect of intraperitoneal injection of 1-ml doses of Type III serum on the number of H. nana cysticercoids developing in white mice after a 10,000-egg challenge at intervals during a 42-day period after serum injection (Experiment E). lenge dose of eggs. The protective value of Type I serum was transient and so low that daily injection of 0.5 ml was inef- fective. One ml of the serum was a suf- ficient quantity to protect mice against a challenge exposure of 10,000 eggs. Both Type II and Type III sera, collected after additional challenge doses of eggs, extended the period of protection to 35 days, and the protection was dissipated gradually. The increased efficacy of these sera suggest an anamnestic response fol- lowing a second exposure to eggs. The prolonged period of protection and the decrease in total numbers of cysticercoids developing in the animals treated with Type II or Type III sera as compared to the recipients of Type I serum indicates that the former response could occur in naturally acquired immunity against H. nana. Hearin (1941) transferred resistance against a challenge dose of H. nana eggs to susceptible mice by prior injection of them with multiple doses of serum from infected white mice. The persistence of the protection was not investigated; so it is possible that the immunity demonstrated was stimulated by antigen (penetration or metabolic enzymes of the worm) trans- ferred with the serum, rather than a pas- sive resistance related to the antibodies present. In the present investigations, the rapid onset of the protection after the in- jection of the sera and the transient nature of the protection confirmed that immunity against H. nana can be transferred pas- sively with serum from infected mice. Weinmann (1966) found the protection afforded by serum from infected mice to be variable in passive transfer experiments; however, the interval between the infection of the donor mice and the collection of their blood varied from 2 to 6 weeks rather than the 14-day interval indicated by Di- Conza (1969). Serum injected into the peritoneal cav- ities of mice should reach the circulation by way of lymphatics in a very short period of time (Weiss 1972). In the present study, it is presumed that the time necessary for the protective factors of the immune serum to reach the intestinal area was compatible with the time it took the eggs to hatch and the onchospheres to reach the intestinal villi. In active immunity acquired by in- fection, the majority of onchospheres in a second dose of eggs are unable to pene- trate the intestinal villi (Bailey 1951). Ac- cording to Weinmann (1966), immune serum also inhibits the onchosphere at the mucosal surface, presumably by extravasa- tion of passively transferred antibody into the intestinal lumen or by adsorption of the antibody onto the tissues of the host. Therefore, the protective property of the serum would have to be present within at least the first 12 hours after the admin- istration of eggs. The half-life of IgG, IgA, and IgM is on the order of 4, 1.2, and 0.5 days, re- spectively (Fahey and Sell 1965). If, indeed, the protection observed in the pres- ent investigations was due to antibody, the titer of Type I serum was low, as indicated by the fact that the protection had dis- PASsIvE TRANSFER OF IMMuUNITY—Patton 61 appeared in 6 hours. Shorter time periods were not tested, so the exact duration of the protection is unknown. Increasing the amount of serum injected from 1 ml to 2 ml did not prolong the period of protection; however, a higher dose of eggs was not tested, and it is possible that an increased amount of serum would prevent the de- velopment of larger doses of eggs. In a naturally acquired infection, rein- fection immunity may be detected by 12 hours and become very strong by 24 hours (Hearin 1941; Bailey 1951; Weinmann 1958; Heyneman 1962a, 1962b). This rapid onset seems to obfuscate the role of antibody in the initial onset of naturally acquired immunity. Twelve hours may be insufficient time for a detectable antibody response. Heyneman (1962b) proposed that detection of rapid antibody production in serum is delayed by the large dilution factor, but in cases where the intestinal mucosa is directly challenged in the ab- sence of a blood borne transport mecha- nism, a 12- to 24-hour period may be possible. Okamoto (1970) and Okamoto and Koi- zumi (1972) demonstrated that the thymus was involved in the development of ac- quired immunity to H. nana. Levine and Claman (1970) indicated that more than one cell type was necessary for at least some of the antibody responses in the mouse. The present study shows that pro- tective humoral factors (possibly protec- tive antibody) are present in mice follow- ing H. nana infection. Although antibodies may not be the major agent working against H. nana challenge in naturally occurring infections, a T-cell-dependent antibody re- sponse is possible and should be investi- gated further. LITERATURE CITED BaiLey, W. S. 1951. Host—tissue reactions to ini- tial and superimposed infections with Hyme- nolepis nana var. fraterna. J. Parasitol. 37: 440-444, DiConza, J. J. 1969. Protective action of pas- sively transferred immune serum and immu- noglobulin fractions against tissue invasive stages of the dwarf tapeworm, Hymenolepis nana. Exp. Parasitol. 25:368—375. Dunn, O. J. 1964. Multiple comparisons using rank sums. Technometrics 6:241—252. FaHeEy, J. L., anpD S. SELL. 1965. The immuno- globulins of mice. V. The metabolic (cata- bolic) properties of five immunoglobulin classes. J. Exp. Med. 122:41—58. Hearin, J. T. 1941. Studies on the acquired immunity to the dwarf tapeworm, Hymenol- epis nana var. fraterna in the mouse host. Amer. J. Hyg. 33:71-87. HEYNEMAN, D. 1962a. Studies on helminth im- munity: I. Comparison between lumenal and tissue phases of infection in the white mouse by Hymenolepis nana (Cestoda: Hymeno- lepididae). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 11:46- 63. 1962b. Studies on helminth immu- nity. IV. Rapid onset of resistance by the white mouse against a challenging infection with eggs of Hymenolepis nana (Cestoda: Hymenolepididae). J. Immunol. 88:217—220. HuNNINEN, A. V. 1935. A method of demon- strating cysticercoids of Hymenolepis fraterna (H. nana var. fraterna Stiles) in the intes- tinal villi of mice. J. Parasitol. 21:124—125. LEvINE, M. A., anp H. N. Cuaman. 1970. Bone marrow and spleen: dissociation of immuno- logic properties by cortisone. Science 167: 1515-1517. Oxamoto, K. 1970. Hymenolepis nana: depres- sion and restoration of acquired immunity in neonatally thymectomized. mice. Exp. Parasitol. 27:28-32. , AND M. Koizumi. 1972. Hymenolepis nana: effect of antithymocyte serum on ac- quired immunity in mice. Exp. Parasitol. 32: 56-61. SPENCE, J. T., B. J. UNDERWOOD, C. P. DUNCAN, AND J. W. Corron. 1968. Elementary Sta- tistics. 2nd Ed. Meredith Corporation, Edu- cational Division, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, N.Y. 245 pp. WEINMANN, C. J. 1958. Rate of development of acquired immunity to Hymenolepis nana var. fraterna. J. Parasitol. 44:16 (Ab). 1966. Immunity mechanisms in ces- tode infections. Pp. 301-320 In E. J. L. Soulsby (Ed.). Biology of Parasites. Aca- demic Press, New York, N.Y. 354 pp. Weiss, L. 1972. The Cells and Tissues of the Immune System. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle- wood Cliffs, N.J. 252 pp. Wiuicoxon, F., R. A. Wincox, AND S. K. Katt. 1963. Critical Values and Probability Levels for the Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test and the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test. American Cy- anamid Co. and The Florida State University, New York, N. Y., and Tallahassee, Fla. 64 pp. Pathology in Mice Resulting from Concurrent Infestations with the Bile Duct Dwellers Fasciola hepatica (Trematoda) and Hymenolepis microstoma (Cestoda)' Larry N. GLEASON® Department of Parasitology and Laboratory Practice, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514 ABSTRACT Concurrent infestations in white mice were established using infesting doses of 2 Fasciola hepatica metacercariae and 10 Hymenolepis microstoma cysticercoids. In Sequence I, F. hepatica were given on Day 0 and H. microstoma on Day 37. H. microstoma were given on Day 0 in Sequence II followed by F. hepatica on Day 20. In Sequence III, the midacute phases of both infestations coincided, F. hepatica being given on Day 0 and H. microstoma on Day 15. Pathologies previously described for each infestation were observed in the mice of the concurrent infestation groups and in mice of the single species control groups. In Sequence I, 2 additional pathologies were observed in mice of the concurrent infestation group: (1) the eggs of F. hepatica were found in the tissues of the mice and (2) the generalized necrosis in the liver associated with the acute phase of infestation with F. hepatica (18-35 days after infestation) was reestablished on Day 60 and continued through Day 120. In Sequence II, the generalized necrosis in the livers of mice of the concurrent infestation group continued through Day 90, 70 days after the infestation with F. hepatica. One mouse of the concurrent infestation group in Sequence III was observed to have the eggs of F. hepatica in the liver and biliary tissues. INTRODUCTION Extensive pathology in the liver is asso- ciated with the infestation of mice by 2 bile duct dwellers, the trematode Fasciola he- patica and the cestode Hymenolepis micro- stoma. The pathology resulting from the obligatory liver migration by the trematode and its subsequent inhabitation of the com- mon bile duct have been the subject of numerous reports in the literature and have been summarized by Lang (1966, 1967). Lang (1966) divided the course of a pri- mary infestation with F. hepatica in mice resulting from a 2-worm infesting dose into 3 phases: (1) the incubation phase (0-17 days after infestation), (2) the acute phase (18-35 days after infestation), and (3) the chronic with repair phase (36-250 days +A portion of a dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the University of North Carolina in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Parasitology and Laboratory Practice, 1969. * Present address: Department of Biology, West- ern Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 after infestation). During the incubation phase, damage to liver tissue was a direct result of mechanical trauma caused by the migrating worms. Severe liver damage and some mortality were associated with the acute phase of the infestation. Generalized necrosis was present in large areas of the liver and from 30-90 percent of the liver appeared necrotic. The necrosis was asso- ciated with lymphocytic infiltrations that were not, generally, located near worm burrows. The chronic phase of the infesta- tion was initiated by the migration of the worms from the liver tissue into the com- mon bile duct. Damaged liver tissue was replaced by regenerated parenchyma and connective tissue. However, the lympho- cytic infiltration was maintained. Although the life cycle of the cestode does not involve a liver migration, the in- habitation of the common bile duct results in extensive liver damage through the re- lease of a toxin by the worms (Simpson and Gleason 1975), and published reports dealing with the pathology associated with the infestation of mice are numerous. These 62 PATHOLOGY IN MICE FROM PARASITIC INFESTATION—Gleason 63 oe rs ~~ oe « menolepis microstoma. Fig. 1. Generalized necrosis in the liver on Day 90. Many lymphocytes are present at the periphery of the necrotic area and in the sinusoids. 140. Fig. 2. Eggs of F. hepat- ica trapped in serous exudate at region where the epithelial lining of the common bile duct has been eroded away (Day 50). x140. Fig. 3. Eggs of F. hepatica in the tissue of the common bile duct on Day 70. x140. Fig. 4. Eggs of F. hepatica in the wall of the cystic duct on Day 80. 140. 64 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2) have been summarized by Gleason (1971). Gleason (1971) divided the course of a primary infestation with H. microstoma in mice resulting from a 10-worm infesting dose into 3 phases: (1) incubation phase (0-6 days after infestation), (2) acute phase (7-20 days after infestation), and (3) chronic phase (21-150 days after in- festation). During the incubation phase, there was very little damage to the liver. The acute phase was initiated by the rapid formation of focal lesions in the paren- chyma of the liver. Those lesions were characterized by degenerated hepatic cells surrounded by infiltrating leukocytes, pre- dominantly neutrophils. During the chronic phase of the infestation, focal lesions were still formed, but apparently at a reduced rate, allowing repair processes to keep pace with lesion formation. This study presents some _ additional pathology in mice that results from con- current infestation with F. hepatica and H. microstoma and variation in the pathology related to sequence and timing of the infestations. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the faculty of the Department of Para- sitology and Laboratory Practice through- out this study. Special thanks are due Dr. James R. Hendricks for his guidance, en- couragement, and criticism. Dr. Bruce Z. Lang was instrumental in the selection of the problem and his advice and encourage- ment are gratefully acknowledged. Mr. Merlin D. Gleason supplied the original source of Fasciola hepatica. MATERIALS AND METHODS The Swiss white mice used in this study were males, 15-16 weeks old at the begin- ning of the experiments, from a randomly bred strain maintained in the Department of Parasitology and Laboratory Practice, University of North Carolina, for more than 30 years. The stock of F. hepatica was isolated from a naturally infested. cow in northern California and maintained in the laboratory as described by Lang (1966). The stock of H. microstoma was originally obtained from Dr. Arthur Jones, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, and maintained in the laboratory as described by Litchford (1963). In Sequence I, an infestation with H. microstoma was imposed upon a patent infestation with F. hepatica. Each of the 64 mice of the concurrent infestation group and the 32 mice of the F. hepatica control group received 2 metacercariae of F. hepat- ica by mouth on Day 0. On Day 37, each of the mice remaining in the concurrent infestation group and the 16 mice of the H. microstoma single species control group received 10 cysticercoids of H. microstoma by mouth. One mouse from each group was killed to obtain tissues for histologic preparations on the days indicated: con- current infestation group—Days 37, 44, 48, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, and 120; F. he- patica single species control group—Days 20, 30, 50, 80, and 120; and H. microstoma single species control group—Days 50 and 120. During this experimental sequence and those reported below, some mice died as a result of the infestations and some mice were killed to determine worm num- ber, size, and location, as previously re- ported by Gleason (1974). In Sequence II, an infestation with F. hepatica was imposed upon a patent in- festation with H. microstoma. The 40 mice of the concurrent infestation group and the 24 mice of the H. microstoma single species control group each received 10 cysticer- coids of H. microstoma on Day 0. Two metacercariae of F. hepatica were given to each of the mice in the concurrent infesta- tion group and the 32 mice in the F. hepat- ica single species control group on Day 20. One mouse from each group was killed to obtain tissues for histologic preparations on the days indicated: concurrent infestation group—Days 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 90, and 100; H. microstoma single species con- trol group—Days 20, 40, 60, and 100; and F. hepatica single species control group— Days 40, 45, 50, 60, and 100. The timing of the infestations in Se- quence III was such that the acute phases PATHOLOGY IN MICE FROM PARASITIC INFESTATION—Gleason 65 of the infestations coincided. Two metacer- cariae of F. hepatica were given to each of 40 mice of the concurrent infestation group and 28 mice of the F. hepatica single spe- cies control group on Day 0. Ten cysticer- coids of H. microstoma were given to each mouse of the concurrent infestation group and 18 mice of the H. microstoma single species control group on Day 15. One mouse from each group was killed to obtain tissues for histologic preparations on the days indicated: concurrent infestation group—Days 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, and 100; F. hepatica single species control group—Days 20, 25, 35, and 100; and H. microstoma single species control group—Days 20, 30, 40, and 100. The tissue for histologic studies was pre- pared for microscopic examination using a microtome-cryostat as described by Glea- son (1971). RESULTS The pathologies in the livers of the F. hepatica and H. microstoma control mice in the 3 experiments were similar to those described previously for single species in- festations resulting from the same infesting doses (Lang 1966, Gleason 1971). In Sequence I, the mice of the concurrent infestation group were entering the chronic phase of the infestation with F. hepatica at the time the H. microstoma were given and the pathology in the liver was in the process of healing. The worm burrows were marked by heavy infiltrations of neutrophils and macrophages and the generalized necrosis could be distinguished by the concentration of lymphocytes in addition to the neutro- phils and macrophages. The acute phase of the infestation with H. microstoma, 6 to 20 days after infestation, occurred 43 to 57 days after the infestation with F. hepatica. At that time, focal lesions from the infesta- tion with H. microstoma could be clearly distinguished from pathology from the F. hepatica infestation by the predominance of neutrophils in the lesions, even though lymphocytes remained prevalent in the sinusoids of the liver. In addition to the pathology normally observed in single species infestations with these species of worms, 2 types of tissue damage were observed in Sequence I. One pathology observed only in the mice of the concurrent infestation group was the rein- statement of the generalized necrosis char- acteristic of the acute phase of the infesta- tion with F. hepatica. Small areas of the liver were first observed to be affected on Day 60. As the time of the concurrent in- festation lengthened, more of the liver was involved, until as much as 50 percent of the organ was necrotic on Day 100. That necrosis was associated with accumulations of lymphocytes in the liver parenchyma and the periphery of the necrotic zone (Fig. 1). Neutrophils were the most prevalent cells within the necrotic areas. A second type of pathology associated with the concurrent infestation was the presence of eggs of F. hepatica in the tissue of the mouse. At Day 50, eggs were first observed in intimate contact with the tissue of the common bile duct in areas where the epithelial lining had been sloughed off (Fig. 2). By Day 70, eggs were in the tis- sue of the wall of the common bile duct in these exposed areas (Fig. 3). At Day 80, eggs were observed in the tissues of the wall of the common bile duct, the wall of the cystic duct, the gall bladder, and in the liver itself (Figs. 4, 5). Later, eggs were observed in pancreatic ducts, lobular bile ducts, throughout the liver tissue, and some were encapsulated in the peritoneal cavity. The eggs had various degrees of cellular reactions around them. The infiltrating cells were a mixture of neutrophils (the dominant cell type), eosinophils, lympho- cytes, and macrophages (Fig. 6). In Sequence II, mice of the concurrent infestation group were entering the chronic phase of the infestation with H. microstoma at the time F. hepatica were given. At that time, focal lesions were common in the parenchyma of the liver, and leukocytes (predominantly neutrophils) were abun- dant in the sinusoids. Those conditions did not affect the liver migration of the F. he- patica and there was no reaction around the juvenile flukes. The onset of general- 66 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) Nae pref 7” ~ pe a : ASRS S toss char one > ~~ we tf * Pa ae Ne ss rt es © Ae 3 aAraxd menolepis microstoma. Fig. 5. Eggs of F. hepatica in a large pocket in the tissue of the liver, Day 80. <140. Fig. 6. Egg of F. hepatica in the wall of the common bile duct on Day 80. Note the concen- tric whorls of leukocytes around the egg. 360. ized necrosis in the livers of the mice of the concurrent infestation group was similar to that observed in the F. hepatica control mice. There was, however, a difference in the longevity of the necrosis. The general- ized necrosis was present in the livers of the mice of the concurrent infestation group on Day 90, 90 days after infestation with F. hepatica. The extension of generalized necrosis occurred even though the flukes had entered the common bile duct at the normal time for mice, 30 to 35 days after infestation. In Sequence III, the infestations with F. hepatica and H. microstoma were admin- istered so that the midacute phase of each infestation occurred on Day 25. At that time, numerous neutrophils and lympho- cytes were present in the sinusoids of the liver and generalized necrosis was wide- spread. The number of leukocytes ap- peared to be, at a minimum, totally addi- tive in response to the acute phase of each infestation. F. hepatica were observed in the common bile duct of the mice of the concurrent infestation group at that time, 5-10 days earlier than in mice of the F. hepatica control group. Eggs of F. hepatica were observed in the walls of lobular bile ducts and in the liver tissue of 1 mouse on Day 50. It was the only mouse in Sequence III in which that condition was observed, and the occurrence must have been irregular. The eggs were surrounded with infiltrating leukocytes in the same manner as previously described for Sequence I. DIscussION As expected, pathologies normally ob- served in infestations of mice with F. he- patica and H. microstoma were observed in concurrent infestations with those parasites during the present experiments. Individual pathologies occurred irrespective of the sequence or timing of the infestations as PATHOLOGY IN MICE FROM PaArRAsiITic INFESTATION—Gleason 67 independent functions of their initiators. Only in Sequence III was there any indica- tion that there might be a synergistic effect of the 2 infestations. In that case, the enor- mous increase in the number of leukocytes in the sinusoids of the liver in response to the synchronized acute phases may have been more than additive, but quantitative measurement of a response of that nature is difficult. The pathologies observed in concurrent infestations but not in single species control mice may have been related to a partial or complete blockage of the bile flow resulting from the worm mass of the combined in- festations in the common bile duct. Glea- son (1974) reported that when an infesta- tion with H. microstoma was imposed upon a patent infestation with F. hepatica, there was a shift of attachment sites of the ces- todes into the proximal region of the com- mon bile duct. That shift brought the scoleces of the cestodes and much of the strobila into intimate contact with the F. hepatica present in that region. The reinstatement or prolongation of generalized necrosis in livers of mice of the concurrent infestation groups of Sequence I and II was not as widespread as during the acute phase of an initial infestation with F. hepatica. However, it did affect large areas of the liver. It is probable that this pathology can be attributed to reduc- tion or stoppage of bile flow. Under those conditions, antigenic material present in bile from adult F. hepatica in the lumen of the common bile duct would back up into the liver through the intrahepatic ducts. In the liver, the antigenic material would come into contact with sensitized lympho- cytes that remain in the liver (Lang 1967). The reaction between the antigenic material and the sensitized lymphocytes would then induce the generalized necrosis. The second pathology present in livers of mice of the concurrent infestation group of Sequence I and one mouse of Sequence III, but not in the single species control mice, was the presence of eggs of F. hepat- ica in the tissue. That condition could have been caused by the accumulation of eggs in the proximal region of the common bile duct due to a decreased flow of bile. Once trapped in the proximal region, the eggs became entangled in the serous exudate at breaks in the epithelial lining of the com- mon bile duct and were later forced into the tissues through a combination of fluid pressure and mechanical pressure by the worms. Urquhart (1956) found eggs of F. hepat- ica in the hepatic and biliary tissues of rab- bits. He postulated that the eggs entered the tissues through breaks in the epithelial lining of the intrahepatic ducts caused by adult flukes. The eggs were found singly and in clusters, much the same as observed during the present experiments. In the rab- bit, however, adult F. hepatica were in the intrahepatic bile ducts, while in the mouse the flukes were in the proximal regions of the common bile duct. Thus, in rabbits, more eggs were found in the hepatic tissues. After the eggs entered the tissue, the reac- tion of the mouse to the eggs was similar to that described by Urquhart (1956) for rab- bits. The eggs were invaded by neutrophils, eosinophils, and macrophages. Later, a specific type of granuloma was produced when the eggs were surrounded by concen- tric whorls of neutrophils, macrophages, and fibroblasts. The failure to find eggs of F. hepatica in tissues of F. hepatica control mice, mice of the concurrent infestation in Sequence II, and rarely in mice of the concurrent in- festation in Sequence III, would indicate that the timing and sequence of infestation used in Sequence I provided the conditions necessary to force the eggs into the tissues. This probably is correlated with the find- ings of Gleason (1974) that there was no proximal shift in the attachment sites of H. microstoma when an infestation with F. hepatica was imposed upon a patent in- festation with H. microstoma or when the infestations were synchronized so that the midacute phase of each infestation occurred simultaneously. LITERATURE CITED GLEASON, L. N. 1971. white mouse to The responses of the a primary infection with 68 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) Hymenolepis microstoma. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 87:11-17. 1974. New data on the interactions between the bile duct dwellers, Fasciola hepatica (Trematoda) and Hymenolepis mi- crostoma (Cestoda), in mice. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 90:58-63. Lanc, B. Z. 1966. Host-parasite relationships of Fasciola hepatica in the white mouse. I. Response to a primary infection. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 82:195-203. 1967. Host-parasite relationships of Fasciola hepatica in the white mouse. II. _ Studies on acquired immunity. J. Parasit. 53: 21-30. LircuHrorp, R. G. 1963. Observations on Hy- menolepis microstoma in three laboratory hosts: Mesocricetus auratus, Mus musculus and Rattus norvegicus. J. Parasit. 49:403-410. Simpson, G. F., anp L. N. Gueason. 1975. Lesion formation in the livers of mice caused by metabolic products of Hymenolepis micro- stoma. J. Parasit. 61:152—154. Ureunart, G. M. 1956. The pathology of ex- perimental fascioliasis in the rabbit. J. Path. Bact. 71:301-311. Threatened Fishes of Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky BRANLEY A. BRANSON Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475 ABSTRACT Long-term field collecting, surveys of the literature, and museum holdings indicate that at least 21 fish species within the confines of Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky, are threatened by various human undertakings, principally surface mining. Of those, 13 species are judged as rare or endangered. The most critical areas lie in the upper Kentucky River drainage, lesser impacts being felt in the Cumberland and Licking river systems. INTRODUCTION During the last decade, there has been a concerted attempt to understand native American animals that are becoming rare and endangered, particularly fishes. The Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966, following extensive clamoring by various scientific societies, gave impetus to the preservation movement. Following that, the U.S. Department of the Interior (1968 ) printed the so-called “Red-Book of Rare and Endangered Fish and Wildlife of the United States” and Miller (1972) presented a list of the threatened fishes of the entire United States. However, the information in both works concerning the fishes of Ken- tucky is sparse, indeed, and has led to the conclusion that dependence upon such works with regard to localized fish faunas, such as that of the Daniel Boone National Forest in Kentucky, can be highly mislead- ing. As suggested by Robinson et al. (1974), a fish species may be seriously threatened in one part of its total range and yet be comparatively safe elsewhere. Not only is this true from a broader geographic vantage, it is also true from one river sys- tem to another. Thus, among the more than 140 fish species of the Daniel Boone Na- tional Forest, only 2 appear in the Red Book. One, Lagochila lacera, the harelip sucker, is doubtless extinct, and the second, Acipenser fulvescens, the lake sturgeon, is designated as threatened. Because of the points made above, I deemed it necessary to discuss the threat- ened fishes of the Daniel Boone National Forest. This article is extracted from a 69 longer report prepared for the U.S. Forest Service. The results are supported by liter- ature records, extensive field work in east- ern Kentucky, and museum holdings of other institutions as well as those of Eastern Kentucky University. In the annotated list which follows, the scientific and common names follow Bailey et al. (1970). The judgement terms that describe the status of each species in the Daniel Boone National Forest are those of Miller (1972) except threatened, which is used in the context explained below: Endangered: facing extinction; contin- ued survival unlikely without special pro- tective measures. Rare: not immediately faced with extinc- tion, but present in such small numbers or in restricted to highly specialized habitats that could vanish. Requires careful watch- ing. Threatened: massive and active habitat degradation occurring across a broad spec- trum of the range. It must be stressed here that these desig- nations apply only to fishes within the con- fines of the Daniel Boone National Forest and not the entire Commonwealth of Ken- tucky. ANNOTATED List OF THREATENED FISHES Within the confines of the Daniel Boone National Forest, 21 species of fishes are judged to suffer at one level or another by way of habitat deterioration. Of those, 9 are considered rare and 4 endangered; the remaining 8 are listed as threatened. Polyodon spathula. Paddletish—Kentucky 70 TrANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) distribution: formerly abundant in the main stems and principal tributaries to the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, principally in the lower ends of the Cumberland, Kentucky, Licking, and Big Sandy rivers. Remarks: Professor A. L. Whitt (pers. comm.) has recently observed specimens at Kentucky Lake near the dam, and I saw a living adult at Lake Cumberland during April 1975. Several specimens, 25-38 cm, were secured from lock chambers at Can- nelton, Uniontown, Newburgh, and McAlI- pine locks and dams during 1972-1974, indicating successful reproduction in the Ohio River (Dr. Louis A. Krumholz, pers. comm. ). Status: threatened. Acipenser fulvescens. Lake sturgeon.— Kentucky distribution: before 1900, the lake sturgeon was common in the Ohio River, in portions of the Cumberland River below the falls, and abundant in the lower Licking River. Only a single Kentucky record (1954) since the early 1900's. Remarks: most of the large runs within the state have been decimated severely, but still persists in the Ohio and Tennessee rivers (Clay 1975). Status: endangered. Scaphirhynchus. platorynchus. Shovelnose sturgeon.—Kentucky distribution: the only verified record is from the Licking River at Farmer (Welter 1938) with regard to the Daniel Boone National Forest. However, Krumbholz et al. (1962) reported one taken in August 1959 in a hoopnet set in the lower reaches of the Ohio River near Mound City, Illinois. Charles (1962) reported specimens taken by commercial fishermen throughout the Kentucky waters of the Ohio River. Remarks: probably extinct in Kentucky waters other than the Ohio River. Status: endangered. Amia calva. Bowfin.—Kentucky distribu- tion: principally in the southwestern low- lands and in the Ohio River as far eastward as Cincinnati. Remarks: the only specimens from Danie} Boone National Forest waters came from backwater pools of Tygarts Creek, Carter County. The main reason for this species rarity in national forest waters probably is the lack of suitable habitat. Status: rare. Clinostomus funduloides. Rosyside dace.— Kentucky distribution: published records from the Big Sandy and Little Sandy rivers, Tygarts and Kinniconick creeks. Eastern Kentucky University has specimens from the Little Licking River. Remarks: both species of Clinostomus that occur in Kentucky are considered as spe- cialized relics (Clay 1975) that occupy marginal habitats. Since the distribution of the species under consideration barely in- cludes Daniel Boone National Forest streams, the species is judged as rare. Status: rare. Hybognathus nuchalis. Silver minnow.— Kentucky distribution: Lower Ohio River drainage and western portion of the state. Remarks: earlier collectors (Woolman 1892) reported the species from more east- erly streams, but the only recent record from the Daniel Boone National Forest is that of Branson and Batch (1972a), a single specimen from Clear Creek near Wildie, Rockcastle County. The fish has nearly disappeared from the Upper Ohio River basin (Clay 1975, Trautman 1957) as the result of massive siltation. Status: rare. Hybopsis aestivalis. Speckled chub.—Ken- tucky distribution: lower portions of all main rivers. Remarks: threatened in the uplands by dam construction and silt and acid from strip mines. Extirpated from the Red Bird River and greatly reduced in numbers in the rest of the upper Kentucky River basin. Status: rare. Notropis ariommus. Popeye shiner.—Ken- tucky distribution: upper Green, Cumber- THREATENED FISHES OF KENTUCKY—Branson Fpl land, Laurel, Rockcastle, and Kentucky rivers. Remarks: now very rare in most of the upper Kentucky River system. Extirpated from Red Bird River and Goose Creek by strip mining, but still relatively abundant in Greasy Creek, although that stream’s drainage is now involved in mining opera- tions. Status: threatened. Notropis telescopus. Telescope shiner.— Kentucky distribution: known only from Crocus and Rock creeks, both in the Cum- berland River system. Remarks: because this species requires clear, headwater streams, its habitat is now strongly threatened by surface mining. Status: rare. Lagochila lacera. Harelip sucker.—Ken- tucky distribution: apparently once con- fined to the Cumberland River system (Woolman 1892). Remarks: since the species has not been reported during the last 75 years, it is con- sidered extinct. Status: extinct. Stizostedion vitreum. Walleye.—Kentucky distribution: in most of the larger streams before the turn of the century (Evermann 1918; Carter and Jones 1969; Small 1970, unpublished master’s thesis, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky; Welter 1938; Woolman 1892). Remarks: there has been a dramatic reduc- tion in populations of the walleye in the Daniel Boone National Forest (Clay 1975). The Cave Run hatchery is attempting to rear walleyes artificially for repopulating Kentucky waters. Status: rare (threatened? ). Percina burtoni. Blotchside logperch.— Kentucky distribution: formerly abundant in the Little South Fork of the Cumberland River in Wayne and McCreary counties (pers. comm., Dr. David Etnier, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee). Remarks: since there are no recent records of the species from Kentucky, and since the headwater streams of the Cumberland River are being assaulted by strip mining, the species must be judged endangered. Status: endangered. Percina evides. Gilt darter—Kentucky dis- tribution: Big Sandy, Green, Licking, and Kentucky river systems. Remarks: although comparatively safe in parts of its total range, the gilt darter has nearly disappeared from Ohio and Indiana (Trautman 1957), principally because of increased siltation and construction of dams. Extensive collecting has not dis- closed specimens from the upper Cumber- land River and only rarely is the species encountered in the Licking and upper Ken- tucky river systems. Status: rare. Percina cymatotaenia. Bluestripe darter.— Kentucky distribution: Big Sandy, Green, Licking, and Kentucky river drainages, and Station Camp (Jackson County) and Obion (Hickman County) creeks. Remarks: the epithet used above is utilized for this species pending completion of Mr. Bruce Thompson's research at Tulane Uni- versity. With the exception of habitats in the Red River of Powell and Wolfe coun- ties, and in Station Camp Creek, much of this species range in eastern Kentucky is being heavily influenced by strip mining. Status: threatened. Ammocrypta pellucida, Eastern sand darter. —Kentucky distribution: originally from the sandy portions of all principal drainages from the mouth of the Cumberland River eastward (Clay 1975). Remarks: Evermann (1918) reported speci- mens from the upper Cumberland River from a site now inundated by Lake Cum- berland; sand darters have not been re- ported from that drainage since. Before 72 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) impoundment of the Licking and Kentucky rivers, sand darters were abundant in both streams; now the species is very rare. Strip mining is also destroying many habitats, although sand darters are still present in downstream sections of the Red River in Powell and Clark counties. Status: threatened. Etheostoma rufilineatum. Redline darter.— Kentucky distribution: Clark’s River (Ten- nessee River system) and portions of the Cumberland River drainage. In eastern Kentucky, the species has been reported from Cumberland, Pulaski, and Wayne counties only (Zorach 1970). Remarks: I also have specimens from Buck Creek (Kentucky State Highway 192 cross- ing )in Pulaski County. Other than that, all records lie peripheral to the forest. Al- though apparently healthy elsewhere, the redline darter is scarce or rare in Daniel Boone National Forest streams. Status: rare. Etheostoma tippecanoe. Tippecanoe darter. —Kentucky distribution: middle portions of the Kentucky and Licking river drain- ages. Remarks: populations in Red Bird River and South Fork of the Kentucky River have markedly declined following strip mining in those drainages. Status: threatened. Etheostoma obeyense. Barcheek darter.— Kentucky distribution: Cumberland and Green river systems. Remarks: a peripheral species which barely enters forest waters. Status: rare. Etheostoma cinereum. Ashy darter.—Ken- tucky distribution: known only from the Little South Fork of the Cumberland River, Rock Creek in McCreary County (Kirsch 1892) and Buck Creek near Highway 80, Pulaski County (Clay 1975) and the Rock- castle River below the mouth of Buck Creek. Remarks: the rarest darter in Kentucky; only 3 specimens have been collected since 1892. The habitat area is now under siege by strip mining. Status: threatened. Etheostoma atripinne. Cumberland snub- nose darter.—Kentucky distribution: Cum- berland River system. Remarks: since much of the Cumberland River basin is being influenced by strip mining, there has been a marked decrease in the abundance of snubnose darters. Status: threatened. Etheostoma sagitta. Arrow darter.—Ken- tucky distribution: upper Cumberland and upper Kentucky river basins. Remarks: there are 2 subspecies of this darter in Daniel Boone National Forest waters, E. sagitta sagitta in the headwaters of the Cumberland River (Bailey 1948), type locality in Wolf Creek near Pleasant View, Whitley County, Kentucky, and E. sagitta spilotum, type locality at Travelers Rest, Owsley County, Kentucky, in the upper Kentucky River basin (Kuehne and Bailey 1961). In addition to the upper Ken- tucky River records of Kuehne and Bailey, Gilbert (1887), and Woolman (1892), I have specimens from Red Bird River, Mid- dle and South forks of the Kentucky River in Breathitt and Leslie counties, all heavily afflicted by strip mining and acid mine drainage (see also Branson and Batch 1972b). The fish’s habitat streams in the upper Cumberland are also greatly dam- — aged by surface mining. Status: threatened. DIscussION At the present time, approximately 140 fish species, distributed through 22 families and 54 genera, are known from the Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky, and an additional 16 species are “possibles” since | they have been collected from streams | near the forest boundaries. Twenty-one | species are judged as threatened. Exclud- THREATENED FISHES OF KENTUCKY—Branson ‘te ing the extinct harelip sucker, 3 species are endangered and 10 are rare; the remainder are in the threatened category. Protective measures are indicated, if this appreciable segment of the Kentucky fish fauna is to survive within the forest. The principal habitat degraders in this area are municipal sewage pollution, high- way construction, improper farming prac- tices, channel straightening, strip mine silt and acid mine drainage, deforestation, stone quarrying operations, and construc- tion of many dams. In many areas, the effects have been tragically destructive to fish faunas. Because of these interacting forces, the Daniel Boone National Forest stands a good chance of having a sizeable segment of its fish fauna extirpated. The first step to prevent such a catastrophe is recognition of the fact that various seg- ments of the fauna and some individual species are threatened. Logically, this type of recognition should be followed by an evaluation of local faunas and by legislative action when protective measures are deemed necessary. LITERATURE CITED Barty, R. M. 1948. Status, relationships, and characters of the percid fish, Poecilichthys sagitta Jordan and Swain. Copeia 1948:77— 85. BaILEy, R. M., J. M. Fircu, E. S. HERAxp, E. A. LACHNER, C. C. Linpsay, C. R. Rosins, AND W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of the common and scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 6:1-149. BRANSON, B. A., AND D. L. Batcs. 1972a. Fishes of Clear Creek, tributary to Rockcastle River, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 33: 33-35. , AND 1972b. Effects of strip mining on small-stream fishes in east- central Kentucky. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 84: 507-517. CarTER, J. P., AND A. R. JONES. 1966. Inventory and classification of streams in the Upper Cumberland River drainage of Kentucky. Ky. Fish. Bull. 52:1—70. CHARLES, J. R. 1962. Commercial fishing activ- ities in the Kentucky waters of the Ohio River. Pp. 103 ff. In Aquatic-life resources of the Ohio River. Ohio River Valley Water Sanit. Comm., Cincinnati, Ohio 218 pp. Citay, W. M. 1975. The Fishes of Kentucky. Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl. Res. Frankfort, Ky. 416 pp. EVERMANN, B. W. 1918. The fishes of Ken- tucky and Tennessee: a distributional cata- logue of the known species. Bur. Fish. Bull. 858 :295-368. GrinBeRT, C. H. 1887. Descriptions of new and little known etheostomoids. Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 10:47-64. Kirscu, P. H. 1892. Notes on the streams and fishes of Clinton County, Kentucky, with de- scription of a new darter. Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. (1890) 10:289-292. Krumuonz L. A: J. Ro Caarntes, ann W.-L: MinckLeEy. 1962. The fish population of the Ohio River. Pp. 49 ff. In Aquatic-life resources of the Ohio River. Ohio River Val- ley Water Sanit. Comm., Cincinnati, Ohio 218 pp. KUEHNE, R. A., AND R. M. Bartey. 1961. Stream capture and the distribution of the percid fish Etheostoma sagitta, with geologic and taxonomic considerations. Copeia 1961:1-8. Mitter, R. R. 1972. Threatened fishes of the United States. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 101: 239-252. Rosinson, H. W., G. A. Moore, AND R. J. MILLER. 1974. Threatened fishes of Oklahoma. Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci. 54:139-146. TRAUTMAN, M. B. 1957. The Fishes of Ohio. Ohio State Univ. Press, Columbus, Ohio. 683 pp. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. 1968. Red Book of Rare and Endangered Fish and Wild- life of the United States. Washington, D.C. WELTER, W. A. 1938. A list of the fishes of the Licking River drainage. Copeia 1938:64-68. WooLMan, A. J. 1892. Report of an examina- tion of the rivers of Kentucky, with lists of the fishes obtained. Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. (1890) 10:249-288. ZoracH, T. 1970. The systematics of the percid fish Etheostoma rufilineatum (Cope). Amer. Midl. Nat. 84:208—-225. Natural Bridges of Southern Christian County, Kentucky JAMES X. CoRGAN AND JoHN T. Parks Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, Tennessee 37040 ABSTRACT This report describes and illustrates the 2 westernmost natural bridges in Kentucky: Noah Creek Natural Bridge and Fort Campbell Arch. Both are developed in limestones of Mississippian Age and both occur on the Fort Campbell Military Reservation. The 2 new discoveries bring to 20 the total number of bridges and arches described from Kentucky. INTRODUCTION Two previously undescribed natural bridges occur in the north-central part of the Fort Campbell Military Reservation in southern Christian County, Kentucky (Fig. 1). A review of the literature suggests that, with these discoveries, a total of 20 natural bridges have now been formally described from Kentucky (e.g. Cleland 1905, 1910; McFarlan 1943, 1954, 1958; McGrain 1966a, 1966b; Miller 1898; and Scott and Belknap 1926). Although natural bridges and arches are fairly common in parts of east- ern and central Kentucky, they apparently are rare in Mississippian age carbonate rocks of the south-central part of the state. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are indebted to Henry A. Post and James E. Price of the Environmental Office, Facility Engineers, Fort Campbell, Ken- tucky. They aided in field measurements and facilitated access to remote parts of the post. Noau CREEK NATURAL BRIDGE Noah Creek Natural Bridge (Fig. 2) is part of an unusual complex of topographic features along Noah Creek in the north- central part of the Fort Campbell Military Reservation. Fort Campbell authorities have recognized the extraordinary beauty of this area by setting it aside for nonmili- tary use. It is officially designated the Noah Creek Recreation Area. Within that recreation area, the natural bridge is the most distinctive topographic feature. Just upstream from the bridge, Noah Creek begins to flow along a near vertical cliff that contains Noah Cave. In between the natural bridge and the cave, Noah Creek disappears. Its waters pass into subsurface drainage. The point of transi- tion from surface to subsurface drainage depends on the volume of water in the creek. During low flow, the stream disap- pears into solution widened bedding planes beneath the bridge. At high water, the stream moves further down its channel. At that stage, most of the water enters the cave where it cascades into subterranean drainage. The combination of a cave, a disappearing stream, a vertical cliff, and a natural bridge forms a unique and aesthet- ically pleasing cluster of landscape ele- ments. All parts of this landscape complex are clearly interrelated. On the south, the bridge merges with the cliff which rises some 26 feet (7.9m) above the base of the bridge. Most of the higher strata in the cliff have fallen away from the bridge roof, leaving an irregular, brush covered arch. At its highest, the bridge is at least 9 feet (2.7 m) below the crest of the cliff. On the north side, the bridge blends into alluvial deposits of Noah Creek. A small, brush covered, rocky step, about 1.5 feet (46 cm) high, separates the bridge from the alluvium. Because of dense vegetation it is difficult to measure accurately the ex- ternal length of the bridge. At a maximum, the bridge extends some 20 to 22 feet (6.1- 6.7 m) from the cliff. The northern bridge pillar is thin, less than 10 feet (3 m) in thickness. In the east-west direction the bridge 74 NaTuRAL Bripces oF KeNtucky—Corgan and Parks 75 NOAH CREEK NATURAL BRIDGE FORT CAMPBELL Prey b rises above Noah Creek in a sheer wall. It is tunnel shaped and extremely angular. Internal height varies from season to season, depending upon sediment fill in the creek channel. In the spring of 1976, the maxi- mum internal height was about 8.5 feet (2.6 m). The maximum span is presently about 12.3 feet (3.7 m) and the width down the middle is some 31.5 feet (9.6 m). Stateline Road | kilometer | mile Locations of Noah Creek Natural Bridge and Fort Campbell Arch. From the shape of the bridge and from the topographic setting, it is obvious that Noah Creek Natural Bridge was once part of the adjacent cave. The bridge now stands some 76 feet (23.2 m) from the cave mouth. The separation has been produced by collapse of the intervening section of cave. Collapse was controlled by solution along 2 intersecting sets of vertical joints. 76 TraANs. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) A) mi Yr by WT hay Dard OEY ce LS CASK Neo Nee eres ) Bar , mpi F a: AS FIO? Ay aP Y SA COO RK Zl OST Ca A ORS IRS ot POR CONES 2 ie eS ws, B, Aan 4 3 y i Fic. 2. Noah Creek Natural Bridge, looking east with the north pillar on the left. The dominant joint set runs parallel] to the cliff and also appears to parallel the general trend of Noah Cave. That joint set rather consistently strikes N85W. Collapse in that orientation established the north-south limits of the bridge. A second set of less well-developed joints strikes roughly NIOE to N25E. That set shapes the east-west limits of the bridge. Collapse along that set has separated the bridge from the cave. The interaction of 2 sets of nearly vertical joints accounts for the boxy angularity of the bridge. While Noah Creek Natural Bridge is now mechanically sound and should continue to exist for many decades, further joint con- trolled collapse can be anticipated. Con- tinued collapse will, ultimately, destroy the bridge. Both the creation and the eventual destruction of the bridge reflect the relative resistance to erosion of rocks that form the bridge and the cliff. Klemic (1966) mapped the geology of the region. His map identifies the cliff forming and bridge form- ing rocks as flat lying beds within the St. Louis Limestone of Mississippian age. Stratigraphically, the bridge forming rocks and rocks that form the crest of the cliff are near the contact between the St. Louis and the overlying St. Genevieve lime- stones. At that contact, dolomite rich and silt rich beds of the upper St. Louis are overlain by pure limestones of the St. Gene- vieve. Within the Fort Campbell region, those dolomitic and silty beds vary in thick- ness, reaching at least 10 to 12 feet (3-3.7 NaturAaL Bripces or KeENrucky—Corgan and Parks 77 m) in the Noah Creek area. They are underlain by purer limestones within the St. Louis. Both mechanically and chem- ically, the uppermost St. Louis is especially resistant to erosion. It is the lithologic char- acter that creates the top of Noah Creek Natural Bridge and the crest of the adjacent cliff. Fort CAMPBELL ARCH About a half mile (800 m) due south of Noah Creek Natural Bridge and about 50 feet (15.3 m) north of the Tennessee State Line lies the southernmost natural bridge in Kentucky (Fig. 1). This small bridge, here called Fort Campbell Arch, stands about 12 feet (3.7 m) high, with a 10-foot (3 m) clearance under the arch. It occurs in the same stratigraphic position as Noah Creek Natural Bridge but in other ways the smaller bridge is quite different. Fort Campbell Arch spans a sharply de- fined trough-like depression which trends about N70W and has a near vertical north wall. The bridge is near the west end of the hollow which remains well defined for about 40 feet (12.2 m) east and 15 feet (4.6 m) to the west. In the vicinity of the bridge, the depression has a width of 7-10 feet (2.1-3 m) and an average depth of about 12 feet (3.7 m). The base of the trough, which is also the base of the bridge, is a nearly horizontal bedding plane within the St. Louis Limestone. Weathering has enlarged this plane to permit a free flow of water. Drainage is to the south. Proportions of Fort Campbell Arch are shown in Fig. 3. The upper portion of the bridge is a dolomitic unit near the top of the St. Louis Limestone. Underlying hori- zons are purer limestone and, thus, more soluble. Existence of the bridge can ap- parently be attributed to 2 factors, solution controlled enlargement of a vertical joint and. low solubility of the upper horizon. While Noah Creek Natural Bridge has been set aside for recreational use, Fort Campbell Arch is currently left in its nat- ural state. This seems to be a wise decision for the arch is too small to permit access by a large number of people. Ts : ‘> h } pay’ Ned ads sn CNN ba vg NTT >, A743 ce AG VA, % j tf “Sate \ EC A OTA Theale Dore: es {lI I “ii | “ a, Lf i i! = 5 F y ath WIP ‘v ~ ~~ y ' Fi cs 4m, we S; q « arise = E s & N “ & SS ati en > ve ee y FHI |} ee, ty wy Uf » Saag h R f < A LHe ac “ Vay ! » ped ds enllf’ ee Q {7 . i ‘Be UV ‘ Frc 3. Fort Campbell Arch. growth makes the deck of this bridge appear thicker than it actually is. A dense plant SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Two natural bridges are known to exist in southern Christian County, Kentucky. They are here termed Noah Creek Natural Bridge and Fort Campbell Arch, with the former being larger. Noah Creek Natural Bridge was created by 2 interacting processes: joint controlled cave collapse and differential solution of dissimilar carbonate rock strata. Differen- tial solubility was also an important factor in creating Fort Campbell Arch. At that site, solution controlled widening of a joint is the most evident factor in bridge forma- tion. Noah Creek Natural Bridge and related features are large enough for intensive public use. This area is now officially set aside for recreational purposes. Fort Camp- bell Arch is too small and too fragile to permit access by a large number of people. Therefore, it should be left in its natural state. Both bridges occur in the upper part of the St. Louis Limestone formation, close to the contact with the overlying and more soluble St. Genevieve Limestone. Both 78 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) bridges involve the same thin zone of rela- tively insoluble rocks. The occurrence of 2 bridges in this stratigraphic setting suggest that throughout south-central Kentucky and adjacent Tennessee, natural bridges should be anticipated in the upper St. Louis Limestone wherever similar strati- graphic conditions exist. LITERATURE CITED CLELAND, H. F. 1905. The formation of natural bridges. Amer. J. Sci. (4) 20:119-124. 1910. North American natural bridges, with a discussion of their origin. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 21:313-338; 765-776. Kiemic, H. 1966. Geologic map of the Herndon Quadrangle, Kentucky—Tennessee. U.S. Geol. Surv. Map GQ-572. McFaruan, A. C. 1943. Geology of Kentucky. — Univ. Kentucky Press, Lexington, Ky. 531 pp. 1954. Geology of the Natural Bridge State Park area. Ky. Geol. Surv. (9) Spec. Publ. 10:1-31. 1958. Behind the scenery in Ken- tucky. Ky. Geol. Surv. (9) Spec. Publ. 10: 1-144. McGrain, P. 1966a. Geology of The Cumber- land Falls State Park area. Ky. Geol. Surv. (10) Spec. Publ. 11:1-33. . 1966b. Geology of the Carter and Cascade Caves area. Second Edition. Ken- tucky Geol. Survey (10) Spec. Publ. 12:1-32. Miiter, A. M. 1898. Natural arches of Ken- tucky. Science 7:845-846. Scorr; J. D.,, anp R._L. BeuxenareetSaGee he Creelsboro Natural Bridge of Russel County, Kentucky. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 7:125-133. Use of Woodchuck Burrows by Woodchucks and Other Mammals - L. L. SCHMELTZ AND JOHN O. WHITAKER, JR. Department of Life Sciences, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809 ABSTRACT Live traps were set in the entrances of 94 woodchuck burrows along a flood contro] dike in Vigo County, Indiana, in such a way as to capture large mammals inside the burrows. Besides 35 woodchucks, 20 opossums Didelphis virginiana, 19 cottontails Sylvilagus flor- idanus, 8 raccoons Procyon lotor, 1 red fox Vulpes vulpes, and 1 gray fox Urocyon cinereo- argenteus were taken. Snap traps set in the same burrow entrances yielded 104 white-footed mice Peromyscus leucopus, 32 house mice Mus musculus, 10 short-tailed shrews Blarina brevicauda, and 2 each of the meadow jumping mouse Zapus hudsonius, the meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanicus, and the masked shrew Sorex cinereus. INTRODUCTION There is scattered information on the use of woodchuck burrows by mammals other than woodchucks. Hamilton (1934) indi- cated that rabbits, skunks, foxes, and weasels frequently use woodchuck burrows, and also related occasional use by chip- munks and house cats. Grizzell (1955), mentioned most of those species, and also opossums, raccoons, squirrels, ground squir- rels, and some small mammals including Mus musculus, Peromyscus leucopus, Mi- crotus pennsylvanicus, M. pinetorum, Zapus hudsonius, and Blarina brevicauda. To our knowledge, there has been no systematic effort to determine usage of woodchuck burrows by various species of mammals, and the purpose of this study was to deter- mine such use. Stupy AREA The study area was a grassy covered flood control levee along the west side of the Wabash River north of Terre Haute, Vigo County, Indiana. Major grasses pres- ent were Bromus sp. and fescue Festuca sp. Inside the levee (away from the river) the land consisted mostly of cornfields. Outside was about 50 percent cultivated land. Trees present were primarily silver maple Acer saccharinum and cottonwood Populus deltoides. The levee is about 8 km long, but the portion used for this study consisted of about 3,500 m. Levee mainte- 79 nance included yearly burning, usually about 1 March. MATERIALS AND METHODS A series of 94 woodchuck burrow open- ings that appeared to have been in recent use (as indicated by presence of cuttings, fresh dirt, odor, tracks) was studied along a section of dike. The dens were marked with numbered stakes. Large Tomahawk live traps baited with corn were used to sample the large mammals. A trap was placed with its door in the mouth of the burrow in such a way that it would be likely to capture an animal inside the bur- row at the time the trap was set. Those traps were used at about 1-3 month inter- vals from October 1970 through April 1972. The mamals were toe clipped in a consecu- tively numbered series, sexed, weighed, and released at the point of capture. A card including the date of each capture, approxi- mate age at first capture, weight in pounds, and the burrow number for each capture was made for each numbered animal. Later, 199 woodchucks were trapped with No. 2 steel and No. 220 conibear traps, or shot with a .22 caliber rifle, many of them beyond the limits of the trapping area. Burrow use by small mammals was stud- ied using 2 snapback mousetraps placed inside the entrance of each burrow during 5 different 2-day periods during the study. Unfortunately, no traps were used that would sample weasels or chipmunks. SO Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) TABLE 1.—USE OF WOODCHUCK BURROWS BY LARGE MAMMALS ON A FLOOD CONTROL LEVEE ALONG THE WABASH RIVER AT TERRE HAUTE, V1GO County, INDIANA Captures and Animals Taken Recaptures No. Yo No. % Woodchuck 35 49.1 74 57.4 Opossum 20 24,1 21 16.3 Cottontail 18 PA erg 24 18.6 Raccoon 8 9.6 8 Ga Gray Fox 1 1.2 1 0.8 Red Fox 1 ie 0.8 83 99.9 129 100.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Six species of large mammals were taken, including 129 total captures and recaptures of 83 individuals (Table 1). Mammals were caught at 62 of the 98 burrow entrances, thus 36 (36.7%) yielded no larger mam- mals. Thirty-five different woodchucks were taken a total of 74 times. This con- stituted 42.1 percent of all large mammals taken, and 57.4 percent of all captures and recaptures. Ten woodchucks were cap- tured once and never seen again, while 6 others were taken once in the burrows and later in conibear traps in or near the study area. Those 6 were retaken 1 to 18 months after the first capture, an average of 1,456 m from the initial capture site (28 m to 3.6 km). The animal retaken after 18 months was 46 m from the original burrow. Two others were taken at sites about 2.4 km apart with short periods between recap- tures, 27 and 24 days, respectively. Nine- teen individuals accounted for the 39 re- captures. Six were taken twice, 9 were taken 3 times, 2 were taken 4 times, 1 was taken 5 times, and 1 was taken 6 times. Most were taken in different traps each time they were captured, except 1 was taken 3 times in the same trap, and 5 were taken twice in the same trap. One wood- chuck, taken in a burrow on 16 October 1970 was retaken in a burrow 800 m away on 9 December 1970, and again in the first burrow on 29 March 1971. One individual was taken 5 times in 5 different burrows, all within a span of 18 days and 150 m. The one taken 7 times was in 5 different bur- rows within 185 m of one another over a 10-month period. The latest fall date a woodchuck was taken was 9 December, although one indi- vidual appeared to be active throughout the winter of 1970-71, feeding on a patch of uncut corn near its burrow. Most dens were plugged during the winter. Early emergence was about 5 February, when 5 dens were found to have been recently re- opened. By 25 February, a number of other dens had been reopened. Eighteen cottontails, captured 24 times, comprised 21.7 percent of all mammals taken, and 18.6 percent of the total cap- tures. Fifteen rabbits were captured once each, 1 was captured twice, 1 was taken 3 times, and 1 a total of 4 times. No rabbit was captured twice in the same burrow and only 2 burrows yielded more than 1 rabbit, 1 with 2 and 1 with 3. Cottontails used the burrows primarily during the colder months. There were 6 captures in October, 10 in November, 2 in December, and 4 in February. Twenty opossums were taken. There was only 1 recapture seeming to indicate that the opossums did not live in the burrows, but simply visited them. Included were 7 males, all taken in fall, 6 females carrying young (May to July), and 7 other females. Eight raccoons were taken, comprising 9.6 percent of all mammals taken. Five were females, 3 were males, and 4 were young. Raccoons used the burrows sporad- ically, with 1 capture each in May, July, and August, 3 in October, and 2 in Novem- ber. One red fox and 1 gray fox were taken in burrows during the study. The most common small mammals in the general vicinity of the burrows were Pero- myscus leucopus, Microtus pennsylvanicus, Mus musculus, and Peromyscus manicula- tus. In the grassy areas of the burrows, M. pennsylvanicus was particularly abundant. — However, that species seldom used the burrows (Table 2). The major user of the | burrows among the small mammals was | Peromyscus leucopus, 104 individuals being Use oF Woopcuuck Burrows—Schmeltz and Whitaker 81 TABLE 2.—UsE OF WOODCHUCK BURROWS BY SMALL MAMMALS ON A FLOOD CONTROL LEVEE ALONG THE WaBASH RIVER NEAR VIGO County, TERRE HAUTE, INDIANA. MAMMALS ARE INDICATED AS THE TOTAL NUMBER TAKEN AND THE NUMBER TAKEN PER 100 TRAPNIGHTS. ,THE NUMBER AND PERCENT- AGE OF BURROWS IN WHICH EACH SPECIES WAS TAKEN IS ALSO GIVEN. THE NUMBER OF TRAPNIGHTS IS 4 TIMES THE NUMBER OF BURROWS TRAPPED IN EACH CASE SINCE 2 TRAPS WERE USED IN EACH BURROW 3 32 Dates and No. ES of Burrows SS Trapped AS 22-24 Nov No. taken 47 1970 No./100 trapnights Losk (78) No. burrows 32 % of burrows 41.0 28-30 March No. taken 1 1971 No./100 trapnights 0.3 Cis) No. burrows 1 % of burrows 3 30 May-1 Jun No. taken I 1971 No./100 trapnights 0.3 (94) No. burrows 1 % of burrows lee 22-24 Nov No. taken 46 1971 No./100 trapnights ao (Weed) No. burrows 34 % of burrows 45.3 18-20 Apr No. taken 9 1972 No./100 trapnights 4.7 (48) No. burrows 9 % of burrows 18.8 (370) No. taken 104 No./100 trapnights 7.0 No. burrows ta % of burrows 20.8 FOR 2 NIGHTS gs E 3 & mn: E 28 : gs geise 2 ants S “ E uaaaiay Seyi ence. = Niet Se Sf ece tse See 1 17 D) 67 OS ws eo 21.5 i 8 D) 40 12) (408 26 512 4 3 1 2 11 te koe 03 Oy 36 3 3 1 D) 8 A WON 1B 26 10.7 17 3 2 23 450 OS 0.5 ll 16 3 2 20 17.0 32 2.6 21.3 8 7 1 62 Oy, ae 0.3 20.7 6 7 1 4A 80 93 1.3 82.7 7 1 1 18 BG. Ons 0.5 9.4 6 1 l 15 fous Dabo 2.1 31.3 29 32 10 2 2 2 2.0 2.2 G7 2038 60x 0. 26 21 10 2 2 2 127 7.0 5.6 2h Oca 005 0 taken in snap traps for a rate of 7.0 per 100 trapnights. Peromyscus maniculatus and Mus musculus used them less, probably be- cause they were less closely associated with the burrows. Peromyscus leucopus lived in the brushy areas along the dike itself, while the other 2 species lived primarily in the cultivated fields a few feet further away. Overall, 181 small mammals were taken in the burrows (12.2 per 100 trapnights). However, the greatest utilization was in the fall (Table 2). In November 1970, 21.5 per 100 trapnights were taken and in No- vember 1971, 20.7 were taken. Respective values for March 1971 and April 1972 were 3.6 and 9.4. It is clear from these data that several species of mammals other than woodchucks are opportunistic users of woodchuck bur- rows. There would seem to be several uses that mammals, both large and small, might make of the burrows. First, some individ- uals may live there permanently or over extended periods. These would seem to in- clude perhaps some rabbits and _ white- footed mice in addition to the woodchucks. Some mammals may use the burrows as 82 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2) as temporary cover, including many of the larger and some of the smaller mammals taken. Some individuals, especially of the smaller species, may simply have been ex- ploring the burrows. This would not seem likely in the case of most of the larger mammals, because the large traps were set during the day and in the burrows in such a way as to capture animals that were in- side, and thus presumably had spent the night there. Subsequent to this work a meadow jump- ing mouse was found in a hibernating nest in this same dike (Jones and Whitaker 1976). LITERATURE CITED GrizzELL, R. A. 1955. Hibernating jumping mice in woodchuck dens. Amer. Midl. Nat. 5o251—293. HaMILTon, W. J., JR. 1934. The life history of the rufescent woodchuck, Marmota monax rufescens. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 23:85-178. Jones, G. S., AND J. O. Wurraker, Jr. 1976. The fauna of a hibernation nest of a meadow jumping mouse, Zapus hudsonius. Can. Field- Nat. 90:169-170. Seasonal Abundance of Common Phytophagous and Predaceous Insects in Kentucky ‘Soybeans’ H. G. Raney AnD K. V. YEARGAN? Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ABSTRACT A 4-year study (1972-1975) was conducted to determine seasonal abundance of common phytophagous insects in Kentucky soybean fields. Populations of predaceous insects were sampled at 3 locations in 1975. Time of, and density at, peak abundance are presented for the green cloverworm Plathypena scabra, the bean leaf beetle Cerotoma trifurcata, the grape colaspis Colaspis brunnea, and the green stink bug Acrosternum hilare. The green cloverworm was the dominant defoliating species, while seed pods were attacked most frequently by the green stink bug and the bean leaf beetle. Populations of 3 prevalent groups of predators, Orius insidiosus, Nabis spp., and Geocoris spp., peaked at different times during the summer, with O. insidiosus being first and Geocoris last. INTRODUCTION Due to recent increases in soybean pro- duction in Kentucky, insect problems of this crop are receiving ever greater atten- tion. Before an effective insect pest man- agement program can be developed, the seasonal population dynamics of potentially important pest and beneficial species must be determined. Faunistic surveys of soy- bean insects in several other states have been reported (Kretzschmar 1948, Blicken- staff and Huggans 1962, Tugwell et al. 1973). These reports presented extensive lists of species, including many uncommon, and possibly transient species. Carner et al. (1974) and Shepard et al. (1974), have reported on the seasonal abundance of common insect pests and arthropod pred- ators, respectively, in South Carolina soy- bean fields. To date, there have been no published reports dealing specifically with the insects of Kentucky soybeans. MATERIALS AND METHODS Insect samples were taken at approxi- mately 2-week intervals in variety-trial plots planted by the Department of Agron- +The investigation reported in this paper (No. 76-7-159) is in connection with a project of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station and is published with approval of the Director. * Associate Extension Professor and Assistant Professor, respectively. 83 omy, University of Kentucky, during 1972- 1974 using a ground cloth and plant shake method similar to that of Boyer and Dumas (1963). Analysis of variance showed only negligible differences in insect abundance among the varieties, so results were pooled across varieties. The number of samples taken varied with location depending on the number of varieties present, but in all cases 30 or more sample units per location were taken on each sampling date. Each sample unit consisted of 3 linear feet (0.91 m) of row, with 1.5 feet (0.46 m) being taken from each of 2 adjacent rows. During 1975, all samples were taken from fields of “Williams variety soybeans at approximately 7- to 10-day intervals. Nine contiguous plots, each 75 X 75 feet (22.85 xX 22.85 m), were established in large fields. Three ground cloth samples as described above were taken randomly from each of the 9 plots. In addition, 2 sweep net samples were taken from each of the 9 plots to provide data on those insects, such as leafhoppers, which could not be ade- quately sampled by the ground cloth method. Each sweep net sample consisted of 20 sweeps across the row, using a 15-inch (0.38-m) diameter sweep net. Insects in the ground cloth samples were always counted in the field, while sweep net sam- ples were taken to the laboratory for count- ing. A microscope was used for counting small insects, such as leafhoppers. A- Green Stink Bug B- Grape Colaspis C- Bean Leaf Beetle D Cloverworm - Green Sep 1 Oct 1 Fic. 1. Time of occurrence of peak population density of 4 species of phytophagous insects on soybeans in Kentucky. County locations are: 1, Fulton; 2, Caldwell; 3, Henderson; 4, Ohio; 5, Fayette; 6, Hardin. Phytophagous species were counted dur- ing the entire study, but predaceous species were counted only during 1975. Sampling was begun when plants were in early bloom and continued until after pod maturity. Soybean insects were sampled in the fol- lowing counties during 1 or more years of this study: (1) Fulton, (2) Caldwell, (3) Henderson, (4) Ohio, (5) Fayette, (6) Hardin. The numerical designations given those counties is used consistently through- out this paper. The locations sampled each year were as follows: 1972, Locations 1, 2, 3; 1973, Locations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; 1974, Loca- tions 1, 2, 3, 4; and 1975, Locations 2, 5, 6. Although quantitative data were col- lected on more than 20 species of insects during this study, we have chosen to pre- sent data on 4 phytophagous species and 3 predaceous genera. The phytophagous spe- cies discussed are the green cloverworm Plathypena scabra, the bean leaf beetle Cerotoma trifurcata, the grape colaspis Colaspis brunnea, and the green stink bug Acrosternum hilare. The predaceous groups discussed are damsel bugs Nabis TrANs. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2) spp., big-eyed bugs Geocoris spp. (primarily G. puntipes), and minute pirate bug Orius insidiosus. These taxa were chosen because of their consistent occurrence and relatively high numbers compared to the other taxa collected. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Data collected at 3 to 5 locations each of the 4 years of this study provided 15 sepa- rate seasonal population trends for several phytophagous insect species. The time of peak abundance and mean density at peak abundance are given in Fig. 1 and Table 1, respectively, for green cloverworm, bean leaf beetle, grape colaspis, and green stink bug. During 1973-1974, green cloverworm lar- val populations reached peak abundance between approximately mid-July and mid- August. The one aberrant location (#4) in 1974 may have been related to the late planting of soybeans. Population peaks of the green cloverworm in 1972 occurred several weeks later than the average for the other years. It is interesting to note that Carner et al. (1974) obtained very similar results in South Carolina. From sampling 3 locations there, they also found that green cloverworm populations peaked approxi- mately 1 month later in 1972 than in 1973. This suggests that some geographically wide-range climatic factor may have in- fluenced green cloverworm populations during those years. There was considerable temporal varia- tion in adult bean leaf beetle population peaks (Fig. 1). In the majority of cases, however, peaks occurred late in the season. Studies conducted in Illinois indicated that the bean leaf beetle, whose larvae feed on the roots of various legumes, has 2 genera- tions per year (Kogan et al. 1974). They found that presumably overwintered adults were very scarce in soybeans after late June; first generation adults appeared in July and August while second generation adults emerged in September. If the life history of this species is similar in Kentucky, our data indicate that its peak abundance may occur either early (first generation) or late SOYBEAN INsECTS IN KENTUcKy—Raney and Yeargan 85 TasLeE 1.—MEAN DENSITIES PER 3-FOOT (0.91-mM) OF ROW OF 4 PHYTOPHAGOUS INSECT SPECIES AT PEAK | ABUNDANCE ON SOYBEANS IN KENTUCKY. MEAN VALUES ARE FOLLOWED BY + STANDARD ERROR Year Location! 1972 1973 1974 1975 1 2A se 721 236) == Ofo 139: 06 Lyi O4 Green 2 1.6 = 0.1 $.5 = 0.7 9:8 0:9 Li 04 Cloverworm 8) Sg Ss (8) 8.4+ 0.5 LOG == O25 = (larvae ) 4 — | ig a3 jad 8b S.a — 0:6 — 5 — 62)=210.5 — foe OF 6 — _— oo G:5:-E G5 iE 0.6 + 0.2 L203 0:83.02 — Bean 2 BO ee D3 3.2 2 04 3.0 + 0.6 fe 0:2 Leaf Beetle 3 b= 0.2 [oNee Vey OO) — (adults ) 4 — M622 O's LGi= 0:5 = 5 _ 0.7 ==02 — 0.8 = 0.2 6 zs. a2 = 74+ 0.3 1 JA == 0.3 | i ree Ue 1 6 hoes aed ley — Grape 2 0.9 = 0.2 Lb eei0.2 0.5 = 0.2 = Colaspis 3 14+ 0.2 0.6 + 0.2 14+ 0.2 — (adults ) 4 — — O.,22.01 — 5 — 0.9 = 0.2 — 0:9 == 6.2. 6 — — — 0.22051 iL 7 OS Qo = OD (Speed eo — Green 2, Oi == 0.1 0.3 02 12 =e O44 Os]: Gk Stink Bug 3 TE st '0.3 O52 0:2 29 = Ol5 — (nymphs and adults ) 4 — O2i= OF Ont 001 — 5 —_ VO 22095 — 0.2 + 0.1 6 — — — 0:2:== 2 1 County locations are: 1, Fulton; 2, Caldwell; 3, Henderson; 4, Ohio; 5, Fayette; 6, Hardin. (second generation), depending on loca- tion and year (Fig. 1). Soybean pods usually are at or near maturity by Septem- ber in Kentucky, and these pods occasion- ally are damaged by adult bean leaf beetle feeding. If economic damage occurs from that species, it probably will result from feeding of colonizing adults on young seed- lings or from unusually large populations of second generation adults feeding on soy- bean pods. Populations of grape colaspis invariably peaked relatively early in the growing season at all of our sampling locations (Fig. 1). Data were not included from Location 4 in 1973 and Location 2 in 1975 because that species was virtually absent in those plantings. The biology and ecology of that beetle were studied in Arkansas, where it overwintered in the larval stage with adults emerging and ovipositing from June until mid-August (Rolston and Rouse 1965). Although they found that some second brood adults emerged in late summer and early fall, our data indicate that this does not occur in Kentucky soybeans. If such a second brood emerged, it occurred well after pod maturity and after our sampling was discontinued for the season. The rela- tively low adult densities of this species that we found on soybeans suggest that it poses little threat to this crop in Kentucky at the present time. Because the green stink bug feeds on the soybean pods and developing seeds rather than foliage, it is not surprising that it is most abundant late in the season (Fig. 1). This insect feeds on other host plants earlier in the year, such as dogwood, black- berry, etc., and moves to soybeans when the pods begin to develop (Underhill 1934, Miner 1966). Due to its spotty distribution pattern and piercing-sucking type feeding damage, the insect and its feeding damage 86 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) Green Cloverworm Green Stink Bug Number per 3 ft. of row Grape Colaspis 1 | ar Jul 1 Aug 1 Sep 1 Fic. 2. Representative population trends of 4 spe- cies of phytophagous insects on soybeans in Ken- tucky; Fulton Co., 1974. may go unnoticed during the growing season. Heavy stink bug feeding can, how- ever, result in shriveled or otherwise de- formed beans. Representative seasonal population trends (Location 1, 1974) for green cloverworm, bean leaf beetle, grape colaspis, and green stink bug are given in Fig. 2. This illus- trates the rates of population increase and decrease for these species. In addition to the species discussed above, we collected population data on more than a dozen other phytophagous insect species, a few of which deserve mention. Based on our 1975 sweep net sam- ples, the potato leafhopper Empoasca fabae was most abundant during the early part of the growing season. This was the most common leafhopper collected, reaching densities that gave mean estimates of more than 2 per sweep. In the same samples, all other leafhoppers combined did not exceed a mean of 1 per sweep. Very few aphids or spider mites were encountered. Certain pests found in other parts of the country, such as the Mexican bean beetle per 3 ft. of row Number of Orius per 20 sweeps Number of Nabis or Geocoris Jul 1 Aug 1 Sep 1 Fic. 3. Seasonal abundance of 3 species of preda- ceous insects on soybeans in Kentucky, 1975. A. Fayette Co. B. Hardin Co. Epilachna varivestis, were collected only in low numbers at our sampling locations. While other species of Lepidoptera were collected on soybeans, none were nearly as abundant nor as consistently present as the green cloverworm. Among the beneficial insects collected, 3 groups of hemipteran predators were most prevalent. These were minute pirate bugs, damsel bugs, and big-eyed bugs, primarily G. punctipes. The population peaks of those 3 groups did not occur synchronously (Fig. 3). The earliest of the 3 was O. in- sidiosus, commonly found in association with large populations of thrips (S. vari- abilis) in 1975. Populations of Nabis spp. peaked near midseason at the time when green cloverworm populations usually were highest. Any predator-prey association — between damsel bugs and green clover- worms remains to be shown, but their pop- ulation synchrony invites further study. The last of these 3 predator groups to appear in SOYBEAN INSECTS IN KENTUCKy—Raney and Yeargan 87 Kentucky soybeans were the big-eyed bugs. At the Fayette County location, Geocoris spp. populations peaked in late August and began to decline in early September (Fig. 3A). At the Hardin County location, how- ever, their populations apparently were still increasing when the mature soybean plants lost their leaves in late August (Fig. 3B). Numbers of those predators collected at the Caldwell County location in 1975 were too low for analysis. A comparison of our data with those pub- lished from other states, indicates that Ken- tucky soybean insect populations are more similar to those of the Midwest than to those of the Deep South. The bean leaf beetle, the potato leafhopper, and S. vari- abilis were the most abundant soybean in- sects reported from Arkansas, Minnesota, and Missouri, respectively (Blickenstaff and Huggans 1962, Kretzschmar 1948, Tugwell et al. 1973). In all those states, the green cloverworm was reported as the most abun- dant lepidopteran pest, as in the present study. In South Carolina, however, the green cloverworm was but one of several lepidopteran species that commonly at- tacked soybeans (Carner et al. 1974). Of the pest species we collected, the green cloverworm appears to be the domi- nant soybean defoliator, while the seed pods are attacked by stink bugs and, occa- sionally, bean leaf beetles. It appears, therefore, that soybean insect pest manage- ment research in Kentucky should be directed primarily toward these species. LITERATURE CITED BLICKENSTAFF, C. C., AND J. L. Huccans. 1962. Soybean insects and related arthropods in Missouri. Mo. Agric. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 803. 51 pp. Boyer, W. B., anp W. A. Dumas. 1963. Soy- bean insect survey as used in Arkansas. Coop. Econ. Insect Rept. 13:91—92. Carner, G. E., M. SHEPARD, AND S. G. TuRNIP- SEED. 1974. Seasonal abundance of insect pests of soybeans. J. Econ. Entomol. 67:487— 493. Kocan, M., W. G. RuEsINK, AND K. McDOWELL. 1974. Spatial and temporal distribution pat- terns of the bean leaf beetle, Cerotoma tri- furcata, on soybeans in Illinois. Environ. Entomol. 3:607-617. KRETZSCHMAR, G. P. 1948. Soybean insects in Minnesota with special references to sampling techniques. J. Econ. Entomol. 41:586-591. Miner, F. D. 1966. Biology and control of stink bugs on soybeans. Arkansas Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 708. 40 pp. Rotston, L. H., anp P. Rouse. 1965. The biology and ecology of the grape colaspis, Colaspis flavida, in relation to rice production in the Arkansas Grand Prairie. Arkansas Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 694. 31 pp. SHEPARD, M., G. R. CARNER, AND S. G. TuRNIP- SEED. 1974. Seasonal abundance of preda- ceous arthropods in soybeans. Environ. Ento- mol. 3:985-988. TUGWELL, P., E. P. RouszE, AND R. G. THOMPSON. 1973. Insects in soybeans and a weed host. Arkansas Agric. Exp. Sta. Rep. Serv. 214. 18 pp. UNDERHILL, G. W. 1934. The green stink bug. Virginia Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 294. 26 pp. Seasonal Molt in the White-footed Mouse Peromyscus leucopus’ BARBARA A. LENSING Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT White-footed mice were snaptrapped in and around Louisville, Kentucky, from July 1973 to July 1974 to study seasonal molt of wild adults. Previous investigators assumed that these mice molt seasonally, but it has been unknown whether or not 1 or more molts occurred each year or just how the molts coincided with the reproductive cycle. The 94 adult specimens taken during the study indicate that there is, in fact, 1 seasonal molt each year and that it occurs in October, November, and December. Those months coincide approximately with the nonbreeding period and the short photoperiod. The actual pattern of new hair growth in adults resembles that of the juvenile molt. INTRODUCTION Mice of the genus Peromyscus have been some of the most extensively studied small mammals, and pelage and molting phenom- ena have been described in a number of species. Like many mammals, Peromyscus grows and molts 2 coats of hair before adulthood is reached. There is no standard nomenclature to describe such pelage changes as there is for the various avian plumages. In order of appearance after birth, the pelages and their subsequent molts will hereafter be termed (1) juvenile pelage (molt) and (2) subadult pelage (molt). They also are commonly referred to as maturational or developmental pelages (molts ). At maturity, the adult pelage must be shed periodically and be replaced if it is to continue to fulfill adequately its various functions. The adult pelages and molts have not been investigated as thoroughly in Peromyscus as have the developmental pelages. But it has been well shown that many other adult mammals exhibit seasonal moltings controlled by photoperiod through its effect on the pituitary (Ling 1970). It is generally assumed that adult Pero- myscus undergo seasonal pelage changes, but there have been few specific investiga- tions of the subject. Since hair growth cycles seem to be established early in life 1 Contribution No. 174 (New Series) from the Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208. 88 and subsequent cycles may in fact repeat those early events, it is important to be familiar with the developmental molts. King (1968) presented a short comparative survey of the developmental molts for the genus, but gave no information for seasonal molts. Gottschang (1956:517-519) gave a spe- cific description of juvenile molt in P. leu- copus noveboracensis. New rufous fur first begins to grow in a small patch or in a nar- row line slightly dorsal and anterior to the hind leg. This narrow line of new hair growth moves forward, and about the time it reaches the front legs, a small patch of new hair appears on the shoulders. The shoulder patch and lateral stripe then en- large until they meet, thus forming a con- tinuous line along the side that separates the white ventral fur from the dark mouse gray of the rest of the back. The lateral rufous stripes continue to increase in width while a cinnamon rufous patch appears on each cheek just beneath the eye. The eye patch enlarges to replace all the gray on the sides of the face. By then, the lateral rufous stripe has extended from the hind leg back to the base of the tail. The juvenile gray fur down the center of the back is then replaced by rufous adult fur. The last juvenile fur to be replaced is either that at the very base of the tail or that across the top of the shoul- ders and between the ears. Males and fe- males exhibit the same molting pattern | (Figiwd.) | SEASONAL MoLtT IN WHITE-FOOTED Mouse—Lensing 89 Fic. 1. Typical juvenile molt pattern for Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis (after Gottschang 1956). Stippled areas represent new adult pelage. Collins (1923) was the first to study adult molt in the genus. He did laboratory and field work on P. maniculatus gambeli, and concluded that the maximum amount of molting occurred in fall and early winter (September through December). “The most obvious characteristic of the seasonal molts is the absence of sharply defined molting periods. . . . Specimens may be found undergoing some change of pelage any month of the year.” (Collins 1923:64, 66). Brown (1963) found 2 seasonal pelages in adult P. boylii with most individuals ex- hibiting molt in spring (April-May) and fall (November—December). A spring and fall molt were also characteristic of Ochro- tomys nuttalli (Linzey and Linzey 1967). Lynch (1973) used adult P. leucopus in his laboratory study of the effects of chang- ing photoperiod and temperature on the seasonal molts and reproductive system. He found that the seasonal molt and gonadal regression were exhibited only by mice 90 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2) nas / DAY RATE OF CHANGE DEC JAN Ft6 MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Fic. 2. Rate of change in photoperiod for Louis- ville, Kentucky (approximately 38°N latitude). under a short-day photoperiod (9 hours light, 15 hours dark), and that short-day, cold-exposed (5 C) mice molted 2 weeks earlier than did warm (26 C) short-day mice. Short photoperiod had a more dramatic effect on the rate of seasonal molt than it did on the rate of regression of the reproductive system. Lynch assumed that the short-day seasonal molt was a fall molt. Thus, it seems true of adult Peromyscus, as it seems for other wild adult mammals, that several environmental factors control seasonal molt, but photoperiod may be the major one. The reproductive cycle is also mainly under photoperiodic control, so one would expect that individual breeding con- dition, as well as ambient and microclimatic temperatures and behavioral adaptations would also have varying effects on seasonal molt. METHODS AND MATERIALS One hundred forty-eight mice for the study were snaptrapped in and around Jefferson County, Kentucky (approximately 38° N latitude), and were prepared as flat study skins. Standard measurements for each animal at the time of skinning in- cluded: lengths of tail, hind foot, and ear, and total length, total weight, size and posi- tion of testes, and notation of pregnancy or lactation. The adrenal glands were mea- sured and preserved. Most specimens were collected between July 1973 and July 1974, although several skins were from the Uni- versity of Louisville collection and date | from 1964. All skins are on deposit at the University of Louisville. Each skin was categorized as juvenile, subadult, or adult on the bases of weight, breeding condition, and color of fur. Of the 148 mice, 94 were adult; only adults were used in assessing | seasonal molt. | To determine the amount of seasonal molt- | ing, skins were placed in the following 4 — groups based on the rate of change in photo- | period at 38° N latitude: summer (23 May- | 24 July), fall (24 July-23 November), winter — (23 November-21 January), and spring (21 | January-23 May). The rate of change in © photoperiod for fall and spring was higher — (between +.15 and +.20 hour per day) than the rate of change for summer and © winter (between 0 and +.15 hour per day) (Fig. 2). Each skin was appraised for molt by in- | specting the amount of pigment deposition © in the skin itself. This is seen best on the underside of the skin. Seldom was a molt | line visible in the fur, and, if so, only with respect to the developmental molts. The total area of each skin was determined by making tracings of the underside of the skin on clear plastic sheets of uniform thick- | ness. The total area was then divided into | molting and nonmolting areas on the basis — of pigment deposition, and each area was cut out and weighed on a balance accurate © to 1 mg. Weight was used to calculate the | percentage of each skin in the process of | molting, and from those weights, seasonal percentages were determined for each sea- sonal group. | The most characteristic patterns of new hair growth could also be seen by inspec- tion of the underside of each skin, and those patterns were arbitrarily divided into 5 basic groups (Fig. 3). Each skin was categorized as Pattern I, I, HI, IV, V, No Molt, or Diffuse Molt. The percentages of individuals in each category then could be calculated for summer, fall, winter, and | spring. | Size of adrenal glands was recorded for | 66 mice, and mean seasonal size was deter- mined. | SEASONAL MOLT IN WHITE-FOOTED Mouse—Lensing TABLE 1.—PERCENTAGES OF MALE, FEMALE, AND TOTAL PEROMYSCUS LEUCOPUS SHOWING MOLT AT DIFFERENT SEASONS, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY 91 Summer Fall Winter Spring Males Number 6 DD, 12 10 Mean = 2 SE Te =t.o 2 = ee TAA = IOS 6.6 = O7 sD 8.9 ob LAS ck Range 0-25.5 0-97.9 0-52.8 0-3.4 Females Number 0 19 13 12 Mean =+ 2 SE = DI, == MA 13.0: 1A 0.1.<0:1 sD = 27.0 20.6 0.3 Range - 0-85.6 0-68.7 0-0.9 Total Number 6 25 22 Mean + 2 SE Or = has Oh A = So) PG S20 03-63 sD 8.9 25.9 19.2 0.8 Range ea 0-97.9 0-68.7 0-3.4 RESULTS No comparisons could be made for summer Percentages of molt in progress in each of the 4 seasonal groups based on rate of change in photoperiod are shown in Table 1. The largest mean was always in fall, with the second largest mean in winter, and the smallest mean in spring. There was a significant difference between the amount of molting in fall and the amount in summer and spring. There also was a significant difference be- tween the amount of molting in winter and spring. There was significantly more molting in progress in fall and winter males and females than in spring males and fe- males. There also was significantly more molting in fall males than in summer males. females since none was caught during the study. The most common patterns of molt are shown in Fig. 3 and are arranged in se- quence I-V to resemble Gottschang’s (1956) drawings (Fig. 1) which show ori- gin and direction of the juvenile molt. Fig. 3 is not a dynamic series even though it is probable that adult patterns of molt follow closely the juvenile pattern. Pattern I represents those skins that show pigment deposition in the axillae of the fore- and/or hindlimbs. Pattern II represents skins with pigment deposition and a narrow band along the lateral lines from the axillae of the forelimbs to those of the hindlimbs. The TABLE 2,—PERCENTAGES OF INDIVIDUAL PEROMYSCUS LEUCOPUS SHOWING DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF MOLT, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY. (SEE TEXT FOR DESCRIPTION OF PATTERNS) I II III Summer 16.6 - — Fall 9.7 9.7 19.5 Jul-Aug 9.1 9.1 - Oct _ _ 30.0 Nov 15.0 15.0 25.0 Winter 8.0 16.0 24.0 Spring 13.6 os “a Pattern IV V Diffuse Total - - 33.3 49.9 19.5 1 yea | _ 75.6 9.1 9.1 - 36.6 40.0 20.0 _ 90.0 15.0 20.0 - 90.0 16.0 8.0 - 72.0 — 4.5 _ 18.2 92 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) PATTERN | PATTERN Il PATTERN Ill PATTERN IV PATTERN V Fic. 3. Categories of patterns of molt in adult Peromyscus leucopus. Stippled areas represent regions of new hair growth. See text for explanation of patterns. third pattern is the most variable in the sequence and symbolizes skins with pig- ment lines midway up the sides parallel to the lateral lines. Those 2 pigment lines may or may not be connected by pigment deposited across the dorsum. The lines vary greatly in width, and may extend from the lateral line almost to the mdidle of the back. Pattern IV depicts skins with pig- ment laid down in a single middorsal line from between the eyes to the base of the tail. Pattern V represents skins with pig- ment on the head (around and between the eyes and ears) and/or at the base of the — tail. The pigment deposition represented by each of the 5 patterns is almost always | bilaterally symmetrical. | The highest percentage of individuals — SEASONAL MoLtT IN WHITE-FOOTED Mouse—Lensing 93 TABLE 3.—SIZE (GREATEST LENGTH, MM) OF ADRENAL GLANDS OF ADULT MALE AND FEMALE AND ALL PEROMYSCUS LEUCOPUS EACH SEASON, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY Summer Fall Winter Spring Males Number 4 5 ) Mean = 2 SE a = OS Dy = OS Aa Mes ail |) 8 Ti OS sD 0.4 : 0.3 0.4 Range 3.2-3.8 1.5-3.8 2.4—3.0 2.2-3.5 Females Number 0 6 ie Mean + 2 SE = 2G == 3S To s= 220 I = 15.0 SD — : 0.3 0.3 Range = 2.44.0 2.0—2.7 2.0-2.9 Total Number 4 30 TE PAL Mean =+ 2 SE Se, == Oe Die = 04 I5= 0.9 iy OF sD 0.4 ; 0.3 0.4 Range 3.2-3.8 1.5—4.0 2.0—3.0 Pe showed molt in fall (75.6%) and winter (72%), while the lowest percentage was in spring (18.2%) (Table 2). When the fall group was broken down into 3 subgroups, the percentages were highest in October and November (both 90%). Winter was represented by mice caught only in Decem- ber. So, October, November, and Decem- ber were the months with the highest per- centages of individuals showing molt. Sizes of adrenal glands for the 4 sea- sons are shown in Table 3. Adrenal glands in summer are significantly larger than at any other time of year, and the male adrenal gland is significantly larger in summer than in fall, winter, or spring. No females were collected in summer during the study, but the females did have significantly larger adrenal glands in fall than in winter or spring. DISCUSSION Although some adult P. leucopus can be found in the process of molting at any time of year, there is but 1 annual molt. It oc- curs in fall and winter (specifically Octo- ber, November, and December) when the rate of decrease in photoperiod is greatest. But those months do not coincide exactly with the greatest rate of change in the fall photoperiod between 24 July and 23 No- vember. That time lag fits in with the general nature of hormonal control; hor- mone levels build up slowly in the blood- stream and must reach a certain critical level before stimulating any physiological changes. It is also known that P. leucopus, from approximately the same locality as the present study group, are in _ breeding condition all months except November, December, and January (Thane Robinson pers. comm.). This is essentially in agree- ment with the findings of Burt (1940) and Whitaker (1940) at Ann Arbor, Michigan, who reported that few young were produced in November and none in December, Jan- uary, or February. Most litters were pro- duced in April, May, and June. A slump occurred in July, but production was up again in August, September, and October. Since Hayward (1965) has shown that P. maniculatus does not need to grow a warm winter coat, the fact that the non- breeding months overlap the months of the annual molt probably is no coincidence. October, November, and December must represent the most energetically feasible time of the year to molt with respect to the reproductive cycle. These findings agree with Osgood’s 94 TRANS. KeNTuCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2) (1909) belief that Peromyscus undergoes only 1 seasonal molt in the fall and with Collins’s (1923) field study which showed a fall molt (October and November) in P. maniculatus. Brown (1963) and Lynch (1973) are the only investigators who at- tempted to relate adult molting to photo- period and the reproductive cycle. P. boylii apparently has 2 seasonal molts (fall and spring) that coincide with the ends of breeding periods. Laboratory reared P. leucopus come out of breeding condition and exhibit molting when exposed to short photoperiod, but the seasonal timing of the molt in wild white-footed mice has not been determined previously. Adult P. leucopus do adhere to definite patterns of new hair growth and those pat- terns resemble those of the juvenile molt (Table 2). Only in the summer group did any individuals exhibit molt with a diffuse pattern. Just how size of adrenal glands relates to seasonal molting is not known. But adrenal gland size is a known indicator of the amount of environmental stress in small mammals, and stress probably can modify the effects of a major environmental cue like photoperiod. The present study helps confirm the be- lief that photoperiod is the major environ- mental cue to trigger seasonal molt in wild adult P. leucopus, as it is in many other wild animals. Also, it shows how tightly linked are the 2 energy costly events of reproduction and new hair growth. Other less important factors probably modify the main environmental cue so that some indi- viduals may be found molting at any time of year. Only 1 seasonal molt was typical of P. leucopus at 38° N latitude, but de- pending on the latitude and the breeding cycle, there may be 2 seasonal molts per year, as there are in P. boylii and Ochro- tomys nuttalli. LITERATURE CITED Brown, L. N. 1963. Maturational and seasonal molts in Peromyscus boylii. Amer. Midl. Nat. 70:466—-469. Burt, W. H. 1940. Territorial behavior and populations of some small mammals in south- ern Michigan. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 45:1-58. Cotuins, H. H. 1923. Studies of the pelage phases and of the nature of color variation in mice of the genus Peromyscus. J. Exp. Zool. 38:45-107. GotTscHAnG, J. L. 1956. Juvenile molt in Pero- myscus leucopus noveboracensis. J. Mammal. 37:516—520. Haywarp, J. S. 1956. Microclimate temperature and its adaptive significance in six geograph- ical races of Peromyscus maniculatus. Can. J. Zool. 43:341—350. Kinc, J. A., Ep. 1968. Biology of Peromyscus. Spec. Publ. No. 2, Amer. Soc. Mammal. 593 Ppp. Linc, J. K. 1970. Pelage and molting in wild animals with special reference to aquatic forms. Quart. Rev. Biol. 45:16—54. LinzEy, D. W., AND A. V. LinzEy. 1967. Mat- urational and seasonal molts in the golden mouse, Ochrotomys nuttalli. J. Mammal. 48: 236-241. Lyncu, G. R. 1973. Effect of simultaneous ex- posure to difference in photoperiod and tem- perature on the seasonal molt and reproductive system of the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 44A:1373— 1376. Oscoop, W. H. 1909. Revision of the mice of the American genus Peromyscus. N. Amer. Fauna 28:1—285. Wuiraker, W. L. 1940. Some effects of artifi- cial illumination on reproduction in the white- footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus. J. Exp. Zool. 83:33-60. The “Lost”? Liliaceae of Kentucky: A Reevaluation’ EpwarpD T. BROWNE, JR. Department of Biology, Memphis State University, Memphis, Tennessee 38152 AND RAYMOND ATHEY 701 Woodland Avenue, Paducah, Kentucky 42001 ABSTRACT Melanthium virginicum L. is reported for Kentucky the first time in more than 130 years. Evidence of the occurrence of Maianthemum canadense Desf. in Kentucky is given, and Lilium philippinense Baker is reported for the first time as a naturalized escape. In an earlier article (Browne 1962), spe- cies of Liliaceae were discussed which had last been collected in Kentucky 100 years or more ago or had never been collected in the state although their distribution in ad- jacent states indicated a likelihood of their occurrence in Kentucky. Two species have now been collected, and a third species, not expected in Kentucky, has been discovered. The acronyms F, GH, MO, NCU, NY, PH, and US that designate the herbaria re- ‘ferred to in this paper follow the usage of Lanjouw and Stafleu (1964) which is now almost universally adopted in reference to herbaria. It has been largely through the efforts of the second author that these records have been established. All collections are repre- ‘sented by specimens in the Herbarium, Memphis State University. Extra collec- tions have been distributed to NCU and other herbaria as permitted by the avail- ability of material. For the sake of brevity, the names of the collectors are abbreviated RA and ETB followed by their collection number. Melanthium virginicum.—As _ reported earlier, the only known records of this spe- cies in Kentucky are 2 sheets in NY col- lected by Dr. C. W. Short in 1842. No other data are known for those collections since the information furnished by Short is minimal. Specimens cited: Calloway County, RA, 2398. ‘Contribution No. 7, Kentucky Flora Project, Memphis State University. 95 Maianthemum canadense.—Wharton and Barbour (1971) illustrated this species, but gave no distributional data, in the absence of which and without voucher specimens, their illustration cannot be considered adequate to establish a state record. Dr. Barbour (pers. comm.) told both of us on separate occasions where the species was photographed. On the basis of that in- formation, the second author made voucher collections. It is our understanding that M. canadense also occurs in an adjacent county, but we have no specimens to support that contention. Specimens cited: Menifee County, RA, 2378. *Lilium philippinense —This species was collected by the first author while on a field trip in eastern Kentucky in 1972. It is thoroughly established in a large field and along roadsides in that locality. From that authors experience with this species in Georgia, it is clear that it must have es- caped from some flower garden in the vicinity. It is somewhat surprising that a report of its occurrence in the state has not been made previously, so great is the repro- ductive potential and widespread its distri- bution at that locality. Specimens cited: McCreary County, ETB 72H14.1. This species differs from L. formosanum Wallace (L. philippinense Baker var. for- mosanum [Wallace] Wilson apud Grove in Wilson 1925) in the shorter pedicels, non- stoloniferous bulbs (Wilson was not sure of this), glabrous stems, shorter ovulary, non- angular fruit, pointed (rather than de- 96 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) pressed) fruit summit, and the stamens slightly exceeding the perianth. The peri- anth at the base is about the diameter of an ordinary wooden pencil in living material, a character used by the late Dr. Samuel L. Emsweller, USDA (pers. comm.), as a separating characteristic. This is consider- ably greater in L. formosanum. The leaves of our specimens are wider (6-10 mm) than reported by Wilson (2-4 mm), but that might vary depending upon environmental conditions. It seems apparent from this study that L. philippinense and L. formos- anum probably are not distinct species, but the answer to that problem is beyond the scope of this paper. L. philippinense is here recognized as an introduced, natural- ized taxon by the asterisk preceding the generic name. Appreciation is expressed to the curators and staffs of the following herbaria whose kindness and help to a great extent made © possible this publication: F, GH, MO, NY, | PH, and US. | LITERATURE CITED Browne, E. T., Jr. 1962. “Lost” species of Kentucky Liliaceae. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 23 (3-4) :51-57. | Lanjouw, J., AND F. A. StaFLeu. 1964. Index | Herbariorum. Ed. 5. Int. Bur. Pl. Taxon. | Nomen., A. I. P. T., Utrecht, Netherlands. Wuarton, M. E., anp R. W. Barsour. 1971. | The wildflowers and ferns of Kentucky. Univ. | Press Ky., Lexington, Ky. 344 pp. Witson, E. H. 1925. The lilies of eastern Asia. Dulau, London, Eng. | A Note on the Distribution of Chrosomus erythrogaster (Cyprinidae) in Kentucky Tuomas M. FREEZE AND Katuy J. RAYBURN Department of Biology, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071 ABSTRACT The distribution of the southern redbelly dace Chrosomus erythrogaster in western Ken- tucky includes the Gulf Coastal Plain, based on collections from the Tennessee River drainage in Calloway County. Clay (1975) reported that the distribu- tion of the southern redbelly dace Chro- somus erythrogaster is statewide in Ken- tucky with the probable exception of the Gulf Coastal Plain. The collections reported by Woolman (1892), Sisk (1969), Smith and Sisk (1969), Resh et al. (1973), Jones (1974 unpublished master’s thesis, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky), and - Webb and Sisk (1975) in or bordering the Coastal Plain area of Kentucky did not contain any specimens of C. erythrogaster. Distributional records within the Coastal Plain area of other states include an isolated population in the Yazoo River drainage near Vicksburg, Mississippi, documented by Hemphill (1957), and a record from the - Obion River system of western Tennessee that presumably is valid (Sliger pers. comm.). C. erythrogaster is distributed widely in the eastern drainage of the Ten- nessee River in Tennessee (Sliger pers. comm.). Buchanan (1973) reported Phox- inus (= Chrosomus) erythrogaster from the St. Francis River drainage within the Missis- sippi Alluvial Plain in Arkansas, but Pflieger (1975) did not record it from the “Lowlands” of southeastern Missouri within the same drainage. On 24 June 1976, 2 specimens of southern redbelly dace (MSUMZ 744) were collected in east-central Calloway County, Kentucky, within the reaches of the Gulf Coastal Plain. One was collected from Little Sugar Creek at the Highway 732 bridge about 8 km east of Highway 94 and 13 km due south of Kentucky Lake State Park. The second specimen was collected from the nearby boil of Russells Chapel Spring that empties into Little Sugar Creek. Little 97 Sugar Creek empties into the Blood River Embayment on the western side of Ken- tucky Lake (Tennessee River). These collections apparently represent the first records of C. erythrogaster from the Tennessee River drainage within the Coastal Plain of western Kentucky. It is believed that the specimens are indicative of an established population, since both were exhibiting breeding coloration. We express appreciation to Dr. Andrew Sliger and his ichthyology class for their assistance in securing the above specimens. LITERATURE CITED BucHANAN, T. M. 1973. Key to the fishes of Arkansas. Ark. Game Fish Comm., Little Rock, Ark. 170 pp. Cray, W. M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky. Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frankfort, Ky. 416 pp. Hempuitt, A. F. 1957. The southern redbelly dace, Chrosomus erythrogaster erythrogaster, from the lower Mississippi River drainage. Copeia 1957(1):53. PruiecerR, W. L. 1975. The fishes of Missouri. Mo. Dept. Cons., Jefferson City, Mo. 343 pp. ResH, V. H., C. R. Baker, AND W. M. Chay. 1973. A preliminary list of fishes of the Land Between the Lakes, Cumberland and Tennes- see river drainages. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 33 (3—4) :73-80. Sisk, M. E. 1969. The fishes of west Kentucky. I. Fishes of the Clark’s River. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30(3-4 ) :54—59. SmirH, P. L., anp M. E. Sisk. 1969. The fishes of west Kentucky. II. The fishes of Obion Creek. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30( 3-4) :60-68. Wess, D. H., anp M. E. Sisk. 1975. The fishes of west Kentucky. III. The fishes of Bayou de Chien. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36( 3-4) :63— 70. WootmaNn, A. J. 1892. Report of an examina- tion of the rivers of Kentucky with lists of the fishes obtained. Bull. U.S. Fish Comm. 1890: 249-289. A White-flowered Form of Iris cristata from Carter County, Kentucky’ ARLAND HOTCHKISS Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 AND KENNETH Ray WILSON Box 507, R. R. #5, Olive Hill, Kentucky 41164 A white-flowered form of the dwarf, crested iris, Iris cristata Ait. was found among hundreds of typical blooming plants which here segregate into light blue and dark blue forms. It is completely white except for the yellow crest. A white-flowered form known as _ var. ‘Contribution No. 185 (New Series) from the Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208. 98 alba Dykes is known in the horticultural | treatises on Iris but apparently is rare in the field. It was found on a steep, southwest facing, yellow clay bank of a small wood- land stream near U.S. Highway 60 on the © farm of Glendal Plummer at Gregoryville, — Kentucky, in May 1972. It is presently - known from this single collection and is — maintained in cultivation by the junior | author. DISTINGUISHED SCIENTIST AWARD Dr. Louis A. Krumholz On behalf of the Academy’s Board of Directors, I am pleased to have the privi- lege of making known to you the name of the Academy’s 1976 Distinguished Scientist. The idea for such an award was spawned during a board meeting sometime in the past two years. This year’s Board approved the award and also secured the approval and financial backing of the Executive Committee. Both groups are pleased that the award is now finally being instituted. Hopefully, the recipient of the award will be honored to be selected and I know that the Academy will be honored for being associated with the recipient. The person who we honor this evening was born in the Pacific Northwest in the State of Washington, but unlike others who heeded the classic admonition to go west, decided to head back east for his fame and glory. He completed a bacca- laureate degree at the College of St. 99 Thomas in St. Paul, Minnesota, with a major in General Science, and a master of science degree at the University of Illinois with a major in Zoology. Prior to enrolling at the University of Michigan to pursue a doctorate, he was employed for a while with the Illinois Natural History Survey. Apparently the type of research he undertook with the Survey, not only helped him to produce a doctoral dissertation in 1945 for the Uni- versity of Michigan, but has been the basis of much of his subsequent research ac- tivities in Michigan, Indiana, Tennessee, Kentucky, and in the Bahamas. Upon completion of his doctorate, he was hired by Indiana University as an in- structor in zoology and also as a research associate with the Indiana Lake and Stream Survey. That employment lasted 5 years, after which he was employed for 4 years by TVA to be in charge of an ecological study of White Oak Creek, a creek that received a wide variety of effluents from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Subsequently, he took an exotic position as Resident Biologist in charge of upkeep and all facilities and research at the Lerner Marine Laboratory at Bimini in the Ba- hamas. Settling back to earth, he came to the University of Louisville in 1957. He was hired as an assistant professor, and by 1963 was promoted to full professorship; in 1966-1967 he served as Chairman of the Division of Natural Sciences. He was Director of the Water Resources Labora- tory at the University of Louisville, a posi- tion to which he was appointed in 1967. During his busy career he has found time to: 1. Direct, or at least be involved in, the research efforts of 70 master’s and doctoral candidates, mostly at the University of Louisville but some at Indiana University. 2. Consult, in some way or another, for over 14 organizations, including the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies, the National Academy of Sciences, the World 100 Health Organization, the President’s Sci- entific Advisory Committee, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 3. Present more than 20 scholarly papers at meetings, conferences, and symposia of national and international professional or- ganizations. 4. Publish more than 90 research articles, mostly in research publications of national and international scope. His teaching has apparently been rein- forced by his research because he was named the 1976 Distinguished Faculty Lec- turer at the University of Louisville. He has served the Kentucky Academy of Science exceedingly well as its Presi- dent and now, as the Editor of the Acad- TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) emy's official publication, the TRANSAC- | TIONS. | The Academy’s 1976 Distinguished Sci- entist is Dr. Louis A. Krumholz. John C. Philley (Chmn) Board of Directors Response by Dr. Krumholz Thank you very much Dr. Philley. I | am most gratified and highly honored to | have been selected for this award. It is beautiful, and certainly is a high spot in my | career. At the same time, I am completely | taken aback by such an honor since there > are so many distinguished scientists in our © Academy. I will do my best to live up to your confidence. Thank you, again. ACADEMY AFFAIRS PROGRAM Friday, 19 November 1976 _1300— REGISTRATION, Room 137, Chem- 1700 EST _istry—Physics Building 1300- SCIENTIFIC EXHIBITS, Room 137, 1800 Chemistry—Physics Building —1300- SECTIONAL MEETINGS (see fol- 1530 lowing pages) 1530- PLENARY SESSION, Room 189, 1730 Chemistry—Physics Building (see below ) 1700- RECEPTION HOUR, Alumni House, 1900 Rose and Euclid Streets 1900-— KAS ANNUAL BANQUET, Student Center Ballroom (NOTE: pick up tickets at registration desk) Saturday, 20 November 1976 —0700- BREAKFAST SERVICE, Student Cen- 1900 EST ter Grill and elsewhere in vicinity 0800- REGISTRATION, Room 187, Chem- 1000 istry—Physics Building 0800-— ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING, 0930 Room 139, Chemistry—Physics Build- ing 0930-— SECTIONAL MEETINGS (see fol- lowing pages) 0930- PANEL DISCUSSION ON LIBRAR- IES (see below) 1100- CAFETERIA SERVICE, Student Cen- 1400 ter and elsewhere SPECIAL PROGRAMS Friday, 19 November 1976, Room 139, Chemistry— Physics Building PLENARY SESSION “Preservation and Protection of Natural Areas in Kentucky” William H. Martin, Moderator 1530— Preserving natural diversity. William H. 1600 Martin, Associate Professor of Biological Science, Eastern Kentucky University. 1600-— The 1976 Kentucky Nature Preserves Act. 1630 Jon E. Rickert, Attorney-at-law, Elizabeth- town, Kentucky. 1630— Scenic easements: protection by private 1700 ownership. Hon. Joseph C. Graves, State Senator, Lexington, Kentucky. 1700— Community action: protection through land 1730 trust. Robert A. Kuehne, Associate Pro- fessor of Biology, University of Kentucky. 101 Saturday, 20 November 1976, Room 139, Chem- istry—Physics Building “The Library—Your Best Research Ally” Marth Rush, President, Special Libraries Association, Kentucky Chapter, University of Louisville Law Library, Moderator Panel Members 0920— Trudi Belardo, Computer Based Literature 1130 Search, King Library, University of Ken- tucky. Ellen Baxter, Department of Chemistry Librarian, University of Kentucky. Mary Evelyn Minter, Medical Center Li- brary, University of Kentucky. Virginia Neal, Science Librarian, Western Kentucky University. BoTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY Room 108-109, T. H. Morgan Biological Science Building Harold E. Eversmeyer, Chairman, Presiding Joe E. Winstead, Secretary Friday, 19 November 1315 Bacterial cell separation in the absence of growth. A. D. Hitchins, John W. O'Donnell II, and Charles Gilvarg. T. H. Morgan School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky, and Department of Biochemical Sciences, Princeton University. 1330 Baseline data on the microbiota of air in an urban area. K. E. Bewley, W. R. Ranney, EP) Elliott; and™ EB. Lockwood. “De- partment of Biology, Western Kentucky University. 1345 Anticandida and anticancer therapy in Can- dida infected AKR mice. Stephen E. Woock and David N. Mardon. Department of Bio- logical Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University (Sponsored by Raymond B. Otero). 1400 Mouse marrow-thymus lymphocyte antigen: a new differentiation heteroantigen in ro- dents. Fernando Morgado. Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University. 1415 Phytoplankton dynamics in the Bayou du Chien, a stream of western Kentucky. Ed- ward L. Johnson and Robert G. Johnson. Department of Biology, Murray State Uni- versity. 1430 Gel electrophoresis in the genus Tsuga. Ron- ald R. Van Stockum, Jr. Department of Biology, University of Louisville. 102 Saturday, 20 November 0945 The Big Clifty Prairie, a remnant outlier of the Prairie Peninsula, Grayson County, Kentucky. William S. Bryant. Department of Biology, Thomas More College. 1000 Some effects of ground fire on the _her- baceous and shrub strata in the knobs region of Marion County, Kentucky. Les McClain. Department of Science, Saint Catherine Col- lege. Rapid response to stimuli in plants. Anne Hotchkiss, Louisville Biology Section Win- ner of the Kentucky Junior Academy of Science. Information storage and retrieval system de- signed for the herbarium for Murray State University. Marian J. Fuller. Department of Biology, Murray State University. Bryophytes of the Red River Gorge. S. M. Moyle, G. M. Cheschier, and K. Wilhelmi. Department of Biology, Centre College of Kentucky. Bryophytes of Backusburg Hill, Calloway County, Kentucky. James Perry. Depart- ment of Biology, Murray State University (sponsored by M. J. Fuller). Interesting fern records from the Red River catchment area in Kentucky. Ray Cranfill. T. H. Morgan School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky (sponsored by W. J. Meijer). Vascular flora of the Sandy Branch drainage in Carlisle County, Kentucky. Larry Wilson. Department of Biology, Murray State Uni- versity (sponsored by M. J. Fuller). Vascular flora of loess ravines in Carlisle, Hickman, and Fulton counties of Kentucky. Charlotte Bryan. Department of Biology, Murray State University. Election of officers for 1976-1977. 1015 1030 1045 1100 1115 1130 1145 1200 CHEMISTRY Room 220, Chemistry—Physics Building William R. Oliver, Chairman, Presiding Ilyas Ahmad, Secretary Friday, 19 November 1300 1315 Sectional business meeting. Electrochemical carbon—halogen bond _fis- sion: le vs. 2e mechanisms. James E. O'Reilly. University of Kentucky. Proton excited x-ray fluorescence analysis of solid coal. S. Crouch Laumer and H. W. Laumer. Department of Chemistry and De- partment of Physics, University of Kentucky. Application of instrumental neutron activa- tion techniques to coal analysis. G-H. Sun, W. D. Ehmann, and L. L. Chyi. Department of Chemistry and Institute of Mining and Minerals Research, University of Kentucky. 1330 1345 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) 1400 Chemical studies of impact glasses and lunar — agglutinates. W. B. Stroube, Jr. and W. D. Ehmann. Department of Chemistry, Uni- versity of Kentucky. Chemical characterization of Apollo 16 lunar core samples by INAA. T. I. M. Hossain, M. Z. Ali, and W. D. Ehmann. Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky. Photolysis of some substituted pyrroles. D. M. Bruser and J. M. Patterson. Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky. 1415 1430 1445 and methyl phenylpropriolate. Chester L. Leach and Joseph Wilson. Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky. Some observations on the reaction of hydra- zine with 3-benzylidene-phthalide. Victor 1500 I. Bendall and Beveraly Ann Phelps. De- | partment of Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky | University. Saturday, 20 November 0930 Crystal structure of 4,4’-dichlorobiphenyl. Meii-Shiow Kuo and Carolyn P. Brock. De-— partment of Chemistry, University of Ken- tucky. 0945 ment of Chemistry, University of Kentucky. 1000 the body chemistry. Ilyas Ahmad and Char- lotte Dingels. Kentucky State University. 1015 tucky State University. Break. Synthesis of maleic anhydride from aspartic 1030 1045 acid. Loren Braun, Walter T. Smith, Jr., and J. M. Patterson. Department of Chemistry, — University of Kentucky. 1100 Science. eS anilines. Ellis Brown. Department of Chem- istry, University of Kentucky. 1130 structed gas chromatograms. Howard Eris- man and Marshall Gordon. Department of. Chemistry, Murray State University. 1145 Disproportionation equilibria for cobalt (I) in solution. University. Lunch. Investigation of mixed indicator effect in complexometric titration of cobalt (II). Dar- 1200 1315 The reaction between diphenyldiazo methane — Thermal behavior of ethylenetetracarboxylic | acid. Nabeel F. Haidar, Loren Braun, J. M. | Patterson, and Walter T. Smith, Jr. Depart-_ Effect of varying dosage of vitamin E on Department of Chemistry, | The adsorbed phase of CS2+acetone on a heterogeneous carbon surface. Marcellus T. Coltharp. Department of Chemistry, Ken- | Morphology of lead crystals grown in gels. Ms. Jo Reed, Kentucky Junior Academy of. The Skraup reaction with meta-substituted — A new criteria for the enhancement of in- completely resolved mass spectra and recon-_ mono- substituted pentakis (aromatic isocyanide) C. A. LL. Beckers! Department of Chemistry, Kentucky State. : 1330 1345 1400 ACADEMY AFFAIRS nell Salyer and John Thomas Newton. De- partment of Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky University. Effect of heated and nonheated oils with varying degrees of unsaturation on the body chemistry and their relationship to vitamin E hypervitaminosis. Ilyas Ahmad and David S. Cornelius. Department of Chemistry, Ken- tucky State University. Computer simulation of the interaction of hydrogen with aluminum metal surfaces. Audrey L. Companion. Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky. Base induced claisen rearrangement of bis- popargyl ethers. B. Venugopalan. Depart- ment of Chemistry, University of Louisville. GEOGRAPHY Room 367, Chemistry—Physics Building Phillip Phillips, Chairman, Presiding W. A. Franklin, Secretary Friday, 19 November 1300 1315 1330 1345 1400 1415 1430 1445 1500 1515 The evolving Bluegrass Region of Kentucky: a half century of change, 1920-1970. W. A. Withington. Department of Geography, Uni- versity of Kentucky. A geographic analysis of Kentucky Lake sub- divisions. W. A. Franklin. Geography De- partment, Murray State University. Ad hoc market structure: the yard sale. Bill Daken. Geography Department, Uni- versity of Louisville. A behavioral assessment of downtown space. Ann Dretzka. Graduate School of Public Affairs, Kentucky State University. Break. The development of cross-valley natural bridges in southeastern Ohio. Thomas C. Kind. Geography Department, Murray State University. Residential developer’s locational decision and views on suburban versus exurban land development. Dinker Patel. Graduate School of Public Affairs, Kentucky State University. A probe of design development trends in Kentucky’s gravity center: the Louisville, Lexington, Covington triangle. Ann Dretzka, Mark M. Chatfield, and Gaynelle R. Trevino. Graduate School of Public Affairs, Kentucky State University. Changing landuse patterns in Kentucky. Phillip Phillips. Department of Geography, University of Kentucky. Election of Officers. Saturday, 20 November 0930-1230 Field trip in Lexington area. 103 GEoLocy Room 387, Chemistry—Physics Building Charles T. Helfrich, Chairman, Presiding Gary L. Kuhnhenn, Secretary Friday, 19 November 1300 1315 1330 1345 1400 1415 1430 1445 1500 1515 Petrographic and sulfur analysis of potential spoil from surface mining. P. W. Whaley, H. R. Clark, and V. P. Wiram. Department of Chemistry and Geology, Murray State University. Devonian to Mississippian stratigraphy and bone beds, east and west of the Cincinnati Arch in Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio, and Ten- nessee. J. E. Conkin. Department of Geol- ogy, University of Louisville, and B. M. Conkin. Jefferson Community College. Hydrology of the central Kentucky karst: summary of results of dye tracing and cave mapping. J. F. Quinlan and D. R. Rowe. Uplands Research Laboratory and Depart- ments of Engineering Technology and Ge- ography—Geology, Western Kentucky Uni- versity. Relation of the “vein minerals” of Kentucky Mississippian, geodes to the Mississippi Val- ley stratiform ore deposits. I. S. Fisher. Department of Geology, University of Ken- tucky. Petrographic analysis of chert from the Paoli-Beaver Bend member of the Newman Limestone (Mississippian) of eastern Ken- tucky. T. P. Binkley. Department of Ge- ology, Eastern Kentucky University (spon- sored by H. P. Hodge). The relationship of sieve-size frequency distribution to thin-section (point-count) textural data. T. F. McLoughlin. Depart- ment of Geoscience, Morehead State Uni- versity (sponsored by J. C. Philley). The rock cycle. R. J. Singh and J. Bushee. Department of Geology, Northern Kentucky University (sponsored by C. T. Helfrich). Stratigraphic correlation with multivariate analysis techniques. L. L. Chyi, L. Elizalde, and G. E. Smith. Institute for Mining and Minerals Research, University of Kentucky (sponsored by W. H. Dennen). The economic potential of the Devonian black shales in northeastern Kentucky. C. L. Sharpe II and G. E. Marshall. Depart- ment of Geoscience, Morehead State Uni- versity (sponsored by J. C. Philley). Pyroclastic deposits in the Ordovician, Devo- nian, and Mississippian of Kentucky. J. E. Conkin. Department of Geology, University of Louisville, and B. M. Conkin. Jefferson Community College. Saturday, 20 November 0930 Sectional meeting. 0945 Depositional environment of the Wilcox— Claiborne (Eocene) sediments in Henry, 104 1000 1015 1100 1115 1130 1145 1200 TrANs. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) Weakley, and Carroll counties, Tennessee. A. L. Clark. Department of Chemistry and Geology, Murray State University. UV-degradation of polymers. K. L. Gauri. Department of Geology. J. A. Gwinn and K. Popli. Department of Physics, University of Louisville. Additional findings concerning the mega- brecchia at Jeptha Knob. C. R. Seeger. De- partment of Geography and Geology, West- ern Kentucky University. A simple means for correlation of parametric data sets. W. H. Dennen. Department of Geology, University of Kentucky. Clay mineralogy of the Pennington Forma- tion of eastern Kentucky. G. Ellesworth. Kentucky Geological Survey (sponsored by H. P. Hodge). A depositional model for the Middle Ordo- vician Platteville Group, Lee and LaSalle counties, Illinois. G. L. Kuhnhenn. Depart- ment of Geology, University of Louisville. Preliminary paleomagnetic results from Upper Ordovician rocks of eastern Ken- tucky. T. Smith. Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University (sponsored by C. T. Helfrich). Our dwindling resources. L. Suranarayana. Kentucky Geological Survey. Coal is king in Kentucky. N. C. Kester. De- partment of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University. The Lexington Area Karst Project, an over- view and some preliminary findings. J. Thrailkill and Michael R. McCann. De- partment of Geology, University of Ken- tucky. PuysIcs Room 287, Chemistry—Physics Building David J. Boyle, KAPT President, Presiding Charles D. Teague, Secretary Friday, 19 November 1330 1340 1350 1400 1410 A mini-orange spectrometer for internal- conversion-electron measurement. Douglas E. Miracle and Bernard D. Kern. University of Kentucky. Positron studies of mercury—indium alloys. W. F. Huang and Y. C. Leung. University of Louisville. L-shell fluorescent yields (Wz) for Z=63 and Z=92. Christopher E. Laird. Eastern Kentucky University. Emission spectrum of mercury—gallium vapor mixture. Chilukuri Santarum. Union Col- lege. Beta decay of short lived nuclei near _— 116 and A=190. Jesse L. Weil. University of Kentucky. Total cross section measurements for (p,n) and (an) reactions AL. B. Hiller, K. K. Sekhauran, and F. Gabbard. University of Kentucky. 1430 1450 Saturday, 20 November | 0930 0940 0950 1000 1010 1020 1030 1040 1050 1100 1110 PuysioLocy, BiopHysics, AND PHARMACOLOGY Friday, 19 November 1315 1330 1345 Mossbauer effects in methylcyclopentadienyl : iron dicarbonyl dimer. T. C. Rinckel and D. | J. Boyle. Thomas More College. : Odd-Z, odd-N nuclei near mass number A= 90. Bernard D. Kern. tucky. University of Ken- The effects of low-level exposures of X rays | on the trained response of planaria. Adrian Gooch, Richard Buchanan, and William | Buckman. Western Kentucky University. Radio recombination lines from the plane | of the Milky Way. Andrew W. Seacorn. Northern Kentucky University. Survey of charge compensation of trivalent > rare ions in BaF2. W. J. Bresser, K. P. | Roenker, and G. K. Miner. Thomas More College. | Some iodine charge state measurements at 20 mev. Jana Godwin, Jill Crawford, Greg Bazzell, Ron Berkley, Russell Walker, Ken- neth Courtney, Jack Brockman, and Lynn Bridwell. Murray State University. David Rittenhouse, scientist of 1776. Joel Gwinn. University of Louisville. The construction and use of a 6-inch New- tonian reflector in a photographic study of the moon. Mr. Jimmie Brownfield. Winner of KJAS competition in Physics. | Air pollution levels of oxidants and nitrogen oxides in northern Kentucky. S. J. Schwartz. and K. P. Roenker. Thomas More College. Use of a hand-held calculator in a science | classroom. Dewey Moore. Owsley County ° High School. Experiences in solar heating. Michael R. McPherson. Northern Kentucky University. . Mechanics of expressway traffic. R. A. Meier and J. E. Lang. Thomas More College. Study of barriers to expressway noise pol- lution. D. J. Simon and D. J. Boyle. Thomas > More College. | Room 200, Funkhouser Building Sanford L. Jones, Chairman, Presiding Thomas P. Coohill, Secretary Nonprotein amino acid modification of moth behavior and neuromuscular activity. Doug- las L. Dahlman. Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky. | Effects of canavanine, an arginine analogue, on reproduction and ovarial physiochemical composition of the moth, Manduca sexta. Ronald Palumbo and Douglas L. Dahlman. Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky. | Noxious stimulation of the tooth pulp in awake cats: a behavioral study. Stephen' 1400 1415 1430 1445 1500 ACADEMY AFFAIRS Wilson, John R. Meyer, and Kenneth H. Reid. Department of Physiology and Bio- physics, University of Louisville. A comparison of apparent autonomic re- sponses to routine dental procedures. G. A. West, A. E. Bastawi, and K. H. Reid. De- partment of Physiology and Biophysics, Uni- versity of Louisville. An automated system for following reflex responsiveness over wide variations in ex- citability. G. Stege III, K. H. Reid, and S. Wilson. Department of Physiology and Bio- physics, University of Louisville. Acupressure: noninvasive control of noci- fensor reflex responsiveness in the awake cat. K. H. Reid and S. Wilson. Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Louisville. Biliary secretion and absorption of radio- active thyroxine glucuronide in Rana cates- beiana and Chrysemys picta picta. Sanford L. Jones. Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University. Prostoglandin E2, and F: alpha synthesis in rat testis in vitro. Jai Sarup. Department of Biology, Murray State University. Saturday, 20 November 0930 0945 1000 1015 1030 1045 1100 The effects of hypothalamic implants of prolactin on the onset of puberty in the female rat. James L. Voogt and Jay I. Levin. Department of Physiology and Bio- physics, University of Louisville. Influence of carotid body sympathectomy on ventilatory response to hypoxia. J. Sewell and J. R. Meyer. Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Louisville. The influence of mammalian cell geometry on ultraviolet radiation sensitivity in the herpes virus-CV-1 cell system. Daniel J. Knauer and Thomas P. Coohill. Biophysics Laboratory, Western Kentucky University. Ultraviolet enhancement (Weigle reactiva- tion) of irradiated herpes virus survival in mammalian cells. Thomas P. Coohill, Leslie James, and Sharon Moore. Biophysics Lab- oratory, Western Kentucky University. A fluorescent antibody assay for SV40 virus production in mammalian cells. Sharon P. Moore, Timothy J. Eichenbrenner, and Thomas P. Coohill. Biophysics Laboratory, Western Kentucky University. The identification of urinary glycosamino- glycans associated with angiosarcoma of the liver. Kevin L. Curran and Charles E. Kup- chella. Cancer Center, University of Louis- ville. Carbon tetrachloride-induced changes in liver and urinary cyclosamino-gylcans in the rat. James Jarvis, Charles E. Kupchella, and Kevin L. Curran. Cancer Center, University of Louisville. 105 1115 Left ventricular diameter as an index of contractility in the closed chest dog. David W. Boone and William B. Wead. Depart- ment of Physiology and Biophysics, Uni- versity of Louisville. SCIENCE EDUCATION Room 397, Chemistry—Physics Building Ronald K. Atwood, Presiding J. Truman Stevens, Secretary Saturday, 20 November 0930 0950 1010 1030 1050 1110 1130 1150 An evaluative study of a resource teacher implementation program in elementary sci- ence. Steve Henderson. Model Laboratory School, Eastern Kentucky University. Improving _ self-sufficiency of elementary science teachers. George H. Miller. Division of Natural Sciences, University of Louisville. Utilizing mass communications for in-service elementary science education: the system. Herbert N. Simmons. Science Education, Western Kentucky University. Utilizing mass communications for in-service elementary science education: the rationale and implications. Robert L. Stevenson. Sci- ence Education, Western Kentucky Uni- versity. Science merit ratings. Frank Howard. State Science Consultant, State Department of Education. Performance of Kentucky high schools on the chemistry exam of the annual science and mathematics achievement program at East- ern Kentucky University. Darnell Salyer and Earl T. Crouch. Department of Chem- istry, Eastern Kentucky University. Relationships among cognitive preferences, science processes and grade level for junior high students. Ronald K. Atwood and J. Truman Stevens. Science Education, Uni- versity of Kentucky. Computer based resource units in environ- mental education. Terry Wilson. Environ- mental Consultant, State Department of Education. West Kentucky environmental education con- sortium. Shaw Blankenship. Environmental Education, Murray State University. Business Session. PsyYCHOLOGY Room 359, Chemistry—Physics Building Brent C. White, Chairman, Presiding Don Brown, Secretary Saturday, 20 November 1000 1015 Sectional Business Meeting. The role of catecholamine synthesis in caf- feine-induced hyperactivity. Brent C. White, Carol Clegg, and Eli Adams. Centre College. The role of perspective and slant in the per- ception of apparent size and distance. Jack G. Thompson and Claude A. Valenti. Centre College. Rambling remarks about some shortcomings of the statistical significance test for psycho- logical investigations. James S. Calvin. Uni- versity of Kentucky. Contrasting predictions of emotional pro- cesses derived from Leventhal’s Parallel Processing Model, Epstein’s Habituation Model, and Wicklund’s Objective Self- awareness Theory. Donald H. Brown and Karen Haswell. Habituation of emotional responses. Anita Britton, Donald H. Brown, and Dave Horine. 1045 1100 1115 SOCIOLOGY Room 345, Chemistry—Physics Building Robert L. Hoffelder, Chairman, Presiding James S. Wittman, Jr., Secretary Friday, 19 November 1300 Toward a theory of fertility. Murray State University. 1330 Social stratification: a comparative perspec- tive. Henry H. B. Chang. Morehead State University. 1400 Changes in the modern Chinese family. Wai Kin Che. Campbellsville. 1430 Sectional Business Meeting. 1976-1977 Officers. Dr. George. Elections of Saturday, 20 November 0945 Going steady as practiced by Kentucky high school students. James S. Wittman, Jr. Western Kentucky University. 1015 Television and the family: an overview of the Icelandic experience. Thomas P. Dunn. Western Kentucky University, and Bragi Josepsson. Republic of Iceland. ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY Room 124, Funkhouser Building Charles V. Covell, Jr., Chairman, Presiding Henry H. Howell, Secretary Friday, 19 November 1300 Business Meeting and Election of Officers. 1315 Efficiency and selectivity of two types of wood slat traps in Kentucky Lake. Ralph V. Jackson. Department of Biology, Murray State University. 1330 Age and growth of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, in Dardanelle Reservoir, Arkansas. Thomas M. Freeze. Department of Biology. Murray State University. Some limnological parameters of Vickers Bay, Kentucky Lake. Kerry W. Prather. De- partment of Biology, Murray State Uni- versity. 1345 Trans. KeENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(1-2) 1400 1415 1430 1445 1500 1515 Saturday, 20 November 0945 1000 1015 1030 1045 1100 1115 1130 Coniopterygidae of Kentucky. Victor John- son and Paul H. Freytag. Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky. Coffee Break. | Studies in artificial rearing of Amblyseius fallacis, a predator of the twospotted spider mite. Cary Patterson and J. G. Rodriguez. | Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky. | Preference and utilization of food by the coffee bean weevil, Araecerus fasciculatus. J. G. Rodriguez, M. F. Potts, and L. D.| Rodriguez. Department of Entomology, Uni- versity of Kentucky. Survivorship and life expectancy of Drosoph- ila melanogaster population in abnormal oxy- gen-normal pressure regime. Gerrit P. Kloek, | Gertrude C. Ridgel, and Dennis B. Ralin. Department of Biology, Kentucky State Uni- versity. Ovipositional studies of Bathyplectes anurus, | a parasitoid of the alfalfa weevil. Kenneth: V. Yeargan and M. A. Latheef. Department’ of Entomology, University of Kentucky. A preliminary study of the benthic macro-: invertebrates of the Bayou du Chien Creek. in western Kentucky. James Roscher. De-. partment of Biology, Murray State Uni-. versity. Lethal and teratogenic effects of inorganic mercury to the embryonic development of! Hyla gratiosa Le Conte. Albert Westerman. Department of Biology, University of Ken-- tucky. Genic variability and the adaptive strategy of periodical cicada (Homoptera: Magici-- cada). Dennis B. Ralin and Gerrit P. Kloek. Department of Biology, Kentucky State Uni- versity. The effects of 2450 m Hz microwaves on Rana pipiens. Gordon Carnes, C. B. Ha- mann, and D. G. Puntenny. Department of Biology, Asbury College. The viral complex of the fall web worm, Hyphantria cunea (Drury), and _ related Arctiidae species. Drion G. Boucias and Gerald L. Nordin. Department of Ento- mology, University of Kentucky. Ultra low-volume spraying of Baygon for: mosquito control. Gary Moneyham and Fred Knapp. Department of Entomology, Uni- versity of Kentucky. | The Society of Kentucky Lepidopterists: its contribution to our knowledge of Kentucky’s butterflies and moths. Charles V. Covell, Jr. Department of Biology, University of Louisville. | Comparative hematology in amphibians. Ar-| land Hotchkiss. KJAS Winner of Zoology Section Award. q ACADEMY AFFAIRS Tue SIxTy-SECOND ANNUAL Business MEETING OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY, LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY 19 and 20 November 1976 Hosts: Drs. Ellis V. Brown and William F. Wagner MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING The meeting was called to order by President Frederick Brown at 0805 in Room 139, Chemistry— Physics Building, with about 60 members in attendance. After a motion by Secretary Prins and a second from the floor, the Minutes of the 1975 Annual Business Meeting at the University of Louisville, as recorded in TRANSACTIONS Vol. 37(1-2), were approved. Secretary Prins then moved to accept all mem- bers that joined during 1975. Motion was sec- onded and carried. Dr. Prins announced that membership has de- clined from 510 individual members in 1975 to 480 in 1976. The total mailing list includes about 580 entries in the computer at Western Kentucky University. A moment of respect was given three individuals who passed away during the year: Dr. Robert Boyer, University of Kentucky; Dr. Lyle R. Daw- son, University of Kentucky; and Dr. Morgan E. Sisk, Murray State University. The Treasurers Report was presented by Wayne Hoffman. The report was audited by Drs. R. L. ‘Miller, D. H. Puckett, and E. O. Beal (Chmn), Western Kentucky University, and was found to be in exemplary form. Dr. E. V. Brown moved that the report be accepted. After a second, the motion carried. It was noted that the current issue of the TRANSACTIONS had not yet been paid for. Treasurers Report to Audit Committee Kentucky Academy of Science 30 September 1975-11 November 1976 Cash in Citizens National Bank, Bowling Green, Kentucky ____. SS B42 _ RECEIPTS: Subsidy from State _.. $3,000.00 Membership dues 2,038.50 Annual Meeting 113.20 Transactions subscriptions _ 3844.50 University of Louisville and other purchase of dimamsachHOns 02) oe.) 1,087.00 AAAS research grant ___.. 132.00 Botany grant transfer _____.. 500.00 $ 7,215.20 $12,562.47 DIsBURSEMENTS: Botany crant 215) 500.00 Research grants _..___..___.__. 132.00 Annual Meeting _... 234.75 Publication of Transactions 4,129.16 107 INNS. “CUGS 2 ee ee 24.50 Stationery printing —____ 11.23 Miscellancous; = 1.00 $ 5,032.64 $ 7,529.83 Check to JKAS outstanding 500.00 Cash in Citizens National Bank __._____ $ 7,529.83 Savings Account, Lexington Federal Savanes Ge Whoa eee $ 1274.02 Ova MONA gies wee wee Ae le ee $ 890.96 Certificate of Deposit (Grant) $ 2,641.68 MOAT] CP AGSHIGs p 2) see teen Om $12,336.49 Dr. Brown next called for reports from the standing committees. 1. Committee on Membership. No report. 2. Committee on Legislation. This committee did not function because of activity of participants in the formation of the new standing committees (see below). 3. Committee on Distribution of Research Funds (Jerry Howell, Jr., Joe Winstead, Patricia Malik). Two recipients were announced for 1976: a. Phyllis K. Lonneman, Simon Kenton High School, Independence, KY. $90.00 for a study on “Distribution of Odonata (Insecta) in Campbell, Boone, and Kenton counties.” b. Charles V. Covell, Jr., University of Louisville. $38.00 for continuing work on the “Lepidop- teran Survey of the Red River Gorge.” 4. Committee on Publications. Dr. Krumholz stated that from all indications the new format and regularity of issues of the TRANSACTIONS have been well received by the membership. However, increases in costs of printing will neces- sitate an increase in dues next year. Details of costs were outlined in a separate report in the Secretary's book (see below under New Business). Reports of other committees were: 1. Seience Education Committee. Dr. Ted George conveyed information relating to pupil weighting factors in science education, probably a dead issue; how fees for laboratory use are to be obtained by local schools now that it has been ruled unconstitutional to collect money from stu- dents; and other matters that the committee is keeping under close observation. More information about those matters will be forthcoming in sub- sequent NEWSLETTERS. 108 2. Resolutions Committee. Dr. Donald Batch submitted the following resolutions, which were unanimously accepted: RESOLUTIONS Whereas, the University of Kentucky has graciously served as the Host Institution for the Sixty-second Annual Meeting of the Ken- tucky Academy of Science, and whereas Dr. Ellis V. Brown and Dr. William F. Wagner, members of the Hospitality Committee, and other personnel of the University of Ken- tucky have all worked diligently to make the meeting a success and, Whereas, the University of Kentucky has made outstanding contributions to scientific thought and leadership, Therefore, be it resolved: a. That the Kentucky Academy of Science express its appreciation to the University of Kentucky and the above individuals, and that the Academy’s Secretary be in- structed to so inform them. b. That the Kentucky Academy of Science congratulate the University of Kentucky as an outstanding institution of higher education in Kentucky and our Nation and for the promotion of science through teaching, research, and public service. 3. Board of Directors. Dr. John C. Philley re- ported that two areas were considered seriously this year. Since the financial base of the Academy is of prime concern, the committee is actively pursuing means by which subsidies and/or grants can be obtained from state or private sectors. The primary reason for this is to enable the Academy to sustain publication of a quality journal. The second matter related to recognition of a Distinguished Scientist in Kentucky. As a result, the Board initiated granting the first Distinguished Scientist Award. The recipient was Dr. Louis A. Krumholz, University of Louisville. 4. The Junior Academy. Dr. Herbert Leopold, Director, reported on activities of the Junior Acad- emy ranging from periodic meetings to the estab- lishment of a Science Days calendar. The Acad- emy had an active year. ~ 5. AAAS Representatives. No report. Under Old Business, Dr. Brown recognized Dr. Joe Winstead concerning additional grant monies from an anonymous benefactor. Dr. Winstead announced that, in addition to the existing flo- ristics grant, an annual amount of $2,000.00 will be added until a total of $10,000.00 has accu- mulated. From the interest, the Botanical Grant will be funded. Dr. Brown then turned the Meeting to New Business. The first matter related to Amendments in the Constitution to establish two new Standing Com- attention of the Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 1-2) mittees. The two proposed committees have been ad hoc committees for several years and warrant | permanent status. Descriptions of the committees were read by the Secretary, and were considered separately as follows: To add to Article VIII From Section 1: There shall be four standing committees, namely: To Section 1: There shall be six standing com- mittees, namely: (and add) A Committee on_ Public Science Education consisting of five mem- bers of which four are appointed by the President, | plus the Vice President ex officio. Of the ap-| pointed members, two are collegiate-level science teachers and two are subcollegiate science teachers, | each serving three-year rotating terms. Chairperson | is designated from the appointed members of the committee. It shall inform the Executive Com-_ mittee and the Academy on actions taken by the officers of the Commonwealth of Kentucky on | behalf of public science education and shall rec- ommend to the Committee on Legislation appro- | priate action to be taken by the Academy. | A State Governmental Science Advisory Com- mittee which includes the three ex officio posi- | tions of President, President Elect, and Past Presi- | dent; a member of the Board of Directors selected by that body; and three members of the Academy appointed by the President, to serve three-year | rotating terms. Chairing this committee is the Past President. It shall bring to the attention of the Governor, appointed officials, and members of the Legislature science-related issues and con-— cerns pertinent to the scientific community and to — the people of the Commonwealth and shall seek to work in cooperation with those persons to re- solve such scientific issues and concerns. | Dr. Donald Batch moved (Dr. John Meyer second) that the Committee on Public Science | Education be established as a standing committee. | Motion carried. Dr. L. P. Elliott moved (Dr. H. Howell second) | that the State Governmental Science Advisory Committee be established as a standing committee. Motion carried. | Dr. Brown recognized Editor Krumholz who discussed the need to raise dues. The present cost of one volume of the TRANSACTIONS is | about $6.35 and dues are $6.00 per year. Al- though the matter of raising dues cannot be im- plemented until the next annual meeting, Dr. Krumholz requested a straw vote on whether or not the members would approve increasing annual dues to $10.00 for active members and to $6.00 for student members. There was general agree- ment for such an increase. Dr. Brown commented that he hoped that some progress had been made during his year as Presi- | dent and that more publicity is needed to promote > exposure of the Academy to Commonwealth of- | ficials. Perhaps a Publicity Officer would be appropriate. Dr. Brown announced that he will be leaving Kentucky shortly to accept a position ACADEMY AFFAIRS in the Psychology Department at The Pennsylvania State University, and expressed thanks to the Academy for his good experiences. Dr. Brown then turned the meeting over to the ‘Nominations Committee, Dr. J. G. Rodriguez (Chmn) (C. M. Dupier, Jr. and J. Meyer). The new slate of officers was as follows: President Elect: Charles E. Kupchella, University of Louisville Vice President: Sanford L. Jones, Eastern Ken- tucky University Secretary: Thomas Seay, Georgetown College Treasurer: Bartlett G. Dickinson, Georgetown College Members of the Board of Directors to 1980: Ivan Potter, Frankfort, and Gertrude C. Ridgel, Ken- tucky State University The floor was opened for further nominations. Dr. E. V. Brown moved that nominations be closed and that the above slate be accepted by 109 acclamation. After a second by T. Calhoon, the motion passed unanimously and the Secretary was ordered to declare the nominees elected by acclamation. There being no further business, Dr. Charles Payne, incoming President, made a few remarks. He thanked the outgoing officers and announced that he would give priority attention to four areas: (1) promote increases in service of the Academy to the government and to scientists, (2) promote increases in Academy support for research, (3) promote increases in visibility of the Academy to the government and scientists, and (4) increase (or find) outside funding to subsi- dize the costs of Publishing the TRANSACTIONS. With those comments, Dr. Payne adjourned the meeting at 0930. Rudolph Prins, Secretary Kentucky Academy of Science NEWS AND COMMENT It has been a good year! The Academy has moved forward during the past year, and is actively continuing its momentum in a number of important areas that will increase our service to the people of the Commonwealth in general and to members of the Academy specifically. This year, we will actively pursue increased support of scientific research and increased visibil- ity of the Academy, its members, and, in- deed, all members of the scientific estab- lishment of Kentucky, especially science teachers at all levels. The Academy will be able to increase scientific research in the coming year through generous donations of a dedicated scientist who continues to make anonymous contributions to the Academy for that pur- pose. There will be increased funds for distribution of research monies for floristic studies, because that same donor has estab- lished an endowment of $10,000 to be ad- ministered by the Academy for the “Ken- tucky Academy of Science Foundation for Botanical Research in Kentucky.” Dr. Ted George will maintain his dedi- cated activities and involvement in the public science education of Kentucky. To ensure proper science education to the youth of the Commonwealth, The Academy must continue to make its concerns and recommendations known to appropriate state organizations concerned with science education. Another thrust of the Academy for the coming year will be to increase state sup- port for publishing the Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science. Hopefully, the Government of the Commonwealth will recognize the Academy’s contribution to the teaching of science and the support of research in Kentucky, and support the President’s Remarks 110 Academy in its many endeavors. I am cer- | tain that Dr. Marvin Russell will continue | to be in the fore in this matter. Fortunately for the Academy, Dr. Louis — Krumholz will continue to serve as Editor of our Transactions. It is the dedication to’ the Academy of men like Dr. Krumholz that has made the Academy the success it is. To all members of the Kentucky Academy | of Science, I sincerely request your advice in matters the Academy should deal with this year, and I urge you to let me know if there is any way in which I and the Academy can be of service. CHARLES PAYNE. * *% *% *% & AIBS The American Institute of Biologi- cal Sciences (AIBS) has initiated | an activity to increase the participation of biological scientists in all parts of the coun-— try in making decisions on public issues _ that involve biology. Much of that activity includes environmental issues that impinge’ on sciences of all disciplines. Representa- | tives have been selected in each state to. serve as contact persons, and Dr. Louis A. Krumholz has agreed to act in that capac- ity for Kentucky. He will be provided with: information to be shared with his fellow scientists and other appropriate and inter-_ ested persons on problems of air and water pollution, energy related problems, use of pesticides, Natural resources conservation, endangered species of plants and animals, and many other areas of concern. Anyone who wishes to obtain information, may con- tact Dr. Krumholz at the University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208, or at his home in Louisville at 1214 Royal Avenue 40204. INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS ‘ Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub- lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received. Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be re- viewed by one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and, once accepted, an attempt will be made to publish papers in the order of their acceptance. Manuscripts should be typed, double spaced throughout, on good quality white paper 844 x 11 inches (216 now than 10 or more years earlier. Differences in average composition be- tween open and forested plots are pre-_ sented in Tables 4 and 5, for eastern Ken- tucky and other study areas. In this study, ionic levels of rainfall were generally higher | after moving through pine foliage. The same trend was shown in the other reports (Tamm 1951, Madgwick and Ovington | 1959, Voigt 1960, and Azevedo and Mor- | gan 1974), except that nitrate nitrogen levels in Illinois were not greatly affected. Differences in crown characteristics among various species of pine affect the propor- tion of rainfall intercepted, passed as throughfall, or passed as stemflow, and this can influence nutrient movement in precipitation (Miceli et al. 1975). | Rainfall collected under hardwood fo- liage contained high concentrations of cal- cium, magnesium, and potassium, but sul- fate and nitrate levels were apparently unchanged. These data were collected late. in the growing season while the foliage was still on the trees. However, enrichment of | rainfall may occur to some extent in hard- | RAINWATER QUALITY IN A ForRESTED WATERSHED—Shearer et al. woods even during the dormant season, due to the influence of tree branches (Madgwick and Ovington 1959). Mineral additions to precipitation by for- est canopies occur by leaching of nutrients from leaves and branches, and by the wash- ing off of dust particles from the surfaces. In this area, washing of dust is likely the dominant source. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The mineral content of precipitation in Robinson Forest was high when compared to values derived in other studies. Nitrate nitrogen and magnesium were slightly lower, while sulfate, calcium, and sodium were much higher. The low pH values indicate that precipitation in the region is acidic. _ We cannot provide a definitive explana- tion for the relatively high mineral values and low pH obtained in this preliminary study, but since the nearby strip-mining operations produce large amounts of dust during dry periods, it seems logical that this material could find its way back to earth in precipitation. LITERATURE CITED AMERICAN Pupiic HEALTH AssOcIATION. 1971. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 13th Ed. Washington, D. C. 874 pp. AZEVEDO, J.. AND D. L. Morcan. 1974. Fog precipitation in coastal California forests. Ecology 55:1135-1141. Eriksson, E. 1952. Composition of atmospheric precipitation. I. Nitrogen compounds. Tel- lus 4:214-232. Fisher, D. A., A. W. GAMBELL, G. E. LIkENs, 115 AND F. H. BoRMANN. 1968. Atmospheric contributions to water quality of streams in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire. Water Resourc. Res. 4: 1115-1126. GAMBELL, A. W., AND D. A. FisHer. 1966. Chemical composition of rainfall in eastern North Carolina and southeastern Virginia. U.S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supp. Pap. 1535-K. Al pp. Hem, J. D. 1970. Principles and processes con- trolling composition of natural water. Pp. 12-40. In J. D. Hem (Ed.). Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water. U.S. Geol. Surv. Water- Supp. Pap. 1473. 358 pp. IncHAM, G. 1950. The mineral content of air and rain and its importance to agriculture. J. Agric. Sci. 40:55-61. Junce, C. E. 1958. The distribution of am- monia and nitrate in rain water over the United States. Trans. Amer. Geophys. U. 39: 241-248. , AND R. T. Wersy. 1958. The con- centration of chloride, sodium, potassium, calcium, and sulfate in rain water over the United States. J. Meteorol. 15:417—425. Mapcwick, H. A., AND J. D. Ovincron. 1959. The chemical composition of precipitation in adjacent forest and open plots. Forestry 32: 14-22. Martin, M. 1975. Recent EPA report says Ken- tucky experiencing high sulfate pollution. The Lexington Leader, 26 September, D-1. MicE.I, J. C., G. L. RotFe, L. E. ARNOLD, AND W. R. Boccsess. 1975. A preliminary study of the role of precipitation in nutrient cycling in loblolly (Pinus taeda L.) and short leaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) pine plantations. Univ. Ill. (Champaign—Urbana) Agric. Exp. Sta., For. Res. Pap. 75-5. 4 pp. Tamm, C. O. 1951. Removal of plant nutrients from tree crowns by rain. Physiol. Plant. 4: 184-188. Voicr, G. K. 1960. Alteration of the composi- tion of rainwater by trees. Amer. Midl. Nat. 63:321-326. The Aquatic Fauna of Russells Chapel Spring, Calloway County, Kentucky Katuy J. RAYBURN AND THomMAs M. FREEZE Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071 ABSTRACT A survey of the aquatic fauna of Russells Chapel Spring in Calloway County, Kentucky, yielded the following kinds of organisms: 4 protozoans, 22 macroinvertebrates, 6 fishes, 2 amphibians, and 1 reptile. The collection includes a specimen’ of the rare aquatic earthworm Haplotaxis gordioides. INTRODUCTION Little information is available in the literature concerning the ecology of tem- perate springs in Kentucky. The most ex- tensive work reported is a series of studies on the spring stream of Doe Run in Meade County in north-central Kentucky by Cole and Minckley (1961), Krumholz (1967), Minckley (1961, 1963), Minckley and Cole (1963), Minckley and Tindall (1963), Prins (1964, 1968), Walker (1961), and others. Minshall (1967, 1968) made a de- tailed study of Morgan’s Creek, Meade County, Kentucky. A statewide ecological survey of Kentucky's temperate springs is needed as each spring is a unique micro- habitat. Because of the uniform conditions often encountered, many species may be present in springs far outside their normal geographical range or a spring may harbor relict species, phreatics, or crenobionts (Hynes 1976). This paper reports a survey of the aquatic fauna of a temperate spring, Russells Chapel Spring, in Calloway County, Kentucky. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We extend appreciation to Dr. R. O. Brinkhurst of the Institute of Ocean Sci- ences, Victoria, B. C., and to Drs. James B. Sickel and Evelyn Cole of Murray State University for their assistance in the iden- tification of particular taxa, and to Dr. Andrew Sliger of the University of Tennes- see, Martin, for assistance in securing fish specimens. DESCRIPTION OF StTuDY SITE Russells Chapel Spring rises in Calloway } County, Kentucky, near a dirt road 100 m> south of Russells Chapel, 36° 40’ N and 88° 07’ W. The boil is 3 m across with a maximum depth of 1 m. The water bubbles up from a central basin composed of un- stable sand surrounded by clay sediment, and gives rise to a small stream choked with vegetation that empties into Little Sugar Creek approximately 30 m from the spring. Little Sugar Creek empties into the Blood River Embayment on the west-_ ern side of Kentucky Lake (Tennessee River ). The surrounding area is low lying and composed of soils of the Bodine cherty — silt loam and Juka silt loam types (Hum- | phrey et al. 1973). The area is poorly | drained with numerous stagnant pools spaced throughout. Tulip poplar Lirioden-_ dron tulipifera trees dominate the sur- rounding rich woods. Geologically, Calloway County is a part | of the northern extension of the eastern Gulf Coastal Plain and contains the most recent geologic formation in Kentucky. During the Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary periods, Mississippian deposits were covered with gravel, sand, silt, and clay. The formations have not yet consoli- dated into sandstone or shale (Humphrey etjal. 1973): MATERIALS AND METHODS Since Russells Chapel Spring represents — a microhabitat in a state of delicate bal- | 116 \ Aquatic FAUNA IN A KEeNTuCKy Sprinc—Rayburn and Freeze ance, it was decided to limit collections to a single period on 22-24 June 1976. On 23 June, an Ekman dredge, 150 x 150-mm ‘opening, was used to sample 2 sites for benthic macroinvertebrates, the boil proper and midway along the stream, approxi- mately 10 m from the boil. In the boil proper, 5 bottom samples were taken (1 from the unstable sand center and 4 from the perimeter) while a single sample was taken from the stream. Each sample con- sisted of 3 grabs with the Ekman dredge. On the night of 23 June, a drift net was placed in the stream and left for 12 hours. On 24 June, samples of fishes, amphibians, and invertebrates inhabiting stands of vegetation were collected using an electric shocker and dip nets of various meshes. Representative specimens of the fishes, amphibians, and reptiles were fixed in 5 percent formalin and preserved in 40 per- cent isopropyl alcohol, and all macroinver- tebrates were fixed and preserved in 40 ‘percent isopropyl alcohol. Two 500-ml water samples were taken and examined for Protozoa. _ Organisms were identified upon return to the laboratory at Murray State Univer- sity. In addition, macroinvertebrates were counted, and an index of diversity com- puted at the generic level using the ma- chine formula of Weber (1973). Since this was basically a qualitative study, tempera- ture was the only physical parameter mea- sured. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This survey resulted in the collection of 4 species of Protozoa, 22 species of macro- invertebrates, 6 species of fishes, 2 species of amphibians, and 1 species of reptile. In the following listing, the scientific name is followed where applicable by the common name, collection site, and notes on the dis- tribution and abundance of each species. Species were ranked arbitrarily as rare when fewer than 10 organisms were col- lected, as common when 10-100 organisms were collected, and as abundant when more than 100 specimens were taken. The nomenclature and arrangement of taxa are 117 those of Pennak (1953), Eddy and Hodson (1961), Bailey et al. (1970), and Kudo Cig). THe FAUNA Protozoans CHLOROMONADIDA Chlamydomonadidae Chlamydomonas globosa. Boil. EUGLENOIDIDA Euglenidae Trachelomonas volvacina. Boil. T. hispida. Boil. TESTACIDA Difflugidae Difflugia globosa. Boil. Macroinvertebrates OPISTHOPORA Lumbriculidae Lumbriculus inconstans, aquatic earth- worm. Stream. Rare. Rhynchelmis sp. Boil and_ stream. Common. Haplotaxidae Haplotaxis gordioides. Stream. Rare. IsoPpoDA Asellidae Lirceus fontinalis, aquatic sowbug. Boil and stream. Common. Asellus stygius, aquatic sowbug. Boil. Rare. AMPHIPODA Gammaridae Crangonyx sp., scud. Boil and stream. Abundant. DECAPODA Astacidae Subfamily Cambarinae (immature specimens prevented further classifi- cation), crayfish. Boil and _ stream. Rare. EPHEMEROPTERA Baetidae Caenis sp., mayfly. Boil. Rare. ODONATA Agrionidae Agrion sp., damselfly. Boil. Rare. HEMIPTERA Hydrometridae Hydrometra sp., marsh treader. Boil. Rare. 118 Gerridae Gerris sp., water strider. Boil. Com- mon. Veliidae Velia_ sp., strider. Boil. Notonectidae Notonecta sp., back swimmer. Common. Corixidae Genus unidentifiable as specimens were female, water boatman. Boil. Common. MEGALOPTERA Sialidae Sialis sp., alderfly. Boil and stream. Common. Corydalidae Chauliodes Rare. TRICHOPTERA Molannidae Molanna sp., caddisfly. Stream. Rare. COLEOPTERA Haliplidae Peltodytes sp., crawling water beetle. Boil. Rare. Helodidae Elodes sp. Stream. Rare. DIPTERA Tipulidae Tipula sp., cranefly. Stream. Rare. Limnophila sp., _ cranefly. Stream. Rare. Chironomidae Pentaneura sp., midge. Stream. Rare. Tendipes sp., midge. Boil and stream. Abundant. Ceratopogonidae Palpomyia sp., biting midge. Boil and stream. Common. Tabanidae Chrysops sp. Boil. Rare. broad-shouldered Rare. water Boil. dobsonfly. sp., Stream. ; Fishes PETROMYZONTIFORMES Petromyzontidae Genus’ unidentified mens), lamprey. Boil Common. (larval and speci- stream. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4) -CYPRINIFORMES Cyprinidae Campostoma anomalum, Boil. Common. Chrosomus erythrogaster, southern red- belly dace. Boil. Rare. Semolitus atromaculatus, creek chub. Boil. Common. Catostomidae Erimyzon oblongus, creek chubsucker. Boil. Common. PERCIFORMES Percidae Etheostoma caeruleum, rainbow darter. Boil. Common. | E. squamiceps, spottail darter. Boil. Common. stoneroller. | Amphibians SALAMANDROIDEA Plethodontidae | Desmognathus fuscus, dusky salaman- } der. Boil. Common. ANURA Ranidae | Rana pipiens, leopard frog. Boil. Common. Reptiles Testudinidae | Chrysemys scripta elegans, red-eared | turtle. Boil. Rare. A generic diversity of 2.24 was calcu- lated for the benthic macroinvertebrates from the stream while the boil itself ex- hibited a diversity of 2.27. These values } indicate a relatively undisturbed environ- } ment having large numbers of genera with no individual genus present in overwhelm- ing abundance (Weber 1973). | Mature specimens of Haplotaxis gordio- } ides have never been identified for certain from North America but immature worms resembling it have been found in a few locations (Brinkhurst and Jamieson 1971). The exact identity of all these immature individuals must remain in doubt until the variation pattern of the dorsal setae of ma- ture H. gordioides is documented (Cook | 1975). The specimen collected, although immature, was identified as Haplotaxis on the basis of the large prostomium with a Aquatic FAuNA IN A Kentucky Sprinc—Rayburn and Freeze transverse groove and the unusual sickle- shaped setae in the ventral bundles and the identification was later verified by Dr. R. O. Brinkhurst. The single specimen collected at Russells Chapel Spring prob- ably is indicative of an association between the spring and subterranean waters since Haplotaxis gordioides has been found as- sociated with subterranean waters in En- gland, most of continental Europe, Japan, and rarely in North America (Cook 1975). Asellus stygius is a blind isopod that in- habits subterranean springs, wells, and caves in Missouri, Indiana, and Kentucky and is rarely encountered in surface waters (Pennak 1953). However, Minckley (1961) reported it from several spring streams in north-central Kentucky. The 2 most abundant macroinvertebrates encountered were amphipods and chirono- _ mids. The genus Crangonyx is widely dis- tributed and common in unpolluted clear _ waters including springs, spring brooks, streams, pools, ponds, and lakes (Pennak 1953). Chironomids are considered cosmo- _ politan. The collection of the southern redbelly dace, Chrosomus_ erythrogaster, repre- _ sented the first collection of this species in the Coastal Plain region of western Ken- tucky (Freeze and Rayburn 1977). LITERATURE CITED Pappy |. Be Freoow, E. S. Heraup, FE. A. LacuneErR, C. C. Linpsry, C. R. Rosins, AND W. B. Scorr. A list of common and scien- tific names of fishes from the United States and Canada. (3rd ed.). Spec. Publ. No. 6, Amer. Fish. Soc., Washington, D. C. 150 pp. BrINKHuRST, R. O., AND B. G. JAMiEson. 1971. Aquatic Oligochaeta of the world. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, Scotland. 860 pp. Corte, G. A., anp W. L. Mincgtey. 1961. A new species of amphipod crustacean (genus Gammarus) from Kentucky. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 8:391-398. Coox, D. G. 1975. Cave-dwelling aquatic Oli- gochaeta (Annelida) from the eastern United States. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 94(1): 24-37. Eppy, S., AND A. C. Hopson. 1961. Taxonomic keys to the common animals of the north central states. Burgess Publ. Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 162 pp. FREEZE, T. M., AnD K. J. Raypurn. 1977. A 119 note on the distribution of Chrosomus ery- throgaster (Cyprinidae) in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38( 1-2) :97. Humpuerey, M. E., F. L. ANDERSON, R. A. HaAyEs, AND J. D. Sms. 1973. Soil survey of Callo- way and Marshall Counties, Kentucky. U. S. Govt. Print. Off. Washington, D. C. 82 pp. Hynes, H. B. N. 1976. The ecology of running waters. Univ. Toronto Press, Toronto, Can. 5b>D app: Krumuouz, L. A. 1967. Accumulation of radio- active fallout materials in the biota of Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky, 1959-1963. Pp. 791-818. In B. Aberg and F. P. Hungate (Eds.). Radioecological Concentration Pro- cesses. Pergamon Press, New York, N.Y. 1040 pp. Kupo, R. R. 1971. Protozoology. Charles C Thomas, Springfield, Ill. 1173 pp. Mincxiey, W. L. 1961. Occurrence of subter- ranean isopods in the epigean environment. Amer. Midl. Nat. 66:452—455. . 1963. The ecology of a spring stream Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. Wildl. Monogr. No. 11:1-124. , AND G. A. Core. 1963. Ecological and morphological studies on gammarid am- phipods (Gammarus spp.) in _ spring-fed streams of northern Kentucky. Occ. Pap. C. C. Adams Cent. Ecol. Stud. No. 10:1-35. , AND D. R. Tinpati. 1963. Ecology of Batrachospermum sp. (Rhodophyta) in Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 90(6):391—400. MinsHatL, G. W. 1967. Role of allochthonous detritus in the trophic structure of a wood- land springbrook community. Ecology 48(1): 139-149. 1968. Community dynamics of the benthic fauna in a woodland springbrook. Hydrobiologia 32(3—4) :305-339. PenNAK, R. W. 1953. Fresh-water invertebrates of the United States. The Ronald Press Co., New York, N. Y. 769 pp. Prins, R. 1964. Attheyella carolinensis Chap- puis (Copepoda: MHarpacticoida) on fresh- water crayfishes from Kentucky. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 83(3):370-371. 1968. Comparative ecology of the crayfishes Orconectes rusticus and Cambarus tenebrosus in Doe Run, Meade County, Ken- tucky. Int. Rev. Ges. Hydrobiol. 53(5):667— 714, WaLKER, B. A. 1961. Studies on Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky, IV. A new species of isopod crustacean (genus Asellus) from Kentucky. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 80: 385-389. WEBER, C. (Ed.). 1973. Biological field and laboratory methods for measuring the quality of surface waters and effluents. National En- vironmental Res. Center. Environmental Pro- tection Agency. Cincinnati, O. 176 pp. The Occurrence and Relative Abundance of Planktonie Fish Larvae in Anderson Creek Embayment, Kentucky Lake, Kentucky WaynE L. Davis aNnD THoMAS M. FREEZE Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071 ABSTRACT Larval fishes were collected from Anderson Creek embayment of Kentucky Lake with a 0.8-mm mesh plankton net and habitat seine to document the species of fishes utilizing the area as a spawning ground. The Clupeidae constituted 99.6 percent of the total catch while other species made up the remaining 0.4 percent. As the water temperature rose above 19.0 C, a sharp increase occurred in the total number of Clupeidae. The nonclupeid fishes were rep- resented by Morone sp. (above 17.0C) and by Pomoxis sp. (between 19.0 and 22.0C). INTRODUCTION The Anderson Creek embayment of Ken- tucky Lake has been a center of consider- able interest since 1973 due to the im- pending industrialization of a portion of its shoreline. To determine the impact of such a development on the aquatic environ- ment, 2 studies were conducted on the physical, chemical, and biological param- eters of the embayment by Crowell (1974, unpublished master’s thesis, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky) and Kin- man (1976, unpublished master’s thesis, Murray State University, Murray, Ken- tucky). A parallel study was conducted on the Vickers Creek embayment of Kentucky Lake by Prather (1977, unpublished mas- ters thesis, Murray State University, Mur- ray, Kentucky) to serve as a comparison for the industrialization on Anderson Creek embayment. To supplement the findings of those in- vestigations on water quality, plankton, and benthic macroinvertebrates, the present study was initiated to determine which fishes utilized Anderson Creek embayment as a spawning ground. According to Marcy (1976), larval fishes usually are planktonic or free floating at various stages of their development and must depend upon cur- rent for dispersal. Thus, they are poorly adapted for avoiding hazardous environ- mental conditions that might arise from intense constructional practices or indus- trial accidents. If such hazardous environ- mental conditions should occur, it is ex- 120 tremely important to be able to assess not | only the immediate but the long-range ef- | fects upon the ecosystem. The data gathered during this investigation can serve as an important reference should the need arise for such an assessment of Anderson — Creek embayment. DESCRIPTION OF AREA Anderson Creek embayment is on the western side of Kentucky Lake at Tennes- see River Mile (TRM) 45.5. The embay- ment is formed by Anderson Creek, a third | order stream according to the classification — of Kuehne (1962). Anderson Creek and > its headwaters drain primarily woodlands — with very little agricultural activity in the - area. The embayment itself is 109.4 m_ (359.0 feet) above the sea level; has a mean depth of 4.8 m (15.6 feet); a shore- line of 3.9 km (2.4 miles); and a surface area of 0.71 km? (177 acres) according to Crowell (unpublished thesis). Extensive shallow areas are present at the upper end of the bay. MATERIALS AND METHODS Air and surface water temperatures were © taken during each sampling trip with a> standard mercury thermometer. Secchi disk readings were recorded following the procedure outlined by Hutchinson (1956). Larval fishes were collected with a cone- shaped, 0.5-m diameter net equipped with — 0.8-mm netting and a 354.5-ml (12 oz) | PLANKTONIC FisH LARVAE IN Kentucky LAkE—Davis and Freeze collection cup attached to the cod end of the net. The net was towed with a 15-m braided nylon rope attached to the back of a boat powered by an outboard motor. Weekly sampling, beginning in May and ending in August 1976, was conducted at 2 stations in the study area. The first station was parallel to and approximately 5 m from the north shore and the second station was in the middle of the embayment. Each sample consisted of a 5-min trawl at a speed sufficient to keep the net just below the surface of the water. After each trawl, all organisms were preserved in 10 percent formalin. During the last week of the survey, 2 shoreline seine hauls were made with a 0.8-mm mesh habitat seine at the back of the embayment in an attempt to capture fish that remained near shore after _ hatching. All samples were returned to the labora- _tory and identified to the lowest taxon pos- Me weal ye sible utilizing an unpublished key devel- oped by Tennessee Valley Authority biologists in 1975. References by May and Gasaway (1967), Nelson (unpublished), and Siefert (1969) were helpful in identifi- cation. Total numbers and mean lengths for each identified taxon were recorded. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The skipjack herring Alosa chrysochloris, gizzard shad Dorosoma cepedianum, and threadfin shad D. petenense were the most numerous larval Clupeidae in the townet samples. Postlarvae of that family cannot be identified readily to genus until they have developed median fins and entered the juvenile stage (May and Gasaway 1967). Those clupeids constituted 99.6 percent of the total catch while all other species made up the remaining 0.4 percent (Table 1). The first clupeid to reach a size large enough for identification was the skipjack herring which indicates either that it spawned earlier than either species of Dorosoma or grew faster. The numbers of clupeids taken in the townet increased as the water temperature TABLE 1.—DisTRIBUTION OF PLANKTONIC LARVAL FISHES COLLECTED BY TOWNET FROM ANDERSON CREEK EMBAYMENT, KENTUCKY LAKE, KENTUCKY, May—Avucust 1976 Aug July June May 18 April 9 17 25 30 9 SMMNOWONMDAMNADNMNHO. FSOSSSSHSSSHHS 22S SS) SSS eee evi— fon) o>) NQANMAAHHAMDAH+HOHO ap) elon! fe of oO 9 ia) 1h | aw ieee gar | Seal 2 ae Fah a CU i cll lh ole Te | ey ay AR en Ea eer) en Fe a ee Pah Us Uae Cie aes eabine el 7 esp Pind de cGNT a oil vie Cteeiel, “esberls Le Ti code Pees ea sth oh leuk. | POe al Sy OP art re _ Se aaa ale ee aS A See ri | Se TT TT Tayi TSC TR Sap) oe, =) i=) a rN Resist) SPO hk et rex res Ee eee ale her oe? Poe] a) aa) Qh ete ele le El -cO} | ron) jo) a a fen rex | eee oe tetieet, Tic Gy Ya) Ya) rate ape re re SE tee li Ieee Pann re | See ews eile dieu 1 cbse I~ ~- eo Gwe bl orsies a eth he FS Tso S x — ores gs CO w& A= = a“ — Sue ES ce a eee Col ss oo SS oS s i = ae ao Lies Jf. 86 S 9 6, oO > .2 2 drs assus Bs Se Ew a 222 AS fa. 9 - S20 S55 5 6 02H ,005F 58 §FS SSG madOoS8mgd 9S & og ™ 2S S-5-5 SF SF EEE S916 Sa Of Siois So PAATDPHPSSaAand< nl | Nn 15 14 2,293 37 28 206 45760 Sle 158 Totals 122 increased above 19.0C for the first time that spring on 30 April and later on 30 May 1976. A period in which the water tem- peratures remained below 19.0 C separated those 2 dates. Hess (1976, unpublished master’s thesis, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, Tennessee), Raw- son (1945), and Colby and Brooke (1973) also showed similar increases in the num- ber of larval fishes with increased water temperature. A decrease in the Secchi disk readings occurred prior to the increase in the number of larvae per sample. While the increased numbers are believed to be due to temperature related spawns (Hess unpublished thesis), the increased turbidity and resultant decreased visibility tended to increase the efficiency of the townet. Noble (1970) and Scotton et al. (1973) indicated that lower light intensities helped reduce net avoidance by larval fishes with a resultant increase in catch. So few fish were captured that little can be said concerning the temporal distribu- tion of nonclupeid fishes. Generally, the fishes were represented by the temperate basses Morone sp. when the water tem- perature was below 17.0 C and by the crap- pies Pomoxis spp. when the water tempera- ture was between 19.0 and 22.0C. The differences in occurrence of those species is also believed to be due to temperature related spawns. Larval black crappies Pomoxis nigromaculatus were caught be- fore white crappies P. annularis (Table 1) indicating that P. nigromaculatus probably spawned earlier than P. annularis. The shoreline seine hauls resulted in the capture of juveniles of several species of fishes not captured in the townet. Those fishes, that probably spawned in Ander- son Creek embayment, are: Lepisosteus spp., Notemigonus crysoleucas, Pimephales notatus, Notropis atherinoides, Fundulus olivaceus, Labidesthes sicculus, Microp- terus salmoides, and Lepomis spp. The TrANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4) above fishes usually inhabit the littoral | zone of the embayment or have demersal | eggs and/or larvae that would account for their absence from the surface townet sam- ples. We believe that more intensive sam- | pling at various times and depths would | result in the addition of several species not | encountered in the present survey. LITERATURE CITED Coxby, P. J., anp L. T. Brooxe. 1973. Effects || of temperature on embryonic development of lake herring (Coregonus artedi). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 30:799-810. Hutcuinson, G. E. 1957. A treatise on limnol- | ogy. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N. ¥.' Vol. Tt. 1,015 pr: | Kueune, R. A. 1962. A classification of streams, illustrated by fish distribution in an eastern | Kentucky creek. Ecology 43(4):608-614. Marcy, B. C., Jr. 1976. Planktonic fish eggs | and larvae of the Connecticut Yankee Plant including entrainment. Pp. 115-139. In D. | Merriman and L. M. Thorpe (Eds.). The Con- | necticut River ecological study. Amer. Fish. | Soc. Monogr. No. 1, Washington, D. C. 252 | Ppp. May, E. B., anp C. R. Gasaway. 1967. A pre- liminary key to the identification of larval | fishes of Oklahoma, with particular reference to Canton Reservoir, including a selected | bibliography. Contrib. Okla. Fish. Res. Lab., No. 164. - Sapp: Nose, R. B. 1970. Evaluation of the Miller | high-speed sampler for sampling yellow perch and walleye fry. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 27: 1033-1044. | Rawson, D. S. 1945. The experimental intro- — duction of smallmouth blackbass into lakes of the Prince Albert National Park, Saskatche-— wan. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 73:19-31. | Scotton, L. N., R. E. Smrru, N. S. Smrra, K. S. PricE, AND D. P. pE Sytva. 1973. Pictorial | guide to fish larvae of Delaware Bay with in- | formation and bibliographies useful for the study of fish larvae. Univ. Delaware, Coll. Mar. Stud., Delaware Bay Rept. Ser. 7,206 pp. SrEFERT, R. E. 1969. Characteristics for separa- tion of white and black crappie. Trans. Amer. | Fish. Soc. 98(2):326—328. | Comparative Age, Growth, and Condition of Channel Catfish from Lake Dardanelle, Arkansas Tuomas M. FREEZE’ AND BuForD TATUM Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Management, Arkansas Polytechnic College, Russellville, Arkansas 72801 ABSTRACT Pectoral spines were collected from 112 channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus from Lake Dardanelle, Arkansas, during 1973-1975 for purposes of calculating age and growth of dif- ferent year classes. A length—weight relationship, determined using the equation log W = —4.3297 + 2.7216 log L, indicated that an average channel catfish from Lake Dardanelle weighs about 165 g when it reaches a harvestable size of 255 mm. Lake Dardanelle channel catfish were characterized by a large first year’s growth with greater lengths similar to those from nearby states. Condition factors tended to decrease with increased age. INTRODUCTION In order to evaluate the ecological effects of the heated water effluent from Arkansas Power and Light Company’s nuclear elec- tric generating plant, Arkansas nuclear One, on Lake Dardanelle, it was necessary to establish baseline data on the aquatic fauna prior to the commercial operation of the plant. A ten-year study was initiated ‘in 1973 by Arkansas Polytechnic College with funding from Arkansas Power and Light Company to accomplish that evalua- tion. While the populations of many organ- isms were sampled, this paper deals with the age, growth, and condition of Lake Dardanelle channel catfish. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Acknowledgments are expressed to Mr. Edward L. Green, Project Head; Mr. Larry Rider, District Biologist for the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission; and student assistants: Dennis Calloway, Ron God- dard, Sam Henry, Larry Sanders, and Bruce Shackleford. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA Lake Dardanelle (Fig. 1) is an impound- ment of the Arkansas River in west-central Arkansas near the town of Russellville. It * Present address: Department of Biological Sci- ences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071. is a flow-through reservoir created by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers as a part of the Arkansas River navigation project. The Arkansas River has its headwaters in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and flows through Kansas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas before emptying into the Mississippi River approximately 150 km southwest of Mem- phis, Tennessee. The reservoir has a drain- age area of 398,090 km?, a conservation pool of 13,880 ha, and a shoreline length of 507 km. Completed in 1969, the reservoir is managed primarily for flood control and navigation (McGee 1972). MATERIALS AND METHODS A total of 112 channel catfish spines was collected from Lake Dardanelle during 1973-1975 utilizing gill nets, trammel nets, and rotenone. Total lengths of the fish were recorded in inches, and weights were measured either in grams on dietetic scales or in tenths of pounds on suspension dial scales. All English units of measurements were converted to metric units before com- putation of data. Left pectoral spines were disarticulated by means of the procedure outlined by Sneed (1951) and placed in numbered scale envelopes. As the spines were free of all tissue except a thin layer of skin, they received no special treatment or preserva- tion in accordance with DeRoth (1965). The spines were sectioned using a small 123 Lake Dardanelle Fic. 1. Location of Lake Dardanelle, an im- poundment of the Arkansas River. power saw on a stationary platform similar to the apparatus of Witt (1961). Unread- able sections were ground by hand on a fine carborundum stone to increase their transparency. The distal end of the basal recess served as a reference point to ensure consistency in the location of each section (Marzolf 1955, Sneed 1951). That reference point resulted in more readable spine sections and permitted comparisons with previous studies utilizing the same method. One disadvantage in its use is that the body- spine relationship is curvilinear instead of linear (DeRoth 1965). Approximately one-fourth of the sections were stained with alizarin red S for 3-5 sec before being rinsed with distilled water, but the procedure was discontinued as no apparent advantages in aging the sections were observed. Spine sections were read with a binocular microscope equipped with an ocular mi- crometer. Measurements were made from the center of the spine lumen to the annuli Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4) and to the edge of the expanded posterior radius. | Measurements of the pectoral spine an- nuli were used to calculate an average rate | of growth utilizing the Dahl—Lea direct proportion method (Carlander 1969). This | equation may be stated as: | LL. — (Sa) ls where L, = length at annulus n, S, = spine | radius at annulus n, S = total spine radius, and L = total body length. | The length—weight relationship was de-_ termined using the formula: | Log W = loga+nlogL where W = weight in grams, L = total | length in millimeters, and a and n are empirical constants. The value of the con- stant n usually is above 3.0 for larger spe- cies of catfish such as the channel catfish (Carlander 1969). : The coefficients of condition (K) were: computed using the formula: K = 10° X W/L? where W = weight in grams and L = total! length in millimeters. The coefficients pro-. vided indexes for comparative analyses of’ plumpness or well-being of the catfish.. Such calculations are based on the premise’ that the body form of a fish varies with the cube of increasing length provided the shape and specific gravity remain the same’ (Carlander 1969). | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The growth of Lake Dardanelle chan-. nel catfish, as determined by the Dahl- Lea equation, and the annual lengths for the 1966-1974 year classes are shown in Table 1. The average annual increments: decreased gradually from 140 mm the first’ year to 25 mm the sixth year of life and then gradually increased to 56 mm in the ninth year. The average annual increment for the first year is approximately twice that for any of the following years. While: it is normal for channel catfish to attain large percentages of their total lengths during their first 2 years of life, the unusu- CHANNEL CATFISH IN AN ARKANSAS LAKE—Freeze and Tatum TABLE 1.—CALCULATED TOTAL LENGTHS (MM) OF ARKANSAS, Year Number of class individuals 1 2 3 1966 = £27. O27 292, 1967 10 143 229 283 1968 13 155 230 Page 1969 28 139 207 269 1970 25 144 215 276 1971 14 145 226 289 1972 12 12.4 195 230 1973 4 90 163 1974 1 102 Average Lengths 140 213 274 Average Annual Increments 140 73 61 ally large first year’s growth has resulted in greater lengths of Lake Dardanelle chan- nel catfish than those in several nearby states for their first 4 years of life (Table 2). After the fourth year of life, the growth was approximately equal to or below that of catfish in the other lakes. All of the studies in Table 2 were con- ducted on man-made reservoirs. Many of the 16 reservoirs that made up the Okla- homa study are in the same watershed as Lake Dardanelle but are closer to the head- waters of the Arkansas River. Thus, their location relative to the headwaters might result in their being less fertile than Lake Dardanelle. Each of those 16 reservoirs had been impounded more than 4 years and was labeled as old by Finnell and TABLE 2.—CALCULATED TOTAL LENGTHS (MM) OF KANSAS, 1973-1975 COMPARED Number of Location individuals if Dardanelle Reservoir 112 140 16 Oklahoma Reservoirs 3,291 91 (Finnell and Jenkins 1954) Norris Reservoir, Tenn. 87 99 (Carroll and Hall 1964) Lake of the Ozarks, Mo. 434 53 (Marzolf 1951) Kentucky Lake, Ky. 615 89 (Matthai 1972) 125 112 CHANNEL CATFISH FROM LAKE DARDANELLE, 1973-1975 Year 4 5 6 7 8 9 333 379 406 444 469 533 326 374 414 453 A482, 330 378 A427 410 B24 385 374 332 348 328 328 orl 396 432 AT7 533 54 43 25 36 45 56 Jenkins (1954), and age was cited by them as the reason for the below average growth of channel catfish as compared to other Oklahoma waters. The Lake of the Ozarks is farther north than any of the other reservoirs and that may account for the poor growth of chan- nel catfish there. Other environmental factors undiscussed by Marzolf (1951) such as age, turbidity, and extent of repro- ductive success may also have acted to de- press the rate of growth. Both Norris Lake, in the eastern moun- tains of Tennessee, and Kentucky Lake, bordering the Jackson Purchase Area of Kentucky, were considerably older than Lake Dardanelle when they were sampled. Those conditions, plus differences in lati- CHANNEL CATFISH FROM LAKE DARDANELLE, AR- WITH DATA FROM OTHER STUDIES Calculated total lengths at end of year 2 3 aa 5 6 " 8 9 213, 214) 328...311,..396 ..4382,) 477 533 178 249 305 363 417 472 531 577 175 272 325 373 424 457 541 109 155 196 234 264 292 330 188 259 310 356 404 455 2,0 a a a = —- : : / ; 17+ / log W = 4,3297 + 2.7216 log L n WEIGHT (KG) eo & ‘| Se (ae 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 TOTAL LENGTH (MM) Length-weight relationship of channel catfish from Lake Dardanelle. tudes, may account for some of the varia- tions in length attainments. While the channel catfish from Norris Lake came from a balanced population (Finnell and Jenkins 1954), the fish from Kentucky Lake were stunted as evidenced by the retarda- tion in growth reported by Matthai (1972). Also, Lake Dardanelle being a very re- cently formed body of water, is experienc- ing what fishery biologists refer to as “peak growing conditions” due to the increased fertility of the water associated with the decay of inundated vegetation. The length-weight relationship (Fig. 2) was calculated from 112 channel catfish TABLE 3.—AVERAGE TOTAL LENGTHS (MM) AND WEIGHTS (G) OF CHANNEL CATFISH FROM LAKE DarR- DANELLE, ARKANSAS, 1973-1975 1 2 3 Average length 102 163 230 Average weight 12 46 121] No. of individuals 1 4 1 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38( 3-4) Age 4 5 6 7 8 9 328 348 374 410 482 533 BS 4 358 460 572 963 LiZ35 14 25 28 13 10 5 TABLE 4,—AVERAGE CONDITION FACTORS (K) OF CHANNEL CATFISH IN LAKE DARDANELLE, ARKAN- sAS, FOR 1973-1975 Age (years) K _ — _ ~] OMA ID Wk WNW i= (o,2) oo ranging from 102 to 533 mm. This relation- _ ship can be expressed by the equation: Log W = —4.3297 + 2.7216 log L. Channel catfish from Lake Dardanelle > weighed approximately 165 g upon reach- ing a harvestable size of 255 mm. At 380 _ mm, they weighed about 500 g and at 510 | mm approximately 1,080 g (Table 3). Average coefficients of condition (K) for fish from Lake Dardanelle (Table 4) tended © to decrease with an increase in age except between the fifth and sixth and between the seventh and eighth years of life. It is | believed those discrepancies are due to the small sample size of older fish. The slope | in the length-weight regression was less — than 3.0 indicating that a decrease in condi- tion should occur with an increase in length | as observed here, since length is related to | age (Carlander 1969). In comparison, the average coefficient of condition of channel catfish from Norris Lake was erratic, while that of Kentucky Lake decreased with an increase in age until the third year of life and then in-- creased steadily. Average coefficients of condition for channel catfish were not CHANNEL CATFISH IN AN ARKANSAS LAKE—Freeze and Tatum reported by Finnell and Jenkins (1954) or Marzolf (1951). In conclusion, the channel catfish popu- lation of Lake Dardanelle, prior to com- mercial operation of Arkansas Nuclear One - generating plant, exhibited a large first years growth, other length attainments comparable to studies from nearby states, and condition factors that tended to de- crease with an increase in age. In most aspects, the channel catfish of Lake Dar- danelle could be considered normal. How- ever, it should be noted that the lengths of Lake Dardanelle catfish may decrease with the natural aging of the reservoir and the resultant decrease in nutrients over an ex- tended period of time. More recent data on the aquatic fauna of Lake Dardanelle including the channel catfish are being collected by Mr. Buford Tatum. LITERATURE CITED CARLANDER, K. D. 1969. Handbook of fresh- water fishery biology, Vol. 1. Iowa St. Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 720 pp. 127 Carro.., B. B., AnD G. E. Hatt. 1964. Growth of catfishes in Norris Reservoir, Tennessee. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 39(3):86-91. DeRotu, G. C. 1965. Age and growth studies of channel catfish in westem Lake Erie. J. Wildl. Manage. 29(2):280-286. FINNELL, J. C., AND R. M. Jenxins. 1954. Growth of channel catfish in Oklahoma wa- ters: 1954 revision. Okla. Fish. Res. Lab. Rept. No. 41. 37 pp. MarzoutFr, R. C. 1955. Use of pectoral spines and vertebrae for determining age and rate of growth of the channel catfish. J. Wildi. Manage. 19(2):243-249. Matrual, P. J. 1972. Kentucky Lake commer- cial catfish catch analysis. Rept. Ky. Fish Wildl. Res., Proj. 4-70-R. Res. Found., Mur- ray St. Univ., Murray, Ky. 51 pp. McGee, J. E. 1972. Your guide to the Darda- nelle Reservoir area. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Brochure, Little Rock District, Little Rock, Ark. 52 pp. SNEED, K. E. 1951. A method for calculating the growth of cannel catfish, Ictalurus lacus- tris punctatus. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 80: 174-183. Wirt, A., Jk. 1961. An improved instrument to section bones for age and growth determina- tion of fish. Prog. Fish-Cult. 23(2):94-96. Helminth Parasites of the Spotted Sucker and Golden Redhorse from the Kentucky River’ Davip L. Comps,” JoHn P. HarLEy, AND JOHN C. WILLIAMS Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475 ABSTRACT The following helminths were recovered from 56 spotted suckers: Acanthocephala, Acan- thocephalus sp.; Cestoidea, Biacetabulum banghami, Biacetabulum sp., Isoglaridacris folius, Monobothrium ulmeri, and Promonobothrium minytremi; and 62 golden redhorse: Acantho- cephala, Acanthocephalus sp. and Neoechinorhynchus prolixoides; Cestoidea, Biacetabulum sp., Isoglaridacris folius, Monobothrium ulmeri, and Promonobothrium minytremi; and Nematoda, Camallanus oxycephalus and Rhabdochona sp. from the main channel of the Kentucky River. Four of 6 species of helminths recovered from spotted suckers and 4 of 8 species recovered from golden redhorse are new host records, and 8 of 9 species recovered are new state records. INTRODUCTION A review of the literature indicates that only 5 published works exist on the hel- minth parasites of catostomid fishes from Kentucky (Aliff 1977; White and Harley 1973, 1974; White 1974; and Combs et al. 1976). All of them concern the white sucker Catostomus commersoni except the report by Combs et al. (1976) in which the authors reported spotted suckers Miny- trema melanops and_ golden redhorse Moxostoma erythrurum as new host rec- ords for the monogenetic trematode Anon- chohaptor muelleri. As a result, it was felt that a more com- plete study of the parasites should be done on the spotted and redhorse suckers from the Kentucky River, and is the basis for this report. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank Drs. William Bullock and John S. Mackiewicz for parasite iden- tity confirmation and Dr. Robert A. Kuehne for reviewing the manuscript. Representa- tive specimens are with D. L. Combs. *The authors acknowledge the National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmo- spheric Administration, for partial funding and equipment used under Research Grant No. 2-186- R. This work was also supported in part by an EKU Faculty Research Grant No. 03-07. *Present address: Northeast Region Research Station, 4101 Boston Ave., Muskogee, Oklahoma 74401. MATERIALS AND METHODS Forty-six Minytrema melanops and 62 Moxostoma_ erythrurum were collected from August 1973 through April 1974, from the main channel of the Kentucky River and from the mouths of 7 tributaries (Eagle Creek, Elkhorn Creek, Dix River, Red River, North, Middle, and South Forks). Most spotted suckers were collected up- stream while most golden redhorse were collected downstream in the Kentucky River drainage. All fish were autopsied fresh and parasites stained by routine methods. RESULTS Parasites recovered from M. melanops are listed in Table 1 and those from M. erythrurum in Table 2. Mean intensity in- festation indicates the number of helminths found in each infested fish. Nearly 1,050 individual helminths com- prising 9 species were recovered from the host fishes. In M. melanops, 79 percent of the fish examined were infested by 1 or more helminths while in M. erythrurum, 54 percent were infested. Four of the 8 spe- cies of helminths recovered from M. ery- thrurum and 4 of the 6 species recovered from M. melanops constituted new host records. Eight of the 9 species recovered from both catostomids constitute new state records. The following is an annotated list of hel- 128 PARASITES OF SUCKERS IN KENTUCKY RIVER—Combs et all. 129 TABLE 1.—MEAN INTENSITY OF INFESTATION BY HELMINTHS RECOVERED FROM 46 MINYTREMA MELANOPS FROM THE KENTUCKY RIVER INCLUDING NEW HOST AND STATE RECORDS Records No. fish Mean intensity Total New New Parasite infested of infestation helminths Location host state Acanthocephala Acanthocephalus sp. 22 9 183 gut X Trematoda Anonchohaptor sp. 12 5 56 mouth xX xX cavity Cestoda Biacetabulum banghami 10 3 34 gut xX X Biacetabulum sp. ] i ] gut xX Isoglaridacris folius L 1 i gut X X Monobothrium ulmeri i 2 3 gut Xx xX Promonobothrium minytremi 26 11 269 gut X minths recovered from M. melanops and _M. erythrurum from the Kentucky River. _ Acanthocephalus sp.—This acanthocepha- lan was designated as Acanthocephalus sp. _ because it is very closely related to A. jack- soni, as reported by White (1974) from the Kentucky River, and A. dirus (Bullock, pers. comm.). The genus Acanthocephalus is highly variable and causes a great deal of confusion in identification to species. In the present study, Acanthocephalus sp. constituted 60 percent of all helminths found in M. melanops and M. erythrurum; it was the most abundant helminth in M. erythrurum and the second most abundant in M. melanops. This is the first report of Acanthocephalus sp. from either fish and thus constitutes new host records for the genus Acanthocephalus. The genus was first reported in Kentucky by White (1974) in Catostomus commersoni from the Ken- tucky River drainage. Neoechinorhynchus_ prolixoides.—This _ is the first report for the species outside New Hampshire since its original description by Bullock (1963). It was found only in M. erythrurum, and constitutes a new host record and geographical range extension into Kentucky. Biacetabulum banghami.—Mackiewicz (1968) first reported this caryophyllaeid cestode from M. melanops and M. ery- thrurum from Alabama and Oklahoma. In the present study, it was recovered only from M. melanops, was the fourth most abundant helminth, and constitutes a new state record. Biacetabulum sp.—This caryophyllaeid ces- tode was designated as Biacetabulum sp. since it was very similar to specimens of B. infrequens Mackiewicz found (pers. comm.) in M. erythrurum, but our species has too few postovarian vitellaria to be B. infrequens. Mackiewicz (pers. comm.) be- lieves our species might be either B. meri- dianum or a variety of that species. Fur- ther investigation is needed before species confirmation can be made. In the present study, Biacetabulum sp. was recovered from both M. melanops and M. erythrurum. The occurrence of this genus in the Kentucky River thus consti- tutes a new state record for both fishes. Isoglaridacris folius.—Isoglaridacris folius was recovered from both M. melanops and M. erythrurum. This species of caryophyl- laeid cestode has been reported previously from M. erythrurum in Iowa by Fredrick- son and Ulmer (1967). The occurrence in M. melanops constitutes a new host record as well as range extensions into Kentucky for both fishes. Monobothrium ulmeri.—Monobothrium ul- meri was recovered from both the spotted 130 TrANS. KeNTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4) TABLE 2.—MEAN INTENSITY OF INFESTATION BY HELMINTHS RECOVERED FROM 62 MOXOSTOMA ERY- THRURUM FROM THE KENTUCKY RIVER INCLUDING NEW HOST AND STATE RECORDS No. fish Mean intensity of infestation Parasite infested Acanthocephala Acanthocephalus sp. 22 21 Neoechinorhynchus prolixoides 4 ul Trematoda Anoncohaptor sp. 4 i Cestoda Biacetabu’um sp. 3 3 Isoglaridacris folius 1 1 Monobothrium ulmeri 1 if Promonobothrium minytremi 12 if Nematoda Camallanus oxycephalus 8 3 Rhabdochona sp. 1 3 sucker and the golden redhorse. Calentine and Mackiewicz (1966) reported the de- finitive hosts of M. ulmeri to be Hypentel- ium nigricans, Moxostoma anisurum, and Moxostoma erythrurum. The finding of this helminth in the present study consti- tutes a new host record for M. melanops and range extensions into Kentucky for both fishes. Promonobothrium minytremi.—Mackiewicz (1968) reported the definitive host of P. minytremi to be M. melanops. In the pres- ent study, P. minytremi was recovered from both M. melanops and M. erythrurum. Pro- monobothrium minytremi was the second most abundant helminth in M. erythrurum and constitutes a new host record. In M. melanops, P. minytremi constituted the most abundant helminth with an infesta- tion rate of 56 percent. The occurrence of P. minytremi in both catostomid fishes con- stitutes new state records. Camallanus oxycephalus—The nematode C. oxycephalus has been found in many species of fishes including several genera of catostomids (Hoffman 1967), and ap- pears to be one of the most common hel- minths of freshwater fishes. In the present study, C. oxycephalus was recovered from Records Total New New helminths Location host state 484 gut X 6 gut Xx xX 5 mouth X x cavity 9 gut xX 1 gut X 1 gut xX 16 gut xX xX 24 gut 3 gut xX XxX M. erythrurum and was the third most — abundant helminth in that fish as well as _ representing a new state record. Rhabdochona sp.—Several species of Rhab- dochona have been reported previously — from catostomid fishes (Hoffman 1967). | In the present study, Rhabdochona sp. was — found in M. erythrurum and constitutes a — new host and state record for the genus. DISCUSSION Helminth infestation rates in M. mela- nops and M. erythrurum were inversely — proportional to the distribution of the catostomid fishes in the Kentucky River. | Moxostoma erythrurum with a wide dis- tribution in the river, had an infestation rate of 54 percent while M. melanops, with a restricted distribution, had a higher in- festation rate (79%). The helminth Acanthocephalus sp. ex- hibited the greatest density and distribu-_ tion throughout the Kentucky River, while > the caryophyllaeid cestode P. minytremi, had the second greatest density and distri- — bution. No digenetic trematodes were recov- | ered in this study. Their scarcity probably is attributable to the high silt load of ‘the river that is reducing the abundance and ALIFF, J. V. _ BuLtock, We J. ) PARASITES OF SUCKERS IN KENTUCKY RIvVER—Combs ez¢ al. distribution of gastropod intermediate hosts (Leung and Williams 1975). It is of in- terest to note that Aliff (1977) reported relatively heavy infestations of digenetic trematodes based on extensive collections in 13 tributaries to the Kentucky River. In that study, he examined 17 golden redhorse from those tributaries and_ reported metacercariae of Clinostomum sp. in only a single fish from the Red River in Powell County. Seasonal variation of helminths was ob- served in the present study with a peak intensity of infestation being reached dur- ing February and March. No difference in parasite infestation was apparent as related host sex or age, or recovery sites. LITERATURE CITED 1977. Digenetic trematodes from Kentucky fishes. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38(1- 2):1-14. 1963. Neoechinorhynchus pro- lixoides n. sp. (Acanthocephala) from North American fishes. Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. 30:92-96. CALENTINE, R. L., AND J. S. MAckiEwicz. 1966. Monobothrium ulmeri n. sp. (Cestoda: Caryo- phyllaeidae) from North American Catostom- 131 idae. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 85:516— 520. Coss, D. L., J. C. WiLLiaMs, AND J. P. HARLEY. 1976. New host records for Anonchohaptor muelleri (Trematoda: Monogenea) from catostomid fishes of the Kentucky River. Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. 53:84. FREDRICKSON, L. H., AND M. J. ULMER. 1967. Caryophyllaeid cestodes from two species of redhorse (Moxostoma). Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 72:444461. HorrMan, G. L. 1967. Parasites of North American freshwater fishes. Univ. Cal. Press, Los Angeles, Cal. 486 pp. LeEunG, S. S., AND J. C. Wituiams. 1975. Com- mercial Fishery Investigations of the Ken- tucky River. Water and Silt Analysis. East. Ky. Univ. Press, Richmond, Ky. 77 pp. Mackiewicz, J. S. 1968. Two new caryophyl- laeid cestodes from the spotted sucker, Miny- trema melanops (Raf.) (Catostomidae). J. Parasitol. 54:808-813. Wuirte, G. E. 1974. Parasites of the common white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) from the Kentucky River Drainage. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 93:280-282. AND «J.P: -Hartey,’ 1973. "Helmimth parasites of the white sucker, Catostomus com- mersoni, from Lake Wilgreen in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 34(3—4) :53—54. , AND 1974. Helminth para- sites of the white sucker (Pisces: Catostom- idae) in the Kentucky River Drainage. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35(1-2):24-26. Parasites of Channel Catfish from the Kentucky River, with a Comparative Note on the Ohio River’ Rosert W. Epwarps,” JOHN P. HARLEY, AND JoHN C. WILLIAMS Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475 ABSTRACT One hundred sixty-one channel catfish were collected from the Kentucky River drainage from April 1975 through June 1976 and examined for parasites. The parasites recovered were: Trematoda: Acetodextra amiuri; Cestoda: Corallobothrium sp., C. fimbriatum, C. giganteum; Nematoda: arthrosis. Contracaecum sp.; and Crustacea: Ergasilus Seasonal variation was observed in A. amiuri, C. fimbratum, C. giganteum, and E. arthrosis. Acetodextra amiuri, Contracaecum sp., C. giganteum, and E. arthrosis are new state records. INTRODUCTION The channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus is a moderately abundant and very desir- able food fish of the Kentucky River drain- age system (Williams 1974). However, the parasitic organisms of I. punctatus in the Kentucky River drainage have been neglected with the exception of Aliff’s (1977) work on the digenetic trematodes and Bauer and Harley's (1973) work on cestodes. Thus, the present study was done to further the information on the parasites of I. punctatus in the Kentucky River by: (a) identification of parasites, (b) deter- mining geographical distribution, and (c) noting any seasonal variation in helminth species. MATERIALS AND METHODS One hundred sixty-one channel catfish were collected from the Kentucky River drainage from April 1975 through June 1976. In the main channel, fish were captured by setting 1.5- and 2-inch (3.75-5.0-cm) gill nets and lifting them 24 hours later. Fish captured in locks on the river and from coves in Herrington Lake, a tributary to the Kentucky River, were killed with * Supported in part by Faculty Research Grant Nos. 03-05 and 03-07 from Eastern Kentucky Uni- versity. * Present address: Department of Zoology, Uni- versity of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701. Pronox-Fish (5% emulsifiable rotenone) at — a concentration of 1 ppm at the collection — sites. Potassium permanganate was used to — oxidize any Pronox-Fish that escaped through the lower lock gate and the area of | the blocknet when treating an open cove — on Herrington Lake by placing it in porous nylon bags and towing behind the boat throughout the study area after the treat- — ment was completed. Specimens to be examined were trans- ported to the laboratory on ice and all | other fish were buried. In the laboratory, fish usually were autopsied within 72 hours; fish that could not be examined | within 72 hours were frozen for later exam- ination. Fish were autopsied by routine procedures, and individual organs were re- moved and placed in separate Petri dishes with Ringer's solution (0.7%). ! Gills and individual organ systems were | examined by teasing the tissues apart; stomach and intestine were dissected with fine scissors and the “strip technique” uti- lized. All helminths and parasitic cope- pods recovered were placed in Ringer's solution (0.7%) for gross macroscopic examination. Helminths and parasitic copepods were © fixed in hot standard alcohol-formalin—_ acetic acid solution (AFA). Specimens not — to be stained were placed in large screwtop vials filled with AFA. Specimens were stained in Harris hema- toxylin, cleared in xylene, and mounted in 132 PARASITES OF CHANNEL CATFISH IN KENTUCKY—Edwards et all. 133 TABLE 1.—MEAN INTENSITY OF INFESTATION BY PARASITES RECOVERED FROM 161 ICTALURUS PUNCTATUS FROM THE KENTUCKY RIVER INCLUDING NEW STATE RECORDS No. fish Parasite infested of infestation TREMATODA Acetodextra amiuri 2 4 CESTODA Corallobothrium sp.’ 18 2, Corallobothrium giganteum 11 3 Corallobothrium fimbriatum 14 3 NEMATODA Contracaecum sp. 10 i CRUSTACEA Ergasilus arthrosis? 108 24 1 Immature. 2 Females only. Permount. Nematodes were fixed by drop- ping them in hot 70 percent alcohol. Confirmation of helminth species was made by Dr. David A. Becker, Department of Zoology, University of Arkansas, Fay- etteville, Arkansas, and Donald Cloutman, Duke Power Company, Huntersville, North Carolina. Mean intensity of infestation indicates the number of parasites in each infested fish. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION During the sampling period, approxi- mately 2,700 individual parasitic organisms representing 6 species were recovered. Seventy-one percent of the fish examined were infested by 1 or more parasitic or- ganisms. Four of the 6 species of parasites recovered constituted new state records. The following is an annotated list of para- sites recovered from I. punctatus (Table 1). Acetodextra amiuri.—A total of 8 individ- uals was found in the gravid ovaries of only 2 (1%) of the fish examined (Table 1). The low number of individuals as well as the low percentage of infestation probably was due to the loss of most of the adults during spawning. The helminth exhibits seasonal variation related directly to the spawning time of the fish, and very few or no helminths were present after the fish Mean intensity New state Total parasites Location record 8 ovary D4 29 intestine 28 intestine »4 38 intestine 14 mesenteries 8 2,590 gills 4 spawned. This was consistent with the results of the present study because the majority of collections were made either too early or too late to coincide with spawning in I. punctatus. In this study, immature adults were found within the ova and mature adults were free in the ovaries. According to Warner and Hubert (1975) there is no question that A. amiuri destroys ovarian tissue and ova in I. punctatus. A. amiuri has been reported from the ovaries, gas bladder, urinary bladder, and the liver of ictalurid fishes (Warner and Hubert 1975). Aliff (1977) reported it from the urinary bladder of I. melas re- covered from the Kentucky River. The present report represents a new state rec- ord for A. amiuri in I. punctatus. Corallobothrium sp.—An immature form of the cestode genus Corallobothrium was recovered from 18 (11%) of the fish exam- ined, with a total of 29 individual helminths collected (Table 1). The cestode was in what seemed to be an immature form; how- ever, it was capable of inhabiting the definitive host year round. Corallobothrium giganteum.—This proteo- cephaline cestode was recovered from 11 (7%) of the fish examined with a mean in- tensity of infestation of 3 (Table 1). Twenty-eight individual cestodes were re- 134 covered from I. punctatus during the sum- mer. This helminth was very similar to the C. fimbriatum recovered and was dis- tinguished by the smooth-surfaced scolex versus the large fimbriate scolex with mar- ginal lappets of C. fimbriatum. The study showed that C. giganteuwm de- monstrated seasonal variation very similar to that of C. fimbriatum and was recovered only in the summer as fully segmented adults. Corallobothrium fimbriatum.—Bauer and Harley (1973) reported the caryophyllaeid cestode Corallobothrium fimbriatum from I. punctatus in Kentucky as being fully de- veloped, segmented adults. The C. fim- briatum of the present study were con- sistent with those findings and contrary to the report of Van Cleave and Mueller (1934) in which they reported that C. fim- briatum (in I. punctatus) were small and unsegmented, suggesting that the fish was an unsuitable host. A total of 38 individual helminths was collected from 14 I. punctatus with a mean intensity of infestation of 3 (Table 1). Sea- sonal variation was shown, however, since the cestode was recovered as a segmented adult only during the summer and in imma- ture forms in the spring and fall. Contracaecum sp.—The only nematode re- covered from I. punctatus during the pres- ent study was Contracaecum sp. Fourteen individual nematodes were recovered with a mean intensity of infestation of 1, with 10 (6%) of the fish infested (Table 1). The nematode had 3 large lips, with well-developed interlabia and _ intestinal caecum present. Also, there were cuticular papillae on the surface of the external cuticle. This nematode was found only in fish collected in Kathys Cove on Herrington Lake, an impoundment of the Dix River, and constituted a new state record. It was also reported by White and Harley (1974) in the white sucker Catostomus commer- soni. Seasonal variation could not be con- TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4) firmed due to the scarcity of the nematodes in the study. Ergasilus arthrosis—The report of the parasitic copepod Ergasilus arthrosis in this study was the first record of the species in Kentucky; however, it appears to be com- mon on the gills of ictalurids in North America (Roberts 1970). Because of the synonymy with E. versicolor, many investi- gators have mistaken E. arthrosis for E. versicolor, since the main distinguishing characteristic between them is that the first endopod in E. arthrosis has 3 segments and that in E. versicolor has 2 segments (Rob- erts 1970). In the present study, E. arthrosis was the only copepod species infesting I. punctatus. One hundred eight (67% ) of the fish exam- ined were infested, and a total of 2,590 copepods were recovered with a mean in- tensity of infestation being 24 (Table 1). All E. arthrosis recovered were females; males occur only in the free-living form and die after copulation (Hoffman 1967). E. arthrosis showed seasonal variation during the study, with the highest infesta- tion during summer and little or none dur- ing fall and winter. In cases of high infestation, the parasite could have deleterious effects on the fish, especially young individuals, since the para- sites attach to and feed from the individual gill filaments. In cases of high infestation, the result may be stunting of growth, and in extremely high infestations (due to tis- sue damage and toxic wastes produced by the parasite) the results may be lethal (Hoffman 1967). During spring and sum- mer, all fish examined were parasitized; however, the infestations were not ex- tremely heavy. The mean intensity of in- festation ranged from 9 to 49 in spring and summer, with higher values being recorded from Herrington Lake. In this study, none of the fish examined showed any signs of deleterious effects from E. arthrosis. The collection of I. punctatus and subse- quent parasitological survey of the speci- mens taken from the Ohio River for com- parison with those from the Kentucky River PARASITES OF CHANNEL CATFISH IN KENTUCKY—Edwards et al. were similar in terms of the parasitic organ- isms recovered during similar seasons. Parasitic infestation in the present study showed no pathological effects on I. punc- tatus, and the fish were in relatively good ~ condition with no anomalies observed that could be attributed to parasitic infestations. LITERATURE CITED AurrF, J. V. 1977. Digenetic trematodes from Kentucky fishes. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38(1- 2):1-14. Bauer, B. H., anp J. P. Harney. 1973. Intes- tinal parasites from two species of catfishes (Ictaluridae) from Wilgreen Lake in Ken- tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 34(3—4) :55-56. HorFMan, G. L. 1967. Parasites of North American Freshwater Fishes. Univ. Cal. Press, Los Angeles, Cal. 486 pp. Roserts, L. S. 1970. Ergasilus (Copepoda: 135 Cyclopoida): revision and key to species in North America. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 89(1):134-161. Van Gerave, He J. .AnNp J.°E.. MuetiER... 1934. Parasites of Oneida Lake fishes. Part III. A biological and ecological survey of worm parasites. Roosevelt Wildl]. Ann. 3(3-4):161- 334. WaRNER, M. C., AND W. A. Huperr. 1975. Notes on the occurrence of Acetodextra amiuri (Stafford) (Trematoda: Heterophidae) in channel catfish from the Tennessee River. J. Wildl. Dis. 11:37. WuirteE, G., AND J. P. Harney. 1974. Helminth parasites of the white sucker (Pisces: Cato- stomidae) in the Kentucky River Drainage. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35( 1-2) :24-26. Witutius, J. C. 1974. Commercial fishery in- vestigations of the Kentucky River. Final Report 2-186-R. NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., and Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frank- fort, Ky. 184 pp. Parasites of the White Crappie from Lake Wilgreen, Kentucky’ Joun P. HarRLey Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475 ABSTRACT A survey of 150 white crappies from Lake Wilgreen, Kentucky, yielded 8 species of para- sites. New host records are reported for Contracaecum brachyurum and Ergasilus arthrosis. New state records in the white crappie are reported for Crepidostomum cornutum, Postodiplo- stomum minimum, Proteocephalus ambloplitis, Camallanus oxycephalus, Contracaecum brachy- urum, C. spiculigerum, Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli, and Ergasilus caeruleus. INTRODUCTION To the author’s knowledge, the only pub- lished work on parasites of the white crap- pie Pomoxis annularis in Kentucky is that of Aliff (1977). He reported a 7 percent rate of infestation with only Proterometra sp. being recovered. The present study was undertaken to contribute further informa- tion on parasites of the white crappie in Kentucky. MATERIALS AND METHODS One hundred fifty white crappies were collected between June and October 1976 from Lake Wilgreen, Madison County, Kentucky. The fish were autopsied and the parasites fixed, stained, and identified according to previously reported proce- dures (Harley and Keefe 1970, White and Harley 1974). RESULTS During the sampling period, approxi- mately 7,300 individual parasitic organisms representing 8 species were recovered from the 150 white crappies autopsied. There was an average of nearly 50 parasites per fish. The following is an annotated list of parasites recovered from P. annularis (Ta- ble 1). Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli—A_ total of 485 individuals was found in the intestine * Supported in part by Eastern Kentucky Uni- versity Faculty Research Grant No. 03-05. of 100 (66%) of the fish examined. The second intermediate host for this parasite is small fish (Cyprinidae). Thus, since minnows constitute a major portion of the white crappie’s diet, this could possibly explain the high infestation rate. According to Ribelin and Migaki (1975), the attachment sites of the very damaging proboscis in the intestine are the seat of prominent lesions and malabsorption syn- dromes. Since the mean intensity of infes- tation by this acanthocephalan was high (38/fish), this could possibly be one of the reasons for the overall small size and growth rate of the white crappie in Lake Wilgreen. Crepidostomum cornutum.—Only 63 indi- viduals were recovered from the intestines of 18 white crappies for a mean intensity of infestation of 5. The low numbers recov- ered are indications of the fact that one of the intermediate hosts for this trematode is sphaeriid clams of which there are few in Lake Wilgreen. Posthodiplostomum minimum.—Although large numbers (4,500) of metacercariae were recovered, the mean intensity of in- festation (104) and the number of fish in- fested (43) were light when compared to data from Lepomis sp. (Harley and Keefe 1970) in Lake Wilgreen. Overall, crappies do not seem to be as suitable a host for the metacercariae as other Centrarchidae (Hoff- man 1967) and that may explain the low levels of infestation. Nevertheless, the plentiful quantity of Physa integra and the continued presence of herons probably will 136 | i ParASsITES OF WHITE Crappre—Harley 137 TABLE 1.—MEAN INTENSITY OF INFESTATION BY VARIOUS PARASITES OF 150 WHITE CRAPPIES FROM LAKE WILGREEN, KENTUCKY, INCLUDING NEW HOST AND STATE RECORDS No. fish Mean intensity Parasite infested of infestation ACANTHOCEPHALA Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli 100 38 TREMATODA Crepidostomum cornutum 18 5 Posthodiplostomum minimum 43 104 CESTOIDEA Proteocephalus ambloplitis®? 25 6 NEMATODA Camallanus oxycephalus 1A 12 Contracaecum spiculigerum® 3 4 Contracaecum brachyurum* 9 5 CRUSTACEA Ergasilus arthrosis 34 33 1 Encysted larvae. 2 Plerocercoids. 3 Larvae. maintain this parasite in white crappies in this lake. Proteocephalus ambloplitis—Only 91 ple- rocercoids of this proteocephalid were re- covered from 25 crappies with a mean intensity of infestation of 6. These plero- cercoids have been reported from the viscera of many species of small fishes (Hoffman 1967) which act as “carriers.” Thus, in Lake Wilgreen, the white crappie is a carrier for the plerocercoid of the bass tapeworm and does not harbor the adult worm. Camallanus oxycephalus.—This nematode was the most prevalent parasite recovered. Eighty percent of the autopsied fish har- bored this worm with a mean intensity of infestation of 12. By comparison, Harley and Keefe (1970) found a mean intensity of infestation in Lepomis sp. of 4 with only 10 percent of the fish being infested. Thus, in Lake Wilgreen, Pomoxis annularis seems to harbor more C. oxycephalus than Lepo- mis sp. The reason for this difference can- not be explained based on available data. Contracaecum spiculigerum.—This nema- tode was the least prevalent of all parasites Total Location New host New state parasites in fish record record A485 intestine x 63 intestine xX 4,500 liver, heart, kidney X 91 viscera X 1,001 anus X 8 stomach, intestine 37 stomach, intestine X xX 1,129 gills X X recovered. Only 8 were recovered from 3 crappies for a mean intensity of infestation of 4 with 2 percent of the autopsied fish being infested. Since the larvae have been reported from many species of fishes (Hoff- man 1967), there probably is no fish host specificity. The finding of C. spiculigerum can be accounted for by the occasional ap- pearance of gulls (Laridae) on the lake. Gulls normally harbor the adults. Contracaecum brachyurum.—Only 37 lar- vae were recovered from 9 crappies for a mean intensity of infestation of 5 with 6 percent of the autopsied fish being in- fested. Like for C. spiculigerum, gulls nor- mally harbor the adults, the larval forms infesting the fish that eat them. Ergasilus arthrosis—This parasitic cope- pod was very prevalent on the gills of the autopsied white crappies. Twenty-three percent of the fish surveyed harbored this parasite with a mean intensity of infesta- tion of 33. This was slightly higher than the mean intensity (24) reported by Ed- wards et al. (1977) for the channel catfish from the Kentucky River. The difference can be accounted for in that E. arthrosis 138 shows seasonal variation with the highest infestation occurring during summer. In this survey, all crappies were collected dur- ing summer, while in the survey by Ed- wards et al. (1977), the channel catfish were collected over a period of 14 months, including winter, which lowered their aver- age rate of infestation. DISCUSSION Contracaecum brachyurum and Ergasi- lus arthrosis from the white crappie are new host records for the United States. Those 2 parasites, along with all others recovered, constitute new state records for Pomoxis annularis as a host. With the exception of Crepidostomum cornutum and Ergasilus arthrosis, all the other parasites have been reported previ- ously from other sunfishes (Lepomis) from Lake Wilgreen (Harley and Keefe 1970). The finding of the parasitic copepod, E. arthrosis, is the second report for Kentucky. Edwards et al. (1977) reported it from channel catfish in the Kentucky and Ohio rivers and explained why it has been mis- taken for E. versicolor. When compared to other studies on the white crappie (Dechtiar 1972, Becker and Houghton 1969, Arnold et al. 1968, Allison and McGraw 1967) in different parts of the country, the present study has shown a wider diversity and number of parasites re- covered. A possible explanation for this is the large number and variety of inverte- brate hosts present in Lake Wilgreen (Sugantharaj 1972, unpublished master’s thesis, Eastern Kentucky University, Rich- mond, Kentucky) that the white crappie feeds upon. Also, the lake is highly pol- luted (Otero and Leung 1972) and this may have something to do with the high diversity of micro- and macroorganisms that serve as food for the white crappie. Apparently, the high rate of parasitic infes- TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4) tation is not unusual for fish in central Ken- tucky as indicated by other studies (Aliff 1977, Combs et al. 1977, Edwards et al. 1977, White and Harley 1974). LITERATURE CITED AuiFF, J. V. 1977. Digenetic trematodes from Kentucky fishes. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38(1- 2) :1-14. Auuison, T. C., AND J. L. McGraw. 1967. The helminth parasites of Centrarchidae from the Navasota River System of Texas. Texas J. Sci. 19:326-327. ARNOLD, J. G., H. E. SCHAFER, AND R. L. VULLIET. 1968. The parasites of the fresh water fishes of Louisiana. II. Check list of parasites. | Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeast. Ass. Game Fish | Comm. 21:531-543. BrEcKER, D. A., AND W. C. Houcutron. 1969. A | survey of the helminth parasites of selected — game fishes of Lake Fort Smith, Arkansas. Proc. Ark. Acad. Sci. 23:110—117. Comss, D. L., J. P. HARLEY, AND J. C. WILLIAMs. 1977. Helminth parasites of the spotted and golden redhorse suckers from the Kentucky River. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38(3—4):128— 131. DecuTiar, A. O. 1972. New parasite records for Lake Erie Fish. Great Lakes Fish. Comm. Tech. Rept. No. 17:1-11. Epwarps, R. W., J. P. HARLEY, AND J. C. Wi- | tiaMs. 1977. Parasite fauna of channel | catfish from the Kentucky River with a com- | parative note on the Ohio River. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38(3-4):132—135. Harxety, J. P., ann T. L. Keere. 19700 Hel- minth parasites of four species of sunfishes | (Centrarchidae) from Lake Wilgreen in Ken- | tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 32(3—4) :71-74. HorFMan, G. L. 1967. Parasites of North American Freshwater Fishes. Univ. Cal. | Press, Los Angeles, Cal. 486 pp. Otero, R. B., AND S. Leunc. 1972. Some ob- servations on bacterial populations in Wil- green Lake, Madison County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 33(1-2):16-26. RIBELIN, W. E., anp G. Micaxt. 1975. The pathology of fishes. Univ. Wis. Press, Madi- son, Wis. 1,004 pp. Wuiret, G., AND J. P. Hartey. 1974. Helminth parasites of the white sucker (Pisces: Cato- stomidae) in the Kentucky River drainage. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35(1-2):24-26. Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Bromoquinolines JERRY L. BUTLER AND MARSHALL GORDON Department of Chemistry, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071 ABSTRACT Excellent separations of isomeric bromoquinolines have been obtained using a packed column containing QF-1. The method of analysis was used to assay various products obtained from bromination of quinoline. Observed retention time ranged from 373 sec for quinoline to 1,643 sec for 8-bromoquinoline with respective indexes of 1,596 and 2,018. INTRODUCTION The literature reveals little information pertaining to the separation of quinoline derivatives by gas chromatography. Gas chromatography has been used to follow the reaction kinetics of styrylquinoline for- mation (Lynch and Gordon 1972). The _ first reported attempt to separate isometric halogenated quinolines was by Goodley and Gordon (1972), who developed a method for the rapid separation and quan- titative analysis of selected chlorinated quinolines by gas chromatography. For separation of the bromoquinolines, the McReynolds (1970) constants indicate that QF-1 would be a good choice and that OV-225 should also be considered. The ability of QF-1 to retard the nitromethane type molecule and the electron donor type molecules seems to involve an interaction between the unshared pair of electrons (quinoline) with the trifluoropropyl group of the liquid phase. Such being the case, retention time should be a function of the electron density at the nitrogen atom. However, it appears from retention data that separation is achieved by a dipole- dipole interaction between the quinoline ring structure and trifluoropropyl group of the liquid phase. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Partial support of this work by the Mur- ray State University Committee on Institu- tional Studies and Research is gratefully acknowledged. MATERIALS AND METHODS The liquid phase used was a silicone QF-1 coated onto Chromosorb G, AW, DMCS, 60/70-mesh support and packed into a 10 ft X 0.093 in (3.04 m X 0.236 cm), 1/8 in od (0.32 cm) aluminum tube. There was no pretreatment of the support; it was used as received (Johns-Manville Corp.). Of the 5 different liquid loadings tested (range 5-20%), the optimum loading was 10 percent. Other liquid phases, SE-30, OV-225, and Apiezon L, and support ma- terials Chromosorb W, regular; Chromo- sorb W, DMCS; Chromosorb G, DMCS; and Chromosorb T were found to be inef- fective for the separation of the bromo- quinolines. Helium was used as a carrier gas for all analyses. The column tempera- ture was 163 C; the injector port tempera- ture was 210C; the detector temperature was 225C. Sample size was 0.06 pl; the carrier gas flow rate was 14.4 ml/min. An effluent splitter located at the column-— flame base junction effectively allowed 49 percent (6.6 ml/min) of the effluent to bypass the detector. The remaining 51 percent effluent (7.8 ml/min) entered the hydrogen flame. The recorder used was a Honeywell 1.0 mv full-scale, Model 1630, connected to an Infotronics Digital Inte- grator, Model CRS-104. The gas chro- matograph was a dual channel Varian Aerograph, Model 1520, equipped with flame-ionization detectors. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The retention index values, according to Kovats (1967) and Rohrschneider (1966, 139 140 2200 2000 $ 1800 Cc = 5 6.1600 : x . g < 1400 1200 1000 Fic. 1. Plot of log adjusted retention time for the bromoquinoline versus the n-alkane retention index. TRANS. KENTUCKY (\) ix) 1.6 1'8 2:0 2.2 Loa Adjusted Retention Time ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4) (\) wD e 2. — Bromoquinolines O n-AlKanes 24 2.6 2.8 3.0 Bi2 3.4 BROMOQUINOLINE COMPOUNDS on QF-! FLUORO SILICONE FLOW: 15 ml/min TEMP: 163 C 1. Quinoline 2. G-Methylquinoline 3. 3-Bromoquinoline 4. 5-Bromoquinoline 5. 6-Bromoquinoline 6. 7-Bromoquinoline 7. 2-Bromoquinoline 8. 5-Bromo-6-methylquinoline 9. 8-Bromoquinoline Fic. 2. Typical chromatogram tiM@ (rind of a standard mixture of the bromoquinoline. Gas CHROMATOGRAPHY OF BROMOQUINOLINES—Butler and Gordon 141 TABLE 1.—RETENTION DATA FOR BROMINATED QUINOLINE ISOMERS ON QF-1 at 163 C anv 15 ML/MIN FLOW RATE Observed Adjusted : retention retention Log adjusted Retention Compound time (sec) time (sec) retention time index methane 37 0 0.0000 100 heptane 48 11 1.0414 700 decane 73 36 1.5563 1,000 dodecane 114 Ti 1.8865 1,200 tetradecane 199 162 2.2095 1,400 hexadecane 378 341 2.5328 1,600 octadecane 736 699 2.8445 1,800 eicosane 1,469 1,432 3.1559 2,000 decosane 4,982 4,945 3.6942 2,200 quinoline 373 336 25265 1,596" 3-bromoquinoline 762 25 2.8603 1,810° 5-bromoquinoline 821 784 2.8943 1,832" 6-bromoquinoline 929 892 2,.9504 1,868" 7-bromoquinoline 1,060 1,023 3.0094 1,906" 2-bromoquinoline 1,151 LT 3.0468 1930" 8-bromoquinoline 1,643 1,606 3.2055 2,018" 1 These values were obtained from the equation log t’,, —logt’,, I = 200 1967), were found by injecting the normal alkanes into the chromatograph using the same conditions for the bromoquinoline analysis and plotting the log adjusted re- tention time versus the n-alkane number multiplied by 100 (the n-alkane index) (Fig. 1). Methane was used to obtain a relative reference for the adjusted retention time using the hydrogen flame detector. The conditions for the quinoline isomer analysis were duplicated, using a thermal conductivity detector to establish the fact that air and methane had the same reten- tion time on the QF-1 column. The index values and accompanying data for the QF-1 column at 163C are shown in Table 1. log Ure +2) log Ur: + 100 Z. Six standard mixtures were made using a wide difference in composition of the quinoline isomers. These mixtures were weighed out on a Mettler balance to the nearest 0.01 mg. Four to 6 injections of each of the 6 standard mixtures were made into the chromatograph, and an average response value for each component was calculated from the observed area of each component. The response factors were calculated on the basis of mole percent composition and related to quinoline as arbitrarily having a response factor of 1.00 (Dietz 1967). The values are shown to- gether with the composition of one of the standards and results from a typical analy- sis in Table 2. TABLE 2.—BROMINATED QUINOLINE ANALYSIS AND RELATIVE RESPONSE VALUES ON QF-1 at 163 C Average Average Standard analysis response Compound (mole percent) (mole percent ) Error factor quinoline OA21 22 +0.16 1.00 2-bromoquinoline 11.56 11.45 —0.11 1.10 3-bromoquinoline 13.94 13.85 —0.09 0.99 5-bromoquinoline 11.39 11.45 +0.06 1.04 6-bromoquinoline 12.87% ia: —0.15 0.99 7-bromoquinoline 14.92 14.90 —0.02 1.05 8-bromoquinoline Po 1346 +0.05 0.98 Total 100.00 100.00 142 tima (min) Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4) REACTION MIXTURE 17 ANALYSIS PERCENT (mole) |. Quinoline 64.52 2. 5-Bromoqguinoline 19.58 3. G-Bromoqguinoline — 00.1 4. 7-Bromoguinoline trace 5. .2-Bromoguinoline trace 6. 8-Bromoguinoline 15.7 Fic. 3. Typical chromatogram of a bromination reaction mixture. A discussion of the preparation of bromo- quinoline isomers together with details of various bromination reactions conducted is reported elsewhere (Butler and Gordon 1975). The brominated quinoline reaction mix- tures were analyzed in the same way as the standard mixtures. The mole percent of each isomer present was calculated from the product of the area obtained and the response factor for that isomer. In some analyses, there was a rise in the baseline of the chromatograph recording, but the area was not sufficient for the electronic integrator to respond. For those instances, the isomers present, in obviously small amounts, were indicated as “trace.” Figs. 2 and 3 illustrate chromatograms of a stan- dard mixture and a reaction mixture, respectively. LITERATURE CITED But_Ler, J. L., AnD M. Gorpon. 1975. A rein- vestigation of known bromination reactions ———————— 1967. “Bae of quinoline. J. Heterocyclic Chem. 12:1015— | 1020. Dietz, W. A. 1967. Response factors for gas chromatographic analyses. J. Gas Chro- matogr. 5:68. Goop.LEy, P. C., anp M. Gorpon. 1972. Gas chromatographic analysis of halogenated quinoline compounds. J. Chromatogr. Sci. 10:532-534. | Kovats, E. 1967. Gas chromatographic charac- _ terization of organic substances in the reten- © tion index system. Pp. 229. In J. C. Giddings | and R. A. Keller (Eds.). Advances in Chro- | matography, Vol. 1. Marcel Dekker Co., New © York, N.Y. 392 pa. | Lyncu, S. M., AND M. Gorpon. 1972. Kinetics of styrylquinoline formation. J. Heterocyclic © Chem. 9:789-799. | McReynotps, W. O. 1970. Characterization of some liquid phases. J. Chromatogr. Sci. 8: | 685-691. ROHRSCHNEWER, L. 1966. A method for the ] characterization of gas chromatographic sta- _ tionary liquids. J. Chromatogr. 22:6. | polarity of stationary liquid phases in gas chromatography. Pp. | 333. In J. C. Giddings and R. A. Keller (Eds.). Advances in Chromatography, Vol. 4, Marcel Dekker Co., New York, N.Y. 380 pp. Distribution of the Barking Treefrog in Kentucky’ Burt L. Monrog, JR. AND RAYMOND W. GIANNINI Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT Discovery of a second population of Hyla gratiosa in Caldwell County, Kentucky, isolated from the only other known population in the state (Todd County and adjacent Montgomery County in Tennessee), suggests that the disjunct nature of the northern populations is a result of range contraction and the natural occurrence of relict populations rather than from artificial introductions by man. North of the central Gulf states, from northen Alabama and _ northwestern Georgia through central Tennessee, the barking treefrog Hyla gratiosa is repre- sented by disjunct, apparently relict popu- lations. At the extreme north-central limit of the range in north-central Tennessee and south-central Kentucky, the species has been heretofore known from a single pop- ulation in Montgomery County, Tennessee (Scott and Harker 1968), and adjacent Todd County, Kentucky (Monroe and Tay- lor 1972). The discovery of an additional isolated population about 60 km northwest of the foregoing extends the range of the species toward southwestern Kentucky and further illustrates the peculiar disjunct na- ture of its distribution. _ On 3 July 1976, Giannini obtained a sin- gle specimen about 12 km south of Prince- ton, Caldwell County, Kentucky. It was taken about 50 m from the nearest water on a warm, drizzly night; no frogs were heard calling at that time. The specimen is presently in the Herpetological Collections of the Department of Biology, University of Louisville (#UL 6779). Following considerable rainfall, Giannini located a breeding area on 5 July about 75 m from the site of the original specimen. The area was a flooded slough with much submergent grass and weedy growth, ap- proximately 10 by 75 m in size. On that night, 2 specimens were obtained (#UL 6780, 6781) from about 25 calling males. * Contribution No. 186 (New Series) from the Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208. Most frogs were sitting on vegetation at surface level in water less than 1 m in depth. On 6 July, about 40 individuals were calling in the area. In addition, 10 were calling from a similar flooded area some 100 m distant from the first, and 10 more in a permanently wet area some 10 m in diameter and about 200 m distant from the first location. All 3 areas contained much submergent vegetation. No specimens were taken but recordings were obtained. Two more individuals were captured on 8 July, one of which is still alive in captivity at this time (18 Feb 1977). About 50 frogs in all were calling on 8 July at the original site, with but 6 at the permanent wet area and none at the third location. On 10 and 12 July, following several days without rainfall, a total of about 30 calling males was noted at the 3 locations. Some 10 individuals were heard on 14 July and none after that date. The newly discovered area is in a differ- ent drainage system than that involving the other Kentucky population. In addition, it is but 30 km east of the Land Between the Lakes region, one of the most thor- oughly studied regions herpetologically within Kentucky. Although we are sure other populations remain undiscovered in parts of Kentucky and Tennessee, it is evi- dent that the range is highly disjunct through those states. The most significant feature of the dis- tribution of H. gratiosa is the absence from southwestern Kentucky along the Missis- sippi River bottomlands; virtually all Gulf coastal plain species ranging north to Ken- 143 144 tucky occur in that floodplain. As a result, the overall distribution of the species forms a unique geographical pattern among east- ern amphibians. A somewhat similar pattern could be obtained in the mud sala- mander Pseudotriton montanus if the mid- land race P. m. diasticus were relict and disjunct in central Kentucky and Tennessee rather than widespread, but there is no spe- cies displaying the particular distributional peculiarities of H. gratiosa. Furthermore, the existence of several sizable disjunct breeding populations suggests that the dis- tribution is a natural one, resulting from range contraction and relict populations, rather than possibly being produced TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4) through artificial or accidental introduc- tions by man. : Further studies of the Caldwell County population will be conducted in the sum- mer of 1977. Field herpetologists in Ken- tucky and Tennessee should be alerted to the possible occurrence of this species else- where in the region. | LITERATURE CITED Monrog, B. L., JR., AND R. W. Taytor. 1972. Occurrence of the barking treefrog, Hyla gratiosa, in Kentucky. J. Herpetol. 6:78. Scott, A. F., anp D. F. Harker. 1968. First | records of the barking treefrog, Hyla gratiosa Le Conte, from Tennessee. Herpetologica 24: 82-83. Articles on Kentucky in the Scientific and Technical Journals of Antebellum Tennessee At least 19 technical or scientific journals were published in Tennessee before 1861 (Corgan 1977). While many are too poorly known to permit analysis of content, sev- eral contain articles on the natural history of Kentucky. The following is an anno- tated bibliography of those articles. Fanning, Tolbert. 1842. Notes on a short tour of Kentucky. Agriculturist 3:281- 282. Brief notes on agricultural geography. Loomis, I. Newton. 1846. Geologic en- - campment. Naturalist 1:337-343, 385- 387. Description of a four-week summer field trip focused on Mammoth Cave. Martin, Samuel D. 1845. Analysis of Ken- — tucky soil. Agriculturist 6:107—108. JAMES X. Austin Peay State University, CoRGAN Clarksville, Tennessee 37040 Analyses of 3 samples of soil from Clarke County. Suddarth, J. B. 1856. Physical and medi- cal topography, etc., of Simpson County; in general applicable to the central re- gion of southern Kentucky. Nashville J. Med. Surg. 11:473-488. A treatment of physical and cultural geography; includes a list of plants. To historically oriented students of Ken- tucky science, those antebellum articles may have academic value. They are now little known because the journals in which they appeared have become very obscure. LITERATURE CITED Corcan, J. X. 1977. Tennessee’s early techni- cal and scientific journals, 1825-1861. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 52:23-26. 145 NEWS AND COMMENT The Executive Committee and Board of Directors, in joint session at Georgetown College on 9 April 1977, asked the Secretary to inform the membership of a proposed change in annual dues. In his June 1977 Newsletter, Dr. Seay indicated the following proposed increases to be voted on by the membership at the Sixty-third Annual Meeting at West- ern Kentucky University on 11 and 12 No- vember 1977: Active membership, $10.00; Student membership, $7.00; Life member- ship, $100.00; and Contributing member- ship, $50.00 annually or multiples thereof. Contributing memberships are intended largely, but not solely, for institutions and industrial organizations. It is hoped that one or more of the institutions of higher education in the Commonwealth will use such memberships as an indication of sup- port for the Academy. Annual Dues The Annual Meeting of the Ken- tucky Academy of Science will be held at Western Kentucky University on Friday and Saturday, 11 and 12 November 1977. Dr. Marvin Russell will serve as host. Information on the meeting will be forthcoming with the next Newsletter. Annual Meeting KAS Committees If you are interested in be- coming actively associated with the work of the Acad- emy, now is your chance to let it be known! There are a number of Standing Committees to which new members are appointed each year. Those Committees are: Mem- 146 bership, Legislation, Distribution of Re- search Funds, and Publications. Also, there are other committees that need new and active personnel. If you are interested in serving, or if you know of someone you think can really contribute, please make that willingness or interest known to Presi- dent Charles Payne, Morehead State Uni- versity, Morehead, Kentucky 40351, or President Elect Charles E. Kupchella, Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40201. At their meeting of 10 September Page 1977, the Executive Committee : Charges of the Kentucky Academy of Sci- ence instituted the practice of mandatory © page charges of $15.00 per printed page for. all papers published in the TRANSACTIONS | OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE | beginning with Volume 39, Numbers 1-2, to — be published in March 1978. The actual costs of publication are in excess of $40.00 per printed page, and there is need to help defray that cost. | Distinguished Dr. Thomas B. Calhoon, Scientist Chairman of the Board of | Award Directors of the Kentucky — Academy of Science, re- | quests that all nominations for the Dis-_ tinguished Scientist Award for 1977 be sent’ to him along with appropriate vitae of the’ persons nominated. He asks that all such: nominations be in his office no later than: 10 October 1977. His address is Depart- ment of Physiology, Health Sciences Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, Ken- tucky 40232. | Abricta ferruginosa, 26 Acanthocephala, 128-130 Acanthocephalus, 128-130 A. dirus, 129 A. jacksoni, 129 Acer saccharinum, 79 Acetodextra, 11 A. amiuri, 1, 5, 6, 11, 132, 133 Achillea millefolium, 22-25 Acipenser fulvescens, 69, 70 Acrosternum hilare, 83, 84 Agrion, 117 Agrionidae, 117 Alderfly, 118 ALIFE? JOHN: V., 1 Allocreadiidae, 1, 9 Allocreadium, 12 A. lobatum, 1, 4—7, 9, 12 Alloglossidium corti, 1, 6, 12 Alosa chrysochloris, 8, 49, 53, ial Ambloplites rupestris, 1, 3-11, bile 53 Ammocrypta pellucida, 71 Amphibians, 118 Amphipoda, 47, 117 Anacardiaceae, 23 Anderson Creek Embayment, 120 Andropogon gerardi, 22-24 A. scoparius, 22-24 Anemone virginiana, 23, 24 Anguilla rostrata, 3, 49, 53 Anguillidae, 49 Anodonta grandis, 48 Anonchohaptor, 129 A. muelleri, 128, 129 Antebellum Tennessee, 145 Anura, 118 Aphredoderidae, 50 Aphredoderus sayanus, 50, 53 Aplodinotus grunniens, 3, 4, 7, Geolroo, O4 Apocynaceae, 23 Apocynum cannibinum, 23, 24 Aquatic fauna, 116 Arch, Fort Campbell, 74, 77 Asclepias incarnata, 23 A. syriaca, 23 A. verticillata, 23, 24 Asclepidaceae, 23 Ascyrum hypericoides, 23 Asellus militaris, 47 A. stygius, 117, 119 Astacidae, 117 Aster, 22-24 A. patens, 22-24 ATHEY, RAYMOND, 95 Aulacizes, 31 INDEX TO VOLUME 38 A. irrorata, 28 Azygiidae, 1, 9 Backswimmer, 118 BAYER, FOREST. L., 15 Baetis, 47 Bass, largemouth, 51 rock, 51 smallmouth, 51 spotted, 51 white, 51 Beetle, bean leaf, 83-85 Mexican bean, 86 Betulaceae, 23 Biacetabulum, 128, 129 B. banghami, 128, 129 B. infrequens, 129 B. meridianum, 129 Bidens, 23 Big Clifty Prairie, 21 Bluegill, 51 BRANSON, BRANLEY A., 69 Bridges, natural, 74 Noah Creek, 74-76 Bromoisoquinilines, 16—17 Bromoquinolines, 139-142 Bromus, 79 B. tectorum, 23 BROWNE, EDWARD T., JR., 95 BRYANT, WILLIAM S., 21 Bucephalidae, 1, 10 Bucephalus, 11 Bucephalopsis, 1, 5, 11 Buffalo, black, 50 smallmouth, 50 Bug, green stink, 83-85 Bullhead, black, 50 brown, 50 yellow, 50 Burrows, woodchuck, 79 BUTEER: JERRY els, 139 Caddisfly, 118 Caenis, 117 Callitrichaceae, 23 Callitriche deflexa, 23 Cambarinae, 117 Camallanus oxycephalus, 128- 130.132; 153 Campanulaceae, 23 Campostoma anomalum, 1, 3-8, 12, 49, 52, 53, 118 Caprifoliaceae, 23 Carassius auratus, 7, 49, 53 Carex, 22, 24 C. complanata, 23, 25 C. frankii, 23 C. vulpinoidea, 23 Carp, 49 147 Carpiodes carpio, 50, 53 G. cyprinus, 3, 50,. 53 Carpsucker, river, 50 Caryophyllaceae, 23 Cassia fasciculata, 22-24 Catfish, channel, 50, 123-127, 132-135 flathead, 50 Catostomidae, 50, 118 Catostomus commersoni, 3-8, 10, 11, 50, 52, 53, 128, 129, 134 Ceanothus americanus, 23 Centrarchidae, 51 Ceratopogonidae, 118 Cestoda, 62, 129, 130, 132, 133 Cestoidea, 128 Chaenorrhinum minus, 23 Chauliodes, 118 Cheumatopsyche, 48 Chironomidae, 48, 118 Chlamydomonadidae, 117 Chlamydomonas globosa, 117 Chloromonadida, 117 Chrosomus erythrogaster, 97, TVS: 119 Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, 222.5 Chrysemys scripta elegans, 118 Chrysops, 118 Chub, creek, 50, 118 silver, 49 speckled, 70 Chubsucker, creek, 118 Cicada, 28 Cicadellidae, 26, 35 Cicadidae, 26 Clinostomum, 4, 131 Clinostomus funduloides, 70 © Cloverworm, green, 83-85 Clupeidae, 49, 121 Clupeids, 121 Colaspis brunnea, 83, 84 Colaspis, grape, 83-85 Coleoptera, 48, 118 COLTHARP, GEORGE B., 111 COMBS, DAVID L., 128 Compositae, 22, 23 Contracaecum, 132-134 C. brachyurum, 136-138 Corallobothrium, 132, 133 C. fimbriatum, 132-134 C. giganteum, 132-134 C. spiculigerum, 136, 137 Corbicula manilensis, 48 Coreopsis tripteris, 23 CORGAN, JAMES X., 74, 145 Corixidae, 118 Cornaceae, 23 Corydalidae, 118 148 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4) Corylus, 25 C. americana, 22, 23, 25 Cottidae, 51 Cottontail, 79, 80 Cottus carolinae, 1, 3-8, 10, 51, 53 Counties, Kentucky Caldwell, 143 Calloway, 116 Carter, 98 Christian, 74 Grayson, 21 Jefferson, 45 Madison, 136 Todd, 143 County, Tennessee Montgomery, 143 Cranefly, 118 Crangonyx, 47, 117, 119 Crappie, black, 51 white, 51, 136 parasites of, 136 Crayfish, 117 Creeks, Kentucky Eagle, 128 Elkhorn, 128 Goose, 45—49, 52-54 Little Goose, 49 Crepidostomum cooperi, 1, 6, 9 C. cornutum, 1, 3, 5, 7-9, 12, 136-138 C. isostomum, 1, 4, 7-9, 12 Crustacea, 132-134 Cryptogonimidae, 1, 11 Cyperaceae, 23 Cyperus, 22-24 C. ovularis, 23, 24 Cyprinidae, 49, 97, 118 Cypriniformes, 118 Cyprinodontidae, - 50 Cyprinus carpio, 3-5, 7-8, 49, 52-54 Dace, blacknose, 50 rosyside, 70 southern redbelly, 97, 118, 119 Damselfly, 117 Darter, arrow, 72 barcheek, 72 bluestripe, 71 Cumberland snubnose, 72 eastern sand, 71 fantail, 51 gilt, 71 greenside, 51 johnny, 51 rainbow, 51 redline, 72 tippecanoe, 72 DAVIS, WAYNE H., 120 Decapoda, 117 Desmanthus illinoensis, 23 Desmodium ciliare, 23 D. laevigatum, 23 D. sessilifolium, 23, 24 Desmognathus fuscus, 118 Dianthus armeria, 23, 24 Didelphis virginiana, 79 Difflugia globosa, 117 Difflugidae, 117 Digenea, 13 Diodia teres, 23 Diospyros virginiana, 22, 23 Diptera, 48, 118 Dobsonfly, 118 Dorosoma, 121 D. cepedianum, 3, 4, 8, 49, 52, Boers pall D. petenense, 121 Drum, freshwater, 51 Earthworm, aquatic, 117 Ebenaceae, 23 EDWARDS, ROBERT W., 132 Eel, American, 49 Eleocharis, 22 E. tenuis, 23, 24 Elodes, 118 Elymus virginicus, 23, 24 Empoasca fabae, 35, 86 Ephemeroptera, 47, 117 Epilachna varivestis, 86 Ergasilus arthrosis, 132-134, 136-138 E. caeruleus, 136, 137 E. versicolor, 134, 138 Ericymba buccata, 49, 53 Erigeron annus, 23 Erimyzon oblongus, 118 Esocidae, 49 Esox americanus vermiculatus 3, 49, 52 Etheostoma, 6, 12 E. atripinne, 72 E. bellum, 8 . blennioides, 1, 3-9, 11, 12, oy) Wa . caeruleum, 1, 3-8, 10-12, 51-53, 118 . camurum, 7 . cinereum, 72 . flabellare, 1, 3-8, 10-12, 51- 53 . nigrum, 4-6, 51, 53 . obeyense, 7, 72 . rufilineatum, 7, 72 saggita, 72 var. saggita, 72 var. spilotum, 72 spectabile, 1, 3, 4, 6, 9-12 squamiceps, 118 stigmaeum, 7 tippecanoe, 72 virgatum, 7 > Bees ee & E. zonale, 3, 8 Euglenidae, 117 Euglenoidida, 117 Eupatorium altissimum, 23 E. serotinum, 23 Euphorbiaceae, 23 Euphorbia corollata, 23, 24 E. supina, 23 Fagaceae, 23 Fasciola hepatica, 62-67 Festuca, 79 F. elatior, 23, 24 Fish, larvae, 120 planktonic, 120 Fishes, 118 Kentucky, 1 threatened, 69-73 Forests, Kentucky : Daniel Boone National, 69 | Fox, gray, 79, 80 red, 79, 80 FREEZE, THOMAS M., 97, 116, 120, 123 Frog, leopard, 118 Fundulus catenatus, 7, 8 F.. notatus, 6-8, 50, 52, 53 F. olivaceus, 122 Galium pilosum, 23 | Gambusia affinis, 1, 4, 6, 12, — 51-53 Gammaridae, 117 Gammarus, 47 Gar, longnose, 49 shortnose, 49 Gas chromatographic analysis, 139-142 GAURL, Ki ge2 3s Gentianaceae, 23 Geocoris, 83, 84, 87 Geraniaceae, 23 Geranium carolinianum, 23 Gerridae, 118 Gerris, 118 GIANNINI, RAYMOND W., | 143 | GLEASON, LARRY N., 62 Gnaphalium purpureum, 23, 24 | Goldfish, 49 | Goniobasis, 13 GORDON, MARSHALL, 15, | 139 ! Gorgoderidae, 1, 11 Gramineae, 22, 23 HAAG, KIM H., 45 Haliplidae, 118 Haplotaxidae, 117 Haplotaxis, 118 H. gordioides, 117,°118 HARLEY, JOHN P., 128, 132, 136 Helenium flexuosum, 23 Helianthus hirsutus, 23 Helisoma, 13 Helodidae, 118 Hemerocallis fulva, 23 Hemiptera, 117 Herring, skipjack, 49, 121 HILL, FREDERICK C., 45 Hiodon alosoides, 8 H. tergisus, 4, 10 Homoptera, 26, 35 | HOTCHKISS, ARLAND, 98 | Hybognathus nuchalis, 70 Hybopsis aestivalis, 3, 70 H. storeriana, 8, 49, 53 Hydrometra, 117 Hydrometridae, 117 Hyla gratiosa, 143 Hymenolepis, 57 H. microstoma, 62-67 H. nana, 56-61 , Hypentelium. nigricans, 1, 3-7, Pipes0. oo. Oo, 130 Hypericaceae, 23 Hypericum sphaerocarpum, 23 Ictaluridae, 50 Ictalurus, 52 ae © melas, 1, 3-5, 7, 10, 11, 50 I. natalis, 3, 6-8, 11, 50 I. nebulosus, 7, 50 I. punctatus, 3, 7, 8, 50, 53, 54, 123-127, 132-135 Ictiobus bubalus, 7, 8, 10, 50, 52 OS I. cyprinellus, 3 I. niger, 50, 53 Immunity, 56 passive transfer of, 56 Insects, phytophagous, 83 predaceous, 83 Iris cristata, 98 Iris, dwarf crested | form), 98 Isoglaridacis folius, 128, 129 Isopoda, 47, 117 ( white Juncaceae, 23 © Juncus, 23 Kentucky Academy of Science Academy Affairs, 101 Annual Business Meeting, 107 Distinguished Scientist Award, 99 News and Comment, 110, 146 Kentucky, articles on, 145 KRUMHOLZ, LOUIS A., 99 Labiatae, 22, 23 Labidesthes sicculus, 3, 6-8, 122 INDEX TO VOLUME 38 Lactuca canadensis, 23, 24 Lagochila lacera, 69, 71 Lake, Arkansas Dardanelle, 123 Lakes, Kentucky Kentucky, 120 Wilgreen, 136 Lamprey, 118 Lampsilis, 13 Laridae, 137. ~ Lauraceae, 23 Leafhopper, 26 ~ potato, 86 Leguminosae, 22, 23 Lemna minor, 47 LENSING, BARBARA A., 88 Lepisosteidae, 49 Lepisosteus, 122 L. osseus, 49, 53 L. platostomus, 49, 53 Lepomis, 12, 122 . cyanellus, 4-11, 51, 53 . gibbosus, 3, 9 . gulosus, 1, 5,6, 10, 51-53 . humilis, 51, 53 . macrochirus, 1, 3-10, 51-53 . megalotis, 1, 3-10, 12, 13, 51-53 . microlophus, 3, 7,-8, 51, 53 Lespedeza virginica, 23 Leuceruthrus micropteri, 1, 3- 1O, 12 Liliaceae, 23 in Kentucky, 95 Lilium formosanum, 95, 96 L. philippinense, 95, 96 var. formosanum, 95 Limnophila, 118 Linaceae, 23 Linum virginianum, 23, 24 LIPSCOMB, THORNTON, 38 Lirceus, 47 . L. fontinalis, 117 Liriodendron tulipifera, 116 Lissorchiidae, 1, 11 Lissorchis, 3 L. attenuatum, 1, 4, 5, 11 LL. srmeri, Lo8s 14 Lobeliaceae, 23 Lobelia puberula, 23, 24 L. spicata, 23 Logperch, 51, 71 Lonicera japonica, 23 Ludwigia alternifolia, 23 Lumbriculidae, 117 Lumbriculus inconstans, 117 Lycopus virginicus, 23 eat ele ge Pleat les! th Macroderoididae, 1, 12 Macroinvertebrates, 117 Madtom, brindled, 50 tadpole, 50 149 Marble, 38 carbon dioxide relation, 38 Marsh treader, 117 Mayfly, 117 Medicago lupalina, 23 Megaloptera, 118 Melanthium canadense, 95 M. virginicum, 95 Melilotus alba, 23, 24 Micropterus, 10 M. dolomieui, 1, 3-5, 7, 9, 10, 53 M.- punctulatus, 1, 3-10, 51-53 M. salmoides, 1, 3-12, 51-53, 122 Microtus pennsylvanicus, 79, 80 M. pinetorum, 79 Midge, 118 biting, 118 Minnow, bluntnose, 49 silver, 70 silverjaw, 49 Minytrema, 53, 54 M. melanops, 1, 3, 7, 8, 11, 50, 5o-54. 198-130 Molanna, 118 Molannidae, 118 Mollusca, 48 Molt, seasonal, 88 Monobothrium ulmeri, 128-130 Monobromoisoquinolines, 15 MONROE, BURT L., JR., 143 Morone, 121, 122 M. chrysops, 4, 51-53, 121 M. mississippiensis, 8 Mosquitofish, 51 Mouse, 56 house, 79 meadow jumping, 79 whitefooted, 79, 88 Moxostoma anisurum, 1, 3, 6, 8, 5Os5e5 130 M. carinatum, 50, 52, 53 M. duquesnei, 50, 53 M. erythrurum, 3-6, 8, 10, 50, 59-54, 128-130 M. macrolepidotum, 1, 3, 11 Musculium, 13 Mus musculus, 59, 79-81 Nabis, 83, 84 Nematoda, 128-130, 132, 133 Neoechinorhynchus _prolixoides, 128, 129 Nocomis micropogon, 3, 7 Notemigonus crysoleucas, 6, 49, Bo, 122) Notonecta, 118 Notonectidae, 118 Notropis ardens, 1,.3-8, 12, 49, 53 N. ariommus,. 70 150 N. atherinoides, 3, 4, 6-8, 49, 52, 53, 122 N. blennius, 49, 53 N. boops, 3-8, 12 N. chrysocephalus, 1, 3-9, 11, 12, 49, 53 N. cornutus, 52 N. galacturus, 7 N. heterolepis, 3 N. hudsonius, 6 N. photogenis, 5, 6 N. rubellus, 1, 3, 6, 7, 12 N. spilopterus, 3, 7, 8, 49, 53 N. stramineus, 3, 49, 53 N. telescopus, 71 N. volucellus, 3 N. whipplei, 1, 3, 6, 8, 12 Noturus, 52 N. flaous. 13,5, F511 N. gyrinus, 1, 8, 10, 50 N. miurus, 3, 50 Nyssa sylvatica, 22-24 Ochrotomys nuttalli, 89 Odonata, 117 Onagraceae, 23 Opecoelidae, 1, 12 Opisthopora, 117 Opossum, 79, 80 Orchidaceae, 23 Orius insidiosus, 83, 84, 86 Osbornellus, 26 Oxalidaceae, 23 Oxalis stricta, 23, 24 Palpomyia, 118 Panicum nitidum, 23, 24 Paramphistomatidae, 1, 12 Parasites, 136 helminth, 128 PARKS, JOHN T., 74 Parthenium integrifolium, 22-24 Paspalum, 23 PATTON, SHARON, 56 Paurorhynchus, 11 P. hiodontis, 1, 4, 10 Peltodytes, 118 Pentaneura, 118 Percichthyidae, 51 Percidae, 51, 118 Perciformes, 118 Percina burtoni, 71 . caprodes, 3-5, 7-9, 51, 53 . copelandi, 3 . cymatotaenia, 71 . evides, 3, 71 . maculata, 7 . phoxocephala, 3 Peromyscus, 90, 94 P. boylii, 89 P. leucopus, 79, 88, 91-94 P. maniculatus, 80, 81, 94 var. gambeli, 89 Ly Hloa~ Bean ~ la Bl la» P. noveboracensis, 88 Petromyzontidae, 118 Petromyzontiformes, 118 Phleum pratensis, 23 Phlox maculata, 23 Phoxinus (= Chrosomus) eryth- rogaster, 97 Phyllodistomum, 8 . caudatum, 1, 4, 5, 11, 12 P. etheostomae, 1, 3, 5-8, 11 P. lacustri, 1, 3, 8,, 11 (x P. yy _ lysteri, 3, 11 . nocomis, 1, 4-6, 11 P. staffordi, 1, 8, 11 Physa integra, 48 Physalis, 23 Pickerel, grass, 49 Pimephales notatus, 1, 3-9, 12, 49, 52, 53, 122 P. promelas, 1, 3, 6, 12 Pisciamphistoma stunkardi, 1, 3, ee 1G: Pisidium, 13 Plagioporus, 3, 5, 6, 12 P. cooperi, 1, 6, 12 P. serotinus, 1, 4, 12 P. sinitsini, 1, 4-8, 12 Plantaginaceae, 23 Plantago aristata, 23 P. lanceolata, 23 Platanaceae, 23 Platanus occidentalis, 23 Plathypena scabra, 83, 84 Plethodontidae, 118 Pleurocera, 13 Poa compressa, 23 P. pratensis, 22-25 Podocotyle boleosomi, 1, 4—8, 12 P. lepomis, 12 Poeciliidae, 51 Polamoniaceae, 23 Polygalaceae, 23 Polygala sanguinea, 23, 24 P. verticillata, 23, 24 Polygonaceae, 23 Polyodon spathula, 69 Pomoxis, 121, 122 P. annularis, 3, 6-8, 10, 51, 53, IDieGt22* 136 P. nigromaculatus, 51, 53, 121, 122 Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli, 136). 137 Populus deltoides, 79 Postodiplostomum minimum, 136, 137 Potentilla simplex, 22-24 Precipitation, 111 water quality of, 111 Procyon lotor, 79 Promonobothrium minytremi, 128-130 Proterometra, 3-8, 10, 12, 136 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 38(3-4) P. macrostoma, 1, 5, 6, 10 Protocephalus ambloplitis, 136, 137 Protozoans, 117 Prunella vulgaris, 23, 24 Pseudotriton montanus, 144 var. diasticus, 144 Psoralea psoralioides, 23 Pycnanthemum flexuosum, 22- 24 Pylodictis olivaris, 3, 50, 52, 53 Quercus marilandica, 22, 23, 25 | QO. stellata, 22, 23 QO. velutina, 22, 23 Quillback, 50 Raccoon, 79, 80 Rana pipiens, 118 RANEY, H. G., 83 Ranidae, 118 Ranunculaceae, 23 RAO, MADIRAJU APPA, 38 Ratibida pinnata, 23 RAYBURN, KATHY J., 97, 116 Redhorse, black, 50 golden, 50, 128 river, 50 silver, 50 Reptiles, 118 Rhabdochona, 128, 130 Rhamnaceae, 23 Rhinichthys atratulus, 1 3, 0; GH 9, 12; 50" 52 53 Rhipidocotyle, 6-8, TOPE R. septpapillata, i & [G12 Rhus, 25 R. copallina, 22—24 Rhynchelmis, 117 Rivers, Kentucky Dix, 128 Kentucky, 128 Ohio, 132 Red, 128 Middle Fork, 128 North Fork, 128 South Fork, 128 Rosaceae, 23 Rosa setigera, 23 Rubiaceae, 23 Rubus flagellaris, 23, 24 Rudbeckia hirta, 23 Rumex acetosella, 23 R. conglomeratus, 23 Sabatia angularis, 23, 24 Salamander, dusky, 118 mud. 144 Salamandroidea, 118 Salicaceae, 23 . Salix, 25 S. humilis, 22-25 S. nigra, 22, 23 : Salmo gairdneri, 6 Salvia lyrata, 23, 24 Saponaria officinalis, 23 Sassafras albidum, 23, 24 _ Sauger, 51 Scaphirhynchus platorynchus, 70 Scaphoideus, 26, 28, 29, 34, 35 S. titanus, 27, 29, 30, 32 SCHMELTZ, L. L., 79 Sciaenidae, 51 Scirpus atrovirens, 23 | Scleria, 22 S. pauciflora, 23, 24 _ Scrophulariaceae, 23 Scud, 117 Sculpin, banded, 51 Scutellaria parvula, 23, 24 Secale cereale, 23 Semotilus atromaculatus, 1, 3-9, 1 50, 53, 118 Seriocarpus asteroides, 23 Setaria lutescens, 23 Shad, gizzard, 49, 121 threadfin, 121 SHEARER, MICHAEL T., 111 Shiner, emerald, 49 golden, 49 popeye, 70 river, 49 rosefin, 49 sand, 49 spotfin, 49 striped, 49 telescope, 71 Shrew, masked, 79 short-tailed, 79 Sialidae, 118 Sialis, 118 Silphium integrifolium, 23 S. perfoliatum, 23 Simulium vittatum, 48 Smilax rotundifolia, 22-25 Solanaceae, 23 INDEX TO VOLUME 38 Solidago juncea, 23 S. missouriensis, 22-24 Sorex cinereus, 79 Sorgastrum nutans, 23, 24 Sowbug, aquatic, 117 Soybeans, 83 Specularia perfoliata, 23 Sphaerium, 13, 48 Spiranthes vernalis, 23 Spring, Russells Chapel, 116 Stenelmis sexlineata, 48 Stenonema, 47 Stizostedion canadense, 8, 51, 53 S. vitreum, 71 Stoneroller, 49, 118 Stream, urban development in- fluence, 45 Strophostyles umbellata, 22-24 Sturgeon, lake, 69, 70 shovelnose, 70 Sucker, hairlip, 69, 71 northern hog, 50 spotted, 50, 128 white, 50, 128 Sunfish, green, 51 longear, 51 orangespotted, 51 redear, 51 Sylvilagus floridanus, 79 Tabanidae, 118 TANJARUPHAN, PREEYA- PORN, 38 TATUM, BUFORD, 121 Tendipes, 118 Tephrosia virginiana, 23 Testacida, 117 Testudinidae, 118 Tipula, 118 Tipulidae, 118 Topminnow, blackstripe, 50 Trachelomonas hispida, 117 T. volvacina, 117 Tragopogon dubius, 23 151 Treefrog, barking, 143 Trematoda, 62, 128-130, 132- 133 Trematodes, 1 Trichoptera, 48, 118 Trifolium procumbens, 23 Triganodistomum, 11 Turtle, red-eared, 118 Ulmaceae, 23 Ulmus alata, 23 Urocyon cinereoargenteus, 79 Velia, 118 Veliidae, 118 Verbascum thapsus, 23 Verbenaceae, 23 Verbena simplex, 23 Vernonia missurica, 23, 24 Violaceae, 23 Viola sagittata, 23 Vitaceae, 23 Vitis cinerea, 23-25 Vole, meadow, 79 Vulpes vulpes, 79 Walleye, 71 Warmouth, 51 Water beetle, crawling, 118 Water boatman, 118 Water quality, 111 on forested watershed, 111 Water strider, 118 broad-shouldered, 118 WHITAKER, JOHN O., JR., 79 WHITE, DAVID S., 45 WILLIAMS, JOHN C., 128, 132 WILSON, KENNETH RAY, 98 WITTWER, ROBERT F., 111 Woodchuck, 79, 80 YEARGAN, K. V., 83 Zapus hudsonius, 79 a” > = < ' .- . «* << ~~ o oS ts wT -_* © - re tes <4 “Mee “es > 4] \ * e az , ‘ ‘ é ~ ‘ aya Se ign le a ag -! i J 3 4. ‘ S25 eee a = he Amat 4 = - — 7 . © & = CONTENTS OF VOLUME 38, NOS. 1-4, 1977 Digenetic trematodes from Kentucky fishes. John V. Aliff —_-------------------------- Preparation of monobromoisoquinolines. Jerry L. Butler, Forrest L. Bayer, and Marshall Reese) crite Te I eet re ee ce ee The Big Clifty Prairie, a remnant outlier of the Prairie Peninsula, Grayson County, RAR INC MLN FIED AS DLs ee eee es External morphology of adult leafhoppers of the genus Scaphoideus. Douglas E. Barnett Reactivity of treated and untreated marble in carbon dioxide atmospheres. K. L. Gauri, Preeyaporn Tanjaruphan, Madiraju Appa Rao, and Thornton Lipscomb ___------------------- The fishes of Goose Creek, Jefferson County, Kentucky; a stream under the influence of urban development. David S. White, Frederick C. Hill, and Kim H. Haag Studies on the passive transfer via serum immunity to Hymenolepis nana in the mouse MPUPRSEIETEESPALIOES aE SITELLOMGL CLE ON 2) i es ee) LE ee Ee ete a Pathology in mice resulting from concurrent infestations with the bile duct dwellers Fasciola hepatica (Trematoda) and Hymenolepis microstoma (Cestoda). Larry N. ei Arete SUSE SE er wee ce ee Se ee Threatened fishes of Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky. Branley A. Branson __-.- Natural bridges of southern Christian County, Kentucky. James X. Corgan and John T. pee (IDO ca TULA ty re Poe os Ne ein Se lt ett en es Use of woodchuck burrows by woodchucks and other mammals. L. L. Schmeltz and John CEP ORELSGO, «Jie Sa Bal tne BES Ta renee) ea ne eee Seasonal abundance of common phytophagous and predaceous insects in Kentucky SMe reel, Renew and, Ko Vv. Yeargen.. ee Seasonal molt in the white-footed mouse Peromyscus leucopus. Barbara A. Lensing —__-- The “lost” Liliaceae of Kentucky: a reevaluation. Edward T. Browne, Jr., and Raymond at fia EC Ee vie ea ee A note on the distribution of Chrosomus erythrogaster (Cyprinidae) in Kentucky. Thomas WeencczeaanceKariy J. Rayburn A white-flowered form of Iris cristata from Carter County, Kentucky. Arland Hotchkiss and Kenneth Ray Wilson Distinguished Scientist Award ieee Meee OREM UE ST Merten ete A Ve) AT Be Ss ee at News and Comment The quality of water received as precipitation on a forested watershed in eastern Kentucky. Michael T. Shearer, George B. Coltharp, and Robert F. Wittwer The aquatic fauna of Russells Chapel Spring, Calloway County, Kentucky. Kathy J. NTEPIPCAI METI GHPEITOMIES! VI OVE TCO ZC | Le SEA) wee i The occurrence and relative abundance of planktonic fish larvae in Anderson Creek Em- bayment, Kentucky Lake, Kentucky. Wayne H. Davis and Thomas M. Freeze _.. Comparative age, growth, and condition of channel catfish from Lake Dardanelle, Arkan- Sieeennomeas IM. Faceze and Buford Tatum ... Helminth parasites of the spotted sucker and golden redhorse from the Kentucky River. Mad E Gombs, Join P. Harley, and John C. Williams Parasites of channel catfish from the Kentucky River, with a comparative note from the Ohio River. Robert W. Edwards, John P. Harley, and John C. Williams _... Parasites of the white crappie from Lake Wilgreen, Kentucky. John P. Harley Gas chromatographic analysis of bromoquinolines. Jerry L. Butler and Marshall Gordon _.. Distribution of the barking treefrog in Kentucky. Burt L. Monroe, Jr. and Raymond W. Giannini Articles on Kentucky in the scientific and technical journals of antebellum Tennessee. James X. Corgan News and Comment Index to Volume 38 INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub- lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received. 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The heading of the table should be informative of its contents. Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print either 5 x 7 or 8 X 10 inches. Line drawings in India ink on white paper are acceptable, but should be no larger than 8% x 11 inches. Photographs should have good contrast so they can be repro- duced satisfactorily. All figures should be numbered in arabic numerals and should be accompanied by an appropriate legend. It is strongly suggested that all contributors follow the guidelines of Allen’s (1977) “Steps Toward Better Scientific Illustrations” published by the Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas 66044. The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for checking all literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly Extensive alterations on the galley proofs are expensive and such costs are to be borne by the author. Reprints are to be ordered when the galley proofs are returned to the Editor. CONTENTS The quality of water received as precipitation on a forested watershed in eastern Kentucky. Michael T. Shearer, George B. Coltharp, and Robert FE. Wittwer ne The aquatic fauna of Russells Chapel Spring, Calloway County, Kentucky. Kathy J. Rayburn and Thomas M. Freeze ______ |_ = a The occurrence and relative abundance of planktonic fish larvae in Anderson Creek Embayment, Kentucky Lake, Kentucky. Wayne H. Davis and Thomas M. Freeze 1). ee Comparative age, growth, and condition of channel catfish from Lake Dardanelle, Arkansas. Thomas M. Freeze and Buford Tatum ___.____ Helminth parasites of the spotted sucker and golden redhorse from the Ken- tucky River. David L. Combs, John P. Harley, and John C. Williams __ Parasites of channel catfish from the Kentucky River, with a comparative note from the Ohio River. Robert W. Edwards, John P. Harley, and John C. Williams __... se ee Parasites of the white crappie from Lake Wilgreen, Kentucky. John P. Harley ___ IAM MCR Ue Gas chromatographic analysis of bromoquinolines. Jerry L. Butler and Marshall. Gordon Distribution of the barking treefrog in Kentucky. Burt L. Monroe, Jr. and Raymond W. Giannini 14 Articles on Kentucky in the scientific and technical journals of antebellum ~ Tennessee. James X. Corgan ___.___ eee News and Comment ....__. _*. ee 146 ¥ Index to Volume 38 a 47 b TNS IN SZ TRANSACTIONS | y - as tL f- : 4 NM { UY lA y xX ia : ey ay -NTUCKY “Sx LiBRARIES Gotul Publication of the Academy Volume 39 _Numbers I-2 March 1978 The Kentucky Academy of Science Founded 8 May 1914 OFFICERS FOR 1978 President: Charles E. Kupchella, Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louis- ville 40202 President Elect: Sanford L. Jones, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475 Past President: Charles Payne, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351 Vice President: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101 Secretary: Thomas N. Seay, Georgetown College, Georgetown 40324 Treasurer: Bartlett G. Dickinson, Georgetown College, Georgetown 40324 Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101 Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A. Branson, Eastern Kentucky Uni- versity, Richmond 40475 John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506 BOARD OF DIRECTORS John G. Spanyer 1978 Gertrude Ridgel 1980 Oliver Zandona 1978 Ivan Potter 1980 Thomas B. Calhoon 1979 Donald C. Haney 1981 Harold Eversmeyer 1979 William F. Wagner 1981 EprroriAL BOARD Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Office of Academic Affairs, University of Louisville, Louisville 40208 Associate Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville 40208 Editorial Board: Dennis E.. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of Louis- ville, Louisville 40208 John C. Philley, School of Science and Mathematics, Morehead State Uni- — versity, Morehead 40351 | William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lex- ington 40506 All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the Editor. Authors must be members of the Academy. The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT. Membership in the Academy is open to interested persons upon nomination, payment of — dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from the Secretary. The TRANSACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are $10.00 for Active Members; $7.00 for Student Members. Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $12.00; foreign, $14.00; back issues are r $12.00 per volume. : The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually in March and September. Four numbers comprise a volume. Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed ‘to the Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Librarian, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208, the exchange agent for the Academy. TRANSACTIONS of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY of SCIENCE Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 1-11 March 1978 VOLUME 39 NUMBER 1-2 Structure and Composition of a Climax Mixed Mesophytic Forest System in Laurel County, Kentucky MARGARET RINGLAND CAMERON III* AND JoE E. WINSTEAD Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 ABSTRACT Rock Creek Gorge in Laurel County, Kentucky, is a deep, narrow gorge dominated by Tsuga canadensis, Oxydendrum arboreum, Betula lenta, and Liriodendron tulipifera, with Rhododendron maximum dominating the understory. Analysis of the forest showed the com- munity to be stable and climax. The dominant tree species dominated sapling and seedling size classes. Slight variation was noted between vegetation on east- and west-facing slopes with hemlock having a lower density on west-facing slopes. The study site, composed of 76.5 ha, is estimated to support 329 trees/ha with an average basal area of 23.3 m?/ha. INTRODUCTION Much information has been gathered on the forests of the eastern United States in general, but little information can be found on the forests of the Commonwealth of Ken- tucky specifically. Rock Creek in Laurel County, Kentucky, was designated as a Natural Area by the U.S. Forest Service in 1939. It became a natural landmark regis- tered by the U.S. Department of the Interior in 1975 providing a reference to a small portion of Kentucky’s original vegetation. No extensive compositional studies of the area have been made although Braun (1950) cited Rock Creek as an example of gorge vegetation in hemlock mixed mesophytic forests. In her study, a random sample of * Present address: Rt. 4, New 96 Highway West, Franklin, TN 37064. 117 trees was taken to determine the com- position of the gorge. Winstead and Nicely (1976) sampled the tree flora using the random pairs method but did not make any analysis of size classes of the woody vege- tation. The total natural landmark covers ap- proximately 312 ha (770.64 acres) within the Daniel Boone National Forest adjacent to the Rockcastle River. The area of this study is a deep gorge. Map coordinates and a sketch of the area are included in Winstead and Nicely (1976). Discussions with field workers of the U.S. Forest Service indicated that logging activities in the Rock Creek Gorge took place only at the mouth of the gorge prior to 1938. An absence of stumps, logging trails, and the physical features of extremely steep slopes covered with immense boulders indicates that there has been very little disturbance by man 2 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) within the boundaries of the area studied in this report. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We extend appreciation to Drs. Kenneth A. Nicely and Herbert E. Shadowen for their help in the preparation of this manu- script. Special thanks are due Jim Cameron for help in the field. We are also indebted to the staff at the District Forest Ranger’s | Office in London, Kentucky, for their co- operation, and to the U.S. Forest Service for access to the study area. This study was funded, in part, by a Faculty Research Grant from Western Kentucky University. MATERIALS AND METHODS Field work for determination of forest structure and composition was conducted between May and September 1975. To provide analysis of trees, saplings, and seedlings, 3 circular plots were established at each of 10 different sites within the gorge. Five sites were placed on either side TABLE 1.—NuMBER (N) > Species N Tsuga canadensis 87 Oxydendrum arboreum 59 Betula lenta 46 Liriodendron tulipifera 32 Ilex opaca 34 Acer rubrum 28 Magnolia macrophylla 26 Fagus grandifolia 25 Quercus rubra 19 Quercus alba 12 Quercus prinus 10 Nyssa sylvatica 8 Cornus florida 6 Pinus taeda 5 Pinus virginiana 5 Magnolia acuminata 5 Carya glabra 4 Aesculus octrandra 1 Totals 412 of the gorge bisected by Rock Creek. Sites | RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDO), RELATIVE FREQUENCY | (RF), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF TREES SAMPLED IN SUM OF CIRCULAR PLOTS (1.25 HA) IN ROCK, CREEK GorRGE, LAUREL CouNTy, KENTUCKY were placed approximately 400 m apart in the upper three-fourths of the gorge so that all sample points were well away from the open end of the gorge and any area that } might have been disturbed by logging } activity. The concentric circular plots had diameters of 39.9, 28.22, and 19.95 m that provided areas of 0.125, 0.062, and 0.031 ha, respectively. All trees of 10 cm or greater diameter breast height (dbh) were mea- sured and recorded in the 0.125-ha plots. Saplings, designated as woody plant species } less than 10 cm dbh and greater than 50 cm in height, were counted and recorded in the 0.062-ha plots. Seedlings, woody plant } species less than 50 cm in height, were } noted and recorded in the 0.031-ha plots. Due to the denseness of Rhododendron and Kalmia, 3-m diameter plots were used | to count the stems above ground. Those plots and the sapling plots were then pro- jected to 1 ha and analyzed together. | Data collected in the above manner pro- } vided for analysis of total numbers, relative RD RDo RF IV 0.2106 0.4571 0.1052 0.7729 0.1428 0.0612 0.1052 0.3092 0.1113 0.0908 0.1052 0.3073 0.0774 0.0797 0.0736 0.2307 0.0823 0.0248 0.1052 0.2123 0.0677 0.0493 0.0736 0.1906 0.0629 0.0220 0.0947 0.1796 0.0605 0.0348 0.0736 0.1689 | 0.0460 0.0361 0.0526 0.1347 | 0.0290 0.0396 0.0421 0.1107 | 0.0242 0.0256 0.0315 0.0813 0.0193 0.0155 0.0315 0.0663 0.0145 0.0025 0.0421 0.0591 I 0.0121 0.0256 0.0105 0.0482 if 0.0121 0.0165 0.0105 0.0391 0.0121 0.0060 0.0210 0.0391 iI 0.0096 0.0050 0.0105 0.0251 0.0024 0.0045 0.0105 0.0174 0.9968 0.9966 0.9991 2.9925 Ciimax Mixep Mersopuytic Forest—Cameron and Winstead 8 density, and relative frequency of the vari- ous species in each size class. Diameter measurements of trees provided informa- tion for determination of relative dominance and basal area values. An importance value was then calculated for trees by totaling the values for relative density, relative fre- quency, and relative dominance. Only rela- tive density and relative frequency were calculated for saplings and seedlings. Those values were summed to find the importance of the saplings and seedlings in their respec- tive layers in the gorge. Soil samples were taken at the center of each site at depths of 0-5 and 5-10 cm. Soil texture analysis followed the technique developed by Bouyocous (1936) using soil hydrometers. Determinations of pH, nitrate nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium were made utilizing a standard LaMotte soil test- ing kit. RESULTS In Rock Creek Gorge, 18 tree species with individuals 10 cm or greater in diam- eter were present in the 1.25 ha sampled. Ranked according to importance values (Table 1), the 4 dominant species were: Tsuga canadensis, 0.7729; Oxydendrum ar- boreum, 0.3092; Betula lenta, 0.3073; and TABLE 3.—NUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD) TABLE 2.—NUMBERS OF TREES PER HECTARE AND BASAL AREAS (M’*/HA) FROM SELECTED POSITIONS WITHIN Rock CREEK GORGE COMPARED WITH THE EARLIER STUDY OF WINSTEAD AND NICELY (1976) Location Trees/ha m?/ha Total gorge 329.6 3. East-facing slope 300.8 26.7 West-facing slope 358.2 19.9 Four plots closest to earlier study 368.0 26.4 Earlier study total 672.8 AT.5 Liriodendron tulipifera, 0.2307. Ilex opaca had a higher number, relative frequency, and relative density than L. tulipifera, but a much smaller relative dominance. A total of 412 trees having a total basal area of 29.1 m? was recorded in the 1.25-ha sampling area. On a per hectare basis, there were 329.6 trees, and the basal area was 23.3 m? (Table 2). The mean diameter at breast height of the trees sampled was 24.7 cm. Twelve species were found on the cooler and wetter east-facing slope in 5 sites that totaled 0.625 ha. The 4 most dominant species were the same as those for the total gorge. The importance values were: T. canadensis, 0.9032; O. arboreum, 0.3053; B. RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDO), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF TREES SAMPLED IN SUM OF CIRCULAR PLOTS (0.625 HA) ON THE EAST-FACING SLOPE OF ROCK CREEK GORGE, LAUREL COUNTY, KENTUCKY Species N Tsuga canadensis 44 Betula lenta 24 Acer rubrum 22 Oxydendrum arboreum 25 Liriodendron tulipifera Fo. Magnolia macrophylla 19 Ilex opaca 19 Fagus grandifolia Magnolia acuminata Quercus alba Quercus rubra Cornus florida Totals 188 RD RDo RF IV 0.2340 0.5473 0.1219 0.9032 0.1276 0.1227 0.1219 0.3722 0.1170 0.0796 0.1219 0.3185 0.1329 0.0505 0.1219 0.3053 0.1170 0.0995 0.0975 0.3140 0.1010 0.0328 0.1219 0.2557 0.1010 0.0211 0.1219 0.2440 0.0372 0.0091 0.0731 0.1194 0.0159 0.0060 0.0243 0.0462 0.0053 0.0259 0.0243 0.0555 0.0053 0.0046 0.0243 0.0342 0.0053 0.0004 0.0243 0.0300 0.9995 0.9995 0.9992 2.9982 4 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE 4.—NUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDO), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF TREES SAMPLED IN THE SUM OF CIRCULAR PLOTS (0.625 HA) ON THE WEST-FACING SLOPE OF Rock CREEK GorRGE, LAUREL CouNTy, KENTUCKY Species N Tsuga canadensis A3 Oxydendrum arboreum 34 Fagus grandifolia 18 Quercus rubra 18 Betula lenta 22. Ilex opaca Ss Quercus alba Di Quercus prinus 10 Liriodendron tulipifera 10 Nyssa sylvatica 8 Magnolia macrophylla i Pinus taeda Acer rubrum Cornus florida 5 6 5 Pinus virginiana o Carya glabra 4 Magnolia acuminata 2; i Aesculus octandra Totals 224 lenta, 0.3722; and L. tulipifera, 0.3140 (Table 3). There was a total of 188 trees having an average dbh of 26.04 cm and a basal area of 16.7 m?; on a per hectare basis, the trees totaled 300.8, and the basal area was 26.7 m*. The largest trees of the gorge were T. canadensis, and all were on the east- facing slope. Those 8 trees ranged in diam- eter from 77.70 to 95.76 cm. On the drier, west-facing slope, all 18 tree species were present (Table 4). The 6 species restricted to that slope were Quercus prinus, Nyssa_ sylvatica, Pinus tsuga, Pinus virginiana, Carya glabra, and Aesculus octandra. Of the 4 dominant species, Tsuga canadensis and Oxydendrum arboreum still ranked first with importance values of 0.6141 and 0.3509, respectively, and were followed by Fagus grandifolia, 0.2362, and Quercus rubra, 0.2334. Betula lenta had a higher relative density than either, but its importance value was only 0.2326. There was a greater number of trees as well as species than on the east- facing slope. The west-facing slope had RD RDo RF TV Rh 0.1911 0.3361 0.0869 0.6141 4x 0.1511 0.1129 0.0869 0.3509 = fl 0.0800 0.0693 0.0869 0.2362 I 0.0800 0.0839 0.0695 0.2334 fill 0.0977 0.0480 0.0869 0.2326 = fi . 0.0666 0.0297 0.0869 0.1832 i 0.0488 0.0581 0.0521 0.1590 fx 0.0444 0.0600 0.0521 0.1565 (ii 0.0444 0.0531 0.0521 0.1496 Hii 0.0355 0.0363 0.0521 0.1239 8 0.0311 0.0075 0.0695 0.1081 ( 0.0222 0.0603 0.0173 0.0998 —s I 0.0260 0.0088 0.0521 0.0869 H 0.0222 0.0052 0.0521 0.0795 fy 0.0222 0.0388 0.0173 0.0783 fi 0.0177 0.0117 0.0173 0.0467 =, 0.0088 0.0060 0.0173 0.032% i, 0.0044. 0.0107 0.0173 0.0324 0 0.9942 1.0364 0.9726 3.0032 f 224 trees, but the average dbh was only 22.66 cm and the basal area was 12.4 m?_ for the 0.625 ha, or a basal area of 19.9 m4 | and 308.24 fees /ha. | Although not sampled within any of uel | test plots, 2 additional species, a single large specimen of Liquidambar styraciflua and | 3 individuals of Cercis canadensis, were seen during the field work. Saplings and shrubs were sampled over a total area of 0.625 ha for themlO=sites™ Sixteen species of trees and 4 species of shrubs were found. All species were ranked according to relative density (RD) plus relative frequency (RF) (Table 5). Tsuga canadensis (0.1112), I. opaca (0.0882), and F. grandifolia (0.0882) were the most im-_ portant trees. Rhododendron maximum was © the most important shrub as well as the most important woody plant of the under-— story with a RD + RF value of 0.9432. Kalmia latifolia also had a value higher than | any sapling, but was found only on the drier, west-facing slope. A few Castanea dentata were found, all infected with the i > ’ ) Ciimax Mixep Mersopuytic Forest—Cameron and Winstead TABLE 5.—NuUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD) SHRUB SPECIES PER HECTARE IN ROCK CREEK GORGE, LAUREL COUNTY, KENTUCKY Species Rhododendron maximum Kalmia latifolia Tsuga canadensis Magnolia macrophylla Ilex opaca Fagus grandifolia Oxydendrum arboreum Acer rubrum Betula lenta Liriodendron tulipifera Cornus florida Clethra acuminata Stewartia ovata Hamamelis virginiana Nyssa sylvatica Quercus alba Quercus rubra Quercus prinus Carya glabra Castanea dentata chestnut blight, and none were over 1 m high. Stewartia ovata, a small tree in the understory, was also found in the gorge. The remaining tree species were all found Totals 1T denotes a value of less than 0.0001. N 184,000 30,000 312 56 74 72 95 112 42 27 21 67 37 19 www Dd © © 215,924 > AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF) OF SAPLING AND RF 0.0879 0.0329 0.1098 0.0549 0.0879 0.0879 0.0769 0.0659 0.0549 0.0549 0.0549 0.0439 0.0329 0.0329 0.0329 0.0219 0.0219 0.0219 0.0111 0.0111 0.9993 RD + RF 0.9432 0.1723 0.1112 0.0551 0.0882 0.0882 0.0773 0.0664 0.0551 0.0550 0.0550 0.0442 0.0330 0.0329 0.0329 0.0219 0.0219 0.0219 0.0111 0.0111 19979 in the canopy and subcanopy. The 2 species of Pinus and A. octandra, found in the tree size class, were not found in the saplings. Clethra acuminata and Hamamelis virgin- TABLE 6.—NUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF) OF SAPLING AND SHRUB SPECIES PER HECTARE ON THE EAST-FACING SLOPE OF ROCK CREEK GORGE, LAUREL CouNTYy, KENTUCKY Species Rhododendron maximum Tsuga canadensis Ilex opaca Magnolia macrophylla Fagus grandifolia Clethra acuminata Oxydendrum arboreum Betula lenta Acer rubrum Cornus florida Liriodendron tulipifera Stewartia ovata Totals 1T denotes a value of less than 0.0001. N 127,574 160 7H 80 48 131 105 67 45 19 13 10 128,333 RD 0.9940 0.0012 0.0006 0.0006 0.0003 0.0010 0.0008 0.0005 0.0003 0.0001 0.0001 TBS 0.9995 RD + RF 1.1159 0.1231 0.1225 0.0982 0.0979 0.0742 0.0740 0.0737 0.0735 0.0490 0.0490 0.0244 1.9754 6 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE 7.—NUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF) OF SAPLING AND SHRUB SPECIES PER HECTARE ON THE WEST-FACING SLOPE OF ROCK CREEK GORGE, LAUREL County, KENTUCKY Species N Rhododendron maximum 57,000 Kalmia latifolia 30,000 Tsuga canadensis A67 Fagus grandifolia 96 Oxydendrum arboreum 83 Acer rubrum 179 Ilex opaca 70 Liriodendron tulipifera 42 Hamamelis virginiana 38 Magnolia macrophylla 32 Cornus florida 22, Nyssa sylvatica 16 Quercus rubra 13 Quercus prinus 6 Quercus alba 16 Betula lenta 16 Carya glabra 6 Clethra acuminata 3 Castanea dentata 3 Totals 88,108 RD RF RD + RF 0.6465 0.0588 0.7053 0.3403 0.0588 0.3991 0.0053 0.0980 0.1033 0.0011 0.0784 0.0795 0.0009 0.0784 0.0793 0.0020 0.0588 0.0608 0.0008 0.0588 0.0596 0.0005 0.0588 0.0593 0.0004 0.0588 0.0592 0.0004 0.0588 0.0592 0.0003 0.0588 0.0591 0.0002 0.0588 0.0590 0.0001 0.0392 0.0393 sli 0.0392 0.0392 a 0.0222 0.0222 él 0.0196 0.0196 I 0.0196 0.0196 - 0.0196 0.0196 al 0.0196 0.0196 0.9988 0.9630 1.9618 1 T denotes a value of less than 0.0001. iana were the other shrubs found in the gorge. On the east-facing slope, the most im- portant saplings and shrubs and their RD + RF values were R. maximum, 1.1159; T. canadensis, 0.1231; I. opaca, 0.1225; and M. macrophyll, 0.0982 (Table 6). On the west-facing slope, the 4 major saplings and shrubs and their RD + RF values were R. maximum, 0.7053; K. latifolia, 0.3391; T. canadensis, 0.1033; and F. grandifolia, 0.0794 (Table 7). Oxydendrum arboreum was also an important species with a value of 0.0793. According to RD+RF values, the im- portant seedlings in the gorge are T. cana- densis, 0.3304; Magnolia spp., 0.3152; Acer rubrum, 0.2584; and R. maximum, 0.1911 (Table 8). On the east-facing slope, the predominant seedlings are Magnolia spp., 0.4395; T. canadensis, 0.3335; A. rubrum, 0.3022; and I. opaca, 0.2439 (Table 9); and on the west-facing slope are T. canadensis, 0.3291; Magnolia spp., 0.2306; A. rubrum, 0.2289; and R. maximum, 0.1588 (Table 10). Kalmia latifolia, 0.1542, also has a high} importance. | No major differences could be found in the texture of the soil samples between the } east- and west-facing slopes. Also, little differences were noted between 0-cm and 5-cm samples. The soil texture tests showed the soil to contain an average of 63.11 per-} cent sand. The average percentage of sil was 17.51 and clay was 13.72. The pH levels ranged from 3.8 to 44) and statistical analysis indicated a highly} significant difference (.001 level) between } the 3.8 pH of the east-facing slope and the 4.2 of the west-facing slope. Phosphorus was high in all 16 samples} ranging from 168 to 224 kg/ha. Potassium was generally low. The LaMotte soil test measures potassium only for levels of 112 kg/ha or greater. In all but 2 samples the potassium levels were below that limit. Ath 1 site, the level reached 112 kg/ha in the} 5-cm sample. The only difference noted at : CLimAx MIxep MEsopHytic Forest—Cameron and Winstead 7 TABLE 8.—NuMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF) OF SEEDLINGS SAMPLED IN THE SUM OF CIRCULAR PLOTS (0.312 HA) IN RocK CREEK GorRGE, LAUREL CouNTy, KENTUCKY Species Tsuga canadensis Magnolia spp. Acer rubrum Rhododendron maximum Ilex opaca Fagus grandifolia Quercus rubrum Hamamelis virginiana Kalmia latifolia Oxydendrum arboreum Clethra acuminata Nyssa sylvatica Stewartia ovata Liriodendron tulipifera Betula lenta _ Quercus prinus Sassafras albidum Totals N 59 59 43 13 eBPnwNnNwWN AIO OW Dd _ that site from the others was the presence of _P. taeda, P. virginiana, A. octandra, and C. glabra. In the 0-cm sample of another site, the potassium level measured 173 kg/ha. No species difference occurred at this site. _ Nitrogen levels were less than 11.2 kg/ha except at 2 sites where the levels were between 11.2 and 22.4 kg/ha. RD 0.2092 0.2092 0.1524 0.0851 0.0567 0.0567 0.0248 0.0354 0.0460 0.0212 0.0177 0.0319 0.0248 0.0071 0.0106 0.0071 0.0035 0.9994 RF 0.1212 0.1060 0.1060 0.1060 0.1212 0.0454 0.0757 0.0606 0.0454 0.0454 0.0454 0.0303 0.0303 0.0303 0.0151 0.0151 0.0151 1.0145 DISCUSSION nD RE 0.3304 0.3152 0.2584 0.1911 0.1779 0.1021 0.1005 0.0960 0.0914 0.0666 0.0631 0.0622 0.0551 0.0374 0.0257 0.0222 0.0186 2.0139 Upon analysis of the data, the forest community was shown to be a stable system. When the 10 most important spe- cies of each size class are compared, the data show the forest to be replenishing itself with the same species (Table 11). Eight TABLE 9.—NuUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF) OF SEEDLINGS SAMPLED Species — Magnolia spp. _ Tsuga canadensis — Acer rubrum Ilex opaca Rhododendron maximum Fagus grandifolia Quercus rubra — Clethra acuminata _ Stewartia ovata — Hamamelis virginiana Totals IN THE SUM OF CIRCULAR PLOTS (0.156 HA) ON THE EAST-FACING SLOPE IN RocK CREEK GorGE, LAUREL County, KENTUCKY RD RF RD + RF 0.2656 0.1739 0.4395 0.2031 0.1304 0.3335 0.1718 0.1304 0.3022 0.0700 0.1739 0.2439 0.1093 0.1304 0.2397 0.0156 0.0869 0.1025 0.0390 0.0434 0.0824 0.0390 0.0434 0.0824 0.0312 0.0434 0.0746 0.0312 0.0434 0.0746 0.9758 0.9995 1.9753 8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE 10.—NuMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF) OF SEEDLINGS SAMPLED IN THE SUM OF CIRCULAR PLOTS (0.156 HA) ON THE WEST-FACING SLOPE IN Rock CREEK GorGE, LAUREL County, KENTUCKY Species N Tsuga canadensis 33 Magnolia spp. 25 Acer rubrum 21 Rhododendron maximum 10 Kalmia latifolia LS Ilex opaca 7 Fagus grandifolia 14 Oxydendrum arboreum 6 Hamamelis virginiana 6 Nyssa sylvatica 9 Stewartia ovata 3 Liriodendron tulipifera 2 Betula lenta 3 Quercus rubrum 2, Quercus prinus 2 Sassafras albidum 1 Totals 157 of the first 10 saplings are also among the first 10 trees in importance value, although the order differs. The 2 species that are different in the sapling class are Cornus florida and Stewartia ovata, usually small trees confined to the subcanopy and under- story levels, although C. florida was found in the tree class within the gorge. In the seedling class, 8 of the first 10 species were TABLE 11.—ORDERS OF IMPORTANCE OF TREES’, SAPLINGS’, AND SEEDLINGS® OF THE 10 MAJOR TREE SPECIES | WITHIN Rock CREEK GorcE, LauREL County, KENTUCKY Trees Saplings Tsuga canadensis Oxydendrum arboreum Betula lenta Ilex opaca Ilex opaca Liriodendron tulipifera Acer rubrum Betula lenta Acer rubrum Magnolia macrophylla Tsuga canadensis Magnolia macrophylla Fagus grandifolia Oxydendrum arboreum RD RF RD + RF 0.2101 0.1190 0.3291 0.1592 0.0714 0.2306 0.1337 0.0952 0.2289 0.0636 0.0952 0.1588 0.0828 0.0714 0.1542 0.0445 0.0952 0.1397 0.0891 0.0238 0.1129 0.0382 0.0714 0.1096 0.0382 0.0714 0.1096 0.0573 0.0476 0.1049 0.0191 0.0476 0.0067 0.0127 0.0476 0.0603 0.0191 0.0238 0.0429 0.0127 0.0238 0.0365 0.0127 0.0238 0.0365 0.0063 0.0238 0.0301. 0.9993 0.9520 1.9513 again the same as the trees although the order was not the same. The presence of — Stewartia ovata in the seedlings makes 9 out of 10 seedlings and saplings the same. In all size classes, Tsuga was the most important tree. Coniferous trees usually are found in a more acid soil than hardwood species, par- tially because conifers can tolerate more Seedlings Tsuga canadensis Magnolia spp. Acer rubrum Fagus grandifolia Quercus rubra Ilex opaca Oxydendrum arboreum Fagus grandifolia Quercus rubra Quercus alba Liriodendron tulipifera Cornus florida Stewartia ovata ? Trees with diameter of 10 cm dbh or greater. * Saplings having a diameter of less than 10 cm dbh and a height of 50 cm or greater. * Seedlings—woody tree and shrub species having a height less than 50 cm. Nyssa sylvatica Stewartia ovata Betula lenta Ciimax MrIxep Mersopyuytic Forest—Cameron and Winstead TABLE 12.—TREE SPECIES REPORTED IN 3 STUDIES OF THE ROCK CREEK GorGE, LAUREL COUNTY, KENTUCKY Present study 412 trees Tsuga canadensis Oxydendrum arboreum Betula lenta Liriodendron tulipifera Ilex opaca Acer rubrum Magnolia macrophylla Fagus grandifolia Quercus rubra Quercus alba Quercus prinus* Nyssa sylvatica Braun (1950) 117 trees Tsuga canadensis Fagus grandifolia Liriodendron tulipifera Acer rubrum Quercus rubra Betula lenta Ilex opaca Castanea dentata Nyssa sylvatica Quercus montana‘ Oxydendrum arboreum Magnolia macrophylla Winstead and Nicely (1976) 100 trees Tsuga canadensis Liriodendron tulipifera Betula lenta Acer rubrum Quercus rubra Ilex opaca Nyssa sylvatica Prunus serotina Fagus grandifolia Quercus alba Magnolia macrophylla Carpinus caroliniana Cornus florida Pinus taeda Pinus virginiana _Carya ovata Aesculus octandra Magnolia acuminata J 1 Same species according to Radford et al. (1968). acid soils and partially because of their presence. In sandy soils, such as that in the gorge, cations are easily leached and replaced by hydrogen ions. Also, plant litter from certain species, especially those of Pinaceae, yield acidic material when they decompose (Daubenmire 1959). In the soil of the gorge, there was a highly significant difference between the pH of the east- facing and west-facing slopes. The pH was lowest on the east-facing slope (3.8), and the only conifer present (Tsuga canadensis) had the highest relative dominance (0.5473). On the west-facing slope, the pH was 4.4, and 3 species of conifers collectively had a relative dominance of 0.4352, while the hardwoods had a relative dominance of 0.5639. Other studies involving Rock Creek Gorge were done with different techniques and smaller samples. In the study by Braun (1950), 117 trees were randomly sampled and recorded. Winstead and Nicely (1976) used 2 750-m transect lines to sample 100 trees using a random pairs method. The 3 studies show a difference in the data col- lected (Table 12). In a comparison of Cornus florida number of species, Braun found 12, 11 of which were the same as in the present study. The other single species reported by Braun, but absent in the present analysis, was Castanea dentata which has been elim- inated by chestnut blight. Dead, fallen chestnut trees still remain in the gorge. Winstead and Nicely (1976) found 13 species of trees within the gorge. Eleven of those species were found in the present study; Prunus serotina and Carpinus caro- liniana were not found. Basal areas of the present study were compared with those reported by Winstead and Nicely (1976) (Table 2). The 2 tech- niques gave different results. An analysis of the 4 plots nearest the earlier study showed 368 trees/ha with a basal area of 26.4 m?. Those figures are higher than for the total gorge (329.6 trees with 23.3 m?/ha basal area). The numbers are less than those in the preliminary study that had 672.3 trees/ha with a basal area of 47.5 m°. The data show a pattern of decreasing numbers with increasing size of the area sampled. The basal area data from Rock Creek 10 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) Gorge do not match the predicted value of 30 m*/ha as proposed by Held and Win- stead (1975) being an indication of climax status in mesic forest systems. Their pro- posal was developed by comparing basal area data from various studies of forests primarily in Kentucky and Indiana. Those forest ecosystems were not confined to such a narrow gorge as Rock Creek; thus, the physiography of the area might be limiting in some way to tree growth. Braun (1950) found that the pattern of vegetation in Rock Creek Gorge with hemlock dominant accompanied by dense thickets of Rhododendron was typical of the narrowest gorges of the Cumberland Plateau. She also noted the greater impor- tance of oak on the drier slopes. In Rock Creek, the importance value of the sum of the 3 species of oak on the west-facing slope was 0.5489, just below that of hem- lock (0.6141). On the other slope, only 1 species of oak was present having a value of 0.0535, while that of hemlock was 0.9104. Lilley Cornett Woods in Letcher County is a virgin area in southeastern Kentucky on the Cumberland Plateau (Martin 1975). The area contains several hemlock com- munities on lower northeastern and _ north- western slopes. Tsuga canadensis accounted for 60 percent of the importance value and Fagus grandfolia was the only other im- portant constituent. The northwestern slope had smaller trees with the highest density of 478 stems/ha; the northeastern slope had 321 stems/ha. The pattern is the same as that in Rock Creek Gorge. Also, as in Rock Creek, oak became a more important constituent on the northwestern slope. A greater number of tree species was present on the northwestern slope of Lilley Cornett Woods than in Rock Creek Gorge. Fifteen species were found on the northeastern slope and 18 on the northwestern slope compared with 12 on the eastern slope and 18 on the western slope in Rock Creek. Basal areas were higher in the woods than the gorge. Martin (1975) reported basal areas of 42.4 m*/ha on the northeastern slope and 22.4 m?/ha on the northwestern slope of Lilley Cornett Woods compared with 26.7 m?/ha on the eastern and 19.9} m?/ha on the western in the gorge. That} difference may be due to differences in} methods. Martin used 12.4 cm dbh as the} smallest tree size instead of the 10 cm dbh} limit used in Rock Creek. In spite of that. difference, the pattern is still the same. The} greatest basal area is on the eastern slopes. In Lilley Cornett Woods, beech was a more important constituent of the forest composition than in Rock Creek Gorge. Braun (1950) found the same to be true of wider gorges where beech occupied the valley floor. The pattern was present at Yahoo Falls in McCreary County, Kentucky, } although that area is not covered by a virgin forest (Braun 1950). No other virgin hemlock—-mixed meso- phytic forests have been studied in Ken- tucky. Areas of secondary growth with the same hemlock—mixed mesophytic forest are present in Red River Gorge, but to our} knowledge no compositional studies have been done there. In 1973, Herman and See reported on secondary succession after a fire in the hemlock—mixed mesophytic forest of “Tight Holler” in Wolfe County. After 47 years, tulip poplar was dominant, and hemlock was present only in the shrubj layer. | Rock Creek Gorge is a good site for more§ specific ecological studies of virgin vege- tation. Also, the rim of the gorge is second- ary growth with 1 plot that was clearcut in 1965 by the U.S. Forest Service. The plot} has since been abandoned and is a possible site of the study of successional patterns of that area. The present study gives a more complete picture of vegetational structure and com- munity composition than would be expected to develop within similar gorge habitats in the Cumberland Plateau of Kentucky. Such information may be of considerable value in future plans of wilderness management and development of potential recreational sites. Another point of significance is that such a protected area as Rock Creek, once inventoried, provides a potential pool ol genetic stock representing species that now or in the future might have great economic value in reforestation, timber production, and wildlife management. It is also hoped the data presented here may provide base- line information for comparison with other climax forest systems within the central and eastern United States in relation to stability of forest ecosystems and species diversity. LITERATURE CITED Braun, E. L. 1950. Deciduous Forests of East- ern North America. Hafner Publishing Co., New York, N.Y. 596 pp. Bovyoucos, G. J. 1936. Directions for making mechanical analysis of soils by the hydrometer method. Soil Science 42:225-229. DauBENMIRE, R. F. 1969. Plants and Environ- Cruimax Mixep MEsopHytic Forest—Cameron and Winstead ie ment. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. 422 pp. HeE.p, M. E., AND J. E. WinstEAp. 1975. Basal area and climax status in mesic forest systems. Ann. Bot. 39:1147-1148. HERMAN, T., AND M. G. SEE. 1973. Secondary succession following fire in “Tight Holler,” Kentucky. Castanea 38:275-285. Martin, W.H. 1975. The Lilley Cornett Woods: A stable mixed mesophytic forest in Kentucky. Bot. Gaz. 136:171-183. RADFORD, A. E., H. E. AHLES, AND C. R. BELL. 1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, N.C. 1183 pp. WInsTEaD, J. E., anp K. A. Nicety. 1976. A preliminary study of a virgin forest tract of the Cumberland Plateau in Laurel County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 37(1-2): 29-32. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 12—22 Vegetation of the Boone County Cliffs Nature Preserve, a Forest on a Kansan Outwash Deposit in Northern Kentucky WILLIAM S. BRYANT Department of Biology, Thomas More College, Ft. Mitchell, Kentucky 41017 ABSTRACT Four distinct local communities were recognized and related to aspect and disturbance at the 20.24-hectare Boone County Cliffs Nature Preserve on Kansan outwash deposits in northern The dominant tree species in each community were: muhlenbergii, Q. rubra, and Ulmus rubra in the maple—oak—elm community; Ulmus rubra, Acer saccharum, Fraxinus americana, Quercus muhlenbergii, Q. rubra, and Robinia pseudo-acacia in the elm—maple-locust community; Acer saccharum, Tilia americana, Fagus grandifolia, and Fraxinus americana in the maple—basswood—beech community; and Acer saccharum, Fagus grandifolia, Fraxinus americana, Quercus rubra, and Q. alba in the maple—beech—oak community. The vegetation of the forest differs greatly from the hydromesophytic forests of the Illinoian till plain, but compares somewhat to the slope and ravine forests on other Illinoian deposits. Kentucky. INTRODUCTION Several authors have reported on the vegetation of the glaciated tristate area of northern Kentucky (Nelson 1918, Braun 1950, Keith 1968, Held and Winstead 1976), southwestern Ohio (Braun 1916, 1917, 1936, 1950; Cobbe 1943), and southeastern In- diana (Gordon 1936, Chapman 1942, Keller 1946, Beals and Cope 1964). All those studies concerned vegetation on Illinoian till except that of Keith (1968) who did not differentiate between the various Pleisto- cene drift deposits. No reports are available for the areas of Kansan outwash recently identified in northern Kentucky (Ray 1966, 1974) that filled ancient and abandoned tributaries to the Ohio River. In this paper, the vegetation on Kansan outwash at the Boone County Cliffs Nature Preserve is compared with that of areas of Illinoian till. The Preserve, purchased by the Kentucky Chapter of The Nature Con- servancy, is known locally as the Cliffs or Enchanted Valley. Sutton (1877, 1879) referred to the area as the Middle Creek Conglomerate. THE Strupy AREA The 20.24-ha Boone County Cliffs Nature Preserve lies off Middle Creek Road ap- 12 Acer saccharum, Quercus proximately 14.2 km west of Burlington, in — | western Boone County, Kentucky. old growth forest predominates the Pre- serve, some logging occurred about 60 years" ago aed some trees were selectively cut just prior to acquisition by The Nature Con- servancy (however, my data were collected. prior to that most recent logging). Elevations in the Preserve range from 198. | to 259 m above mean sea level. Large conglomerate cliffs and boulders outcrop on the slopes (Fig. 1). Ray (1974) stated that } the Middle Creek conglomerate is com- posed of cemented sand, gravels, and cob- } bles of limestone and a few crystalline rocks } and quartzite. The area that includes the conglomerate is now deeply eroded, espe- | cially by Middle Creek, to narrow valleys with rugged precipitous walls 18.3 m or} more high. Soils are Jessup silt loam and} Cynthiana flaggy clay loam (Weisenberger. et al. 1973) and are derived from weather- ing of the conglomerate and colluvial action. Wet areas resulting from the seepage of | water from the interior of the conglomerate } rock are abundant and present throughout the year. A springfed stream passes through the ravine that separates the north- and south-facing slopes. The climate is temperate and humid. The average temperature is 12.2 C and the aver-f} ; Fic. IF. _ serve, Boone County, Kentucky. age annual rainfall is 101.6 cm (Weisen- berger et al. 1973). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I extend appreciation to Mr. John S. Garton who aided in the preparation of this manuscript, to Mr. Michael E. Held of Ohio University for furnishing information on soil texture, and to former students in my classes at Thomas More College who helped with collection of data. METHODS AND MATERIALS Vegetation was sampled from March 1972 to October 1976. Trees were sampled in 0.04-ha circular plots, saplings in 0.0l-ha circular plots, and seedlings in 0.004-ha circular plots. Shrubs were sampled in the latter 2 sized plots. Woody plants with diameters breast height (dbh) of 8.9 cm (3.5 inches) or greater were classed as trees. Seedlings and , VEGETATION ON KANSAN OutwasH—Bryant 13 saplings were placed in appropriate size classes determined with a sampling tem- plate. Seedlings in Class 1 were woody plants from 15.2 cm to 1.37 m high (6 inches-4.5 feet); those in Class 2 were over 1.37 m high with diameters at ground level less than 1.27 cm (0.5 inch). All sapling size classes were 1.37 m or more in height. Saplings in Class 3 were from 1.27 to 3.81 cm (0.5-1.5 inches) in diameter; Class 4 were from 3.81 to 6.35 cm (1.5-2.5 inches) in diameter; and Class 5 were from 6.35 to 8.9 cm (2.5-3.5 inches ) in diameter. A total of 29 plots for each vegetational category was sampled. Plots were spaced at 33-m in- tervals along straight-line transects through the communities sampled. The relative frequency (RF), relative density (RD), relative dominance (RDo), and importance value (IV) for each tree species were determined. Numbers of seed- lings, saplings, and shrubs per hectare were determined. 14 TraANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE 1—THE NUMBER (N), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDo), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF ALL TREE SPECIES AT THE BOONE County CLirFs NATURE PRE- SERVE, BOONE County, KENTUCKY N RF RD RDo IV Acer saccharum 216 ty fe 40.91 20.83 79.05 Ulmus rubra 72 8.33 13.64 11.84 33.81 Fraxinus americana 43 11.54 8.14 10.01 29.69 Fagus grandifolia 14 D1 2.65 12.23 20.65 Quercus rubra aA 7.69 4.17 8.11 19.97 Quercus muhlenbergii 33 3.85 6.25 7.26 17.36 Tilia americana 16 3.85 3.03 bl 14.39 Celtis occidentalis 16 4.49 3.03 2.36 9.88 Robinia pseudo-acacia 12, 3.85 DAL 3.41 9.53 Liriodendron tulipifera 9 5 Fe 1.70 2.49 9.32 Carya cordiformis 8 3.85 1.52 3.73 9.10 Juglans nigra 9 Seal | 1.70 1.98 6.89 Quercus alba 6 1.92 1.14 2.82 5.88 Ulmus americana 6 2.56 1.14 212 5.82 Cercis canadensis 12 2.56 Zt 0.47 5.30 Carpinus caroliniana rf 3.21 hs 0.27 4.81 Carya ovata ‘4 2.56 35 0.37 4.26 Fraxinus quadrangulata i 1.92 Eos 0.64 3.89 Ostrya virginiana 5 1.92 0.95 0.19 3.06 Aesculus glabra 2 1.28 0.38 0.14 1.80 Platanus occidentalis if 0.65 0.19 0.73 1.56 Gymnocladus dioicus 2 0.64 0.38 0.30 32, Carya glabra 1 0.64 0.19 0.08 0.91 Acer negundo 1 0.64 0.19 0.07 0.90 Cornus florida 1 0.64 0.19 0.03 0.86 Totals 528 100.00 100.02 99.99 300.01 Because of local differences in habitat, such as aspect and disturbance, the forest was divided into 4 sampling areas: south- and disturbances. The 4 community types | were: maple—-oak-elm on the south-facing slope, elm—maple-locust on the ridge atop facing slope, ridge atop the south-facing slope, north-facing slope, and ridge atop the north-facing slope. No quantitative determinations of herbs were made, how- ever, notes on the herbaceous composition were taken. Soil samples were taken from 20 sites and the soil texture was determined with a hydrometer. Nomenclature for all plant species follows Mohlenbrock and Voigt (1959). ANALYSIS OF COMMUNITIES Distinct local communities were recog- nized and probably were related to aspects the south-facing slope, maple-basswood-— beech on the north-facing slope, and maple-— beech-oak on the ridge atop the north- facing slope. In addition to the major com- munity types, a small stand of Liriodendron tulipifera was present in the ravine between the slopes. A list of the kinds of trees in the entire Preserve is presented in Table 1, and the average basal area values for the dominant tree species in each community are listed in Table 2. : Average values for soil samples at 20 7 locations throughout the Preserve were: | sand (40.37%), clay (23.21%), and silt (36.42% ). Local differences regarding soil VEGETATION ON KANSAN OutwasH—Bryant 15 TABLE 2.—AVERAGE BASAL AREA (CM”*) FOR INDIVIDUAL TREES OF 8 SPECIES IN THE 4 COMMUNITIES AT THE BOONE County CLirFs NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE CouNTy, KENTUCKY South-facing slope Acer saccharum 270.84 Quercus rubra 1,549.87 Fraxinus americana 1,006.33 Ulmus rubra Sale| Quercus muhlenbergii 848.95 Robinia pseudo-acacia 476.53 Tilia americana Fagus grandifolia textures probably were not great enough to modify plant distributions. Maple-Oak-Elm Community The south-facing slope was the driest habitat in the Preserve due to its exposure. The upper half of the slope was decidedly xeric. Acer saccharum (IV 61.42) was the bo most prominent tree, although being most abundant on the lower portions of the slope North-facing South ridge slope North ridge 197.18 229.43 472.72 421.44 902.94 1,653.01 553.86 856.95 687.70 540.06 1,259.10 365.07 994.98 1,642.11 497.10 oll ae 2,389.85 (Table 3). Oaks, Quercus muhlenbergii (IV 43.82) and Q. rubra (IV 28.30), ranked second and third, respectively, while Q. alba (IV 5.16) ranked thirteenth. Com- bined, the oaks had an importance value of 77.28. Other important associated trees included Ulmus rubra, Juglans nigra, Fraxi- nus americana, and Celtis occidentalis. Fraxinus quadrangulata was confined to the upper slope, especially rooted in the large _ TasLe 3.—THE NUMBER (N), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDo), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF ALL TREE SPECIES ON THE SOUTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE County Ciirrs NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE County, KENTUCKY Species N RF RD RDo Acer saccharum Sy 13.46 32.90 15.60 Quercus muhlenbergii 23 7.69 14.84 21.29 Quercus rubra 8 9.62 5.16 13252 Ulmus rubra 18 7.69 LEG] 6.30 Juglans nigra 9 9.62 D.oL 6.89 Fraxinus americana 8 7.69 5.16 8.78 Celtis occidentalis 10 5.79 6.45 5.80 Liriodendron tulipifera 6 9.62 3.87 2.82 Ulmus americana 5 et S20 4.71 Carya cordiformis 2 3.85 1.29 6.83 Cercis canadensis ‘i 3.50 4,52 LOK Robinia pseudo-acacia 2 3.85 1.29 1.04 Quercus alba 1 1.92 0.65 2.59 Platanus occidentalis 1 1.92 0.65 230 Acer negundo 1 1.92 0.65 0.24 Fraxinus quadrangulata 1 1.92 0.65 0.17 Carpinus caroliniana 1 1.92 0.65 0.09 Aesculus glabra ih 1.92 0.65 0.07 Totals 155 100.00 100.03 100.02 IV 61.42 43.82 28.30 25.60 22.32 21.63 18.02 16.31 13.71 11.97 9.64 6.18 5.16 5.12 2.81 2.74 2.66 2.64 300.05 16 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE 4.—SEEDLINGS (SrzE CLAssEs 1, 2) AND SAPLINGS (SIzE CLAssEs 3, 4, 5) PER HECTARE OF ALL SHRUB AND TREE SPECIES ON THE SOUTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE County CLirrs NATURE PRESERVE, | BooNE County, KENTUCKY Size class 1 2 3 4 5 Shrubs Staphylea trifolia 164.65 136.21 21.93 Lindera benzoin 3,265.88 So 101oF 406.17 186.61 Asimina triloba 1,180.09 741.00 43.89 Seedlings—saplings Acer saccharum 686.09 ai Serer 164.67 32.93 10.97 Quercus rubra 82.33 54.88 43.89 43.89 Fraxinus americana 1S7-20 65.87 10.97 Cercis canadensis 439.09 164.67 186.61 43.89 Ostrya virginiana 439.09 54.88 10.97 Carya cordiformis 137.21 Carpinus caroliniana 27.44 21.93 10.97 Acer negundo 109.77 54.88 Fraxinus quadrangulata 219.53 IByAnAl 32.93 Prunus serotina 164.65 27.44 21.93 Fagus grandifolia 27.44 10.97 Platanus occidentalis 27.44 Liriodendron tulipifera 164.65 10.97 Ulmus rubra 301.88 109.77 Celtis occidentalis 82.33 27.44 Aesculus glabra 21.93 10.97 Oercus muhlenbergii 10.97 conglomerate outcrops that were difficult to sample. Cercis canadensis was the major under- story tree. Shrubs, Lindera benzoin, Asi- mina triloba, and Staphylea trifolia, were most abundant on the lower slope and near the stream, yet A. triloba did extend upslope wherever water seepage occurred. Of the canopy trees, seedlings and sap- lings of A. saccharum were the most abun- dant (Table 4). Seedlings and saplings of most of the dominant trees were present, but only A. saccharum reached tree replace- ment size. Elm-—Maple-Locust Community The ridge atop the south-facing slope was cleared approximately 60 years ago and an old farm road crossed the ridge. Remnants of the early successional stages, Ulmus rubra and Robinia pseudo-acacia, were still present and ranked first (IV 91.48) and fourth (IV 33.02), respectively (Table 5). | A. saccharum, F. americana, and the oaks, | Q. muhlenbergii and Q. rubra, were other | important trees, however, those 4 species — were smaller there than elsewhere in the | Preserve reflecting a more recent establish- ment. Entire black locust trees and portions | of others were dead and dying. The re- placement of R. pseudo-acacia by A. sac- charum, F. americana, and the oaks was in advanced condition. Those latter species were of Class 5 (Table 6). U. rubra was reproducing, but R. pseudo-acacia was not. F. quadrangulata was most abundant near the edge of the conglomerate cliffs and its | seedlings and saplings extended throughout the ridge. | An understory of Cercis canadensis was developing under the new canopy. Asimina VEGETATION ON KANSAN OutwasH—Bryant I. TABLE 5.—THE NUMBER (N), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDo), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF ALL TREE SPECIES ON THE RIDGE ATOP THE SOUTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE County CiLirFs NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE CouNTy, KENTUCKY Species N RF RD RDo IV Ulmus rubra 50 16.67 33.56 41.25 91.48 Acer saccharum 38 16.67 25.50 11.45 53.62 Fraxinus americana 15 13.89 10.07 12.69 36.65 Robinia pseudo-acacia 10 1 Lt 6.71 15.20 33.02 Quercus muhlenbergii 10 5.06 G77 5.08 17.85 Quercus rubra 6 8.33 4.03 3.86 16.22 Carya cordiformis 3 5.06 2.01 2.28 9.85 Celtis occidentalis 3 5.06 2.01 2.10 9.67 Fraxinus quadrangulata 5 2.78 3.36 5/5, 8.69 Carya ovata Me 5.56 io 0.81 7.70 Cercis canadensis 4 20 2.68 0.41 5.87 Gymnocladus dioicus 2 2.78 ee 1.45 5.BT Carya glabra it 2.78 0.67 0.38 3.83 Totals 149 100.03 99.99 100.00 300.02 TABLE 6.—SEEDLINGS (S1IzE CLAssEs 1, 2) AND SAPLINGS (SIzE CLAssEs 3, 4, 5) PER HECTARE OF ALL SHRUB AND TREE SPECIES ON THE RIDGE ATOP THE SOUTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE CoUuNTy CLIFFS NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE CouNtTy, KENTUCKY Size class 1 2 3 4 5 Shrubs Asimina triloba 41.15 49.40 Staphylea trifolia 205.83 16.47 Symphoricarpos orbiculatus 411.67 Rubus sp. 770.45 Seedlings—saplings Acer saccharum 247.00 82.33 312.87 214.07 32.93 Quercus muhlenbergii 82.33 Lodece 16.47 16.47 Quercus rubra 82.33 214.07 32.93 16.47 Ulmus rubra 823.33 82.33 65.87 16.47 16.47 Cercis canadensis 82.33 hS TS 32.93 16.47 Ostrya virginiana 123.50 16.47 Fraxinus quadrangulata LtLL50 (82.17 230.53 Fraxinus americana 164.65 Al.15 P52 Carya cordiformis 370.50 123.50 16.47 Celtis occidentalis 946.83 247.00 W738 Acer negundo AS 41.15 16.47 Ulmus americana ALAS Juniperus virginiana 41.15 Aesculus glabra 16.47 Gymnocladus dioicus 32.93 Carya glabra 16.47 18 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE 7.—THE NUMBER (N), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDo), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF ALL TREE SPECIES ON THE NORTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE County Ciirrs NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE COUNTY, KENTUCKY Species N RF RD RDo IV Acer saccharum 61 19.05 50.00 16.73 85.78 Tilia americana 14 11.90 11.48 27.49 50.87 Fagus grandifolia 2 7.14 4.10 20.99 32:23 Fraxinus americana il 7.14 9.02 Liat 27.43 Ulmus rubra 4 (14 3.28 6.02 16.44 Carpinus caroliniana 6 9.52 4.92 0.94 15.38 Carya cordiformis 3 4.76 2.46 4.98 12.20 Quercus rubra $ 4.76 2.46 3.24 10.46 Liriodendron tulipifera 2 4.76 1.64 2.50 8.90 Ostrya virginiana 4 4.76 3.28 0.65 8.69 Celtis occidentalis 3 4.76 2.46 1.01 8.23 Ulmus americana il 2.38 0.82 2,.92 6.12 Aesculus glabra 1 BESTS 0.82 0.45 3.65 Carya ovata if 2:38 0.82 0.35 aa Fraxinus quadrangulata i 2.38 0.82 0.26 3.46 Cornus florida 1 2.38 0.82 0.12 3.32 Cercis canadensis 1 2.38 0.82 0.08 3.28 Totals 122 99.97 100.02 100.00 299.99 triloba and Staphylea trifolia were present where slight depressions in soil allowed water accumulation. Remnants of the past clearing association, Symphoricarpos orbi- culatus and Rubus sp. persisted in the tracks of the farm road. of Fagus grandifolia were present (Table Maple-—Beech-Oak Community The ridge atop the north-facing slope — was also dominated by A. saccharum (IV 127.53), with major associated canopy trees Maple-Basswood-—Beech Community being F. grandifolia (IV 59.30), and F. The vegetation of the north-facing slope was a mixed mesophytic association with A. saccharum (IV 85.78), Tilia americana (IV 30.87), and Fagus grandifolia (IV 32.23) as the dominant trees (Table 7). F. americana and U. rubra were major associates. The understory was composed of Carpinus caro- liniana and Ostrya virginiana. The shrub layer was composed of Lindera benzoin, Asimina triloba, and Staphylea tri- folia. All of those species ranged high up the slope and were not confined to seepage areas. A few individuals of Hydrangea arborescens were present, but were not recorded from sample plots. Of the domi- nant tree species, replacement to tree size was by A. saccharum, T. americana, and F. americana, however, saplings up to Class 3 americana (IV 39.78) (Table 9). Q. rubra and Q. alba ranked fourth and fifth, respec- — tively, but as a composite the oaks had an importance value of 44.17. The trees were widely spaced and there was no well-defined subcanopy or shrub layer. Seedlings and saplings of A. sac- charum and F. grandifolia were present to tree replacement size (Table 10). Shortly after that ridge community was sampled, many of the oaks were logged. Hummock of Tulip Poplar Near the head of the stream that passed | through the ravine was a small stand of | Liriodendron tulipifera. The soil was deeper there than elsewhere in the Preserve. VEGETATION ON KANSAN OvutTwasH—Bryant 19 TABLE 8.—SEEDLINGS (S1zE CLAssEs 1, 2) AND SAPLINGS (SIzE CLAssEs 3, 4, 5) PER HECTARE OF ALL SHRUB AND TREE SPECIES ON THE NORTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE County CLirFs NATURE PRESERVE, BoonE County, KENTUCKY Shrubs Asimina triloba 2,223.00 Lindera benzoin 185.25 Staphylea trifolia 339.63 Seedlings—saplings Acer saccharum 617.50 Tilia americana 185.25 Fraxinus americana G75 Carpinus caroliniana Glo Fagus grandifolia 92.63 Ulmus rubra 185.25 Quercus rubra Cercis canadensis 92.63 Acer negundo 92.63 Liriodendron tulipifera 30.88 Carya cordiformis 61.75 Fraxinus quadrangulata Aesculus glabra That stand apparently was the seed source of the tulip poplars of the slopes. Discussion No comparable studies of vegetation on Kansan outwash have been reported, al- though Keith (1968) undoubtedly included Size class 2 3 4 5 2,037.75 61.75 185.25 Sy Us: 123.50 24.70 648.38 135.85 86.45 24.70 123.50 12.35 12°39 92.63 12-30 30.88 1235 61.75 61.75 123.50 30.88 61.75 12.35 1 P85, 30.88 61.75 some areas in his study; however, because of the weathered nature of the areas he sampled, he made no distinctions between till deposits. Since there is more literature for vegetation of Illinoian till available com- parisons are to that area. When all sampling areas are combined, the forest of the Boone County Cliffs TABLE 9.—THE NUMBER (N), RELATIVE FREQUENCY (RF), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDo), AND IMPORTANCE VALUE (IV) OF ALL TREE SPECIES ON THE RIDGE ATOP THE NORTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE County CLirFs NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE County, KENTUCKY Species N RF RD RDo IV Acer saccharum 66 23.08 64.71 39.74 197 5s Fagus grandifolia i) 23.08 8.82 27.40 59.30 Fraxinus americana 9 23.08 8.82 7.88 39.78 Quercus rubra 5. 7.69 4.90 10.53 23.12 Quercus alba 1 7.69 4.90 8.46 21.05 Liriodendron tulipifera 1 3.85 0.98 4.18 9.01 Carya ovata 4 3.85 3.92 0.44 8.21 Tilia americana 2 3.85 1.96 1.27 7.08 Ostrya virginiana 1 3.85 0.98 0.09 4.92 Totals 102 100.02 99.99 99.99 300.00 20 TrANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE 10.—SEEDLINGS (S1IzE CLAssEs 1, 2) AND SAPLINGS (SIZE CLAssEs 3, 4, 5) PER HECTARE OF ALL SHRUBS AND TREE SPECIES ON THE RIDGE ATOP THE NORTH-FACING SLOPE OF THE BOONE County CLIFFS NATURE PRESERVE, BOONE County, KENTUCKY Seedlings—saplings Acer saccharum 494.00 Fagus grandifolia 329.33 Ostrya virginiana 617.50 Cornus florida 41.17 Carya cordiformis 247.00 Quercus rubra 205.83 Fraxinus americana 164.67 Fraxinus quadrangulata 82.33 Ulmus rubra 494.00 Celtis occidentalis Sassafras albidum Nature Preserve shows some similarities as well as striking differences to those on Illinoian till, in particular the Dinsmore’s Woods (Held and Winstead 1976). In both forests, Acer saccharum ranked first in importance value, 79.05 at the Preserve to 91.94 at Dinsmore’s Woods. Fraxinus americana ranked third at the Preserve (IV 29.69) and second at Dinsmore’s Woods (IV 44.48) while Ulmus rubra ranked second at the Preserve (IV 33.81) and fourth at Dinsmore’s Woods (IV 22.93). The Pre- serve forest was decidedly more mesic than Dinsmore’s Woods when the respective im- portance values of the following species are compared: Fagus grandifolia, 20.65 to 6.91; Tilia americana, 14.39 to 5.17; Quercus rubra, 19.71 to 7.81; and Liriodendron tu- lipifera, 9.32 to 0. The importance values for Q. muhlenbergii, 17.36 to 5.38; Q. alba, 5.88 to 17.87; and Celtis occidentalis, 9.88 to 29.88, reflect other differences. Keith (1968) felt that a high importance for C. occidentalis, such as that at Dinsmore’s Woods indicated a disclimax. Basal area values were very similar, 27.2 m?/ha at the Preserve to 28.1 m?/ha at Dinsmore’s Woods. The differences between the forests probably are the results of different soils, weathered conglomerate, and colluvium at the Preserve and a Wisconsin loess cap at Size class 2 3 4 5 247.00 131.73 49.40 131.73 41.17 279.93 32.93 16.47 370.50 148.20 16.47 65.87 131.73 82.33 49.40 164.67 98.80 41.17 16.47 16.47 ANAT 41.17 Dinsmore’s Woods, in conjunction with a greater number of microhabitats at the Preserve. Local habitat factors result in distinct communities at the Preserve with only 3 tree species, A. saccharum, F. americana, and Q. rubra, in each of the 4 community types. Cobbe (1943) noted the establish- ment of local communities at Cabin Run, Ohio, as a result of microenvironmental differences. The vegetation of the south-facing and north-facing slopes was quite different at the Preserve. Braun (1917) noted that slopes of the same steepness but of different direction show great differences in the character of the vegetation even though both are on conglomerate rock substrate. The south-facing slope, the driest habitat, was occupied by a maple—oak—elm associa- tion. Cobbe (1943) also found the south- facing slope to be less mesophytic and dominated by A. saccharum. Braun (1950) noted that the drier slopes and exposed river bluffs of the Illinoian deposits in Kentucky display remnants of an oak—ash—maple forest. The prominence of Q. muhlenbergii, the most xeric of the white oak group (Curtis 1959), on the south-facing slope is evidence of the dryness. Mesic shrubs, Asimina triloba, Lindera benzoin, and VEGETATION ON KANSAN OutTwasH—Bryant 21 Staphylea trifolia, were abundant on the lower slope and in seepage sites. Braun (1917) noted the occurrence of constantly ‘wet places on conglomerate slopes resulting from a gradual seepage of water from the interior of the rock. Presently, the disturbed south-facing ridge is occupied by an elm—maple-locust association. The ridge was undergoing advanced succession toward a maple—oak-— elm community. The systematic replace- ment of Robinia pseudo-acacia by Acer and Quercus was readily visible. Many individ- uals of black locust were dead or dying and that species was not reproducing. Braun (1916) found that black locust did not retain its early importance after other trees were started, and was seldom found within the oak forest. Along with black locust on the top of bluffs in southwestern Ohio were 'U. rubra, Fraxinus quadrangulata, and Q. muhlenbergii (Braun 1916). U. rubra was reproducing to tree replacement size and apparently was maintaining itself as a member of the developing maple-oak-elm community. _ The north-facing slope was occupied by a mixed mesophytic association of maple- -basswood-beech. Cobbe (1943) found the north slope of Cabin Run ravine to be the most mesophytic community with a dense canopy of Fagus grandifolia, Tilia ameri- cana, Liriodendron tulipifera, Q. alba, and Juglans nigra. Cobbe also recorded A. -saccharum in the understory along with F. americana, U. rubra, Ostrya virginiana, and Carpinus caroliniana. Both A. saccharum and F. americana were more abundant in the subcanopy than the canopy at the Preserve. Cobbe (1943) stated that a large number of individuals but of small basal area indicated that those trees were not important in the canopy. The position of L. tulipifera in each of the slope associations deserves special men- tion. Cobbe (1943) found L. tulipifera to be most prevalent in the wide protected ravine of Cabin Run, much like its site of abundance at the Preserve, and noted that it reproduced only in openings offered by the death of canopy trees. Overthrow of large canopy trees is a common occurrence on the slopes of the Preserve and possibly is one of the reasons why trees do not reach larger size. The severe slope angles and the sandy nature of the soils will not support large trees. When such trees overturn, L. tulipifera from its seed source in the ravine, invades the newly created openings or gaps. The ridge atop the north-facing slope was occupied by a maple—beech-oak associa- tion. Braun (1916) and Cobbe (1943) recorded F. grandifolia from the tops of hills, ridges, and knolls, and along with beech on the tops of the hills, are other trees, the most important of which are A. saccharum, Carya laciniosa, Q. alba, and QO. rubra (Braun 1916). Such an assemblage is similar to that at the Preserve. The trees were more widely spaced on the ridge than elsewhere in the Preserve and the shrub and subcanopy layers were very sparse. Cobbe (1943) noted that the beech ridge communities were open with no layering. Saplings of A. saccharum and F. grandifolia reach tree replacement size, but the oaks were not reproducing, especially Q. alba. Held and Winstead (1976) also observed poor reproduction by white oak. The flora of the Preserve is similar to that reported by Cobbe (1943) and Braun (1917) for the glaciated slope areas in southwestern Ohio. I have recorded over 300 species of vascular plants in the Pre- serve. Conglomerate boulders on the lower slopes are covered with plants. On the drier outcroppings, fewer species are present. The plant successional pattern on those conglomerate cliffs undoubtedly is much like that reported by Braun (1917) on the conglomerate rocks of southern Ohio. In conclusion, the glaciated portion of Kentucky is limited to a small area in the extreme northern counties, yet those glacial deposits are of significance geologically and vegetationally. The vegetation of the Boone County Cliffs Nature Preserve, on Kansan outwash, differs greatly from the hydro- mesophytic forests of the Illinoian till plain (Braun 1916, 1936), but compares some- what to slope and ravine forests on I]linoian till (Cobbe 1943, Held and Winstead 1976). 22 TRANS. KeENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) Braun (1936) reported that where ravines cut through the hydromesophytic flats, a number of species of the mixed mesophytic forest enter, of which tulip poplar and sugar maple are the most important. The ravine and slopes in the Preserve provide numer- ous microhabitats, and are largely respon- sible for the similarities observed with the vegetation of dissected Illinoian deposits. LITERATURE CITED BEALS, E. W., AND J. B. Cope. 1964. Vegetation and soils in an eastern Indiana woods. Ecology 45:777-792. Braun, E. L. 1916. The physiographic ecology of the Cincinnati region. Ohio Biol. Surv. 2: 115-211. 1917. The vegetation of conglomerate rocks of the Cincinnati region. Plant World 20:380-392. 1936. Forests of the Illinoian till plain of southwestern Ohio. Ecol. Monogr. 6:89-— 149. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern North America. The Blakiston Co., Phila- delphia, Pa. 596 pp. CHAPMAN, A. G. 1942. Forests of the Illinoian till plain of southwestern Indiana. Ecology 23:189-198. Cosse, T. J. 1943. Variations in the Cabin Run Forest, a climax area in southwestern Ohio. Amer. Midl. Nat. 29:89-105. Curtis, J.T. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin. Univ. Wis. Press, Madison, Wis. 657 pp. Gorpon, R. B. 1936. A preliminary vegetation map of Indiana. Amer. Mid]. Nat. 17:866—877. HE.p, M. E., AND J. E. WinstEAp. 1976. Struc- | ture and composition of a climax forest system _ in Boone County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 37(3—4) :57-67. Kerrn, J. R. 1968. Vegetation of the Pleistocene Drift Region, Northern Kentucky. Trans. Ky. | Acad. Sci. 29( 1-4): 10-20. KELLER, C. O. 1946. An ecological study off Kien Woods, Jennings County, Indiana. Bolg ler Univ. Bot. Stud. 8:64-81. MOHLENBROCK, R. W., AND J. W. VolicrT. A flora of southern Illinois. So. IIl. Press, Carbondale, Ill. 390 pp. NELson, J. C. 1918. Plants from Boone County, | Kentucky. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 38:125—-143. Ray, L. L. 1966. Pre-Wisconsin glacial deposits in northern Kentucky. Pp. 195-199. In Geo- logical Survey Research 1966. U.S. Geol. Surv. | Prof. Pap. 650-D. 1959. Univ. . 1974. Geomorphology and tall Geology of the glaciated Ohio River Valley— a reconnaissance study. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 826. 77 pp. Sutton, G. 1877. Glacial or ice deposits in Boone County, Kentucky, of two distinct and widely distinct periods. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci. Proc. 25:225-231. 1879. Glacial or ice deposits in Boone County, Kentucky, of two distinct and widely distinct periods. Indiana Geol. Surv. Ann. Rept. 8—9-10:108-113. WEISENBERGER, B. C., E. W. DOowe Lu, T. R.! LeaTuHERS, H. B. Oper, AND A. J. RICHARDSON. 1973. Soil survey of Boone, Campbell, and Kenton counties, Kentucky. USDA, Soil Cons. Serv. Gov't. Print. Off. Washington, D.C. 67 pp. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1-—2), 1978, 23-30 Conjugate Addition Reactions of 4-Chlorobenzotriazole, 4.6-Dichlorobenzotriazole, and 4.,5,6,7-Tetramethylbenzotriazole Purttie H. MorGAN AND KARL F. HussunG Department of Chemistry and Geology, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071 ABSTRACT 4-Chlorobenzotriazole, 4,6-dichlorobenzotriazole, and previously undescribed 4,5,6,7-tetra- methylbenzotriazole were synthesized and subjected to some base-catalyzed conjugate addition reactions. Addition products of 4-chloro- and 4,6-dichlorobenzotriazole with acrylonitrile, acrylamide, crotonic acid and benzalacetophenone were prepared, as well as an addition product of 4,5,6,7-tetramethylbenzotriazole with crotonic acid. Structural assignments were made on the addition products from ultraviolet absorption data; 4-chlorobenzotriazole giving 1- and 2- substituted products, and 4,6-dichloro- and 4,5,6,7-tetramethylbenzotriazole giving only 2- substituted products. Postulations are advanced on the basis of inductive and steric effects in an effort to explain the influence of benzenoid substituents on the course of the addition reaction. INTRODUCTION It has been reported previously that azoles with an unsubstituted, exocyclic imino group undergo addition reactions with conjugated, unsaturated systems (Wiley et al. 1954, 1955). Several ben- zenoid substituted benzotriazoles were later synthesized and addition products prepared and structurally elucidated by ultraviolet absorption data (Wiley, Hussung, and Mof- fat 1955; Wiley and Hussung 1957). The reported evidence indicated that benzotria- zoles with chlorine atoms substituted in both the 4- and 7-positions (4,5,6,7-tetra- chlorobenzotriazole and 4,7-dichlorobenzo- triazole ) add to conjugated systems to give 2-substituted products, whereas 5,6-dichlo- robenzotriazole along with the parent, benzotriazole, yielded 1-substituted prod- ucts. This difference in behavior was at- tributed to steric hindrance when bulky substituents occupy both the 4- and 7- positions. In order to obtain a clearer understanding of the effect of benzenoid substituents of benzotriazoles on the course of the addition reaction, 4-chlorobenzotriazole, 4,6-dichlo- robenzotriazole, and 4,5,6,7-tetramethylben- zotriazole were prepared and subjected to the base-catalyzed azole addition reaction and the structure of the products elucidated. 23 ACKNOWLEDGMENT Partial support of this research by the Murray State University Committee on Institutional Studies and Research is grate- fully acknowledged. MATERIALS, METHODS, AND RESULTS The synthesis of 4-chlorobenzotriazole was accomplished by 3 different methods. The first involved the direct chlorination of benzotriazole utilizing the swamping catalyst technique, in which excess alumi- num chloride is used as a complexing agent (Gordon and Pearson 1964). An equimolar amount of chlorine was passed into the molten mass of benzotriazole and aluminum chloride to produce 4- and 5-chlorobenzotri- azole and some dichlorinated products. A mixture of the monochloro derivatives was separated from the much less soluble di- chloro derivatives by fractional recrystal- lization from water. The mixture melted over a wide range (136-155 C) and gave a neutralization equivalent identical with that of the calculated value (153.5). An attempt to separate the mixture using ethanol and aluminum oxide in a column chromato- graphic technique failed. Separation of the isomers was accomplished, however, by fractional recrystallization from a 1:2 24 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) ethanol-water mixture. The less soluble 4- chlorobenzotriazole was isolated in 9 per- cent yield. The second method employed to prepare 4-chlorobenzotriazole involved replacement of the amino group in 4-aminobenzotriazole via the Sandmeyer reaction. Readily avail- able 4-nitrobenzotriazole (Fries et al. 1934) was reduced catalytically and the resulting amino derivative diazotized. Replacement of the diazonium group was effected by - addition of a freshly prepared cuprous chloride solution. After completion of the reaction, 4-chlorobenzotriazole was obtained in 4 percent yield. The third and most satisfactory method of preparation of 4-chlorobenzotriazole was by ring closure that involved diazotization of 3-chloro-o-phenylenediamine formed dur- ing catalytic hydrogenation of 6-chloro-2- nitroaniline. The precursor of the diamine was obtained as follows. Sulfonation of o-nitroaniline gave 3-nitro-4-aminobenzene- sulfonic acid that was chlorinated, using chlorine gas dissolved in glacial acetic acid, to give 3-nitro-4-amino-5-chlorobenzenesul- fonic acid (Wolf et al. 1954) that in tum was desulfonated during steam distillation to give 6-chloro-2-nitroaniline. 4.6-Dichlorobenzotriazole was synthesized as previously described (Wiley and Moffat 1963) by diazotization of 3,5-dichloro-1,2- diaminobenzene, obtained by the stannous chloride and hydrochloric acid reduction of 2-nitro-4,6-dichloroaniline. Previously undescribed 4,5,6,7-tetrameth- ylbenzotriazole was prepared as follows. Pentamethylbenzene was nitrated below 10 C with a mixture of fuming nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid covered with an equal volume of chloroform to give very good yields of dinitroprehnitine (Smith and Harris 1935). The dinitroprehnitine was suspended in glacial acetic acid, palladium on charcoal was added and reduction was effected using a Parr hydrogenator. The resultant tetramethyl-o-phenylenediamine was diazotized in the acetic acid medium with nitrous acid to yield 4,5,6,7-tetrameth- ylbenzotriazole. The addition products were prepared, in general, by heating the substituted benzo- triazole with the conjugated substrate for } 15-20 hours in the presence of a_ base | catalyst, either pyridine or benzyltrimethy]- | ammonium hydroxide. Some experimental details for the prepa- ration and characterization of the parent benzotriazoles and their conjugate addition products follow. 4-Chlorobenzotriazole To 22.9 g (0.1383 mole) of 6-chloro-2- nitroaniline dissolved in 300 ml of glacial acetic acid was added 0.5 g of palladium on charcoal catalyst. The mixture was placed on a Parr hydrogenator overnight to reduce the nitroamine to 3-chloro-o-phenylenedi- amine. The resultant solution was filtered, cooled to 5C, and an aqueous solution of sodium nitrite was added dropwise with | stirring until an excess of nitrous acid was | observed. The solution, after being allowed to warm slowly to room temperature, v‘as | concentrated to approximately 30 ml end diluted with water to precipitate 12.2 g of the crude product that was 60 percent of | the theoretical amount. Decolorization with © norite and several recrystallizations from. water gave the pure product, mp 169-171 C. | The reported melting point is 170C (Dal Monte and Veggetti 1958). 1 B-1'-4-Chlorobenzotriazolyl)-butyric acid ! To a melt of 1.53 g (0.01 mole) of 4-chloro- © benzotriazole and 1.30 g (0.014 mole) of crotonic acid (10% water) was added 20: drops of pyridine. The mixture was heated at 100 C for 15 hours, cooled, dissolved in a few milliliters of acetone and poured -into ” 0.5N hydrochloric acid. The resultant solu-_ tion was decolorized with norite and, upon” cooling, a tan oil separated that eventually — solidified. After being placed in the refrig-| precipitated from the solution and were separated mechanically from the tan solid. The crystals weighed 0.55 g which was 237 percent of the theoretical amount. Recrys-/ tallization from water gave the pure product,| mp 154-155 C. ConyucaTE AppiTion REAcTIoNS oF AzoLES—Morgan and Hussung 25 Analysis: Calculated for C19Hi9N302Cl: nN. 17.53. Found: N, 1742. B-2’-(4-Chlorobenzotriazolyl)-propionitrile To a mixture of 1.00 g (0.0065 mole) of 4-chlorobenzotriazole and 4.00 g (0.0755 mole) of acrylonitrile was added 10 drops of pyridine. The resulting mixture was heated at 80C for 20 hours, producing a brown, viscous material on cooling. The oil was dissolved in acetone and brought almost out of solution with hot water. The resultant solution was decolorized with norite and filtered, and the product allowed to recrystallize while cooling overnight in a refrigerator. Filtration produced 0.85 g of white solid that represented a 63 percent yield. Two subsequent recrystallizations from methanol gave the pure sample, mp 131.5-133.5 C. Analysis: Calculated for Cy>5H;N,Cl: N, 27.11. Found: N, 26.94. B-l’-(4-Chlorobenzotriazolyl)- propionamide To a melt of 1.15 g (0.0075 mole) of 4- chlorobenzotriazole and 0.55 g (0.0075 mole) of acrylamide was added 8 drops of benzy]- trimethylammonium hydroxide (Triton-B). The solution was heated at 80 C for 20 hours, cooled, and ether was added to precipitate, after stirring, a white solid. The dried solid weighed 1.55 g representing 95 percent of the theoretical amount. Three recrystalliza- tions from acetone gave the pure product, mp 166-168.5 C. Analysis: Calculated for CgHyN,OCI: Cl, 3:70. Found: Cl, 15.57. B-Phenyl-B-I’-(4-Chlorobenzotriazolyl)- propriophenone 4-Chlorobenzotriazole (1.53 g, 0.01 mole ) and benzalacetophenone (2.08 g, 0.01 mole) Were mixed and 4 ml of pyridine added. The mixture was heated at 90 C for 18 hours, cooled, 30 ml of ligroin and 10-20 ml of diethyl ether added, and the resulting mix- ture stirred until the oil solidified yielding a white solid. The filtered solid weighed ~ 2.80 g for a 77.4 percent yield. One recrys- tallization from a diethyl ether—ligroin mix- ture and 1 from an acetone—water mixture gave the analytical sample, mp 139.5-141.5 C Analysis: Calculated for Cs;H,;,N3;OCI: C, 69.71; H, 4.46. Found: C, 69.65; H, 4.37. B-2’-(4,6’-Dichlorobenzotriazolyl)- propionitrile A mixture of 2.00 g (0.0106 mole) of 4,6- dichlorobenzotriazole, 6.00 g (0.113 mole) of acrylonitrile, and 5-7 drops of pyridine was heated at 80C for 18 hours in a test tube fitted with a condensor and immersed in an oil bath heated with a glascol mantle. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and a white solid crystallized. The crystals were filtered, washed with a small amount of cold acry- lonitrile, and dried to give 1.16 g of product, representing a 39 percent yield. The product was recrystallized twice from acrylonitrile to yield pure transparent crystals, mp 157- 158 C. Analysis: Calculated for C;HgN4Cls: Cl, 29.41. Found: Cl) 29.71. B-2’-(4,6’-Dichlorobenzotriazolyl)- propionamide To a melt of 1.88 g (0.01 mole) of 4,6- dichlorobenzotriazole and 0.71 g (0.01 mole) of acrylamide was added 5-8 drops of Tri- ton-B. The resulting mixture was heated at 80 C for 20 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled and 10-15 ml of diethyl ether added. After considerable stirring, a white solid formed that was filtered to yield 2.15 g of crude product, representing 83 percent of the theoretical amount. After 1 recrystal- lization from ethyl acetate and 2 from ace- tone, 0.20 g of white needles was isolated as an analytical sample, mp 214.5-217 C. Analysis: Calculated for CsHsNsOCls: C, Aloe, ol. Found: CC, 41.78: H, 3.06. B-2’-(4’,6’-Dichlorobenzotriazolyl)- butyric acid To a mixture of 1.88 g (0.01 mole) of 4,6-dichlorobenzotriazole and 1.00 g (0.01 26 Trans. Kenrucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) mole) of crotonic acid (10% water) was added enough pyridine to produce a_ ho- mogeneous solution that was heated at 100C for 15 hours. Evaporation of the pyridine left an extremely viscous material that was poured into 0.5N hydrochloric acid and stirred to precipitate 1.75 g of crude product for a 64 percent yield. Two recrys- tallizations from acetone-water gave the analytical sample, mp 134-136 C. Analysis: N, 15.33; Neutr. equiv., 274.1. Found: N, 15.32; Neutr. equiv., 279.0. B-Phenyl-B-2’-4’,6’-Dichloroben- zotriazolyl)-propiophenone To a melt of 1.88 g (0.01 mole) of 4,6- dichlorobenzotriazole and 2.08 g (0.01 mole) of benzalacetophenone (chalcone) was added 8 drops of Triton-B. The mixture was heated at 80 C for 20 hours. The reac- tion mixture was cooled, diethyl ether was added and, after stirring, 1.70 g of crude white product precipitated which repre- sented a 43 percent yield. Two recrystal- lizations from diethyl ether gave 0.55 ¢ of pure product, mp 160-162.5 C. Analysis: Calculated for C2;Hi;N3;0Cl: C, 63.65; H, 3.82. Found: 63.89; H, 3.86. 4,5,6,7-T etramethylbenzotriazole Five g (0.0223 mole) of dinitroprehnitine was dissolved in 150 ml of glacial acetic acid, 0.5 g of palladium on charcoal was added and the solution was placed on the Parr hydrogenator overnight, producing tetramethyl-o-phenylenediamine. The reac- tion mixture was filtered and 25 ml of water was added. The resulting solution was cooled to 5-10 C and a sodium nitrite solu- tion was added until an excess was observed. During addition of the sodium nitrite solu- tion, a light tan precipitate could be seen forming. The precipitate was filtered, washed with water, dried, and found to weigh 2.50 g representing a yield of 73 per- cent. The sample was recrystallized from ethanol to give the pure product, mp 291- 294 C. Analysis: Calculated for CioHi3N3: C, 68.54; H, 7.48; N, 23.98; Neutr. equiv., 175. Found: C, 68.72; H, 7.39; N, 24.22; Neutr. | Calculated for CypH»NsOoCle: - equiv., 178. B-2'-(4,5',6’,7’-Tetramethylbenzotriazolyl)- butyric: acid To a melt of 1.75 g (0.01 mole) of 4,5,6,7- tetramethylbenzotriazole and 1.00 g (0.01 mole) of crotonic acid (10% water) was added 20 drops of Triton-B. The mixture was heated at 100C for 20 hours, cooled, | and the viscous product was dissolved in 10-15 ml of acetone and poured into 0.5N hydrochloric acid to precipitate 2.00 g of crude product, representing a yield of 76.6 percent of the theoretical amount. The product was dissolved in 1 molar NaOH and filtered into acid in hopes of removing. any unreacted 4,5,6,7-tetramethylbenzotri- azole as residue on the filter. After several! recrystallizations from an acetic acid—water mixture, the pure product was obtained, mp} 207—208.5 C. Analysis: Calculated for CysHigN302: GC, 64.35; H, 7.33... Found: CG, 641051727 Analytical Data Elemental analyses were conducted by. Galbraith Laboratories, Inc., Knoxville, Tennessee. The neutralization equivalent’ for 4,5,6,7-tetramethylbenzotriazole was ob-. tained by using glacial acetic acid as the solvent, and as titrant, perchloric acid dis- solved in glacial acetic acid. All other neutralization equivalents were determined using either water or ethanol—water mixtures to dissolve the sample and standard sodium hydroxide as the titrant. A Beckman Ex- pandomatic pH meter was used in obtaining titration curves for detection of the end points. | Ultraviolet Absorption Spectra Ultraviolet absorption data on all of the| compounds were collected manually from a Beckman DU-2 spectrophotometer, using 10--10-* molar solutions of the sample dis- solved in spectral grade methanol. The spectra for each of the parent benzotriazoles and their corresponding conjugate addition products are shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. ConyucaTE AppITIOoN Reactions or AzoLes—Morgan and Hussung 27 ° oooee” Ww Ne) ° ae loge TS alin 3.6 ; a4 9250/1260 270 9280 290 300 310 320 dX in mu Fic. 1. Ultraviolet absorption spectra for 4-chloro- benzotriazole ( ), B-l’-(4’-chlorobenzotriaz- olyl)-butyric acid (-—-—-—), B-2’-(4’-chlorobenzo- triazolyl)-propionitrile (O O O), B-1’-(4’-chloroben- zotriazolyl )-propionamide (---::-- ), and 6-phenyl- B-1’-( 4’-chlorobenzotriazoly] ) -propiophenone (-—O-O-O-). DIscussION The ambident, nucleophilic anions of parent benzotriazoles are resonance stabi- lized. Resonance extremes for the anions of symmetrically substituted 4,7-dichloro- benzotriazole and asymmetrically substi- tuted 4-chlorobenzotriazole are illustrated in Fig. 4. In the 4,7-dichlorobenzotriazolyl anion, resonance extremes A and C (Fig. 4) are equivalent while in the 4-chlorobenzotri- azolyl anion, resonance extremes A, B, and C (Fig. 4) are nonequivalent. As a result, the base-catalyzed azole addition reaction can theoretically give rise to 2 isomeric products with symmetrically substituted 240 250 2605270) 280 290 300 310 320 X} in mu Fic. 2. Ultraviolet spectra for 4,6-dichlorobenzo- triazole ( ), B-2’-(4’-6’-dichlorobenzotriaz- olyl)-butyric acid (-———), B-2’-(4’,6’-dichloroben- zotriazolyl )-propionitrile (O OO), f-2’-(4’,6’-di- chlorobenzotriazolyl )-propionamide (-----: ), and B-phenyl-f-2’-( 4’,6’-dichlorobenzotriazoly] ) -propio- phenone (—O-O-O-). benzotriazoles and 3 isomeric products with asymmetrically substituted benzotriazoles (Fig. 5). The problem of structural isomerism of the 1- and 2-substituted benzotriazoles has been resolved with benzotriazole. Ultra- violet absorption data distinguish between the 2 isomers and chemical data establish the position of the substituents (Krollpfeif- fer et al. 1938, Specker and Gawrosch 1942). Further chemical and spectral evidence con- cerning l- and 2-substituted benzotriazoles was provided from investigations involving 4.7- and 5,6-dichlorobenzotriazole, 4,5,6,7- tetrachloro- and 4,5,6,7-tetrabromobenzotri- azole (Wiley, Hussung, and Moffat 1955; Wiley and Hussung 1957). The spectral 28 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) x» in mu Fic. 3. Ultraviolet absorption spectra for 4,5,6,7- tetramethylbenzotriazole ( ) and B-2’-(4’,5’, 6’,7’-tetramethylbenzotriazoly] )-butyric acid (— — -). evidence indicates that benzotriazoles and their corresponding 1-substituted deriva- tives show two maxima approximately 20- 25 mp apart. In some spectra, a shoulder before the first maximum is observed. In all spectra, the second maximum is lower in CL CL Fic. 4. Resonance extremes for 4-chloro- and 4,7-dichlorobenzotriazolyl anions. ‘ ducts we © Es ae! NS River incinsy vA Ne N (CL) C log € value than the first. Additional spec- tral evidence indicates that 2-substituted derivatives show 1 principal maximum or a partially resolved double maxima a few millimicrons apart, with higher log € values. than the maxima associated with either the | parent benzotriazole or the corresponding | l-substituted derivative. When 4,6-dichlorobenzotriazole was sub- jected to the azole addition reaction, ad-— were obtained with acrylamide, acrylonitrile, benzalacetophenone, and cro- tonic acid. All addition products were found by ultraviolet spectroscopy to have the “single” maximum characteristic of 2-sub-. stituted benzotriazoles (Fig. 2) and have been assigned structures accordingly. The structure of the addition product with acrylamide is shown in Fig. 5B. 4-Chlorobenzotriazole gave addition prod- ucts with acrylamide, acrylonitrile, benza- lacetophenone, and crotonic acid. From observing the melting point ranges of the crude addition products, the possibility existed that mixtures of isomers were pro- duced, with either the most abundant or least soluble isomer being isolated in the purification procedure. Limited attempts. to separate isomers, however, were unsuc- cessful. Three of the adducts gave ultra- violet spectra characteristic of 1-substituted benzotriazoles while the acrylonitrile adduct gave a spectrum characteristic of 2-sub- stitution (Fig. 1). The 1-substituted prod-. ucts could be either 1,4-disubstituted (Fig. 5A) or 1,7-disubstituted (Fig. 5C) but have been assigned the 1,4 structure. This seems ConyucaTE AppiT1Ion REAcTIoNs oF AzoLtes—Morgan and Hussung 29 Cle Nw NN (CL) N“ (CL) R A Ce R | = NN Nw - UR y N N (CL) N C Fic. 5. Theoretically possible addition products of 4-chloro- and 4,6-dichlorobenzotriazole with acryl- amide (R = pe justified on the basis of previous work that indicated that symmetrical benzotriazoles with substituents in the 4- and 7-positions gave only 2-substituted and no 1-substituted addition products (Wiley, Hussung, and Moffat 1955; Wiley and Hussung 1957). Therefore, the same effect should be ob- served in asymmetric benzotriazoles when there is a chlorine substituent on the 4- position only. The nitrogen adjacent to the halogen in the 4-chlorobenzotriazolyl anion should be less nucleophilic, and hence, less favorable as a reaction site in the addition reaction, since the chlorine would reduce the electron density at that nitrogen, induc- tively, and could, as previously postulated, sterically impair attack at that position. The slightly acidic nature of benzotri- azoles is attributable to resonance stabiliza- tion of their anions. Decreased acidity in 4.5,6,7-tetramethylbenzotriazole, due appar- ently to the electron releasing character of the methyl groups, made attempts at titra- tion with dilute base unsuccessful. This reduced acidity made the preparation of base-catalyzed conjugate addition products difficult. 4,5,6,7-Tetramethylbenzotriazole was added successfully, however, to cro- tonic acid. The addition product formed was indicated by ultraviolet absorption data to be 2-substituted (Fig. 3). The best insight into the effect of ben- zenoid substituents of benzotriazoles on the course of the addition reaction was provided by the studies involving 4,6-dichlorobenzo- triazole. Since only 2-substituted products were obtained, the 1-nitrogen adjacent to the ring and not sterically impaired is inac- tivated by an inductive effect. The fact that both chlorine atoms are positioned meta to that nitrogen produces an electron withdrawing inductive effect of sufficient magnitude to reduce its nucleophilicity, thus rendering it an unfavorable reaction site. If steric hindrance, as previously postulated (Wiley, Hussung, and Moffat 1955; Wiley and Hussung 1957), was the controlling factor, l-substituted addition products would no doubt have been produced. The fact that 4-chlorobenzotriazole gave both 1- and 2-substituted addition products can be explained on the basis of a smaller inductive effect and the absence of steric interference at the 1-nitrogen. The presence of electron releasing methyl groups in the 4- and 7-positions should favor inductively, and hinder sterically, the in- volvement of the 1-(3-) nitrogens in the addition reaction. Since 4,5,6,7-tetramethyl- benzotriazole gave a 2-substituted addition product, it appears, on the basis of this evidence, that the steric factor plays the dominant role. LITERATURE CITED 1958. Tri- Sci. Fac. Dat Monre, D., AND P. VEGGETTI. azoles and benzotriazoles. Boll. Chim. Ind. Univ. Bologna 16:1-9. Fries, K., H. Gurersockx, AND H. Kuun. 1934. Bicyclic compounds and their comparison with naphthalene. IV. Series of azimidobenzenes and N-methylazimidobenzenes. Ann. Chemie oLi:2is: 30 Trans. KENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(1-2) Gorpon, M., AND D. E. Pearson. 1964. The swamping catalyst effect. VI. The halogena- tion of isoquinoline and quinoline. J. Org. Chem, 29:329. KROLLPFEIFFER, F., H. Potz, AND A. ROSENBERG. 1938. N-Alkylbenzotriazoles and the consti- tution of benzotriazole. Berichte 71B:596. SmirH, L. I., Anp S. A. Harris. 1935. Studies on the polymethylbenzenes. XI. The nitration of pentamethylbenzene and of hexamethyl- and hexaethylbenzene. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 57:1289. SPECKER, H., AnD H. Gawroscu. 1942. Ultra- violet absorption of benzotriazoles, pyridones and their salts. Berichte 75B:1338. Wiey, R. H., anp K. F. Hussunc. 1957. Halo- genated- benzotriazoles. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 79:4395. > , AND J. Morrat. 1955. Prep- aration, structure, and properties of 4,5,6,7- tetrachlorobenzotriazole and its 1- and 2-sub- stituted products. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 77: 5105. , AND J. Morrar. 1963. 4,6-Dichloro- benzotriazole. J. Chem. Eng. Data 8(2):279. , N. R. Smiru, D. M.-JOHNSON, AND J. Morrat. 1954. Conjugate addition reactions of azoles: 1,2,3-triazole and benzotriazole. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 76:4933. , =, ———,, AND ———.. 1955. Conjugate addition reactions of azoles. II. 1,2,4-Triazole, tetrazole, nitropyrazoles and benzotriazole. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 77:2572. Wo tr, F. J., K. Prister, III, R. M. Witson, Jr., AND C. A. Rospinson. 1954. Benzotriazines. I. A new series of compounds having anti- malarial activity. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 76: 3551. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1—2), 1978, 31-38 Some Hydrologic Characteristics of a Small Forested Watershed in Eastern Kentucky EVERETT P. SPRINGER AND GEORGE B. COLTHARP Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ABSTRACT Evaluation of land use—water yield relationships requires knowledge of baseline or background hydrologic characteristics of relatively undisturbed watersheds. Hydrologic data were collected in 1972-1976 on a 93.70-ha undisturbed forested watershed in the Eastern Mountain and Coal- field region of Kentucky. During that period, precipitation averaged 136.07 cm annually. Total water yield (runoff) averaged 80.20 cm or 59 percent of the average annual precipitation. Mean annual stormflow (quickflow ) volume comprised 44 percent of the mean annual runoff. Steeply sloping flow duration curves coupled with a high percentage of the total annual runoff that occurred as stormflow characterizes the watershed as having “flashy” hydrologic response. INTRODUCTION In recent years, increased attention has been devoted to the quantity and quality of surface water that drains from forested watersheds. The Eastern Mountain and Coalfield Region is mainly forested, and contains the primary watersheds for more than half of Kentucky. The Kentucky, Licking, Big Sandy, and Cumberland rivers, that originate in the region, provide water for industrial and public use for the eastern half of the state. Several recent reports (Kentucky Department of Commerce 1975, Krieger et al. 1969) show that approxi- mately 96 percent of the water used in the Eastern Mountain and Coalfield Region and 79 percent of the water used in the Blue- grass Region is in the form of surface water. With this demonstrated dependency upon surface water supplies, land use practices in the headwater areas can greatly affect the quantity and quality of flow of that vital resource. In order to evaluate the current status of land use—water yield relationships, we need to know the baseline or background values of water quantity and quality produced from relatively undisturbed forested water- sheds. Such values are essential yardsticks in any evaluation of environmental degra- dation. Forest hydrology studies currently under- 31 way at the University of Kentucky Robinson Forest in eastern Kentucky are providing some of these much needed baseline data. Several small forested watersheds have been monitored since 1971, and this paper sum- marizes some of the pertinent hydrologic characteristics of one of those areas. METHODS AND MATERIALS Study Area over 75 percent of the soils of Robinson Robinson Forest lies 40.23 km south of Jackson, Kentucky, in the Eastern Mountain and Coalfield Physiographic Province. The University of Kentucky acquired the 6,075- ha tract in 1923 following logging of the virgin stands; there has been no extensive logging since acquisition. The bedrock is comprised of alternating layers of sand- stones, siltstones, shales, and coal from the Pennsylvanian Age (Hutchins et al. 1976). Some layers of the bedrock are more resis- tant to weathering than others, therefore, the resulting slopes are dissected by benches. The deepest soils occur along the upslope sides of benches and in cove sites, while rock outcrops are common along slopes and the outslope edges of benches. From a hydrologic viewpoint, those soils are classified as shallow. The Shelocta and Rigley series, found on slopes, comprise 32 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) > (fo yee ‘ KAY inte a Zs = . XS \ ~~ ify \ ‘ ite Watitift, tes Fic. 1. Topographic map of Falling Rock Water- shed. Forest (Hutchins et al. 1976). The Gilpin and Steinsburg series are residual soils on ridgetops, and the Pope series has evolved from alluvial material along the bottoms (Graves et al. 1977). Falling Rock Watershed is a 93.7-ha tract selected as the control watershed for future studies (Fig. 1). Its orientation is predom- inantly northwest, and the slopes average 44 percent. The main channel length is 670 m and slopes at a rate of 54.6 m/km. The basin is oval and the long axis runs from southwest to northeast. The 100 per- cent forest cover on the watershed has an average basal area of 20.40 m?/ha, with the predominant species being oaks (Quercus spp.), yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipi- fera), hickories (Carya spp.), and maples (Acer spp.). Carpenter and Rumsey (1976) published a complete checklist of species on Robinson Forest. Measurements Total incoming precipitation was mea- sured with a weighing type gauge in a small clearing near the stream gauging station (Fig. 1). Streamflow was measured continuously by a 3:1 side-sloped, broad-crested _tri- angular weir equipped with an FW-1 water level recorder (Fig. 2). The weir cutoff wall is tied into shale on each side and across the bottom. The weir has a rated head capacity of 0.9 m, equivalent to 4,825.7 ]/sec. Data Reduction Precipitation charts were point picked by hand, and the data transferred to computer cards. Reduction of the data to 2, 5, 10, 15, and 30-min and 1, 2, 6, and 24-hour inten- sities, for each event and daily and monthly totals, was accomplished by means of a previously developed computer program (Shanholtz and Burford 1967). Streamflow charts were reduced by means of an Oscar-K chartreader available through the U.S. Forest Service, Berea, Kentucky. The Oscar-K utilizes an X-Y coordinate system, with time on the X axis and stage on the Y axis; the chartreader is interfaced with a keypunch so that values are punched directly into cards. The cards were processed into streamflow information using the Coweeta streamflow program described by Hibbert and Cunningham (1967). The out- put of the program includes (1) mean daily flow in Ism (liters per second per square mile), with monthly and annual summaries; (2) flow frequency by minutes; (3) storm- flow information; and (4) stormflow sum- mary by months, seasons, and years. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Precipitation The precipitation pattern is typical for this area of the United States; low intensity, long duration rainstorms predominate dur- ing winter, and high intensity, convectional storms occur in summer. Snow is an insig- nificant form of precipitation and no attempt © has been made to determine its relative © contribution (percentage of total). Mean | annual precipitation for 1972-1976 was 136.07 cm; the driest year was 1976 when 117.85 cm fell and the wettest was 1974 when 156.99 cm fell. The amounts and distribution of the monthly and annual pre- - HyproLocy OF FoRESTED WATERSHED—Springer and Coltharp 33 Fic. 2. V-notch weir used for measurement of streamflow. cipitation for the study period (Table 1) Streamflow indicate that March receives the highest Monthly and annual streamflow for 1972- mean monthly precipitation of 17.19cmand 1976 are shown in Table 2. Mean annual August is the lowest, receiving 6.80 cm. streamflow was 80.20 cm, 59 percent of the TABLE 1.—MONTHLY, ANNUAL, AND MEAN PRECIPITATION (CM), FALLING Rock WATERSHED, 1972—1976 Year Month 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 x Jan 20.70 4.11 22.23 on7 9.32 13.13 Feb 18.08 7.32 4.83 9.09 8.64 9.59 Mar 10.29 13.46 17.86 28.02 16.33 (749 Apr 21.64 12.95 11.99 9.25 1.07 11.38 May C10 14.66 14.61 17.65 6.83 12.29 Jun 1.19 5.44 24.89 9.25 16.51 12.77 Jul 8.89 15.57 7.24 4.14 12.34 9.64 Aug 0.89 3.76 13.72 7.87 To 6.80 Sep 11.43 5.59 9.78 17.02 13.46 11.46 Oct 7.62 9.14 4.95 12.01 15.19 9.78 Nov 10.46 17.58 11.43 10.13 2.79 10.48 Dec 17.02 10.80 13.46 9:07 7.62 11.59 Annual 142.47 120.38 156.99 142.67 117.85 136.07 34 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE 2.—MOoNTHLY, ANNUAL, AND MEAN STREAMFLOW (CM), FALLING Rock WATERSHED, 1972-1976 Month 1972 Jan 19.99 1.98 Feb 19.46 8.92 Mar 9.02 7.67 Apr 28.09 9.65 May Schl T.1D Jun 0.53 0.64 Jul 0.46 0.71 Aug 0.15 0.38 Sep 0.56 0.18 Oct 0.66 0.41 Nov 2771 ol Dec 17.68 6.30 Annual 103.08 51.96 average annual precipitation, an exception- ally high value! The highest annual yield was in 1972 with 103.08 cm and the lowest yield was the following year with 51.96 cm. The mean monthly data in Fig. 3 indicate the temporal distribution of the mean an- CENTIMETERS Year 1973 1974 1975 1976 x 22.81 13.18 3.91 12.37 4,42 ie yg 10.67 11.04 15.75 31.57 13.49 15.50 10.82 10.57 3.10 12.47 3.40 10.41 0.86 5.23 12.50 2.46 3.12 3.85 0.81 0.23 1.47 0.74 0.91 0.15 1.65 0.65 2.59 0.74 1.14 1.04 1.73 1.96 9.88 2.93 6.88 5.11 2.24 4.87 10.24 6.35 fae 9.54 92.86 94.44 58.64 80.20 nual flow. On the average, the first 4 months of the year accounted for 64 percent — of the annual runoff. If May and June are included, those 6 months produced 75 per- | cent of the annual runoff. That period cor- responds with the dormant vegetational Fic. 3. Relationship between mean monthly precipitation, runoff, and quickflow for Falling Rock Water- shed, 1972-1976. HyproLocy oF ForEsTeED WATERSHED—Springer and Coltharp oD Flow (csm) Flow (1/sec) iene on eG GeCSC«CR SC‘ COO Percent of time flow equaled or exceeded Fic. 4. Composite flow duration relationship for Falling Rock Watershed, 1972-1976. season and is characterized by full soil mois- ture recharge. Reinhart et al. (1963) found a similar relationship at the Fernow Experi- mental Forest in West Virginia. The rela- tively shallow soils do not have a large water storage capacity, and recharge occurs quickly. Such a lack of a large soil water storage reservoir produces “flashy” runoff conditions on those watersheds, and little or no storage dictates that baseflow cannot be sustained during prolonged dry periods, and the streams do not flow for brief periods during the year. Low flows occur primarily in July and August, periods of low precipita- tion and high evapotranspiration demand. For 11 days in late August and early Sep- tember 1975 there was no streamflow. By 1000 500 100 Flow(csm) so Flow(\/sec) Percent of time flow equaled or exceeded Fic. 5. Flow duration relationship for wet year Flow Duration Flow duration curves (Figs. 4-6) are presented to indicate the distribution of flows and further substantiate the “flashy” characterization of the watershed. Fig. 4 represents the total 1972-1976 period when mean discharge was 7.00 I/sec. Fig. 5 rep- resents 1974, characterized as a wet year, and it is obvious from the curve that flow was not less than 0.60 1/sec for any signifi- cant percentage of time during the year. Also, mean flow for that year was 8.20 l/sec, considerably above the composite mean of 7.00 1/sec. Fig. 6 represents 1976, a dry year when mean discharge was 5.20 1/sec, and during that year discharge exceeded 10.20 36 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(1-2) 500 100 Flow (esm Flow (\/sec) Percent of time flow equaled or exceeded Fic. 6. Flow duration relationship for dry year 1976. I/sec only 36 percent of the time, while the average for that interval was 43 percent. Morisawa (1968) indicated that flow duration curves allow characterization of runoff from watersheds. Those watersheds with large storage capacity will exhibit flat flow duration curves, whereas watersheds with little or no storage have steeply sloped curves. The curves from Falling Rock Watershed have steep slopes, further evi- dence of lack of moisture storage within the soils of Robinson Forest. Stormflows Stormflow or direct runoff from forested watersheds consists almost entirely of sub- surface flow, while overland flow or surface runoff is virtually nonexistent. Hewlett and Streamflow VZZ A taichtlow WY ip Yj Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Wor Dee Fic. 7. Relationship between mean monthly stream- } flow and quickflow for Falling Rock Watershed, 1972-1976. | Hibbert (1967), recognizing the processes } that operate in forested watersheds, clas- sified storm hydrograph volumes as quick- } flow and delayed flow. Quickflow is dis- tinguished from delayed flow by a line with } a slope of 0.55 1/sec/km?/hr projected from — the rising limb to falling limb of the hydro- } graph. That method was used to analyze } hydrographs from Falling Rock Watershed. } The resultant monthly and annual quick- } flow volumes are presented in Table 3. The } largest quickflow volumes usually occur } during months of soil moisture recharge and > little or no evapotranspiration. However, June 1974 had an abnormally high value of 8.97 cm that resulted from above average precipitation during March-June 1974. In_ Fig. 7, that presents monthly mean stream- | flow and quickflow for the study period, } July is the only month where quickflow was less than 30 percent of the mean monthly flow. During the study, quickflow averaged | 44 percent of the mean annual runoff. Hewlett and Hibbert (1967), surveying forested watersheds in the eastern and southeastern United States, found only 1 - HyproLocy OF ForESTED WATERSHED—Springer and Coltharp 37 TABLE 3.—MONTHLY, ANNUAL, AND MEAN QUICKFLOW VOLUMES (CM), FALLING Rock WATERSHED, 1972- 1976 Year Month 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 £ Jan 10.54 0.01 12.95 3.78 1.47 3.79 Heb 10.15 1.64 0.10 3.07 4.07 3.87 Mar 2.65 2.53 5.95 20.12 8.06 7.86 Apr 16.80 3.98 2.90 3.78 0.05 5.00 May 0.35 Suge. 0.76 4.75 0.05 1.93 Jun 0.04 0.06 8.97 0.84 LGl 2.30 Jul 0.07 0.22 0.11 0.01 0.46 Oak. Aug 0 0.03 0.21 0.02 0.82 0.22 Sep 0.40 0.02 0.84 0.24 0.65 0.43 Oct 0.04 0.08 O37 0.94 5.92 1.47 Nov 0.77 9.03 2.19 SR id 0 2.33 Dec 8.60 3.30 2.56 EO 2.08 3.65 Annual 50.41 2h? Oto 42.72 25.24 35.48 forested watershed with a quickflow re- sponse as high as Falling Rock Watershed. That watershed, at Union, South Carolina, has an 85 percent forest cover. There have not been enough years of data collection to determine any return periods on peakflows. The data presented in Table 4 represent the highest yearly peaks obtained during this study. It should be noticed that 1973, categorized as a dry year, had the lowest peak value. SUMMARY Precipitation and streamflow data were collected over a 5-year period on a small undisturbed forested watershed in the Eastern Mountain and Coalfield Region of Kentucky. Hydrologic characteristics were determined from the data pool. Such base- line hydrologic information is lacking for TABLE 4.—YEARLY MAXIMUM RATE OF FLOW (L/ SEC), FALLING Rock WATERSHED, 1972-1976 Date Flow rate 12 Apr 1972 3,375 26 Nov 1973 1,195 22 Jun 1974 3,060 25 Apr 1975 1,818 21 Mar 1976 2,999 the region. Precipitation averaged 136.07 cm for the period. Total streamflow and quickflow volumes were closely related, with most of the annual volume produced during the dormant season. Mean annual streamflow of 80.20 cm represented 59 per- cent of the mean annual precipitation, and quickflow accounted for 44 percent of the total runoff. Quickflow volumes coupled with steeply sloping flow duration curves categorize the watershed as flashy, from a hydrologic viewpoint. The potential of the region as a lumber and energy producer is enormous, but it is important that those resources be obtained without destroying watershed values. To better understand such watersheds, experi- ments must be conducted to evaluate treat- ment effects on the water resource at Robin- son Forest. LITERATURE CITED CARPENTER, S. B., AND R. L. Rumsey. 1976. Trees and shrubs of Robinson Forest, Breathitt County, Kentucky. Castanea 41:277—282. Graves, D. H., G. B. CoLttTHarp, M. C. Ham- METTER, D. C. JoRDAN, C. L. SHILLING, AND R. F. Wittwer. 1977. Remote sensing of effects of land use practices on water quality. Final Report Contract No. NAS8-31006. 159 pp. 38 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) HEWLETT, J. D., AND A. R. Hippertr. 1967. Fac- tors affecting the response of small watersheds to precipitation in humid areas. Pp. 275-290. In W. E. Sopper and H. W. Lull (Eds.). International Symposium on Forest Hydrology. Pergamon Press, New York, N.Y. 813 pp. Hipsert, A. R., anD G. B. CUNNINGHAM. 1967. Streamflow data processing opportunities and application. Pp. 725-736. In W. E. Sopper and H. W. Lull (Eds.). International Sym- posium on Forest Hydrology. Pergamon Press, New York, N.Y. 813 pp. Hurcuins, R. B., R. L. BLevins, J. D. HILL, AND E. H. Wurre. 1976. The influence of soils and microclimate on vegetation of forested slopes in eastern Kentucky. Soil Science 121 (4):234-241. KENTUCKY DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. 1975. Natural resources of Kentucky. Frankfort, Ky. 42 pp. KriEGER, R. A., R. V. CUSHMAN, AND N. D. THOMAs. 1969. Water in Kentucky. Ky. Geol. Surv., Lexington, Ky. 51 pp. Morisawa, M. 1968. Streams, their dynamics and morphology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y. 175 pp. REINHART, K. G., A. R. ESCHNER, AND G, R. TRIMBLE. 1963. Effect on streamflow of four forest practices in the mountains of West Virginia. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-1. 79 pp. Northeast For. Exp. Sta., Upper Darby, Pa, SHANHOLTz, V. O., AND J. B. Burrorp. 1967. Computer systems for reduction and analysis of hydrologic data. USDA Agric. Res. Ser. ARS-41-132. 90 pp. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1—2), 1978, 39-53 The Louisville Meteorite—Fall and Recovery GRAHAM HUNT Department of Geology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 AND THomaAs E. BOONE Rauch Planetarium, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT The Louisville Meteorite entered the earth’s atmosphere at 1530 EST, 31 January 1977 as a bolide that created a flash visible for 160 km. Sightings checked by a Brunton compass assisted in working out a possible sequence of 4 major fragmentation and/or illumination events. During those events, the fireball traveled on an azimuth of S 87 W, and counterclockwise to the earth’s revolutionary path. To date, 4 stones found within an ellipse of fall in central and western Louisville, Kentucky, have been identified as fragments of a chondritic meteorite. The ellipse is about 10 km long and 7 km wide with a long axis S 87 W, the largest stone near its southwestern apex. In falling, 4 stones struck 2 rooftops, a car top, and the window of a house. Mapping and recovery to date has yielded 1,312 g of chondritic meteorite material. The largest stone weighed 1,051 g. Microscopic investigation and chemical studies have established that the Louisville Meteorite is an ordinary chondrite with shock metamorphic banding, an olivine—hypersthene chondrite (L6 in the classification of Van Schmus and Wood 1967). INTRODUCTION From early geologic times, our earth and the other members of the solar system have been bombarded by solid bodies from space called meteorites. They may be the oldest and most primitive pieces of planetary matter that we have access to at the present time, approximately one billion years older than the oldest known earth rocks. It is important to distinguish between “finds” and “falls” in meteorite studies. Among the meteorite falls that have been observed and recovered, about 92 percent are stones, 6 percent irons, and 2 percent stony irons. Those meteorites found but not observed to fall are 35 percent stones, o9 percent irons, and 6 percent stony irons (Prior 1953). Meteorites usually are named after geo- graphic landmarks such as the nearest city or village large enough to have a post office. J. Lawrence Smith (1877) drew attention to the remarkable fact that during about 18 years in the late 1800s there had been 39 12 falls of meteorites in the United States, 8 of which had occurred over the prairie regions of the west, not far from his home in Louisville. In Kentucky, 24 meteorites have been positively identified (Mason 1962), and 5 of them are classified as falls: Bath Furnace, Cumberland Falls, Cynthi- ana, Murray, and the latest addition to the list, Louisville (Hunt 1977). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Television stations WLKY (Fran Severn), WHAS (Chuck Olmstead), and WAVE (Norm Lewis), and newspapers (The Louis- ville Times, The Courier-Journal, and the New Albany Tribune) gave the Louisville meteorite excellent “front page” coverage. Staff members Mark Webb and Martha Hays of the Rauch Planetarium aided greatly in gathering data. Barry Williams, Darren Doderer, and Danny Cain, geology students, University of Louisville, assisted in ground searches. The Hunt family, Dalyce, Freya, Shel, and Rod, participated 40 Fae. <1, Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) INDIANAPOLIS SIGHTING DATA LOUISVILLE METEORITE «<——— Direction of fireball approach /O. @ Observer location ‘SCALE: QO. 5S sO 20 3O MILES O 10 20 30 40 $50 KILOMETERS FIGURE 2) 2» 24@ Sighting data of the Louisville Meteorite showing the direction of approach of the fireball, the | location of observers, and the outer limits of audible detonation. FALL AND RECOVERY OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE—Hunt and Boone 4] LOCATION AND SIGHTING DATA LOUISVILLE METEORITE A 8 Barlow Stone AK Krill Stone H Horney Stone AW Warehouse Stone O Detonations ) © 13. Observations - (LOCATIONS) fe) 2 3 Miles | 2 4 5 Kilometers Fic. 2. Sighting data of the Louisville Meteorite showing the ellipse of fall, the flight axis, observer locations, and points of recovery of the 4 stones. in the ground search and the collection of sighting data. Louisvillians and citizens of the surrounding areas were very helpful in supplying sighting data. Mr. and Mrs. R. J. Barlow, Mrs. Krill, Mrs. Horney, and Mr. R. L. White generously made available their specimens for research purposes. Research on the meteorite was supported by the Uni- versity of Louisville. E. Jarosewich pro- vided the bulk analysis. We gratefully acknowledge the help of J. Kalliokoski and the use of the facilities of Michigan Technological University. R. _E. Folinsbee reviewed the manuscript. THe METEORITE Fall The Louisville meteorite entered the earth's atmosphere over metropolitan Louis- ville, Kentucky, at 2030 GMT (1530 EST) on 31 January 1977. The senior author in- vestigated 165 reported observations of the detonating bolide, and during the week following the fall, identified 4 widely sepa- rated individual chondrites (Hunt 1977). Various types of sighting data, as outlined on standard fireball cards, were obtained from reliable observers during the spring following the fall. Those data include: azimuths for first seen and end point, angle to horizon, estimated velocity, number and character of detonations, direction of fire- ball trajectory, the form and colors of the fireball, the length of time of observation, and the exact location of the observer. Locations of the observers are shown in Figs. 1 and 2, and their eye witness accounts are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. The bearings to the observers first sighting and 42 TABLE 1.—INFORMATION GATHERED IN INDIANA AND KENTUCKY ON THE SIGHTING OF THE FIREBALL OF THE LOUISVILLE METEORITE. OBSERVER LOCATIONS ARE FOR Fic. 1 Ot ~l 10 ll 12 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(1-2) Observer location Farm Credit Bank, Indianapolis Salem, Highway 60 I-65, ca. 30 miles N of Louisville Madison Floyds Knobs 1718 Marlow Dr, New Albany Otisco Oakwood subdivision, New Albany Prairie Village, Crestridge Dr Valley Station, Dixie Hwy & Miller Ct Holsclaw Hill, Brooks Okolona Bullitt Co. ca. 8 km from Shepherdsville Bullitt Co. south of Salt River Radcliff Radcliff Elizabethtown Hodgenville Hodgenville Wax, Grayson Co. Between Bowling Green & Park City New Haven Boston Shepherdsville Sound Nil Nil Nil Sizzling 2 explosions Nil Nil Thunder 60 sec after sighting Boom Boom Direction of flight INDIANA ENE to WSW Silvery white with multiple fragmentation N to S E to W NW falling E to W W KENTUCKY N overhead E to W E to W E to W NW overhead NW Comments on meteorite Gold sparkle tinted red, 4-5 sec observa- tion, 1515 hours Burned out before it hit ground, like flame thrower or Roman candle White to blue form with pink tail Intensely bright orange, burned out leav- ing curved trail, few seconds Bright with tail and smaller fragment falling Explosion and rumble, time delay Bright red with tail Fireball with tail, left white trail and disappeared, like sparkler leaving small | pieces Basketball-sized fireball with red_ tail, | detonation at endpoint Yellow, 3 fragments with 1 piece off each side, cone-shaped, 2 sec duration, 8,000— | 10,000 feet elevation Round, red fireball ca. 3 feet in circum- ference with red tail “about 10 feet long” Swishing sound Blue corona on fireball with bright tail, | burned out after 10 sec | Silvery, elliptical vapor trail flame, no 7 fragmentation : Yellow streak, bright explosion and dis- appeared | Ball of fire, low Reddish-yellow fragmentation at endpoint, became smaller and disappeared 2 fragments, left trail of black smoke and fire during fall Dark in front, trail of fire red—white—blue. Golden streak across sky | Fireball with orange trail, fire went out Yellow and blue, 4—5 sec lag bees! sighting and noise FALL AND RECOVERY OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE—Hunt and Boone 43 TABLE 1.—CONTINUED the end point of the fireball were measured with a Brunton compass and/or a transit at the exact spot of observation. The bear- ing lines (Fig. 2) were plotted with a protractor on a detailed street map of the city showing the exact locations of all observations. The end result of such a survey can be used to establish the points formerly occupied by the fireball (Folins- bee and Bayrock 1964). The presence of the pronounced clustering of sightings at 4 widely separated locations strongly sup- ports the sound data of at least 4 major detonations (Figs. 2, 3). Spatial relationships of the various ob- servers (35) and the direction of fireball approach, approximately S 87 W (Fig. 1), and the descriptions (Table 1) indicate that the outer limits of the reliable sightings are -at about a 160-km radius from Louisville (Observer No. 1 in Indianapolis to the north; Observers Nos. 21, 34, and 35 to the south and southeast, and Observer No. 33 to the east). The audible outer limits of the detonations appear to be about 50 km from Louisville. Because the Louisville meteor Direction Observer location Sound of flight Comments on meteorite 25 10 km east of Nil E to W Shining in front with flames coming from Taylorsville back 26 Pewee Valley Boom E to W Clear color with tail 27 Oldham Co. between Overhead One loud explosion from directly over- Crestwood and boom head Ballardsville q/ 28 Fox Harbor, Pros- Boom-sizzle NE to SW Ball of fire, 500-1,000 feet high pect Hwy 42 29 Frankfort Nil W Ball of fire with orange and yellow tail 30 Lexington E to W Ball of fire with tail, silver 31 Lexington, IBM Nil NE to W Reddish-orange, very bright with trailing fire giving off objects, multiple frag- mentation 32 Lexington (SW) Nil W Grapefruit-sized, 2-2.5 sec, brighter than sun, white with yellow tail 33 E of Winchester on Nil W Reddish-orange with tail, 1532 hours Mountain Pkwy 34 Somerset Nil Light flashing through sky at 1530 hours, shooting star 35 Somerset Nil E Red, blue trail fell during the daylight hours on a very clear, sunny, and cold day (-5.5C), some eye witness accounts of the fall were very descriptive. Observer No. 12 (Fig. 1) at a distance of 16 km reported, “A round red fireball about 3 feet in circumference with a fiery red tail about 10 to 12 feet long, moving from east to west, with no noise, lower than a plane would be, and then a boom.” Ob- server No. 15 at a distance of 50 km re- ported, “It was a silvery, elliptically shaped vapor trail with flame, no noise.” Observer No. 18 at a distance of 76 km reported, “A reddish-yellow fireball that became smaller, spitting particles, and then disappeared.” Observer No. 19 at a distance of 60 km reported, “My father and I saw the mete- orite while cutting wood about a mile south of Lincoln’s birthplace in Hodgenville, Ken- tucky. My father saw one piece fall off first and then told me to look, and we both saw a second piece fall off. It left a trail of black smoke. They looked like fire as they fell. It was moving very fast, but we didn’t hear the boom.” Observer No. 20 at a 44 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE 2.—REPORTS ON FIREBALL OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE, 31 JANUARY 1977, BY OBSERVERS IN LOUIS- VILLE, KENTUCKY. SIGHTINGS ARE AZIMUTHS AT FIRST AND LAST OBSERVATION. FIGURES IN PARENTHESES ARE MEASURED ALTITUDES. OBSERVER LOCATIONS ARE FOR Fic. 2 Sighting —— Duration Observer location First Last (sec) Comments 1 4th & Liberty Sts N25E NW 65 3 Stream of fire; horizontal Roman candle; (65>) black object falling at 1,000-ft elevation; sounded like rocket fire 2 Browns Lane & N 25 W N 45 W 2-3 Blue-orange tail; slope >45°; sizzling hiss Beargrass Creek (50°) (40°) ca. 120 sec prior to large boom; disappeared — after 30-45 sec Bellarmine College N 42 E N13 W 5 Fireball with orange tail; fragmentation, © oy) (24°) (36° ) minor slope; sonic boom after 30-60 sec; like airplane on fire | 4 27th floor, 5th & N 90E Overhead 2 White center with trailing yellow edges; 1 _ Main Sts ( Dike!) fireball maybe splitting; estimated 500- 1,000 ft above tower 5 Preston & Eastern N50 E N 45 W few White nucleus with yellow tail; black smoke; Pkwy (40°) (55°) 3 faint booms ca. 40 sec after first sighting; downward slope; like flag flapping in wind 6 Outer Loop & NI8E N 45 W 5 Reddish with sparks; roll of firecrackers Smyrna Rd (21=95°)~!) (19°) 7 6100 Campground Rd N43E N33 E few Very bright explosion; bright orange and CI92327 = (16"35) yellow; many fragments burned out at 2,000 ft; steep slope 8 4562 Melton Ave N4A7E N15 W few __ Rolling thunder and boom 30 sec after first (22) (14°) seen; 1 large fireball with orange tail and sparks; 3 explosion-like events, 1 ca. N 25 E — large piece (ca. 1% of original) shot upward, 2nd halfway on trajectory, 3rd was shower > at endpoint | 9 3750 Crittenden Dr EtoNE N30W 5 White with 2 streaks for 4 sec; completely Cape) (45°) extinguished white flame; sound like | welder’s torch and rolling thunder after 10. sec 10 Bremmer Way & N 65 E N 37 W few ‘Very bright with orange tail; last noise about — Ehrler Dr (372) (307) 60 sec after first seen | 11 Washington & Ohio NT75E Obstructed 4 White with orange tail; fragmentation at | Sts C2gen (45°) endpoint; “crack” when exploded | 12 8th & Broadway N N 75 W 4 Arc of welder’s blowtorch; bright white with | Gira) (2725) darker endpoints of cylindrical fireball; }) fragmentation (3) pieces fell N of Broad- way at endpoint; static sound like rushing artillery shell overhead 60 sec after first seen; vanished then reappeared $3! 442358. 3rd St S 80 W S 65 W few Level flight of white to red fireball (maybe J. 10th floor (5°) (52) fragment reported in Lake Dreamland area but not recovered ); sound before sighting 14 25th & Lee Sts N 30-45 W few White streak; boom 30 sec after first seen; ; (50° ) other explosions i § 15 1130 St. Michael St N40E N 70 W 2 Blue—white with orange tail; no fragmenta-§- (20°) (20°) tion; huge boom ca. 60 sec after first seen; floor of house shaking - FALL AND RECOVERY OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE—Hunt and Boone 45 TABLE 2.—CONTINUED Sighting Observer location First Last 16 3901 Taylor Blvd N25E (30° ) 17 7th & Berry Sts N 50-65 W N75 W (45° ) (40° ) 18 1821 Cypress St N 80 E NW (25°) 19 530 Camden N45 E N 10 W (44°) (52°) 20 1123 Standiford Lane N N5 W (50° ) (50°) 21 4th & York Sts N 62 E N 55 W (35° ) 22 Floyd & Walnut Sts N50E NSE (50° ) (55°) distance of 104 km reported, “It was dark _ in front, coming from the east, red—white— _ blue with a trail of fire.” Observer No. 29 _ at a distance of 64 km reported, “It was a ball of fire with tail, some orange and yellow and no noise.” Observer No. 30 at a distance of 110 km reported, “It looked like a ball of fire, silverish colors with a tail, and was moving very fast.” Observer No. 31 at a distance of 110 km reported, “A reddish orange, large and very bright meteor, trail- ing fire tail, giving off small objects, travel- ling westerly with a high rate of speed.” Observer No. 32 at a distance of about 110 km reported, “It is brighter than the sun, moving in the same direction he was, low and fast, for about 2 seconds, appeared to be the size of a grapefruit, white with yellow tail, and horizontal flight.” Observer No. 34 at a distance of 165 km reported, “A light flashing down through the sky. My first comment was I have never seen a shooting star at daytime before. My second comment was that it must be a piece of space junk burning up as it reentered the atmosphere. Would it be possible to see it this far away?” An observation at a distance of 190 km (near the Kentucky—Tennessee Duration (sec) Comments 2 White, very bright orange tail; no fragmen- tation; coneshaped; at least 3 booms, last 30—45 sec after first seen 2 White, like 2 fragments, small one preceding large one, both conical; largest boom like rumbling thunder few Fireball with yellowish parts and tail; 2 pieces, smaller one following; large boom 2-3 White-yellow like flare gun; 2 fragments, smaller preceding; popping to fizzling 2 White flash with trail; noise continuous; no sound at endpoint 3 White with red tail; horizontal cone ca. size of quarter 2 Pink nucleus with white exterior and gray tail; shaped like tennis ball; explosion at endpoint with 2 major fragments and tail of showers border at Interstate 65) appears to be the outer limit of sighting. The following are some of the more important eyewitness accounts and are presented in chronological order of data gathering (Fig. 2). Observer No. 4 in his office window, at the 27th floor of the First National Tower at Fifth and Main Streets, Louisville, pro- vided an excellent head-on report of the fireball passing within an estimated few hundred feet of the window. “It had a very white center, with a pale yellow edge, and very little tail was visible from this position.” Observer No. 5 reported, “I walked a few steps upon entering the parking lot, and heard a flapping sound coming from the sky. I use the word flapping sound _ be- cause the sound reminded me of a flag being whipped about by the wind. I looked up and saw a white, yellow-tinged fireball with a short tail, and some whisps of black smoke trailing it.” Observer No. 6 gave the following ac- count of the fireball: “It was traveling in a northwesterly direction, first observed at approximately 25 to 30 degrees up in the sky, visible long enough to see it was a red 46 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) KILOMETERS DETONATION ALTITUDE ABOVE GROUND LEVEL IN FEET 7© OBSERVER SIGHTING PROFILE OF THE PATH OF THE LOUISVILLE BOLIDE 8 L\ RECOVERED STONE SHOCK WAVE 10 MOST SEVERE Iz DISTANCE ALONG AXIS OF TRAJECTORY IN MILES Fic. 3. Profile of the path of the Louisville Meteorite. ball with sparks tapering out into a tail. Then it disappeared. Just a very short time after, the sound was like a roll of firecrackers exploding in about the same spot.” Observer No. 8 sighted a white fireball with a red tail that appeared to undergo 3 main fragmentation events over a ground distance along the axis of the trajectory of about 18 km, suggesting a slope of about 34°, and a velocity of about 3 km/sec near the end point. He noticed that, “At the point of the first fragmentation event, about one-third of the total mass shot upward and another blast occurred about half way along the slope with a final shower at the end point of the sighting.” One of the best descriptions of entry came from a geology student, Darren Doderer, working in the basement of the library of the University of Louisville who reported, “At 3:30 p.m. Monday, the 3lst of January, I was sitting at a desk studying, and looking out the north-facing window of the library when I first noticed the meteor in a direc- tion just north of east and at an altitude of about 30°. My initial impression was that the meteor was actually some type of fire- _ work shot into the sky from the field be- | tween the Gym and Threlkeld Hall. When | I realized that it was not falling back to | earth, but was instead moving laterally | across the sky, I followed its course with closer attention. At no time did the object ever appear to grow larger as if it were falling towards the earth. The size remained | uniform (roughly the size of a softball at a | short distance), even though I was visually | aware of the lack of depth perception. Its | speed was noticeably slow, calculated ve-_ locity at 1 to 2 miles per second near the end point, it remained within my vision for 7 to 10 seconds. The color was white and FALL AND RECOVERY OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE—Hunt and Boone 47 its shape was that of a compressed cone or funnel with the sharp end pointed away from the direction of travel. Both of those properties remained constant while the object was within my vision. The object’s path took it over the western end of the library, and out of my field of vision. About a minute and a half later I heard a large explosion, comparable to explosions pro- duced by the artillery at Ft. Knox.” Interpretation and Reconstruction of Sighting Data Sighting directions, locations of detona- tions, fall area, and the area of most severe ground shock on the basis of selected field interviews are shown in Fig. 3. The most reliable observers were those closest to the path, and Observer Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12, 15, 21, and 22 provided most of the details in identifying the profile. The ap- parent angle of descent was about 35° as reported by Observer Nos. 2 and 8. Ob- server No. 8, an amateur astronomer wit- nessed most of the trajectory and fragmen- tation events. Apparently, there were few observers who actually witnessed the entire sequence of events from the first illumina- tion or detonation up to the end point or final disappearance of the fireball. The largest number of observations were made by those south of the fireball trajectory, and who did not have to face the glare of the sun’s rays. Apparently, the bolide created its initial bright flare above the observers east of St. Matthews. Observer Nos. 6, 8, 9, 10 (Figs. 2,3) first noticed the bolide at an altitude of about 9 km. This calculation of altitude of first disruption is somewhat lower than the “normal” altitudes of 12 to 30 km as reported by Krinov (1960) and the altitudes near 30 km for Canadian chondritic mete- orites (Folinsbee et al. 1969). Because the detonation of a bolide is so spectacular, one would assume that the trajectory can be pinpointed in angle and direction by cross sightings. Plots of altitudes of the moving bolide were calculated by multiplying the tangent of the vertical angle times the ground distance (as computed from the site of the observers ). After the first illumination, the main body appeared to continue on essentially a course of about S 87 W. The sighting and sound data suggest that a second major detonation took place about 3 km over the heads of the people in the St. Matthews area, in- cluding the senior authors house. The atmospheric shock wave in that area ap- pears to be the most severe, rattling win- dows, knocking pictures off walls, and causing minor damage to a chimney. The angle of descent changed markedly subsequent to the second detonation (Ob- server Nos. 2, 8), and the body took on a more level flight. A third detonation ap- parently occurred above the intersection of Interstate 65 and Main Street, Louis- ville, sending fragments directly at the city (Observer Nos. 4, 8, 22). It is tempting to speculate that 3 of the 4 recovered stones were the result of that detonation. It is noticed that the slope should become shal- lower as the small mass reacts to the shock disturbance of the air, implying fragmenta- tion of the meteorite (Hellyer 1969). The final and fourth detonation appar- ently occurred above the intersection of 45th Street and Broadway, 2 of the busiest streets in western Louisville. That detona- tion was witnessed by Observer Nos. 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, and 14 (Fig. 2). The Barlow stone was recovered in that area. A best fit interpretation and reconstruc- tion of the fireball’s trajectory suggests that the meteoroid attained a fairly level flight at an altitude of about 2 km between the last 3 detonation points subsequent to under- going a very steep slope of about 35°. Estimates of the duration of the fireball vary from about 2 to 6 sec indicating a very slow velocity of about 2 km/sec along the last 20 km of its trajectory. Observer No. 6 noted a 5-sec duration over about 19 km, Observer No. 9 gave 6 sec for 19 km, and Observer No. 12 gave the length of time the fireball was in sight as 4 sec for 5 km near the point of final disappearance of the fireball. 48 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) Sound Data Detonations accompanying the Louisville fireball were heard throughout the fall area, but the audible limit was greatest to the southeast, probably as a result of the 90- knot winds from the northwest (Table 3). Four major detonations were reported, but their number and character varied from one observer to another depending largely on location. In the area of first detonation to the area of second detonation, the initial entry of the meteor probably produced the largest shock wave (similar to sonic boom), possibly due to the highest velocity through the air attained by the original body. Sounds heard by observers varied from one location to another. Observers closest to the path described a hissing to a sizzling sound. Other close-in descriptions included: sounds resembling roman candles, artillery shells, welder’s blow torch, rushing winds, thunder rumblings, roll of firecrackers, and rocket fire. One observer (No. 5, Fig. 2) suggested that the sound was much like a flag “flap- ping in the wind.” The time interval of 60 sec between first seen and the first sound arrivals suggests that the sound waves traveling at about 0.3 km/sec originated at an altitude of about 9km. Therefore, the sound data agree quite favorably with the sighting data. Many observers used the word sonic boom for a description of the sounds that they heard. Apparently, sonic booms may be produced when the bunching of the aerodynamic disturbances that the meteorite creates is at the same speed of the meteorite (Warren 1977). Such aerodynamic disturbances will travel out in all directions, and the observer will notice the booms whenever the com- ponent of the velocity of the meteorite towards him is equal to the speed of sound. Color and Form Analyses of the information from the different observers indicate that the bolide was blue-white, detonated with flashes of white light, traveled as a reddish fireball, and became black when it reached terminal velocity as the fragment falls almost ver- TABLE 3.—NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE REPORT FROM STANDIFORD FIELD, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY, 31 January 1977. CLEAR, WIND FROM WEST AT 10 MILES/HOUR, TEMPERATURE 22 F, RELATIVE HU- MipITy 51%. WHIND VELOCITIES FROM NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE Altitude Speed Direction ( feet ) (knots ) (from ) 34,000 80 W 270° 24,000 90 NW 290° 16,000 60 NW 300° ~ 14,000 50 NW 300° 9,000 40 NW 300° 5,000 35 NW 390° Surface boundary 2,000 30 W 270° tically to the earth. Air resistance slows down most meteorites to a uniform terminal velocity about 100-300 m/sec (Krinov 1960). Apparently, the Louisville fireball flared a very bright blue-white to silvery color at speeds where the kinetic energy per ounce was enormous. That energy would be dissipated within a very few seconds by pushing the air aside and heating the sur- face of the meteoroid. This produced a glowing tail of air behind with some of the ablated material of the meteroid. A color change from white to red of the detonated fragment apparently took place as the frag- ment approached ground level (Folinsbee and Bayrock 1961). Observers described various shapes for the bolide depending on what part of the © fall witnessed, detonation, level flight, or | the approach to ground level of a particular _ meteorite. Observer No. 12 (Fig. 2) sug- gested that the bolide was cylindrical in © outline and resembled an artillery shell that he observed during his army career. During the higher atmospheric altitudes, the bolide | was described in size and shape as a grape- | fruit, tennis ball, cone shaped, or a fireball. Recovery The total amount of Louisville meteorite | material that reached the ground is not known. Some may still be lodged in some- FALL AND RECOVERY OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE—Hunt and Boone 49 one’s roof, or perhaps be lost at the bottom of the Ohio River. Approximately 25 per- cent of the ellipse (Fig. 2) is the Ohio River, that was frozen over at the time of fall. Most of the likely places of thin ice area were investigated because some mete- orite recoveries have been made from lake ice and specimens that may still be found would change the fall area. From 1 February to 30 March 1977, the senior author, students, and others con- ducted ground searches. Approximately 2,560 man-kilometers were used in checking out possible fall areas where there was a lead to a possible find. Ground searches were complicated in the heavily populated area of western Louisville by the improbable task of checking out all the roof tops in the area. Most public property in the western end of Louisville including Shawnee Park, Shawnee Golf Course, Chickasaw Park, and others were investigated. In some cases, the search party was enlarged by the owners and occupants of the search area. Permis- sion to conduct ground search was obtained from various residents of Indiana. The grounds of the Gallagher Plant of Public Service Indiana, on line with the path of the fireball, were searched. The open areas along the River Road on the western bank of the Ohio River were also traversed on foot, but to no avail. Several cross sightings in the southwestern and northeastern parts of the map area (Fig. 2) prompted numerous empty-handed recovery efforts. A systematic sweep of the area adjacent to the grounds of Stauffers Chemical Plant and the area to the north- east of the Barlow residence proved un- successful. Observer Nos. 7 and 12 were convinced that recoveries were possible at the point near the intersection of their cross sightings. Some of the local people were shown the meteorite and encouraged to do some searching. However, the “front page coverage’ of the press, television, and radio probably was responsible for the recovery of the 4 stones. Approximately 200 possible meteorite specimens were turned in for identification, but no new recoveries were made after the first week. To date, 4 widely separated stones of the Louisville meteorite with a total weight of 1,312 g have been recovered (Figs. 2, 3, Table 4). The first stone recovered was a 1,051-¢ piece from the roof of the residence of Mr. and Mrs. Robert Barlow at 4509 Greenwood Avenue, Louisville. Mrs. Barlow reported that she had heard the meteorite hit the roof of her house after hearing a large explosion. She remarked that, “the sonic boom sounded like thunder, and the second noise sounded like maybe some ice had fallen.” When her husband came home, he noticed a hole about 1 m across in the roof, and imme- diately called the roofer who realized the scientific importance of the fall by notifying the manager of Television Channel 32, Louisville, that he believed the roof he had repaired had been damaged by a meteorite. The authors were called in at this time to identify the meteorite, inspect the damage at the Barlow residence, and to look for any other fragments. The stone had lodged itself in the roof (shingles covering 7.5-cm by 2.6-m boards), allowing the exterior sur- face of the stone to pick up some tar from the shingles. A shock wave from the impact apparently had penetrated about a meter of attic space and then registered its force on the ceiling of an upstairs closet by knock- ing down a 100-cm? slab of plaster. The Rauch Planetarium received a tele- phone call from Mrs. Margaret Krill of 906 Ellison, Louisville, and she reported that a stone (36.5 g) had broken her window at about the same time that she heard a loud boom overhead. Hunt identified the stone as being part of the same Louisville mete- orite. The third recovered stone was found on top of a car belonging to Mrs. Marcella Horney parked at 100 East Liberty Street, Louisville. Apparently the stone caved in the car roof and then bounced to the hood of a nearby car. The stone was identified by Hunt at the Rauch Planetarium. The fourth meteorite apparently had knocked a 5-inch hole in the roof of the R. L. White warehouse at 1023 West Main Street, Louisville. It lay unnoticed on the Trans. 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Positive identification of the stone was made by Hunt. Morphology and Macrostructure All stones of the Louisville meteorite have a partial fusion crust, are dull grey-green in color on a freshly broken surface, are aero- dynamically rounded; magnetic, very hard, and banded in part. Because the meteorite was recovered soon after the fall, the ex- terior morphology is still characterized by flight markings. The fusion crust that forms during flight is black, vesicular, and up to several millimeters thick. The thinner crusts may have formed in the breaking period of flight. The scattered accumulations of fusion crust over most of the exterior sug- gests that each stone was once part of a larger mass that tumbled in flight. Because of the rounded nature of the stones, it would appear that a significant amount of ablation or rounding took place during oriented flight. All the stones have surfaces that look like freshly broken rock. This suggests that each recovered stone represents material that broke away from a much larger piece late in atmospheric flight, possibly at the final end point of the fireball. It is noted that the Louisville meteorite may have undergone a certain degree of shock metamorphism as indicated by the dark bands forming up to 25 percent of the meteorite. Mason (1966) and others have suggested the light and dark color variation may be explained by metamorphic processes acting on chondritic material. The dark bands are characterized by considerable “veining” of the metallic minerals and brec- cias. The Warehouse stone shows a fine network of cracks or lineated voids that may be external expressions that have pene- trated into the interior of the stone (Clarke et al. 1971) or may represent the action of the removal of softer parts of the stone at the time of detonation. In thin section, the Barlow stone shows some obliteration of the primary textures, that is, there appears to be a general merg- A hi CHE, Fic. 4. The Krill Stone of the Louisville Meteorite showing the partial fusion crust. ing of the matrix and the chondrules. The chondrules appear deformed because of their elliptically shaped outline. Some are partially disrupted, and undulose extinction is common. Chondrules of barred olivine and pyroxene are diffuse in part, but most are recognizable. They show a limited range of radii within the thin section and the average diameter of the chondrules is about 1 mm. Other types of chondrules include radiating, monomineralic, and rhombic py- roxene types. Lithic fragments of chon- drules are present. The Krill stone (Fig. 4) shows partial fusion crust and some veining. A _ thin section of the Barlow stone (Fig. 5) con- tains (a) a disrupted chondrule, and (b) a chondrule merged with the matrix. Further Investigation The largest recovered stone of 1,051 g, referred to as the Barlow stone, reached the Smithsonian Institution Division of Mete- orites on Friday, 4 February 1977. The information of the recovery was given to the staff of the Scientific Event Alert Net- work (SEAN 2:14). A 107-g slice was cut at the Smithsonian for mineralogical and chemical investigations after an initial slice 52 TRANS. he ee Fic. 5. Photomicrographs of a thin section of the Barlow Stone showing (a) a disrupted chrondrule and (b) a chondrule merging with the matrix. The scale bar in each photomicrograph is 1 mm. of about 50 g was cut by the authors at the University of Louisville. The bulk chemical analysis by Eugene Jarosewich of the light portion of the Barlow stone is given in Table 5. The chemical data (Fe/SiOz., Fe°/Fe, and SiOe/MgO ratios) and petrologic data indicate that the Louisville meteorite is an olivine— hypersthene chondrite (L6 in the classifica- tion of Van Schmus and Wood 1967). After the 2 slices of 50 g and 107 g were removed from the Barlow stone, the butt piece was flown to L. Rancitelli of Batelle Northwest, Richland, Washington, for the nondestructive measurements of rapidly decaying radionuclides. This may be one of the fastest times on record for a meteorite to undergo radioactive counting subsequent KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(1-2) TABLE 5.—CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LOUISVILLE METEORITE, USNM 5872 (LIGHT). ANALYST: EUGENE JAROSEWICH, DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL SCIENCES, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, EC: Chemical Jo Fe Bo Ni 1:33 Co 0.06 S (1.76) FeS 4.83 SiO, 40.73 TiO: Ota Al-Os 2.22. Cr2Oz 0:55 FeO 15.09 MnO 0.36 MgO 25.45 CaO 1.80 NazO 0.96 K:O 0.11 P.O; 0.19 H:O(-+) 0:12, H:.O(—) 0.03 C Total 99.71 Total Fe 20.65 to a fall. The wholebody counting of the very short half-lives gives information on cosmic radiation that will complement measurements made in other similar inves- tigations. Preliminary data of this type suggest that the entire original Louisville body was 10 to 100 times as large-as its recovered pieces. Specimen material of the meteorite was made available for measurements on argon isotopes and other rare gases at the Depart- ment of Earth Sciences, State University of New York, Stony Brook. Those measure- ments may also give some information on the preatmospheric size of the body. Radio- metric ages of both the light- and dark- colored portions of the meteorite suggest that the time of shock metamorphism was several million years ago (private communi- cation). FALL AND RECOVERY OF LOUISVILLE METEORITE—Hunt and Boone 53 LITERATURE CITED CLARKE, R. S., E. JAROSEWICH, AND J. NELEN. 1971. The Lost City, Oklahoma, Meteorite: an introduction to its laboratory investigation and comparisons with Pribram and Ucera. J. Geophys. Res. 76:4135-—4143. FouinsBEE, R. E., AND L. A. BAyrockx. 1961. The Bruderhein meteorite—fall and recovery. J. Roy. Astro. Soc. Can. 55:218—228. , AND 1964. The Peace River Meteorite: fall and recovery. J. Roy. Astro. Soc. Can. 58:109-124. FOoLINSBEE, R., L. BAyRock, G. CUMMING, AND D. SmirH. 1969. Vilna meteorite—camera, visual, seismic and analytic records. J. Roy. Astro. Soc. Can. 63:61—86. HeEtityer, B. 1969. Statistics of Meteor Falls. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 7:149-150. Hunt, G. 1977. Louisville Meteorite, ordinary chondrite L6 with shock metamorphic textures. Amer. Astron. Soc. Bull. 9:506. Krinov, E. L. 1960. Principles of Meteorites. Pergamon Press, New York, N.Y., 535 pp. (Russian original published in 1955). Mason, B. 1962. Meteorites. J. Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. 274 pp. 1966. The enstatite chondrites. Geo- chim. Cosmochim. Acta 30:23-39. Prior, G. 1953. Catalogue of meteorites. 2nd ed., rev. by M. H. Hey. London: British Museum. SCIENTIFIC EVENT ALERT NETWORK BULLETIN. 1977. Smithsonian Institution 2(1):14. SmitH, J. L. 1877. Description of meteoric stones: Cynthiana, Kentucky meteorite. Amer. J. Sci. Third Series XIV :224—229. VAN ScumMus, W. R., AND J. A. Woop. 1967. A chemical—petrologic classification for the chondritic meteorites. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 31:747-765. WarrREN, C.H.E. 1977. Phys. 18:183-—192. Sonic bangs. Contemp. Trans, Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1—2), 1978, 54-59 Sociology and Policy: The Clark Maritime Centre Environmental Impact Assessment’ Joun A. BuscH Department of Sociology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 INTRODUCTION Can research and opinion of sociologists influence governmental policy and decision making? One possible avenue for such in- fluence is the Environmental Impact State- ment (EIS). The potential for influence through that channel would appear great, although it is as yet ill defined and beset with problems. This paper attempts to raise some questions that must be answered eventually, and to point to some problems that must be solved concerning the socio- logical aspects of impact statements, using a specific example, The Clark Maritime Centre. Issues to be addressed include (1) near-site surveys, (2) the community leaders survey and quantification, and (3) vested interests of the coordinators of Environ- mental Impact Assessments (ETJA’s). The distinction between an Environmen- tal Impact Assessment and an Environ- mental Impact Statement is, I believe, a very important one, the implications of which will be taken up further on. At this point, it will be sufficient to say that when a decision is made that a formal Environ- mental Impact Statement is needed, it is supposed to be based on the gathering and analysis of appropriate data, termed the Environmental Impact Assessment (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1974). The fed- eral agency responsible for producing an Environmental Impact Statement under the National Environmental Protection Act of 1969 either conducts the assessment itself or contracts for some reliable agency to do it. The Environmental Impact Statement is then written from the assessment, a fact that *Presented at the North Central Sociological Association Annual Meeting 6-8 May 1976, The Galt House, Louisville, Kentucky. 34 gives the federal agency a means of con- trolling what is finally presented. In the spring of 1975, I directed 3 surveys as part of an Environmental Impact State- ment for a proposed riverport and industrial park on the Ohio River in Clark County, Indiana, the Clark Maritime Centre. The first, or near-site survey, was based on 15- to 20-min interviews with residents of 301 households near the proposed site. For the second, or on-site survey, a longer period was spent with residents of 9 of the 16 households on the proposed project site. The third survey used mail questionnaires sent to 34 persons in Indiana and Kentucky who had been nominated as _ influential residents of the region. NEAR-SITE SURVEYS The sociological investigation for that statement was unusual in that a survey of opinion toward the project was made for the population living near but not on the site, as well as for those few on-site resi- dents and a small number of local influen- tial persons. Such a nontraditional approach provides reactions of a larger segment of the population near the proposed project, rather than just of those who live on the site itself. The community attitudes toward a proposed project may or may not be con- sistent with those of the on-site residents who must give up their homes, but once such data are gathered, they demand con- sideration. The important policy question raised by this procedure concerns just how much weight should those community opinions carry in determining the desir- ability of a project. Of course, the basis of opinion can vary considerably from one respondent to an- other, and from one study to another. Public SOCIOLOGY IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT information and commentary prior to the survey may be lacking or abundant, but usually are biased. In the present near-site survey, respondents had some knowledge of the proposed riverport, but were essentially unaware that about 800 adjacent acres would be devoted to an industrial park. We showed our respondents a map of the im- mediate area and provided a short descrip- tion of the proposed facilities. That and other techniques could be employed to help mitigate any presurvey publicity or pro- paganda. If the respondents are adequately informed, a stronger argument can be made that their opinions should carry significant weight, but how much weight relative to physical and biological impacts of the pro- posed project remains an open and difficult question. The sample survey is one thing many sociologists are well trained to do. Should such surveys become typically incorporated into Environmental Impact Statements, it is likely that sociologists would be called upon to conduct them, and would pressure them to consider more earnestly the weighting problem. THE ComMMUNITY LEADERS SURVEY AND QUANTIFICATION The very existence of the Environmental Impact Statement requirement, mandated by the National Environmental Protection Act of 1969, is an indication of an emerging public concern for the quality of the human environment and the importance of those factors that must, by law, be addressed (Council on Environmental Quality 1973, 1974). The surveys of the on-site residents, near-site residents, and community leaders can all be sources of evidence that is either typically overlooked in the standard Envi- ronmental Impact Statement or is treated as peculiar to a particular instance. Perhaps the best example is the Community Leaders Survey. Community leaders usually are above average in intelligence, educational level, and knowledge of the inner workings of the community and its problems. In the case of the Clark Maritime Centre, as in most Environmental Impact Statements, Busch Ul Ol community leaders were not sampled to determine the proportions holding various opinions, but to obtain as wide a variety of opinion as possible. Technical problems of sampling, as well as limitations of time and budget, force the researcher to delimit the near-site survey so that many individuals with an interest in the outcome of the proj- ect, could not be sampled. Moreover, their opinions may be quite different from those of people nearer the proposed project site. The community leaders survey serves to recover some of that information, at least qualitatively, if not in a form amenable to quantification. How can these more elabo- rate and well thought out concerns of com- munity leaders be entered into an Environ- mental Impact Statement, even though they may not be “quantifiable?’ How much weight should they carry relative to the other surveys and relative to the massive amount of social indicator data, including archival material, that is quantifiable but often only crudely interpretable? The well thought out concerns of the community leaders can be entered into the Environmental Impact Statement by mak- ing a detailed list of all issues pro and con that the survey director (not the Environ- mental Impact Assessment director) judges as (1) potentially significant additions to the issues already being addressed by the Environmental Impact Assessment and (2) reflections of a trend of feeling in the popu- lation in a somewhat larger area than the near- or on-site populations. Both points are pertinent to the case of the Clark Mari- time Centre. For the Clark project, both the on-site and near-site surveys were con- ducted solely in Indiana, while the com- munity leaders survey encompassed the Greater Louisville region, thus including sentiment on the Kentucky side of the river. This latter survey revealed some concern for the status of Six Mile Island, immedi- ately adjacent to the project and owned by Kentucky. Furthermore, there was a notice- able concern over property values on the Kentucky side of the river. Of course, many comments were made in support of the project. A few negative comments empha- 56 Trans. KENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE ]1.—PERCENTAGE OF SPACE DEVOTED TO SE- LECTED SOCIOLOGICAL TOPICS LISTED UNDER “SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS” IN THE CLARK MARITIME CEN- TRE FINAL DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATE- MENT Topic Total Population trends 27.8 Housing characteristics 19.0 Recreation 15.9 Public facilities and aesthetics 17 Near-site survey 1:0 On-site survey 4.0 Community leaders survey 1.6 Total* 100 1 The total reflects only those topics im the tables. size the usefulness of the community leaders survey as it draws from a wider geographic area and brings to light issues missed by the other surveys. The question of weighting the community leaders survey relative to the other surveys and other quantifiable archival data, pre- sented itself in the Clark project. There was no computational decision strategy or any guidelines for a judgemental strategy for those contingencies. As it turned out, the social impact of the project in the Final Draft of the Clark Maritime Environmental Impact Statement (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1975) was largely confined to population trends and housing character- istics, etc. in the area (with very little inter- pretation of the relevance of this informa- tion to the proposed facilities). In the 2 important chapters, Environmental Setting Without the Project and Environmental Impact of the Proposed Action, there was a marked imbalance between data and interpretation, coupled with the imbalance given to archival data versus the attitudinal data including the community leaders survey (Table 1). At least 2 possible ex- planations for such imbalances, suggest themselves: (1) when data are quantified (especially when elaborated by charts or tables) they tend to take on an aura of validity and importance that may be mis- leading for the issue at hand. If the relevant data are reported but not interpreted, they are, at best, mere padding and, at worst, a token use of sociology on nonsensitive issues to avoid its use on sensitive issues; and (2) perhaps in the confusion of trying to decide how to present the opinions of the com- munity leaders, it becomes easiest to classify it into a few very large categories, con- sequently rendering it useless. This is a more benign cause, but has equally un- desirable effects. VESTED INTERESTS OF COORDINATORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL Impact ASSESSMENTS A possible explanation of the imbalance in the presentation of different kinds of data revolves around the vested interests of the coordinators of the Environmental Impact Assessment. For example, if an ~ engineering firm that hopes eventually to build the project is selected to conduct the assessment, there is a marked conflict of interest. That conflict would exist even if most of the research were conducted by subcontractors working under the direction of the firm with the vested interest. In the case of the Clark project, the community leaders survey offers a concrete example. In surveying community leaders, we came across facts and concerns peculiar to the project at hand that were not addressed elsewhere in the Environmental Impact Assessment. Some of those issues were somewhat sensitive, and were effectively ignored in the First Draft of the Environ- mental Impact Assessment by categorizing them as opposition “based on recreational, environmental, aesthetic and economic rea- sons,” and giving 6 illustrations of “typical concerns.” The following are examples that perhaps should have been included as addi- tions to issues raised elsewhere, either in the sense of not having been mentioned at all or as having been mentioned so briefly as to have missed the import of the issue for the project. Two that favor the pro- posed facilities were: (1) the facilities as planned would localize industrial develop- ment, and, (2) the area presently lacks sufficient industry to support required governmental services and consequently SOCIOLOGY IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT—Busch 57 such facilities would be desirable. In op- position to the proposed facilities were: (1) the fact that a community organization in Kentucky had gone to considerable lengths (including obtaining a grant from the U.S. Department of the Interior) to purchase and seek gifts of land to create a park along the river that would lose some of this scenic value if the riverport were built across from it, and (2) pleasure boating is as important to the local economy as the proposed Mari- time Centre and business from pleasure boaters would decrease if the proposed facilities were built. The point should be made that just because a respondent makes an assertion, that assertion is not necessarily valid and such a disclaimer should be included in each Environmental Impact Statement. Nevertheless, once the assertion is made and the issue is out in the open it can be investigated. This certainly is the value of the Community Leaders Survey. The ques- tion of who should investigate issues raised in the Community Leaders Survey that are not being addressed elsewhere has not been considered by those who have had the responsibility of preparing Environmental Impact Assessments or Environmental Im- pact Statements. The questions raised for the influence of sociology on policy include: (1) is mere lip service given to sociological analyses?, and (2) what is to prevent dif- ferential emphases on those areas of the analysis that reflect positively on the project from those that do not or vice versa? If there are vested interests in the direc- torship, and should one of the surveys oppose one of those interests, the influence of that survey can be negated by mention- ing it only superficially and by concentrat- ing on more favorable findings. That devious practice would be less likely to succeed if there were guidelines for presen- tation of data and for interpretation of each kind of survey. The need for guidelines seems particularly urgent in the community leaders survey. When the data oppose the vested interests, there may be a temptation to present the findings in such a form as to make them meaningless. If the federal agency responsible for the preparation of the Environmental Impact Statement has no such guidelines, and its personnel are sufficiently overworked with other matters, they may find it easy to accept uncritically the judgment presented in the assessment. CONCLUSIONS At base, the issues raised here and the call for guidelines reveal that the decision making procedures in the Environmental Impact Statement are grossly underdevel- oped. A society in which some important decisions are made solely on the basis of scientific studies, without the involvement of power and influence, might be difficult for many sociologists to envision. Yet, in a very real sense, the Environmental Impact Statement purports to be taking us in that direction. Even to approximate such an ideal would likely decrease inequities in power and privilege, but would benefit the environment. A survey by the Council on Environmental Quality (1975), of all federal agencies that have completed 100 or more Environmental Impact Statements, reported assertions by all those agencies that their decisions on various actions for which En- vironmental Impact Statements were made were substantially affected by the findings of the Environmental Impact Statements, either in terms of reversing or modifying those decisions. Hopefully, those reports have not been exaggerated and do indeed indicate a movement toward the ideal. It is my understanding that the federal agencies have been subjected to considerable public pressure to reform, including improvement and better disclosure of the decision making procedures for the Environmental Impact Statement. If that is true, then once again the public is ahead of the scientific com- munity. But because of its special expertise, it is necessary for the scientific community to turn its attention to those issues before any reasonable resolution can be forthcom- ing. It would seem that among many other things the guidelines should emphasize the need to justify the relevance of any piece 38 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) of sociological data for the proposed action at hand. Such an emphasis would decrease the tendency to “pad” certain data in order potentially to overshadow other data. The force of such a guideline extends all the way to the specific datum, rather than stopping with a justification for the general type of data. By way of illustration, it would not be enough for a justification to be given for different types of surveys (on-site, near-site, and community leaders, etc.) or other forms of sociological data (archival data, e.g., census data, other records that might be supplied by community planning agencies, etc.). Instead, the specifics must be justified. For example, the Council on Environmental Quality (1975) Guidelines suggest the use of population statistics in general. In the Clark Maritime Centre Environmental Im- past Statement, space in terms of both text and tables is devoted to minority char- acteristics, age-sex characteristics, family characteristics, and school enrollment. There is no justification given for the inclu- sion of those data, i.e., their relevance to the proposed riverport and industrial park is not even alluded to. Those data are included in the section Environmental Set- ting Without the Project but not mentioned in the crucial section Environmental Impact of the Proposed Action. The actual inclu- sion in the Environmental Impact State- ment of data on minority characteristics, age-sex characteristics, etc. needs some justification lest (1) they be used as pad- ding to overshadow a less than thorough presentation of some other, less favorable, data, or (2) the quantity of uninterpreted data generates confusion for the reader or a hesitancy to go to the trouble of reading more than a summary of the document. The influence of the Environmental Im- pact Statement director is strong but not all prevailing, as was indicated by the con- troversy over the inclusion of the On-Site Survey. The results of that survey were completely left out of the Environmental Impact Assessment submitted to the Corps of Engineers. Before the First Draft of the EIS was published, I raised objection to that deletion and in a meeting between myself, the Environmental Impact Assess- ment Director, and a Corps official, the issue was civilly but heatedly argued. As expected, the on-site respondents were gen- erally opposed to the project. But what seemed to bother the Environmental Impact Assessment Director most was my insistence on including the assertion by one of the respondents that 3 of the families on the site are related and the heads of those households have been lifelong residents. Such an assertion, the Environmental Im- pact Assessment Director felt, appealed too much to sentimentalism. Yet, it would be hard to deny that the displacement of those families might well be perceived by them as adverse impact. It was the decision of the Corps official to include the assertion as well as the rest of the On-Site Survey. My hope is that sometime in the future, sociologists will be able to look back at that particular Environmental Impact Assess- ment Director with a feeling of gratitude. As the unverified story goes, that man was able to sell the idea of a Near-Site Survey to his superiors in the face of great resis- tance. I don’t know how to express strongly enough my conviction that the Near-Site Survey is immensely useful to the Environ- mental Impact Statement and to sociology as a profession. Certainly, there is expertise in survey techniques in other disciplines, but in the public mind and in the minds of some environmental impact assessment directors, surveys of social characteristics and attitudes will call for sociologists. For sociologists, the Environmental Impact Statement in general, and the Near-Site Survey in particular, can be a source of income, community service, and in some instances a source of data for their scholarly pursuits. If we become more involved as individuals with the Environmental Impact Statement, I think we would be well advised | to enter early into the planning stage lest we find inadequate planning for any of the © above possible benefits. My experience © with the Clark Maritime Centre surveys | convinces me that the knowledge of survey | techniques by those who planned and bud- geted the Environmental Impact Assess- SOCIOLOGY IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT—Busch 59 ment was nil. The funding was absurdly low and the time frames were quite un- realistic. According to the Council on Environ- mental Quality (1975:412), “As the relevance of different types of information becomes apparent, the cur- rent approach of some agencies simply to catalog an enormous variety of facts should slowly begin to change. Many impact statements now resemble encyclo- pedias. They discuss the project’s setting in overly elaborate detail and contain lengthy descriptions of all species of plant and animal life in the affected area. Frequently, this reflects a lack of under- standing of what is important and what is not. As the crucial environmental ques- tions start to come into focus, it should become increasingly clear that much of this verbage can be dispensed with, thus helping to reduce the size of many of the statements.” Obviously, sociology is not the only discipline in an ambiguous situation with respect to its contributions to environmental impact statements. The Environmental Im- pact Statement is going to become impor- tant to the sociologist as a source of income and as a tool for influencing social policy. Whatever the problems with the way sociol- ogy is used in the Environmental Impact Statement (be those problems of uncer- tainty only, or of the temptation to dis- tortion by vested interests able to work their will in the midst of uncertainty ), it is time that sociologists advocate a set of procedures for the presentation of sociolog- ical findings within the spirit of the National Environmental Protection Act of 1969. LITERATURE CITED CoUNCIL ON ENVIRONMENTAL Quatity. 1973. Guidelines: Appendix II, Preparation of En- vironmental Impact Statements (38 F.R. 20550, 1 August). . 1974. Environmental Quality—Fifth Annual Report. U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., Wash- ington, D.C. . 1975. 102 Monitor, 5(5) June. U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., Washington, D.C. U.S. Army Corps oF ENGINEERS. 1974. Prepara- tion/Coordination E.I.S.’s. Dept. Army, Off. Chief Engin., Washington, D.C. 1975. Draft Environmental Impact Statement: Clark Maritime Centre, Jefferson- ville, Clark County, Indiana, Ohio River Mile 597. Louisville District, Louisville, Ky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 60-73 Age, Growth, Condition, and Maturity of Sunfishes of Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky’ WaLTER L. REDMON” AND Louis A. KRUMHOLZ Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT Measurements of 1,545 sunfish referable to 9 species indicated that rock bass, longear sunfish, green sunfish, bluegills, smallmouth bass, and spotted bass maintained successful populations in Doe Run. Rates of growth of rock bass, longear sunfish, and bluegills were equal to or greater than in other streams reported in the literature, while those of smallmouth bass, spotted bass, and green sunfish were slightly less. Largemouth bass and white crappies grew very slowly, probably because environmental conditions in Doe Run were marginal. Growth rates of male and female green sunfish, bluegills, and rock bass were similar, but male longear sunfish grew faster than females. Male longear sunfish, green sunfish, and rock bass outlived females of those species. Length—weight relationships and coefficients of condition of all species except rock bass were comparable to those of other streams. All sunfishes that spawned in Doe Run did so only in the lower reaches of the stream in late summer, probably because of the influence of constantly cool water temperatures at the stream source. The longear sunfish—-rock bass— smallmouth bass was the most successful sunfish association. INTRODUCTION Although sunfishes (Centrarchidae) are widely distributed over the eastern United States and include several species very popular among sport fishermen, relatively little is known of their rates of growth in streams. This study presents data for 9 species of centrarchids from Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky, prior to its im- poundment to form Doe Valley Lake in July 1961. Species considered are: rock bass Ambloplites rupestris, green sunfish Lepomis cyanellus, warmouth L. gulosus, bluegill L. macrochirus, longear sunfish L. megalotis, smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieui, spotted bass M. punctulatus, largemouth bass M. salmoides, and white crappie Pomoxis annularis. Two specimens of each of 2 other sunfishes, the orange- spotted sunfish L. humilis and the black crappie P. nigromaculatus were collected, but the data were too meager for satisfac- * Contribution No. 188 (New Series) from the Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208. * Present address: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region V, Chicago, Illinois 60604. 60 tory analysis. Nomenclature follows that of Bailey et al. (1970). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report is based on research per- formed under Contract No. AT-(40-1)-2595 between the U.S. Atomic Energy Commis- © sion and the University of Louisville, Louis A. Krumholz, Principal Investigator. We are most grateful for that assistance. It is | also a revision of parts of a thesis presented — to the Graduate School of the University — of Louisville by Mr. Redmon as partial | fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Biology. | We are deeply appreciative of the assis- — tance provided by many graduate students © and others, particularly C. F. Bryan, J. E. | Craddock, R. H. Goodyear, L. G. Hill, and — W. L. Minckley in the field and in the | laboratory. | DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA Doe Run, a limestone stream, rises as a | torrent spring 4.8 km east and 0.6 km north of Ekron, Kentucky, and flows north-north- east for 15.6 km to empty into the Ohio SUNFISHES OF DoE Run, MrEApDE County—Redmon and Krumholz 61 River at Ohio River Mile 642.2, about 57 km downstream from Louisville. Detailed descriptions of the physical and chemical characteristics of the stream have been given by Minckley (1963) and Krumholz (1965, 1967). The portion of the stream sampled during this study did not include the headwaters since no sunfishes main- tained populations in that area, but did include the stretch from Highway 1638 (Km 5) to the Ohio River, a distance of 10.8 km (Fig. 1). Within the sampling area, the stream above Km 8 had a gradient of 6.6 m/km, whereas below that point the gradient was 1.7 m/km. Downstream from Km 12.5, the channel was filled with back- water from the pool formed by Ohio River Lock and Dam No. 44 near Leavenworth, Indiana, at an elevation of 374 feet (114 m) above mean sea level (msl). In 1971, Lock and Dam No. 44 was replaced by the Can- nelton Locks and Dam at Cannelton, In- diana, and the pool was raised to 383 feet (116.7 m) msl. Thus, the backwater now extends very nearly to the toe of the dam for Doe Valley Lake. The average width of Doe Run above the backwater was about 10 m, and ranged from more than 12 m in some pools to no more than 2 m at some riffles. Maximum depths in pools was about 2 m, but in many riffles, the water was no more than 20 cm deep. In the area of relatively steep gradi- ent, the bottom was largely a mixture of bedrock, marl, and rubble. Downstream from Km 8, the bottom was mostly silt, sand, and clay with some stones that had washed in during spates. Prior to 1961, when the lower portion of the valley was cleared, Doe Run flowed for most of its length under a heavy canopy of riparian vegetation. The roots of many large trees had been undercut by the stream and those areas provided shelter for many sunfishes and other species as well. Water temperatures in Doe Run mani- fested the moderating effects of ground- water temperatures as well as ambient air temperatures. At the spring source, the temperature rarely varied from 13.3 C. About 5 km downstream, the maximum DOE RUN nm ay KmIi0O MEADE COUNTY q KENTUCKY soe rf VALLEY ( LAKE ‘e Km9 ie} u 2 G es es es 1 TWO KILOMETERS \ 7-Springs Branch g 2 Km6 ) 4 \ Km5 Bridge for Highway /638 Buffalo Spring STATION | Blue Spring pring Source Fic. 1. Map of Doe Run, Meade County, Ken- tucky, showing stream kilometers, locations of dams, bridge for Highway 1638, and extent of Doe Valley Lake. The broken line through Doe Valley Lake shows the course of the stream prior to impound- ment (after Krumholz 1967). water temperature recorded by Minckley (1963) was 20.0 C in August 1960 and the minimum was 6.1C in March 1961. An- other 3 km downstream, the maximum was 25.6 C and the minimum was 1.7C. Dis- solved oxygen in Doe Run was near or over saturation at all times, and pH was circum- neutral. Discharge at the source ranged from less than 0.1 to about 17 m?/sec. 62 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) MATERIALS AND METHODS Although fishes in this study were col- lected by electrofishing, seining, and an- gling, most were taken with emulsifiable rotenone, 9-11 July 1961. The rotenone was used in an attempt to eradicate all fishes from the section of Doe Run to be im- pounded as Doe Valley Lake (Fig. 1). That collection is important because of its size, homogeneity of time and locality, and rela- tive nonselectivity of method. Other sun- fishes were collected between October 1959 and July 1961. A total of 1,545 specimens referable to 9 species and 4 genera of sunfishes was used: longear sunfish, 567; bluegill, 536; green sunfish, 199; rock bass, 131; spotted bass, 28; white crappie, 26; smallmouth bass, 24; warmouth, 18; and largemouth bass, 16. All specimens were fixed in 10 percent formalin and stored in 70 percent ethanol, but all measurements were made within 48 hours after collection. Scale samples were taken from just below the lateral line under the spinous dorsal fin, along with data on standard, fork, and total lengths in millimeters, weights in grams, and sex. Only standard lengths were used in our calculations. Age determinations were made from im- pressions of scales in strips of cellulose acetate after the procedure of Campbell and Witt (1953) and using an Eberbach scale projector. Three scales from each fish were chosen for impressions, and the annuli on those scales were compared. A single scale was chosen for measuring the annual increments, and growth was calculated for each year of life using the formula: fo eee sae) where L’ = computed standard length at time of annulus formation, L = observed standard length at time of capture, S’ = radius of scale at annulus, S = radius of scale at time of cap- ture, and C = correction factor, with the assumption that body length is proportional to scale growth (Van Oosten 1929, Hile 1936, Whitney and Carlander 1956, and others). The correction factor, C, is the intercept of the curve formed by plotting standard length against scale radius. The only occurrences of sunfishes above Highway 1638 (Fig. 1) were of occasional green sunfish, bluegills, and an orange- spotted sunfish, all adults, probably dis- ‘placed from nearby sinkholes. No young- of-the-year sunfishes were found upstream from the bridge despite intensive collecting. Similarly, none of the basses, crappies, or other sunfishes were collected upstream from the bridge. Each spring, numerous sexually mature green sunfish, bluegills, and longear sunfish became concentrated in a large pool just below the swift-flowing culvert of the high- way bridge, but there was no spawning in the area, probably because of the cool- ness of the water (Minckley 1963). Witt and Marzolf (1954), Swingle and Smith (1950), and others have stated that tem- peratures above a certain minimum (21.1 C) are required to induce spawning in those sunfishes. Several longear sunfish and blue- gills caught from the area were resorbing ova at the time of capture (Minckley 1963). AGE AND GROWTH Longear Sunfish The longear sunfish was the most abun- dant sunfish in Doe Run prior to the im- poundment of Doe Valley Lake. Of the 567 specimens used in this study, 440 (787% ) were taken during the rotenone treatment of 9-11 July 1961. The longear sunfish made up 36.7 percent of all sunfishes taken during the study. | The oldest specimens were in Age Group _ VI and the youngest were in Age Group I; no young of the year were collected. The | age composition (Table 1) and the length- | frequency distribution (Fig. 2) of the 440 individuals taken with rotenone indicated | that three-fourths were more than 3 years | old and of a greater length than 70 mm. That population composition corresponds SUNFISHES OF Dor Run, MEADE Country—Redmon and Krumholz 63 TABLE ]1.—LENGTH-FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS OF 442 LONGEAR SUNFISH OF ALL AGE GROUPS TAKEN DURING THE ROTENONE TREATMENT 9-11 Juty 1961, Dor Run, MEADE County, KENTUCKY Standard Age group ee hehe (mm) I II III IV V VI Total 30-39 5 5 40-49 5 5 50-59 10 6 16 60-69 8 18 26 70-79 ao. 15 54 80-89 20° 74 3 97 90-99 6271026 88 100-109 51.26) 6 12 110-119 2G s 2 50 120-129 3 16 4 Zo 130-139 2 2 A Total Poise oo.) 156 119) 46 8 440 closely with that reported from the Black River, Missouri (Patriarche and Lowry 1953), but contains a greater percentage of older individuals than reported for Clear Creek, Illinois (Lewis and Elder 1952), and Beaver Creek, Kentucky (Tompkins and Carter 1951). Calculations of growth rates of 560 indi- viduals, based on a straight-line relationship between body length and length of scale, and corrected for an intercept of 10 mm in body length, showed that longear sunfish reached average lengths of 40, 63, 83, 99, 112, and 119 mm for Age Groups I through VI, respectively (Table 2). The factor for converting standard length to total length is 1.251 based on actual measurements of all longear sunfish taken from Doe Run. Although female longear sunfish had an average length slightly greater than that of males at the end of the first year’s growth (Table 3), males grew faster each succeed- ing year, and were an average of 8.7 mm longer at the end of the fifth growing season. In Doe Run, male longear sunfish lived longer than females, and the percent- age of males in the population increased with increasing age until only males of Age Group VI survived (Table 3). Hubbs and Cooper (1935) also found that male longear sunfish grew faster than females, but made 50 Lepomis megalotis = 40 440 specimens fs 40 Lepomis macrochirus - 30 385 specimens Lepomis cyanellus 10 | 85 specimens = fo) Number of Specimens 20 Ambloplites rupestris 115 specimens - - an As eee a a fe) 00 150 200 sanders Length (mm) Fic. 2. Length-frequency distributions of the 4 most abundant sunfishes in Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky, taken during the rotenone treat- ment 9-11 July 1961. no mention of differences in longevity be- tween the sexes. The relationship between standard length and weight of longear sunfish in Doe Run was calculated by least squares as: Log W = +4.80156 + 3.2504 log L where W = weight of fish in grams and L = standard length in millimeters. Lewis and Elder (1952) reported a length- weight relationship for longear sunfish in Clear Creek, Illinois, somewhat lower than that for Doe Run (log W = -4.77 + 3.16 log L). Hile (1931) presented average weights for several groups of longear sun- fish in Indiana, but his values were for stunted populations in lakes, and the weights were lower than those for corre- sponding lengths in Doe Run. Hile (1936) 64 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE 2.,—AVERAGE CALCULATED STANDARD LENGTHS IN MILLIMETERS OF SUNFISHES AT THE END OF EACH YEAR OF LIFE, DoE Run, MEADE County, KENTuCKy, NOVEMBER 1959 To JuLy 1961 Calculated length at end of year 1 2. 3 4 5 6 7 8 Longear sunfish 39.8 Ga. 82.5 98.7 WA 119.4 Bluegill 35.0 63.4 85.6 105.6 137, 135.0 Green sunfish Bos 62.5 89.6 110.2 1 ETE Rock bass 46.8 76.9 106.9 132.0 155.1 174.0 192.1 206.0 Spotted bass 76.6 1267 160.8 193.9 228.2 253.0 Smallmouth bass (ho 131-5 179.5 224.1 260.1 Largemouth bass 56.6 102.9 151.0 199.0 227.0 White crappie 54.5 93.5 114.0 Warmouth 39.8 64.4 86.7 107.7 proposed the term “coefficient of condition” as a means of indicating suitability of en- vironment and to provide a measurement by which the fishes of one body of water could be compared with those of another. The average coefficient of condition for longear sunfish in Doe Run was 4.958 as determined from the equation K = 100,000 W/L? where W = weight of fish in grams and L = standard length of fish in milli- meters. In their study, Lewis and Elder (1952) reported an average coefficient of condition of 3.56 for 164 longear sunfish from Clear Creek, Illinois, much lower than that for fish from Doe Run. Of the 402 longear sunfish sexed in this study (Table 3), 95 percent of the females in Age Group II were sexually mature as indicated by enlarged ovaries, whereas only II TABLE 3.—STANDARD LENGTHS IN MILLIMETERS AND NUMBERS OF LONGEAR SUNFISH OF EACH SEX FROM THE 6 AGE GROUPS, DoE RuN, MEADE County, Kentucky, 9-11 Juty 1961, BAasED on 402 INDIvID- UALS. THE FIGURES IN PARENTHESES INDICATE THE NUMBERS OF SPECIMENS 9 percent of the males in that age group had enlarged testes. In Age Group III, all | females were mature, but only 64 percent — of the males were in spawning condition. | In Age Group IV, all females were sexually | mature, but 4 percent of the males were not. — The smallest mature female (Age Group I) | was 59 mm long and was the only mature © individual in the group. The smallest mature male (Age Group II) was 79 mm long and was the only mature male in that group. | Although no young-of-the-year longear — sunfish were collected during the study, it is obvious that spawning took place each year. Such successful spawning took place | in the large pools and quiet waters in the lower reaches of the stream. It is note- worthy that spawning had not yet occurred | by 9 July 1961 when the stream was treated | with rotenone. Bluegill Among Doe Run sunfishes, the bluegill — was second in abundance prior to the rotenone treatment. Of the 536 specimens | reported here, 385 (72%) were taken with > rotenone, and based on the entire study, the bluegill made up 34.7 percent of all sunfishes in the stream. | Age group : Le ai eT ara Relatively little is known of the growth | of bluegills in small streams, but its growth aie bp ie eK 100.3 111.8 119.4 in Jentic waters has been studied exten- | TOR AES EA SDP Eaten) sively. The relatively large population of Females 39.1 62.3 79.1 93.4 104.1 — bluegills in Doe Run is believed to be (220) A287) ATIB) | BOI a) unusual since it is not usually considered a SUNFISHES OF Dor Run, MEADE Counry—Redmon and Krumholz 65 stream fish. Trautman (1942, 1957) noted that introductions of bluegills into flowing waters in Ohio were unsuccessful, except when some individuals reached oxbows, overflow ponds, or large quiet pools. The oldest bluegill from Doe Run was a single member of Age Group VI, and members of Age Groups I, II, and III made up more than 95 percent of those taken with rotenone (Table 4). The length-frequency distribution of 385 individuals (Fig. 2) displays the normal pattern of decrease in numbers each succeeding year of age; how- ever, the paucity of larger individuals may suggest a rather unfavorable environment. Growth rate was calculated for 521 blue- gills based on a straight-line relationship between body length and scale length, cor- rected for an intercept of 9.8 mm in body length. In Doe Run, bluegills attained average lengths of 35, 63, 86, 106, 124, and 135 mm for Age Groups I through VI, respectively (Table 2). The conversion factor for standard to total length is 1.279 based on measurements of all bluegills caught from Doe Run. The growth rate in Doe Run was higher than that reported from other streams except those in Okla- homa studied by Finnell et al. (1956) and Jenkins et al. (1952). The growth rate in Beaver Creek, Kentucky (Tompkins and Carter 1951), was slightly slower the first 2 years, but the small size of their sample makes any comparison questionable. Pur- kett (1958a) reported that bluegills grew at their fastest rate in the middle portions of streams in Missouri. The habitat in Doe Run is most similar to that described for those streams in Missouri. Growth in the Missouri streams was slower than in Doe Run in the early years of life but may have been faster in the fourth and fifth years. There was no apparent difference in growth rates of male and female bluegills in Doe Run. The sex ratios through the first 4 years of life was very near 1:1. Of the 7 individuals in Age Group V, 5 were males, and the lone individual in Age Group VI was a male. All bluegills from Doe Run were used in calculating the length-weight relationship TABLE 4.—LENGTH-FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS OF 376 BLUEGILLS OF ALL AGE GROUPS TAKEN DURING THE ROTENONE TREATMENT, 9-11 JuLy 1961, DoE Run, MEADE County, KENTUCKY Age group ee length I II Iil IV V VI ‘Total 20-29 1 1 30-39 39 39 40-49 58 58 50-59 64 2, 66 60-69 oo 29 65 70-79 1 40 2 43 80-89 1S 26 44 90-99 AN OAT 1 32 100-109 8 8 110-119 4 9 13 120-129 4 4 130-139 2, 2 140-149 i 1 Total 199 93 67 14 2 1 a6 as determined by least squares from the equation log W = -5.5035 + 3.5845 log L. The curve developed from the equation fitted empirical data from specimens smaller than 100 mm well, but weights of larger individuals were slightly lower. The coefficient of condition of Doe Run bluegills determined from all specimens, ranged from 2.358 to 5.662 with an average of 3.779. Sex and gonad conditions were deter- mined for all specimens over 80 mm long in the rotenone sample; smaller specimens were not sexually mature. About half the females in Age Group II larger than 80 mm were mature, but no males that size in that age group had reached maturity. Almost 76 percent of the females in Age Group III were mature, but only 7 percent of the males were mature. At Age Group IV, 86 percent of all fish were mature, and the 3 older specimens, all males, were mature. The smallest mature female was an 80-mm individual of Age Group II, and the smallest mature male (Age Group III) was 93 mm long. The collection of young-of-the-year blue- gills in the lower reaches of Doe Run each year prior to 1961 (Minckley 1963) indi- cates that the population was permanent, 66 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) TABLE 5.—LENGTH DISTRIBUTION OF 82 GREEN SUN- FISH OF ALL AGE GROUPS TAKEN DURING THE ROTE- NONE TREATMENT, 9-11 Jury 1961, Dor Rwvn, MEADE County, KENTUCKY Age group Standard ——_ length I II Ill IV V Total 30-39 14 14 40-49 13 13 50-59 12 12 60-69 6 2 8 70-79 10 10 80-89 3 3 90-99 5 iI 6 100-109 D 3 8 110-119 1 4 , 120-129 2 1 o Total a5 AD lh ee 1 82 and not maintained through ingress from the Ohio River. Green Sunfish The green sunfish was the third most abundant sunfish in Doe Run prior to the impoundment of Doe Valley Lake; it made up 12.9 percent of all sunfishes taken from Doe Run. Of the 199 specimens collected during the study, only 85 (43%) were taken in the rotenone sample. The rotenone sample contained a single specimen of Age Group V, the oldest, a male, and more than half the sample was made up of members of Age Group I (Table 5). The length- frequency distribution is representative of the population during the summer of 1961. Growth rate was calculated for 186 indi- viduals based on a straight-line relationship between body length and scale length, and corrected for an intercept of 9.6 mm. Aver- age standard lengths for Age Groups I through V, respectively, were 35, 63, 90, 110, and 128 mm (Table 2). The conver- sion factor for standard to total length is 1.254 based on measurements of all green sunfish in the Doe Run collection. The growth rate in Doe Run was below average for many streams cited in the literature. In 6 Missouri streams, green sunfish from only the St. Francis and Gasconade rivers grew more slowly than those in Doe Run (Pur- kett 1958a, 1958b; Patriarche and Lowry 1953). In Oklahoma, green sunfish in the Little River and [Illinois River systems at- tained average lengths by the end of 3 years | that exceeded average lengths of individuals © of Age Group V in Doe Run (Finnell et al. 1956, Jenkins et al. 1952). Little difference was noted in the growth rates of male and female green sunfish in Doe Run. Hubbs and Cooper (1935) noted - that the growth rate for male green sunfish © in Michigan was considerably greater than that of females. In Doe Run, males lived longer than | females, and the percentage of males in the © population increased with age until Age Group V when only males survived. | Length-weight relationships were deter- mined for all green sunfish from Doe Run by least squares with the equation log W = 4.7064 + 3.1376 log L. The curve devel- oped from that equation fitted empirical data for all specimens. Lewis and Elder (1952) reported a length—-weight relation- ship for green sunfish in Clear Creek, Illinois, as best represented by the equation log W = -4.89 + 3.19 log L, an indication that Clear Creek individuals were lighter. than their Doe Run counterparts. | The average coefficient of condition of | 197 green sunfish from Doe Run was 3.520, ranging from 2.700 to 4.912. Lewis and _ Elder (1952) reported a mean coefficient of condition of 3.19 for 83 individuals that ranged from 55 to 199 mm in standard length. Those data indicate that conditions in Doe Run were better than in Clear Creek, at least for green sunfish. Sex and condition of gonads were deter- mined for all green sunfish longer than 60 mm from the rotenone sample. Two of the large females but none of the males in Age Group I were sexually mature. About a third of the males and 70 percent of the females in Age Group II had reached matu- rity. All individuals of older age groups were mature. The smallest mature females were 2 67-mm individuals of Age Group I; . the smallest mature male was a 76-mm specimen of Age Group II. More small green sunfish than young of | SUNFISHES OF Dor Run, MEeapE Counry—Redmon and Krumholz 67 TABLE 6.—LENGTH-FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF 106 ROCK BASS OF ALL AGE GROUPS TAKEN DURING THE ROTENONE TREATMENT, 9-11 JuLty 1961, DoE Run, MEADE County, KENTUCKY — Standard length II Ill 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 100-109 110-119 120-129 130-139 140-149 150-159 160-169 170-179 180-189 190-199 200-209 210-219 Total 24 19 6 — me bd & OL _ NWrrNY OS Ne any other sunfish were taken in the down- stream area of Doe Run, indicating that reproduction was common in pools of that area. Minckley (1963) reported that green sunfish reproduced in Doe Valley Lake shortly after its impoundment, indicating that the species had survived the attempted eradication with rotenone. Rock Bass The rock bass, the fourth most abundant sunfish in Doe Run, was commonly found among the undercut roots of riparian syca- more trees Platanus occidentalis L. A total of 131 specimens was taken during the entire study and they made up 8.5 percent of all sunfishes. The rotenone study yielded 115 specimens. The number of large indi- viduals made the population of interest to the angler, but there was little utilization of the fishery. The length-frequency dis- tribution of all specimens from Doe Run is shown in Fig. 2. The oldest rock bass in the collection was of Age Group VIII, and young of the year were collected 2-6 km downstream from Age group IV V VI VII VIII Total 13 5 3 12 3 i 2 A I 4 2 F 5 6 i. 8 3 4 7 9 1 10 6 6 3 8 ii: 1 2 3 4 4 1 3 4 1 1 12 p35 12 74 1 106 the bridge for Highway 1638 in the fall of 1960. The age composition of 106 speci- mens from the rotenone study is shown in Table 6. Rate of growth was calculated for 121 rock bass based on a straight-line relation- ship between body length and scale length and corrected for an intercept of 18.3 mm. In Doe Run, the respective standard lengths for Age Groups I through VIII were 47, 77, 107, 132, 155, 174, 192, and 206 mm (Table 2). The conversion factor for standard to total length is 1.226 based on measurements of all rock bass. The rate of growth in Doe Run, although faster during the first year, was similar to that reported for the middle sections of Missouri streams by Purkett (1958a) and the Tippecanoe River, Indiana, by Scott (1949). The growth rate in Doe Run was greater than that reported for the Black River, Missouri, by Patriarche and Lowry (1953). Growth rates of rock bass from 2 Kentucky streams reported by Tompkins and Carter (1951) were much greater than in Doe Run, or any other stream for that matter, but their samples were small. In the Illinois River system 68 of Oklahoma (Jenkins et al. 1952), the growth rate was higher than in Doe Run. No significant difference in growth rates of males and females was apparent in Doe Run. Still, based on the fish taken with rotenone, males outlived females. Of the specimens sexed, 62 percent of those in Age Groups II, III, and IV were females, but only 27 percent of those in Age Groups V through VIII were females. Only 1 of 7 specimens in Age Group VII was a female, and the lone fish in Age Group VIII was a male. Hile (1941) reported that the growth rate of male rock bass in Nebish Lake, Wisconsin, exceeded that of females, but that females lived longer than males. All specimens in the Doe Run collection were used to calculate the length-weight relationship. The equation determined by least squares was log W = -4.4625 + 3.0329 log L. The curve derived from that equa- tion fitted empirical data for all sizes. Scott (1949) determined the length-weight rela- tionship for rock bass in the Tippecanoe River to be log W = -5.040 + 2.908 log L. Comparison of values from those curves indicates that fish from Doe Run were relatively lighter than those from the Tippe- canoe River. Most adult rock bass from Doe Run in July 1961 were not at peak sexual maturity, indicating that reproduction had not yet taken place. Young-of-the-year rock bass taken in the fall of 1960 were no longer than 24 mm standard length in September or December, a strong indication of very late spawning dates. Rock bass spawned throughout the lower reaches of Doe Run. The smallest sexually mature female was a 105-mm specimen of Age Group II, and the smallest mature male was a 110-mm indi- vidual of the same age. Spotted Bass Spotted bass were collected more often than either of the other black basses, but only 2 of the 28 specimens in our sample were taken with rotenone. Based on all collections, it made up 1.8 percent of the total sunfish population. The oldest speci- TrANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) mens belonged to Age Group VI, and 4 young of the year were the youngest, and averaged 31 mm standard length. Growth rates were determined for 24 individuals based on a straight-line relation- ship between body length and scale length and corrected for an intercept of 27.4 mm. That intercept is the average value reported by Bryan (1964, unpublished doctoral dis- sertation, University of Louisville, Louis- - ville, Kentucky ) for all his stations. In Doe | Run, spotted bass attained average lengths of 77, 127, 161, 194, 228, and 253 mmm for Age Groups I through VI, respectively (Table 2). The conversion factor for stan-— dard to total length is 1.225 based on mea-— surements of all Doe Run specimens. The growth rate of spotted bass in Doe Run was lower than that for streams in Missouri (Purkett 1958a), Oklahoma (Jen-_ kins et al. 1952, Finnell et al. 1956), or from Slate Creek, Kentucky (Tompkins and Carter 1951). Bryan (unpublished disserta-_ tion) compared growth rates throughout its — range in streams and impoundments and found no trends attributable to geography, but instead believed that local factors in the habitat were responsible for any varia-_ tions. several streams in the Ohio River valley (Bryan unpublished dissertation) was best represented by log W = -5.138 + 3.124 log L. Weight values derived from that curve are slightly lower than corresponding values’ from Doe Run. The average coefficient of condition of the 28 individuals from Doe Run was 2.532 and ranged from 1.707 to 3.237. Lewis and Elder (1953) reported an average value of 2.46 for Clear Creek, Jllinois, and Bryan (unpublished dissertation) reported aver- age values that ranged from 2.27 to 2.90 for 8 stream populations. Comparison of those data indicates that spotted bass from Doe Run were in slightly better condition. than the averages for the other streams. _ Young-of-the-year specimens from the Length-weight relationship for spotted bass from Doe Run was calculated using the equation log W = -4.9287 + 3.1778 log L. Such a relationship for spotted bass in | | | SUNFISHES OF DoE Run, MEADE Counry—Redmon and Krumholz 69 lower reaches of Doe Run in September and October 1960 showed that reproduction had been successful. Large adults taken during the rotenone study had not yet reached spawning condition, but their gonads were approaching that stage. It appears that the spotted bass maintained a small permanent population in the large pools near the lower end of Doe Run. Smallmouth Bass The smallmouth bass was rare in Doe Run and its distribution was restricted to the lower reaches of the stream. A total of 24 specimens was taken, 14 of which were caught in the rotenone treatment. Based on all collections, it made up 1.5 percent of all sunfishes in Doe Run. Tate (1949) reported as many as 100 adult smallmouth bass (“a dense population”) in a 4-km stretch of Coffin Creek, Iowa. The oldest individuals in Doe Run were in Age Group V, and young of the year were taken in 1960 and 1961. The single 15-mm young-of-the-year smallmouth bass taken during the rotenone study was the only sunfish of that age group taken during 1961. Large specimens of Age Groups IV and V made up two-thirds of all smallmouth bass, an indication that the population, like those of other sunfishes, was underexploited. Minckley (1963) reported seeing an angler with a smallmouth bass from Doe Run that weighed 964 g after viscera and scales had been removed. That individual was con- siderably larger than any in the Doe Run collection. That small number in the col- lection precludes any satisfactory length- frequency distribution. Growth rates were calculated for 20 indi- viduals based on a straight-line relationship between body length and scale length and corrected for an intercept of 14.6 as deter- mined by Everhart (1950). No body-scale relationship was attempted from Doe Run data. Smallmouth bass in Doe Run attained lengths of 78, 132, 180, 224, and 260 mm, respectively, at ages I through V (Table 2). In addition, 3 individuals of Age Group O, collected in mid-August 1960, averaged 33 mm standard length, and a 15-mm specimen was taken during the rotenone study. The conversion factor for standard to total length is 1.216 based on measurements of all Doe Run specimens. Growth rate of smallmouth bass in Doe Run was slightly below average for some streams in Missouri (Purkett 1958a, Patri- arche and Lowry 1953) and Oklahoma (Jenkins et al. 1952, Finnell et al. 1956), but was much greater than that reported by Suttkus (1955) for Fall Creek, New York, and somewhat higher than that in Coffin Creek, Iowa (Tate 1949). The growth rate in Elkhorn Creek, Kentucky (Tompkins and Carter 1951), one of the best-known smallmouth bass streams in the state, was much higher than that reported for any other stream. Measurements of all specimens from Doe Run were used to calculate length—-weight relationship. The equation, as determined by least squares, was log W = -6.011 + 3.986 log L. Tate (1949) reported that relationship as log W = -4.8128 + 3.0935 log L for smallmouth bass in Coffin Creek, Iowa, indicating that they were heavier than those from Doe Run. Populations in Missouri Ozark streams (Purkett 1958a) and Fall Creek, New York (Suttkus 1955), also had length-weight relationships greater than that in Doe Run. The average coefficient of condition of Doe Run smallmouth bass was 2.425. It was lower than that reported by Tate (1949) for Coffin Creek, Iowa, but higher than that reported by Suttkus (1955) for Fall Creek, New York. The high coefficient of condi- tion for smallmouth bass in Doe Run indi- cates that the environment is favorable for the species. Largemouth Bass The largemouth bass was rare in Doe Run, and its distribution was limited to the large pools in the lower reaches of the stream; still, an individual was collected near the bridge for Highway 1638 in June 1961. Only 16 individuals were collected from Doe Run, and 14 of those were in the 70 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) rotenone collection. Based on all collec- tions, the largemouth bass made up 1.0 percent of the total sunfish population in Doe Run. The oldest individual was of Age Group V and the youngest were in Age Group I. No young of the year were taken. More than half the specimens in all collections were of Age Group II (Table 2). The growth rate was calculated for 15 individ- uals based on a straight-line relationship between body length and scale length cor- rected for an intercept of 25.4 mm. The largemouth bass in Doe Run had attained average lengths of 57, 103, 151, 199, and 227 mm for Age Groups I through V, re- spectively (Table 2). The conversion factor for standard to total length is 1.227 based on measurements of all specimens. The growth rate for largemouth bass in Doe Run was very slow. They grew more slowly than in any of the streams in Mis- souri ( Purkett 1958a), in Kentucky (Tomp- kins and Carter 1951), and in Oklahoma (Jenkins et al. 1952, Finnell et al. 1956). In the Clinch River, Tennessee, below Norris Dam, Eschmeyer (1944) reported that age determination of 108 largemouth bass taken after 15 November 1943 revealed that individuals up to 300 mm total length (ca. 245 mm standard length) were young of the year, none having annuli on their scales. Measurements of all largemouth bass from Doe Run were used to calculate the length-weight relationship from the equa- tion log W = -4.839 + 3.106 log L. The average coefficient of condition for those fish was 2.451. Eschmeyer (1944) reported a coefficient of condition of 2.19 for large- mouth bass from the Clinch River. Thus, that species in Doe Run was plumper than most other stream populations even though they grew very slowly. None of the largemouth bass from Doe Run was in breeding condition in July 1961. One female contained eggs in an early stage of development. White Crappie The white crappie was not collected from Doe Run until 1961 when it was taken from the backwater of the Ohio River. The 26 specimens taken during the entire study period made up 1.7 percent of the total sunfish population. All specimens were small, the largest being an individual of Age Group III; the youngest were 5 indi- viduals of Age Group I. No young of the year were collected. Growth rate was calculated for the 20 specimens taken with rotenone based on a straight-line relationship between body length and scale length. Those fish had attained average standard lengths of 71, 123, and 150 mm at ages I through III, respectively (Table 2). The conversion factor for standard to total length is 1.213 based on measurements of all specimens. The growth rate in Doe Run was below the average for white crappies from Slate Creek, Kentucky (Tompkins and Carter 1951), the St. Francis River, Missouri ( Pur- kett 1958a), and Poteau River, Oklahoma (Hall 1951), but was greater than in the Salt, Gasconade, and Meramec rivers, Mis- souri (Purkett 1958a, 1958b), and the Little and Illinois rivers, Oklahoma (Jenkins et al. 1952, Finnell et al. 1956). All specimens from Doe Run were used to calculate the length-weight relationship from the equation log W = -6.1946 + 3.7658 log L. The average value was 2.382. Han- sen (1951) reported seasonal changes in coefficient of condition among male and female white crappies from Lake Decatur, Illinois, with values for males being higher than for females. Warmouth Prior to the rotenone treatment, only a single warmouth had been collected from Doe Run. The rotenone study produced an additional 17 specimens. Those fish were limited to the sluggish pools in the lower reaches of the stream. Based on all data, — the warmouth made up 1.2 percent of the © total sunfish population. | The oldest individuals were in Age Group 4} IV, and 2 individuals of Age Group I were § the youngest. Growth rate was calculated for 18 specimens based on a straight-line SUNFISHES OF DoE RuN, MEADE Counry—Redmon and Krumholz ral relationship between body length and scale length corrected for an intercept of 13.4 mm. The average standard lengths were 40, 64, 87, and 108 mm, respectively, for Age Groups I through IV. The conversion factor for standard to total length is 1.240 based on measurements of all specimens. The growth rate (Table 2) was slower than that reported by Tompkins and Carter (1951) from Slate Creek, Kentucky, by Fin- nell et al. (1956) and Jenkins et al. (1952) for the Little and Illinois river systems, Oklahoma, and from the Mississippi River (Upper Mississippi Conservation Commis- sion 1946). Also, it was much slower than that reported for 2 Illinois lakes by Lari- more (1957). The length-weight relationship was based on all specimens using the equation log W = —5.359 + 3.504 log L. The average coef- ficient of condition for warmouths in Doe Run was 4.089. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Eleven centrarchids were present in Doe Run prior to the rotenone treatment of 9-11 July 1961, when most fishes used in this study were collected. Of those, 9 were present in sufficient numbers for analysis of growth rate, coefficient of condition, age at maturity, and length-frequency distribu- tion. Except for a few isolated individuals, all sunfishes were restricted to the area downstream from the bridge for Highway 1638 (Fig. 1) by a combination of factors including obstruction of stream flow, high gradient, water temperature, and lack of suitable habitat. Lack of sufficient cover and competition with other species more suited to Doe Run’s environment played a major role in limiting the sunfish popula- tion. Populations of rock bass, longear sunfish, smallmouth bass, and spotted bass contained majorities of older individuals, indicating that the populations were mature and underexploited. The populations of blue- gills and green sunfish contained relatively large numbers of young individuals, indi- cating reproductive success. Collectively, all other sunfishes made up less than 5 percent of the total sunfish population, and none was known to have reproduced in Doe Run, although the warmouth and the largemouth bass may have done so on occasion. The growth rates of different sunfishes are indications of the suitability of the environment. The most abundant sunfish in Doe Run, the longear sunfish, grew faster than the average rate of other streams reported in the literature. The bluegills also grew faster than those reported from other streams, but not as fast as in lakes. The rock bass, abundant in a limited area of Doe Run, had an average growth rate com- parable with that of other streams; that population contained many individuals larger than average for most Kentucky streams. The growth rates of smallmouth bass, spotted bass, and green sunfish were slightly less than those reported for other streams. However, the smallmouth bass grew faster than they did in streams of comparable size reported in the literature, Fall Creek, New York (Suttkus 1955), and Coffin Creek, Iowa (Tate 1949). Other centrarchids in Doe Run, the largemouth bass, warmouth, and white crappie grew very slowly when compared with those from other streams, indicating that environmen- tal conditions in Doe Run probably were marginal; those species refer warmer and more sluggish or lentic waters. Growth rates of male and female green sunfish, bluegill, and rock bass were similar, but the male longear sunfish grew notice- ably faster than females. Also, males of those 4 species lived longer than females. Females of all species considered reached sexual maturity at younger ages than males. Analyses of length-weight relationships indicated that only the rock bass was below those reported for other streams. Compari- sons were hindered by the paucity of suit- able material from other streams. Bennett (1938) reported that slower growing popu- lations of smallmouth bass in Wisconsin lakes had relatively higher average weights than fast growing individuals. However, Tate (1949) found that smallmouth bass in 72 Trans. KENTucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) Coffin Creek, Iowa, that had a faster growth rate than reported by Bennett, were also heavier. It appeared that any attempt to relate length-weight relationships with growth rates may be misleading. Although the growth rates of the different species of sunfishes in Doe Run ranged from above average to below average, all species except the rock bass and white crappie were heavier than average. Within geographic regions, the relative weights of sunfishes are controlled by the food available and not solely on increase in length after embryo- logical development. While growth can be controlled by several factors, temperature of the water and length of the growing season play dominant roles (Bennett 1938, Thompson 1941). Of the sunfishes collected during the rotenone treatment of 9-11 July 1961, only the smallmouth bass was known to have spawned already that year. Some female longear sunfish appeared to be in peak spawning condition, as indicated by the condition of the ovaries, but no spent females were found. Other species did not appear ready to spawn. Those data indicate that spawning dates for sunfishes in Doe Run are relatively late in the year probably because of the constant coolness of the water at the source of the stream and the almost complete shading of the stream by riparian trees and their influence on water temperatures downstream. From the information at hand, the most successful association of centrarchids in Doe Run is the longear sunfish-rock bass— smallmouth bass. Based on our collections elsewhere, that association is not uncom- mon for cool, clear, free-flowing, gravel- bottomed streams. LITERATURE CITED BarLEy, R. M., J. E. Frrcn, E. S. Herap, E. A. LaAcHNER, C. C. LinpsEy, C. R. Rosins, AND W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of common and scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. No. 6:1-149. BENNETT, G. W. 1938. Growth of the small- mouthed black bass, Micropterus dolomieu Lacépéde, in Wisconsin waters. Copeia 1938 (4):157-170. CAMPBELL, R. S., AND A. Wirt, Jr. 1953. Im- pressions of fish scales in plastic. J. Wildl. Manage. 17( 2) :218-219. EscHMEYER, R. W. 1944. Fish migration into the Clinch River below Norris Dam, Tennes- see. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 19(1):31-41. EverHartT, W. H. 1950. Relation between body length and scale measurements in the small- mouth bass. J. Wildl. Manage. 14(3):266— 276. FINNELL, J. C., R. M. JENKINS, AND G. E. HALL. 1956. The fishery resources of the Little River system, McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Rept. Okla. Fish. Res. Lab. 55:1-82. Haut, G. E. 1951. Preimpoundment fish popu- lations of the Wister Reservoir area in the Poteau River basin, Oklahoma. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. 16:266—283. HaANsEN, D. F. 1951. Biology of the white crap- pie in Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 25 . | (4) :207—265. Hitz, R. O. 1931. The growth of fishes in In- diana. Invest. Ind. Lake Streams 1(2):9—55. 1936. Age determination of fish from scales: method and application to fish cultural problems. Prog. Fish-Cult. 23:15. . 1941. Age and growth of the rock bass, Ambloplites rupestris (Rafinesque), in Nebish Lake, Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts, Lett. 33:189-337. Husss, C. L., anpD G. P. Cooper. 1935. Age and growth of the longeared and green sunfishes in Michigan. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts Lett. 20:669-696. JENKINS, R. M., E. M. LEONARD, AND G. E. HALL. 1952. An investigation of the Illinois River and preimpoundment of Tenkiller Reservoir, Oklahoma. Rept. Okla. Fish. Res. Lab. 26: 1—136. KruMuoiz, L. A. 1965. A radioecological study of the biota of Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. U.S. Atomic Energy Comm. Doc. No. TID-22815. 1967. Accumulation of radioactive fall- out materials in the biota of Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky, 1959-1963. Pp. 791-818. In Radioecological Concentration Processes. Pergamon Press, New York, N.Y. 1040 pp. Larmore, R. W. 1957. Ecological life history of the warmouth (Centrarchidae). Bull. Il. Nat. Hist. Surv. 27:1-83. Lewis, W. M., AND D. Exvper. 1952. The fish population of the headwaters of a spotted bass stream in southern Illinois. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 82:193-202. MinckLeEy, W. L. 1963. The ecology of a spring stream Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. Wildl. Monogr. 11:1-124. PATRIARCHE, M. E., anp E. M. Lowry. 1953. Age and growth of five species of fish in Black \ SUNFISHES OF Dor Run, MEADE Counry—Redmon and Krumholz fo River, Missouri. Univ. Mo. Stud. 26(2):85- 109. Purkerr, C. A., Jr. ‘ 1958a. Growth rates of Missouri stream fishes. Dingell-Johnson Pro- gram. Publ. Mo. Cons. Comm. 1:1-46. 1958b. Growth of fishes in the Salt River, Missouri. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 87 (1957 ):116—131. Scott, D. C. 1949. A study of a stream popu- lation of rock bass, Ambloplites rupestris. In- vest. Ind. Lakes Streams 3(3):169-234. Sutrkxus, R.D. 1955. Age and growth of a small stream population of “stunted” smallmouth bass, Micropterus dolomieu dolomieu (Lacé- pede). N.Y. Fish Game J. 2(1):83—94. SwINcLeE, H. S., anp E. V. SmirH. 1950. Factors affecting the reproduction of bluegill bream and largemouth bass in ponds. Agric. Exp. Sta., Ala. Poly. Inst. Circ. 87:1-8. Tate, W. H. 1949. Growth and food habits of smallmouth black bass in some Iowa streams. Ia. St. Coll. J. Sci. 23(4) :343-354. Tuomeson, D. H. 1941. The fish production of inland streams and lakes. Pp. 206-217. In A symposium on hydrobiology. Univ. Wis. Press, Madison, Wis. 405 pp. Tompkins, W. A., AND B. T. Carter. 1951. Growth rates of some Kentucky fishes. Fish. Bull., Ky. Cons. Comm. 6:1-9. TRAUTMAN, M. B. 1942. Fish distribution and abundance correlated with stream gradients as a consideration in stocking programs. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. 7:211—223. . 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Univ. Press, Columbus, O. 683 pp. Upper MiuississtipPpI CONSERVATION COMMISSION. 1946. Second progress report of the technical committee for fisheries. 27 pp. VAN OostTEN, J. 1929. Life history of the lake herring (Leucichthys artedi Le Sueur ) of Lake Huron as revealed by its scales, with a critique of the scale method. Bull. Bur. Fish. 44: 263-428. Wuitney, R. R., AND K. D. CaRLANDER. 1956. Interpretation of body-scale regression for computing body length of fish. J. Wildl. Manage. 20(1):21-27. Wirt, A., JR., AND R. C. MarzoirF. 1954. Spawn- ing and behavior of the longear sunfish, Lepomis megalotis megalotis. Copeia 1954 (3):188—190. Ohio St. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 74-75 On the Occurrence of the Cedar Glade Endemic Viola egglestonii in Kentucky Jerry M. BAskIn AND CAROL C. BASKIN School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ABSTRACT Viola egglestonii Brainerd, previously known to occur only in Bullitt County in Kentucky, is reported from 3 localities in Nelson County. A 1977 publication reporting the species as “common” in Hart County and “abundant” in Warren County is repudiated. Viola egglestonii Brainerd (Violaceae) is a perennial, stemless blue violet endemic to cedar (limestone) glades of the southeastern United States. Its center of distribution is in the Central Basin of Tennessee, but dis- junct populations occur on cedar glades in Alabama, Georgia, and Kentucky. In Ken- tucky, the species was known only from Bullitt County in north-central Kentucky, where it occurs on cedar glades developed on Silurian limestone (Baskin and Baskin 1975a, Baskin and Baskin 1975b). We have discovered 3 other populations of V. egglestonii on small cedar glades in Nelson County: (1) along old US Highway 31E, 0.8 miles (1.3 km) south of State Highway 46 east of Balltown (J. and C. Baskin #1797, 12 September 1976, KY, VDB), (2) along Jim Clark Rd., 0.2 miles (0.3 km) west of State Highway 46 east of Balltown (J. and C. Baskin #1922, 19 May 1977, KY, VDB), and (3) along Nat Rogers Road (State Highway 46), 1.5 miles (2.4 km) west of US 31E (J. and C. Baskin #1913, 19 May 1977, KY, VDB). Those localities are approximately 20 miles (32 km) south of the nearest population of V. egglestonii in Bullitt County. The Nelson County cedar glades on which V. eggles- tonii grows also are on Silurian limestone. Characteristic cedar glade species grow- ing with V. egglestonii in Nelson County include Agave virginica L., Asclepias ver- ticillata L., Croton capitatus Michx., C. monanthogynus Michx., Desmanthus illino- ensis (Michx.) MacM., Euphorbia corollata L., Houstonia canadensis Willd., H. nigri- cans (Lam.) Fern., Hypericum dolabriforme 74 Vent., Isanthus brachiatus (L.) BSP, Notho- scordum bivalve (L.) Britt., Panicum flexile (Gattinger ) Scribn., Rosa carolina L., Ruel- lia humilis Nutt., Scutellaria parvula Michx., Sisyrinchium albidum Raf., and Sporobolus vaginiflorus (Torr.) Wood. Nomenclature follows Fernald 1950. The blue-green alga Nostoc commune Vauch. also is present. In a compilation entitled “Endangered Plants and Animals of Kentucky,” Babcock (1977) showed, on a county map of Ken- tucky, V. egglestonii occurring in Bullitt, Hart, and Warren counties. Furthermore, he indicated that V. egglestonii is “common” — in Bullitt and Hart counties and “abundant” in Warren County. In Bullitt County, we | have located about a dozen populations of — V. egglestonii in the eastern portion of the © county. For the most part, those popula- — tions are small, often with less than 100 | plants scattered over an area of only a few © square meters. Although there are a few small cedar glades in Hart and Warren © counties, we have never found V. eggles- _ tonii on any of them. The only mention in | the literature of the occurrence of the species in Warren County is in a report — entitled “Violets of North America” by Ezra Brainerd in 1921. In that report, Brainerd mentioned a single specimen of V. eggles- tonii collected by Miss Sadie F. Price from near Bowling Green on 11 April 1899. According to Brainerd, that specimen was | at the St. Louis Botanical Garden, and it was labeled V. falcata Greene. We have > corresponded with Dr. Marshall Crosby of | the St. Louis Botanical Garden about the | Sadie Price specimen. In a letter to J. | VIOLA EGGLESTONII IN KENTUCKY—Baskin and Baskin aD Baskin dated 13 June 1977, Dr. Crosby stated that, “I have been unable to locate this specimen filed either under V. eggles- tonii or V. falcata.” Thus, there is no speci- men to verify that V. egglestonii has ever been collected in Warren County. The only report of the occurrence of V. egglestonii in Hart County is by Braun (1943) in her catalogue of spermatophytes of Kentucky. Dr. Braun reported a single collection of the species from Hart County. The specimen is now deposited in the U.S. National Herbarium, bearing a label with the following information: E. Lucy Braun No. 3910 “on dry sw slope, open red cedar “Big Woods” in Hart County, Ky., May 2, 1941.” We have carefully examined the specimen, and it definitely is not V. eggles- tonii. We were unable to identify the species, but it appears to be either V. escu- lenta Ell. or V. triloba Schwein. var. triloba. The lobing of the leaves and the sparse pubescence on the leaf surfaces are charac- teristic of V. esculenta, a species not known to occur in Kentucky. The specimen has leaf lobing characteristic of V. triloba var. triloba, and it was collected within the range of that species. However, the leaves on the specimen are not very pubescent as they are in good V. triloba var. triloba (Brainerd 1921, Russell 1965). Thus, there is no specimen to verify the occurrence of V. egglestonii in Hart County. In summary, Viola egglestonii in Ken- tucky appears to be restricted to a few small populations on cedar glades in Bullitt and Nelson counties. LITERATURE CITED Bascock, J. V. 1977. Endangered plants and animals in Kentucky. A publication of the Office of Research and Engineering Services. College of Engineering, University of Ken- tucky. Lexington, Ky. 128 pp. BAsSKIN, C. C., AND J. M. Baskin. 1975a. The cedar glade flora of Bullitt County, Kentucky. Castanea 40:184—190. BAskIN, J. M., AND C. C. Baskin. 1975b. Geo- graphical distribution of the cedar glade en- demic Viola egglestonii. Rhodora 77:427-429. BRAINERD, FE. 1921. Violets of North America. Vt. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 224. 172 pp. Braun, E. L. 1943. An annotated catalogue of spermatophytes of Kentucky. Published by the author, Cincinnati, Ohio. 161 pp. FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray's manual of botany. 8th Ed. Amer. Book Co., New York, N.Y. 1632 pp. RussELL, N. H. 1965. Violets (Viola) of central and eastern United States. Sida 2:1-113. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 76-77 An Infrequently Reported Alga: Chadefaudiothrix gallica Bourrelly (Xanthophyceae:Heterotrichales) *” Gary E. DILLARD Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 ABSTRACT Chadefaudiothrix gallica Bourrelly, an infrequently encountered xanthophyte, is reported from south-central Kentucky representing its second known locale in addition to the type locale in France. The major distinguishing characteristics and known distribution of the 3 described species of the genus are summarized. The xanthophycean genus Chadefaudio- thrix was erected by Bourrelly (1957). The type species, C. gallica, was collected from an acidic pond (pH 6.5) in France. Two additional species, C. fluitans (Fritsch) Bourrelly [= Ecballocystis fluitans Fritsch, 1933] and C. minouchetii (Bourrelly ) Bour- relly [= Elakatothrix minouchetii Bourrelly, 1947], were recognized by Bourrelly (1957). Distinguishing characteristics and known distributions of the 3 species are summarized in Table 1. The genus is characterized by forming gelatinous tubes that are simple or anasto- mosed and uni- or multiseriate. Individual cells, that may not be contiguous with their neighbors within the tube, are second- arily enclosed by a sheath clearly distin- * Dedicated to Dr. Larry Alston Whitford on the occasion of his 75th birthday. *I wish to thank Dr. Pierre Bourrelly for verify- ing the identification. guishable from that of the primary tube. The tubes are free or may be attached by a gelatinous holdfast to the substrate. The cells are elongate-cylindrical, rarely slightly reniform, with rounded to slightly truncated apexes. Each cell contains 1-4 parietal chloroplasts without pyrenoids. The only known means of reproduction is accom- plished by oblique vegetative cell division. Apparently, the genus was known only from the type locales in France and England prior to Whitford and Schumacher’s (1969) report of C. gallica from acidic swamp pools in Wake County, North Carolina. C. gallica (Fig. 1) was collected from Sloan’s Crossing Pond, Mammoth Cave National Park (Edmonson County, Ken- tucky), in March 1976 (pH 6.2, 12C). In spite of intensive examination of the samples available at that time, only 3 specimens were found. Although routine collections _ have been taken from the pond subse- | TABLE 1.—MA Jor DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF THE 3 DESCRIBED SPECIES | oF Chadefaudiothrix BouRRELLY | Dimensions () Number of Tubes Cells Species chloroplasts ( width ) (width/length ) Habit Distribution C. gallica 2 30-35 6-8 x 27-30 anastomosing tubes, France; USA: metaphytic Ky, NC C. fluitans 4 14-18 3.0-3.5 x 9-18 anastomosing tubes, England metaphytic C. minouchetii 1 13-15 2x 12-26 simple tubes, France epiphytic INFREQUENTLY REPORTED ALGA—Dillard rai fic. 1. Chadefaudiothrix gallica Bourrelly. A. Portion of anastomosing tube; B. single vegetative cell. Scales in microns. quently, no additional specimens of C. gal- ica have been observed. With the exception of reports by Whit- ford and Schumacher (1969, 1973), Meyer and Brook (1969), and Tarapchak (1972), the xanthophycean flora of the United States is poorly known. It appears that the more ephemeral forms, excluding such genera as Ophiocytium, Tribonema, and Vaucheria, occur primarily in dystrophic ponds, swamps, and bogs with major vege- tative development in early spring and fall when water temperatures are 10-15 C. LITERATURE CITED BourrEL.Ly, P. 1947. Algues rares et nouvelles des mares de la Forét de Fontainebleau. Rev. Gén. Bot. 54:306—-326. 1957. Un nouveau genre de Xantho- phycée d’eau douce de la Forét de Sénart: “Chadefaudiothrix.” Rev. Algol. 3:97-102. Fritscu, F. E. 1933. Contribution to our knowl- edge of British algae, V. A British species of Ecballocystis (E. fluitans sp. nov.). J. Bot. 1933:187—196. Meyer, R. L., anp A. J. Broox. 1969. Fresh- water algae from the Itasca State Park, Min- nesota, II. Chrysophyceae and Xanthophyceae. Nova Hedwigia 17:105-112. TARAPCHAK, S. J. 1972. Studies on the Xantho- phyceae of the Red Lake wetlands, Minnesota. Nova Hedwigia 23:1—44. WuitForp, L. A., AND G. J. SCHUMACHER. 1969. A Manual of the Fresh-Water Algae in North Carolina. North Carolina Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 188:1-313. , AND . 1973. A Manual of Fresh-Water Algae. Sparks Press, Raleigh, North Carolina. 324 pp. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1—2), 1978, 78-79 First Record of the Masked Shrew in Western Kentucky THOMAS FRENCH Department of Life Sciences, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809 In Kentucky, Sorex cinereus was pre- viously known to occur only at Big Black Mountain, Harlan County, in extreme south- eastern Kentucky 1974). Hall and Kelson (1959) included Sorex cinereus in western Kentucky along the Ohio River, and Barbour and Davis (1974) suggested that it might occur in northern Kentucky on the basis of records from adjacent Indiana and Ohio. Between 22 November and 17 December 1976, 6 pit- fall can traps were set just west of U.S. 41, 0.7 miles (1.1 km) south of the Ohio River in Henderson County, Kentucky. From those cans, 1 white-footed mouse Peromys- cus leucopus, 1 pine vole Microtus pineto- rum, and 7 masked shrews Sorex cinereus, were captured. The cans were confined to 0.2 acres (0.08 ha) of river floodplain forest with numerous rotting logs and a thick mat of leaf litter. The specimens compare favorably in coat color and body size to a series of 7 speci- mens from Hovey Lake, Posey County, Indiana (ISU 1080-1086). The means and ranges of standard body and skull measure- ments (Table 1) show little difference between the Indiana and Kentucky speci- mens. Cranial measurements follow Jackson (1928). TABLE 1.—MEANS AND RANGES OF STANDARD BODY AND SKULL MEASUREMENTS OF 2 SERIES OF Sorex cinereus FROM INDIANA AND KENTUCKY. ALL MEASUREMENTS ARE IN MILLIMETERS AND WEIGHTS ARE IN GRAMS Condylo- Maxillary Total Tail Hind foot basal Cranial Maxillary Palatal toothrow length length length Weight length width width length length | Henderson 89.3 36.7 11.9 3.2 15.6 es 4.4 6.5 5.9 i County, Ky. 86-92 3640 11.5-12.0 2.9-3.7 15.3-16.1 7.4-7.7 4.34.5 63-68 5.66.1 | BT ae 7 R= a=) 2S 7 n= 7 ee n=7 | Posey 86.1 36.1 11.9 a 15.9 TG 4.4 6.6 5.9 | County, Ind. 81-91 33-39 11.0-13.0 3.1-3.6 15.4-16.4 7.5-7.7 43-45 6.46.8 5.86.0 a7 n= 7 n=7 n=6 n=6 x2=6 7] (Barbour and Davis . The type locality of S. c. lesweurii (Du- | vernoy) is the Wabash River Valley, In- diana. The exact locality was not listed, but specimens from all but southeastern. Indiana have been referred to that subspe-. cies by Mumford (1969). Sorex c. lesueurii is characterized by dark winter pelage, although much darker individuals are known to occur in Newton County, oe (ISU 996-998, 1910, 1911), 240 miles (ca.. 380 km) north of Hovey Lake. The a | locality is approximately 20 miles (32 km) east-northeast of Hovey Lake. | Ectoparasites were collected from 1 Henderson County S. cinereus and were identified by Dr. J. O. Whitaker, Jr., as: Protomyobia sp., 11 (these are being studied! further); Orycteroxenus soricis, 10; and. Amorphacarus hengererorum, 1 male. The present specimens (ISU 3635-3640 and UKy 5243) constitute the second local- ity for the species in Kentucky and the first! record for the subspecies lesueurii. | I gratefully acknowledge J. O. Whitaker, Jr., for reviewing this manuscript. | LITERATURE CITED Barsour, R. W., AND W. H. Davis. 1974. Mam- mals of Kentucky. University Press of Ken- tucky, Lexington, Ky. 322 pp. MASKED SHREW IN WESTERN KENTUCKY—French 79 Hatt, E. R., anp K. R. Ketson. 1959. The and Microsorex). North Am. Fauna no. 51. Mammals of North America. Ronald Press, Washington, D.C. 238 pp. New York, N.Y. 2 vols., 1083 pp. Mumrorp, R. E. 1969. Distribution of the mam- Jackson, H. H. T. 1928. A taxonomic review of mals of Indiana. Ind. Acad. Sci., Monograph the American long-tailed shrews (genus Sorex no. 1. Indianapolis, Ind. 114 pp. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1—2), 1978, 80-81 DISTINGUISHED SCIENTIST AWARD Dr. Wallace W. Hagan Last year, your Academy’s Board of Directors created the Distinguished Scien- tist Award of the Kentucky Academy of Science. It was created to honor those among us who have distinguished them- selves either as generators of new knowl- edge through the development of clever experiments or observations, whether at the research bench, out in the field, or within societies of man, or transmitters of new knowledge to new generations of young minds where information becomes weighed, evaluated, and incorporated into the body of knowledge of man, or as facilitators in the public sector who help the public and government to understand new knowledge and put it to effective use for the sake of the future of mankind. I am delighted at this time to have the honor to make known the name of the Academy's 1977 Distinguished Scientist. The person we are honoring this evening was born in Illinois and attended the Uni- versity of Illinois, receiving his bachelor’s, masters, and eventually his doctoral degrees in geology from that institution. While at ' in charge of the Ground Water Section on 80 the University of Illinois, he was honored with membership in Phi Beta Kappa. Even before obtaining his doctorate, he was a petroleum geologist for the Wicklund] Development Corporation and a consulting geologist in several municipalities in Ken- tucky and Illinois. Following completion of his graduate work, he became geologist | the Indiana Geological Society. He also served as a geologist and consulting geol- ogist for a number of oil companies in Oklahoma, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, and Tennessee. Since 1958, he has been Director. and State Geologist of the Kentucky Geo- logical Survey. He has published papers in paleontology and on oil and gas possibilities in various regions of the midwestern United States. He has given extensively in the area of public service. Just as some examples, he was for 6 years a member of the Advisory } Board of the Kentucky Geological Survey. | From 1958 to the present, he has served as. the Governor's representative on the Inter- } state Oil Compact Commission. He has: been a member of the Kentucky Water} Resources Council since 1958, and for 13 | years served on the Research and Policy} Committee of the Kentucky Water Re-} sources Institute. He is a continuing mem- ber of the Committee on Radioactive Waste }, Disposal of the Kentucky Science and Tech- nology Council, and has been a member of the Lower Mississippi Region Compre- hensive Study Group since 1970. For 10] years, he was a member of the Advisory} Committee on Water Data for Public Use of the United States Department of the Interior. During that same time, he has been active in a number of professional societies, having risen to distinguished positions in each. As an example, he has been a long-standing member of the Association of American} State Geologists, having risen through vari- ous offices to become its national President in 1968 and 1969. He also served for some’ years as a member of its Executive Board. DISTINGUISHED SCIENTIST AWARD 81 As another example, he has been Vice Chair- man of the Southeastern Section of the Geological Society of America. In addition, he is a member of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, having served on a number of their committees, including the Advisory Committee to Federal, State, and Local Agencies. He is not only a member of the Geological Society of Kentucky, but in 1966 served as the state President. This is only a small sample of this individual's participation in various local, state, and national professional societies. In 1972, our recipient received the John Wesley Powell Award that was established in 1971 by the United States Geological Survey of the United States Department of the Interior. That award is given in recog- nition of the contribution that private citizens and groups have made to the furtherance of the USGS missions. Largely through the efforts of the man we honor this evening, extensive geological mapping of the Commonwealth of Kentucky has been accomplished. Kentucky is one of the few states with such complete mapping of its resources. Thus, the person we honor tonight has had a distinguished career in his chosen profession and has made important and significant contributions in the public sector toward furtherance of the understanding and utilization of that information by society. We are pleased to announce that the Academy’s 1977 Distinguished Scientist is Dr. Wallace W. Hagan, Director and State Geologist of the Kentucky Geological Sur- vey. Thomas B. Calhoon, Chairman Board of Directors Response by Dr. Hagan Dr. Calhoon, Mr. President, fellow mem- bers of the Kentucky Academy of Science, and guests, I appreciate very much being honored as recipient of the award of “Dis- tinguished Scientist for 1977.” I accept it with acknowledgment it was made possible by the accomplishments of the staff of the Kentucky Geological Survey, the coopera- tive programs with KGS and the United States Geological Survey in areal geologic mapping, water resources investigations, and topographic mapping; by the support of the Kentucky Department of Commerce, the University of Kentucky, and the Ken- tucky Development Cabinet. The Kentucky and Federal governments, industry, Kentucky Chamber of Commerce, Agriculture-Kentucky Farm Bureau, the Kentucky Geological Survey Advisory Board, the people of Kentucky, and profes- sional engineers and geologists have sup- ported the KGS programs and made them possible. The Areal Geologic Mapping Program that was commenced in 1960 as a coopera- tive program by KGS and USGS is the first time an attempt has been made to map the bedrock geology of a state this large at a scale of 1:24,000. The 767 quadrangles, each of which covers about 59 square miles, have all been field completed, and it is anticipated all will be printed by January 1979. This is a program of great economic value to all our people. Again, I want to thank the Kentucky Academy of Science for the recognition of our work through me. It is indeed an un- expected privilege. I also thank my wife, Betty, for all the patience, understanding, and support she has given me during the years. This is the last Academy meeting I will attend as your Director and State Geologist of the Kentucky Geological Survey as I am to retire 1 July 1978. My interest in the Academy, the geology of Kentucky, and the progress of the Survey will continue beyond that date. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 82-87 ACADEMY AFFAIRS PROGRAM Friday, 11 November 1977 1200-1600, REGISTRATION, Thompson Complex CST for Science—Central Wing 1200-1700 SCIENTIFIC EXHIBITS, Thompson Complex for Science—Central Wing 1300-1600 ing pages) KAS ANNUAL BANQUET, Downing University Center Auxiliary Dining Room 1830-2030 Speaker: Damon Harrison Commissioner of Energy Commonwealth of Kentucky HOSPITALITY HOUR, Red Carpet Inn 2100-2300 Saturday, 12 November 1977 0800-1200 SCIENTIFIC EXHIBITS, Thompson Complex for Science—Central Wing 0800-1000 REGISTRATION, Thompson Complex for Science—Central Wing 0800-0915 ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING, Thompson Complex for Science—Cen- tral Wing, Room 129 0915-0930 COFFEE BREAK 0930-— SECTIONAL MEETINGS (see follow- ing pages) SECTIONAL PROGRAMS BoTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY Room 203 Thompson Complex for Science, North Wing William Martin, Chairman, Presiding Willem Meijer, Secretary Friday, 11 November 1300 The causitive agent of reddening in lettuce. L. P. Elliot, Western Kentucky University. The effect of temperature and cell poisons upon the growth of Saccharomyces cerivisiae populations. Michelle Gausepohl, Western Kentucky University. (Sponsor: Herbert Leopold. ) The taxonomic significance of experimental selection by vernalization in Nuphar. E. O. Beal, Western Kentucky University. Ecotypic differentiation in Ohio and Mis- sissippi populations in Acer negundo L. Anthony Greco and Joe Winstead, Western Kentucky University. 1315 1330 1345 SECTIONAL MEETINGS (see follow- | 82 1400 1415 1430 1445 Effects of submergence on Liquidambar styracflua L. seedlings. Lynn N. Wellman and Joe E. Winstead, Western Kentucky | University. | Experimental synthesis on ectomychorrhizae | with Pisolithus tinctorius on tree seedlings | produced for strip mine reclamation. Dale M. Maronek and James W. Hendrix, Uni- versity of Kentucky. Association on mammal occurrence in the ectomychorihoral fungus Pisolithus tinctorius | with superior growth on pine seedlings on reclaimed strip mine sites. James W. Hen- drix, Dale M. Maronek, and Claude Dow- | ning, University of Kentucky and Division | of Reclamation, London, Kentucky. | The Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission. | Donald Harker, State Government, Frank- fort. Saturday, 12 November 0930 0945 1000 1015 1030 1045 1100 1115 1130 1145 1200 Index Herbarium Kentuckiensis. Stuart Las- | setter, Eastern Kentucky University. | Endangered and threatened plants of Ken-. tucky. Progress report. Willem Meijer, University of Kentucky, and Mary Wharton, | Georgetown College. | Bald point, a forest and prairie complex in northern Kentucky. William S. Bryant, Thomas More College. | The flora of Hardin County. Ray Cranfill, University of Kentucky. A new station for the filmy fern Trichom-| anes boschianum in Western Kentucky. Ronald R. Van Stockum, University of Louisville. The Inner Blue Grass and its tree vege- tation. Julian J. Campbell, University of! Kentucky. | Lichen associations in relation to air pollu-. tion in the Inner Blue Grass. Martha Simp- } son, University of Kentucky. (Sponsored by Willem Meijer. ) ! Geographic affinities of the bryophytes on the Red River Gorge. Susan M. Moyle, Centre College. | Saxicolous bryophyte communities in the] Red River Gorge. Mary Gallagher and Susan M. Moyle, Centre College. The Flora of the Kentucky River Bluffs in the Blue Grass Region. Willem Meijer, Uni-§ versity of Kentucky. Election of officers for 1977-1978. ACADEMY AFFAIRS 83 CHEMISTRY SECTION Room 402 Thompson Complex for Science, Central Wing Ilyas Ahmad, Chairman, Presiding James Niewahner, Secretary Friday, 11 November 1400 The role of different dietary carbohydrates on the body chemistry of animals in relation to cholesterol, lipid, lipoprotein levels, and certain serum enzymes levels. Ilyas Ahmad and Charlotte Dingels, Kentucky State Uni- versity. Characterization of nitrogen compounds from coal liquids. Tay-Yen Lin and Norman Holy, Western Kentucky University. 1430 Saturday, 12 November 0930 The effect of diet on the number and size of adipose cells in rats. Lydia C. Maness and Sue A. Debes, Kentucky State Univer- sity. Gas chromatograph and flame ionization analysis of ethylene gas production. Steve Estok. (Third place award in Chemistry ISEF, Cleveland, Ohio, 1977), Western Kentucky University. Poiymerization of some metallophthalocya- nines. Issa Jabra and Robert Farina, West- ern Kentucky University. Stereochemistry of 1-tertiary butyl-1,4-dihy- dronaphthalene and 1,4-di,ter-butyl-1,4-di- hydronaphthalene. Abdol Haji-Hossien-Ne- jad and Normal L. Holy, Western Kentucky University. Kinetic study of the peroxysulfate—chloride reaction. Jim Niewahner, Northern Ken- tucky University. 1000 1020 1040 1100 GEOGRAPHY SECTION Note: Geography will have concurrent sessions Friday. Friday, 11 November URBAN GEOGRAPHY—Room 337, Environmental Science and Technology Building 1300 Geography and Planning. The Eastern Ken- tucky University experience. R. L. Marion- neaux, Eastern Kentucky University. The areal distribution of three components of the urban social profile of metropolitan Perth. Thomas P. Field, University of Kentucky. Occupational structure of Louisville, 1832. A. William Dakan, University of Louisville. 1315 1330 1345 An examination of variations in quality of life among Kentucky’s urban places. Dennis E. Quillen, Eastern Kentucky University. Factorial urban ecology of metropolitan Lexington. Dinker I. Patel, Kentucky State University. 1400 CULTURE AND DEVELOPMENT—Room 337, Environmental Science and Technology Building 1415 Growth management in the Bluegrass. T. J. Kubiak, Eastern Kentucky University, and J. V. Panayotoff, Department of Transporta- tion, Frankfort. Cultural determinism in a difficult physical environment. Gary C. Cox, Morehead State University. Louisiana sugarcane: an industry in change. Arthur Frank Perkins, Eastern Kentucky University. 1430 1445 ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY—Room 338, Environmental Science and Technology Building 1300 Tornadoes of 27 March 1890: an approach to the study of severe weather phenomena in Kentucky's past. Marvin W. Russell, Western Kentucky University. Methods for assessing the influence of winter temperatures on natural gas consumption. Glenn Conner, Western Kentucky Univer- sity. 1315 1330 Quaternary fluctuations and areal extent of drifting arctic sea ice. Anthony O. Clarke, University of Louisville. 1345 Ducktown: a making of a desert. James W. Taylor, Western Kentucky University. KENTUCKY GEOGRAPHY—Room 338, Environmental Science and Technology Building 1400 Ellen Churchill Semple: a portrait. Cynthia Cooke, University of Louisville. A proposed “Pronouncing Gazetteer of Ken- tucky Place Names.” William A. Withing- ton, University of Kentucky. Wet, dry, and damp: alcohol and Kentucky counties. Tom Spinks, University of Louis- ville. Visitation to Kentucky reservoir parks: a prediction for Taylorsville. John L. Ander- son, University of Louisville. 1415 1430 1445 GEOLOGY SECTION Geology will have concurrent sessions Friday and Saturday afternoons. Note: Friday, 11 November GENERAL GEOLOGY—Noland Fields, Chairman Room 323, Environmental Science and Technology Building 84 Trans. KENTucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) 1300 Source of the heavy minerals in the Wilcox and Claiborne formations in Henry, Weak- ley, and Carroll counties, Tennessee. Armin L. Clark, Murray State University. The Devonian-Mississippian paracontinuous contact in southern Kentucky. J. E. Conkin, University of Louisville, and B. M. Conkin, Jefferson Community College. Relationship of sieve size frequency distri- bution data to thin-section textural data: a progress report. Thomas McLoughlin, More- head State University. 1415 watershed in eastern Kentucky. Everett D. Springer and George B. Coltharp, University of Kentucky. Multispectral scanning information on the highlands of the moon. C. Ronald Seeger, Western Kentucky University. 1440 COAL—Norman C. Hester, Chairman; Room 328, Environmental Science and Technology Building 1515 Geochemistry of coal-bearing sediments in eastern Kentucky. Roy Dale Merritt, Eastern Kentucky University. (Sponsor: Norman C. Hester). The occurrence and distribution of sulfur in coal bearing rock in Eastern Kentucky. Nor- man C. Hester, Eastern Kentucky University. 1540 1605 Interval correlation of western Kentucky coals. L. Chyi, University of Kentucky. 1630 Petrology, mineralogy, and chemistry of Hazard #4 tonestin. Stanley Stevens, Eastern Kentucky University. SPECIAL SESSION—C. Ronald Seeger, Chairman; Room 328, Environmental Science and Technology Building Invited papers on geology and tectonics of western Kentucky 0930 Survey of the tectonic setting of the central midcontinent. Virginia Lee Hagee and C. Ronald Seeger, Western Kentucky Univer- sity. Aeromagnetic and gravity anomalies related to structure in western Kentucky. R. W. Johnson, Tennessee Valley Authority, and G. R. Keller, University of Texas at El Paso. Geology of the Reelfoot Basin. Howard R. Schwalb, Kentucky Geological Survey, Hen- derson, Kentucky. 1020 1045 Interpretation of microgravity surveys of the Tiptonville Dome. Susan K. Towe, Parrish N. Erwin, Jr., and Richard G. Stearns, Vanderbilt University. 1110 Earth resistivity of samples in the field and laboratory. Jau-Ping Tsau, Richard G. Some hydrologic characteristics of a forested ° Stearns, and Robert G. Perry, Vanderbilt University Tracing a fault scarp near Reelfoot Lake. Richard G. Stearns, Jau-Ping Tsau, Susan K. Towe, and Parrish N. Erwin, Jr., Vanderbilt University. 1200 Noon meal. 1135 AFTERNOON SESSIONS GEOCHEMISTRY AND SEDIMENTATION— Gary Kuhnhenn, Chairman; Room 323, Environ- mental Science and Technology Building 1315 U-Th geochemistry of Devonian black shale in Kentucky. W. H. Blackburn, P. A. Davis, and G. Makowitz, University of Kentucky. Stratigraphy and geochemistry of Chatta- nooga shale in Pulaski County, Kentucky. Dennis Swager and Eugenion Nunez, Uni- versity of Kentucky. (Sponsor: Perry B.. Wizggley. ) | Depositional history and paleoecology of carbonate mud mounds within the Fort | Payne (lower Mississippian) of northern | Tennessee. Robert B. Lieber and W. C. MacQuown, University of Kentucky. | Preliminary microscopic study of the Devo-_ nian black shales from eastern Kentucky. Michael L. Miller and Frank R. Ettensohn, University of Kentucky. | 1340 1405 1430 Clay mineralogy and depositional environ- ment of some interbedded green and black | shale. Lewis P. Scott IV, Eastern Kentucky | University. (Sponsor: Perry B. Wiggley. ) 1455 GENERAL GEOLOGY—Ronald Dilamarter, Chairman; Room 328, Environmental Science and } Technology Building 1315 Depositional Environment of the Strodes | Creek member of the Lexington Limestone. Hamidedin Marashi and Perry B. Wiggley, Eastern Kentucky University. Ojo Caliente tuff ring of the Rio Grande Rift, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico. S.. Judson May, Eastern Kentucky University. 1340 1405 Clay mineralogy of the overburden in east- ern Kentucky. Clinton C. Wetmore and Stanley Stevens, Easter Kentucky Univer- sity. | 1430 Louisville Meteorite: ordinary chondrite L6 with shock metamorphic textures. Graham Hunt, University of Louisville. | Quaternary topographic changes on glacial 1455 drifts in Iowa. Ronald R. Dilamarter, West- | ern Kentucky University. (Sponsor: C. Ronald Seeger. ) | 1520 Sectional Business Meeting, Room 328, En- vironmental Science and Technology Build- ing. ACADEMY AFFAIRS 85 Puysics SECTION Room 403, Thompson Complex for Science, Central Wing James Parks, Chairman, Presiding Manuel Schwartz, Secretary Friday, 11 November 1300 1330 1340 1350 1400 1410 1420 1430 1440 1450 KAPT Business Meeting, James Parks, Pres- ident, Presiding. Report—AAPT actions. Frank Six, Western Kentucky University. Simplified statistics for introductory physics. Peter W. Murphy, Centre College. Diffraction of light by an array of filaments. D. Bryant, Western Kentucky University. Search for a solid state laser oscillator at 1.315 micrometers. E. Dorman, Western Kentucky University. Magnetic braking during star formation. Robert C. Fleck, Jr., University of Kentucky. Magnetohydrodynamics and inhomogeneous cosmologies. A. Fennelly, Western Kentucky University. Emission-line galaxies. T. Bohuski, Western Kentucky University, and D. Weedman and A. Fairall, Vanderbilt University. Basic experiments with silicon solar cells. Randall Winchester and Buford Anderson, Murray State University. Advanced experiments with silicon solar cells. Steven Hicks and Buford Anderson, Murray State University. Saturday, 12 November 0930 0940 0950 1000 1010 1020 Synergistic effects of ultraviolet radiation on mammalian cells and viruses. B. E. Cobb and T. P. Coohill, Western Kentucky Uni- versity. Dynamical evolution of the interstellar gas towards the formation of stars: the “Gravi- tational Slingshot.” F. O. Clark, University of Kentucky. Total neutron production cross section for *°Si (an) *S. D. S. Flynn, R. Hershberger, F. Gabbard, and J. L. Weil, University of Kentucky. Cross section and strength functions for *“Ag (p,n) **Cd, and *°Ag (p,n) ?°Cd. R. Hersh- berger, D. S. Flynn, F. Gabbard, and J. L. Weil, University of Kentucky. Positron annihilation and molecular polariz- ability. D. C. Huang, Catalytics and Chem- icals, Inc., Louisville, and W. F. Huang, University of Louisville. Study of range, stopping power, and strag- gling of alpha particles in air. P. J. Ouseph and A. Mostovych, University of Louisville. 1030 Traffic noise near the Thomas More College 1040 1050 campus—predictions. D. P. Roenker and J. Boyle, Thomas More College. Optimizing travel times in a mass transit system. V. A. O'Connell and J. E. Lang, Thomas More College. Fine structure in F and G states of helium. K. B. MacAdam, University of Kentucky. PHysioLocy, BioPHysICs, AND PHARMACOLOGY SECTION Room 130, Thompson Complex for Science, North Wing Thomas F. Coohill, Chairman, Presiding John Meger, Secretary Friday, 11 November 1400 1415 1430 1445 1500 Evidence for bifunctionality in the his B enzyme of Salmonella typhimurium. Eugene J. Hoffman, Western Kentucky University. Radiation enhanced (Weigle) reactivation of herpes virus. Leslie C. James, Thomas P. Coohill, and Sharon P. Moore, Western Kentucky University. Effect of 8-methoxypsoralen on Weigle re- activation of herpes virus. Leslie C. James and Thomas P. Coohill, Western Kentucky University. A mathematical model for maize competition and yield emphasizing harvest index. Mar- vin W. Russell, Western Kentucky Univer- sity. Does the murine bone marrow cell popu- lation contain immunocompetent cell for cellular immunity? F. Morgado, Western Kentucky University. Saturday, 12 November 0930 0945 1000 1030 1100 1130 Multiple molecular forms of porcine enolase; physical and chemical properties. William Farrar, Eastern Kentucky University. (Spon- sor: Sanford L. Jones.) The effect of salpingectomy on maintenance of pseudopregnancy, uterine and ovarian weights in the rat. Sanford L. Jones, East- ern Kentucky University. Folic acid absorption in pregnancy. Debra K. Pearce, Northern Kentucky University. Computer designed contact lenses. F. D. Bryant, Western Kentucky University. Effects of diayepam (valium) on the medul- lary respiratory neurons of anesthetized cats. Leon D. Wang and Donald T. Frazier, University of Kentucky. Sectional business meeting and election of officers. 86 SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION Room 338, Environmental Science and Technology Building Shaw Blankenship, Chairman, Presiding Terry Wilson, Secretary Saturday, 12 November 0930 An experiment in an integrated science— math—education component in the elemen- tary teacher education program. Gary Bog- gess and Arvin Crafton, Murray State University. Utilizing a mobile laboratory to teach en- vironmental concepts. Nancy Stearns, Mu- seum of Natural History and Science, Louis- ville, Kentucky. 0955 Participatory versus passive planetarium programs. Jack Fletcher, Eastern Kentucky University. Educational activities of the northern Ken- tucky Audubon Club. Michael O’Brien, Program Director Northern Kentucky Audu- bon Club. Statewide staff development training in science education. Frank Howard, Kentucky Department of Education, Frankfort. Energy education curriculum project. Terry Wilson, Kentucky Department of Education, Frankfort. Business session. 1110 1135 1200 PsyCcHOLOGY SECTION Room 349, Environmental Science and Technology Building Friday, 11 November 1300 The effects of modeling on personal space in white subjects in relation to a black or white confederate. Rita C. Masden and Richard Shuntich, Eastern Kentucky Univer- sity. (Sponsor: Dr. William H. Watkins. ) Conformity within the fraternity system. Mark Davis and Brent White, Centre Col- lege. Indirect tests of theories of dreaming using presleep manipulation. Donald Brown and Cathy Kassab, Centre College. Learning of ‘identity’ and ‘difference’ roles in the pigeon. David E. Hogan, Charles A. Edwards, and Thomas R. Zentall, University of Kentucky. (Sponsor: James S. Calvin. ) Passive avoidance learning in the young domestic chick. Michael Osborne, Bruce A. Mattingly, and James F. Zolman, University of Kentucky. 1320 1340 1400 1440 Caffeine—amphetamine interaction: route of injection and prior caffeine treatment. Brent White and Don Harkins, Jr., Centre College. Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) 1500 Functional recovery after spaced sequential destruction of the frontal lobes in the rat. Charles Goodlett and Arthur Nonneman, University of Kentucky. Saturday, 12 November 0930 head State University. (Sponsor: Dr. Fran- cis R. Osborne. ) 0950 time: Dose response and drug order rela- tionships. Centre College. 1010 trollable vs. uncontrollable stress in rats. Francis H. Osborne, Ronald L. Skidmore, Allen L. Levay, Morehead State University. The effects of retinal eccentricity and orientation on perceived length. Jack G. Thompson and Katherine A. Fowler, Centre College. (Sponsor: Dr. Brent White. ) 1030 adult concept formation. Jack G. Thompson and Joanne H. Cornell, Centre College. (Sponsor: Dr. Brent White. ) 1110 behavior of Kentucky residents. Bradley S. Moore, Morehead State University. (Spon- sor: Dr. Francis H. Osborne. ) 1130 Business meeting. SocIoLOoGy SECTION Room 402, Environmental Science and Technology Building Craig Taylor, Chairman, Presiding K. M. George, Secretary Friday, 11 November 1300 Evaluation of effect of occupational sex dominance by probability estimation. Au- drey Jackson, Western Kentucky University. 1330 The phenomenological critique of social sci- ence. Edward Armstrong, Murray State } University. 1430 Sectional business meeting. Election of 1977-1978 officers. Saturday, 12 November 0945 Wozniak and Thomas Dunn, Western Ken- tucky University. ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY SECTION Room 101, Thompson Complex for Science, North Wing Henry H. Howell, Chairman, Presiding Paul H. Freytag, Secretary The effects of apomorphine on spontaneous © activity in rats. Ronald L. Skidmore, More- — Caffeine suppression of barbituate sleep — Brent White and Lynn Elliot, Effects of response topography with con- — The role of rule difficulty and familiarity in © The effects of population density on social © Workshop in social science simulations. Paul } ACADEMY AFFAIRS 87 Friday, 11 November 1300 The mammals of Lilly's Woods. William W. Lewis and M. Pete Thompson, Eastern Kentucky University. Economics of woodchucks in central Ken- tucky. M. Pete Thompson, Eastern Ken- tucky University. Winter bird roosts in the Bowling Green area, with analysis of microbial flora and diet of the birds. H. E. Shadowen and L. P. Elliott, Western Kentucky University. Scanning electron microscopy of the scolex of the cestode Onygmatobothrium musteli. Fred H. Whittaker, University of Louisville. Long-term survivorship of Drosophila in oxygen enriched atmospheres: a multiple generation approach. Gerrit Kloek, Ken- tucky State University. Drosophila survivorship in hypobaric atmo- spheres: a preliminary discussion. Linda Mahoney, Kentucky State University. The effect of mutations on the survival of Drosophila melanogaster. Becky Unthank, KJAS Winner of Zoology Section. Sectional business meeting. 1315 1330 1345 1400 1415 1430 1445 Saturday, 12 November 0930 Population dynamics of Sitona hispidula adults in alfalfa and red clover in Kentucky. Gary L. Leibee, University of Kentucky. The early hair streak Erora laeta in Ken- tucky (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). Charles V. Covell, University of Louisville. Biology of Caliroa quercuscoccineae (Hy- menoptera: Tenthredinidae). Eric Johnson, University of Kentucky. Life cycle of Gonatopus bicolor (Hymenop- tera: Dryinidae). Paul H. Freytag, Uni- versity of Kentucky. 0945 1000 1015 EXHIBITORS Beckman Instruments Carl Zeiss Carolina Biological Supply Company Estes Industries Graphic Controls Corporation Harvard Apparatus Company, Inc. (Devices for Science, Inc. ) Olympus Corporation of America Southern Biology Supply Exhibits are in the lobby of the Thompson Science Complex, Center Wing during 11 November, 1200- 1700, and 12 November, 0730-1500. The Academy acknowledges the support of all exhibitors and recognizes that the meeting is enhanced by displays of materials of use to science educators. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39( 1-2), 1978, 88-91 Tue Srxty-THiRp ANNUAL BuSINESS MEETING OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE WESTERN KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY, BOWLING GREEN, KENTUCKY 11 and 12 November 1977 Hosts: Drs. Marvin Russell and Wayne Hoffman MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING The meeting was called to order by President Charles Payne at 0805 in Room 129, Thompson Complex for Science, Central Wing, with about 60 members in attendance. After a motion by Secretary Seay and a second from the floor, the Minutes of the 1976 Annual Business Meeting at the University of Kentucky, as recorded in TRANSACTIONS Vol. 38( 1-2), were approved. The Secretary then moved to accept all members that joined during 1976. The motion was seconded and carried. The Secretary announced that membership has increased to 538 individual members and a total mailing list of close to 600 (as of 7 November). The Secretary was notified of one death during the year: Dr. Ward Sumpter, Western Kentucky University. The Treasurer’s Report was given by Dr. Bart- lett Dickinson. The report was audited by Gene- vieve Clark, Dwight Lindsay, and Tom Seay (Chm.) and found to be in good order. Treasurers Report to the Audit Committee Kentucky Academy of Science 11 November 1976—4 November 1977 Cash in Citizens National Bank Bowling Green, Kentucky, 11. November 1976 #22242. $ 7,529.83 Check outstanding to JKAS, lf November 197620 = Ss 500.00 $ 7,029.83 RECEIPTS: Subsidy from State ___- $ 6,000.00 Membership dues ______- 1,582.50 Annual Meeting 873.85 Subscriptions to ‘Transscuons _ 220. 2 be 458.00 Transactions to University of Louisville 375.00 AAAS Research Grant __ 128.00 Floristic Grant transfer __ 500.00 Botany Foundation ______. 2,000.00 $11,917.35 $11,917.35 $18,917.18 88 DISBURSEMENTS: Annual Meeting _.__ $ 1,296.69 AAAS Research Grants _ 128.00 Refund to National Science Foundation ____ 300.86 Certificate of Deposit, Botany Foundation ___ 2,000.00 Operating expenses— stationery, etc. _____ 121.24 RloristievGrants.s-oNeee 500.00 Dues to AAAS, 1977 _____ 24.50 Publication of Eransactionsy:: 252. 28 7,337.00 $11,708.29 Balance 2.22 EE EEE $ 7,238.89 Cash in Farmer’s National Bank, Georgetown, Kentucky, 4 November 1977 Savings account, Lexington Federal Savings and Loan Savings account, First National Bank, Georgetown Savings account (Foundation), First National Bank, Georgetown __. Savings account (Floristic Grant), Citizens National Bank, Bowling Green Certificate of deposit ( Botany Foundation ), Citizens National Bank, Bowling Green “<-. 22333 2,843.16 9 Certificate of deposit (Botany | Foundation ), First National Bank, Georgetown _________________ 2,000.00 | | ToraL AssETs: $15,116.43. Dr. Payne called for the following committee reports: 1. Committee on Membership. Dr. Batch re- ported that the membership drive was more suc-. cessful than the past drive with about a 10 percent. increase in membership. (The Secretary noted that Dr. Batch led the way with 8 new members. ) | 2. Committee on Legislation. No report. 3. Committee on Publications. Dr. Krumholz)) presented the following written report to the Sec- retary: ACADEMY AFFAIRS 89 During 1977, 2 issues of Volume 38 of the Transactions were published and distributed to the membership. Volume 38(1-2) consisted of 110 pages that included 16 papers, the Distinguished Scientist Award, Academy Affairs, and News and Comment. Volume 38(3-4) consisted of 40 pages that in- cluded 10 papers, News and Comment, and the Index and Contents for Volume 38. The cost for Volume 38( 1-2) was $4,641.57 and that for Vol- ume 38(3-4) was $2,156.40 for an annual total of $6,797.97. Thus, the cost per page for the entire page for the entire volume was $41.45 including all blank pages and covers. The subjects of the 26 papers in Volume 38 were distributed among the various disciplines as follows: Zoology, 16; Chemistry, 3; Botany, 3; Geology, 2; Bacteriology, 1; and Scientific Litera- ture, 1. Pages occupied by the various disciplines in Volume 38 were: Zoology, 92; Chemistry, 15; Botany, 8; Geology, 13; Bacteriology, 6; and Scien- tific Literature, 1. The size of Volume 38 represents an increase of 39 pages over that of Volume 37 for 1976 that included 19 papers distributed among the dis- ciplines as follows: Zoology, 10; Botany, 7; and ‘Chemistry, 2. Pages occupied by those disciplines were: Zoology, 44; Botany, 40; and Chemistry, 2. It also represents an increase of 3 disciplines in- ‘cluded in the publication. ' It is hoped that greater numbers of papers from disciplines other than Zoology and Botany will be forwarded to the editorial office. We have estab- lished deadlines of 1 January and 1 July for sending completed and edited manuscripts to the printer. Thus, any prospective author should submit a ‘Manuscript at least 3 months in advance of those deadlines so that there is ample time for review and revision. In addition to the above report, Dr. Krumholz announced that the Executive Committee voted that all authors of papers published in the TRANS- ACTIONS must be members of the Academy. The Board of Directors was asked to approve that action. The Board approved. _ Dr. Krumholz also announced that, beginning with Volume 39 of the TRANSACTIONS, there will be page charges of $15.00 per printed page or portion thereof. 4. Committee on Public Science Education. Dr. Ted George presented the following report: _ We have proposed to the Kentucky Council on Teacher Education and Certification that there should be 3 distinct areas of certification for science teachers: Elementary (K-—6), Middle School (5-9) and Secondary (9-12) and we also specified what we thought certification requirements should be for those science teachers. Our proposal for Ele- mentary certification was rejected. The Council agreed to study the Middle School certification for all teachers and set up its own committee to study the feasibility and make recommendations. This committee recommended a separate certification area for Middle School and also recommended certification requirements of 24 semester hours in science for science teachers in Middle School. Of the 24 hours, 6 hours at least must be in Biological Science, 6 hours in Physical Science, and 6 hours in Earth Science. One laboratory would be re- quired in each Biological Science and Physical Science. In our opinion, this preparation would be totally inadequate for anyone to teach the science courses now available at grades 7, 8, and 9. The proposal has passed the Kentucky Council on Certification as well as the State Board of Education and is due to be implemented in September 1979. We have been told that many other groups have reservations concerning these new Middle School Certification Guidelines and that hearings will be held as to whether the Guidelines will be optional or mandatory for the Middle School teachers. If you have an opportunity to attend one of the meetings, you should be sure to register your opinion. A full report of the Committee is available. 5. State Governmental Science Advisory Com- mittee. Dr. Marvin Russell reported that he had attended a meeting with the Governor’s Cabinet. It was scheduled for 10 min, but turned into a 45-min session at their insistence. A meeting was held at the request of Mr. Harry Snyder, Executive Director of the Council on Higher Education, to discuss the updating and expansion of the Scientific Manpower Registry. The possibility of the Council assuming the major responsibility for maintaining the registry was explored. Dr. Russell will serve as liaison to the Academy President until such time as the new president elects to appoint a committee or take other action. “The National Science Foundation will provide up to $2,500,000 in study grants to be used by the States to identify and analyze potentially useful ways in which State and local governments can increase their capacities for using science, engineer- ing, and technology in meeting the needs of their citizens. Up to $25,000 each for the Executive and Legislative Branches of each State government will be made available as the Federal share of the cost of the study grants. “This planning program is intended to provide State governments with assistance in the develop- ment or improvement of the policy formulation processes in their States. Funds will be provided to assist a State in identifying the need for, and the contributions that can be made by, policy analyses, research results, and decisionmaking process of their State, in both the Executive and Legislative Branches.” (Taken from the program announcement. ) KAS has been asked by one of the state agencies to explore possible areas of mutual interest. 90 6. Committee on Botanical Research Fund. Dr. Joe E. Winstead reported the following awards: Ms. Deborah Otte, graduate student at the Uni- versity of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, $400.00, to help fund her study “A Vegetational Analysis in Relation to Environmental Factors of the Red River Drainage System in Eastern Kentucky.” Ms. Sally Arnold, graduate student in Biology at Western Kentucky University, $100.00, to help support her study “Determination of Environ- mental vs. Genetic Variability within the Lindernia dubia—anagallidea Complex.” These awards will be made in January 1978 upon receipt of dividends and interest from the KAS Foundation for Botanical Research endowment. 7. KAS—AAAS Grant Committee. Winstead gave the following report. Members of the KAS-AAAS Grant Committee after study of proposals submitted to the Academy have selected 2 applications to share the 1977-1978 award. Recipients are: Sister Mary Leon Riney, St. Mary High School, Paducah, Kentucky. Grant monies to be used to help purchase a Hach water analysis kit for student use in environmental chem- istry. Mr. Richard A. Van Enk, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University. Funds -to help defray incidental expenses for his proposed study entitled “Isolation and Enumeration of Yeasts of Medical Importance from the Barren River.” It is the intent of the Committee that the funds available for 1977-1978 be divided equally be- tween Sister Riney and Mr. Van Enk. Dr. Joe E. 8. Floristic Grant Committee. Dr. Marian Fuller reported that the committee had met to formulate general procedures, but there was no award to announce at this time. Other committee members are Arland Hotchkiss, University of Louisville, and John Thieret, Norther Kentucky University. At this point, President Payne exhibited the new Certificate of Membership that will be made avail- able to all new members automatically and to all other members upon request. Appreciation was expressed to Herbert Leopold for making the cer- tificate available to the Academy. 9. The Junior Academy. Herbert Leopold re- ported that the Junior Academy is solvent and operating smoothly. The April Symposium held in Lexington drew an attendance of 225-250 with 80 papers presented. Steve Estok, Warren East High School, won third place honors in the chemistry section of the International Science and Engineer- ing Fair. He will present his paper at the AAAS meeting in Washington. 10. AAAS Representatives. Dr. Branley Branson reported that there had been considerable cor- respondence regarding various offices and new groups within the AAAS, but there was nothing major at this time to report to the Academy. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) President Payne asked for the assembled mem-_ bers to act on the dues increases as presented in the Academy Newsletter. The dues increases were: | Active Membership __.________ $ 10.00 Student Membership —..--______ 7.00 Sustaining Membership —...____ 25.00 Life Membership. 3... eee 100.00 Institutional Affiliation*® 50.00 (or multiples/year ) * The Executive Committee and Board of Direc-| tors voted to change the name Ree Membership” to “Institutional Affiliation.” There was no discussion and the motion to accept the new dues figures was passed without} objection. Once the above increase was accepted by the| assembled members, President Payne announced the receipt of $6,000.00 from the Governor’s Con-. tingency Fund and called for the report of the! Resolutions Committee. John Philley, that were 1l. Resolutions Committee. submitted the following resolutions, unanimously accepted: Resolution No. 1: Whereas, Western Kentucky University has gra- ciously served as the Host Institution for the Sixty- third Annual Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science, and whereas Dr. Marvin Russell, Dr. Wayne Hoffman, and others at Western Kentucky University have worked diligently to make the meeting a success and, Whereas, Western eueeden University has made outstanding contributions to scientific thought and leadership, Therefore, be it resolved herewith: a. That the Kentucky Academy of Science ex- presses its appreciation to Western Kentucky University and the above individuals, and that the Academy’s Secretary be instructed to so inform them. b. That the Kentucky Academy of Science con- gratulates Western Kentucky University for being an outstanding institution of higher education in Kentucky and our Nation and for promoting science through instruction, research, and public service. Resolution No. 2: Whereas, the University of Louisville and More- head State University are among the outstanding institutions of higher education in the Common-) wealth of Kentucky and have been instrumental in providing significant leadership to the Kentucky Academy of Science, Therefore be it resolved herewith: That the Kentucky Academy of Science expresses its appreciation to the University of Louisville ——— ee ee ee ee ee ee as ——] 0 Oe eee [ ACADEMY AFFAIRS 91 and to Morehead State University for their in- stitutional affiliations with the Academy, and that the Academy’s Secretary be instructed to so inform these institutions. President Payne expressed his appreciation to Dr. Krumholz for his fruitful effort in obtaining $500 from the University of Louisville as an institu- tional affiliation. Modesty prevented him from taking any credit for the $250 institutional affilia- tion of Morehead State University. Members of the other institutions of higher education were in- vited to give their institution the privilege of participating! It was announced that the Executive Committee had accepted an invitation from Eastern Kentucky University for the next annual meeting. The dates will be announced later. The chair then recognized the chairman of the nominating committee, Dr. Krumholz (assisted by Henry H. Howell and William S. Bryant), who presented the following: President Elect: Sanford L. Jones, Eastern Ken- _ tucky University ‘Vice President: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky _ University ‘Secretary: Thomas N. Seay, Georgetown College Treasurer: Bartlett C. Dickinson, Georgetown Col- lege »Members of the Board of Directors to 1981: Don- ald C. Haney, Eastern Kentucky University; _ William F. Wagner, University of Kentucky Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky University AAAS Representatives: Branley Branson, Eastern Kentucky University; John Carpenter, University of Kentucky There were no nominations from the floor and the above slate of officers was elected by acclama- tion. There being no further business, President Payne became Past President Payne by introducing the new President, Charles Kupchella. President Kup- chella listed as his priorities for the new year: 1. Membership expansion. Dr. Batch’s impetus should spur the Academy in both increasing and giving better balance to the membership of the Academy. 2. Seeking more permanent state support as one way to improve the Transactions (along with implementation of page charges and dues in- crease ). 3. Enhance visibility of the Academy and scientific endeavor. Attention was called to the report of Lloyd and Associates indicating the poor stand- ing of Kentucky in receipt of Research and Development funds. 4, The desire to visit as many campuses as possible in the course of the year, perhaps giving a paper along the lines of “Cancer: The Ultimate En- vironmental Insult.” With those comments, the meeting was adjourned at 0915. Thomas Seay, Secretary Kentucky Academy of Science Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(1—2), 1978, 92-94 NEWS AND President’s Science is far more of an Remarks entity than any of its sub- sets. While physiology, psy- chology, sociology, chemistry, and other scientific disciplines share the same meth- odologic approaches to the quest for new knowledge, they overlap in scope and have rather indistinct boundaries. It is appro- priate that there are organizations that bind scientists together outside their narrow dis- ciplines to provide a framework from which to deal with the problems of science and of society. The interaction among scientific subdivisions will become increasingly im- portant as we deal with enormously com- plicated problems that require multidis- ciplinary approaches. This is also Kentucky Science, and this, too, is becoming more important as we face increasingly complex socioscientific problems within the Com- monwealth. Recently, I reflected on the things that stimulated me to become more involved in the work of the Kentucky Academy of Science. In addition to the obvious oppor- tunities for good fellowship and for getting to know my colleagues throughout the state, there was the challenge presented in the report on Federal Research and Develop- ment funding. in Kentucky, written several years ago by Dr. William Lloyd. That report revealed that Kentucky ranked fifty- first behind forty-nine other states and Washington, D.C. in federal dollars coming back to the state for research development. The report did not offer an explanation for this state of affairs, in fact it discounted several of the more likely reasons, e.g., our low standing remained the same even if per capita income of federal tax dollars con- tributed by Kentuckians was taken into account. Since one of our objectives as an Academy of Science is to encourage scien- tific research, that report indicates that our work is cut out for us. I will call on appro- priate state officials to join with us in an evaluation of our current status in science and technology as a first step toward doing something about any inappropriate differ- 92 COMMENT ence between where we are and where we }j ought to be. Overall, I intend to help maintain the fi increasing momentum the Academy has} enjoyed in recent years under the leader- } ship of Dr. Charles Payne, Dr. Fred Brown, and others. We have enjoyed several years } of state support for the publication of the) Transactions and I will try to secure a more jj permanent base of such support, perhaps related to some degree of formal association || between the Kentucky Academy of Science visible Academy with a more visible rela- tionship with other of the Commonwealth’s. institutions so that we can work more effec-. tively to upgrade science and technology and those qualities of life linked to our the point where it is now a first-rate pub- lication in every way by which quality}; can be measured. The institution of page}, charges is a positive step toward a per- manent base from which that level off) excellence can be maintained. The Board of Directors has enjoyed a new sense off purpose in recent years under leadership of} Dr. John Philley and Dr. Thomas Calhoon.h I look forward to working with the Board of Directors in the coming year as it con- tinues its “Distinguished Scientist Award” and the implementation of other innovative ideas. Last year, the Academy enjoyed more than a ten percent increase in mem- bership largely as a result of the work of}, Dr. Donald Batch and his Membership}, Committee. Dr. Batch has agreed to con- tinue to work to make the membership of the Academy even more representative of the scientific interests throughout Kentucky. I am dedicated to involving previously un-} involved individuals in the work of the}, Academy on various committees and in}, other Academy activities. A gratifying num- ber of members of the Academy have come forward offering to help. Some of them); have been long-time, faithful supporters of the Academy, and a significant number have been persons new to the governance of the Academy and its committees. This “new blood” is absolutely essential to the continued revitalization, vigorous growth, and success of the Kentucky Academy of Science. Overall, I sense that the Academy is becoming increasingly capable of making significant progress toward its goals. I am delighted and grateful to be part of what I perceive to be a good thing getting better. I look forward with anticipation to further positive developments in the years ahead. Membership Dr. Certificate Herbert Leopold and his colleagues of Western Kentucky University have Be sibned and printed handsome member- ship certificates now available to all mem- bers of the Academy. The certificate is on high quality parchment, 8.5 x 11 inches, suitable for framing. It is intended to present all new members with such a cer- tificate. Longstanding members may also receive a certificate of their own by re- questing one, in writing, from the Secretary, Dr. Thomas N. Seay, Georgetown College, Georgetown, Kentucky 40324. Tax Court Our printer, Allen Press, Inc., Ruling Lawrence, Kansas, has called to our attention a recent deci- sion by the United States Tax Court that is of interest to our members. The decision of the Court in the case of Robert E. Drury vs. Commissioner, 36 T.C.M. 835 (1977) upholds the right of a scholar to deduct the costs of publication of his research from his income as ordinary business expense. Dr. Drury wrote an article judged to be of scientific value, but could not get it published without cost to himself, so he paid for the publication of the article. He deducted the cost of payment for the publi- cation from his federal income tax return as ordinary and necessary business expense under Section 162 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954. The Internal Revenue Ser- vice disallowed his deduction and the mat- News AND COMMENT 93 ter was taken to Tax Court. The Tax Court upheld Dr. Drury’s deduction, and recog- nized that “the expenditure for the pub- lication of his article were ordinary and necessary business expenses within the meaning of Section 162.” Recently, Allen Press had their local attorney review the case, and the following is his summary: “Based on the Tax Court’s holding, it ap- pears that the principal criteria for securing the deduction of publication costs for a scientific article or monograph are as fol- lows: (1) that the author is expected to publish as a part of his job responsibilities, (2) that he cannot obtain cost-free pub- lication in a scientific journal, and (3) that he needs to publish for the purpose of ob- taining job advancement. If these criteria are present and can be substantiated in the event of an audit by the Internal Revenue Service, it would appear that a deduction of publication expenses under Section 162 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 should be allowed.” We are grateful to Allen Press for this information. New Law on A new U.S. Copyright Law Copyright went into effect 1 January 1978. That law will affect all copyrighted journals in a number of areas, but will not affect the TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE because our journal is not copyrighted. Although all of the implications and potential legal problems have not been resolved, several significant features of the new law must be understood by authors and editors alike. All material sent to any editor of a copyrighted journal is potentially copy- righted before it reaches publication in that journal. In order for any organization to continue the dissemination of copyrighted information by the same means it has used in the past, as well as for authors to achieve the same level of exposure, all authors are now required to take action above and beyond current customary procedures. 94 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 1-2) Basically, the new law protects only the author, and the copyright in the journal may not be totally effective. As of 1 Jan- uary 1978, if a paper is subject to copyright in any journal, each author must arrange for a formal written transfer of copyright to the journal concerned. The journal will then turn back to the author all rights, except those of the journal, so that he may do with his work whatever he wishes. Suit- able forms are sent to authors to sign and return to the editor. The authors retain the right to refuse. To reiterate, the new copyright law does not apply to our journal because the Ken- tucky Academy of Science does not copy- right its TRANSACTIONS, nor does it intend to do so in the foreseeable future. At the Sixty-third Annual Meet- ing of the Kentucky Academy of Science in November 1977 at Western Kentucky University, the member- ship adopted the policy of mandatory assessment of page charges for all papers published in the TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCI- ENCE. That charge will be $15.00 per page or portion thereof, and went into effect on 1 January 1978 with Volume 39, Page Charges Numbers 1-2. The actual costs of publica- tion are in excess of $40.00 per printed page or portion thereof, and there is need to help defray those costs if the present quality | of the TRANSACTIONS is to be main- tained. Annual At the Sixty-third Annual Meet- Dues ing of the Kentucky Academy of Science in November 1977 at Western Kentucky University, the member- ship adopted the following changes in all categories of dues, effective 1 January 1978: Active Member, $10.00 per year; Student Member, $7.00 per year, not to exceed 4 years; Life Member, $100.00 as a single payment; and Institutional Affiliate, $50.00 or multiples thereof per year. Since that meeting, The University of Louisville, Morehead State University, Eastern Ken- tucky University, and Western Kentucky have become Institutional Affiliates. Ken- tucky State University and Kentucky Wes- leyan College have agreed to become af- filiated, and invoices have been sent to them. Several other colleges and univer- sities have expressed an interest in affilia- tion, and it is hoped that all institutions of higher education in the Commonwealth will join with us in our efforts to promote science. | INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub- lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received. Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be re- viewed by one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and, once accepted, an attempt will be made to publish papers in the order of their acceptance. Manuscripts should be typed, double spaced throughout, on good quality white paper 8% xX 11 inches (216 x 279 mm). The original and one copy should be sent to the Editor and the author should retain a copy for his own use in correcting proof. Metric and Celsius units are to be used for all measurements instead of, or in addition to, English and Fahrenheit units. Format and style may vary somewhat depending on the scientific discipline, but the basic pattern of presentation will be consistent for all manuscripts. The Style Manual of the Council of Biological Editors (CBE Style Manual), the Handbook for Authors of papers in the Journals of the American Chemical Society, the Handbook for Authors of the Amer- ican Institute of Physics, Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, and A Manual of Style (Chicago University Press) are most useful guides in matters of style, form, and spelling. Only those words intended to be italicized in the final publication should be underlined. The sequence of material in the manuscript should be: title page, abstract, body of the manuscript, literature cited, tables with table headings, and figure legends and figures. 1. The title page should include the title of the paper, the author’s name and address, and any footnote material concerning credits, changes of address, and so forth. 2. The abstract should be concise and descriptive of the information contained in the paper. It should be complete in itself without reference to the body of the paper. 3. The body of the manuscript should include the following sections: Introduction, Ac- knowledgments (if applicable), Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, Summary, and Literature Cited. In manuscripts of only a few pages, there is no need to break it up into sections, except for the Literature Cited. All tables and figures, as well as all litera- ture cited must be referred to in the text. 4. All references in the Literature Cited must be typewritten, double spaced, and should provide complete information on the material referred to, as in the following examples: Article: Jounson, A. E., anp E. V. Harrety. 1962. An analysis of factors governing density patterns in desert plants. J. Bot. 44(3):419-432. Book: Daruincron, P. J., Jk. 1965. Biogeography of the southern end of the world. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 236 pp. 5. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in arabic numerals, and set on a separate page. The heading of the table should be informative of its contents. Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print either 5 X 7 or 8 X 10 inches. Line drawings in India ink on white paper are acceptable, but should be no larger than 8% x 11 inches. Photographs should have good contrast so they can be repro- duced satisfactorily. All figures should be numbered in arabic numerals and should be accompanied by an appropriate legend. It is strongly suggested that all contributors follow the guidelines of Allen’s (1977) “Steps Toward Better Scientific Illustrations” published by the Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas 66044. The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for checking all literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly Extensive alterations on the galley proofs are expensive and such costs are to be borne by the author. Reprints are to be ordered when the galley proofs are returned to the Editor. CONTENTS Structure and composition of a climax mixed mesophytic forest system in Laurel County, Kentucky. Margaret Ringland Cameron III and Joe E. Winstead. <- t ee Vegetation of the Boone County Cliffs Nature Preserve, a forest on a Kansan outwash deposit in northern Kentucky. William S. Bryant _-.._____ Conjugate addition reactions of 4-chlorobenzotriazole, 4,6-dichlorobenzotri- azole, and 4,5,6,7-tetramethylbenzotriazole. Phillip H. Morgan and Karl F. Hussung 22.1 a ee ee eee Some hydrologic characteristics of a small forested watershed in eastern Kentucky. Everett P. Springer and George B. Coltharp __-______- The Louisville Meteorite—fall and recovery. Graham Hunt and Thomas E. Boone 2.2 ee a a eee Sociology and policy: the Clarke Maritime Centre environmental impact assessment. John A. Busch 2 gt Se eee eee Age, growth, condition, and maturity of sunfishes of Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. Walter L. Redmon and Louis A. Krumholz —__ On the occurrence of the cedar glade endemic Viola egglestonii in Kentucky. Jerry M. Baskin and Carol C. Baskin ___... 3a. 4 ee An infrequently reported alga: Chadefaudiothrix gallica Bourrelly (Xantho- phyceae: Heterotrichales). Gary E. Dillard —._ 3 _ OE First record of the masked shrew in western Kentucky. Thomas French __ Distinguished Scientist Award __... | Academy Affairs Program 2 a eee The sixty-third annual business meeting __________ News and Comment ____ a ee INIA 7 TRANSACTIONS ENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE C iii! Publication of the Academy CF OCT 24 1978 SS QBRARIES 7 Volume 39 Numbers 3-4 September 1978 The Kentucky Academy of Science Founded 8 May 1914 OFFICERS FOR 1978 President: Charles E. Kupchella, Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louis ville 40202 ; Past President: ‘ Gade pare Morcaed State University, Morehead 40351 ee Vice President: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowlihgs Green 4 42101 ‘ "ee er. Secretary: Thomas N. Seay, Georgetown College, Georgetown 40324 Treasurer: Bartlett G. Dickinson, Georgetown College, Georgetown 40324 Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky Univorstes ci Bowling Green 42101 a a Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A. Branson, Eastern Kentucky Ur ni cn versity, Richmond 40475 . John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506 Boarp OF DIRECTORS John G. Spanyer 1978 Gertrude Ridgel Oliver Zandona . 1978 Ivan Potter Thomas B. Calhoon 1979 Donald C. Haney Harold Eversmeyer 1979 William F. Wagner EpiroriAL Boarp Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Office of Academic Affairs, University of Louisville 40208 ei oe oan Associate Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University f Ff Louisville, Louisville 40208 BAT i: Editorial Board: Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of . ville, Louisville 40208 be John C. Philley, School of Science and Mathematics, Morehead State Uni. versity, Morehead 40351 es William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, I e ington 40506 vet be > ant « All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed Editor. Authors must be members of the Academy. Te The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden a i Membership in the Academy is open to interested persons upon nomination, pa y} 1 dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from the : The TRANSACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are § 5 for Active Members; $7.00 for Student Members. | Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $12.00; foreign, $14.00; back Be es - $12.00 per volume. The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually in March and September. Four nu comprise a volume. My aes Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed ‘to. Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to t hyp Librarian, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208, the exchange agent fortes Si Academy. ea- 4 TRANSACTIONS of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY of SCIENCE September 1078 VOLUME 39 NUMBER 3-4 Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-4), 1978, 95-106 Attitudes of Kentucky College Students Toward Science GeorGcE H. MILLER Division of Natural Sciences, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT This study investigated some attitudes toward science of 909 upperclass students in 3 large state universities and 9 small liberal arts colleges in Kentucky in relation to selected academic and vocational characteristics. The attitudes related to support of science and the scientific enterprise, and orientation toward scientific thought and habits. Comparisons were made of students classified as to their academic area, hours of college course work in science, type of institution attended, and sex. The possible effects on attitudes due to interactions involving those variables were also investigated. An additional series of analyses involved prospective elementary and secondary teachers and those students not choosing teaching as their vocation. College students attending large state institutions evinced stronger support toward science than students at small liberal arts colleges, as did students with more than 18 semester hours of course work in science, and students who majored in natural science subjects. Male and female students showed no difference in their support toward science. Students pursuing nonteaching careers were more positive toward science than elementary or secondary edu- cation students. INTRODUCTION Never before have the sciences been so much a part of the nation’s culture. We live in a scientific civilization, an environ- ment greatly influenced by the applications of science, with the general public in many ways aware of its importance and its in- fluence on our daily lives. A general awareness of the importance of science does not necessarily mean its functioning as a cultural activity of man is understood or universally supported, nor can we assume the learning of factual scientific information is always accom- panied by the acquisition of desirable 95 attitudes and thought processes (Shrigley 1974). The intent of this study was to investigate some attitudes of college stu- dents in Kentucky in relation to selected academic and vocational characteristics, as they relate to support of science and the scientific enterprise, and orientation toward scientific thought and habits. The Schwirian Science Support Scale (Tri-S) provided a measure of the extent of support toward science and the Vitrogan Generalized At- titude Toward Science (VGAS) scale as- sessed the orientation of respondents to- ward scientific thought. Comparisons were made of college students classified as to their academic area, hours of college course 96 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) work in science, type of institution at- tended, and sex. In consideration of their potential contribution to improving the overall orientation toward and support of science through their future roles in the classroom, an additional series of analyses was made involving prospective elemen- tary teachers, prospective secondary teachers, and_ students not choosing teaching as their vocation. The possible | effects on attitudes due to interactions be- tween variables were also investigated. This study was not intended to determine where or how the attitudes were acquired, but to allow comparisons between various groups, and to identify factors associated with the attitudes. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author expresses appreciation to Drs. Patricia Schwirian and David Vitrogan for their permission to use the attitude instru- ments employed, and to the faculty at each participating institution for their coopera- tion in providing access to the students involved. RATIONALE OF THE STUDY Science educators are in general agree- ment as to the objectives of science education, as indicated by Science Educa- tion in American Schools, the Forty-sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, and their Fifty-ninth Yearbook, Rethinking Science Education. In the latter, Hurd (1960) summarized the objectives of science instruction as (1) acquiring a background of ordered knowI- edge, (2) developing inquiry processes for problem solving, (3) understanding the dependence of society upon scientific achievement and the interplay of science and human affairs, (4) acquiring apprecia- tion for the importance of science and its contribution as a human _ intellectual activity, (5) acquiring skills and abilities for processing information and expanding self learning, and (6) formation of attitudes conducive to the use of knowledge and methods of science. A more recent statement of the objectives - of science education by Lombard and Owen (1965) specified 5 major objectives similar to those of Hurd. However, they placed the ability to apply the methods, — techniques, and rational processes of science at the top of their list. They also stated that the success of the entire scientific enterprise depends to a great extent on the general attitude of its sur- | rounding culture. Brown (1954) and Blough (1960) have expressed similar views — for the need for desirable attitudes toward } science. 1 7 Science in a technological society is not unique in kind but rather in its high degree of development and wide scope. The combination of elements indispensable } for modern science are not immutable, and any altering of conditions will affect the } progress of science. Parsons (1951:338) } noted the relationship between science and } society when he stated, “Science is in- timately integrated with the whole social structure and culture condition. They mutually support one another—only in cer- }) tain types of society can science flourish, }, and conversely, without a continuous and healthy development and application of | science such a society cannot function properly.” According to Nagel (1959), Seaborg (1970), and Bronowski (1965), any success at improving the quality of life and achieving a fuller sense of human dignity will result from a coordinated in- terplay of all our sciences and our social and philosophical outlook. All those forces must be used in a healthy combination, built around a common trust and under- } standing. The Scientific Literacy Research Center at the University of Wisconsin was founded to work on problems associated with knowI- edge in and of science needed by a popula- tion living under democratic principles. As a result of a review of the literature from 1946 to 1964 concerning scientific literacy, science for general education, science for the citizen, and science and society, Pella’ et al. (1966) derived a set of referents | describing a scientifically literate person. | ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS TOWARD ScCIENCE—Miller 97 Nonspecific in nature, but nevertheless oc- curring in a pervasive role, a constructive attitude toward science was identified as characteristic of such a person. The National Science Teachers Associa- tion (1968) sponsored report, Steps Toward Scientific Literacy, A Report of College- Level Conferences on Science for Non- science Majors, stressed attitudes, interests, values, and appreciations as vital objectives if we are to achieve a scientifically literate society. Eiss and Harbeck (1969) cautioned that simply an increased awareness of facts about science often results in a greater dislike for science; therefore, we must concern ourselves with the attitudes and values of students, and place increased emphasis on objectives in the affective domain. Until educational programs con- ‘sider such objectives, they will be in- adequately evaluated. An analysis of re- search on instructional procedures led Ramsey and Howe (1969:70) to a similar conclusion when they said, “a student’s attitude toward science may well be more important then his understanding of science since his attitudes determine how he will use his knowledge.” Helping young people achieve a realistic, practical, and constructive approach to science in their lives is a task that falls mainly on science instruction in the schools (Hawn 1960, Kuhn 1973). In addition, it would appear that the most opportune conditions for either acquiring constructive thought processes and attitudes or improv- ing existing ones would be during the formal school years. Worth (1965) and Wittlin (1963) reported that behavioral traits and personality patterns are estab- lished during the early years, and changes during later years are difficult to effect. As a vocational group, teachers are in a position to serve as models for individuals whose attitudes are often as yet ill defined. The nature of the teaching function places teachers in a situation where they are relatively free to sanction or disapprove attitudes students exhibit. This is consistent with a statement by Watson (1967) to the effect that the teacher establishes the tone or social climate within which pupil learn- ing occurs. A common suspicion is that there is a major relationship between the characteristics of the “whole teacher” and the learning of the “whole child.” The degree of association between a teacher's attitudes and characteristics, and student outcomes in the classroom has not been resolved, but a body of literature is accumulating that indicates significant re- lations do occur (Bixler 1958, Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968, Hone and Carswell 1969, Washton 1971, and Rothman 1969). Therefore, it would seem appropriate, if the objectives of science education are to be accomplished, that the attitudes toward science of prospective and_ in-service teachers must be given special consider- ation. Previous efforts to assess attitudes toward science of various segments of the popula- tion are few in number and of questionable value. One limitation has been the unavail- ability of suitable instruments for assess- ment. Another has been preoccupation, until recently, with cognitive outcomes in the schools while minimizing affective objectives. Considerable confusion is evident in the literature concerning the distinction be- tween the possession of scientific attitudes and positive attitudes toward science. The former refers to the possession of thought processes and skills employed in using the scientific method, while the latter should properly be reserved for the state of mind mediating one’s response to a psychological object, placing it in the affective domain. Another point that needs attention is the relatively frequent equating of accuracy of perception of science and favorableness of attitude toward science. Again, the first appears to be in the cognitive domain and the latter in the affective. An early effort to assess the opinions of college students, in relation to the nature of science and its purpose in society (Wil- son 1954), showed that nearly a third of the students thought science responsible for much of the evil in the world, and approximately half were in favor of federal 98 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) control for the financing and direction of all scientific research. Another effort to determine the college student’s concepts and perceptions of science and the scientist was reported by Mitias (1970). The instrument used to gather information contained 2 incomplete statements about science and the scientist that the student was asked to complete with the first response that came to mind. Responses similar in meaning were grouped together and summarized. Mitias observed 14 categories for “science” and 10 for “the scientist,” with no dominating stereotyped concept for either topic. By assigning posi- tive, neutral, or negative character to the responses, it was found that the concept of science as “a necessary evil” ranked second in frequency, and the first positive concept of science ranked fifth. The majority of observed concepts represented a neutral view. The image of the scientist, as perceived by college students, was reported by Beardslee and O’Dowd (1961), who used a 48-scale semantic differential instrument. Data suggested a readiness to respond to the word “scientist” in a complex manner. The image was very similar for freshmen and seniors, but there was evidence that students entering college had a more favor- able view of the scientist than students who had already spent a semester in college. The strong features of the image of the scientist were his intelligence and driving concern to extend knowledge and discover truth. The weaknesses in his image related to his being out of touch with life and uninterested in people and art, and a nonconformist with only moderate control of his impulses. Snow and Cohen (1968) explored the prestige hierarchy among senior college students toward the natural sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities, and whether it was constant or influenced by continued professional specialization. The initial testing indicated that hierarchical professional evaluation was present on the undergraduate level, with science students exhibiting the most favorable attitude to- - humanities rather than the scoial sciences, ward their own major, ranking the social sciences next, and humanities last. Among the social sciences and humanities students, — their own group was placed with the sciences and they relegated the other (social sciences or humanities) to the least favorable position. With continued profes- sionalization of the students, some modifi-— cation was observed. The sciences exhibited — a more favorable attitude toward the and social science graduate students ex- hibited equally favorable attitudes toward all professions. | Sadava (1976) compared the attitudes toward science of nonscience majors to those of the general public, as measured previously in a national survey by the Opinion Research Corporation. The re- sults indicated the students had more negative opinions than the general popula- tion. Most research on attitudes of teachers toward science attempted to measure or obtain opinions concerning science as an academic subject, or toward the teaching of science. Dutton and Stephens (1963) constructed a Thurstone type instrument intended to measure attitudes toward teaching elementary science, and reported generally favorable attitudes toward teach- | ing science among prospective elementary teachers. | Kane (1968) used the semantic differ- ential technique to assess the attitudes of prospective elementary teachers toward mathematics, science, language arts, and social studies as academic areas and as future teaching areas. He also measured their attitudes toward “teaching children,” and found a significantly higher score for “teaching children” than for teaching chil- dren any of the specific academic areas. Presumably, they conceived the role of “teaching children” apart from teaching specific subjects to them. He did not find any significant differences among the group attitudes toward the 4 academic areas. Schwirian (1969) employed her own instrument to determine which of 8 per- sonal and professional characteristics were ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS TOWARD ScIENCE—Miller 99 related to 191 elementary teachers’ attitudes toward science. Younger teachers possessed more positive attitudes than older teachers, and graduates of state schools were more favorable to science than graduates of liberal arts colleges, as were teachers with 10 or more semester hours of science course work. She concluded that the most positive teacher would most likely be a person un- der 40 years of age who graduated from a state school and had taken 10 or more hours of course work in science. A follow- up study by Schwirian (1972) produced results consistent with her earlier study. An improvement in attitudes toward science, as measured by the Purdue Master Attitude Scale (Siemankowski 1969), was the result of an experimental general education science course using a wide variety of audiovisual aids, pro- grammed learning, and an _ autopaced teaching process. The emphasis on individ- ualized learning, although not affecting content achievement or understanding of science, was considered useful in improving attitudes. Recent studies attempting to identify. conditions that contribute to a more positive attitude of teachers toward science are those of Barufaldi et al. (1977), Johnson et al. (1974), Kennedy (1973), Shrigley (1977), and Simmons and Esler (1972). RESEARCH PROCEDURES In order to assess the attitudes toward science of college students in Kentucky, all degree granting colleges in the state were invited to participate and provide access to their students. Twelve schools agreed to do so: 3 large state institutions, Morehead State University, Murray State University, and the University of Louisville, and 9 small private liberal arts colleges, Asbury College, Bellarmine College, Bre- scia College, Cumberland College, Ken- tucky Wesleyan College, Pikeville College, Spalding College, Thomas More College, and Union College participated. Each school offered a teacher preparation pro- gram, and collectively represented 60 per- cent of the schools in the state with such TABLE 1.—CHARACTERISTICS OF 441 STUDENTS AT LARGE STATE SCHOOLS AND 468 STUDENTS FROM SMALL PRIVATE SCHOOLS IN KENTUCKY Large state Small private schools schools Total Men 191 220 All Women 250 248 498 Humanities 114 88 202 Natural sciences 126 103 229 Social sciences 201 ohh, 478 Elementary education 113 AS 234 Secondary education 140 159 299 Nonteaching 188 188 , 216 a program. The state schools all had en- rollments of over 7,000 students while the private schools ranged from 800 to 2,000 students. Each private school was either affiliated with a religious denomination at the time of the study or had been in its past, though none restricts admission on the basis of religion. A total of 909 students was involved in the study, 468 from private colleges and 44] from state institutions. Since all sub- jects were juniors or seniors, all had com- pleted a similar educational objective since each school required participation in a general education program during the first 2 years of study. To effect as representative a sample as possible, an effort was made to include both male and female students majoring in the academic areas of humanities, natural sciences, and social sciences from each school. Since each school offered a teacher preparation program, an effort was made to include candidates at both the elemen- tary and secondary levels in the sample (Table 1). The selection process was randomized to the extent possible when working with intact groups. Permission was obtained to use attitude assessment instruments developed by Schwirian (1968) and Vitrogan (1967). Administration and processing of the data occurred the spring semester of 1971. Re- sponses to the instruments and a personal data page were key punched on IBM 100 TABLE 2.—SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) MEANS FOR STUDENTS AT SMALL PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND LARGE STATE SCHOOLS AS DERIVED BY THE TRI-S AND VGAS SCALES Type of Scale school n Tri-S Small private 468 Large state 44] VGAS Small private 468 Large state 44] 1 Significant at the 0.01 level. ? Significant at the 0.05 level. cards for processing on an IBM 360/40 computer. The independent or main effect variables examined as possible sources of variance in the group means were (1) type of institution (state or private liberal arts), (2) semester hours of science (0 to 8, 9 to 17, 18 or more), (3) sex, (4) academic area (humanities, social sciences, natural sciences), and (5) vocational choice (ele- mentary education, secondary education, nonteaching ). The categories for semester hours of course work in science were chosen with the intention of separating students taking the minimum possible work in science, according to academic require- ments in the catalogs, and students choos- ing additional science courses, from the group following the more typical academic nonscience program. Possible interaction effects on attitudes toward science were investigated with the variables (1) sex and type of institution, (2) sex and hours of course work in science, (3) sex and academic area, (4) academic area and type of institution, (5) vocational choice and hours of course work TABLE 3.—SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEANS FOR MEN AND WOMEN STUDENTS AT KENTUCKY COLLEGES AS DERIVED BY THE TRI-S AND VGAS scALES Scale Sex n Tri-S Men 412 Women 497 VGAS Men 412 Women 497 1 Significant at the 0.05 level. Mean G t 107.06 11.89 | 110.71 12.72 4.47 188.06 20.94 - 190.08 20.10 2.01 in science, (6) vocational choice and sex, and (7) type of institution and teaching» level. The statistical procedures used in deter- mining the significance of the differences in group means for the main effect vari- ables were the ¢ statistic for comparisons involving 2 means, and a one-way analysis" of variance where more than 2 means were | examined. Where significance occurred in- volving 3 or more means, an additional procedure was necessary to determine which means were significantly different. The procedure employed in this study in- volved the computation of multiple ¢ tests. Stratification according to the different levels of the main effects involved in the possible interactions resulted in 2 X 2 and 2 X 3 analysis of variance designs. Inter- actions involve specificity of effect, where- by the effect of one variable changes, depending upon the specific value of the second variable. Interaction effects are relevant to generalization statements about the main effect variables, and limitations upon generalizability appear in the statis- tical analysis as significant interactions. Mean G & 108.37 13.03 109.16 11.97 2.04 187.87 20.55 190.66 20.51 0.96 ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS TOWARD ScIENCE—Miller 101 TABLE 4.—ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR NUMBER OF SEMESTER HOURS OF SCIENCE BY STUDENTS IN SE- LECTED KENTUCKY COLLEGES AS DERIVED BY THE TRI-S AND VGAS SCALES Source of Sum of Scale variation squares Tri-S Hours of science 5,709 Within 135,339 VGAS Hours of science 1,760 Within 382,528 1 Significant at the 0.01 level. The criterion variables employed in this study reflect attitudes toward science. As an aid in determining the degree of rela- tionship between the 2 estimates, scores were correlated for each group in the study. The intent of the analysis was to gain additional insight into the characteristics of specific groups. RESULTS OF ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION Results of analyses involving the f¢ test for “type of institution” (Table 2) indicate that the type of institution attended is related to attitudes toward science as mea- sured in this study. Students attending large state schools scored significantly higher on the Tri-S and VGAS scales than students at small private colleges. The ¢ value of 4.47 on the Tri-S was significant at the 0.01 level. Analyses for “sex group” (Table 3) revealed that women are ori- ented toward scientific thought and pro- cesses to a greater extent than men, and a lack of significant difference as to support of science, although the trend in scores did favor women over men. The summary of the analysis of variance involving the main effect variable “semester hours of science” in relation to the Tri-S and VGAS scales is given in Table 4. With 2 degrees of freedom in the numerator and 904 in the denominator, an F value of 19.11 for the Tri-S was highly significant at the 0.01 level and was the highest of 20 such values calculated. A multiple com- parison test applied to the differences be- tween the means on the Tri-S for “semester hours of science” was used to determine which of the means were significantly dif- Mean df square F 2, 2,854.50 19.11? 904 149.38 2 880.00 2.08 904 ADD, 29, ferent and produced the large F value in Table 4. The mean attitude score for students with 18 or more semester hours of science was significantly higher than for students with 0 to 8 or 9 to 17 hours of science. No significant difference was found in the attitude scores for students with 0 to 8 hours of science and those with 9 to 17 hours. Therefore, students with 18 or more semester hours of science evinced greater support toward science as a cultural ac- tivity than students who followed a typical nonscience program or those who elected to take other subjects in lieu of the avail- able general education science (Table 5). The summary of the analysis of variance involving the main effect variable “aca- demic area” in relation to the Tri-S and VGAS scales is shown in Table 6. The F value for the VGAS was only 0.66, while a highly significant 9.04 was obtained for TABLE 5.—RESULTS OF THE MULTIPLE COMPARISON TEST APPLIED TO THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS ON THE TRI-S SCALE FOR SEMESTER HOURS OF SCIENCE TAKEN BY STUDENTS AT SELECTED KEN- TUCKY COLLEGES Categories compared n Means t 0-8 hours of science 266 107.84 0.94 9-17 hours of science 404 106.94 , 0-8 hours of science 266 107.84 4.55} 18 or more hours of 239 112.93 science 9-17 hours of science 404 106.94 6.01: 18 or more hours of 239 112.93 ; science 1 Significant at the 0.01 level. 102 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) TABLE 6.—ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ACADEMIC AREA PREFERRED BY STUDENTS AT SELECTED KEN- TUCKY COLLEGES AS DERIVED BY THE TRI-S AND VGAS SCALES Source of Sum of Scale variation squares Tri-S Academic area 2,761 Within 138,287 VGAS Academic area 560 Within 383,680 1 Significant at the 0.01 level. the Tri-S. A multiple comparison test was applied to the differences between means on the Tri-S for the “academic area” variable to determine which categories of the variable were significantly different. Natural science majors scored considerably higher than humanities or social sciences majors (Table 7). In each instance, the difference was significant at the 0.01 level. No significant difference was found in the attitude scores for students who majored in humanities or social sciences. The results of the analysis of variance involving “vocational choice” (Table 8) re- veal the F value on the VGAS scale to be nonsignificant at 0.34, while a highly signif- icant 14.64 was obtained for that variable on the Tri-S. A multiple comparison test applied to the differences between the means on the Tri-S scale for the “vocational choice” variable (Table 9) was used to determine which means were significantly different and contributed to the large F TABLE 7.—RESULTS OF THE MULTIPLE COMPARISON TEST APPLIED TO THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS ON THE TRI-S SCALE FOR ACADEMIC AREA PREFERRED BY STUDENTS AT SELECTED COLLEGES IN KENTUCKY Categories compared n Means t Humanities majors 202 107.58 3.591 Natural science majors 230 Ae Natural science majors 230 bis TO Mer er 39] Social science majors ATT 107.85 ; Humanities majors 202 107.58 0.26 Social science majors AT7 107.85 1 Significant at the 0.01 level. Mean df square F 2, : 1,380.50 9.04" 904 152.63 2, 280.00 0.66 904 423.49 values in Table 8. The decision to work toward a teaching position appears to be re- lated to the degree of support afforded science (Table 9). The mean attitude score on the Tri-S for students not working to- ward a teaching position was considerably higher than the means for either prospective elementary or secondary teachers. There was no difference between the attitudes of students preparing to be elementary or sceondary teachers. The analysis also tested for first-order interactions involving specific 2-variable combinations of the main effects. No significant interactions occurred, strength- ening the generalizability of the previous results and the external validity of the research findings. The variables related to attitudes toward science do no depend upon > specific values of the other variables for their effects to be manifested. Although the 2 attitude scales were re- lated, since a correlation of responses from each group in the study resulted in r values significantly different from zero, the degree of correlation was not impressive, and it appears that they measure, for practical purposes, different dimensions of attitude toward science. Secondary education stu- dents exhibited the highest relationships between the 2 scales with an r value of 0.4026, indicating slightly over 16 percent of the variance in one scale may be at- tributed to variance in the other scale for that group. Although statistically signifi- cant, the relationship for students not working toward a teaching position implies: a variance accountability of less than 6 per-. cent between the scales, certainly not an_ impressive relationship (Table 10). ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS TOWARD SCIENCE—Miller 103 TABLE 8.—ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR VOCATIONAL CHOICE OF STUDENTS AT SELECTED KENTUCKY COL- LEGES AS DERIVED BY THE TRI-S AND VGAS sCALES Source of Sum of Scale variation squares Tri-S Vocational choice 4,417 Within 136,631 VGAS Vocational choice 288 Within 384,000 1 Significant at the 0.01 level. The variability of the scores for the groups responding to the attitude scales was consistent in that the test of the homogeneity of variance failed to produce any significant F ratios. Indications of the dependability of the scores reported in this study may be surmised from the reliability coefficients obtained from the instruments, with respectable values of 0.7853 for the Tri-S and 0.8118 for the VGAS scale. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Possession of sufficient semester hours of course work in science to qualify for a minor or a major was associated with a more positive attitude toward science than was true with students with fewer hours. This could be interpreted in either of 2 ways. Participation in science courses may be contributing toward a more positive attitude, or a preexisting more positive attitude may influence students to enroll in more science courses. Although reassur- ing to science educators, it would be presumptuous to infer that enrollment in science courses necessarily leads to im- proved attitudes. Until further research clarifies the situation, all that can be said is that students with a minor or a major in science also have more positive attitudes toward science. Had less positive attitudes been associated with increased course work in science, a much more serious problem would face science educators than occurs with the present situation. When the ob- served relation between attitudes and course work in science is better understood, Mean df square F me 2,208.50 14.64 904 150.81 2 144.00 0.34 904 423.84 and causal relations are determined, pro- grams to improve attitudes of nonscience students will have an enhanced probability of success. The findings of this study indicate social science and humanities majors, at both small and large institutions, possess less favorable attitudes toward science as a cultural activity of man than do -natural science majors. Thus, it would appear that some of the objectives of the general edu- cation program are not being achieved. The nonscience student may be acquiring an understanding of science; that has neither been established nor disproved in this study, but it is apparent that all student groups do not exhibit an equally supportive positive attitude toward science. It may be necessary to revise or add to the currently available general education science courses in order to achieve the stated objectives more fully. Verbal and written comments from the subjects of the TABLE 9.—RESULTS OF THE MULTIPLE COMPARISON TEST APPLIED TO THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS ON THE TRI-S SCALE FOR VOCATIONAL CHOICE OF STUDENTS AT SELECTED KENTUCKY COL- LEGES Categories compared n Means t Elementary education 234 105.95 1.85 Secondary education 300 107.89 Secondary education 300 107.89 3. 48 Nonteaching oto 111.26 Elementary education 234 105.95 5 18° Nonteaching 375 111.26 104 TRANS. KeNTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4) TABLE 10.—CoRRELATIONS BETWEEN THE ATTITUDE SCALES FOR EACH GROUP AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE OF STUDENTS FROM SELECTED KENTUCKY COLLEGES. ALL CORRELATIONS ARE SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT FROM ZERO AT THE 0.01 LEVEL Group Small private schools Large state schools Males Females Zero—7 semester hours of science 8-17 semester hours of science 18 or more semester hours of science Humanities majors Natural science majors Social science majors Elementary education Secondary education Nonteaching Total investigation frequently referred to the boring nature of current courses and their lack of relevancy. An increased emphasis on the interrelations of science, technology, and society, and more frequent investiga- tions into contemporary problems seem warranted. The association between attitudes toward science and the type of institution attended may be due to an inherent difference be- tween students attending state schools and those attending private liberal arts colleges, or it may be an indication of change that occurs while attending one type of institu- tion and not at the other. Either or both of those conditions would seem to offer the best explanation for the observed association since their general education requirements and catalog descriptions do not differ appreciably. Regardless of the source of the difference, an effort should be made to improve student attitudes to- ward science at the small liberal arts colleges. One of the most rewarding experiences of this study was the opportunity to estab- lish relations and exchange views with non- science faculty across the state. It became apparent that members of the various disciplines share many of the same con- cerns and have the potential to contribute n r ti 468 0.3377 0.1140 44] 0.3001 0.0901 412 0.3002 0.0902 AQ7 0.3443 0.1185 266 0.3298 0.1087 404 0.3300 0.1089 239 0.2981 0.0889 202 0.3254 0.1058 230 0.2894 0.0837 ATT 0.3375 0.1139 234 0.3802 0.1445 300 0.4026 0.1620 375 0.2408 0.0579 909 0.3221 0.1037 much toward the solution of our common concerns. crease contacts and communication across It would seem advisable to in-— disciplinary lines and among schools if we are to maximize the potential. In view of their potential contribution — science — to improving attitudes toward through their future roles in the classroom, the lower attitude scores of prospective © teachers, as compared to students not pre- paring for a teaching carrer, should be — regarded with concern. If teachers are to — assist others in acquiring or improving © existing constructive attitudes, it would seem should first possess those attributes. It may be worthwhile to undertake cur- ricular revision whereby prospective ele- mentary and secondary teachers participate in special science courses intended to en- courage formation of more positive at- titudes. Such courses should stress the nature of science, its interrelationship with society, and the contribution of science as a human intellectual activity along with > the more conventional process and content objectives. Currently, college the state have indicated little support for science courses expressly for cate present programs to be inadequate. reasonable that they themselves faculties in > prospective — teachers, but the results of this study indi- ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS TOWARD ScCIENCE—Miller Regardless of its final form, remedial action is warranted, the nature of which will need to be determined in subsequent research. 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Williams in Current research in elementary school science. The Macmillan Co., New York, N.Y. 378 pp. Watson, F. G. 1967. Research on_ teaching TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) science. Pp. 1031-1059. In Handbook of re- search on teaching. N. L. Gage (Ed.). Rand McNally and Co., Chicago, Ill. 1218 pp. Witson, L. 1954. A study of opinions related to the nature of science and its purpose in society. Sci. Educ. 38:159-164. Wirtiin, A. S. 1968. Scientific literacy begins in the elementary school. Sci. Educ. 47:331- 342. WortH, W. H. 1965. The critical years. Ca- nadian Administrator 5. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3—4), 1978, 107—110 Effect of Cohabitation on Survivorship of Drosophila melanogaster Exposed to Varying Oxygen Atmospheric Concentrations: GERTRUDE C. RiDGEL AND GERRIT P. KLOEK Department of Biology, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601 ABSTRACT Unisexed and bisexed cultures of vestigial wing, brown-eyed Drosophila melanogaster were exposed to 9, 21, 33, and 49 percent oxygen atmospheric concentrations. Flies in uni- sexed cultures, in almost every instance, survived longer than those in cohabitation. The lethal time to 50 percent mortality was shorter in bisexed cultures exposed to high (49%) and low (9%) oxygen mixes than among flies in the unisexed cultures similarly exposed. Atmospheric mixtures of 33 percent oxygen did not appear to affect survivorship. Mean longevities in all female cultures were significantly longer than the male cultures. INTRODUCTION Observations of sex differences in mor- tality of Drosophila melanogaster have been observed by many investigators including Pearl and Parker (1921) and Kloek et al. (1976a). Experimental evidence in our laboratory showed that the difference was more pronounced in our vestigial wing (vg), brown-eyed (bw) strain than in our wild type. Greiff (1940) cited Krubiegel, who in 1939 reported that cohabitation of males and females shortened the mean duration of life in both sexes. Malick and Kidwell (1966) reported that single sexed cultures of their wild strain survived about 6 days longer than mated ones. Smith (1958) reported that in D. subobscura, mated males lived longer than mated females. However, the longevity of females could be prolonged by keeping them virgins or by exposing mating females to a high tem- perature for a brief period. This investigation, a portion of a larger research program in our laboratory, was undertaken to determine the extent of dif- ferences in longevity due to cohabitation in vgbw flies when exposed to varying oxygen concentrations. All previous studies under investigation in our laboratory had been done with flies in cohabitation. *This research was supported by a National Aeronautics and Space Administration Grant NSG 10 00801. MATERIALS AND METHOD The flies (vgbw) used in this investiga- tion were maintained in the Kentucky State University laboratory for more than 3 years. This strain was established from the g 519 stock originally obtained from the Bowling Green University Drosophila Laboratory. The flies were treated with 9, 21, 33, and 49 percent oxygen concentrations in the manner described by Kloek et al. (1976a) except the designated 60-ml bottles con- tained males alone, females alone, or a combination of males and females. No bottle contained more than 54 flies or fewer than 31 flies. Every 5 days, the flies were etherized, counted, sexed, and placed in fresh culture medium. RESULTS The survivorship curves from data ob- tained at 5-day intervals are shown in Figs. 1-4. The shape of each curve comparing sexually isolated cultures with flies in sexual cohabitation are quite similar for a given oxygen concentration. Flies in the 21 percent oxygen concentration showed a 5-day difference in both males and females when flies of unisexed cultures were com- pared with those in a mixed sexed culture. The cohabitating flies exposed to 33 percent oxygen lived equally as long as those in single sexed culture for both males and 107 PERCENT DAYS Fic. 1. Percentage of survivorship and _ lethal time (LT 50) of a strain of vgbw Drosophila, ex- posed to 9 percent oxygen at 5-day intervals. Solid lines represent females alone, dashed lines females in cohabitation, dotted lines males alone, and X lines males in cohabitation. females, but at many levels during the examination periods, males living with fe- males appeared to survive better. Unisexed male flies exposed to 49 percent oxygen had a 10-day difference in total life span compared to males in cohabitation. At the same time, the females showed a 15-day difference in life span under similar con- ditions. Male cultures exposed to 9 percent oxygen concentration survived 5 days longer than in bisexual cultures. Females in cohabitation survived 30 days less than those living solely with females in 9 percent oxygen (Fig. 1). However, the data for PERCENT DAYS Fic. 2. Percentage survivorship and lethal time (LT 50) of a strain of vgbw Drosophila exposed to 21 percent oxygen at 5-day intervals. Notations are the same as in Fig. 1. TrANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4) PERCENT DAYS Fic. 3. Percentage survivorship and lethal time (LT 50) of a strain of vgbw Drosophila exposed to 33 percent oxygen at 5-day intervals. Notations are the same as in Fig. 1. those cohabitating groups were obtained from a small sample (48 flies). Mean longevities were determined on flies living alone and in cohabitation for each treatment. For the most part, the mean longevities were higher for flies in unisexed cultures than those in cohabitation (Table 1). The females exposed to 2) 0 percent oxygen in cohabitation showed a slightly higher mean longevity than the single fe- male cultures. Males in mixed sex cultures exposed to 33 percent oxygen had a higher mean longevity than those in single male cultures. When the significances of the mean were determined, the differences LTso PERCENT oO (2) DAYS Fic. 4. Percentage survivorship and lethal time (LT 50) of a strain of vgbw Drosophila exposed to 49 percent at 5-day intervals. Notations are the same as in Fig. 1. SURVIVORSHIP OF DROSOPHILA IN OxyGEN—Ridgel and Kloek 109 TaBLE 1.—MEAN LONGEVITY (X), STANDARD DEVIATIONS (S), STANDARD ERROR, AND LETHAL TIME IN DAYS TO 50 PERCENT MORTALITY FOR VGBW FLIES EXPOSED TO 4 DIFFERENT OXYGEN ATMOSPHERES 0% Sex De 9 Fa’ 33.19 Fc’ I3.13° Ma [5.75 Mc iets ot Fa 13.10 Fe 32.18 Ma 19.49 Mc 18.89 33 Fa 36.60 Fe 34.80 Ma 19.75 Mc 94.25% 49.9 Fa 27.50 Fe 24.00 Ma 19.07 Mc livers 14a = unisexed culture. 2 ¢ = cohabitating culture. * Significant differences between a and c at 95% confidence limits. were significant for females alone and in cohabitation when exposed to 9 percent oxygen and for males exposed to 33 and 49 percent. The last column in Table 1 shows the days to 50 percent mortality for flies ex- posed to each oxygen concentration. In the 9 percent oxygen atmospheric mix, isolated females survived 39 days to 50 percent mortality, while cohabitating females lived an average of 34.2 days. In those 2 popula- tions of female flies, the time to 50 percent mortality was actually longer than that of females exposed to 33 percent or to 21 per- cent oxygen mixes. Male flies in the 9 per- cent oxygen atmospheric mixture showed a decrease in time to 50 percent mortality of 9.5 days in isolated male cultures and 7.5 days in cohabitating cultures. Hypoxia in the males appeared more detrimental in terms of time to 50 percent mortality than hyperoxia. Males living alone that were exposed to a 49 percent oxygen atmospheric mixture had a time to 50 percent mortality of 17.9 days, while among males living with females it was 12 days. Days to S Sx 50% mortality P62 1.34 39.0 10.24 2.09 34.2 10.25 E035 9.5 8.45 eZ fies. c2-GL 0.87 30.0 11.38 ibe 30.0 8.10 0.53 18.0 9.47 AL 14.0 16.04 DAPAT Bas 10.94 2.19 52 8.36 0.84 18.0 6.94 Jus) DeenS 8.91 0.59 25.0 9.32 1.70 23.0 6.65 O82 17.9 4.90 0.82 12.0 DISCUSSION This investigation was our initial attempt to compare the longevities of D. melano- gaster in unisexed and bisexed cultures exposed to varying oxygen concentrations. Already reported by us (Kloek et al. 1976a) and by many others were the ob- servations that males cohabitating had a shorter life span than cohabitating females exposed to normal and modified atmo- spheres. The present investigation con- firmed those observations. Furthermore, the data revealed that flies in cohabitation were less tolerant when exposed to extremes in oxygen concentrations (9 and 49%) than the flies in sex isolated cultures. This finding is more clearly demonstrated when comparisons were made at the 25th day period of exposure (Table 2). In the 9 and 49 percent oxygen concentrations, cohabitating male flies did not survive as well as those in sex isolated cultures. It may be that the greater activities assumed during courting was stressful to the co- habitating organisms in hyperoxia and 110 TABLE 2.—PERCENTAGE SURVIVORSHIP AFTER 25 DAYS OF EXPOSURE TO 4 DIFFERENT OXYGEN AT- MOSPHERES Oxygen Concentration (%) Sex 9 21 33 50 Fa’ 72 80 84 50 Fe 63 83 80 43 Ma 14 45 16 3 Me 9 AT 40 0 1a = unisexed culture. *b = cohabitating culture. hypoxia, and could lead to the reduced survivorship. It appears that the 33 percent oxygen atmospheric mixture was not detrimental to the vgbw flies. This was also evident among a wild type strain in another study in our laboratory (Kloek et al. 1976b). As a matter of fact, in both investigations the flies exposed to 33 percent oxygen survived as well or better than those exposed to the 20 percent oxygen concentrations. This was unexpected since in a previous study Kloek et al. (1976a), the mean longevity of cohabitating vestigial wing brown-eyed flies exposed to 21 percent oxygen was 43.43 and 31.55 days for females and males, respec- tively, as compared with 32.18 and 18.89 days in the current investigation. The dif- ference in longevity in those 2 sets of data may reflect a response to other environ- mental variations, including temperature. Kloek et al. (1976a) conducted their ex- periment January through March during which time the morning temperatures from day to day ranged from 18 to 27.5 C with an average temperature of 22.87 C over the entire experimental period. The present investigation was undertaken June through August when temperatures from day to day ranged between 24 and 27 C with an aver- age temperature over the experimental period of 25.74 C. Siddiqui and Barlow (1972), in their research on population growth with a strain of vestigial wing flies, found that time to 50 percent mortality de- creased with rising temperatures at both constant and alternating temperatures. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) Comparing Siddiqui and Barlow’s data with ours, they found that at a constant temper- ature of 22.5 C the time to 50 percent mor- tality was 36 days and at 25 C the time was 23 days. Our data from a previous experi- ment (Kloek et al. 1976a) showed that with the average temperature of 22.87 C, the flies exposed to 21 percent oxygen had a time to 50 percent mortality of greater than 45 days, while in our experiment with an aver- age of 25.74 C, the time was 30 days. Those data confirm other evidences that show that temperature differences may greatly influence experimental results in the life activities and must be considered when analyzing data on longevity of Drosophila. Data presented above demonstrate clearly that males have a lethal time of 50 percent mortality far below females exposed to high (49%) and low (9%) oxygen atmo- spheres, and that cohabitating organisms are more affected by those exposures than sex isolated cultures. From the mean longevities and total life spans, we draw similar conclusions. LITERATURE CITED GreiFF, D. 1940. Longevity in Drosophila melano- gaster and its ebony mutant in the absence of food. Amer. Nat. 74:363-376. Kioex, G. P., D. B. Rain, anp G. C. R@GEL. 1976a. Survivorship and gene frequencies of Drosophila melanogaster, populations in ab- normal atmospheres. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 47:272-279. , G. C. Ree. AND PD eeeiaAee 1976b. Survivorship and life expectancy of Drosophila melanogaster populations in ab- normal oxygen—normal pressure regimes. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 47:1174—1176. Matick, L. E., anp J. F. Kipwett. 1966. The effect of mating status, sex and genotype on longevity in Drosophila melanogaster. Genet- ics 54:203-209. PEARL, R., AND S. PARKER. 1921. Experimental studies on the duration of life, I. Introductory discussion of the duration of life in Drosoph- ila. Amer. Nat. 55:481-509. Sippieur, W. H., anp C. A. Bartow. 1972. Population growth of Drosophila melanogaster at constant and alternating temperatures. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 65:993-1001. SmiTH, M. J. 1958. The genetics of longevity in Drosophila subobscura. Proc. Int. Cong. Genet. 2: 182-183. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-4), 1978, 111-116 Genic Variability in Some Kentucky Populations of Seventeen-Year Periodical Cicadas (Homoptera: Magicicada ) Dennis B. RALIN AND GERRIT P. KLOEK Department of Natural Science, Castleton State College, Castleton, Vermont 05735 and Department of Biology, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601 ABSTRACT The 17-year periodical cicadas Magicicada cassini and M. septendecim exhibited a high degree of intraspecific (S = 0.98) and interspecific (S = 0.94) genic similarity based on electrophoretic analysis of 15 protein loci. Genic heterozygosity values (H) ranged from 0.076 to 0.119 in 3 populations, considerably lower than already published values for the 13-year cicadas M. tredecassini and M. tredecula (0.191 and 0.174, Krepp and Smith 1974). Adjustment for the loci not studied in common results in H values between 0.121 and 0.168 for the 4 species. The mean H value for the 4 species of periodical cicadas (0.149) is in the low range relative to the H values of Drosophila (0.157) and other insects (0.176). It is possible that the lower genic heterozygosities of periodical cicadas relative to other insects are a reflection of a “fine-grained” adaptive strategy resulting from the extraordinarily long subterranean nymphal stage. INTRODUCTION Electrophoretic analyses of structural gene loci provide direct evidence of high levels of genic variability in animal popu- lations (Lewontin and Hubby 1966, Harris 1966, Powell 1975). Whether these elec- trophoretic polymorphisms are maintained by selection or are mostly neutral is a subject of continuing debate among evolu- tionary biologists (e.g., see Lewontin 1974). Of interest is the observation that higher levels of genic heterozygosity exist in invertebrate populations than exist in vertebrate populations (Selander and Kauf- man 1973, Powell 1975). Selander and Kaufman (1973) interpreted that difference in terms of Levins’ (1968) theory of adap- tive strategies in relation to environmental uncertainty. That is, the greater degree of mobility and homeostatic control an organ- ism has, the more likely it is to experience the environment as “fine-grained.” There- fore, at most loci, 1 optimum allele would be selected. Small, relatively immobile organisms experience their environment as sets of alternatives in time and space, or “coarse grained.” Selection in those organ- isms would favor different genotypes at many loci to allow for maximum fitness under different circumstances. A_ higher genic heterozygosity would be expected in such populations. Although nearly 100 different animal species, subspecies, and semispecies have been examined (Powell 1975), we believe that a general theory relating physiological ecology and life history to the genetics of animal populations is still problematical. There has been no clear comparison of eurythermal and_ stenothermal _ poikilo- therms, between hemimetabolic and _ holo- metabolic insects, between very large and small homeotherms, and so forth. More- over, the vast majority of terrestrial in- vertebrates studied thus far are insects, and most of them belong to the genus Drosophila. The periodical cicadas are of interest from this point of view, since they are hemimetabolic insects having an un- 111 112 usually long generation time. Moreover, 99 percent of that time is spent in the nymphal stage in a subterranean habitat. Compared with other insects, cicadas face relatively constant conditions during the major portion of their life cycle. We decided to examine genic variability in 2 species of 17-year periodical cicadas when a brood emerged in Kentucky in 1974. In this report, we compare levels of hetero- zygosity in 17- and 13-year cicadas (Krepp and Smith 1974) and compare their mean heterozygosity levels with those of other insects. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was supported by National Aeronautics and Space Administration Grant NSG 10 00801. We thank Robert French, Alan Hammond, and Sushil Jain for technical assistance, and Jean Clark for typing the manuscript. MATERIALS AND METHODS Seventy-nine periodical cicadas were col- lected on 29 May and 2 June 1974. Forty- five were collected in Frankfort, Franklin County, Kentucky, and 34 were collected on the Frank Clark Farm, 3.2 km south of Monterey, Owen County, Kentucky. Ac- cording to the emergence times given by Alexander and Moore (1962), they were 17-year cicadas of Brood XIV. Only 1 of the 3 17-year cicadas, M. cassini, is found in the Frankfort area (Alexander and Moore 1962). All 45 individuals from Frankfort had similar songs and morphol- ogy. In the Monterey area, 20 of the cicadas collected had the same morphology and the same song (a series of ticks fol- lowed by a buzz). The other 14 cicadas collected at Monterey had a distinctly lower-pitched song without any ticks in it, were noticeably larger than M. cassini, had reddish-yellow pronota and prothoracic pleura, reddish abdominal sternites and were identified as M. septendecim. Cicadas were placed in_ individual 16 x 70-mm vials and covered with a 2 percent phenoxyethanol-0.25 M_ sucrose TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) solution. Vials were kept in a cold room between 0-5 C for 2 weeks, and _ later stored at -40 C for 10 months before runs were made. .- Horizontal electrophoresis was performed on 11 percent starch gels (Lot No. 371, Hiller Electrostarch Co., P.O. Box 1294, Madison, Wisconsin). Four different buffer systems were used: (1) system A of Steiner and Johnson (1973); (2) tris-citrate (pH 6.7) of Selander et al. (1971); (3) system C of Steiner and Johnson (1973); and (4) tris-maleate of Selander et al. (1971). Stain recipes were similar to those of Selander et al. (1971) and Steiner and Johnson (1973). Enzymes and proteins stained for on each buffer system were as follows: (1) aldolase (ALD), esterases (EST), general proteins (PT), indophenol oxidase/ tetrazolium oxidase/superoxide dismutase (SOD), leucine aminopeptidase (LAP), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), malic en- zyme (ME), 6-phosphogluconate dehydro- genase (6-PGD), phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI), and phosphoglucomutase (PGM); (2) glutamate oxaloacetate aminotransfer- ase (GOT), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G-3-PDH), MDH, ME, and PGM; (3) a-glycerophosphate dehy- drogenase (a-GPD), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6-PD), and G-3-PDH; and (4) xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH), G-6-PDH, a-GPD, GOT, and PGI. When more than 1 set of bands were seen on a gel slice, the most anodal set was designated 1 and the others were numbered in accordance with their distance from the anode. When a set of bands gave evidence of allelic variation, the allele of greatest anodal mobility was designated 100, and the others were designated by their mobili- ties relative to the 100 allele. Cathodally migrating alleles were denoted by a minus sign preceding the relative mobility. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Allelic forms at consistently scorable protein loci are given in Table 1. Hetero- zygote banding patterns at polymorphic loci were similar to those described for GENIC VARIABILITY IN PERIODICAL CicApAs—Ralin and Kloek 113 TABLE 1.—ALLELES AND ALLELIC FREQUENCIES’ AT 15 LOCI IN 2 SPECIES OF 17-YEAR CICADAS Homolog in Locus 13-year cicadas? M. cassina M. septendecim PT-2 PT-1 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00) PT-4 PT-2 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00) SOD-1 IPO-1 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00) EST-1 ES-1 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00) EST-2 ES-2 100 (0.548 ), 94 (0.317), 100( 0.321), 94( 0.536), 91 (0.135) 91 (0.143) EST-4 Not done ~100 (0.890), -71 (0.094), ~100 (0.464), -71 (0.250), —42 (0.016) —42, (0.286) ME-I1 MDH-2 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00) PGI-3 PGI-1 —100 (1.00) —100 (1.00) PGM-1 PGM-I? 100 (0.205), 89 (0.491), 100 (0.071), 89 (0.750), 79 (0.304) 79 (0.179) G-3-PDH-1 Not done 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00) MDH-1 MDH-1 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00) MDH-2 MDH-3 —100 (1.00) —100 (1.00) ALD-1 Not done 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00) GOT-1 GOT-1 100 (1.00) 100 (1.00) GOT-2 GOT-2 —100 (1.00) —100 (1.00) 1 Frequencies calculated as unweighted averages of 2 populations. ) 2 From descriptions given by Krepp and Smith (1974). 13-year cicadas by Krepp and Smith (1974). Probable homologous loci are also noted in Table 1. The Frankfort population of M. cassini was in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium at each polymorphic locus as tested by chi square analysis. Genic similarities as measured by Rogers’ (1972) coefficient of genic similarity are S = 0.94 for the heterospecific comparison and S = 0.98 for the conspecific compari- son. Mean genic heterozygosity (H) for each species population, based on 15 loci, is given in Table 2. Values calculated by actual count match quite closely with estimated values calculated from Hardy- Weinberg heterozygote frequencies. There were no significant differences among the 3 populations. Although slightly higher than average genic similarities between conspecific pop- ulations of other organisms, the S value of 0.98 between the Monterey and Frank- fort populations of M. cassini is still well within the range of values observed in earlier studies (Avise 1976). The S value of 0.94 between M. cassini and M. sep- tendecim is in the high range for an inter- specific comparison, reflecting the fact that all periodical cicadas are sibling species differentiated by minor morphological dif- ferences and acoustic behavior (Alexander and Moore 1962). Hardy-Weinberg esti- mates of genic heterozygosity in 2 species of 13-year cicadas and 2 species of 17-year cicadas are given in Table 3. The column headed H + 2 sx seems to indicate signifi- TABLE 2,—MEAN GENIC HETEROZYGOSITIES (H) + 2 STANDARD ERRORS IN 2 SPECIES OF 17-YEAR PERI- ODICAL CICADAS Species Population M. cassini Frankfort 45 Monterey 20 M. septendecim Monterey 14 H+2sE H (Actual Count) ( Estimated ) 0.098 + 0.018 0.093 0.076 + 0.017 0.076 0.119 + 0.028 0.119 114 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) TABLE 3.—ESsTIMATED GENIC HETEROZYGOSITY VALUES (H) IN 4 SPECIES OF PERIODICAL CICADAS Species No. of Populations No. of Loci H=+2sr Adjusted H? M. tredecassini 2 15 0.191 + 0.024" 0.168 M. tredecula 2 15 0.174 + 0.033’ 0.154 M. cassini 2 15 0.093 + 0.012 0.121 M. septendecim 1 15 0.119 + 0.028 0.151 1 Calculated from given allele frequencies (Krepp and Smith 1974); Standard errors from actual counts. => See text for details. cantly lower levels of genic heterozygosity in 17-year cicadas compared with 13-year cicadas. According to the compilations of Powell (1975), the mean heterozygosities of our brood are in the low range for those in- vertebrate organisms reported. Krepp and Smith (1974) sampled what were thought to be 2 species of 13-year cicadas of Brood XIX (presumably Magicicada tredecassini and M. tredecula), and found levels of genic heterozygosity in the high range for insects. The apparent difference in the studies probably is, in part, an artifact caused by a difference in the loci sampled. We believe that 12 of the loci sampled here are homologues of those sampled by Krepp and Smith (1974). Unfortunately, their samples had already been discarded by the time we were aware that someone else had studied periodical cicadas (M. H. Smith pers. comm.). One _ additional highly polymorphic locus sampled by Krepp and Smith (1974), ES-3, seems to be compar- able to our highly polymorphic EST-4 (Table 1). We were unsuccessful in sampling 2 polymorphic loci in M. trede- cassini-M. tredecula, a-GPDH-1, and G- 6-PDH-1 (Krepp and Smith 1974). On the other hand, we also sampled 2 mono- morphic loci not sampled by them, ALD-1 and G-3-PDH-1 (Table 1). In an attempt to pool these data to get an H value reflecting the greatest number of loci available at this time, we calculated an adjusted H for each species. We took the highest heterozygosity values for G-6-PDH-1 and a-GPDH-I in M. trede- cassini-M. tredecula (respectively, 0.495 and 0.280 Krepp and Smith 1974) and used them to adjust M. cassini and M. septendecim upward; and we took the 0.000 heterozygosity values for ALD-I and G-3-PDH-1 (Table 1) and used them to adjust M. tredecula and M. tredecassini downward. The resultant adjusted H values (Table 3) are considerably more alike, ranging from 0.121 to 0.168. Mean H value for the unadjusted figures was 0.144 and the mean adjusted H value was 0.149. Either of those figures is in the low range compared with mean H values of Drosophila and other insects. Mean H values of periodical cicadas, Drosophila, and other insects are compared in Table 4. Mean values for the latter 2 categories probably are significantly underestimated. The Drosophila value includes a number of H values for isolated semispecies, sub- species, and island populations that are lower than the values of continental popu- lations or populations from the main spe- cies range. The other insects category includes island populations of the homop- TABLE 4.—MEAN HETEROZYGOSITY ESTIMATES FOR SELECTED GROUPS OF INSECTS Grouping pie Periodical cicadas 4 0.149 + 0.008 Drosophila’ 38 0.157 + 0.009 Other insects” 10 0.176 + 0.020 1 Taken from Powell (1975), including all species, semi- species, subspecies, and island populations. * Eight species from Powell (1975) plus 2 species from McKechnie et al. 1975. GENIC VARIABILITY IN PERIODICAL CicApAs—Ralin and Kloek teran Philaenus spumarius that have a very low H value (0.076, Saura et al. 1973). Although more data for both periodical cicadas and other insects are needed, it does appear that H values of periodical cicadas are in the low range relative to other insects in general. Additional data may raise the mean H value for cicadas back towards Krepp and Smith’s (1974) figures, or they may lower its mean even more. We believe the latter will be true. Krepp and Smith (1974) attributed their results to the high environ- mental uncertainty they believed those in- sects face. In other words, they implied that periodical cicadas experience the en- vironment as “coarse-grained” in the terms of Levins’ (1968) model of adaptive strategies. It is difficult for us to accept Krepp and Smith’s (1974) view. The insects spend more than 99 percent of their life in a subterranean habitat, and physical factors are exceedingly stable there. Therefore, we suggest that periodical cicadas perceive their environment as “fine-grained” in terms of Levins’ (1968) model. We believe that these types of analyses should prove useful in elucidating the genetic bases of environmental adaptation. We also believe it is premature to assign definitive adaptive significance to hetero- zygosities at this time because more loci must be examined and more species studied. For that reason, we wish to present our results here, and point out that these additional data lower the mean heterozygosity for periodical cicadas below those of Drosophila and other insects. SUMMARY The 17-year periodical cicadas Magi- cicada cassini and M. septendecim ex- hibited a high degree of intraspecific (S'= 0.98) and interspecific (S = 0.94) genic similarity based on electrophoretic analysis of 15 protein loci. Genic hetero- zygosity values (H) ranged from 0.076 to 0.119 in 3 populations, considerably lower than already published values for M. 115 tredecassini and M. tredecula (0.191 and 0.174 Krepp and Smith 1974). Adjustment for the loci not studied in common results in H values between 0.121 and 0.168 for the 4 species. The mean H value for 4 species of periodical cicadas is in the low range relative to the H values of Drosophila and other insects. This is consistent with the hypothesis that periodical cicadas ex- perience the environment as “fine-grained” and are less subject to the effects of balancing selection than are other insects. LITERATURE CITED ALEXANDER, R. D., AND T. E. Moore. 1962. The evolutionary relationships of 17-year and 13-year cicadas, and three new _ species. (Homoptera Cicadidae, Magicicada). Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool., Univ. Mich. 121:1—59. AvisE, J. E. 1976. Genetic differentiation dur- ing speciation. Pp. 106-122. In F. J. Ayala (Ed.). Molecular Evolution. Sinauer Assoc. Inc. Sunderland, Mass. 277 pp. Harris, H. 1966. Enzyme polymorphism in man. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B. 164:298-310. Krepp, S. R., anp M. H. Smiru. 1974. Genic heterozygosity in the 13-year cicada, Magici- cada. Evolution 28:396—401. Levins, R. 1968. Evolution in changing en- vironments. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. 120 pp. Lewontin, R. C. 1974. The genetic basis of evolutionary change. Columbia Univ. Press, New York, N.Y. 346 pp. , AND J. L. Hussy. 1966. A molecular approach to the study of genic heterozygosity in natural populations. IJ. Amount of varia- tion and degree of heterozygosity in natural populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura. Ge- netics 54:595-609. McKecunirz, S. W., P. R. EHRLICH, AND R. R. Waiter. 1975. Population genetics of Eu- phydryas butterflies. I. Genetic variation and the neutrality hypothesis. Genetics 31:571- 594. PowELL, J. R. 1975. Protein variation in natural populations of animals. Pp. 79-119. In T. Dobzhansky, M. K. Hecht, and W. C. Steers (Eds.), Evolutionary Biology, Volume 8. Plenum Publ. Corp., N.Y. 387 pp. Rocers, J. S. 1972. Measures of genetic sim- ilarity and genetic distance. Studies in Ge- netics VII. Univ. Texas Publ. 7213:145-153. SaurA, A., O. HALKKA, AND J. LoKkr. 1973. Enzyme gene heterozygosity in small island populations of Philaenus spumarius (L.) (Homoptera). Genetics 44:459-473. SELANDER, R. K., anp D. W. KauFMan. 1973. 116 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) Genic variability and strategies of adaptation in animals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 70:1875- 1877. , M. H. Sirsa, S. Y. Yanc, W. E. JOHN- SON, AND J. B. Gentry. 1971. Biochemical polymorphism and systematics in the genus Peromyscus. I. Variation in the old-field STEINER, W. W. M., AND W. E. JOHNSON. mouse (Peromyscus polionotus). Studies in Genetics VI. Univ. Texas Publ. 7103:49-90. 1973. Techniques for electrophoresis of Hawaiian Drosophila. Island Ecosystems Integrated Res. Prog., U.S. Int. Biol. Prog., Technical Report No. 30:1-21. , Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3—4), 1978, 117-121 Removal of Nitrogen and Sulfur from Coal-Derived Liquids TAY-YEAN LIN AND NormMAn L. HOLy Department of Chemistry, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 ABSTRACT Substantial amounts of the nitrogen can be removed from a variety of coal-derived liquids by extraction with sulfuric acid. The greater the concentration of sulfuric acid, the greater the amount of nitrogen removed. From the extraction characteristics, the nature of the nitrogen appears to span the spectrum between basic and neutral compounds. The sulfur content was not substantially altered by extraction with sulfuric acid. Liquid chro- matography of the coal liquids also resulted in appreciable diminution of the nitrogen content; the sulfur content was unchanged. A variety of coal-derived liquids was found to respond similarly to both acid extraction and column chromatography. INTRODUCTION One of the obstacles to broader utiliza- tion of coal-derived liquids is the presence of fairly high levels of nitrogen in those products. High nitrogen concentrations have a very negative effect upon the pos- sible applications of those products as fuels. Coal liquids can be used as fuels by power generating plants or other in- dustries that can scrub out the nitrogenous by-products, but those fuels generally can- not replace fuel oils or gasoline. Refine- ment of coal liquids is often not feasible because nitrogen has a negative effect upon the performance of refinery catalysts (Cady and Seeling 1952, Dineen et al. 1958, Jen- sen et al. 1971). If coal-derived liquids are to become viable fuels for a variety of applications, it is necessary to reduce the nitrogen levels substantially. The level of sulfur in coal liquids is not high because the liquefaction processes remove most of it. Further reduction is still desirable. Efforts to reduce the level of nitrogen in coal-derived liquids have focused upon catalytic hydrogenation with concomitant conversion of nitrogen to ammonia, that is then scrubbed out. Hydrogenation, while effective in removing more than half the nitrogen, does require severe conditions (Schulman 1973, Vernon and Pennington 1973, Satchell 1976, Crynes 1976, Katzer et al. 1976, Stein et al. 1977). From the standpoint of economics, it would be de- sirable to find alternative approaches. We sought a very simple, inexpensive method by which nitrogen and sulfur could be removed. We are aware of successful efforts to reduce nitrogen contents of shale oil by extraction with sulfuric acid ( Map- stone 1948) and column chromatography (Bond and Harriz 1957). Even with that history, there was no assurance that such methods would be successful for coal liquids because the nature of the nitrogen and sulfur compounds is largely uncharac- terized. Furthermore, considering that coal liquids are composed of substantial pro- portions of aromatic compounds, there was the distinct possibility that treatment with sulfuric acid could actually increase the sulfur content. The nitrogenous compounds in shale oil have been characterized, in part, by their responsiveness to extraction by sulfuric acid (Mapstone 1948). By that technique, it has been possible to determine, very roughly, the proportions of basic nitrogen compounds and those that are neutral. It is attractive to make a similar study of coal-derived liquids and to compare the results with those obtained for shale oil. Additionally, few comparisons between the various coal liquids produced in several laboratories are available. There is no a priori reason to surmise that those Lh? 118 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) TABLE 1.—SULFUR AND NITROGEN CONTENTS OF COAL-DERIVED LIQUIDS’ UPON TREATMENT WITH SUL- FURIC ACID Volume coal liquid (m1) Total Total Before After sulfur nitrogen Entry Origin Treatment treatment treatment (%) (%) la GU 145 R Product #38 None 0.38 122. Gulf Oil Company lb GU 145 R Product 438 5% H2SO, (3 ml) 5.0 4.1 0.68 0.83 Gulf Oil Company le GU 145 R Product 438 50% H2SO, (3) 5.0 4.0 0.76 0.83 Gulf Oil Company ld GU 145 R Product #38 90% H2SO, (3) 5.0 3.8 0.43 0.55 Gulf Oil Company le GU 145 R Product #38 100 g alumina 0.40 0.74 Gulf Oil Company 2a Hydro-Oil None 0.094 0.41 230 x 470 C 2b Hydro-Oil 50% H2SO: (3) 5.0 4.1 0.15 0.18 230 x 470 C 2c Hydro-Oil 90% H2SO; (3) 5.0 3.8 0.14 0.03 230 x 470 C od Hydro-Oil 100 g alumina 0.097 0.07 240-410 © 3a LO-366 None 0.093 0.42 400-650 F 3b LO-366 5% H2SO, (3) 5.0 48 0.085 0.15 400-650 F 3c LO-366 50% H-SO; (3) 5.0 4,4 0.10 0.12 400-650 F : 3d LO-366 90% H2SOs (3) 5.0 4.0 0.075 0.02 : 400-650 F : 3e LO-366 100 g alumina 0.067 0.075 400-650 F 4a LO-367 None 0.12 0.72 650-975 F 4b LO-367 90% H:SO, (2) 25.0 18.5 0.069 0.12 650-975 F 4c LO-367 90% H»SOs (4) 25.0 18.0 0.084 0.08 650-975 F 4d LO-367 90% H»SO, (5) 25.0 WS 0.11 0.05 650-975 F 4de LO-367 90% H.SO, (10) 25.0 17.0 0.13 0.08 650-975 F Af LO-367 100 g alumina 0.12 0.21 650-975 F Producer Conoco Hydrocarbon Research Gulf Samples Liquefaction Solvent H-Coal, 180-380 F GU 145 R, 193 C Hydro-Oi H-Coal, LO-366 Product #38 Low-Ash Extract H-Coal, LO-367 GU 145 R, Product #38 NITROGEN AND SULFUR IN COAL-DERIVED Liguips—Lin and Holy products would respond similarly to either acid extraction or column chromatography simply because they are obtained by di- verse methods. An investigation into com- parisons between those fuels is timely. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank the Institute for Mining and Minerals Research for financial support. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Extraction Data (Table 1) were obtained by adding the indicated amount of acid to a separa- tory funnel or centrifuge tube containing the indicated volume of coal liquid. After shaking, the layers were separated (2,000 rpm, 2 min for centrifuged samples), and the organic layer was washed with water, dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate, and filtered. Centrifugation was necessary for samples extracted with acid less concen- trated than 50 percent sulfuric acid. Chromatography Data (Table 1) were obtained by eluting 20-ml samples of coal liquid from a 40 < 2-cm alumina column (100 g AI,Os, Matheson, Coleman, and Bell, 80-325 mesh) with ethyl ether. The ether was then evaporated on a rotary evaporator. Elemental analyses were performed by the Materials Analysis Laboratory, Institute for Mining and Minerals Research or Galbraith Laboratories, Knoxville, Tennessee. A sample of coal-derived liquid was placed on a 40 X 2-cm alumina column (100 g, Matheson, Coleman, and Bell, 80- 325 mesh). No solvent was employed, but a vacuum was necessary in order that the samples would pass through the column at a reasonable rate. Ten 2-ml portions were collected. The column was then washed with 100 ml of 20 percent sulfuric acid, then 100 ml of 95 percent ethanol, and, finally, 100 ml of ethyl ether. Then an- other 10 samples were collected. These latter fractions constituted those classified as acid washed. 119 reent Nitrogen Pe 5 20 25 50 90% Concentration Sulfuric (w/v%) Fic. 1. Extraction of nitrogen from coal liquids with sulfuric acid. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Extraction The results of extraction of a variety of coal-derived liquids indicate that (Figs. 1, 2, 3; Table 1): (1) reduction in the nitrogen content of all coal-derived liquids tested occurred upon treatment with sul- furic acid. The curves display gross simi- larities though the extent of nitrogen 1.2 Percent Nitrogen 0.8 0.6 0.4 5 20 25 50 902 Concentration Sulfuric Acid (w/v%) Fic. 2. Extraction of nitrogen from coal liquids with sulfuric acid. nal origi Percent Nitrogen Fraction Fic. 3. Chromatography of H-Coal: light distil- late 400-650 F. Original sample 0.42% nitrogen. removal varied substantially with the sample; (2) the major amount of nitrogen can be removed from a sample by a single extraction with 90 percent sulfuric acid; (3) many different nitrogenous compounds must be present because the curves display no very distinct breaks. Therefore, a wide range of such compounds are present that span the spectrum of basic-to-neutral com- pounds. Shale oil displayed a much more distinct break (Mapstone 1948) at 20-30 percent sulfuric acid, and is considered to mean that there is a reasonably high con- centration of highly basic nitrogenous compounds in shale oil. In contrast, coal liquids appeared to contain a lesser pro- portion of highly basic compounds; (4) considerable similarities were present in the nitrogenous compounds regardless of the physical characteristics or process origin as shown by the similar shapes of the curves. It should not be interpreted that the com- pounds were the same, but rather that there were relatively constant proportions of basic compounds or neutral compounds from one sample to another. Recoveries varied from 65 to 98 percent after extraction, depending upon the con- centration, and to some extent, the amount of acid. The more concentrated the acid, the less the material recovered. It is likely that with increasing concentration of acid TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) there is increased tendency for it to extract phenols or other heteroatom containing molecules. Extraction of highly viscous products is not attractive; when the acid is added, the samples (e.g., GU 145 R 249 C, Gulf; Low-Ash Extraction 290 C/1 torr, Conoco; Coal Oil 3174-35, Universal Oil Products) became virtually solids, and attempted separation using centrifugation at 3,000 rpm did not result in a separation ‘of layers. Extraction of the sulfur compounds was not very effective (Table 1); actually, that observation paralleled that for shale oil. It is interesting to note, however, that the sulfur content did not actually increase significantly. Conceivably, sulfonation of phenolic or other derivatives could have led to higher values for sulfur. Chromatography Chromatography is effective in remov- ing nitrogenous compounds from coal- derived liquids. From the data in Fig. 3, it can be seen that chromatography re- sulted in a substantial nitrogen reduction. That graph is typical of those obtained for several other coal-derived liquids. There are no distinct breaks in the curves, again indicating the presence of a variety of nitrogen products having different alumina affinities. It is also interesting that the columns can be regenerated rather easily; in fact, the regenerated columns actually gave better performance than the original alumina. LITERATURE CITED Bonn, G. R., JR., AND C. G. Harriz. 1957. De- termination of trace amounts of total nitrogen in petroleum distillates. Anal. Chem. 29:177— 180. Capy, W. E., AnD H. S. Seextinc. 1952. Com- position of shale oil. Ind. Eng. Chem. 44: 2636-2641. Crynes, B. L. 1976. Catalysts for upgrading coal-derived liquids. ERDA Energy Res. Abst. 1(5 ) :673. DINEEN, G. U., G. L. Coox, AND H. B. JENSEN. 1958. Estimation of the types of nitrogen compounds in shale-oil gas oil. Anal. Chem. 30:2026—2030. NITROGEN AND SULFUR IN COAL-DERIVED Liguips—Lin and Holy JENSEN, H. B., R. E. Poutson, AND G. L. Cook. 1971. Characterization of the saturates and olefins in shale-oil gas oil. Prepr. Amer. Chem. Soc. Div. Fuel Chem. 15(1):113-121. aren, |. R., B. C. Garss, J.:'H.. Onson, H: Kwart, AND A. B. Stites. 1976. Kinetics and mechanism of desulfurization and denitro- genation of coal-derived liquids. ERDA En- ergy Res. Abst. 1(5):673-674. MapstongE, G. E. 1948. Nitrogen in oil shale and shale oil. J. Proc. Soc. New South Wales 79:135-144. SATCHELL, D. P. 1976. Development of a pro- cess for producing an ashless low-sulfur fuel 121 from coal. 673. SCHULMAN, B. L. 1973. Hydrogen purification and recycle in hydrogenating heavy mineral os -U.S."( Exxon ) 3,717,571. Srempe hi oy ES YVOentrz, AND) Ry (Be CaLLen. 1977. Upgrading coal liquids to gas turbine fuels. 3. Exploratory Process Studies. Ind. Eng. Chem., Prod. Dev. Res. 16:61-73. VERNON, L. W., AND R. E. PENNINGTON. 1973. Hydrotreating of hydrocarbonaceous liquids with carbon monoxide-containing gas. U.S. (Exxon) 3,719,588. ERDA Energy Res. Abst. 1(5): Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-—4), 1978, 122-126 Aspects of Photoperiodic Time Measurement in the Crayfish Orconectes immunis E. LyNN TALTON' AND RUDOLPH PRINS Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 ABSTRACT Experiments were conducted to determine if an hourglass model is a mechanism whereby photoperiodic time is measured by the crayfish Orconectes immunis. Two experiments were conducted in each of which there were 2 series of treatments. Series I and II were time (T) experiments in which T was the total length of the light-dark cycle. In Series I, the light phase of the cycle was held at 16 hours with varied lengths of darkness (LD 16;2, T 18: LD 16;8, T 24: LD16;20, T 36: LD16;32, T 48). In Series II, the dark phase was 8 hours and the hours of light were varied (LD 2;8, T 10: LD 16;8, T 24: LD 28:8, T 36: LD 40:8, T 48). No significant differences were found in the molting responses of the crayfish to the photoperiods in those experiments. The data would then indicate than an hourglass mechanism is not utilized to measure photoperiod under the conditions tested. INTRODUCTION Environmental factors such as tempera- ture and photoperiod have been shown to affect molting in crayfish (Aiken 1969; Armitage et al. 1973; Mobberly 1963; Rice and Armitage 1974; Stephens 1955; Molley 1974, unpublished master’s thesis, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Ken- tucky; Sadewasser 1974, unpublished mas- ters thesis, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky; and Van Hoff 1976, unpublished master’s thesis, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Ken- tucky. Molley (unpublished thesis) and Sadewasser (unpublished thesis) have shown that crayfish respond linearly to temperature in that molting frequency in- creases with increases in temperatures, within limits. Temperatures fluctuate con- siderably during seasonal changes in tem- perate regions. Photoperiod progressively increases from a winter minimum daylength to a summer maximum daylength, thence cycling back to a winter minimum. Be- cause of that predictability, photoperiod may be a more reliable environmental cue for the crayfish. It has been demonstrated in plants and insects that a biological clock measures a * Present address: Department of Zoology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27607. time interval of the photoperiod (light or darkness) (Bowen and Skopik 1976, Hamner 1960, Lees 1966, Pittendrigh and Minis 1964, Went 1960). It is possible that cray- fish (Crustacea) also use such a device. Various authors have reported that long- day photoperiods will produce higher molting frequencies than will short or normal day photoperiods (Aiken 1969, Armitage et al. 1973, Stephens 1955, Molley unpublished thesis, Sadewasser un- published thesis, and Van Hoff unpublished thesis). Therefore, it would appear that crayfish use some type of mechanism to measure the duration of the light or dark period. The mechanism of photoperiodic time measurement may be either an hourglass model or a circadian oscillator model ( Pit- tendrigh 1972). It was the objective of this research to further define the role of photo- period in the molt cycle of the crayfish Orconectes immunis by determining if an hourglass model is a mechanism for photo- periodic time measurement. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank Dr. Samuel P. Meyers, Louisiana State University for graciously providing the food used in the experiments and to Dr. James P. Worthington, Western Kentucky University for his sustaining assistance with statistical procedures. 122 PHOTOPERIOD IN CRAYFISH Mo.tinc—Talton and Prins MATERIALS AND METHODS The crayfish Orconectes immunis used in these experiments were obtained from Wolf Lake Fish Hatchery, Kalamazoo County, Michigan, on 2 June and 11 September 1976 and transported immedi- ately to Western Kentucky University. Those animals obtained in June were col- lected directly from a drained hatchery pond. In September, animals were ob- tained from the hatchery holding tanks where they had been held at 11 C for approximately 1 week. The cephalothorax length of the crayfish collected in June ranged from 25.1 mm to 44.5 mm (mean = 35.9 mm) while those obtained in September ranged from 19.2 mm to 37.5 mm (mean = 25.6 mm). The environmental units used in the ex- periments provided temperature and light control. Each unit contained 6 separate compartments. The light source in each compartment was a Westinghouse 15-watt coolwhite fluorescent light bulb, wrapped in Opaque tape to reduce light to the ap- propriate intensity. Zinc coated screens with 6-mm mesh were used to cover the crayfish trays, thus allowing penetration of all wavelengths of light. Opaque dividers were placed in the trays since, at least in one instance, lack of privacy in the crab Gecarcinus lateralis inhibited molting (Bliss and Boyer 1964). Temperatures in the units were held constant at 22 C. Two experiments, each containing 2 series were conducted. The first experi- ment was initiated on 4 June 1976 and the second on 14 September 1976. Experiment 1 was 80 days in duration while Experiment 2 was conducted for 160 days. Series I and II of each experiment were T experi- ments, in which T was the total length of the light-dark cycle. In Series I, the light phase of the cycle was held at 16 hours with varied lengths of darkness (LD 16;2, tals: Eb 16;8, T 24: LD 16;20, T 36: LD 16;32, T 48). In Series II, the dark phase was 8 hours and the hours of light were varied (LD 2;8, T 10: LD 16;8, T 24: LD 28;8, T 36: LD 40;8, T 48). In Experiment 1, 2 light intensities were 123 30 ss 10 16:20 16:32 TOTAL NUMBER OF MOLTS 20 10 PHOTOPERIOD Fic. 1. Total molts occurring in response to 16L: varied dark and varied light:8D photoperiods in Experiment 1 (Series I and II). A. Molts in Series I (16L:Dark). B. Molts in Series II ( Light: 8D). used, 223.56 lux and 413.64 lux. In Ex- periment 2, intensities of 32.4 lux were used in all treatments. Two hundred and twenty-four crayfish were used in each experiment. In Experi- ment 1, 7 photoperiod treatments (4 in Series I, and 3 in Series II) were further subdivided into 2 levels of intensity (223.56 lux and 413.64 lux). There was 1 replica- tion of each treatment. Eight animals were assigned to each photoperiod intensity treatment and 8 to each replication. Equal numbers of male and female crayfish were used. In Experiment 2, there were 7 photo- period treatments (4 in Series I, and 3 in Series II). There were 3 replications of each treatment. Eight animals were as- signed to each photoperiod treatment and 124 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) TABLE 1,.—ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE TOTAL MOLTS OCCURRING IN RESPONSE TO PHOTOPERIOD, IN- TENSITY, AND SEX IN EXPERIMENT 1 Source Df Total 63 Treatment SL Photoperiod (= A) ¥ Intensity (= B) 1 Sex (=<) 1 AxB 7 AxC T B¢-G 1 Ax BC 7 Error 32 1 Significant at the 0.05 level. * Highly significant at the 0.01 level. ns = Nonsignificant. to each replication. Equal numbers of male and female crayfish were used. The crayfish were checked daily for molts, and shed exoskeletons were left in the trays for the animals to consume. The crayfish trays were rotated at intervals to provide for an even exposure of animals to the light source. The crayfish were given approximately 0.5 g of high protein food every 5 days. Portions of the food not consumed were removed after 4 days. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) using a completely random design with a fac- torial arrangement of treatments was used to analyze molting data. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The numbers of molts in each photo- period in Series I and II of Experiment 1 are presented in Fig. 1. From those data it appeared that the different photoperiods of constant light and varied dark caused similar molting responses in all the cray- fish. The analysis of variance (Table 1) confirmed that there were no significant differences in the molting response of the crayfish to the various photoperiods of constant light and varied dark. In Experi- ment 2, the differences in the molts oc- curring for each photoperiod of constant dark and varied light were not statistically significant (Fig. 2, Table 2). Therefore, the data indicate that the crayfish were SS MS F 100.48 65.98 200 1.97* 15.86 AOA | 2.10 ns 4.52 4,52 4,19" 19.14 19.14 Lit be 14.86 Dae 1.97 ns 6.73 0.96 0.89 ns 0.14 0.14 0.13 ns 4.73 0.68 0.63 ns 34.50 1.08 not using an hourglass mechanism for photoperiodic time measurement. Bowen and Skopik (1976) indicated that the European corn borer Ostrina nubialis utilized an hourglass mechanism for measurement of photoperiod. In their experiments the 16L; varied dark conditions caused no termination of diapause except in 16L;8D, indicating that the amount of light or periods of darkness greater than 8 hours were not being measured by an hourglass clock. However, when the 8 hours of darkness were coupled with vary- ing light periods, termination of diapause occurred in every instance. This would indicate that the system of time measure- ment in O. nubialis acted like an hourglass in which photoperiodic time measurement was determined by the length of the dark period. An hourglass model measuring a specific time interval and thereby inducing molts was not used by the crayfish O. immunis in those experiments because no constant time interval, when coupled with varying light or darkness, produced an in- crease in the number of molts. Significantly greater numbers of molts were obtained in the 413.64 lux light in- tensity treatments than in the 223.56 lux light intensity treatments in Experiment 1 (Table 1). The reasons for this are not understood. There are few data available on the effects of light intensity on molt responses of crustaceans and the available PHOTOPERIOD IN CRAYFISH Moutinc—Talton and Prins ' TOTAL NUMBER OF MOLTS 15 B 10 PHOTOPERIOD Fic. 2. Total molts occurring in response to 16L: varied dark and varied light:8D photoperiods in Experiment 2 (Series I and II). A. Molts in Series I (16L:Dark). B. Molts in Series II (Light:8D). data indicate opposite responses from those obtained in these experiments. Prins et al. (1972), when using O. immunis from Ken- tucky, found that molting in the crayfish was less frequent in 120 ft-c (1,296.0 lux) intensities than in 15 ft-c (162.0 lux) in- tensities when the animals were kept at 22 C. Bliss (1954) found that the molting TABLE 2.—ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE TOTAL MOLTS OCCURRING IN 125 occurring in the crab Gecarcinus lateralis was less when light intensities were greater than 10 lux. Molting responses of crayfish to light intensities are too little understood to draw any conclusions. In Experiment 1, there were highly significant differences in molting between sexes with females molting more than males (Table 1) (females = 90, males = 37). Tack (1941) suggested that there is an inhibitory mechanism that keeps female O. immunis, when bearing young, from molting. The males in our experiment had already started their spring molt when collected, whereas the females had been held from molting until the young were released. This, then, may have caused the differences seen in our experiment. At this time, it is difficult to determine if seasonal influences such as maturation and development of the gonads affect the crayfish in conjunction with daily photo- period. It may be that the circadian clocks were setting the patterns of growth and development of the gonads thereby in- directly determining when the crayfish molt. It is not certain if the stage of sexual development affects the measurement of photoperiodic time since no _ significant interactions between sex and photoperiod were detected. SUMMARY 1. Experiments were conducted to deter- mine if an hourglass model is a mechanism whereby photoperiodic time is measured by the crayfish Orconectes immunis. The ef- fects of photoperiod, intensity, and sex on molting were measured in Experiment 1, RESPONSE TO PHOTOPERIOD AND SEX IN EXPERIMENT 2. ALL DIFFERENCES (F') WERE NONSIGNIFICANT Source Df Total (i Treatment EF Photoperiod (= A) 8 Sot B) 1 x XB 8 Error 54 SS MS F 65.99 19.24 1.13 1.30 10.11 1.26 1.46 1.13 1.13 1.30 8.00 1.00 1.16 46.75 0.87 126 while the effects of photoperiod and sex were measured in Experiment 2. 2. The crayfish did not use an hourglass model for photoperiodic time measurement under the conditions tested. 3. The crayfish demonstrated _ signifi- cantly greater molts at higher light inten- sities than at lower light intensities in Experiment 1. 4.In the first experiment, females molted significantly more frequently than males. LITERATURE CITED Arken. D. E. 1969. Photoperiod, endocrinology, and the crustacean molt cycle. Science 164: 149-155. ArmiTaAGE, K. B., A. L. BurkeMa, JR., AND N. J. Wittems. 1973. The effect of photoperiod on organic constituents and molting of the crayfish Orconectes nais (Faxon). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 44A:431—456. Buss, D. 1954. Light inhibition or regeneration and growth in the crab Gecarcinus lateralis. Anat. Rec. 120:742-743. , AND J. R. Boyer. 1964. Environ- mental regulation of growth in the decapod crustacean Gecarcinus lateralis. Gen. Compar. Endocr. 4:15-41. Bowen, M. F., anp S. D. Sxopirx. 1976. Insect photoperiodism: The “T Experiment” as evi- dence for an hourglass mechanism. Science 192:59-60. Trans. Kenrucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4) Hamner, K. D. 1960. Circadian rhythms and the time measurement in photoperiodism. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 25: 249-256. Lees, A. D. 1966. Photoperiodic timing mech- anisms in insects. Nature 210:986—989. Mosperty, W. C. 1963. Hormonal and _ en- vironmental regulation of the molting cycle in the crayfish Faxonella clypeata. Tulane Stud. Zool. 11:79-95. PirrENDRIGH, C. S. 1972. Circadian surfaces: and the diversity of possible roles of circadian organization in photoperiodic induction. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 69:2734—2737. , AND D. H. Minis. 1964. The entrain- ment of circadian oscillations by light and their role as photoperiodic clocks. Amer. Nat. 98 :261-294. Prins, R., R. RUTEMILLER, AND S. CARDER. 1972. Molting of the crayfish Orconectes immunis (Hagen), in relation to temperature, photo- period, and light intensity. Ass. Southeast. Biol. Bull. 19:93. Rice, R. R., anp K. B. Armrrace. 1974. The influence of photoperiod on processes asso- ciated with molting and reproduction in the crayfish Orconectes nais (Faxon). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 47A:234—259. STEPHENS, G. C. 1955. Induction of molting in the crayfish, Cambarus, by modification of daily photoperiod. Biol. Bull. 108:235-241. Tack, P. I. 1941. The life history and ecology of the crayfish Cambarus immunis Hagen. Amer. Midl. Nat. 25:420—446. WENT, F. W. 1960. Photo- and thermoperiodic effects in plant growth. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 25:221—230. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-—4), 1978, 127-130 Populational Differences in Bud Bursting of Carpinus caroliniana Walt. Gorpon I. WARDELL’ AND JOE E. WINSTEAD Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 ABSTRACT Twig samples collected from latitudinally diverse populations (between 31 and 43° N) in winter condition, and subsequently exposed to controlled temperature treatments in growth chambers, indicated ecotypic differences in bud bursting response. Exposure to cold treat- ment prior to placement under !ong days (16-hour photoperiod) and warm temperatures (day-night cycle of 24-16 C), reduced time required for bud burst in all populations, but a latitudinal cline was apparent with more southern populations having earlier bud burst. Under longer exposure to cold of at least 4 C, populations from intermediate latitudes showed slower response to bud burst than the extremes of the latitudinal range tested, indicating a protective mechanism to prevent bud burst in more variable habitats with unpredictable spring temperatures. INTRODUCTION Since Turesson’s (1922) pioneering study of ecotypes, significant research has shown many species to be composed of discrete populations with physiological and mor- phological differences enabling each popu- lation to cope more effectively with its particular environmental regime. Litera- ture reviews have revealed that, when considering the total number of plant species, relatively few have been subjected to intensified or even superficial investi- gations of populational differentiation (Hiesey and Milner 1965). Carpinus caroliniana Walt. (commonly called ironwood, blue beech, American hornbeam, or water beech; Fernald 1950) is a dominant understory species in eastern North America; its range extends from Nova Scotia to Minnesota and south to Texas and Florida. Wide distribution and relative abundance makes ironwood an ideal species for ecotypic and community investigations. Despite the abundance of Carpinus caroliniana, very little information has been published about it. A survey of such *Permanent mailing address: 6810 Bordman Rd., Almont, Michigan 48003. references as ExceRPTA BOTANICA, BroLoc- ICAL ABSTRACTS, and DiIssERTATION AB- strActs confirmed that there is virtually no information on the autecology of the genus. This is not unexpected since it is currently of little economic importance. As wood and fiber demands increase, this seemingly noneconomic tree may prove to be an im- portant source of wood fiber. In the past, ironwood has been utilized for wagon axles, spokes, implement handles, and mallet heads, and charcoal of hornbeam was often mixed with gunpowder (deWit 1966). Carpinus reportedly accumulates higher than normal amounts of aluminum ( Krucke- burg 1969) availing it as a subject for investigating the possibility of its func- tional niche as an aluminum pump. Popu- lational variation in fruit size has been reported, with larger fruit being evident from more northern habitats (Winstead et al. 1977). The current study is an in- vestigation of the aspects of populational variation in terms of bud bursting. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Support by a Western Kentucky Uni- versity Faculty Research Grant to defray travel expenses in collection of plant ma- terial is sincerely appreciated. 127 128 TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) TABLE 1.—LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF 9 COLLECTION SITES OF Carpinus caroliniana FROM MICHIGAN TO ALABAMA. Population Code County Ml Isabella M2 Lapeer Il Scott Kl Grayson K2 Simpson TI Davidson Al Limestone A2 Montgomery A3 Covington MATERIALS AND METHODS Collection sites were established for com- parisons of widespread populations along a north-south line between 83 and 86°W and a latitudinal distribution between 31 and 43°N (Table 1). Buds were collected in late December 1975 from 2 trees at each of 9 sites (Table 1), placed in a cold chamber, and main- tained at 4 C until removed for testing. Twenty twigs from each population were cut to approximately 20 cm, put in a test tube with tap water, and covered with a plastic bag. The twigs were then placed in an environmental growth chamber (En- ALL POPULATIONS WERE BETWEEN 83°12’ AND 86°49’ W LONGITUDE State N. Lat. Michigan 43°29’ Michigan 42,°58’ Indiana 38°42’ Kentucky ot oor Kentucky 36°43’ Tennessee 362074 Alabama 34°48’ Alabama a2 64 Alabama BS Gece vironator Corporation model 3448) with a day-night temperature of 24-16 C and a 16-hour photoperiod with light intensities of 6,500 to 8,600 lux. All buds were checked daily for evidence of bursting. Periods of exposure to temperatures be- low 4 C in the field were calculated for each population from information provided by the National Climatic Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Asheville, N.C. RESULTS Winter buds of Carpinus collected from field populations and placed in a growth TABLE 2.—POPULATIONAL DIFFERENCES IN BUD BURSTING OF Carpinus caroliniana UNDER CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS OF 16-HOUR DAYS AND 24—16 C Population Code M1 M2 PROGRAM I Days below 4 C prior to test* 15 80 Days required for 25% bud burst 33 — Days required for 50% bud burst — — PROGRAM II 12 K1 K2 din Al A2 A8 72 61 43 51 56 40 47 34 19 26 23 20 18 18 51 20 27 27 22 18 19 Days below 4 C prior to test 97 6 102, Days required for 25% bud burst 18 19 Days required for 50% bud burst 21 ae PROGRAM III Days below 4 C prior to test 118 123 Days required for 25% bud burst 9 it Days required for 50% bud burst 10 14 1 Days below 4 C prior to test include field conditions before 9 Jan 1976, as well as days held in cold chamber at on. Program II conditions include an additional 22 days of 4 C than twig cuttings in Pro- gram I; Program III conditions include an additional 21 days of 4 C than Program II and 43 days additional cold 4 C subsequent to collection. treatment than Program I. 93 26 28 114 19 83 16 18 104 10 13 65 LW 20 86 10 12 72 17 19 93 9 13 78 14 14 99 9 10 62 12 13 83 9 10 69 13 13 | | Bup BurstTING IN C4arRPiInNUuSs—Wardell and Winstead chamber at regular intervals displayed a possible ecotypic response to the amount of cold experienced prior to springlike conditions. After a minimum of 40 to 80 days at 4 C, a latitudinal response in bud bursting could be seen from Michigan to Alabama (Program I, Table 2). The southernmost populations exhibited 50 per- cent bud initiation after only 19 days in the growth chamber. As latitude increased northward, so did the time required for maximum bud bursting (up to 51 days). When subjected to a minimum of 62 to 102 days at 4 C, the time required for 50 percent bud bursting decreased for all latitudes (Program II, Table 1). The Alabama populations continued to display the earliest bud bursting, while the central and northern populations required longer periods to attain 50 percent bud bursting. The third set of buds (Program III) placed in the growth chamber for 83 to 123 days below 4 C, showed that the northern and southern populations ex- perienced bud bursting at approximately the same time. The material from the central latitudes required a considerably longer period of warm temperatures before initiating spring activity. DIscuUSSION Winter buds collected from latitudinally diverse field populations demonstrated a high degree of interpopulational variation in response to cold temperature precon- ditioning. After receiving only 40 to 80 days of temperatures below 4 C, the first program showed apparent latitudinal re- sponse to bud bursting with a longer time period required as latitude increased. McMillian and Peacock (1964) docu- mented a similar response in Prosopis (mesquite) grown under uniform condi- tions. They concluded that late bud bursting in northern populations (Okla- homa and Texas) was a selective advan- tage, preventing frost damage after early warm periods. The second program of 62 to 102 minimum days at 4 C depicted a similar 129 pattern but with a shorter time between maximum bud bursting in the north and south. Following 83 to 123 days at 4 C, the third program revealed the central latitude populations (Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee) retaining the longest dor- mancy. The northern and southern popu- lations experienced bud bursting at ap- proximately the same time. McNaughton (1967) reported a similar response in altitudinally diverse forest community samples placed under controlled environ- mental conditions. He reported that woody plants originating from the intermediate elevations required a greater time for maximum bud bursting that did either of the extreme elevations. McNaughton pro- posed that unstable temperature and frequent late frosts of the intermediate altitudes selected against the early bud bursting genotypes. In regard to Carpinus, the central latitudes are noted for their winter thaws and warm periods followed by frost. Without a protective mechanism to prevent spring bud _ initiation, frost damage would be severe. On the other hand, when spring begins in the northern and southern extremes there is generally little variation, and no need for an ex- tended dormancy. It may be concluded from this study that ironwood bud bursting is primarily dependent on 2 factors: (1) the amount of cold preconditioning experienced prior to springlike conditions, and (2) the dura- tion of cold necessary to break winter dormancy varies with latitude. Extended cold requirements of the populations at central latitudes in the eastern United States can be viewed as a_ protective mechanism that impedes spring develop- ment during brief warm periods in the winter. LITERATURE CITED pEWir, H. C. D. 1966. Plants of the World. E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., New York, N.Y. 208 pp. Fernatp, M. L. 1950. Gray’s Manual of Bot- any. American Book Co., New York, N.Y. 1632 pp. HresEy, W. 1965. M., AND H. W. MILNER. 130 Physiological and ecological races and species. Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. 16:203-216. Krucxesurc, A. R. 1969. Soil diversity and the distribution of plants with examples from North America. Madrono 20(3):129-154. McMILLian, C., AND J. T. Peacock. 1964. Bud bursting in diverse populations of mesquite (Prosopis: Leguminosae ) under uniform con- ditions. Southwest. Nat. 9(3):181-188. McNavucurTon, S. J. 1967. Genetic control of TrANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) bud bursting in altitudinally diverse Cascade Forest community samples. Amer. Midl. Nat. 77(2) :528-532. Turreson, G. 1922. The genotypical response of the plant species to the habitat. Hereditas 3:211-350. WrwnstTEabD, J. E., B. J. SmirH, AND G. I. WARDELL. 1977. Fruit weight clines in populations of ash, ironwood, cherry, dogwood and maple. Castanea 42:56—60. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-4), 1978, 131-134 Age and Growth, Length-Weight Relationships, and Condition Factors of the Greenside Darter from Silver Creek, Kentucky G. WiLuiAM WoLFE’, Bruce H. BAUER’, AND BRANLEY A. BRANSON Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475 ABSTRACT Data on age and growth were obtained from 203 greenside darters from Silver Creek, Madison County, Kentucky, during February and March 1973. The fish length-scale length relationship was TL = 20.16 + 0.9937 SR. Males were larger than females at all ages, but relative to their respective calculated maximum lengths, females grew more rapidly except during the last year of life. The length-weight relationship was log W = —5.1894 +4 3.1199 log L for the combined sexes. Condition factor (K) increased with age, but there was no significant difference between males and females. INTRODUCTION The greenside darter is a common in- habitant of streams of the Great Lakes, and Mississippi and Potomac river drain- ages. In Kentucky, the adults are typically found over bedrock in swift, deep riffles, while the juveniles may be found in less violent habitats. It is the largest member of the subgenus Etheostoma and charac- teristically has a complete lateral line, gill membranes broadly connected, frenum well developed, large, expansive pectoral fins, and sides with about 8 double bars, each pair forming a U-shaped figure. No data on age and growth of the greenside darter are available for Ken- tucky, and few such data are available for the species from other states. Growth in- formation is often necessary for studies of maturity, mortality rates, and population dynamics. This study provides information on growth, length-weight relationships, age structure, condition factors, and sex ratios of E. blennioides in a Kentucky stream. Regional comparisons were made with growth studies on E. blennioides in Penn- sylvania (Lachner et al. 1950) and New York (Fahy 1954). * Present address: Department of Zoology, Uni- versity of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37916. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two hundred three greenside darters were taken in 5 collections at 3 different stations in Silver Creek, a tributary to the Kentucky River, Madison County, Ken- tucky, during February and March 1973. All fish were preserved in 10 percent formalin, numbered, measured to the nearest millimeter (total length), weighed to the nearest 0.1 g, and sexed. Approximately 10 scales were removed from the right side of each darter, below the lateral line, and at the tip of the com- pressed pectoral fin. At least 4 scales were cleaned with a bleach solution, mounted between glass slides, and examined with a microprojector (80 magnification). The distance from the focus to the anterior margin of the scale and to each annulus was measured to the nearest millimeter along the radius most nearly colinear with the focus, as described by Hile (1954). The identification number of the fish from which the scales were taken was recorded on each slide. All scales were prepared at the same time and read without immediate knowledge of the fish from which they came to prevent bias in age determination because of the size of the fish (Marcy 1969). 131 132 The body-scale relationship was: TL = 20.16 + 0.9937 SR, where TL = total length and SR = anterior scale radius (at 80x ). The body scale relationship was linear (r = 0.989) and required no trans- formations. Time of annulus formation could not be determined, although gonadal development indicated that the time of capture was very close to the advent of spawning and, therefore, all fish were assumed to have completed at least 1 year of life. An an- nulus was distinguished from an accessory mark as a zone of closely spaced circuli followed by a zone of widely spaced circuli and by the cutting over of circuli in the lateral fields. Calculations of length at each annulus were made from measurements of the an- terior radius applied in the formula L; = c+ (S;/S) (L-C), where L; is the length of the fish at time of annulus formation, C is the length of the fish at time of back- calculated scale formation (20.16 mm), S; is the length of the anterior radius of the scale at each annulus, S is the length of the anterior radius at capture, and L is the total length of the fish at capture. Coefficients of condition (K) were cal- culated using the formula K = W/L? x 10*, where W = weight in grams and L = total length in millimeters. The length-weight relationships were computed following the method of Jester and Jensen (1972). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The mean calculated total lengths of Silver Creek E. blennioides in Age Groups I through V were 60.0, 73.2, 84.8, 85.0, and 83.5 mm, respectively (Table 1). Males attained greater lengths than females at all ages. The mean calculated total lengths of males through 4 age groups were 61.6, 74.1, 87.4, and 95.5 mm, and for females through 5 age groups were 58.7, 72.1, 80.8, 81.5, and 83.5 mm. Fahy (1954), in New York, and Lachner et al. (1950), in Pennsylvania, found similar results, but typically E. blen- nioides from Silver Creek were longer than TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4) those from either Pennsylvania or New York. Back calculations of length frequently exhibit a tendency for computed lengths at a given age to be smaller, the older the fish from which they were computed (Tesch 1971). This is commonly known as “Rosa Lee’s phenomenon.” The data in Table 1 represent a reversal of this which might possibly have been due to a size selective mortality that acted more severely on the smaller fish of an age group. In Silver Creek, E. blennioides males at- tained 64.5 percent of their calculated maximum mean length during their first year and 77.6 percent by the second year. Females grew faster relative to their own calculated maximum length, attaining 70.3 and 86.3 percent during their first and second years, respectively. Lachner et al. (1950), found that after 2 years, males attained 76.3 percent of their maximum lengths, and females 90.2 percent. Fahy (1954) found male and female growth to be 84 and 82 percent, respectively, after 2 years of life. The more rapid rate of growth of females was not manifested in the last year of life in either Kentucky or Pennsylvania. The present study indicates that during their last year of life, males grew 7.2 mm (7.5% of maximum growth) and females grew 4.0 mm (4.8%). In Pennsylvania, males grew 8.1 mm (10.5%) and females 0.5 mm (0.8%) during their last year. Fahy (1954) found that in New York males and females had more equal growth, with the males growing 3.8 mm (5.2%) and females 3.7 mm (5.2%) during their last year. Few fish survived to Age Group IV. Al- though there were more females than males in Age Group I, more males than females survived to Age Group III. A Chi-Square analysis of the sex ratios revealed that the females significantly outnumbered the males in age group I (P = 0.01). In Age Group II, no significant difference was noted, however, by Age Group III there were significantly more males than females (P = 0.05). Although females outnumbered AGE AND GROWTH OF GREENSIDE DARTER—Wolfe et al. 133 TABLE 1.—MEAN CALCULATED TOTAL LENGTHS OF 203 E. blennioides. THE DATA Is SHOWN FOR MALES, FEMALES, AND BOTH SEXES No. of Age Group Sex Fish i Males 40 61.3 I Females 67 56.9 Both 107 58.6 Males 31 58.8 II Females ay) 61.6 Both 58 60.1 Males All 65.6 Ill Females 9 63.0 Both 30 64.8 Males 2 68.8 IV Females 4 60.6 Both 6 66.3 Males —— — V Females 2 54.5 Both ie 54.5 Mean Males 94 61.6 Total Females 109 58.7 Lengths Both 203 60.0 males in Age Group IV (4:2), the sample size of 6 fish may not be representative. Only 2 fish were captured from Age Group V, both were females. Equations for length-weight relationships were calculated after lengths and weights were transformed into logs (base 10). The length-weight equation for males (n = 94) was: Log W = 5.4007 + 3.2278 log L (r = .998) and for the females (n = 109) was: log W = 4.9038 + 2.9713 log L (r = .993). The slope of the length-weight relationship of the males was 3.2278 in- dicating that the relative weight of the fish increased faster than the length (Ricker 1971). The females have a slope of 2.9713 indicating a slightly faster increase in length when compared to weight. An analysis of covariance (Sokal and Rohlf 1969) indicated that there was no signifi- cant difference between the slopes at the 0.05 level; therefore the length-weight re- lationship for all fish (n = 203) regardless Mean calculated total lengths at each annulus 2 3 i 5 69.8 12 70.4 19.6 87.3 75.7 83.1 78.4 86.0 82.6 88.3 95.5 72.9 78.7 82.5 76.1 81.9 86.8 66.5 75.0 79.5 83.5 66.5 75.0 79.5 83.5 74.1 87.4 95.5 72.1 80.8 81.5 83.5 73.2 84.8 85.0 83.5 of sex was: log W = 5.1894 + 3.1199 log L (f-="995)),(Fiai 2): Condition factors for E. blennioides (Table 2) show an increase with increasing LogW=-4.90375 + 2.97128 LogL r=.993 E oe, % —~ 74 Log W=-5.40070+t 3.22784 Log L + 6 r= 998 ae O 5 Lu 4 = © 3 S, a 2 3 4 5678910 2 LOG LENGTH (mm) Fic. 1. Length-weight relationship of Etheostoma blennioides plotted on log-log paper. 134 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) TABLE 2.—CoMPARISON OF MALE AND FEMALE E. blennioides CONDITION FACTORS FOR EACH AGE GROUP Males Females Total _—. No K No. K No K I 40 1.0071 67 1.0423 107 1.0292 II 31 1.0436 ot 1.0846 58 1.0627 Ill at 1.1426 1.1484 30 1.1443 IV A 1.1505 LI731 6 1.1655 V — at 1.1605 2 1.1605 age in both sexes. Although female con- LITERATURE CITED dition factors were greater at all ages, none Fany, W. R. 1954. The [fe se eeeeeeneee of the differences were significant when northern greensided darter Etheostoma blen- analyzed by means of a nonparametric nioides blennioides Rafinesque. J. Elisha t-test. The slightly greater values for the Mitchell Sci. Soc. 70(2):139-205. females probably was due to their increased H=, R. 1954. Fluctuations in growth and weight resulting from ovarian development prior to spawning. SUMMARY Age and growth of 203 Etheostoma blennioides from Silver Creek, Madison County, Kentucky, indicate that males grew larger than females, but, females grew faster relative to their own maximum lengths. Similar studies on E. blennioides in New York and Pennsylvania also demon- strated that males were larger than females. Kentucky specimens were larger than either those of New York or Pennsylvania. The slope of the male length—weight re- lationship was slightly but not significantly greater than that of the females. Although females significantly outnumbered males in Age Group I, by Age Group III, males significantly outnumbered females. Female condition factors were slightly, but not significantly, greater than those of males. year-class strength of the walleye in Saginaw Bay. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 56: 7-59. JesTER, D. B., anp B. L. JENSEN. 1972. Life history and ecology of the gizzard shad, Dorosoma cepedianum (Le Sueur) with ref- erence to Elephant Butte Lake. N. Mex. St. Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Res. Rept. 218:1-55. LacHNER, E. A., E. F. WESTLAKE, AND P. S. HANDWERK. 1950. Studies on the biology of some percid fishes from western Pennsyl- vania. Amer. Mid]. Nat. 43(1):92—111. Marcy, B. C. 1969. Age determination from scales of Alosa pseudoharengus (Wilson) and Alosa aestivalis (Mitchill) in Connecticut wa- ters. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 98(4) :622-630. Ricker, W. E. 1971. Methods for assessment of fish production in fresh waters. IBP Hand- book No. 3. Blackwell Sci. Publ. Oxford and Edinburgh, Eng. 313 pp. SoKAL, R. R., AND F. J. Ronxtr. 1969. Biometry. W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco, Cal. 776 pp. : Tescu, F. W. 1971. Age and Growth. Pp. 93- 123. In: Methods of assessment of fish pro- duction in fresh waters. W. E. Ricker (Ed.). IBP Handbook No. 3. Blackwell Sci. Publ., Oxford and Edinburgh, Eng. 313 pp. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-—4), 1978, 135-137 The Ecological Status of Six Rare Plants in Kentucky, with Reference to a Recent Publication on Endangered Species Jerry M. BAskIN AND Caro C. BasKIN School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ABSTRACT Documented comments on the occurrence of 6 rare plant species in Kentucky include 5 species referred to in a recent publication entitled “Endangered Plants and Animals of Ken- tucky” by Jan V. Babcock. Evidence is presented to show that the actual ecological status of 5 of those species in Kentucky is quite different from that reported by Babcock, and the sixth species, Satureja glabella, was not mentioned. The scientific merit of the plant section of Babcock’s publication is questioned. INTRODUCTION Jan V. Babcock (1977) recently com- piled a book entitled “Endangered Plants and Animals of Kentucky.” With regard to the plant species in that publication, there are gross inaccuracies concerning their present ecological status in Kentucky, and some rare species that occur in Kentucky were not included. The purpose of this article is to comment on the ecological status of 6 of the Commonwealth’s rare plant species, with special reference to Bab- cock’s book. Those 6 species not only are rare in Kentucky but are rare throughout their narrow geographic ranges. Viola egglestonii Brainerd Babcock indicated that V. egglestonii occurs in Warren, Hart, and Bullitt counties and suggested, by symbols on his map, that the species is “abundant” in Warren County and “common” in Hart and Bullitt counties. The only mention in the literature of V. egglestonii in Warren County is in a report entitled “Violets of North America” by Ezra Brainerd in 1921. In that report, Brainerd mentioned a single specimen col- lected by Sadie F. Price from near Bowling Green in Warren County on 11 April 1899. The only report of its occurrence in Hart County was by Braun (1943) who had a single collection of it from Hart County. Furthermore, Braun did not list V. eggles- tonii as occurring in Warren County, and Hart is the only county from which she had a collection of it. We (Baskin and Baskin 1978) have searched the cedar glades, the natural habitat of V. egglestonii, in Warren and Hart counties and have not found it in either county. Furthermore, in a taxo- nomic treatment of the violets of central and eastern United States, Russell (1965) did not indicate that V. egglestonii oc- curred in Kentucky because he could not find herbarium specimens to document its occurrence there. We recently discovered a few small populations of V. egglestonii on Silurian limestone in eastern Bullitt County (Baskin and Baskin 1975), but the species certainly is not common there, contrary to what is indicated on Babcock’s distribution map. In 1975, Bullitt was the only county in Kentucky in which living populations of V. egglestonii were known to occur. More recently, however, we found 3 small popu- lations in Nelson County, south of Bards- town (Baskin and Baskin 1978). Leavenworthia torulosa Gray Babcock depicted L. torulosa as “abun- dant” in Warren County, “common” in Logan County, and “probable” in Simpson County. For Warren County, he gave 1 specific location, “twelve miles north of U.S. 68,” which he must have taken from Rollins (1963). In his field studies of the 135 136 genus Leavenworthia, Rollins (1963) found only 1 population of L. torulosa in Ken- tucky and gave its location as “cedar glade situation, 12 mi. north of U.S. Highway 68 on state route 1083, Warren County.” No- where in his book did Babcock refer to Rollin’s monograph. Presently, only 2 extremely small popu- lations, 1 in Warren County and 1 in Logan County, are known in Kentucky, and the Warren County population referred to by Rollins no longer exists (Baskin and Baskin 1977). Certainly, L. torulosa is not common or abundant anywhere in Kentucky, and probably never was. The reasons we con- clude it never was common or abundant are: (1) its specialized cedar glade habitat of seasonally wet or flooded shallow soil over limestone in pools or depressions is not common, and (2) very few collections of the species have ever been made in Kentucky. The species was collected by Short in 1840, Rollins and Channell in 1959 ( Rollins 1963), and Baskin and Baskin in 1973 (Baskin and Baskin 1977). Rollins made the following statement concerning the occurrence of L. torulosa in Kentucky “I searched for the species in Kentucky in three different years before finding it and I have not seen any specimens from that state collected in the interim between those of Short in the 1840’s and the small popula- tion we found in 1959.” Leavenworthia exigua var. laciniata Rollins Babcock wrote that L. exigua var. laciniata is “common” in Bullitt and Jef- ferson counties. As with other plant spe- cies in his book, Babcock did not cite specific literature references or herbarium specimens. Rollins (1963), who first de- scribed that variety of L. exigua, gave only 1 location, on Ridge Road in Bullitt County, Kentucky, and he cited only 2 collections from that site. Leavenworthia exigua var. laciniata does occur in Bullitt and Jefferson counties, as Babcock indicated, but it is not common. We have searched extensively for L. exigua var. laciniata in Bullitt County and in the southern portion of Jefferson County. It is fairly common in a small Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4) portion of eastern Bullitt County, but we have found only 1 small population in Jefferson County, just north of the Bullitt- Jefferson County line. Conradina verticillata Jennison Babcock noted that C. verticillata is “common” in McCreary County, but then described its distribution in Kentucky as: “South Fork of Cumberland River, sub- merged upon completion of Wolfe Creek Dam.” Braun (1936) first reported the species from Kentucky along the banks of the South Fork of the Cumberland River in McCreary County. Apparently, that is the only locality from which the plant has ever been collected in Kentucky. In his synopsis of Conradina, Shinners (1962) cited specimens from a single collection of C. ver- ticillata made by Braun at the above locality on 18 June 1935. Gray (1965, un- published doctoral dissertation, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee) in his study of Conradina, cited specimens col- lected by Braun at the same locality on 6 September 1934 and 18 June 1935. In her catalogue of Kentucky spermatophytes, Braun (1943) wrote “Very rare and local on banks of South Fork Cumberland River, where it will be submerged upon com- pletion of the Wolf Creek dam: McCreary.” Gray (unpublished dissertation) doubted that C. verticillata still exists in McCreary County, Kentucky, and wrote “. . . the only reported station of its occurrence (Braun 1936) is situated upstream from the present site of Wolf Creek Dam on the South Fork of the Cumberland River. The presumed site of the population is now submerged.” Apios priceana Robinson Babcock noted A. priceana as occurring only in Warren County and suggested that its occurrence is only “probable.” Accord- ing to Browne and Athey (1976), speci- mens collected by Sadie F. Price near Bowling Green in Warren County are on deposit in GH, NY, and US. Those specimens probably were collected in the late 1890s. The species has been collected Stix RARE PLANTs IN KENtucKy—Baskin and Baskin in at least 3 other Kentucky counties in the 1970s. In their study of the flora of the Land Between the Lakes of Kentucky and Tennessee, Ellis et al. (1971) reported the species from Trigg County, Kentucky. More recently, Browne and Athey (1976) reported it from Livingston and Lyon counties, Kentucky. Satureja glabella ( Michx.) Briq. Satureja glabella is an example of a rare plant in Kentucky (and throughout its range) that was not included in Babcock’s treatment. The species is known only from a few localities in middle Tennessee, north- western Arkansas, and central Kentucky (Baskin and Baskin unpublished informa- tion). The University of Kentucky her- barium has 2 specimens of S. glabella [labeled Cunila glabella Michx., an old synonym for Satureja glabella (Michx.) Briq.| collected by Short. One specimen was collected in 1836 but has no collection site, and the other specimen has neither a date nor a collection site. In 1943, Braun said that the species occurred in Henry and Owen counties. Since then, Wharton (No. 10,267b in UK, 9 August 1956) has collected S. glabella in Franklin County, making a total of 3 Kentucky counties from which the species has been collected. CONCLUSION We conclude that the plant section of Babcock’s book contains inaccuracies and should be used with caution as a source of floral documentation in preparation of - 137 environmental assessments by federal or state agencies or contractual consultants to those agencies. LITERATURE CITED Bascock, J. V. 1977. Endangered plants and animals in Kentucky. A publication of the Office of Research and Engineering Services. Coll. Engin., Univ. Ky. Lexington, Ky. 128 pp. Baskin, J. M., anp C. C. Baskin. 1975. Geo- graphical distribution of the cedar glade en- demic Viola egglestonii. Rhodora 77:427— A429. , AND 1977. Leavenworthia torulosa Gray: An endangered plant species in Kentucky. Castanea 42:15-17. , AND . 1978. On the occur- rence of the cedar glade endemic Viola eg- glestonii in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 39( 1-2) :74—75. BRAINERD, E. 1921. Violets of North America. Vt. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 224: 172 pp. Braun, E. L. 1936. Notes on Kentucky plants I. Castanea 1:41—45. 1943. An annotated catalogue of the spermatophytes of Kentucky. Cincinnati, Ohio. 161 pp. Browne, E. T., JR., AND R. ATtHEy. 1976. Her- barium and field studies of Kentucky plants. III. New or rare flowering plants in western Kentucky. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 92: 104—109. Evuis, W., E. WorrorD, AND E. CuHester. 1971. A preliminary checklist of the flowering plants of the Land Between the Lakes. Castanea 36:229-246. Rouuins, R.C. 1963. The evolution and system- atics of Leavenworthia (Cruciferae). Con- trib. Gray Herbarium Harvard Univ. No. 192: 3-98. RussELL, N. H. 1965. Violets (Viola) of cen- tral and eastern United States. Sida 2:1-113. SHINNERS, L. H. 1962. Synopsis of Conradina (Labiatae). Sida 1:84—88. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-—4), 1978, 138-141 Kentucky’s High Country—A Biological Treasure WaynE H. Davis AND RoGER W. BARBOUR School of Biological Sciences, | University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ABSTRACT Big Black Mountain and other peaks and ridges in the counties bordering Virginia in southeastern Kentucky harbor a variety of northern species of plants, insects, birds, and mammals found nowhere else in the state. The isolation of those peaks from the main range of the Appalachians and Smokies makes them especially interesting to students of evolution. Except for the ridge within Cumberland Gap National Historical Park, all of Kentucky’s high country is threatened by the destructive effects of strip mining for coal. INTRODUCTION Many northern species of plants and animals range southward along the Ap- palachian chain into the Great Smokies. Kentucky, lying to the west of those high peaks and ridges, is outside the range of many of them. Big Black Mountain, ele- vation 4,150 feet (1,277 m), the highest point in Kentucky, does support a popula- tion of several of those northern species. Our northern species probably arrived there in front of the Pleistocene ice cap that at one time extended southward to what is now Cincinnati, Ohio. During that time, many northern species of plants and animals probably were abundant and wide- spread there; the fossil record shows sey- eral modern species of northern mammals in central Kentucky (Guilday et al. 1971). Now, of course, with the consistently warmer weather over the past hundred or so centuries, the only ones that have per- sisted are those that inhabited the moun- tains, or found sanctuary in cool deep coves and gorges. Bic BLAcK MOuNTAIN The best known, and most intensively studied of our higher mountains is Big Black Mountain, in Harlan County (Kel- logg 1939; Braun 1940, 1941a, 1941b, 1942; Barbour 1941, 1950a, 1950b, 1950c, 1951, 1952, 1953; Barbour and Smith 1956; Breiding 1947; Lovell 1950; Mengel 1965; Croft 1969). Surely, it harbors a wider array of northern species than any other mountain in Kentucky. We are personally familiar with 23 species of plants and animals whose distribution in Kentucky is essentially limited to that mountain. Only a few of them are known to breed else- where in the state, and then in only a few localities. Wildflowers: Turk’s-cap lily Canada mayflower Painted trillium Trees and Shrubs: Yellow birch Mountain magnolia Mountain winterberry Striped maple Red-berried elder Red azalea Birds: Veery Solitary vireo Golden-winged warbler Black-throated blue warbler Blackburnian warbler Chestnut-sided warbler Canada warbler Rose-breasted grosbeak Slate-colored junco 138 Lilium superbum L. Maianthemum canadense Desf. Trillium undulatum Willd. Betula lutea Michx. Magnolia fraseri Walt. Ilex montana T. & G. Acer pensylvanicum L. Sambucus racemosa Fern. Rhododendron bakeri Lemmon Hylocichla fuscescens Vireo solitarius Vermivora chrysoptera Dendroica caerulescens Dendroica fusca Dendroica pensylvanica Wilsonia canadensis Pheucticus ludovicianus Junco hyemalis Kentuckxy’s Hich Country—Davis and Barbour Mammals: Masked shrew Sorex cinereus New England cottontail Sylvilagus transitionalis Deermouse Peromyscus maniculatus Red-backed mouse Clethrionomys gapperi Woodland jumping Napaeozapus insignis mouse Dr. E. Lucy Braun (1941, 1942) listed 3 additional plant species from Big Black Mountain with which we are unfamiliar: Carex aestivalis M. A. Curtis, C. leptonervia Fern., and Solidago curtisii T. & G. Dr. Thomas C. Barr, Jr., who has been studying relict species of carabid beetles in the Appalachians, has given us the fol- lowing list of interesting beetles he has found on top of Big Black Mountain, most of which are known in Kentucky only from that locality. Cychrines (snail-eaters ) : Scaphinotus webbi. Perhaps a new subspecies. Scaphinotus andrewsi germari Sphaeroderus canadensis Annilines (minute, eyeless soil beetles ) : Annillinus sp. undescribed. Nearest relative is found in a cave in Alabama. Trechines: Trechus hydropicus canus. Until now, thought to be endemic to southwestern Virginia. Anchomenines: Platynus gracilentus. A glacial relict species that forms hybrid swarms with P. angustatus and thus is of special evolutionary interest. Carabines: Carabus limbatus Pterostichines: Pterostichus rostratus Pterostichus lachrymosus Dr. Barr believes that fieldwork would most likely reveal several additional species of interesting beetles in the Kentucky High Country. That Kentucky’s relict populations of 139 northern species have long been isolated is evident from an examination of our red- backed mice. They constitute a_ well- marked subspecies C. g. maurus (Kellogg 1939) that has been reported only from Big Black Mountain and nearby Big Stone Gap, Virginia. They are much darker than red-backed mice from any other region. Our northern birds, with their greater mobility, are not as isolated from other mountaintop populations, and all the spe- cies one would expect on a 4,000-foot (1,219-m) mountain at this latitude are found on Big Black Mountain. OTHER RIDGES AND PEAKS There are other ridges and peaks in Kentucky high enough to support northern species of birds and mammals. Cumberland Mountain in Cumberland Gap National Historical Park, rises .to -.o.910 feet (1,081 m). The Park contains several north-facing slopes, ravines, streams, and meadows above 3,000 feet (914 m). Log Mountain, rising to about 3,200 feet (985 m) behind Chenoa in western Bell County, is the westernmost mountain habitat in Kentucky, some 90 km from Big Black Mountain. About midway between those localities, in the vicinity of Alva, are numerous peaks, ridges, and spurs ranging in elevation from 2,900 to 3,400 feet (892- 1,046 m). Except for a trail along one ridge and a fire tower on one peak, the mountaintops around Alva seem to be nearly inaccessible. Probably, some sup- port northern species. Pine Mountain, a single straight ridge running nearly the length of southeastern Kentucky, rises in some places to about 2,800 feet (862 m). However, the north- facing slope is extremely steep, nearly clifflike, and the ridge is rather arid, mak- ing the mountain a rather poor prospect for northern species, but some may well be there. A spur from Pine Mountain, be- tween Hellier and Dorton in Pike County, contains an extensive flat area at 2,600 feet (800 m) and a peak rising above 2,800 feet (862 m). This area, known as 140 Flatwoods, apparently has not been in- vestigated. Croft (1969) studied the breeding birds of Cumberland Mountain that is accessible by hiking trails through the National Park. He found several species of northern birds but no juncos, rose-breasted grosbeaks, or blackburnian warblers. Perhaps Big Black Mountain is the only place in Kentucky high enough to support those species. Croft also visited Log Mountain and reported it to be accessible via strip mine roads. We are presently surveying the verte- brate fauna of Cumberland Gap National Historical Park, and have captured red- backed mice and deermice on Cumberland Mountain, providing a second locality for those interesting mammals in Kentucky. Unfortunately, all of Kentucky’s high country is underlain with large quantities of high quality coal in several seams at different elevations. Contour and auger mining is proceeding at such a rapidly ac- celerating rate that the industry reports that surface mining will be essentially completed in the Eastern Kentucky Coal- fields within 12 years. We fear that contour benches and auger holes will affect the hydrology of the mountaintops, draining the moisture necessary to support most northern species. Only the National Park seems safe from assult by the strip miners. Efforts should be made to preserve more of Kentucky’s northern treasure before it is lost forever. Big Black Mountain must be saved. To the naturalist, it is the single most interesting locality in the state, the place to go to find northern birds, mam- mals, and plants. Already heavily scarred by strip mining, Big Black Mountain is the most important conservation problem in the state. An effort should be made to survey the flora and fauna of the several dozen or so mountain slopes that apparently have never yet been visited by biologists. There is a reasonable possibility that some small mam- mal species presently unknown in Kentucky occur there. An effort should be made to determine the complete range of Clethrionomys gap- TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) peri maurus, and to preserve several selected pieces of its habitat. That mouse should be on the official list of “Rare and Endangered Species of the United States” (subspecies are included on the list), and has recently been proposed. There is little that we can do individ- ually toward saving these biological trea- sures except express our concern. We would like to encourage efforts by the Nature Conservancy to acquire some of Kentucky’s high country and to encourage the cooperation of the corporate land owners in saving the area. We welcome the interest of the Kentucky Nature Pre- serves Commission. We hope that enough concern is being generated to save these mountains. LITERATURE CITED Barsour, R. W. 1941. A preliminary list of the summer birds of the summit of Big Black Mountain. Ky. Warbler 17:46-47. 1950a. The reptiles of Big Black Mountain, Harlan County, Ky. Copeia 1950 (2):100-107. 1950b. A new subspecies of the sala- mander, Desmognathus fuscus. Copeia 1950 (4) :277-278. 1950c. Notes on the plants of Harlan County, Ky. Castanea 15:125. 1951. The mammals of Big Black Mountain, Harlan County, Kentucky. J. Mam- mal. 32:100—110. 1952. Animal habitats on Big Black Mountain. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 13:215-220. 1953. The amphibians of Big Black Mountain, Harlan County, Kentucky. Copeia 1953(2):84-89. , AND C. E. Sorry. 1956. Pitymys pinetorum carbonarius in Harlan County, Kentucky. J. Mammal. 37:121. Braun, E. L. 1940. An ecological transect of Black Mountain, Kentucky. Ecol. Monogr. 10:193-241. 194la. The red azalea of the Cum- berlands. Rhodora 43:31-35. 1941b. Notes on Kentucky plants III. Castanea 6:10-12. 1942. Notes on Kentucky plants VI. Castanea 7:7—10. Breimwinc, G. H. 1947. A list of birds from Big Black Mountain. Ky. Warbler 23:37—40. Crort, J. E. 1969. Notes from the southeastern mountains. Ky. Warbler 45:67-81. Guritpay, J. E., H. W. Hamitton, anp A. D. Mc- Crapy. 1971. The Welch Cave peccaries Kentuckys High Country—Davis and Barbour 141 (Platygonus) and associated fauna, Kentucky Lovett, H. B. 1950. Breeding birds of Big Pleistocene. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 43:249-320. Black Mountain. Ky. Warbler 26:57-66. Keuttoce, R. 1939. A new red-backed mouse MENGEL, R. 1965. The birds of Kentucky. from Kentucky. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 52: Amer. Ornith. Union, Ornith. Monogr. No. 3. 37-40. 581 pp. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-4), 1978, 142-144 New Distributional Records for the Rosyside Dace in Kentucky Lewis Gites MILLER. Hunter Hancock Biological Station, Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071 ABSTRACT The distribution of the rosyside dace Clinostomus funduloides includes the Tennessee River drainage of Kentucky. In view of collection records, the Blood River drainage of eastern Calloway County, Kentucky, appears to mark the farthest downstream distribution of the rosyside dace in the Tennessee River system. Information pertaining to ecology and associated species is also presented. Branson (1977) and Clay (1975) re- ported the rosyside dace Clinostomus funduloides as being restricted, in Ken- tucky, to the Big Sandy and Little Sandy rivers and Tygart’s and Kinniconick creeks. Collection records indicate Clinostomus funduloides occurs widely in the Tennessee River system except in the extreme lower section in Kentucky (Bauer pers. comm.; Evermann 1918; Ross and Carico 1963; Jones 1974, unpublished master’s thesis, Murray State University, Murray, Ken- tucky ). Sisk (pers. comm.) collected Cli- nostomus funduloides from Billie Branch, a tributary to Cypress Creek on the Ken- tucky—Tennessee state line. This paper presents information on the distribution of Clinostomus funduloides in the Tennessee River drainage of Kentucky along with information on its ecology and associated species. Of the 13 sites sampled, 10 were within the Blood River drainage (Fig. 1). Blood River heads in north-central Henry County, Tennessee, and flows approximately 21.4 km north-northeast to empty into Blood River Embayment on the western side of Kentucky Lake (Tennessee River). The streams sampled in eastern Calloway County flow through an area known as the Breaks and are underlain by Cretaceous deposits of the Tuscaloosa, Eutaw, and Ripely series. Bedrock consists of Fort Payne, Warsaw, and St. Louis limestones. Streams west of the Breaks area of the 142 Jackson Purchase are generally sluggish, turbid, underlain by Tertiary deposits, and are typical of Gulf Coastal Plain streams. Streams were sampled from June through August 1977 with a habitat seine faced with mosquito mesh netting. Fishes were pre- served in 10 percent formalin. Specimens are deposited in the Murray State Univer- sity Vertebrate Museum. Measurements of alkalinity, total hard- ness, and turbidity were made with a Hach OR er RS FERS aS —— MILES o!1234567890 | KY TN sx Fic. 1. Map of the western tributaries of the as- cending arm of the Tennessee River in Calloway County, Kentucky, showing collection localities (dots). Localities from which Clinostomus fundu- loides was taken are circled. RosyswE Dace IN Kentucky—Miller 143 TABLE 1.—PHYSICOCHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS OF STREAMS FROM WHICH ROSYSIDE DACE WERE COL- LECTED Methyl red- bromcresol Specific Water Dissolved green Total conductivity Turbidity temp Station oxygen pH alkalinity hardness “mhos/cm (JTU) (C) Panther Creek 7.0 6.3 10.0 10.0 38 38 19.0 Knight Branch 6.9 6.6 15.0 5.0 ol 8 25.5 Billie Branch 6.3 6.3 te0 10.0 30 49, 25.0 chemistry kit. Measurements of dissolved oxygen and water temperature were taken with a Yellow Springs oxygen meter; pH was determined with a Hellige pH color- imeter; conductivity was registered using a Hach conductivity meter. All chemistry parameters were measured in the field. Physicochemical measurements for streams from which rosyside dace were col- lected were little different than for streams from which they were not. Stream pH was slightly acidic; the water was soft and not well buffered (Table 1). Phenolphthalein alkalinity was zero. Methyl red—bromcresol green alkalinity never exceeded 20 mg/l. Conductivity rarely exceeded 40 umhos/cm. Stream turbidity usually was not above 40 Jackson turbidity units. Pools from which the rosyside dace was taken were clear and had a bluish cast. Clinostomus funduloides appeared to select a well-defined habitat in pools vary- ing from 1.2 to 2.1 m wide and from 0.8 to 1.0 m deep. The substrate was sand and gravel with little or no silt; current was moderate at each site. On 3 June 1977, 8 specimens of rosyside dace were collected from Panther Creek, a tributary to Blood River, 1.6 km upstream from Kentucky Highway 280 and 0.6 km downstream from Culpepper Hollow. The site was 4.2 km northwest of New Concord, Kentucky, and just downstream from the Trumann Bean farm. On 11 August 1977, 3 specimens of rosy- side dace were collected from Knight Branch, a tributary to Blood River, at the Bizzel Road Bridge 0.5 km south of Kentucky Highway 444 and 3.4 km east of New Concord, Kentucky. On 15 August 1977, several specimens of rosyside dace were collected (1 specimen preserved) from Billie Branch, a tributary to Cypress Creek 0.3 km upstream from the Kentucky—Tennessee state line and 16 km west of Kentucky Highway 121. The site was 4.2 km southeast of New Concord, Kentucky, on the Terry Shoe- maker farm. Headwater species frequently associated with Clinostomus funduloides were the creek chub Semotilus atromaculatus, fantail darter Etheostoma flabellare lineolatum, spottail darter Etheostoma squamiceps, and snubnose darter Etheostoma (Ulocentra) sp. (Table 2). Rhinichthys atratulus, the blacknose dace, was taken only in Billie Branch; Jones (pers. comm.) found the rosyside dace and blacknose dace associ- ated in the headwaters of Lost Creek, Land Between the Lakes, Tennessee, where they were uncommon. The goldstripe darter Etheostoma parvipinne is listed provision- ally with associated species from Billie Branch. Sisk (pers. comm.) collected 2 specimens from that stream; however, none was collected during this study. Sisk’s col- lection of Etheostoma parvipinne marks the first record of that etheostomid from Ken- tucky waters. The goldstripe darter has been recorded from Cypress Creek, Ten- nessee (Bauer pers. comm. ). Clinostomus funduloides appears to have evolved in the eastern Appalachians (Trautman 1957). The subspecies Clinos- tomus funduloides estor (Deubler 1955, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York) apparently migrated down the Tennessee River during the Pliocene much as did Etheostoma 144 TABLE 2.—SPECIES ASSOCIATED WITH Clinostomus ( LETTERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE P = PANTHER CREEK, K = KNIGHT BrancH, B = BriL_tm BRANCH; LETTERS FOLLOW- ING REFER TO OCCURRENCE: C = COMMON, SEV- ERAL SPECIMENS BEING TAKEN, P = PRESENT BUT NOT COMMON, R = RARE, ONLY 1 OR 2 SPECIMENS ) funduloides. STREAM: Cyprinidae Semotilus atromaculatus (P, K, B) C Rhinichthys atratulus (B) P Cyprinodontidae Fundulus olivaceous (P) R Centrarchidae Lepomis megalotis (K, B) P Percidae Etheostoma flabellare (P, K) C E. parvapinne (B) R* E. squamiceps (P, K, B) C E. (Ulocentra) sp. (P, K, B) C * Present but not collected during this study (Sisk pers. comm. ). blennioides newmanii; the Tennessee River is thought to have been in a downcutting stage at that time, and velocity, depth, and turbidity probably were much different than at present (Miller 1968). In view of collection records for streams in the Tennessee River drainage and from records of adjacent states, the streams from which Clinostomus funduloides was taken during this study apparently represent its farthest downstream distribution in the system (Bauer pers. comm., Buchanan 1973, Forbes and Richardson 1920, Jones unpublished master’s thesis, Pflieger 1975, Sisk 1969, Smith and Sisk 1969, Sliger pers. comm., and Webb and Sisk 1975). Increased agrarian land use in the Breaks area of eastern Calloway County, with its accompanying siltation, presents a growing threat of habitat destruction to the few remaining populations of the rosy- side dace in the Tennessee River drainage of Kentucky. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4) Special thanks are due Bruce Bauer, Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, and Dr. Andrew Sliger, University of Tennessee, Martin, for. providing collection records. Thanks are also due the late Dr. Morgan E. Sisk who generated my interest in fishes and who early stimulated this study. My thanks also go to Mike Freeze, Judy Harrer, and Rick Morin without whose assistance in the field this study would not have been - possible. LITERATURE CITED Branson, B. A. 1977. Threatened fishes of Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38( 1-2) :69-73. BucHaNaNn, T. M. 1973. Key to the fishes of Arkansas. Ark. Game Fish Comm., Little Rock, Ark. 177 pp. Cray, W. M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky. Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frankfort, Ky. 416 pp. EvVERMANN, B. W. 1918. The fishes of Ken- tucky and Tennessee. A distributional cata- logue of the known species. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 35:295-368. Forses, S. A., AND R. E. RICHARDSON. The fishes of Illinois. 2nd ed. 358 pp. Miiter. R. V. 1968. A systematic study of the 1920. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv., greenside darter, Etheostoma blennioides Rafinesque (Pisces: Percidae). Copeia 1968 (1):1—40. Prurecer, W. L. 1975. The fishes of Missouri. Mo. Dept. Cons., Jefferson City, Mo. 343 pp. Ross, R. D., anp J. E. Carico. 1963. Records and distribution problems of fishes of the North, Middle, and South Forks of the Hol- ston River, Virginia. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 161: 1-24. Sisk, M. E. 1969. The fishes of West Kentucky. I. Fishes of Clark’s River. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30( 3-4) :54-59. Smiru, P. L., anp M. E. Sisk. 1969. The fishes of West Kentucky. II. The fishes of Obion Creek. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30(3—4):60-68. TRAUTMAN, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio St. Univ. Press., Columbus, Ohio. 683 pp. Wess, D. H., anv M. E. Sisk. 1975. The fishes of West Kentucky. III. The fishes of Bayou de Chien. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36(3-4): 63-70. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-4), 1978, 145-146 Habitat of the Golden Mouse Ochrotomys nuttalli WayneE H. Davis AND CHARLES K. SMITH School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 ABSTRACT In the autumn and winter of 1977-1978, during an apparent population high at Cumber- land Gap National Historical Park, Kentucky, Ochrotomys nuttalli became established in habitats not usually associated with it. The mice were found in an area devoid of trees and in an area where the ground cover was grass, lacking shrubs or vines. A colony is estab- lished in a thicket of Rhododendron maximum L. in a hemlock and hardwood forest along Shillalah Creek at Hensleys Settlement at 3,240 feet (997 m) elevation on Cumberland Mountain. The favored habitat of the golden mouse Ochrotomys nuttalli is a dense tangle of vines climbing up among trees. Such areas are typical of moist lowlands, dry hillsides, woodland borders, and areas of secondary growth in the southeastern United States. Thickness of the understory appears to be the most important factor (McCarley 1958, Goodpaster and Hoffmeister 1954). Vines such as greenbrier (Smilax), honey- suckle (Lonicera), and grape (Vitis), pro- vide best cover, although blackberries (Rubus) are satisfactory. Trees preferred are cedars and pines (Barbour 1942, 1951; Barbour and Davis 1974; Linzey 1968; Wallace 1969). Golden mice are semi- arboreal, building nests and feeding plat- forms up among the vines and trees (Good- paster and Hoffmeister 1954). Howell (1921) and Handley (1948) noted the occurrence of golden mice in canebrakes in Alabama and Virginia. In Florida, Pearson (1953) found them re- stricted to densely shrubby areas in hammocks, but Ivey (1949) found them common in hammocks where magnolias shaded out nearly all the understory, as well as in the brushy hammock edges. In the course of our work on a survey of the mammals of Cumberland Gap Na- tional Historical Park, we found golden mice in a variety of habitats, some of which seem unusual. During the fall of 1977, we trapped several golden mice in a flat lowland area devoid of trees below the Visitors’ Center. The mice were taken where Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Thunb.) formed a dense mat covering the ground, nearly excluding all other plant life. On 26 November 1977, we caught a pair of golden mice in the same area in a patch of golden rod (Solidago) with an under- story of grass. Nearby were 2 white pines (Pinus strobus L.) and a yellow pine (Pinus echinata Mill.), all of which were devoid of undergrowth. From 5-7 January 1978, we captured 7 Ochrotomys nuttalli in 35 traps set along Shillalah Creek at Hensleys Settlement near the summit of Cumberland Mountain at an elevation of 3,240 feet (997 m). The vege- tation consisted of large forest trees (oak, maple, hemlock) with the understory al- most exclusively Rhododendron maximum L. The golden mice were caught among the fallen logs and rhododendron, a habitat they shared with red-backed mice Cleth- rionomys gapperi maurus), cloudland deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus nubiterrae ), and wood mice (P. leucopus). Barbour (1951) made an intensive sur- vey of the mammals of the nearby Big Black Mountain and found no golden mice above 2,700 feet (823 m). He concluded that they seemed to be restricted to the valleys and lower slopes, brushcovered areas where Smilax was much in evidence. In the Great Smoky Mountains, golden mice have been found only in the foothills, 145 146 ranging up to 2,700 feet elevation and were never taken in the rhododendron thickets (Linzey and Linzey 1971). Al- though Odum (1949) found golden mice ranging up to 4,120 feet (1,256 m) near Highlands, North Carolina, and captured 1 specimen among rhododendrons, we suspect that their invasion of the rhododen- drons atop Cumberland Mountain in south- eastern Kentucky is a recent development. Perhaps a high population of golden mice in the Cumberland Gap area has caused some individuals to move into mar- ginal habitats. Although they seem well established in the rhododendrons at this time, it will be interesting to see if they persist. LITERATURE CITED Barsour, R. W. 1942. Nest habitat of the golden mouse in eastern Kentucky. J. Mam- mal. 23(1):90-91. 1951. The mammals of Big Black Mountain, Harlan County, Kentucky. J. Mam- mal. 32(1):100—110. AND W. H. Davis. 1974. Mammals of Kentucky. Univ. Press Ky., Lexington, Ky. 322 pp. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4) GooppasTER, W. W., AND D. F. HOFFMEISTER. 1954. Life history of the golden mouse, Peromyscus nuttalli, in Kentucky. J. Mammal. 35(1):17-27. Hanpbiey, C. O., Jr. 1948. Habitat of the golden mouse in Virginia. J. Mammal. 29 (3) :298-299. Howe, A. H. 1921. A _ biological survey of Alabama. U.S. Dept. Agric., Bur. Biol. Surv., N. Amer. Fauna No. 45: 1-88. Ivey, R. D. 1949. Life history notes on three mice from the Florida east coast. J. Mammal. 30(2) 157-162. Linzey, A. V., AND D. W. Linzey. 1971. Mam- mals of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Univ. Tenn. Press, Knoxville, Tenn. 114 pp. Linzey, D. W. 1968. An ecological study of the golden mouse, Ochrotomys nuttalli, in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Amer. Mid]. Nat. 79(2):321-345. McCarey, H. 1958. Ecology, behavior and population dynamics of Peromyscus nuttalli in eastern Texas. Texas J. Sci. 10:147-171. Ovum, E. P. 1949. Small mammals of the Highlands (North Carolina) Plateau. J. Mammal. 30(2):179-192. Pearson, P. G. 1953. A field study of Peromys- cus populations in Gulf Hammock, Florida. Ecology 34:199-—207. Wauuace, J. T. 1969. Some notes on the growth, development and _ distribution of Ochrotomys nuttalli (Harlan) in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30( 1—2) :45-52. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-4), 1978, 147-149 Index Herbariorum Kentuckiensis STUART LASSETTER Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475 ABSTRACT A survey conducted during the spring of 1977 indicates 10 institutional herbaria and 2 private herbaria in Kentucky. herbaria. HERBARIA OF KENTUCKY Except for the few herbaria listed in Holmgren and Keuken (1974), relatively little information concerning Kentucky herbaria is available. The survey informa- tion presented herein is offered as a refer- ence for herbarium resources in Kentucky. A list of 38 colleges and universities was compiled from Hurt (1975). Technical and business schools as well as theological seminaries were excluded, but state and private schools and community colleges were contacted. My gratitude is extended to those persons who took time to return the questionnaires. Results of this survey show 10 institu- tional herbaria and 2 private herbaria in Kentucky. All are small, but in combination they represent more than 119,000 plant specimens. Each herbarium with its factual material is listed below. If the herbarium is listed in Holmgren and Keuken (1974) the Index Herbariorum symbol follows the herbarium name. Asbury College Herbarium Division of Science and Mathematics, As- bury College, Wilmore, Kentucky 40390. Henry H. Howell, Curator. Established 1967. Number of specimens not given, vascular plants and lichens. No active accession or exchange. Athey Herbarium ( private collection ) 701 Woodland Drive, Paducah, Kentucky 42001. More than 119,000 specimens are contained in those 12 Raymond Athey, Curator. Established 1967. 3,671 unmounted vascular plants (mostly Compositae, Gramineae, and Cyper- aceae of prairie habitats) and some bryophytes; duplicates in Memphis State University Herbarium. Active accession, no active exchange, no loans. Berea College Herbarium Berea College, Berea, Kentucky 40404. James Grossman, Curator. No establishment date given. 560 vascular plants from Berea College Forest lands. No active accession, no exchange. Centre College Bryophyte Herbarium Division of Science and Mathematics, Centre College, Danville, Kentucky 40422. Susan M. Moyle, Curator. Established 1974. 200 temperate zone bryophytes, many from Red River Gorge. Active accession, active exchange (out- going = Kentucky bryophytes; incom- ing = temperate zone bryophytes). Davies Herbarium (DHL) Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208. W. S. Davis, Curator; Harry Woodward. Establishment date not given. 22,000 vascular plants (some bryophytes, lichens, fungi, and algae). 147 148 Important collections from Bernheim For- est, Kleeber Bird Sanctuary, Horner Wildlife Sanctuary, and some type speci- mens. Active accession and exchange (outgoing = vascular plants, flowering plants; incom- ing = vascular plants, flowering plants). Eastern Kentucky University Herbarium Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Ken- tucky 40475. Stuart Lassetter, Curator; William H. Mar- tin. Established 1974. 3,300 vascular plants. Active accession and active exchange (out- going = vascular plants mostly of Ken- tucky and southeastern United States; incoming = Vicia, and general vascular plant collections). Herbarium of Biology Department Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101. Kenneth A. Nicely, Curator; Ernest O. Beal. Established 1967. 9,058 (plus 1,000 in processing) vascular plants (about half are local and Western Kentucky specimens, and half are dupli- cates of Flora of the Carolinas and south- eastern United States). Active accession, limited exchange (mainly exchange with Kentucky herbaria). Herbarium of Thomas Hunt Morgan School of Biological Sciences ( KY ) Thomas Hunt Morgan School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexing- ton, Kentucky 40503. S. F. Conti, Director; Willem Meijer, Cura- tor. Reestablished in 1948 after fire destroyed previous collections. 39,603 vascular plants, not including bryo- phytes and lichens. Important collections: Dr. Short, 1840; county flora thesis collections for Mc- TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) Lean County (J. Conrad) and Bourbon County (Edi Gudharji). Active accession and exchange (outgoing = vascular plants of Kentucky and adjacent areas; incoming = Eastern United States flora). Morehead State University Herbarium Department of Biology, Morehead State . University, Morehead, Kentucky 40351. . Howard L. Setser, Curator. Establishment date unknown, specimens date from 1920s. 5,300 vascular plants. Important collections: several Ferns of Kentucky specimens. Active accession and exchange (outgoing = vascular plants of eastern Kentucky; in- coming = vascular plants of Kentucky and adjacent states. McCoy Murray State University Herbarium (MUR) Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071. Marian J. Fuller, Curator. Established 1967. 14,000 vascular plants and some bryophytes. Important collections: Thomas McCoy fern collection. Active accession and exchange (outgoing = Kentucky vascular plants; incoming = vascular plants ). Northern Kentucky University Herbarium (KNK) Department of Biological Sciences, North- ern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, Kentucky 41076. John W. Thieret, Curator. Established 1973. 10,000 (plus 10,000 unmounted) vascular plants and a few lichens, some type specimens. Active accession and active exchange (out- going = vascular plants; incoming = vascular plants ). HERBARIA OF KENTUCKY—Lassetter Varner Herbarium (private collection) Route 3, Cynthiana, Kentucky 41031. Johnnie B. Varner, Curator. Established 1965. 11,583 vascular plants (Kentucky woody plants, Crataegus, southern Appalachian collections ). Active accession, no exchange, no loans. In addition to these collections housed in Kentucky, there are regional herbaria near Kentucky that have a significant num- ber of Kentucky specimens. They are Memphis State University, Memphis, TN; Southern Illinois University (SIU) in Car- bondale, IL; University of Cincinnati (CINC) in Cincinnnati, OH; University of Tennessee (TENN) in Knoxville, TN; University of West Virginia (WVA) in Morgantown, W. VA.; and perhaps Mar- 149 shall University in Huntington, W. VA. (Raymond Athey, Willem Meijer, Linda Rader, pers. comm.). The Reed Herbarium in Baltimore, MD also contains a great number of Kentucky specimens. The U.S. National Herbarium (US) in Washington, D.C. contains Lucy Braun’s collections. Historical collections by early botanists are housed in various American and European herbaria, but it is not the pur- pose of this paper to provide a complete list of those collections. LITERATURE CITED HouMcREN, P., AND W. KEUKEN. 1974. Index herbariorum. Part I. The herbaria of the world. Sixth ed. Oosthoek, Scheltema, and Holkema, Utrecht, Netherlands. 397 pp. Hurt, H.W. 1975. The college blue book. 15th ed. Macmillan Publ. Co., Inc., New York, N.Y. 02 pp. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3-—4), 1978, 150—159 The Fantail Darter Etheostoma flabellare in the Salt River Drainage, Kentucky Joon R. BAKER’ Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 ABSTRACT Age and growth, length-weight relationship, coefficient of condition, food habits, sex ratios, and a maturity index were determined for the fantail darter Etheostoma flabellare in Brashears Creek, a tributary to the Salt River in Spencer and Shelby counties, Kentucky. Comparisons were made with other fantail darters collected throughout the Salt River Basin. Life span was approximately 2.5 years for males and 2 years for females. Growth was great- est in the first year from June through October. Coefficient of condition was highest in July and lowest in November. Food consisted of Diptera, Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, Plecoptera, and other invertebrates in order of importance. Males were more numerous than females due to a differential mortality rate. The maturity index for females was highest in April when the ovary weight was 15.5 percent of the body weight. INTRODUCTION The fantail darter Etheostoma flabellare is a slender fish 30-60 mm long. Its back is olive brown and the sides are yellowish brown marked by dark horizontal streaks, with dark brown crossbars on the back, and with the tail prominently banded with dark brown lines. The fantail darter in- habits rocky and gravelly riffles of streams that range in size from small creeks to relatively large rivers and is widely dis- tributed throughout the Mississippi drain- age. It is more tolerant of turbidity and organic pollution than most darters. It feeds principally on immature stages of aquatic insects in the riffle habitat ( Pflieger 1975). In the Salt River it is an important part of the fauna, being the second most abundant fish (Neff and Krumholz 1974) throughout the mainstream and most of the tributaries (Hoyt et al. 1970). In an effort to ameliorate periodic flooding, 3 impound- ments were planned for the Salt River System. Those impoundments would elimi- nate much of the habitat of the fantail darter. Therefore, because of its importance as a major component of the fauna and the 1Present address: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154. possibility of habitat loss, this study was undertaken to determine some of the biological aspects of the fantail darter within the Salt River System. The Salt River drainage lies in the Outer Blue Grass Region of Kentucky. The rock strata are Ordovician limestone shale of the Maysville, Richmond, and Eden group containing up to 90 percent shale (Hen- dricksen and Krieger 1964). Due to the impervious nature of the shale, stream flow fluctuates drastically during periods of heavy precipitation, and is tremendously influenced by extensive beds of water willow Justicia americana (L.). Islands and embankments are formed from the accumulation of gravel and debris in the water willow diverting the flow back and forth across the stream bed developing pools and riffles that give the stream a braided appearance. Those beds also serve to maintain pool levels that are important to aquatic life, especially during periods of low rainfall in late summer and early fall. Physical and chemical aspects of the Salt River and its tributaries are given in Woodling (1971, unpublished master’s thesis, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky) and Miller (1976, unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Louis- ville, Louisville, Kentucky). 150 FANTAIL DARTER IN THE SALT RIvER—Baker ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report is based on research per- formed under Project No. B-031-KY, Agree- ment No. 14-31-0001-3891, with the Office of Water Resources Research, U. S. Depart- ment of the Interior, as authorized under the Water Resources Research Act of 1964, Louis A. Krumholz and Stuart E. Neff, Principal Investigators. Grateful acknowl- edgment is offered for that assistance. It is also a revision of parts of a thesis presented to the Graduate School of the University of Louisville as partial fulfill- ment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Biology. I wish to extend special thanks to Louis A. Krumholz for his guidance and en- couragement throughout the course of the study and for his review of this manu- script. Deep appreciation is offered to Peter Bersell, Edmond J. Bacon, Jr., Daryl E. Jennings, Andrew C. Miller, and David S. White for their assistance in the field and in the laboratory, and to F. Bowsher for typing this manuscript. METHODS A total of 1,793 fantail darters was taken from 5 locations on Brashears Creek (Fig. 1, Stations 26-30) monthly from June 1972 through May 1973. No fish were collected in April due to high water. In addition, 295 fish were obtained from the following areas (Fig. 1): Salt River Stations 3, 11, and 14; Chaplin River Stations C2 and C10; Beech Fork, Marion County; West Fork of Simpson Creek, Nelson County; and Plum Creek, Spencer County. Sixteen fish were collected from Harrods Creek, Oldham County (not part of the Salt River drainage) in April and were used to sup- plement the data for that time period. Collections were made with a 3-mm- mesh minnow seine. The fish were either shocked with an 1100-watt alternator or herded by kicking the riffles. Specimens were immediately fixed in 10 percent formalin and later preserved in 70 percent ethanol. Standard length, weight, and sex were 151 determined for all fish. After blotting each fish with a paper towel, they were weighed to the nearest 0.01 g on a Mettler single- pan electric balance and measured to the nearest millimeter. Sex was determined by examining the genital papillae; in males, the genital papilla narrows at the apex to a blunt point whereas in females it remains broad and expanded. That characteristic proved completely reliable with fish over 25 mm long. Smaller fish could not be sexed by that method, nor could they be sexed by dissection because of the lack of development of the gonads. Length-frequency distributions were made for each collection, grouping the fish in 2-mm intervals. Age groups were determined using both scales and length frequencies. Scales from 80 fish of various length groups were examined for aging as outlined by Larimore (1957). The scales were removed from the left side of the body above the lateral line at the junction of the dorsal fins. The length—-weight re- lationship and coefficient of condition values were determined according to formu- las of Lagler (1969). The length-weight relationship for 127 fish from Brashears Creek was computed using the least squares method and is expressed in the logarithmic form: Log W = 4.8650 + 3.0085 Log L where W equals weight in milligrams and L equals standard length in millimeters. Food habits were determined using fre- quency of occurrence and average number of individual organisms per stomach (Lag- ler 1969). Four hundred stomachs (30-50 per month) were analyzed for their con- tents. Material from the intestine was not used. Identifications were based on keys by Burks (1953), Pennak (1953), Ross (1944), and Usinger (1956). The ovaries from 176 fantail darters were removed and weighed to the nearest 0.1 g; 160 were from Brashears Creek collected in October through March and May and 16 were from Harrods Creek, Oldham County, collected in April. Fic. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) SS | sae = ; Creek \ $ SHELBY $ SHELBYVILLE ff PROPOSED SITES FOR Myst TAYLORSVILLE | U@ | $ Y) \ AND ; ry « 3 CAMP GROUND a | S g LAKES He. ——}+— on SALT RIVER BASIN . | eS KENTUCKY Creek oe? (28) ( / S v ae SPENCER @7) ee ALY ( Gs ~~ LAWRENCEBURG ® & )TAYLORSVILLE s 8 a Cr = e Oa. oo ANDERSON yo iS 40 (24) Salt we = 59 Ae 36 aaa (3) p ) COUNTY : 100 ie . ee ty coun OMe 7 ok 2 =a Be ‘BUREN Ls Cia: RS ee (ea GO) = WS 2 as a ek wet Cc < 3 | cree) gt ) S @p em 110 _ : e 4 Lp ¥, ee pBLOOMFIELD x wey oN, (3) [ CiaKt A whe aD gulp \ Z ew Y lee GS - NELSON (Sos Nutt a); x SAGY 3° 253 40 MERCER C5) \ Eee Leo Zio sine CAMP o. ERE Oy KR % (>) BARDSTOWN "oO Is3 = a» sauna a COUNTY GROUND <3, COUNTY = ( oe ea wy MAUD ee | 3 (6) \ SALT RIVER fork 60 SO) AKE @ Ni BASIN 2 50 \ ea) | HARRODSBURG 5) ) S Co, | : < 4 CY pF | 70 f 90 C4) gee @2) * | ae [ 4 3) [ SPRINGFIELD DAWOEL IE 100) C2) 2. yy COUNTY o. | BOYLE — ( LD Cl be ie NS Ci) | 110 BY I COUNTY i —_— COUNTY is (after Neff and Krumholz 1974). Part of the Salt River Basin of Kentuckyshowing the locations of stations used as collecting sites FANTAIL DARTER IN THE SALT RivEr—Baker RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Associated Species In July, an extensive collection was made in the riffle areas of Brashears Creek. At that time, 14 species of fishes were col- lected along with the fantail darter. E. flabellare was the most abundant fish con- stituting 62 percent of the collection. Other fishes in order of relative abundance were: Etheostoma caeruleum, Etheostoma_ blen- noides, Campostoma anomalum, Pimphales notatus, Etheostoma zonale, Noturus flavus, Notropis spilopterus, Hypentelium nigri- cans, Notropis ardens, Notropis stramineus, Notropis boops, Percina caprodes, Ericym- ba buccata, and Pimphales promelas. No- menclature follows Bailey et al. (1970). Age and Growth Age groups were readily distinguished from length—-frenquency distribution (Fig. 2) after the spawning period in May and June. Scales were used for age determina- tions when age based on the length-fre- quency distribution was questionable. Age Groups 0, 1, and 2 were present in Brashears Creek and the Salt River. Only 3 females in Age Group 2 were collected at Brashears Creek and Salt River Station 3. The 2 largest females (50 mm) were collected in May and June; the largest male was 56 mm collected in October. Schwartz (1965) reported that newly hatched fantail darters from the upper Allegheny River, Pennsylvania, averaged 7.3 mm total length, similar to the 7.0 mm reported by Lake (1936) from Black Creek, New York. Young-of-the-year fish from Brashears Creek had a mean standard length in June of 20 mm, almost 3 times the length of reported newly hatched fish (Fig. 3). After the first month, there was an increase of approximately 15 mm per year. At the end of 1 and 2 years, E. flabellare reached mean standard lengths of 35 and 51 mm, respectively. Males in Age Group | were slightly larger than fe- males, mean lengths being 36 mm and 34 mm, respectively. Winn (1958a) re- 153 os "Fish February 121 Fish January 129 Fish December 127 Fish October : | PERCENT FREQUENCY oO September 151 Fish August 129 Fish 428 Fish June 161 Fish f 30 40 50 60 STANDARD LENGTH, MILLIMETERS Fic. 2. Length frequencies of fantail darters from Brashears Creek, 1972 and 1973. The earliest collection (June) is at the bottom of the figure. ported “males larger” as a sexual dimorphic characteristic in fantail darters but did not report the extent of dimorphism. In the Salt River, size is not a readily distinguish- able sexual dimorphic characteristic for fantail darters. Karr (1964), using the scale method, reported for E. flabellare from Bluff Creek, Iowa, total lengths of 18.7, 34.8, and 42.4 mm at the first through the third annuli, respectively, for females, and males were 18.5, 36.7, 59.0, and 62.0 mm at the first through the fourth annuli, respectively. Lake (1936) reported fantail darters of Age 0 to be about 30 mm standard length in November after hatching in June, similar to that for fantail darters in Brashears Creek. Scales did exhibit an area in the first year of growth where the distance between circuli was increased. Such ex- 154 i (on 2 years (7) w” xe ia year (il Pea ] 10 mont hs (88) 9 months (109) Fi mont (ts) CT) months t110) io) x _ [1 __ 5 months (77) as Fe oO = — 4 months (126) _ CO) 3 montns (102) [TM] 2 months (55) CT month (35) 10 20 30 40 50 60 STANDARD LENGTH IN MILLIMETERS Fic. 3. Mean standard lengths of fantail darters at different ages in Brashears Creek, 1972 and 1973. The baseline for each age group is the range in standard length, the open rectangle is 1 standard deviation to each side of the mean, and the closed rectangle is 2 times the standard error to each side of the mean. Numbers in parentheses are numbers of specimens. panded circuli may have been mistaken by Karr for annuli. Condition Factor The coefficient of condition or condition factor, K, was determined monthly for males and females of Age Groups 0 and 1 (Fig. 4). Since sex of fish in Age Group 0 could not be determined in June and July, those specimens were lumped _ together. The condition factor in all groups was highest in July and declined through November. Females of both age groups had higher K values than males due to increasing ovarian weights in December- February but dropped below males in May after spawning. Unfortunately, adequate TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39( 3-4) Age Group O J m 1.6 > AS. Age Group | s SAN = \ par male — ——_ —_ \ females —— -——~-— \ ‘ / COEFFICIENT OF CONDITION Fic. 4. Seasonal changes in the coefficient of condition, K x 10°, for male and female fantail darters of Age Groups 0 and 1 from Brashears Creek, 1972 and 1973. K values for March and April were not determined. collections could not be made in March and April because of high water. Fe- males probably would have shown a high K value in early April when ovaries were at their greatest development. Weights of males apparently were not affected by re- production as Tsai (1972) has shown for Etheostoma olmstedi, although K values for March and April may have reflected some change. The condition factor did decrease with age. K values for Age Group 2 males in June and July were 1.332 and 1.380, respectively, considerably lower than for Age Group 0 or 1 during the same time period (Fig. 4). The condition factor varies with both environmental as well as biological factors. Of those environmental factors that have an effect, the available food supply is of major importance. The primary food of the fantail darter is immature aquatic in- sects. In Brashears Creek, Woodling (un- published thesis) found the lowest average biomass and average number of organisms in June through August. The condition factor for E. flabellare was highest during that period indicating that benthic organ- isms even at their lowest level were present in sufficient numbers to provide an ade- quate food supply. Decreasing water temperatures in August-November ap- peared to have the greatest effect on the condition factor, with the lowest value, FANTAIL DARTER IN THE SALT RivER—Baker TABLE 1.—COEFFICIENT OF CONDITION, K x 10’, FOR FANTAIL DARTERS FROM Q STATIONS IN THE SALT RIVER DRAINAGE. NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE NUMBERS OF SPECIMENS. SEE Fic. 1 For LOCATIONS OF STATIONS Coefficient Station Date of condition Plum Creek 30 May —_—-11.6238 + .0305 (12) Brashears Creek 13 Jun 1.5370 == .03809 (37) Simpson Creek 31 May 1.4610 + .0272 (50) Chaplin River, 21 May 1.4231 + .0177 (40) 2 Chaplin River, 10 Jun 1.3951 = .0213 (40) C10 Salt River, 14 24Jul _—«1.3894 + .0410 (50) Salt River, 11 29 Jun 1.3046 + .0160 (50) Salt River, 3 21 May 1.2870 + .0536 (4) Beech Fork 5 Jun 1.0882 + .0828 (5) except for females in May, occurring in November corresponding with low water temperatures. The increasing condition factor in December through March cor- responded with increasing water tempera- ture and gonadal weight. Condition factors for fish collected 155 throughout the Salt River system at ap- proximately the same time and of the size group are shown in Table 1. The lowest condition factor was in those fish from the headwaters of Beech Fork of the Chaplin River, a major tributary to the Salt River. In the Salt River mainstream, K values increased from the headwater downstream with the highest value occur- ring in Plum Creek, a small intermittent tributary to the Salt River. The condition factor of those fish from the Chaplin River mainstream were intermediate to those of the Beech Fork and Salt River. The reason for such a gradual increase in condition factor from upstream to downstream in samples from the Salt River and the low value in Beech Fork are not obvious but must be related to environmental factors. Food Habits Analysis of the contents of 400 fantail darters from Brashears Creek revealed that aquatic insects, isopods, and amphipods were the only food items taken (Table 2). Dipterans (primarily chironomids) were TABLE 2.—SEASONAL DIFFERENCES IN STOMACH CONTENTS OF FANTAIL DARTERS AS PERCENTAGE FRE- QUENCY OF OCCURRENCE, BRASHEARS CREEK, 1972 AND 1973. NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE AVERAGE NUMBERS OF ORGANISMS PER STOMACH Taxonomic group Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Ephemeroptera 7E(S AS) ALS) 47(3.0) 41(3.5) 30( 1.4) Plecoptera a( £0) Lepidoptera 6(1.0) 3(1.0) Coleoptera 10(2.0) 3(1.0) 6(1.0) 6( 1.0) FAG BAD Trichoptera 63(3.7 ) 60( 2.2) 40(3.2) Soc) ZO te) Diptera 57(8.2) 50(3.9) 50(1.7 ) 59(4.9) 45( 4.3) Isopoda acl) 2(3.0) Amphipoda Taxonomic group Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar May Ephemeroptera 1I7CLO) 4(1.0) 2( 1:0) 6( 1.0) 87(1.9) StL) Plecoptera E2OL.T) 51(3.2) 29(1.4) 20(1.4) 12(1.0) 27(1.3) Lepidoptera Coleoptera Trichoptera 2(1.0) 2(1.0) 2(1.0) 23(2.3) Diptera 63(5.7) 62(8.4) 82( 14.7) 82( 14.7) 100( 10.3 ) 39(9.2) Isopoda 4(1.0) 11(1.4) 6( 3) 6(1.3) 50( 4.6) Amphipoda 4(1.0) EE C12) ALO) 4(1.5) 5(2.5) 156 TABLE 3.—STOMACH CONTENTS OF FANTAIL DART- ERS AS PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE IN LENGTH Groups | (25-35 MM, N = 208), 2 (36— 45 MM, N = 158), anp 3 (46-55 mM, N = 34), BRASHEARS CREEK, 1972 AND 1973. NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE AVERAGE NUMBERS OF OR- GANISMS PER STOMACH Length group of darters Taxonomic group 1 2 3 Ephemeroptera 36 (2.5). 72442.3) 82a) Plecoptera TS CRO) (24 (2:8)) W822) Lepidoptera PLOY 724(4.0) Coleoptera ode iat oaes ) Trichoptera D5 (2.1). 180-63:2) 8243-0) Diptera 66 (6.4) 49(8.5) 47 (14.4) Isopoda 103 (4.3) .10:(2A4))) 23is 0) Amphipoda SLB SiO) the most important food throughout the year. Mayflies (Ephemeroptera) were the only other insects utilized throughout the year although they were not abundant in winter when stoneflies (Plecoptera) were a major food item (December through February ). Caddisflies (Trichoptera) and mayflies were important summer food items (June through October). Aquatic moth larvae (Lepidoptera) and aquatic beetle larvae (Coleoptera) made up a small por- tion of summer food. Isopods and amphi- pods also were utilized as winter food. There was no apparent selectivity of food items. Dominant food items corres- ponded with dominant benthic organisms reported by Woodling (unpublished thesis ) for Brashears Creek. Larval chironomids and mayflies (Stenonema spp.) were avail- able throughout the year and were utilized accordingly. Other food items were taken as they became available. There was also no selection of food items by different size groups of darters (Table 3). Smaller fish used the same size food items as larger fish, but there were no_lepidopterans, coleopterans, or amphipods in the stomachs of large fish. This probably was due to the infrequent occurrence of those organ- isms and the small sample size for the larger fish. TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) Percent Ovary Weight/Body Weight, N“N Nov aire 1973 Fic. 5. Maturity index for female fantail darters based on specimens from Brashears Creek and Harrods Creek, 1972 and 1973. Reproduction The maturity index (percentage of ovarian weight to body weight) for fantail darters in Brashears Creek indicated that spawning occurred in April and early May (Fig. 5). Again, data “for @itsit aes Harrod’s Creek were used in April because there was no collections for that month from the Salt River. On 7, 15, and 18 May, the maturity index was 5.8, 6.4, and 9.5, respectively. The 7 May collection was taken from the swifter riffles in the main- stream and had a higher number of spent individuals. Ovarian weights were higher in fish collected on 5 and 18 May from along the banks and side streams where current was moderate. A number of nests were found along the banks and _ side streams indicating that those areas were the primary spawning grounds. Side FANTAIL DARTER IN THE SALT RivER—Baker streams and banks apparently were selected by the fantail darter because of slower current and higher water temperature. Water temperatures in those areas were 1-2 C higher than in the mainstream where the average temperature was 17 C on 15 May. Winn (1958a) reported that E. flabellare spawned the first week of April in Kentucky and Tennessee and about 2 weeks later in Michigan. Lake (1936) re- ported spawning in Black Creek, New York, from 26 April to 22 June with in- cubation for about 21 days at 70 F (21 C). The breeding habits of E. flabellare have been described by Lake (1936) and Winn (1958a, 1958b). They reported that the nest is prepared on the undersides of rocks and guarded by the male. An acceptable female enters the nest, turns upside down, and deposits the eggs by attaching them to the lower surface of the rock as they are fertilized by the male. Usually, about 45 eggs are deposited one at a time and the female stays in the inverted position for the entire egg laying period, approxi- mately 2 hours. Males usually assume the inverted position only at the moment of deposition of an egg. Females are re- productively active during their first year of life. A large female may spawn 5 times during a spawning season and several fe- males may spawn in the same nest. The male remains in the nest until the eggs hatch and keeps them free from silt and fungus by cleaning them with the bulbous pads developed on the dorsal fin. The breeding habits of E. flabellare and E. nigrum are very similar, and Winn (1958a) stated that they are the most complex of the darters. E. maculatum ap- pears to have similar breeding habits except the eggs are laid in a wedge-shaped mass rather than in a single layer (Raney and Lachner 1939). Winn (1958b) reported that in darters he examined there was an inverse correla- tion between extent of care and the num- bers of eggs laid. The fewest number of eggs laid were by E. nigrum, E. maculatum, and E. flabellare which exhibit the greatest parental care. Williams (1959) has also 157 TABLE 4.—SEX RATIOS FOR 1,211 FANTAIL DART- ERS FROM BRASHEARS CREEK, 1972 AND 1973. RATIOS ARE PERCENTAGES Month Males Females Sex Ratio Jun 129 85 60.40 Jul 148 66 69:31 Aug 22 ya 50:50 Sep 45 17 72:28 Oct 91 on 71:29 Nov 2D 15 62:38 Dec 69 58 54:46 Jan 70 44 61:39 Feb 69 36 66:34 May 57 39 59:41 Total t2o 486 64:36 shown that ovarian weights in E. flabellare and E. nigrum that exhibit parental care are higher than in E. caeruleum and E. spectabile where there is no parental care. Sex Ratio In Brashears Creek, males dominated fe- males at a ratio of 64:36 (Table 4). Sex ratios were based on all fish collected except those in Age Group 0 in June through October whose sex could not be determined because the gonads were not sufficiently developed. The dominance of males was due to a differential mortality rate rather than to a differential birth rate. The sex ratio for fish in Age Group 0 in December was almost equal, 51:49. Males became increasingly more dominant with age, sex ratios of Age Groups 1 and 2 being 63:37 and 86:14, respectively, in June. Only 2 females in Age Group 2 were collected from Brashears Creek throughout the entire study. The differential mortality observed in Brashears Creek resulting in sex ratios favoring males may be due to reproductive behavior and predation. Fe- males during the spawning period are more susceptible to environmental factors as well as predation because of the female’s wan- dering nature at that time, going from nest to nest. Males maintain the nest and, therefore, are not as exposed as the females. The sex ratio of the combined collections 158 from the other stations in the Salt River system was 61 males to 49 females. Al- though the combined collections did favor males, sex ratios at 4 stations favored fe- males. Sex ratios, for E. flabellare reported by Lake (1936) and Schwartz (1965) have shown that females outnumbered males about 2 to 1. Sex ratios for E. flabellare appear extremely different in different localities, as Raney and Lachner (1943) have reported for Boleosoma nigrum olmstedi. Sex ratios of other darters generally show a tendency for males to exceed females (Raney and Lachner 1939, Lachner et al. 1950). SUMMARY The fantail darter was abundant through- out the Salt River drainage. The life span was 2.5 years for males and 2 years for females. Growth was greatest in the first month, tripling its initial length. Coefficient of condition was highest in July when water temperatures were optimum and lowest in November when water tempera- tures were low. Females had a _ higher coefficient of condition in winter and a lower condition in the spring due to the additional weight of the ovaries. Food of the fantail darter was aquatic insects con- sisting of Diptera (primarily chironomids ), Ephemeroptera,. Trichoptera, Plecoptera, and other benthic organisms in order of importance. Food habits changed season- ally as the benthic fauna changed. Dif- ferent size groups exhibited no difference in food habits. In Brashears Creek, there was always an adequate food supply, even in the summer when the numbers of aquatic insects were at their lowest. The peak spawning period was in April and extended into May. Young of the year appeared in the riffles in June. Males outnumbered fe- males at a ratio of 61:39 in the Salt River and 64:36 in Brashears Creek. The dom- inance of males was due to differential mortality rate rather than to a differential birth rate. LITERATURE CITED BarLEy, R. M., J. E. Frrcn, E. S. Herap, E. A. LACHNER, C. C. LinpsEy, C. R. Rosins, AND TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of common and scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada (Third Edition). Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. No. 6. Washington, D.C. 150 pp. Burks, B. D. 1953. The Mayflies or Ephemer- optera of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 26(1):1-216. HENDRICKSON, G. E., AND R. A. Krizcer. 1964. Geological survey water supply paper 1700. U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Washington, D.C., 135 pp. ‘Hoyt, R. D., W. E. NEFF, AnD L. A. KRUMHOLZ. 1970. An annotated list of fishes from the upper Salt River, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 31( 3-4) :51-63. Karr, J. R. 1964. Age, growth, fecundity and food habits of fantail darters in Boone County, Iowa. Iowa Acad. Sci. 71:274—280. LAcCHNER, E. A., E. F. WestTLAKE, AND P. S. HANDWERK. 1950. Studies on the biology of some percid fishes from western Pennsy]l- vania. Amer. Mid]. Nat. 43(1):92—111. Lacter, K. R. 1969. Freshwater Fishery Biol- ogy. W. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa. 421 pp. Lake, C. T. 1936. The life history of the fan- tailed darter, Catonotus flabellaris flabellaris (Rafinesque). Amer. Mid]. Nat. 7(5):816— 830. Larimore, R. W. 1957. Ecological life history of the warmouth (Centrarchidae). Bull. Il. Nat. Hist. Surv. 27(1):1-83. Nerr, S. E., anpD L. A. Krumuotz. 1974. A detailed investigation of the sociological, eco- nomic, and ecological aspects of proposed reservoir sites in the Salt River Basin of Ken- tucky. Univ. Ky. Water Res. Inst., Res. Rept. No. 67. 64 pp. PENNAK, R. W. 1953. Fresh-water Invertebrates of the United States. The Ronald Press, New York, N.Y., 769 pp. PFuiecER, W. L. 1975. The fishes of Missouri. Mo. Dept. Cons., Columbia, Mo. 343 pp. Raney, E. C., anp E. A. LAcHNER. 1939. Ob- servations on the life history of the spotted darter, Poecilichthys maculatus (Kirtland). Copeia 1939(3):157-165. , AND 1943. Age and growth of johnny darters, Boleosoma nigrum olmstedi (Storer) and Boleosoma longimanum (Jordan). Amer. Mid]. Nat. 29(1):229-238. Ross, H. H. 1944. The Trichoptera or caddis- flies of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 23: 1-326. ScHwaRTz, F. J. 1965. Densities and ecology of the darters of the upper Allegheny River watershed, Pp. 95-103. In C. A. Tryon, Jr., R. T. Hartman, and K. W. Cummins (Eds.). Studies on Aquatic Ecology of the Upper Ohio River System. Pymatuning Laboratory of Ecology Spec. Publ. No. 3, Univ. Pitts- burgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. 103 pp. FANTAIL DARTER IN THE SALT RivER—Baker Tsar, C. 1972. Life history of the eastern johnny darter, Etheostoma olmstedi Storer, in cold tailwater and sewage-polluted water. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 101(1):80-88. Usincer, R. L. 1956. Aquatic Insects of Cali- fornia. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, Cal. 508 pp. WinuiaMs, G. C. 1959. Ovary weights of dart- ers: a test of the alleged association of par- 159 ental care with reduced feundity in fishes. Copeia 1959(1):18-24. Winn, H. E. 1958a. Comparative reproductive behavior and ecology of fourteen species of darters (Pisces-Percidae). Ecol. Monogr. 28(2):155-191. 1958b. Observations on the repro- ductive habits of darters (Pisces—Percidae ). Amer. Mid]. Nat. 51(1):190-212. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3—4), 1978, 160-163 The Elimination of Fluctuations During the Use of a Nitrate Specific Ion Electrode Linpa L. BLAINE AND FRANK: R. TOMAN Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 ABSTRACT Fluctuations in millivolt readings were found to occur when using an Orion nitrate specific ion electrode to measure nitrate concentration. Those fluctuations were greatest in the weaker nitrate solutions (10* M and 5 x 10* M) and were more pronounced when the electrode had not been renewed for a while. The fluctuations could be reduced greatly if the electrode was preequilibrated in sodium nitrate solution for 0.5 hour with stirring before taking the readings. INTRODUCTION During experiments in which a nitrate specific ion electrode was used to measure nitrate concentrations, it was observed that millivolt readings for standard sodium nitrate solutions sometimes varied con- siderably. It was not known if that type of fluctuation varied with the length of time since electrode renewal or if it was a characteristic of all nitrate electrodes. Millivolt readings have an inverse relation- ship with nitrate concentration. The pres- ent study was undertaken to evaluate the precision of the nitrate electrode and to determine the conditions of use under which reproducible results could be ob- tained. MATERIALS AND METHODS The nitrate specific ion electrode, Orion Model 92-07, was the subject of this study. The reference electrode was a single junc- tion reference electrode, Orion Model 90-01. The electrodes were used in a Corning Model 12 research pH meter. Dioxane, sodium nitrate, and potassium chloride were of reagent grade. Liquid ion exchanger, 92-07-02, and internal filling solution, 92-07-03, were from Orion Re- search. Phenyl mercuric acetate was ob- tained from Eastman Kodak. Sodium nitrate was used to prepare a 1.0 M solution. The reference electrode was kept filled with 0.1 M_ potassium chloride. Preservative was prepared by dissolving 0.1 g of phenyl mercuric acetate in 20 ml of dioxane, then diluting to 100 ml with distilled deionized water. Standards were prepared daily by mak- ing dilutions of the 1.0 M sodium nitrate stock solution with glass distilled deionized water. Experiments were run utilizing the following 5 sodium nitrate standards: 10* M, 5X10+ M, 10° M, 5X103 M, and 10-> M. One ml of preservative was added to each liter of distilled deionized water used to prepare standards. Nitrate electrodes were renewed accord- ing to instructions in the Orion Nitrate Ion Electrode Manual (1970). Four separate experiments were designed to evaluate the electrodes under study and to attempt to obtain reproducible results: (1) no pretreatment of the nitrate elec- trode, (2) electrodes were rinsed and dried, then immersed in dilute nitrate solution, the switch turned on, and pre- equilibrated for 0.5 or 1 hour, (3) electrodes renewed on the day prior to use, then preequilibrated for 0.5 hour without stirring and preequilibrated 0.5 hour with stirring, and (4) sensitivities of 3 different nitrate specific ion electrodes were com- pared; each had been renewed prior to the experiment. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Experiment I—No Pretreatment of Nitrate Electrode The 5 sodium nitrate standards were read on 5 different days from weakest to 160 FLUCTUATIONS IN A NITRATE ION ELECTRODE—Blaine and Toman strongest and repeated until reproducible results were obtained (Table 1, Column 1). This required from 45 min to 1 hour each day. The values in the table are the differences in readings for a particular standard between the first and last reading and are the averages for 5 trials on 5 dif- ferent days. Actual readings ranged from 163 millivolts (mv) to 40 mv on the 10° M standard. On each day, readings decreased as the standards were read re- peatedly. The lower readings indicated that the electrode possessed greater sen- sitivity after being used for a period of time. From the results of this experiment, it was decided to test electrodes after they had been preequilibrated for 0.5- and 1-hour periods. Experiment 2—Pretreatment of the Nitrate Electrode: 0.5 Hour vs. 1 Hour Preequilibration After the electrodes were rinsed and dried and preequilibrated for 0.5 hour or 1 hour, the nitrate standards were read in the same manner as described for Experi- ment 1 (Table 1, Columns 2, 3). The values in each column are averages for 4 trials on 4 different days. Preequilibration for 0.5 hour reduced the amount of total change from the first to the last reading when compared to readings with no treatment. Preequilibration for 1 hour was of very little or no greater benefit than preequilibration for 0.5 hour. Experiment 3—Pretreatment of a Recently Renewed Electrode: 0.5 Hour Preequilibration vs. 0.5 Hour Preequilibration with Stirring On the day prior to the beginning of this experiment, the electrode was renewed to determine the stability of readings dur- ing the first hour of use following renewal. Nitrate standards were read on 9 different days. On 3 days, the electrode received no pretreatment, and on 3 days, the electrode received 30 min preequilibration as described in Experiment 2. On the other 161 TABLE ].—DIFFERENCES IN MILLIVOLTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND THE LAST READING OF STANDARD SOLUTIONS No 0.5 hour 1 hour preequili- preequili- preequili- Conc. bration bration bration hc f0-M 4.5 2.9 Sak 5. <1 10> M aa 2.0 ES Lose 10M Bok 1.6 Et 5 x 10°M 20 LG hb Lt 34.10-3M Ze 1.4 Et 3 days, the electrode received the same type of pretreatment with the dilute nitrate solution kept in motion with a magnetic stirrer (Table 2). Values for each column are averages for 3 trials. This experiment generally showed less change in readings under conditions of no pretreatment when the nitrate electrode had been recently renewed than it did in earlier experiments when it had not been recently renewed (Table 2, Column 1; Table 1, Column 1). The same general trend is indicated when changes in read- ings after the electrode had been equili- brated for 0.5 hour are compared for re- cently renewed and not recently renewed electrodes (Table 2, Column 2; Table 1, Column 2). There still remained, however, less change in readings after a 0.5-hour preequilibration period than with no pre- treatment in the renewed electrode (Table 2, Columns 1, 2). This further substantiates the need for preequilibration before using the nitrate electrode. The preequilibration apparently is even more important as the electrode ages. The data reported in Table 2, Column 3, when the electrode was preequilibrated in a dilute nitrate solution kept in motion with a magnetic stirrer, showed less change than with no pretreatment or with 0.5 hour pre- treatment with no stirring (Table 2). This indicated that not only is preequilibration important, but that stirring increased the effectiveness of the equilibration period. It should be noted that most of the change in readings during the first week of use after renewal was in the weaker solutions, 10-* M and 5x10-* M (Table 2). 162 TABLE 2.—DIFFERENCES IN MILLIVOLTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND THE LAST READING OF STANDARD SOLUTIONS DETERMINED ON A RECENTLY RENEWED ELECTRODE 0.5-hour No pre- 0.5-hour pretreatment Conc. treatment pretreatment with stirring 1x 10°*M 4.3 2.0 ies | 9 x 10*M 1.5 0.3 0.5 1x 10° M 0.7 0.8 0.3 ° x 10°M 0.7 1.0 0.3 1x 10°M 0.7 0.5 0.3 Experiment 4—Comparison of 3 Different Nitrate Ion Electrodes The original Orion nitrate specific ion electrode and 2 other electrodes borrowed from other university departments were renewed before the experiment was begun. Readings were recorded on 6 different days for each electrode, on 3 days, 30-min pre- equilibration with the magnetic stirrer, and 3 days with no pretreatment. The elec- trodes from the Departments of Agriculture, Biology, and Chemistry, are referred to as Electrodes A, B, and C, respectively (Tables 3, 4). Values are averages for 3 trials on 3 different days. Previous results with Electrode B showed changes in values during the first half hour of use, and continued in this experiment (Tables 3, 4). The same trend was demonstrated by the other 2 electrodes. Apparently, fluctuations during the first half hour of use are characteristic of all Orion nitrate specific ion electrodes. TABLE 3.—DIFFERENCES IN MILLIVOLTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND THE LAST READING OF STANDARD SOLUTIONS DETERMINED ON 3 DIFFERENT ELEC- TRODES UTILIZING A 0.5-HOUR PREEQULILBRATION PERIOD WITH STIRRING Conc. Electrode A Electrode B-_ Electrode C 1x 10*M 2.8 4.] 5 5 x 10*M 0.5 21 OF 1x 10°M 0.8 1.0 0.7 o> xX 10°M 0.7 0.3 0.5 1x 10°M 0.3 0.5 0.7 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39(3-4) TABLE 4,—DIFFERENCES IN MILLIVOLTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND THE LAST READING OF STANDARD SOLUTIONS DETERMINED ON 3 DIFFERENT ELEC- TRODES WITH NO PRETREAMENT Conc. Electrode A Electrode B_ Electrode C 1956, 16-M 3.1 5.8 1.8 5 x 107M 1:3 3.8 1.8 Ls 103M 0.7 Zt Ley, 5 xX 10°M 0.5 2.0 is I< 10. M 0.5 Ls jo | Experiment 4 also showed that changes in behavior of a nitrate ion electrode can be expected between 2 and 4 weeks after being renewed, and is in agreement with an evaluation of the nitrate electrode by Potterton and Schuts (1967). The experi- ment showed, however, that when working with dilute nitrate solutions, a freshly renewed electrode does not assure that reproducible results will be achieved. In all cases, changes greater than 1.0 mv were obtained with a freshly renewed electrode with no pretreatment when working with solutions of 10-* M concen- tration (Table 4). Pretreatment with a stirred solution of sodium nitrate reduced changes, but some change in readings was still observed. Thus, the nitrate electrode, when freshly renewed and pretreated as described above, did not give reproducible results for solutions of 10-* M concentration. In all cases, however, reproducible results were obtained eventually for the dilute solutions after the electrode had been in use for about 0.5 hour. A recently renewed nitrate electrode, when used with more concentrated solu- tions (10-* M to 10-2 M), did not show the variation that exists with dilute solutions (Tables 3, 4). Variations occurred for the more concentrated solutions when the elec- trode had aged. For Electrode B, greater variation occurred about a month after renewal, and the variation was much more pronounced when the electrode had not been pretreated. There were no millivolt variations after the electrode had been in use for approximately 0.5 hour. Millivolt readings for nitrate solutions of FLUCTUATIONS IN A NITRATE ION ELECTRODE—Blaine and Toman 10-* M and 5 X 10-* M with Electrode B, pretreated or not, showed a greater percent- age variation than with more concentrated solutions. Even for the lower concentra- tions, since readings did eventually become reproducible, there was no indication that the electrode failed to give dependable readings when proper technique was utilized as long as 4 to 6 weeks after renewal. CONCLUSIONS Experimental results with an Orion nitrate specific ion electrode indicated that millivolt readings decreased during the first half hour of use. Pretreatment by soaking the electrode in dilute nitrate solutions for 0.5 hour reduced but did not eliminate the variation in readings. Preequilibration for 1 hour was of little more benefit than a half hour, but stirring the solution during pretreatment increased the effectiveness. There was less variation in readings dur- ing the first half hour of use when the nitrate electrode had been renewed re- cently. Variation was further decreased by use of a half-hour preequilibration with 163 stirring. Change in readings was minimal in the stronger nitrate solutions (10-? M to 10° M), particularly if the fresh electrode was preequilibrated. Weaker nitrate solu- tions consistently showed greater variations than stronger solutions. For all concentra- tions, greater variation occurred in readings as the electrode aged. In all cases, readings became reproducible after the electrode had been in use for approximately 0.5 hour. Comparison of 3 different electrodes indicated that all Orion nitrate specific ion electrodes give similar results when tested under similar conditions. Regardless of factors such as length of time since re- newal or nitrate solution concentration, maximum reliability in the electrode is obtained by reading aliquots of a dilute nitrate solution for at least 0.5 hour and determining that stability had been reached prior to making the determinations. LITERATURE CITED Orion RESEARCH INc. 1970. Instruction manual, nitrate ion electrode, Model 92-07. Orion Research Inc., Cambridge, Mass. 5 pp. PoTTERTON, S. S., AND W. D. Scuuts. 1967. An evaluation of the performance of the nitrate-selective electrode. Anal. Lett. 1:11. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 39(3—4), 1978, 164 NEWS AND Annual = The Sixty-fourth Annual Meeting Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Sci- ence will be held at Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, on 3 and 4 November 1978. Registration will com- mence at noon on 3 November in the main lobby of Moore Building. The Annual Banquet will be held in Keen Johnson Ban- quet Hall at 1830 on 3 November, and Dr. David Pimentel, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, will speak on “Energy in Food Production.” The Annual Business Meet- ing will begin at 0800 on 4 November. Hosts for the meeting are Ted George and Sanford Jones. Be sure to make your room and banquet reservations promptly. RS UGE SRE ck Membership The Executive Committee Drive of the Academy has re- quested that the member- ship drive begun so ably by Don Batch will be extended to this year’s Annual Meeting. Any active member who nominates five or more persons for membership will receive a free ticket to the Annual Banquet. The new membership forms are available from Don Batch (Eastern), Tom Seay (George- town ), and Lou Krumholz (Louisville), and they will be pleased to supply you with as many such forms as you wish. Our goal is 1,000 plus members. * * * * If you haven't done so already, please be sure to send your nominations for the Academy’s Distin- guished Scientist for 1978 to Dr. Harold W. Eversmeyer, Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071. Be sure to include ade- quate information on your candidate’s achievements along with a reasonably com- plete vita. Distinguished Scientist Award COMMENT Institutional Ten institutions of higher Affiliation education in Kentucky have become Institutional Affili- ates of the Kentucky Academy of Science during 1978. They are listed in alphabetical order. We sincerely hope they continue such affiliation for years to come. Alice Lloyd College Bellarmine College Eastern Kentucky University Kentucky State University Kentucky Wesleyan Morehead State University Murray State University Northern Kentucky University University of Louisville Western Kentucky University The Kentucky Academy of Science ex- tends its deep appreciation for that support. NSF Fourteen short courses Chautauqua-Type in the 1978-1979 series Short Courses of NSF Chautauqua- Type Short Courses for college teachers will be open to a limited number of scientists and engineers in in- dustry. The courses will be held at two of the regional field centers, The Oregon Graduate Center for Study and Research and the University of Hartford. For fur- ther information, contact the Department of Materials Science, 19600 N.W. Walker Road, Beaverton, Oregon 97005, or the Chautauqua Field Center, 451 Dana Hall, West Hartford, Connecticut 06117. * * * * The index and contents of volume 39 will be distributed as a separate insert with the March 1978 issue of volume 40 of the Transactions. Index 164 Sen 7 va a 7 bss Jem oe Wwe Paty s° i Nae aay q ne G vh Vs 4 ’ iinet Ten iret ie io. iealinn ae «n>, LS vay 1 ~ a) et 6 hla Acmale * Tr ive, &e¢ ta ) i ‘ a2 4 : a - = » F ( a" 1] rey . ! STa7re Tee 7 Lali : wee =}. L Une tt ‘ ke ' Vi iy Stab, a 44 a) * erly . INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub- lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received. Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. 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CONTENTS Attitudes of Kentucky college students toward science. George H. Miller_.. 95 Effect of cohabitation on survivorship of Drosophila melanogaster exposed to varying oxygen atmospheric concentrations. Gertrude C. Ridgel and Gerrit. P.. Kldek’ 7:3. 8 i Re 2 eee 107 Genic variability in some Kentucky gee ies of seventeen-year periodical cicadas (Homoptera: Magicicada). Dennis B. Ralin and Gerrit P. Kloek 111 Removal of nitrogen and sulfur from coal-derived liquids. Tay-Yean Lin and Norman: L. Holy 223° 224 So) sf eee 117 Aspects of photoperiodic time measurement in the crayfish Orconectes immunis. E. Lynn Talton and Rudolph Prins ______-» ___ eae 122 Populational differences in bud bursting of Carpinus caroliniana Walt. Gordon I. Wardell. and Joe E. Winstead)... 3 ee 127 Age and growth, length-weight relationships, and condition factors of the greenside darter from Silver Creek, Kentucky. G. William Wolfe, Bruce H. Bauer,.and Branley A, Branson. 24 +8 = es ee 131 The ecological status of six rare plants in Kentucky, with reference to a recent publication on endangered species. Jerry M. Baskin and Carol Gi Baskin): sa 135 Kentucky's high country—a biological treasure. Wayne H. Davis and Roger W. Barbour 2. jes a ee 138 New distributional records for the rosyside dace in Kentucky. Lewis Giles _ Miller ji. 008 2G RS pee ae ee 142 Habitat of the golden mouse Ochrotomys nuttalli. Wayne H. Davis and Ghackegie. Sauthe. Se oe Ts aes 145 Index Herbariorum Kentuckiensis. Stuart Lassetter 147 The fantail darter Etheostoma flabellare in the Salt River drainage, Ken- tucky. John R: Baker = 0.0 a ee 150 The elimination of fluctuations during the use of a nitrate specific ion electrode. Linda L. Blaine and Frank R. 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