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HARVARD UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

OF THE

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY

4iJU ^6,ini

Binder

<CAMBRIDGE,M*SSV

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

VOL. IX.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFORDSHIRE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD OLUB.

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Assoc. Inst. C.E.

VOLUME IX.

October, 1895, to October, 1897.

LONDON :

GURNEYJr JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, Paternoster Roav,
HERTFORD: STEniEN AUSTIN & SONS.

1898.

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4i

^

HERTFORD:

PRINTED BY STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS.

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OUL 20 1942

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"^OOdZ

CONTENTS.

PAGE

1. Anniversaiy Address — Mutual Aid amongst Animals.

By Pkince Kropotkin 1

2. Parasitic Fungi : their Mode of Attack and the Means of

its Prevention. By George Massee, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. 14

3. Notes on the Characeae, with a List of Species from the

South Midlands. By James Saunders 19

4. Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire during

the year 1895. By A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S 27

5. Hcrtfol-dshire Rainfall, Percolation, and Evaporation.

By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R. Met. Soc.
(Plate I.) 33

6. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year

1895. By Alan F. Grossman, F.L.S 73

7. Meteoi'ological Observations taken at The Grange,

St. Albans, during the year 1895. By John Hopkinson,
F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R. Met. Soc 85

8. Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in' the

year 1895. By John Hopkinson. (Plate II.) .. .. 93

9. Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertford-

shire during the year 1895. By Edward Mawley,
Pres. R.Met.Soc, F.R.H.S 97

10. List of Mosses collected in the Neighbourhood of Hertford.

By Hugh Darton 104

11. Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the year 1895.

By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R. Met. Soc. . . 109

12. On some Overlooked Records of Hertfordshire Plants. By

B. Datdon Jackson, Sec. L.S 121

13. Notes of the Observation of Swallows. By A. Sainsbury

Verey, M.B.O.U 12G

14. On the Destruction of an Elm-Tree by Fungi at St. Albans.

By George Abbey. (Plate III.) 129

15. On an Ancient British Coin found near Watford. By

Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D.,

Treas. R.S., V.P.S.A., etc 133

IG. The Rimtgen or "X" Rays. By Thomas Mansell,

F.R.M.S., F.R.P.S 135

VI CONTENTS.

PAGE

17. Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the year 1896.

By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R. Met. Soc.,
Assoc. Inst. C.E 139

18. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year

1896. By Alan F. Ckossman, F.L.S 148

19. Notes on the Birds of North Hertfordshire. By Joseph P.

NiTNN 163

20. Notes on some Plants collected in Hertfordshire by Miss

Maria Ransom, 1838-1840. By James Saunders .. 167

21. On some Roman Coins found at Brickendonbury, Hertford.

By Sm John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc. D.,
Treas. R.S., V.P.S.A., etc. (Plate IV.) 169

22. Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange,

St. Albans, during the year 1896. By John Hopkinson,
F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R. Met. Soc, Assoc. Inst. C.E 175

23. The Earthquake of the 17th of December, 1896, as it

affected the County of Hertford. By Herbert George
FoRBHAM. (Plate V.) 183

24. Watcr-Levels in the Chalk near Royston. By Harold

Warren, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. (Plate VI.) . . . . 209

25. The Climate of St. Albans, deduced from Meteorological

Observations taken during the Ten Years 1887-1896.
By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R. Met. Soc,
Assoc. Inst. C.E 215

26. Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertford-

shire during the year 1896. By Edward Mawley,
Pres. R. Met. Soc, F.R.H.S. . . .' 229

27. Notes on Lepidoptera observed in the Neighbourhood of

Watford in the year 1896. By S. H. Spencer, Jun. . . 236

28. Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the

year 1896. By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S.,

F.R. Met. Soc, Assoc Inst. C.E 241

Index, etc 245

Proceedings, October, 1895, to October, 1897, pp. ix-lxxviii.
[To be inserted, in binding, before the Transactions.]

ERRATA.

Page 1, line 8, /or 1895 read 1896.

24, ,, 14 from bottom, for Eocene read Pleistocene.
37, ,, 15, for Kent read Berks.
72, Table VIII, 1892-03, Year, /or 26-74 read 26-76.
,, ,, X, 1893-94, Year,/or 2105 read 21-85.
78, line 30, for wigeon read widgeon.
227, Table XV, Nov., Min., Year, /or 79 read 89.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.

To face p.
I. Map of Hertfordshire showing Kainfall Stations . . . . 33

II. Map of Hertfordshire showing its CKmatological Stations 93

III. Fungi destroying an Elm-Tree at St. Albans 129

IV. Roman Coins found at Brickendonbury, Hertford

Frontispiece, or 169

V. Map of Hertfordshire showing Localities in which the

Earthquake of 17th December, 1896, was felt . . 183
VI. Map of the Country around Royston 209

OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS.

Ancient British Coin found near "Watford 133

Plan No. l.—Denham Lodge, Watford 189

2.— Mayfield, Upton Road, Watford 189

3.— Verulam House, Watford 190

4.— The FoUy, Aldenham 191

5.— Redboum Bury, St. Albans 192

6.— Fairfield, Hitchin 197

7.— Bengeo HaU, Hertford 199

Section No. 1. — From Ashwell Spring to Shepreth Spring . . 211
,, ,, 2. — From the ''Hare and Hounds," near Odsey,
to the "Coach and Horses" on the New-
market Road 211

,, „ 4. — From Thcrfiold Rectoiy to Mclboum Spring . . 213
,, ,, 3.— From Therficld Rectory to Litlington Spring .213

Dates of publication of the several parts contained in this volume

Part 1.

Pages 1-32

June, 1896.

„ 2.

33-72

July, 1896.

„ 3.

73-120

September, 1896

„ 4.

121-168

July, 1897.

„ 5.

169-208

October, 1897.

„ 6.

209-244

December, 1897.

„ 7.

ix-xl

April, 1898.

„ 8.

xli-lxxviii

June, 1898.

„ 9.

i-viii, and 245-252

August, 1898.

Dates of publication of previous volumes :

Transactions of the "Watford Natural History Society.

Vol. I. (pp. Ixiv and 248.) August, 1878.

,, II. (pp. Ix and 260.) June, 1880.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society.

Vol. I. (pp. Ixviii and 272.) May, 1882.

II. (pp. Ixviii and 286.) May, 1884.

III. (pp. Ixxii and 274.) March, 1886.

IV. (pp. lii and 224.) June, 1888.

V. (pp. xlviii and 224.) May, 1890.

VI. (pp. Ixx and 204.) July, 1892.

VII. (pp. lii and 244.) April, 1894.

VIII. (pp. Ixxii and 212.) November, 1896.

PEOCEEDmGS

or THE

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

ORDDfART Meetixg, 23kd Octobee, 1895, AT St. Albans.

Dr. Jonx MoEisoN, F.G.S., Vice-President, in tlie Chair.

The Rev. J. Frome- Wilkinson, M.A., F.L.S., Barley Rectory,
Royston ; Mr. Thomas James Itann, Hyde Hall, Sawbridgeworth ;
Mr. John F. Marchaut, Heronsgate, Rickmansworth ; and Mr.
William Page, F.S.A., The White House, St. Albans, were pro-
posed for membership) of the Society.

The following Icctiire was delivered : —

" Charles Darwin : his Life and Work." By H. W. S. Worsley-
Benison, F.L.S.

Ordinaet Meeting, 19th November, 1895, at Watford.

Dr. Alfred T. Brett in the Chair.

The Rev. J. Frome-Wilkinson, M.A., F.L.S. ; Mr. T. J. Mann ;
Mr. J. F. Marchant ; and Mr. William Page, F.S.A., were elected
Members of the Society.

Mr. J. Fraser, F.R.C.V.S., Rochester House, St. Albans, and
Miss Rose White, Lismore Lodge, St. Albans, were proposed for
membership.

The following lecture was delivered : —

"Parasitic Fungi: their Mode of Attack and the Means of
Prevention." By George Massee, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. {Transactions,
Vol. IX, p. 14.)

In the absence of a lantern which had been promised,
Mr. Massee illustrated his lecture on the blackboard, passing
round some of his lantern slides.*

The Chairman said that the subject of the lecture was one
of gi'pat practical importance, for the study of parasitic fungi
had given rise to very valuable results, especially to the germ
theory of disease. It had led to the study of bacteria, and had
revolutionized the sciences of medicine and surgery.

* An oxy-hydrogen lantern has since been purchased by the Society.

VOL. IX. — PART VII.

X PEOCEEDINGS.

ORBrxAET Meeting, 12th Decejtbee, 1895, at Watford.

Arthur Sieadling, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.

Mr. J. Praser and Miss Rose White were elected Members of the
Society.

Mr. Cecil "W". Lilley, The Chestnuts, Wealdstone, Harrow, was
proposed for membership.

It was announced that the Council, in accordance with the Rules
of the Society, had elected Mr. Arthur Stradling as President until
the next Anniversaiy Meeting, to fill the vacancy caused by the
death of the late President, Mr. Henry Seebohm ; and as a mark of
respect for his memory the meeting then adjourned, the following
Report being taken as read : —

Report on the Conferences of Delegates to the British Associa-
tion AT Ipswich in 1895. By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.Gl.S.,
P.R.Met.Soc.

As your Delegate to the Ipswich meeting of the British Asso-
ciation, I now present to the Society a report on the Conferences
of Delegates of the Corresponding Societies held at that meeting.

The Conferences were held on the 12th and 17th of September,
the first Conference being chiefly devoted to the question of co-
operation in meteorological work, and the second as usual to
discussion on the work of sectional Committees of the Association
in which help may be afforded by provincial scientific societies.
Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., presided at the first Conference, and
Dr. J. G. Garson at the second. There are four members of our
Society on the Corresponding Societies Committee of the British
Association, two of whom — Mr. Symons and your Delegate —
attended both these Conferences.

It must be understood that this report is not exhaustive, much
that was said being omitted or greatly abbreviated, its object being
merely to bring before our Society the subjects discussed which are
likely to be of interest to our members, and in the investigation of
which they can assist.

First Conference.

Meteorological Observations. — The first Conference was opened
by the Chairman, Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., with an address on
Meteorological Observations, of which I give a rather full abstract.
The address was divided under the following headings : —

1. Meteorological observ^ations in general.

2. Sea and river temperature.

3. Earth temperature at shallow and at great depths.

4. Phonological work.

5. Early meteorological records.

6. Records of river and well levels.

7. Records of floods and the placing of flood-marks.

SESSION 1895-96. xi

In commeucinp; liis address, Mr. Symons dwelt upon the duties
of the Corresponding Societies and the necessity for holding these
Conferences. Eacli Society, he said, had a double duty : the duty
to humanity of doing its best to interpret triithfuUy the lessons of
the world in which we live, so that by increasing knowledge future
generations may learn to make better use of its marvellous stores,
and perchance repair some of the waste which has gone on in the
past and which is still going on ; and the duty of advancing the
cause of the various bodies with which they were connected ; for in
these days, when a universal genius has become an impossibility,
and progress can be effected only by limiting one's work to some
corner of the field of science, there was great danger of specialization
leading to forgetfulness of generalization, and of what is the end of
all research. The necessity for intercommunication in the early
years of this century rendered the formation of the British Asso-
ciation imperative, and this Conference and the work which it is
doing were an equal necessity of the present time. How could
workers in any branch of science know all that was being done by
local effort without the index to their proceedings? The world
was the better for the knowledge gained being rendered generally
accessible, and both the British Association and the local societies
gained the strength which arises from federation.

He had already intimated his opinion that if a man wishes to do
good work for science he must take some field, or corner of a field,
and labour there. He had only a corner — Rainfall — but he
thought that he knew enough about some other parts of the field
of meteorology to point out spots where good work could be done,
and work precisely suitable for the members of their societies.

He would now take up the syllabus.

1. Meteorological olservations in general. — The delegates were
advised not to encourage the keeping of records from any but good
instruments, properly placed. A hard frost occurred, and forthwith
there was a crop of wonderful records, some from thermometers
badly placed, some from thermometers which never were good,
some from good thermometers allowed to go wrong. An incorrect
statement was much worse than none at all ; such records as they
published should be worthy of their Society. It was by no means
necessary to start with an elaborate and costly set of instruments ;
but the instruments should be good, and no records except from
good and tested instruments properly placed should ever appear in
their volumes. The Royal Meteoi'ological Society had published,
almost at cost price (Is.), an amply illustrated pamphlet, ' Hints to
Observers,' which would show anyone what, and when, and how,
observations ought to be made.

2. Sea and river temperature. — For a few years there was
a Committee of the British Association studying river temperature ;
and Mr. Symons was sure that if their societies took up the
investigation, a fresh committee could be appointed, so that we
should not need to go to a German book to learn the details of the
temperature of the Thames. The work was easy, healthy, and

Xll PROCEEDINGS,

inexpensive. Easy, because it merely involves a walk to a bridge,
a jetty, or a pier-bead, the loweiing of the thermometer into the
water, entering the reading, and carrying it home again ; healthy,
from the regularity of the walk ; and inexpensive, because the
verified K.O. thermometer and its copper case, cord, and every-
thing, could be sent to any part of the country complete for
a sovereign.

3. Earth temperature at shallow and at great deptlis. — The second
half of this subject had often been brought before the delegates,
the Underground Temperature Committee being the oldest one of
the British Association. It deals chiefly with the temperature in
mines and in deep shafts and wells. Anyone who could obtain
good records at depths of, or exceeding, 1,000 feet, could do useful
work, but he was doubtful whether much more could be learned in
this country by observations at depths between 10 feet and 1,000 feet
than we already know. Observations at shallow depths — say
3 inches to 10 feet — were becoming less rare than formerly, and
the time was not distant when the law of temperature-variation
for shallow depths would be known with sufficient accuracy. That
much had yet to be ascertained, many persons learned by burst
waterpipes last winter. He mentioned this as an illustration of
the application of scientific records to the welfare of mankind, not
as an indication that he considered the mischief to have been
wholly produced by soil-temperature.

4. Phenological tvorJc. — He scarcely need tell them that the word
phenology means the laws of the life-history of plants and animals ;
in fact, an endeavour to record the progress of the seasons, not by
thermometers or by rain-gauges, but by plants, insects, and birds,
and the study of the relations between the indications of the
natural-history phenomena and those of the instruments, and
efforts to separate cause and effect. It had always seemed to
him to be a class of work peculiarly adapted for the local scientific
societies. The Royal Meteorological Society had spent a con-
siderable sum in promoting this work, and in the hands of Mr. E.
Mawley it was progressing. He was not competent to pronounce
any criticism upon the work beyond this, that Mr. Mawley had
devoted himself to it, and had produced tables and diagrams of
great interest. He thought that the naturalists should either co-
operate heartily with the meteorologists, or else should show that
the meteorologists are attempting the impossible or the undesirable.

5. Early meteorological records. — It was a prevalent idea
(especially with executors) that old manuscript books of observa-
tions are useless. Addressing the delegates as representatives of
large local bodies, many of them with museums and libraries, he
in\'ited them to see to it that any such records that they had were
properly cared for.

Another suggestion — the practice was fortunately rapidly
spreading of publishing the eaiiy parochial registers. If each
society represented would make it a rule to go through all such
publications as have been issued within its area, and print in

SESsroiJ 1895-96. xlii

chronological ordor all the notes on eartliquakes, storms, frosts,
floods, etc., Avhieli could be collected, ranch p;ood would be done.
Of coiu'se this could be done for unpublished as well as for
published records.

(). Jiecords of river and toell levels. — The second half of this
subject had so often been brought before them by Mr. De Ranee,
the Secretary of the Committee on Underground Waters, that he
need merely mention it.* The first part referred to a subject in-
volved in his next and last heading.

7. Records of foods and the placing of food-marls. — It was very
strange that we were so nearly the worst nation in Europe for
looking after our rivers. He did not refer to fouling by sewage
and by manufacturing refuse, or to defective engineering, but to
records of river-levels, to scale-marks on the bridges, to automatic
recorders of their rise and fall, to arrangements for warning the
owners of low-lying property when floods are probable, and to the
classification, levelling, and publication in full, of particulars as to
old flood-level marks, and the due marking of new ones when
floods occur. He did not suggest that their societies should them-
selves do all this, but that they should bring the matter before
theii- Parish and County Councils, and couple their request with
the off'er of any assistance in their power. Of course the suggestion
would be received politely, the great cost would be urged, and in
many cases nothing would be done. Years ago he suggested such
arrangements to an influential man in York, but nothing was done.
In 1892 York had a flood, not so bad as some on record, but one
which cost the Corporation a very large sum ; they paid it, and
that steed having been stolen they figuratively locked the stable
door by adopting all the arrangements suggested above. If the
Councils did not take their ad\-ice, they must remember that the
correspondence would be on their minutes, to be referred to when
theii' town or district suffered as York did.

Captain G. H. Elwes laid upon the table a paper on the rainfall
in Dorsetshire, compiled by Mr. H. S. Eaton, a member of the
Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club, from records
kept in the county for the last forty years. It was illustrated by
maps and diagrams, one of the maps showing the rainfall, the other
the elevation of the land. The Chairman said that Mr. Eaton's
work was an admirable example of the way in which the rainfall
of a county should be worked out, a labour requiring much patience
and perseverance. Ho wished they could have such memoirs for
every county. Your Delegate stated that about twenty years ago
he began to record the rainfall of Hertfordshii-e with about twenty
observers, and he had since done his best to add to their number,
with the result that there were now about forty. He had obtained
about thirty daily records, which were worked up and analyzed but
not published in detail. In the ' Transactions of the Hertfordshire
Natural History Society' much space was devoted to meteorological
work and to phenology, and he hoped that the Societies in other

XIV PEOCEEDINGS,

counties would work similarly at these subjects. He trusted also
that delegates would preserve any early meteorological records
which they might discover.

Some other subjects were then discussed. Mr. De Ranee
mentioned the fact that two Committees of the British Association
of which for many years he had been Secretary — that on Coast
Erosion and that on the Circulation of Underground Waters — had
just completed their labours in consequence of the admirable way
in which their work had been taken up by the Corresponding
Societies. Captain Elwes hoped that local societies might be
induced to co-operate for the discovery of flint implements and
the formulation of results. He wished that they would make this
branch of investigation a more special feature than it was at
present. And Mr. Osmund W. Jeffs, Secretary of the Committee
for the Collection and Preservation of Geological Photographs,
stated that the photographs collected would be placed in the
Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, about 800 photo-
graphs having already been deposited there. As, however, a great
many parts of the British Isles were still unrepresented, it was
proposed that they should go on collecting, and he hoped that the
delegates would mention this fact to their respective societies.

Second Confeeence.

The principal subjects brought before the second Conference were
as follows : — Meteorological Photography, Seismological Observa-
tions, Geological Photographs, the Teaching of Geography in
Schools, Anthropometric Measurements in Schools, and the Ethno-
graphical Survey of the United Kingdom.

Meteorological Photography. — Por information on the work of
this Committee reference should be made to our ' Transactions,'
Vol. VI, p. 162. It was stated at this Conference that the
Committee was then arranging to take synchronous photographs
of clouds in order to determine their altitude. The Committee
wished to receive photographs of lightning, rainbows, halos, etc.

Seismological Observations. — The Earth-tremors Committee and
that for investigating the Seismological Phenomena of Japan have
been merged into one with the title of " Committee for Seismo-
logical Observations." Mr. White Wallis said that it was hoped
that Professor Milne, who was particularly clever in designing
inexpensive apparatus, might be able to produce suitable apparatus
for taking seismological observations at a small cost, which might
be widely distributed over the country and be largely used by
members of local scientific societies. Observations could be taken
in towns, for the instruments were practically unaffected by passing
vibrations from railway -trains, etc., tremors of short duration not
being represented on them. Darwin's bifilar pendulum was some-
what expensive ; Professor Milne accomplished the same result in
a much simpler way, at a total cost of from £20 to £25.

Geological Photographs. — Since the work of this Committee was
brought before our Society (see 'Transactions,' Vol. VI, p. 136),

SESSION 1895-9G. xv

a new circular has been sent out containing instructions as to
the best kind of camera to use and the best methods of using it.
Mr. A. S. Roid said tliat the Committee had at one time thought
of bringing the work to a conclusion, but had lately felt that it
would not be judicious to do so. Mr. Sowcrbutts said that
platinotype photographs were the best to send, as those printed
by the bromide pi-ocess often faded very rapidly, while platinotype
prints would not. Your Delegate said that there would always be
a reason for the existence of the Geological Photographs Committee,
one of its chief objects being to obtain photographs of temporary
sections.

An interchange of geological photographs was advocated by
several delegates, and a discussion ensued on some practical
difficulties attending it, such as the burden likely to be laid on
the amateur photographer. Your Delegate suggested that arrange-
ments might be made at the Jormyn Street Museum for the photo-
graphs to be printed and distributed at a small fixed charge for
each size ; and Mr. Eeid inclined towards a plan brought under his
notice by Mr. Gray of Belfast. A photographer had there been
appointed who received the negatives taken by various members of
the local society and furnished as many copies as Avere desired at
a small charge, thus avoiding persecution of the amateur.

The Teaching of Geography in Schools. — At this meeting of the
Association a Committee was appointed to consider and report on
the position of geography in the educational system of the country.
Mr. Sowerbutts referred to the difficulties at present thrown in the
way of pupils who wish to become teachers of geography, marks
gained in that subject not counting except in certain cases. It
was probable that the Corresponding Societies might be asked to
furnish certain information. The Kev. J. 0. Bevan, having had
a large experience of secondary schools, considered the statement
which had been made at a former Conference that geography was
absolutely ignored in secondary schools to be absolutely erroneous,
though it was not taught in every primary school except in con-
nection with reading. Your Delegate said that geography was
taught in nearly all the schools with which he was acquainted, and
was well taught in those of the Church Schools Company.

Anthro2)ometric Measurements in Schools. — The Chairman, Dr. J. G.
Garson, said that many schools had been doing good work in
their own way, but unfortunately there had been no uniform
system, so that the results at one school could not be compared
with those at another. The Committee, after inquiring into the
various systems practised, had drawn up a scheme which he hoped
would prove acceptable to all the schools. It was of the highest
importance that some uniform system should be adopted. Professor
"Windle of Birmingham would be happy to send a schedule of the
various measurements required, and of the way in which they
should be made. Dr. Brett said that since the York meeting of
the British Association fifteen years ago it had been his custom as
a medical man to record the weight, height, colour of hair and

XVI PEOCEEDINGS,

eyes, etc., of chilcben in the schools he attended in Watford and
its neighbourhood. He had up to that time made about three
thousand observations, but had not as yet been able to put his
records into shape.

Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom. — Mr. Hartland
said that the Ethnographical Survey was a matter in which the
Corresponding Societies were especially capable of rendering assist-
ance ; indeed, without their aid it was impossible that the work
could be carried to a successful issue. The Committee drew up in
the early part of the year a circiilar to the local societies offering
them copies of the schedule ; hitherto, however, there had been
but little response from the local societies. The work of the
Ethnographical Survey had so many branches that one of them
could hardly fail to interest the more active members of the local
societies. He hoped to be able to report progress at the next
meeting, and would be glad, in the meantime, if the Corresponding
Societies would circulate the schedules and bring the Survey under
the notice of their members.

Dr. Garson drew attention to the great variety of the work
desired by the Ethnographical Survey Committee. Besides the
physical measurements required, and the colour of the hair, eyes,
etc., there was a wide field for the amateur photographer, for those
interested in folklore, linguistic differences, place-names, and
local varieties in tastes and habits. The Committee, he said, had
a certain number of instruments to place in the hands of those who
would undertake measurements. Your Delegate stated that he
had brought the work of this Committee before the Hertfordshire
Natural History Society, but had failed to get any members to
take it up. The questions asked were considered to be too inquisi-
torial, and the series of measurements, etc., required, too elaborate.
Possibly a simpler system, or a simpler scheme as an alternative,
might be found to answer better in practice, as more persons
or scientific societies might then be found willing to undertake
the work.

Mr. Hartland replied that, though they hoped in many cases to
get the elaborate measurements asked for, they were glad to obtain
such measurements and photographs as could be procured. He
was afraid that the elaboration of their schedule must have acted to
some extent as a deterrent, though it was drawn up to a standard
to which they hoped to attain, not as necessarily obligatory in
every case. Possibly, if this were understood, societies would
respond more warmly than they had done to their appeals for
help. He hoped that members who objected to take the elaborate
measurements would take up the subjects of dialect, folklore, or
historical or prehistoric monuments. They wanted information
on all these points.

Dr. Garson remarked that the work might usefully be divided
amongst various sub-committees ; if that were done all societies
could do good work in one department or another, if not in all.

The Rev. J. 0. Bevan hoped that each Delegate would take an

SESSioif 1895-90. xvii

early opportunity of reporting the proceedings at these Conferences
to the Society he represented, and the Chairman (Dr. Garson) said
that he helievcd it ^Yas generally understood to be the duty of each
Delegate to report their proceedings to his Society.

Appendix.

The following is a list of the Committees of the Eritish Associa-
tion to which assistance may be given by Provincial Scientific
Societies, with the names and addresses of their Secretaries : —

The Application of Phofouraphi/ to the Elucidation of Meteoro-
logical Fhenomena. — A. W. Ciayden, M.A., St. John's, Polsloe
Koad, Exeter.

SeismoJogical Observations. — Charles Davison, M.A., 373, Gillott
Road, Birmingham; and Professor John Milne, F.R.S., Shide, Isle
of Wight.

The Collection, Preservation, and Registration of Geological
Photographs.- — Osmund W. Jcifs, 92, ^yestbourne Street, Liverpool;
and W. W. Watts, M.xl., Geological Survey Office, Jermyn Street,
London, S.W.

Investigation and Preservation of the. Erratic Blocks of the British
Isles. — P. F. Kendall, Yorkshire College, Leeds.

The Teaching of Natural Science in Elementary Schools. — Professor
H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S., 55, Granville Park, Lewisham, London,
S.E.

The Position of Geography in the Educational System of the
Country. — A. J. Herbertson, University Hall, Edinburgh.

Anthropometric Measurements in Schools. — Professor Bertram
"Windle, B.Sc, Mason College, Birmingham.

Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom. — E. Sidney
Hartland, Highgarth, Gloucester.

Oedinaey Meeting, 2 1st Jantjahy, 1895, at "Watford.

Arthur Stradling, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the

Chair.

Mr. Cecil W. Lillcy was elected a Member of the Society.

The senior Secretary (Mr. Hopkinson) read a letter he had
received from Miss Seeljohm, on behalf of AI rs. Seebohm, thanking
the Society for the vote of condolence passed by the Council on the
death of the late President of the Society, Mr. Henry Seebohm.

The following papers were read : —

1. "Notes on the Characeae, with a List of Species from the
South Midlands." By James Saunders. {Transactions, Vol. IX,

Specimens and diagrams were exhibited by Mr. Saunders in
illustration of his paper.

2. "Notes on Birds observed last Spring at Montono and else-
where on the Continent." By T. Yaughan Roberts.

XVlll PROCEEDINGS,

The President stated that the Society would in a few days be
without a home, its Library and Collections having to be removed
from the Board Room of the Endowed Schools because that room
would be required for other purposes. The Library, he said, would
probably be warehoused in the old Local Board Room at the
Waterworks, where it would be practically inaccessible. He
brought the matter before the meeting in the hope that someone
present might be able to suggest a way out of the difficulty in
which the Society was now placed.

The senior Secretary mentioned that in two days the Society
would attain its majority, having been founded as the Watford
Natural History Society on the 23rd of January, 1875.

Mr. F. C. Mahon and Mr. G. P. Neele were elected Auditors of
the Accounts for the year 1895.

Anniveesaey Meeting, 25th February, 1896.

(At Watford.)

Arthur Stradiing, Esq., M.R.C.S., E.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.

The Report of the Council for the year 1895, and the Treasurer's
Account of Income and Expenditure, were read and adopted.

Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, F.R.S., F.L.S., Parkstone, Dorset,
was elected an Honorary Member of the Society.

Mr. Frederick William Rudler, F.G.S., M.A.I., Curator of the
Museum of Practical Geology, Jcrmyn Street, London, S.W., was
elected a Corresponding Member.

An Address was delivered on behalf of the President by Prince
Kropotkin, on "Mutual Aid amongst Animals." {Transactions,
Yol. IX, p. 1.)

The following gentlemen were duly elected as the officers and
Council for the ensuing year : —

Preside^it.—KxVavir Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

rice-Presidents.— ?voic^^or John Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.,
F.C.S., F.I.C. ; JohnMorison, M.D., D.P.H., F.G.S. ; T. Yaughan
Roberts ; George Rooper, F.Z.S.

Treasurer. — John Weall.

Honorary Secretaries. — John Hopkinson, F.L. S., F.G.S.,
F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soe. ; W. R. Carter, B.A.

Lihrarian. — Daniel Hill.

Curator.— K. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S.

Other Members. — ¥. M. Campbell, F.L S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S.,
F.E.S. ; Alan F. Crossman ; Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L.,
LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S., Y.P.S.A., etc.; H. George Fordham ;
Henry Lewis; Edward Mawley, Prcs. R. Met. Soc, F.R.H.S. ;

SESSION 1895-96. xix

William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S. ; Stephen Salter ; F. W.
Silvester ; the Rev. E. T. Yaus;hau, M.A, ; G. Herbert Wailes,
Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. ; Hemy Warner.

Tlic thanks of the Society were accorded to Sir John Evans,
K.C'.B., retirinii; fron^ the office of Vice-President; to Mr. F.
Maule Campbell, retiring from the office of Honorary Secretary;
to Air. W. R. Carter, retiring from the office of Librarian ; and to
Dr. A. T. Brett, retiring from the Council.

Report of the Council foe the Year 1895.

The presentation by the Council of the Hertfordshire Natural
History Society of the 21st Annual Report, is an event of some
importance. A scientific society which attains its majority, and
which has done as much good local work in its twenty-first year as
it did in the first year of its existence, will most probably live to
a good old age; and the more the members of the society have
devoted their energies to original local investigation, the moi'e
probable is it that a great long■e^'ity will be attained, for however
closely we may study Nature, we shall always find that she has
something new to tell us, her treasures being inexhaustible.

But such an event as this is not entirely a subject for congratu-
lation. Looking back for twenty-one years we miss many once-
familiar faces, and amongst them some of our most earnest and able
workers, whose place we have found it hard to fill up, and perhaps
in one or two cases impossible. Wlien Sir John Evans (then
Mr. Evans) took the chair as the first President of the Society,
on the 11th of February, 1875, our roll was 53 members: only
eight of these are now on our list. At that meeting 35 more
were elected : only eight of these are still with us. At the close
of that year the Society numbered 150: now, out of about 250
members, only 32 were on the first year's list.

It is also a matter for regret that there is no longer the general
enthusiasm which there was at first, when both our Ordinary and
Field Meetings were attended by a majority of our members, while
in recent years the average attendance has been about ten per cent.
This is, however, partly accounted for by the much wider area
over which the members are now spread.

During the year twelve ordinary members have been elected,
and one corresponding member ; one member has compounded for
her annual subscription ; nineteen members have resigned ; and
we have to regret the loss by death of three honorary members
(Professor Charles Cardale Babington, the Right Honourable
Thomas Henry Huxley, and our President, Mr. Henry Seebohm),
and of five ordinary members (Mrs. Ackworth of Potter's Bar,
Mrs. Robins of Watford, Mr. G. TJpton Robins of Wheathampstead,
Mr. Isaac Robinson of Hertford, and the Right Honourable the
Earl of Verulam).

XX PROCEEDINGS,

The census of the Society at the end of the years 1894 and 1895
was as follows : —

1894. 1893.

Honorary Members 20 17

Corresponding Members 1 2

Life Members 50 51

Annual Subscribers 193 180

264 250

It is seldom that the scientific world has lost in a single
year three men of such renown as Babington, Huxley, and
Henry Seebohm, a very brief notice of each of whom must now
be given.

When Professor Babington, in 1835, commenced the prepai'ation
of his 'Manual of British Botany,' the labours of Continental
botanists were ignored in this country, no attempt having been
made to bring into haimony the nomenclature followed on each side
the English Channel ; but with the appearance of the first edition
of the ' Manual ' a new era commenced, and with each successive
edition (eight in all, from 1843 to 1881) the work of British and
Foreign botanists was brought more and more into unison. The
critical examination, also, of living plants rather than of herbarium
specimens convinced Babington that the plants themselves must
afford the characters for the definition of species — that we must
not define a species arbitrarily and then attempt to place under it
a number of slightly-differing plants — and this conclusion led him
to raise to specific rank many forms which were then generally
considered only to be varieties. The author of the ' Flora of
Hertfordshire, ' published by this Society, was a follower of
Babington, working in the field with his 'Manual,' but Pryor was
a pupil who went beyond his master, especially in his adoption and
practical application of the views of the most advanced foreign
botanists. Babington was born in 1 808 (at LutUow) ; his first
scientific paper appeared in 1832, and was entomological; he was
also an ardent archgeologist ; but since 1843 his books and papers
have been almost entirely botanical. He was elected Professor of
Botany at Cambridge University in 1861.

The death of Professor Huxley is a loss to literature as well as
to science, for the lucidity of his exposition of scientific facts and
theories, and the vigour of his style, will make his works take
a high rank amongst the classics of science. He was the first
Dean of the Koyal College of Science, and for more than forty
years was connected with the Science and Art Department, having
succeeded Edward Forbes in 1854 as Lecturer on Natural History
in the Central School of Science, which has been metamorphosed
through the Boyal School of Mines into the Royal College of
Science. Essentially a biologist and pala3ontologist, Professor
Huxley also devoted much attention to the higher problems of
philosophical speculation, and by his popular exposition of the
theories of Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer, he has done more
than any other man to convince those who have not studied the

sKssioN 1895-96. xxi

works of these two writers that natural selection is the chief factor
in the origin of species.

Our late President, Mr. Henry Seebohm, was the founder of the
firm of Seebohm & Dickstall, steel manufacturers, of Sheffield. He
was a high authority on steel, a great traveller and geographer,
being one of the Secretaries of the Royal Geographical Society, and
the foremost ornithologist of the day. To these acquirements he
added that of being a splendid lecturer, as those of our members
who heard his lectures before this Society on the "Migration of
Birds" and on "Siberia" will bear witness. He bequeathed to
the British Museum his collection of birds, numbering nearly
seventy thousand specimens, of which Sir W. H. Flower, Director
of the IMuseum, says that " in extent and scientific value it is one
of the most important that the British Museum has ever received."
As a tribute of respect, the December meeting of the Society, being
the first after his death, was adjourned after the formal business
had been transacted.

Of the ordinary members whom we have lost by death it must
sufiice to say that Mr. Isaac Robinson was a contributor to our
' Transactions ' ; that Mr. Upton Robins more than once enter-
tained the Society at his residence, Delaport, Wheathampstead ;
and that to the kindness of the Earl of Verulam we owe many
a pleasant ramble in Grorhambury Park and the woods around it,
with one visit to Gorhambury House, when he and other members
of his family showed to the members of the Society his valuable
collection of paintings and antiquities, etc., and pointed out their
historical and other features of interest.

The following papers or lectures have been read or delivered at
Watford during the year : —

Jan. 29. The Relative Advantages of Hard and Soft Water, with Special
Reference to the Supply of AVatford ; by John Hopkinson,
F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

On the Advantages of a Supply of Soft Water for the Town of

Watford; by Arthur King, M.B.
Feb. 26. Anniversary Address — The Stone Age in Hertfordshire ; by

Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc. D.,

Treas. R.S., V.P.S.A., etc., Vice-President of the Society.
March 26. Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the year 1894 ; by

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met Soc.

The Floods of November, 1894, in Hertfordshire ; by John

Hopkinson.

Notes on liirds observed in Hertfordshire during the year 1894 ;

by Henry Lewis.

Notes on Birds frequenting the Neighbourhood of Heronsgate,

Herts; by A. Sainsbury Verey, M.B.O.U.
April 23. Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the year
1894 ; by John Hopkinson, F.L.S. , F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St. Albans,

during the year 1894 ; by John Hopkinson.

The Gale of the 24th of March, 1895, in Hertfordshire ; by

John Hopkinson.

Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertfordshire

during the year 1894 ; by Edward Mawley, F.R.Met. Soc,
F.R.H.S.

XXll PEOCEEDINGS,

April 23. Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire during the year
1894 ; by A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S.

The Blastopore of the Frog's Egg in Relation to the Hypoblast ;

by J. B. Russell, B. Sc.

Nov. 19. Parasitic Fungi : their Modes of Attack, and the Means of
Prevention ; by George Massee, F.L.S., F.R.M.S.

Dec. 12. Report on the Conferences of Delegates to the British Associa-
tion at Ipswich in 1895 ; by John Hopkinson, F.L.S.,
F.G.S.

The following lectures were delivered at St. Albans : —

March 22. Extinct Monsters; by the Rev. Henry N. Hutchinson, B.A.,

F.G.S.
Oct. 23. Charles Darwin : his Life and Work ; by H. W. S. "Worsley-

Benison, F.L.S.

The following Field Meetings were held during the year : —

May 11. — Tewin, Marden Hill, and Panshanger.

June 8.— Berkhanisted, Great Gaddesden, and Nettleden.

15. — Chiltern Green and Luton Hoo Park.

22. — Dunstable and Totternhoe.

Oct. 19.— The Grove Park and Woods, Watford.

A visit was also made to the British Museum (Natural History)
on the 27th of April, when Mr. Arthur Stradling gave a demon-
stration in the Osteological Gallery on " Skulls and Skeletons."

The thanks of the Society are due to the Earl of Limerick for
permission to visit his private grounds at Tewin Water, and for
hospitality kindly afforded to the members ; to Monsieur De Falbe
for allowing Luton Hoo Park to be visited ; to the Earl of Clarendon
for his permission for the annual fungus foray to be held in Grove
Park and the adjoining woods ; and also to Sir John Evans for
delivering the anniversary address in the absence of the President.

Pour parts of the eighth volume of the present series of the
Society's ' Transactions,' containing 136 pages and four plates,
have been published, and the volume will be completed in three
more parts, one of which has already been printed and will be
issued in a few days.

The financial position of the Society is satisfactory, the income
and expenditure being about the same. While it is due to the
members to spend the whole of their subscriptions for their benefit,
there are other sources of income, and in view of the fact that out
of the £255 received from the present life members only £130 are
invested, it would be advisable to spend no more than the annual
subscriptions, and to invest all other receipts until the Society's
indebtedness to the life members is covered by its invested funds.
And this could well be done without ciirtailing the expenditure if
all the members paid their subscriptions within the year for which
they are dae, or if the number of annual subscribers were con-
siderably increased.

Near the end of the year the Society had notice from the
Governors of the Watford Endowed Schools to remove its Library.
Your Secretary at once endeavoured to find suitable quarters else-
where in Watford, but without success, and the Council then

st:ssion 1895-9G. xxiii

appointed a Committee of members resident in Watford to find
a room in which to phiee the Society's library, and, if possible,
one contiguous to it in which to hold our meeting's. The result
of the labours of this Conuuittee has been to ascertain that Watford
does not possess a building in which the Society can hold meetings
and also place its bookcases, which is certainly not a creditable
position for the largest town in Hertfordshire to be in. The Com-
mittee eventually accepted the courteous offer of the Watford
Urban District Council to place at the disposal of the Society for
the temporary warehousing of its library, free of charge except for
actual expenses, the old Local Board lioom at the Waterworks, and
the books and bookcases have recently been removed there. For
the satisfactory carrying-out of this arrangement, which the Council
considers to be the best that could have been made under the
circumstances, the Society is indebted to Mr. Daniel Hill, under
whose charge the books are now placed, and who will be pleased
to lend out any to members on application to him, the borrowers
defi'aying the expense of caniage.

The Society has taken an active part during the year in two
important questions — the suggested softening of the water supplied
to Watford, the papers read at the January meeting by Dr. King
and Mr. Hopkinson being merely preliminary to a discussion on the
subject ; and the protection of certain birds which seem likely to
become extinct in Hertfordshire, and of their eggs. The only
official act which the late Mr. Henry Seebohm did for the Society
during the short period of his presidency was signing a Memorial
presented by the Society to the Hertfordshire County Council in
favour of the protection of certain wild birds which are seriously
diminishing in number and are in danger of extermination, and of
their eggs, only birds of peculiar interest or of benefit to man being
sought to be specially protected ; the Memorial also recommended
that the close time should not commence later than the 15 th of
February. The Memorial was refciTed to a sub-committee of the
County Council, and has resulted in an order being made by the
Home Secretary (dated 7th February, 1896) " varying the close-
time, adding certain birds to the schedule of the Act of 1880, and
prohibiting the taking or destroying the eggs of certain wild
birds." All the birds specified in the Memorial of this Society
are thus protected, and a few others have been added. The
Memorial and the Order of the Home Secretary are appended to
this Report.

Appendix A. The Memoktai.

TO THE HERTFORDSHIRE COUNTY COUNCIL.

The Memorial of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club.

Humbly sheweth —

Your Memorialists beg respectfully to represent to the Hertfordshire County
Council as follows : —

XXIV PROCEEDINGS,

I. — That the following; wild birds are seriously diminishing in number and are
in danger of extermination, viz. : —

Kightjar, Stone Curlew, Honey Buzzard,

Woodpeckers, Grebes, Hobby,

Kingfisher, Crossbill, Merlin,

Owls, Buzzard, Kestrel.

II. — That all these birds, except the Kingfisher, the Grebes, and the Crossbill,
feed on animals (chiefly insects and the smaller Mammalia) injiu'ious to agri-
culture or fruit crops, and are therefore beneficial to man.

III. — That the Kingfisher and the Large Crested Grebe are killed for the sake
of their plumage, and therefore require special protection, the latter having
become so scarce that it now only breeds in the County on the Tring Eeservoirs.

lY. — That the Crossbill is one of the most interesting birds in the British
Fauna, its beak being rmique in form and structure, and although it seldom
breeds in Britain, it is recorded to have bred in Hertfordshire, and there is reason
to believe that it may again do so if unmolested.

v. — That although the killing or taking of the Nightjar, Woodpeckers, King-
fisher, Owls, Stone Curlew, and Grebes, between the 1st of March and the 1st
of August is penalized by the "AYild Birds Protection Act of 1880," and this
period has been altered in the County of Hertford to begin on the 1st of February
and end on the 31st of August, yet the preservation of these birds, as well as
of the others named, cannot be secured so long as their eggs can be taken or
destroyed ■with impunity.

VI. — That as scarcely any birds breed in Hertfordshire before the middle of
Febi'uary, the object sought by the extension of the close -time would be
sufiiciently well attained if it were to commence on the 15th of February instead
of on the 1st.

Your Memorialists therefore pray—

1st. — That you will, in accordance with the "Wild Birds Protection Act
of 1894,"

(rt) Apply to a Secretary of State to prohibit in the County of Hertford
the taking or destroying of the eggs of all the above-named birds.

(b) Represent to a Secretary of State the desirability of applpng the
principle of the "Wild Birds Protection Act of 1880" to the Crossbill,
Buzzard, Honey Buzzard, Hobby, Merlin, and Kestrel.
2nd. — That should you reduce the duration of the close-time, it be not made
to commence later than the 15th of February.

And your Memorialists will ever pray, etc.

Signed on behalf of the \ Henry Seebohm,
Hertfordshire Natural I President.

History Society and /• F. M. Campbell,
Field Club, 23rd April, j John Hopkinson,
1895. / Honorary Secretaries.

Appendix B. The Order.

HERTFORDSHIRE COUNTY COUNCIL.

"Wild Birds Protection Act, 1880."
"Wild Birds Protection Act, 1894."

Order of Home Secretary, («) varying the Close Time, {h) adding certain Birds
to the Schedule of the Act of 1880, and {c) prohibiting the taking or
destroying the Eggs of certain Wild Birds.
In pursuance of the powers conferred on me by the ' ' Wild Birds Protection

Act, 1880," and the " Wild Birds Protection Act, 1894," and upon application

SESSION 1895-96.

XXV

by the County Council of the Administrative County of Hertford, I hereby make
the followinc: Order : —

1. The time durinio^ which the killino; or taking of Wild Birds is proliiI)ited
shall be varied tln-oughout the County of Hertford, so as to be from the 1 5th day
of February to the loth day of August in each year.

2. The "Wild Birds rrotection Act, 1880," shall apply within so much of
the County of Hertford as is within the Metropolitan Police District to the
following species of Wild Birds in the same manner as if those species were
included in the Schedule to the Act : —

Shrikes, f^'}^' (2), ^^^^^^^^

^r^rel, Bearded Tit, ^^^^^^ ^''''^'^'

^^i-yneck, ,, ,. ' Osprey,

Swallow, ^'■^^:^ Magpie.

3. The taking or destroying of the eggs of the following species of Wild Birds
is prohibited within so much of the County of Hertford as is within the Metro-
politan Police District : —

Nightingale,

Goldfinch,

Lark,

Nightjar,

Woodpeckers,

Kingfisher,

Cuckoo,

Owls,

Shrikes,

Kestrel,

Wryneck,

Swallow,

Martins (2),

Swift,

Bearded Tit,

Merlin,
Hobby,
Buzzard,
Honey Buzzard,
Osprey,
Magpie,
Wheatear,
Stonechat,
Whinchat,
Redstart,
Flycatchers (2),
Sedge Warbler,
Reed Warbler,
Blackcap,
Garden Warbler,
Wood Warbler,

Willow Warbler,

Chiffchaff,

Whitethroat,

Lesser Whitethroat,

Longtailed Tit,

Nuthatch,

Wren,

Golden-crested Wren,

Wagtails (4),

Hawfinch,

Liuuet,

Buutiugs (3),

Starling,

Landrail or Corncrake,

Coot.

4. The taking or destroying of the eggs of the following species of Wild Birds

is prohibited within so much of the County of Hertford as is not within the

Metropolitan Police District : —

Nightjar, p r-,.

Woodpeckers, t. j '

f • c 1, Buzzard,

Kmgnsher, tt t^ j

r, i" Honey Buzzard,

' H blv

Stone Curlew, -.f ,-

Grebes Merhn,

^^^^''^' Kestrel.
Heron,

Nightingale,

Goldfinch,

Hawfinch,

Wr)'neck,

Tree Creeper,

Nuthatch,

5. The "Wild Birds Protection Act, 1880," shall apply within so much of
the County of Hertford as is not within the Metropolitan Police District to the
following species of Wild Birds in the same manner as if those species were
included in the Schedule to the Act : —

Hawfinch,

Heron,

Hobby,

Wryneck,

Crossbill,

Merlin,

Tree Creeper,

Buzzard,

Kestrel.

Nuthatch,

Honey Buzzard,

, Given under my hand at Whitehall, this .5th day of February, 1896.

(Signed) M. W. RIDLEY.

VOL. IX. — PART VII.

XX\'l

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SESSION 1895-9G. xxvii

Additions to the Library in 1895
Pkesented.

Title.

British Association for the Advancement of Science :
Report for 1893. 8vo. Londoii, 1894.

. Report for 1894. 8vo. Loudon, 1895.

Marine Biological Association of the United King-
dom. Joiu-ual. 1887-88, and New Series, Vols, i-iii
(1889-92). 8vo. Plymouth.

Ormekod, Eleanor A. Report on Observations of
Injurious Insects and Common Farm Pests duriug the
year 1894. 18th Report. 8vo. Loudon, 1895.

WheVell, Dr. William. The Pleurality of Worlds.
8vo. Loudou, 1854.

Donor.

The Association.

Sir John Evans.

The Authoress.
Mr. J. Hopkinson.

Eeceived in Exchange.

Americw Museum of Natural History. Bulletin. Vol. vi. Svo. New

York, 1894.
B1RMINGH.A.M Natural History and Philosophical Society. Journal.

Vol. i, Nos. 2-7. Svo. Birmingham, 1894.
Boston (U.S.A.) Society of Natural History. Proceedings. Vol. xxvi,

parts 2, 3. Svo. Boston, 1894.
Brighton and Sussex Natural History and Philosophical Society.

Report 1893-94. Svo. Brighton, 1894.
CoNCHOLOGY, JouRNAL OF. Vol. vii, Nos. 9-12. 8vo. Leeds, 1894.
Edinburgh. Royal Physical Society. Proceedings. Session 1893-94.

Svo. Edinburgh, 1894.
Liverpool Geological Society. Proceedings. Vol. vii, part 2. Svo.

Liverpool, 1894.
London, Geological Society of. Abstracts of the Proceedings. Session

1894-95. Svo. London, 1895.
. Geologists' Association. Proceedings. Vol. xiv, parts 3-5.

Svo. London, 1895.

QuEKETT Microscopical Club. Journal. Series 2, vol. vi,

Nos. 36, 37. Svo. London, 1895.

Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal. Vol. xxi.

Svo. London, 1895.

The Meteorological Record. Vol. xiv, Nos. 54-56.

Vol. XV, Nos. 57, 58. Svo. London [1895].

Royal Microscopical Society. Journal. New Series. [Vol. vii.]

Svo. London, 1895.
Manchester Geographical Society. Journal. Vol. ix, Nos. 10-12. Vol. x,

Nos. 1, 2. Svo. Manchester, 1895.
Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. xxiii, parts 3, 4.

Vol. xxiv, parts 1, 2. Svo. Manchester, 1895.

Literary and Philosophic.a.l Society. Memoirs and Proceedings.

Series 4, vol. viii. No. 4. Vol. ix, Nos. 1-5. Svo. Manchester, 1894-95.
Microscopical Society. Transactions and Report for 1894. Svo.

Manchester, 1895.
Microscopy and Natural Science, International Journal of. Series 3,

vol. V, Nos. 25, 26. Svo. Bath, 1895.
New York Academy of Sciences. Transactions, 1893-94. Vol. xiii. Svo.

New York, 1894.

State Library. Bulletin, January, 1895. Svo. Albany, 1895.

. Additions, No. 2. November, 1894 (Subject- Index of

Law Additions). Svo. Albany, 1895.

Bibliography. No. i. May, 1895 (Guide to the Study

of J. A. M. Whistler, by Forsyth and Harrison). Svo. Albany, 1895.

XXVlll PEOCEEEINGS,

Northamptonshire Natural History Society and Field Club. Journal.

Vol. vii, Nos. 57-60. 8vo. Nortbanipton, 1894.
EuGBY School Natural History Society. Eeport for the year 1894. 8vo.

Rugby, 1895.
Somersetshire Arch^ological and Natural History Society. Pro-
ceedings, 1894. Vol. XX. 8vo. Taunton, 1894.
Trinidad Field Naturalists' Club. Eeport. Vol. ii, Nos. 5-11. Svo.

Port of Spain. 1895.
United States Department of Agriculture. The Common Crow of the

United States. By Barrows and Schwarz. 8yo. Washington, 1894.
Fish Commission. Bulletin. Vol. xii (for 1892). 4to. Washington,

1894.
Upsala, University op. Geological Institution. Bulletin. Vol. i. Vol. ii,

parts 1-3. Svo. Upsala, 1892-95.
Wiltshire Arch.'eological and Natural History Society. Catalogue of

the Library. Svo. Devizes, 1894. ,

. Magazine. Vol. xxviii, Nos. 82-84. Svo. Devizes, 1894.

. Abstracts of Inquisitiones Post Mortem. Parts 2, 3. Svo. Devizes,

1894.
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences. Transactions. Vol. ix, parts 1, 2. Svo.

Madison, 1893.
Yorkshire Naturalists' Union. Naturalist. New Series. Vol. xx. Svo.

London, 1895.

PUHCHASED.

Botany, Journal OF. Vol. xxxiii. Svo. London, 1895.

British Eainfall for 1879, 1884-7, 1889, 1890. Svo. London, 1S80-91.

Entomologist. Vol. xxviii. 8vo. London, 1895.

Entomologists' Eecord. Vol. vi. Svo. London, 1895.

Middlesex and Hertfordshire Notes and Queries. Vol. i. Svo.

London, 1895.
Natural History, The Eoyal. Nos. 15-25. Svo, London, 1895.
Nature Notes. Vol. vi. (Selborne Society.) Svo. London, 1895.
Novitates Zoologic.e. Vol. ii. 4to. Tring, 1895.
Zoologist. 3rd Series. Vol. xix. Svo. London, 1S95.

Okdinaey Meeting, 17th Maech, 1896, at "Watford.

George Eooper, Esq., P.Z.S., Yice-President, in the Chair.

Letters were read from Dr. Alfred Russel "Wallace thanking the
Society for his election as an Honorary Member, and from Mr. F. "W.
Rudler thanking the Society for his election as a Corresponding
Member.

The following papers were read : —

1. " Hertfordshire Rainfall, Percolation, and Evaporation." By
John Hopkinson, E.L.S., F.G.S., F.R. Met. Soc. {Transactions,
Vol. IX, p. 33.)

2. " Notes on Lcpidoptera observed in Hertfordshire during the
year 1895." By A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S. {Transactions,
Vol. IX, p. 27.)

3. " Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year
1895." By Alan F. Grossman, F.L.S. {Transactions, Vol. IX,
p. 73.)

SKSsroN 1895-96. xxix

Mr. S. H. Spencer, jun., exhibited two cases of moths, beinj^
specimens collected by him which were referred to in the Report
of Mr. Gibbs.

Living- specimens of Selix arlusforum, a snail found in abundance
in Folly Lane, St. Albans, by Mr, 11. T. Andrews, of Hertford,
-were exhibited on his behalf by Mr. A. E. Gibbs.

Okdinakt Meeting, 21st April, 1896, at Watford.

John Hopkinson, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.. Honorary Secretary,
in the Chair.

The Eight Honourable the Earl of Verulam, Sopwell, St. Albans,
■was proposed for membership of the Society.

The following papers were read : —

1 . " Eeport on Phonological Phenomena observed in Hertfordshire
during the year 1895." By Edward Mawley, Pres. E. Met. Soc.,
F.E.H.S. (Transactions, Vol. IX, p. 97.)

2. " List of Mosses collected in the jSTcighbourhood of Hertford."
By Hugh Darton. (Communicated, with an Introduction, by
James Saunders.) {Transactions, Vol. IX, p. 104.)

3. " On some Overlooked Eecords of Hertfordshire Plants." By
B. Daydon Jackson, Sec. L.S. {Transactions, Vol. IX, p. 121.)

4. "Xotes of the Observation of Swallows." By A. Sainsbury
Verey, M.B.O.II. {Transactions, Vol. IX, p. 126.)

The following letter from Mr. AKred F. Buxton, of Easneye,
Ware, to the senior Secretary, was read : —

" Is the mechanism known by which a diving-duck keeps under
■water, apart from his swdmming powers ? I have fi'equently
observed that wild ducks and dabchicks, two or three seconds
before making the plunge, seem to sink in the water a quarter or
half an inch without any other apparent motion. It also appears
to me, but this is difficult of observation and therefore uncertain,
that in coming up to the surface they do not use feet, tail, or wings,
but merely float upwards. I should be very glad to know about
these two points."

The following papers were taken as read : —

1. "Meteorological Obsei-vations taken at The Grange, St. Albans,
during the year 1895." By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S. ,
F.E.Met. Soc. {Transactions, Vol. IX, p. 85.)

2. " Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the
year 1895." By John Hopkinson. {Transactions, Vol. IX, p. 93.)

3. " Eeport on the Eainfall in Hertfordshire in the year 1895."-
By John Hopkinson. {Transactions, Vol. IX, p. 109.)

XXX

FiELB Meeting, 25th April, 1896.
ALDBURT AND ASHRIDGE PARK.

The locality chosen for the first Field Meeting of the year has
frequently been yisited by the Society, bnt there is no more
attractive spot in Hertfordshire, the neighbourhood of Aldbury
being of interest to the botanist, the geologist, and the antiquary,
and also exceedingly picturesque. This meeting was under the
direction of Mr. Alan F. Grossman, and was attended by upwards
of thirty members, most of whom were from !St. Albans, while
"Watford, Berkhamsted, and Ware each furnished a small con-
tingent.

Assembling at Tring Station, the quaint little village of Aldbury
was soon reached, and the stocks and whipping-post which stand
by the side of the village pond brought to mind the primitive but
inexpensive and effective punishments of olden times, of which the
pictm^esque timbered houses are also relics well worth the attention
of artist or photographer.

A steep ascent up the wooded hill on the right brought the
party to the Monument, erected " In honour of Francis, third
Duke of Bridgewater, ' Father of Inland Navigation,' 1832." The
entrance to the steps up the interior of this monument is kept
carefully locked up, and although the requisite order had been
obtained, the cottage near where a key is kept and gingerbeer
may usually be obtained, was found to be deserted at the time,
and a key had to be procured elsewhere, causing a considerable
delay. The time, however, was very pleasantly spent in a ramble
in the neighbouring woods in search of wild flowers ; but there
was little found besides bluebells and primroses, both of which
were flowering in profusion, the contrast between their bright and
delicate colours giving quite a gay appearance to the green carpet
of vegetation from which they sprang.

The Monument, which is 200 feet high, was then ascended, and
a splendid view was obtained from its summit. St. Albans, with
its Abbey, twelve miles to the south-east, was distinctly seen, with
the range of hills beyond which mark the outcrop of the London
Clay over the Chalk. But the greatest interest of the view is
towards the north and north-west, and is due to the geological
features of the country, which were pointed out by Mr. Hopkinson.
Immediately below is the beautifully-wooded valley in which
Aldbury is situated, and which has been cut out of the Lower
Chalk by a stream which now seldom flows ; beyond is the true
escaipment of the Lower Chalk, with the Totternhoe Stone forming
a projecting ridge, and passing into the Upper Greensand ; in the
middle distance is the Gault, forming the fertile Vale of Aylesbury,
and rising into hills here and there; and the higher hills in the
extreme distance mark the outcrop of the Lower Greensand. Just
this side of Cheddingtoa Station an outlier of the Lower Challc
forms a terraced hill called AVest End Hill, showing that the Chalk
once extended much beyond its present limits, a mass of vast

SESSION 1895-96. xxxi

tliickncss and great extent having been removed by subaerial
denudation. One of the Tring Keservoirs, the feeders of the
(Jraiid Junction Canal, was distinctly seen. The River Thame,
a tributary of the higher waters of the Thames, also takes its rise
amongst these reservoirs, or from spiings which feed them.

Descending the hill to Aldbury, tea was partaken of at the
"Greyhound," which has changed hands since it was last visited
by the Society, with the result that prices have gone up a little,
but this is only what may be expected when a pretty and
interesting spot gets to be better known and more frequently
visited.

On the way back to Tring Station a detour was made on to the
slopes of Aldbury Owers, and the pasque-flower. Anemone pulsatilla,
or Pulsatilla vulgaris as it is now more correctly but less elegantly
called, was found to be in full flower. This pretty little plant
only occui's on chalk downs, and nowhere else in Hertfordshire
except on the Barton Hills. It was in order to see this plant in
flower that this meeting was arranged to be so early in the year.

Field Meeting, 9th May, 1896.
KEW GARDENS.

A rather larger party than that which visited Aldbury, chiefly
consisting of members from Watford and St. Albans, assembled at
the principal entrance to Kew Gardens at about half-past three,
most of the number having come via Willesden to Kew Bridge
Station, crossing the Thames by the pictui'esque stone bridge which
is soon to be replaced by one of iron.

The highly-heated glass houses devoted to the culture of tropical
ferns, orchids, and cactuses were flrst visited, but in going through
them the party became divided, and the following only refers to
the small section of members with whom the writer wandered
through the gardens.

In the Rock Gardens "we" were met by the Director, Mr.
Thistleton Dyer, and although he could only spare a short time
with us, this very interesting part of the Garclens was rendered
still more interesting by his presence and remarks. The plants are
chiefly Alpine, and include various species of dwarf Phlox, such
as subulata and its varieties, of Aubrieta, Lithospermum, Geicm,
Ahjssum, Trillium, Ranunculus, and Primula, including the little
Japanese variety, and many other early-flowering plants then just
in perfection, making the scene a gay one. In the water-lily
house the large blue and white blossoms of the lilies were seen
floating on the siu-face of the water. The great palm-house and
other glass houses were also visited.

Some time was then spent in the Museums, the Museum of
Economic Botany being specially interesting. Straw-plaiting is
here illustrated by specimens from Hertfordshire. The " ]S'orth "
(xallery also proved very attractive. Miss North's beautiful paintings

XXXll PKOCEEDINGS,

of flowers and floral scenes in various parts of the world, including
the rich floral region of the tropics, heing much admired.

Tea was then partaken of at the refreshment-rooms near the
Temperate House, the hot afternoon making the rest in a shady
spot very welcome.

The remainder of the afternoon was spent in the open gardens,
which are very beautiful at this season of the year, the wealth of
blossoms which will appear later being compensated for by the young
green foliage now decking the trees and shrubs. By the side of
the main avenue were seen the beds of late tulips in various shades
of red, yellow, and white, including the curious paiTot-tulip, but the
earlier spring bulbous plants had ceased flowering, and the bulbs
were ripening in the beds preparatory to being removed to make
room for summer flowers. Rhododendrons of various species were
coming into flower, and magnolias were also in bloom, and amongst
the rhododendrons were seen the young lilies which of late have
attained to such perfection in these gardens.

The meeting was under the direction of Mr. Daniel Hill, the
Librarian of the Society.

Field Meeting, 13th May, 1896.
HATFIELD PARK.

The announcement that the Marquis of Salisbury had kindly
granted permission for Hatfield House to be visited on this occasion
attracted a large number of members and their friends, the party,
which assembled at the principal entrance to Hatfield Park at
about three o'clock, under the direction of Mr. Hopkinson, num-
bering upwards of seventy.

On lea-sdng Hatfield Station the Park was entered by the great
gates, erected not many years ago when this much more convenient
approach to the mansion than the old one through the town was
laid out, and the bridge over the main road which it necessitated
was built. Instead of a descent to this road and then a steep
ascent to the Church, up a narrow street, the mansion is now
approached by a broad carriage-road half a mile in length with but
a slight ascent, gracefully winding up towards the northern fagade.

Hatfield House is one of the most perfect specimens yet re-
maining of a great Elizabethan mansion. Although erected after
the virgin Queen had ceased to reign, it is in the architectxu'al
style which attained its chief perfection dui'ing her lifetime, and
therefore goes by her name ; and amongst the stately homes of
England there are not many which equal, and there are very few
which excel in interest this historic dwelling of the illustrious
family of Cecil, now worthily represented by our present Prime
IMinister, who finds in the pursuit of Science a salutary relief from
the arduous and onerous duties of his office.

The Bishop's Palace at Hatfield was a Royal residence in the
sixteenth century, but just at the close of this period James the

SESSION 1895-96. xxxili

First exchanged it, witli the Manor of Hatfield, for Theobalds, the
Hortfordsliire mansion of Sir llobert Cecil. The Palace of Bishops
and Kings was not, however, good enough for Sir Robert, and ho
pulled most of it down in the year 1607, and completed the
building of a new mansion in 1611, at a cost, including the chapel,
of a little more than £9,000. ^or was the park in which the
house was situated large enough for him, so he enclosed two parks,
Hattield and Milwards. The whole of the present structure was
not then erected, the west wing having been built so recently
as 18o5.

The house is in the form of a parallelogram, 280 feet long and
70 feet wide, with a wing at either end 100 feet long and 80 feet
wide, a clock-tower 70 feet high in the centre of the main building,
and turrets at the four projecting corners of the two wings.

Ascending the steps in fi-ont of the clock-tower the Marble Hall
was entered. Here are pictures of Queen Mary, of Queen Elizabeth,
and of Mary Queen of Scots, etc., and fine Gobelins tapestry
representing the Garden of the Hesperides. Passing through the
Cloisters, used as an armoury, the Chapel was entered, and its
windows of Flemish glass attracted attention. Above the Cloisters
runs the Long Gallery or Winter Drawing Room, 160 feet long
and 20 feet wide. In the Library, which was next entered, are
the valuable historic manuscripts known as the Cecil Papers, com-
prising some 13,0(10 letters from the reign of Henry the Eighth to
that of James the First. King James' Drawing Room is quite
a museum of curiosities of much historic interest but far too
numerous to mention, and with many historic paintings, with
which, indeed, Hatfield House abounds. The room of most interest
to a scientific society was not seen. This is Lord Salisbury's
laboratory, his "den" as he calls it. Here are the physical,
chemical, and photographic apparatus with which his Lordship
works at practical science, and it was here that he planned the
electric lighting of the house by means of the water-power of the
River Lea, which flows through his park, and also the present
water-supply of Hatfield. Lord Salisbury's clear elucidation of
what is known of the laws and what we still have to learn of the
mysteries of science in his Address as President of the British
Association at Oxford in 1894, which came as a surprise to many
of his hearers, is thus seen to have been in great part derived from
practical knowledge of the physics of Nature.

After inspecting the gardens and ornamental grounds, the old oak-
tree under which it is said that Elizabeth was sitting when she
was informed that she was Queen of England, was visited, and
then the members proceeded to the " Vineyard," to view which
Lord Salisbury had granted a special permit, which is a privilege
now seldom allowed, and his Lordship's kindness was greatly
appreciated. Here Sir Robert Cecil endeavoured to introduce the
cultivation of the grape, and it is said that he planted about 20,000
vines, but the experiment was not a successful one. The principal
features of the Vineyard are now the avenues of clipped and

XXXIV PEOCEEDINGS,

trained yews upon tlie terraces, and the beautifully-kept lawn
which extends down to the bank of the Eiver Lea.

Before leaving the Park by the town entrance the portion of
the old Bishop's Palace, now converted into stables, was inspected ;
and the thanks of the members were expressed to the Marquis
of Salisbury for the privileges he had granted to the Society on
this and former occasions, and to the Director of the meeting
for obtaining these privileges from his Lordship, and successfully
carrying out the arrangements for the most popular and one of
the most enjoyable field meetings which the Society had held for
many years.

Field Meeting, 23rd Mat, 1896.
COLNET HEATH AND NORTH MIMMS PARK.

This is the first field meeting in which the bicycle was brought
into requisition to any considerable extent. Nearly all the members
who attended were from St. Albans, and twenty-five went by train
to Smallford Station, while seven cycled direct to the Church ia
North Mimms Park. The meeting was under the direction of
Mr. T. P. Grosart "Wells, who went with the larger party.

From Smallford Station the field-path was taken which leads to
the little hamlet of Sleepshyde, whence another path was taken,
which, after crossing the Biver Colne, here a tiny brook, leads
into one of those picturesque disused lanes, grass-grown and over-
shadowed by trees, which are so frequent in Hertfordshire. This
lane ends at a farmhouse near Colney Heath, and the walk was
continued along another path which enters the road very near to
North Mimms Park. This route is the most direct between the
station and the park, but perhaps not the quickest for such a large
party, the numerous stiles which had to be crossed causing a con-
siderable delay and not a little memment, especially at the last
two, one on either side a hedge and so near together that some of
the ladies showed their agility by taking the two at one bound.

On arriving at St. Mary's Church, in the park, the members
were received by the Vicar, the Bev. Gr. S. Batty, and the cyclists
were found to have arrived and to have ascended the tower.

The church is a beautiful structure of pure Decorated character.
It contains a few old tombs and an uniisual number of brasses,
some of which are very fine. One, dating about the middle of the
fifteenth century, represents a man and his wife and their ten
children — four sons and six daughters. Near by is a remarkably
fine brass to a man and his wife, the costume being that of the
reign of Queen Elizabeth. In the vestry the Vicar showed
a beautiful chalice of carved amber, mounted with silver-gilt,
with eight female figures emblematical of virtues, under canopies,
carved on the amber. "It was given," Cussans says, "by Lady
Mews, by will, in 1751, to stand upon the altar of the church."
It bears the date 1656. Mr. Batty also showed a silver-gilt cup,
with cover, of beautiful workmanship, apparently Italian, and

SESSION 1895-90. XXXV

about a century more receut than the amber chalice. The early
registers, dating from 1653, but not continuous, were also inspected.

After thanking Mr. Batty, the party left the church by the fine
avenue of elms for the mansion, which was shown by the kind per-
mission of the then owner, the late Mr. Walter H. Eurns, for whom
it had been greatly enlarged and was at that time being decorated.
It is older than Hatiicld House, having been built about the year
1600 by Sir llalph Coningsby. The old manor-house of North
Mimms, which the present building replaced, was also older than
the Bishop's Palace of Hatfield, but, unlike that, no portion of
it still remains. Hatfield House was built on the same plan as
this, but much larger ; now, owing to the extensive additions
which have been made for Mr. Burns, this mansion rivals Hatfield
House in size. Although the building is completed, the decorations
were in too unfinished a state at the time of this visit to judge
what the final elfect will be.

After a brief visit to the gardens, the park was crossed by the
Lady's Drive to Courser's Farm, where the members and their
friends were very kindly entertained at tea by Mr. and Mrs. Giddins,
after which Smallford Station was reached by way of Colney Heath,
the cyclists returning by London Colney.

Field Meeting, 20th June, 1896.
HITCHIN.

This meeting was organized by the Geologists' Association of
London, and was conducted by Mr. William Hill, F.G.S., a member
of our Society.

Assembling at Hitchin Station at half-past two, the members
of the two Societies walked by the side of the Great Northern
Hallway and then along a branch tram-line to Mr. T. Ransom's Lime
Works near Grove Mill, about half a mile to the north of Hitchin.
In the chalk-pit here a good section of the Lower Chalk is exposed,
the highest bed containing its characteristic fossil, Belemnitella plena.
In one part of the pit the Melbourn Rock overlies this bed, but it
is not well shown here. Marking a great break in the fauna, this
hard bed is considered to form the base of the Middle Chalk. It
contains fishes, Crustacea (lobsters, etc.), and many shells.

Returning to Hitchin Station the large chalk quarry by the side
of the line was visited. It is in the Middle Chalk, and the section
exposed is an upward continuation of that near Grove Mill, the
Melbourn Rock here being near the base, and having, as in the
Isle of AVight, a marly band both above and below it, but there
much thicker than here. The chalk here is full of Inoceramiis, and
in the Melbourn Rock Ptijchodus mammiUaris was found. The most
interesting portion of this section are the glacial beds overlying the
Chalk. The actual junction of these beds with the Chalk is seen,
and there is a great mass of coarse material at the junction, with
ice-scratched stones and pebbles characteristic of the northern drift.

XXXVl

Hitclim Hill, just east of the town, was then visited. The high
ground here is covered by a sheet of glacial drift extending right
into Hitchin, and of considerable interest. In one pit it was seen
to consist of an upper bed of clay and a lower bed of gravel and
sand, well stratified, and showing current-bedding here and there.
The gravel is composed chiefly of flints from the Chalk, and con-
tains a great number of fossils which appear to have come from the
north, many quartzites, and pebbles of white chalk.

The celebrated Hitchin Lake Bed at "The Folly" was next
examined. It is a light-coloured, brown or whitish, soft calcareous
loamy deposit, passing down in places into a dark-grey or almost
black loam, and is below the brick-earth, which is the highest
alluvial deposit here, and above a bed of gravel of which no one
knows anything, not even whether it is of marine or fresh-water
origin. Somewhat similar examples of ancient lake beds have
been described in Ly ell's ' Antiquity of Man ' at Hoxne in Suffolk
(p. 219, 4th ed.) and at Mundesley on the coast near Cromer
(p. 267), and at Bedford there is a similar deposit resting on
Oolitic strata. The Hitchin Lake Bed has ali'eady been described
in our ' Transactions ' (Vol. VIII, part 4, p. xxxvii). The
following is a list of fossils found in it, from the ' Proceedings
of the Geologists' Association' (vol. xiv, p. 417).

Mammalia : — Ursus, Cervus elaphus, Rhinoceros.

Mollitsca: — Bytkinia tentacidata, Limnaia aurictilaria, L. peregra,
Planorhis carinatus, P. complanatus, P. spirorhis, Valvata cristata,
V. piscinalis, Veletia {Ancylus) lacustris, Anodonfa cygnma (?),
&plicermm corneum.

Osteacoda: — Candona Candida, Cypris Broivniana, C. incongruens,
C. reptans.

Plants : — Chara (stems and fruit).

Cypris Broivniana, which is found abundantly in this lake bed,
is supposed to have become extinct.

The following derived fossils were found on the present occasion
in the gravel which underlies the lake bed: — Cardinia concinna
(from the Lias), Pleuromya costata and P. crassa (Lower Lias),
Serpula tetragona ? (Cornbrash), and Gryplma bilohata (Kelloway
Rock).

Many shells were found in the lake bed, but they proved to be
too fragile to be carried away.

Before leaving the brickfields at "The Folly," other sections
were examined, and in a bed of gravel were found a Sternberg in,
a plant from the Coal-measures, and Avicula incequivalvis, a shell
from the Kelloway Bock.

The party then walked back to Hitchin, the members of the
Geologists' Association having tea at the Sun Hotel before leaving
for London, and the members of the Hertfordshire Society returning
to St. Albans, etc., by an earlier train.

SESSION 1895-96. xxxvii

Field Meeting, 18th July, 1896.
ALDENHAM HOUSE, ELSTREE.

The last Field ^Meeting of the summer was held at Aldenham
House, the Hertfordshire seat of Lord Aldenham, by his kind
permission. The preliminary arran<>;ements were made by Mr. F. "W.
Silvester, but he was unable to be present at the meeting.

The members, most of whom had travelled by train to Elstree,
assembled in front of Aldenham House at about half-past three,
and were received by Mr. Vicary Gibbs, M.P., who kindly showed
them over the house. Having to leave early Mr. Gibbs transferred
the guidance of the party through the gardens and pleasure-grounds
to Lord Aldenham's head-gardener, Mr. Edwin Beckett, F.K.H.S.,
by whom, xmder his Lordship's direction, they have recently been
greatly improved and beautitied.

Aldenham House stands in a park of about 200 acres, which
nearly reaches from Elstree to Aldenham, and there is a main
entrance fi'om each of these villages. Approaching from Elstree,
about half-way along the carriage-drive through the park, an
artificial lake, the water in which is derived from Elstree Reservoir,
is crossed by a pretty rustic bridge, and on either side the drive
runs a row of fine young chestnut -trees. Many other trees have
recently been planted in various parts of the park, in which, also,
there are fine old trees; tall elms, spreading oaks, towering
poplars, fragrant limes, shimmering beeches, quivering birches,
and handsome chestnuts abounding.

The mansion is of red brick, and dates from about the end of
the seventeenth century, but several of the principal rooms are
of the time of Charles the First. The gardens encircle the house,
and, with the pleasure-grounds, cover seventy-fi^e acres. The
lavra is planted with evergreens and flowering shrubs ; the flower-
garden is always effectively and tastefully planted ; there are rose-
gardens and gardens of American plants; and a lime-tree walk
leads to the wild garden, or " wilderness " as it is called, the paths
through which are all turfed; and then comes the "rootery,"
a spot in which roots of arboreal giants are utilized in working
out various effects. In the wilderness and rootery are large
patches of double-flowered bramble, hydrangeas, heaths, and
climbing roses, which are allowed to grow unrestricted, giving
a picturesque beauty not attained under more formal culture, and
enhanced by the bracken and tall grasses which thrive beneath
the fine oaks and other trees, chiefly devoted to. the growth of
fruit, flowers for cutting, and plants for decoration. A new
kitchen-garden, two acres in extent, a new orchard, and the
various glass houses, were also seen, and tea was then prepared by
Mrs. Beckett, and partaken of underneath some splendid trees on
the lawn.

The thanks of the party for the enjoyable afternoon which had
been spent were accorded to Lord Aldenham, Mr. Vicary Gibbs,
and Mr. and Mrs. Beckett.

XXXVIU

PROCEEDINGS,

Field Meeting, 10th Octobee, 1896.
GOEHAMBURT PARK, ST. ALBANS.

By the kind permission of tbe Earl of Yerulam and Mr. J. B.
Taylor, the annual Fungns Foray was held on the Gorhambury
estate, the members assembling at the London and jS"orth- Western
Station at two o'clock, walking along King Hany Lane and
through the Yerulam Woods and the "Hollows" into Gorhambury
Park, and returning by the Gorhambury Road and the Water
Walk by the side of the River Ver.

The Society's Recorder of Fungi, Mr. George Massee, F.L.S.,
would have been present had he not unfortunately been ill at the
time, and in his absence Mr. Hopkinson undertook the collection
of the fungi as well as the direction of the meeting, and sent to
Kew for Mr. Massee the same evening specimens of all the species
found by any of the party so far as he could recognize their dis-
tinctness.

The specimens, which were packed in moss, arrived in good
condition, and Mr. Massee identified the species as follows, those
new to Hertfordshire being indicated by an asterisk : —

Hymenomycetes.
Agariciis

(Amanita) spissus, Fr.

,, phalloides, Fr.

,, excelsus, Fr.
(Amanitopsis) vaginatus, Fr.
(Collybia) fusipes, Bull.

,, butryaceus, Fr.

,, radicatus, Fr.
(Tricholoma) albellus, Fr.*

,, terreus, Schaff.

,, spermaticus, Fr.*
(CHtocybe) fragrans, Fr.

,, cyatbiformis, Fr.

,, brumalis, Fr.

,, ectypus, Fr.*
(Laccaria) laccatxis, Berk.
(Mycena) riigosus, Fr.

„ purus, Fr.

,, polygrammus, Fr.

,, galericulata, Fr.

,, pseudopurus, Cke.
(Clitopilus) orcella, Bidl.

,, prunulus, Scop.
(Inocybe) pyriodorus, Pers.

,, incarnatus, Bres.*

,, Bongardii, JFeissm.*

,, geophyllus. Sow.
(Galera) tener Fr.
(Hypholoma) fascicularis, Suds.

,, epixanthus, Fr.

,, violaceo-ater, Letell.*
(Psalliota) hfemorrhoidarius, Schultz.*

,, elvensis, £. ^ Br.*

Coprinus atramentarhis, Fr.

,, macrocephalus, B. S; Br.*
Russula nigricans, Fr.

,, depallens, Fr.

,, ocbroleuca, Fr.

,, emetica, Fr.

,, fallax, Fr.*

,, delica, Fr.*

,, rubra, Fr.
Lactarius subdulcis. Bull.

,, blennius, Fr.

,, volemus, Fr.
Hygrophorus eburneus, Fr,

,, puniceus, Fr.

,, psittacinus, Schceff.*

,, virgineus, Fr.

,, obrusseus, Fr.
Marasmius peronatus, Fr.

,, ramealis, Fr.
Clavaria cristata, Holmsk.*

,, cinerea, BtilL*

,, abietina, Schum.*
Stereum spadiceiim, Fr.*
Polystictus hispidus, Fr.

,, versicolor, Fr.

Gasteromycetes.
Bo'N'ista nigrescens. Berk.
Lycoperdon pyriforme, Schaff.
Scleroderma verrucosum, Fr.

Ascomycetes.
Helvella esculenta, Pers.*
Xylaria hypoxylon, Fr.

SESSION 1895-96. xxxix

"The collection," Mr. Massee remarks, "although numerically
small, contained some very interesting forms. Agaricus excelsus,
a very beautiful fungus, is everywhere rare. Agaricus eliwnsis,
an edible fungus closely allied to the common mushroom but far
superior in flavour, is also rare, having only pre%dously been
recorded from three localities. And Agaricus violaceo-ater is new
to the British Flora, having hitherto been known to occur only in
France.

"The collection also included characteristic examples illus-
trating the range in odours and flavours from those of a highly
agreeable nature to the very opposite extreme. Amongst species
possessing a very decided odour may be mentioned Agaricus
spermattcm, in which the smell is very pronounced and equally
disagreeable. Agaricus fragrans, on the other hand, has a strong
and agreeable spicy smell, which remains after cooking, that is
if properly conducted, the specimens being placed in a closed
vessel, stewed gently for twenty minutes, and the vessel opened
only when placed upon the table. Agaricus purus smells exactly
like radishes, whereas Agaricus pyriodorus, as the name denotes,
smells like ripe pears. Other British species, such as Agaricus
odortis, have a very pleasant aroma, whereas Hygrophorus fcetidus,
as would be expected from its specific name, is the reverse of
pleasant, to say the least.

"There is a strong tendency on the part of some people to
argue that there is a definite use for the presence of every product
in the organic kingdom, a statement which would, of course,
include the odours of fungi. Such statements are in a sense safe,
even if nothing in support of the assertion is offered, inasmuch as
our knowledge of the ways and means of life is yet very limited.
1^0 one has demonstrated that the odours possessed by the fungi
named above, and many others, are of any service to the species
emitting them. Fungi, in common with all other living organisms,
require food, which when taken into the system is not of the
exact chemical composition of the fungus itself. The food contains
all the chemical elements required to form fungus flesh, with
other chemical elements not required by the fungus. During the
process of metabolism the elements of the food are separated,
those useful to the fungus are retained, and the surplus elements
rearrange themselves to form a new chemical substance, which
may result in a brilliant colour, or a substance possessing a marked
taste, smell, etc., which need not be of any further use to the
fungus, but, as the organism is low down in the scale of life, and
has no special arrangements for getting rid of by-products, they
are retained in its structure. The common yeast-plant — Saccharo-
myces cerevisia — is a fungus, and, in common with other fungi,
requires food ; and it so happens that in assimilating its food the
rejected elements are in those proportions which forai alcohol
and carbonic acid. Nevertheless, no one has shown that either of
these products are of the slightest service to the fungus, although
respectively utilized by the brewer and baker.

Xl PROCEEDINGS,

" Certain groups of fungi, however, have evolved the power of
utilizing their by-products of metabolism. In the Phalloideae,
represented in England by the common " stinkhorn " — Phallus
impudicus — and two other rarer species, we usually find associated
a brilliant colouration and a most abominable foetid smell. The
colour and smell are only evident at the period when the very
minute spores are mature and ready for dispersion. The spores
at maturity are immersed in a sticky fluid which produces the
strong smell, and also contains a very sweet substance allied to
saccharine. Bluebottle-flies and other insects greedily devour this
foetid slime, and also the very minute spores which it contains;
and thus, by means of insect agency, the spores of these fungi
are disseminated. The bright colour and strong smell are the
agents or advertisements by which the fungus makes known its
whereabouts to its insect friends.

"It is interesting to note that, while scent and colour are
utilized by fungi for spore-dissemination, these same products
are used by many flowering plants for securing cross-fertilization,
insects in both instances being the unconscious agents in effecting
the desired object. It is well known that such agreeable and
disagreeable odours and flavours are not uncommon amongst
flowering plants, but it is not so well known that the same is
the case with the fungi."

Agaricus excelsiis was found by Mrs. Ash down, and A. violaceo-
ater by Mr. Hopkinson. That these were not common forms was
recognized at the time of their discovery, but no such notice was
taken of the finding of Agaricus elvensis, so that it is impossible to
say who was its discoverer. Had Mr. Massee been present the
number of distinct forms recognized would no doubt have been
largely increased.

Oedinaet Meeting, 8th December, 1896, at Watford.

Arthur Stradling, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.

The Right Honourable the Earl of Verulam was elected a Member
of the Society.

Mr. r. Arthur Campion, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E, Netria, St. Albans,
and Mr. J. Denison Jordan, Priory View, St, Albans, were proposed
for membership.

The following papers were read : —

1. "On an Ancient British Coin found near Watford," By
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc. D., Treas.R.S.,
V.P.S.A,, etc. {Transactions, Vol. IX, p. 133.)

Mr. A. E. GiBBS showed a coin which had been picked up at
St. Albans, and which appeared to be a fai'thing of the time of

SESSION 1896-97. xli

Charles the Sooond. He also mentioned that a seventeenth- ccntuiy
token of lialph liradley (1662 or 1663) had been found in pulling
down the Old Ked Lion at St. Albans.

The Pkesidext said that this paper, contributed by such
a great authority as Sir John Evans, was very interesting. It
was matter of regret that the author could not be present so that
they might ask him questions about it. Some few years ago ho
(the speaker) made some notes of stamps and coins in the British
Museum — the stamps being modern, of course, the coins being
ancient — with a view to making a natural history on a numis-
matic and philatelic basis, and he found about 150 species of
plants and animals wonderfully represented on coins principally
from the mints of Ancient Greece and Italy. One would like to
know of what material these ancient coins were made, so many of
them retaining their superscription and figures on the face, after
passing through all the vicissitudes to which curi-ency was liable
in their day, and being buried under conditions in which they
were subjected to -violence and certainly to chemical and other
disintegrating action. The gold in the coin under discussion must
have undergone some process of alloying to withstand attrition ;
pure gold, soft gold, would not have retained the impress of the
horse's head and the inscription as this had done. Amongst the
coins in the British Museum and others accessible to him were
a number which represented in a marvellous degree the acme of
pictorial art, not simply conventionalities, but really figures
delineated from life. They were mostly from the ancient mints
of Southern Italy and Greece. He remembered one delineation
of an eagle, in which all the wing-feathers were absolutely correct,
and another of a tortoise, in which the number and shape of
the plates forming the carapace, which might be overlooked by
a popvdar draughtsman, were actually true to nature. Another,
that of a field-mouse, an issue of Mctapontum, was readily
distinguished from an ordinary mouse of Leucas ; they were
perfectly easy to be differentiated. In another case there was
a cray-fish from Agiigentum, which was perfectly distinct
from the prawns figured on the coins of Tarentum and Catania ;
the two were perfectly drawn and engraved, so that there was
not the least difiiculty for anyone with even a superficial know-
ledge of natural history to distinguish one from the other. He
was struck with the remark that the Macedonian Philippus was
associated with this coin. The only coins which he had seen
with horses upon them were those Avhich had representations of
Philip II of Macedon. In the cities sacred to Apollo, the animals
figured on the coins as a rule were the mouse, snake, raven, hawk,
wolf, and grasshopper. Amongst plants, the olive and laurel were
quite unmistakable in their reproduction. There was one, very
interesting indeed, fi'om the island of Cimolos, one of the Cyclades,
where there was a great deal of fossiliferous chalk, and that was
a coin showing a representation of the Echinus^ the only delinea-
tion of a fossil in ancient art which he knew of, whether on coinage

VOL. IX. — PART VIII. D

xlii PROCEEDINGS,

or anything else. There was one butterfly, in the island of Ehodes,
with at least a score of bees and wasps, perfectly easy to be recog-
nized and separated the one from the other. The most interesting
group of the whole lot was one of about forty dogs, some few of
which might be mythical, some apparently wild, but it showed
that artificial selection had done a great deal at that date for the
establishment of varieties, and the most notable were the boar-
hound, the deer-hound, the grey-hound, and the terrier. There
was no spaniel, but on a coin of Cumte, a city near the Bay of
Naples celebrated for its luxury, unexampled in these days, was
the verisimilitude of a poodle. Most of the dogs corresponded
with those of the present day. The osprey, the vulture, the golden
eagle, several owls, and other birds were to be recognized. The
ostrich was clearly delineated on a later Byzantine coin, with all
its characteristic points perfect, even the two toes, which often
escape the observation of draughtsmen who are not naturalists. But
the most perfect of all representations were the Cretan wild goat
and the swan of many cities, notably Camarina. The swan
appeared in the issue of about a dozen mints, as perfect
a portraiture of a natural -history object as one would like to
see in illustration of a work of that science.

2. "On the Destruction of an Elm-Tree by Fungi at St. Albans."
By George Abbey. Communicated by A. E. Gibbs, E.L.S., F.E.S.
{Transactions, Vol. IX, p. 129.)

Mr. Neele alluded to the splendid elm-trees at the residence
known as " The Elms " in Watford.

Mr. Vaughan Bobeets said that he had measured the two trees
in fi'ont of that hoixse, and the circumference a foot from the
ground was from 18 to 19 feet. The circumference of the tree
referred to was 1 2 feet. The size of the tree was not always a proof
of age ; it depended upon soil and other circumstances. According
to the age assumed for the tree under discussion, 150 years, that of
the trees at " The Elms " would be very great.

The Pkesident remarked that the fact of the house being named
from the trees would perhaps show that they were very old. The
size no doubt depended greatly upon the kind of elm.

3. Bepokt on the Conferences of Delegates to the British
Association at Liverpool in 1896. By John Hopkinson, E.L.S.,
r.G.S., E.R.Met.Soc.

The Conferences were held on the 17th and 22nd of September,
the first Conference being devoted to the question of the federation
of Natural History Societies, and the second to that of a federal
staff for local museums and to the consideration of the work of
sectional Committees of the Association. In the absence, from
illness, of Mr. W. Whitaker, F.K.S., the Chairman nominated by
the Scientific Societies Committee, Dr. J. G. Garson presided at
each Conference. Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S., President-elect
of the British Association, was the Hertfordshire Natural History
Society's Delegate to the Conferences.

SESSION- 1896-97. xliii

First Conference.

In opening the proceedings the Chairman referred to the large
nnmbcr of delegates present as indicating the appreciation of the
Correspontling Societies of their connection with the British
Association, and he expressed the hope that the delegates would
attend each of the Conferences, so that they might explain to their
respective Societies the nature of the work in which they were
asked to co-operate.

District Unions of Natural Ilistonj Societies. — Mr. George Abbott,
General Secretary of the South-Eastern Union of Natural History
Societies, then read a paper with this title. He remarked that
while local jS^atural History Societies had done much good work,
yet in many cases their efforts had been weak, irregular, and
desultory. He thought the chief cause of failure had been want
of organization. A step in the right direction had been taken by
the Unions of Scientific Societies already existing, such as those of
TorkshLre and the East of Scotland, but he considered that the
British Association did not sufficiently foster such unions. He
therefore submitted the following scheme (here somewhat abridged)
for the consideration of the Conference : —

1. Districts. — The United Kingdom should be divided into fifteen
or twenty districts in which all Natural History Societies should be
associated for mutual aid, counsel, and work, existing unions not
being disturbed. They might vary in extent, and be dependent,
in some measure, on railway facilities. From time to time the
areas might be revised.

2. Congress. — Each union would have its annual congress
attended by delegates and members from its afiiliated societies.
This would be held in a fresh town every year, with a new
President, somewhat after the manner of the British Association.
The congresses would probably take place in spring, but two should
never be held on the same day.

3. Union Committees. — Each union would need a general secretary
and a committee intimately acquainted with methods of work and
the best ambitions of local societies.

4. Corresponding Members. — Each local society should appoint
in every -village in its district a corresponding member with some
distinctive title, and certain privileges and advantages.

The work asked of him would be to —

(1) Forward surplus natural - history specimens to their

Society's Museum.

(2) Supply prompt information on the following subjects : —

{a) New geological sections.

(5) Details of wells, borings, springs, etc.

(c) Finds of geological and antiquarian interest.

(3) Answer such questions as the British Association or the

local society may require.

(4) See to the preservation of historic buildings.

(5) Assist the Selborne Society in carrying out its objects.

xliv PEOCEEDINGS,

In return lie should be offered —

(1) Assistance in naming specimens, and in the fonnation of

scliool museums.

(2) Free admission to lectures and excursions.

(3) Copies of Transactions.

(4) Pree use of the Society's library.

Every village would soon, under this scheme, possess an agent,
or registrar, who would be more and more able, as he gained
experience, to further the aims of this Association.

5. Income and Expenses. — The unions would be supported by
means of small contributions from the affiliated societies. Money
would only be wanted for the expenses of an organizing secretary.

These unions would render important help to local societies,
would bring isolated workers together, assist schools, colleges,
technical institutes, and museums, start new societies, and revive
waning ones. Economy of labour would be accomplished by
a precise demarcation of area for each local society. This would
be its sphere of work and influence ; and in this area it would have
a certain amount of responsibility in such matters as observation
and research, and vigilance against encroachments on footpaths,
commons, and wayside wastes. The unions might also, through
their Central Committees, bring about improvements in publication,
but joint publication would perhaps not be desirable in all cases.
In this, as in other matters connected with the unions, co-operation
and not U7iiformity should be the aim.

With objects so desirable and far-reaching in view, the cost
could not be considered excessive, and the British Association
would soon be repaid by obtaining prompt and direct communi-
cation with all the towns and villages in Great Britain, and by
greater assistance in its research work and in all branches of
knowledge which it was established to promote.

The Eev. E. P. Knubley remarked that the Yorkshire Naturalists'
Union was, he believed, the largest union of scientific societies in
England, having thirty-six affiliated associations. There were
500 members and 2,500 associates, making a total of 3,000 workers.
He thought they owed much to their geographical position and to
the great variety of rocks, scenery, soil, and climate in Yorkshire.
As to the organization of the Union, it was based to a considerable
extent on that of the British Association. Their President,
a distinguished Yorkshireman, was elected annually. There were
general secretaries, an executive Council of twelve members,
and a general committee. Their work came under five sections
— geology, botany, zoology, conchology, and entomology. In
addition, much work was carried on by means of research com-
mittees, which were in direct communication with the British
Association. Eight such committees were then in existence :
a Boulder Committee ; a Sea-Coast Erosion Committee ; a Possil
Flora Committee ; a Geological Photographs Committee ; a Marine
Biology Committee ; a Micro - Zoological and Micro - Botanical

SESSION 1896-97. xlv

Committee ; a Wild Birds and Eggs Protection Committee ; and
a Mycological Committee. All these Committees reported annually,
and their reports were presented to the British Association. An
annual meeting of the Union was held in one of the Yorkshire
towns. For excursion purposes Yorkshire was divided into five
districts, and a meeting was held annually in each of them. One
meeting every year took place on the sea-coast. Great care was
taken by the secretaries before each excursion to get all the
geological, botanical, and other information obtainable about the
place to be visited, and, when there, an endeavour was made to get
each member to do some special work, every effort being made to
train workers in the various departments of natural science.

Mr. M. H. Mills gave some account of the organization of the
Federated Institution of Mining Engineers. He said that the
rules of the Federation had been carefully considered by the
secretaries and councils of the various societies composing it, and
it had been found that the best kind of federation was that which
touched only the publication of their papers. Each society did
its work independently, as before the existence of the Federation,
but now they had one publication instead of many. Members of
the societies composing the Federation paid but one subscription,
a portion of it only being devoted to printing the publications,

Professor T. Johnson mentioned that in Ireland they had a good
example of a Union. It comprised four clubs, one in Dublin,
another in Belfast, a third in Cork, and a fourth in Limerick,
which combined to form the Irish Field Club Union. A yearly
meeting was held in various parts of the country, and they had
a publication which was common property — the ' Irish Naturalist.'
There was a poll-tax of twopence from each member to defray the
expenses of the Union, and there was a Committee formed of the
president and secretaries of the four societies. They had an
arrangement by which a specialist belonging to one club could
have his expenses paid if he lectured to another club. They were
also forming a directory, so that students coming to Ireland would
shortly be able to learn who was working at any given subject and
where he might be found. They made a point of sending their
specimens to museums. In addition, they had short courses of
lectures to arouse the interest of amateurs, with occasional excur-
sions. The fees received from persons attending the lectures were
used for excursion purposes, the lecturer himself receiving nothing
[beyond his expenses] from the course.

After a considerable amount of further discussion, in which most
of the Delegates present took part, a sub-committee was appointed
to consider the question and report to the Corresponding Societies
Committee. The recommendations of this sub-committee were : —

(1) That Mr. G. Abbott's paper on "District Unions of Natural
History Societies" be distributed by the Committee of the Corre-
sponding Societies amongst all the Natural History Societies in the
United Kingdom, with the request that their opinion on the
feasibility of the plan advocated in the paper be communicated

Xlvi PEOCEEDINGS,

as early as possible to the Corresponding Societies Committee for
its report to the Conference of Delegates at Toronto in 1897.

(2) That the formation of District Unions of Natural History-
Societies is highly desirable and would be of general advantage.

(3) That the Committee of the Corresponding Societies be
requested to take ste])s to encourage the formation of District
Unions of Natural History Societies.

(4) That it should be distinctly understood that the formation
of Unions would not in any way prevent the affiliation of individual
Societies of such Unions to the British Association as at present.

Second Conference.

The above recommendations were read by Mr. Abbott as the
Report of the sub-committee appointed at the first Conference, and
the report was received and adopted. A resolution was then passed
referring it to the Corresponding Societies Committee.

A Federal Staff for Local Museums. — This was the subject of
a paper by Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L.

His suggestions, Professor Petrie said, only affected a distribu-
tion of labour, and would rather economize than require extra
expenditure.

In all local museums the main difficulty of the management
was that there was neither money nor work enough for a highly
trained and competent man. It was in any case impossible to get
a universal genius who could deal with every class of object equally
well, and. hardly any local museum could afford to pay for a first-
class curator on any one subject. These difficulties were entirely
the result of a want of co-operation.

According to the report of the Committee in 1887, there were
fifty-six 1st class, fifty-five 2nd class, sixty-three 3rd class, and
thirty 4th class museums in the kingdom. Setting aside the last
two classes as mostly too poor to pay except for mere caretaking,
there were 111 in the other classes; and deducting a few of the 1st
class museums as being fully provided, there were 100 museiims all
of which endeavoiir to keep up to the mark by spending perhaps
£30 to £200 a year on a curator.

The practical course would seem to be their union, in providing
a federal staff, to circulate for all piirposes requii'ing skilled know-
ledge, leaving the permanent attention to each place to devolve on
a mere caretaker. If half of these 1st and 2nd class museums
combined in paying £30 a year each, there would be enough to pay
three first-rate men £500 a year apiece, and each museum would
have a week of attention in the year from a geologist, and the same
from a zoologist and an archa?ologist.

The duties of such a staff would be to arrange and label the new
specimens acquired in the past year, taking sometimes a day, or
perhaps a fortnight, at one place ; to advise on alterations and
improvements ; to recommend purchases required to fill up gaps ;
to note duplicates and promote exchanges between museums ; and
to deliver a lecture on the princij)al novelties of their own subject

SESSION 1896-97. xlvii

in the past year. Such visitants, if Tvell selected, would probably
be -welcome guests at the houses of some of those interested in the
museum in each place.

The effect at the country museums would be that three times in
the year a visitant would arrive for one of the three sections, would
work everything up to date, stir the local interests by ad\dce and
a lecture, stimulate the cai'etaker, and arrange routine work that
could be carried out before the next year's visit, and yet would
not cost more than having down three lecturers for the local institu-
tion or society, apart fi'om this work.

To many, perhaps most, museums, £30 for skilled work, and
£30 or £40 for a caretaker, would be an economy on their present
expenditure, while they would get far better attention. Such
a system could not be suddenly started; but if there were an
official base for it, curators could interchange work according to
their specialities, and as each museum post fell vacant it might be
placed in commission among the best curators in that district, until
by gradual selection the most competent men were attached to forty
or fifty museums, to be served in rotation. It was not impossible,
Professor Petrie thought, that the highest class of the local museums
might be glad to subscribe, so as to get special attention on subjects
outside of the studies of their present curators.

Mr. W. E. Hoyle said that he hoped no action would be taken
in this matter in such a way as to prevent co-operation with the
Museums Association. Professor Petrie's scheme seemed to him
a most simple and practical one, and he thought it would be a good
thing for those specially interested in it to confer with the officials
of the Museums Association with regard to it. The chief difficulty
which he foresaw in carrying it out was the almost incredible
inertia of museum committees. The Museums Association met
once a year, and everyone who had attended its meetings had
admitted their value in enabling curators to exchange ideas upon
all museum questions. It had been in existence about six years,
but hitherto very few societies had cared to go to the expense of
sending their curators to its meetings. In the museum over which
he had the honour to preside there were four assistant curators who
were doing good work.

Mr. G. Abbott cordially supported Professor Petrie's suggestions,
and thought that an increase in the number of Unions of Natura-
lists' Societies would greatly tend towards their general adoption.

Professor Johnson protested against the curators of our local
museums being converted into mere caretakers, as he thought
the tendency should be in the opposite dii'ection. It would be
well to urge our local societies to employ as their curator
a specialist of some kind, and to give him a chance of rising
above the position he held at first, rather than to make
him feel that he would always be a mere caretaker dependent
wholly on some one who came down occasionally from some centre
of enlightenment. He knew an admirable ciu-ator in the north of
Ireland, seventy years of age, and a specialist in three or four

xlviii PROCEEDINGS,

branches, who was then living on a salary of £70 per annum, and
had to dust the tables, open the door, and act in general as a mere
caretaker. This was a disgrace to the great town in which the
museum was situated. Local museums should have a grant of
£50 to £100, or even £150 for the payment of specialists.

Professor Petrie said that this was to a great extent a money
question. He did not think that his suggestions necessarily involved
additional expense. He thought it would be better that the
money should be divided between the mere caretaker and the
specialists, rather than that an attempt should be made to combine
them by employing one man who could not possibly be a specialist
on all points. Indeed, those curators who were more than mere
caretakers, would by his plan receive a larger amount of money
than before by rendering their ser\dces in a number of places,
instead of being confined to one. It would be better to have
a dozen men of science and fifty caretakers, than sixty curators
all receiving a very inadequate salary.

Geological Plwtorjraphs. — The secretaryship of the Geological
Photographs Committee has been resigned by Mr. Osmund W. Jeffs
and accepted by Mr. "W. W. Watts, and the collection of photo-
graphs is now under his care in the library of the Museum of
Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, where it is open to inspection.
At this Conference Mr. Watts said that though much assistance
had been received from Leicestershire and some other counties
during the past year, a very large area in England was still
unphotographed. Very few photographs had been received from
the eastern counties. I regret to say that Hertfordshire is still
one of the counties very poorly represented in the collection, the
only photographs from our county being a few small ones (quarter-
plate) taken by myself.

Erratic Blochs. — Mr. Watts stated that the work of the Erratic
Blocks Committee was being largely done by the committees of
local Societies, and that some Societies in Yorkshire were doing
most admirable work. What is required is to record the position,
height above the sea, lithological character, size, and origin (when
possible) of our erratic blocks or boulders, to report other matters
of interest connected with them, and to take measures for their
preservation. Some of this work has been done for Hertfordshire
by members of our Society, but much yet remains to be done.
Reference should be made to a paper by Mr. H. George Fordham
in our ' Transactions' (Vol. I, p. 163), which gives full .information
as to how to record our boulders.

Underground Waters. — Although the Committee for investigating
this subject has ceased to exist, Mr. C. E. De Ranee, its former
Secretary, said that he hoped the delegates of the Corresponding
Societies would urge their members to record carefully in their
districts everything bearing on this matter, not only as regards the
geological nature of the strata, but also as to the temperature of
water obtained from considerable depths.

SESSION 1896-97. xlix

Much attention has lately been given to the circulation of under-
ground waters in Hertfordshire in consequence of the attempts
•which have been made by London Water Companies, and others,
to rob our couuty of its water to a greater extent than it is at
present being robbed of it, and the subject has been brought before
oiu- Society on several occasions. (See 'Transactions,' Vol. VI,
p. 136, and Vol. IX, p. 33.) Papers on the depth of water in
wells have also been communicated (' Transactions,' Vol. V, p. 20,
and Vol. VI, p. 31), and others are promised.

Ethnographical Survey. — The Secretary of the Ethnographical
Survey Committee, Mr. Sidney Hartland, said that he wished to
ask for the co-operation of the local Societies in the work of the
Committee. Considerable progress had been made since he had
asked their aid at Ipswich last year. During the present century
the movements of our population had been immensely greater than
in previous centuries. Still, there were places where there had
been little change in that respect. As it was the object of the
Committee to acquire a knowledge of the distinguishing character-
istics of the various races of the British Isles, it was important
that the measurements, etc., of individuals in any district should
be those of persons whose families had lived there during a con-
siderable period. There was no department in which it was more
desirable to have speedy information than that of folklore. Much
had been done with regard to the dialects of the different counties
of England by the publication of the English Dialect Dictionary,
but in Scotland and Ireland there was still much work to be done
both in dialect and in folklore. Education, facilities for railway
travelling, and industrial migrations were rapidly destroying local
customs, dialects, and traditions, so that it was more important
that speedy information about them should be obtained than that
there should be an immediate supply of physical measurements.
The historic and prehistoric monuments of a locality should also be
noted. Mr. Hartland concluded by remarking that he would be
glad to furnish any delegates interested in the subject with copies
of the Ethnographical Committee's Schedules, or with any help in
his power.

Mr. John Gray, Buchan Field Club, said that in his district they
had begun to note the physical characteristics of the inhabitants by
placing themselves at the entrance to a field where some sports
were being held, and observing the colour of the eyes and hair,
the contour of the nose, and other characteristics of people entering
the field. They also measured about 200 persons in the grounds,
and obtained some very interesting results. In addition they had
obtained measurements, etc., of almost all the school-children of
the district.

The Chairman remarked that Mr. Gray's Society was obtaining
excellent results, and giving a good example of the work required.
As the information asked for by the Ethnographical Survey Com-
mittee was of so many different kinds, it appeared to him that the
formation of sub-committees by the local societies would greatly

1

expedite the work. One sub-committee might confine itself to
physical measurements, another to dialect and folklore, a third to
ancient monuments, and so on. Then photographers were needed
for illustrations of people and monuments ; and persons with a turn
for history might consider the historical evidence of continuity of
race. Investigations of this kind would at once enrich the
Transactions of a local society, and help the work of the British
Association.

There is plenty of scope in Hertfordshire for the work of this
Committee, but hitherto I have been unable to induce any member
of our Society to take part in it, or in any branch of it. Much of
the work can only be done satisfactorily by a medical man who
visits country districts, but there are many branches of the inquiry
on which almost anyone who has resided for some time in the
county could give information.

Other Committees of the British Association to which assistance
may be given by members of our Society are those on Meteoro-
logical Photography, on the Teaching of Natural Science in
Elementary Schools, and on the position of Geography in the
Educational System of the Country. These subjects were not
brought before this Conference. A list of the Committees, with
the names and addi'esses of their Secretaries, is appended to the
previous report.

Mr. HoPKiNsoN then read a letter which he had received from
the Chairman and Secretary of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee of the British Association requesting to be favoured with
a statement of the views of the Society on a suggestion for the
formation of District Unions of Natural History Societies.

A discussion ensued in which the President, Mr. "W. P. Carter,
Mr. A. E. Gibbs, Mr. G. P. Neele, Mr. T. Vaughan Poberts,
Mr. John Weall, and Mr. Hopkinson took part, and further dis-
cussion was deferred to the next meeting of the Society at "Watford.

The President referred to the great loss which the Society had
sustained by the death of Dr. Brett, who, he said, was eminently
a local man, devoting his time and talents to the welfare of the
town in which he lived, in which there is scarcely an institution
with whose interests his name is not interwoven, in scarcely any
one more than in this Society, the presidential chair of which he
occupied with such advantage to the Society twenty years ago.
He loved the organization, which he did much to foster, if not
to found, and, taking enthusiastic pleasure in the study of Nature,
it was his delight to promote and encourage that study in every way.

Mr. HoPKENSON said that the Society originated in a conversation
which he had with Dr. Brett in the year 1873. When he came to
reside at Watford in September, 1874, they talked the matter over
again, and that conversation resulted in the formation of the
Society in the beginning of the following year, so that Dr. Brett
was certainly one of the founders, and he thought that he might
be considered the principal one.

SESSION 1896-97. li

A vote of sympathy witli the Misses Bi-ett and the rest of
Dr. Brett's rchitives was then carried, on the proposition of the
President, in silence.

ORcrNAKY Meeting, 10th December, 1896, at St. Albans.

Dr. John Mokison, F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. Horace Tuppin, 68, Holywell Hill, St. Albans, was proposed
for membership of the Society.

The following- lecture was delivered : —

" Rambles by Forest, Field, and Flood." By James Saunders.

The lecturer introduced his subject with the remark that the
love for natural-histoiy objects such as butterflies, birds, and
flowers, was the common heritage of humanity. This was most
pronounced in childhood, and in Nature's children — the savage
races. Whether these tastes were relics of the simple joys of
Eden, or whether they were survivals of the habits of our remote
arboreal ancestors, might be left to theologians and evolutionists
to decide. The capacity for the perfect enjoyment of these things
might vanish with the rolling years, but it might be replaced by
another kind of pleasure which resulted from knowledge. An
acquaintance with the life-history of our commoner species of
plants and animals, a knowledge of their geographical distribution
in space, and of their geological descent in time, would give an
additional interest to our country walks. It would fill the world
with acquaintances with whom we could hold mental converse,
and it would modify our views of the position which man occupies
in the scale of the universe.

In illustration of the various points referred to, lantern views
were thrown upon the screen. Amongst the numerous subjects
touched upon were the fertilization of the wild arum, cowslips,
and primroses ; the habits of the early spring flowers of coppices
and woods, and many other denizens of our fields and hedgerows,
lleferences were also made to the alternation of generations as
exhibited by ferns, horsetails, and mosses. Illustrations were
given of the metamorphoses of butterflies and moths, and the
curious changes which characterize the development of amphi-
bians, especially as seen in frogs and newts. These remarks
led up to a brief description of some points in the life-history
of a group of organisms which link together the animal and
vegetable kingdoms. These, the lecturer pointed out, also ex-
hibited phenomena analogous to alternation of generations, and
were known as Mycetozoa.

The slides illustrating this part of the subject were not perhaps
so artistic as those exhibited earlier in the evening, but they had
the merit of being photographs of creatures found in the South
Midlands, most of them from Hertfordshire. In some instances
the Plasmodia of these organisms were prepared as lantern slides

lii PROCEEDINGS,

and projected upon the screen. One of these was of plasmodium
kept for two years in a dried state and then revived by moisture
and warmth. Concluding, the lecturer said that thi'ough the
recent researches of local workers in this subject, it had been
shown that out of the 180 species of Mycetozoa known to science
as occurring in the whole world, about half of the forms occurred
in Herts, Beds, and Bucks, and in one wood in Bedfordshire one
third of the whole had been recorded in recent years.

The lecture was illustrated by means of the oxy-hydrogen
lantern, kindly lent and manipulated by Mr. Thomas Askwith,
to whom a vote of thanks was accorded.

Oedinaey Meeting, 22nd Decembee, 1896, at Watfoed.

Aethtje Steadling, Esq., M.E.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.

Mr. r. Arthur Campion, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., and Mr. J. Denison
Jordan, were elected Members of the Society.

The discussion on the formation of District Unions of Natural
History Societies, adjourned from the meeting on 8th December,
was continued, and the following resolutions were passed : —

1. That Unions of Natural History and Archaeological Societies are desirable.

2. That the Hertfoi'dshire Natural History Society is willing to join in the
formation of a Union for the Registration District of the South-Midland Counties
(Hertford, Buckingham, Oxford, Northampton, Huntingdon, Bedford, and
Cambridge) .

3. That should Eegistration Districts not be generally adopted for the Unions,
the County of Essex be added to this Union.

4. That the chief objects of the Unions be to promote mutual intercourse, to
provide lecturers, and to assist museums within their districts, the present inde-
pendent publication of proceedings by each Society being continued.

5. That annual meetings or congresses of each Union be held in succession in
the principal towns within its district.

6. That the Unions be managed by an Executive Council consisting of the
President, Secretary or Secretaries, and one or two other members of each
Society of which they are formed.

7. That the expenses of each Union be met by a small capitation- grant or
percentage of the annual subscriptions contributed to each Society within it.

8. That the resolutions pftssed at this meeting be communicated to the
Secretary of the Scientific Societies' Committee of the British Association.

Mr. T. Vaughan Boberts read a paper entitled " Extracts from
a Naturalist's Notebook," being chiefly the results of his own
observations in various departments of Natural History.

The President delivered a lecture on "Plying."

Oedinaey Meeting, 26Tn Jantjaey, 1897, at Watford.

Arthur Stradling, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.

Mr. Horace Tuppin was elected a Member of the Society.

SESSION 1896-97, liii

Mr. Thomas East Loncs, M.A., LL.B., B.Sc, Rokcby Lodge,
"Watford, and Mrs. Morrow, 2, St. Andrew's Villas, Watford, were
proposed for membersliip.

The followinji' lecture was delivered : —

" The llontgen or ' X ' Eays." By Thomas Mansell, F.E.M.S.,
F.KP.S. {Transactions, Vol. IX, p. 135.)

The lecture was illustrated by experiments and lantern slides.

Anniveksakt MEExmo, 26Tn Febrtjaet, 1897.
(At Watfoed.)

ARxniTE SiKADirNG, Esq., M.E.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.

The Eeport of the Council for the year 1896, and the Treasurer's
A ccoiint of Income and Expenditure, were read and adopted.

The President delivered an Address entitled " Serpents and
Umbrellas."

The following gentlemen were duly elected as the officers and
Council for the ensuing year : —

Fresident. — V^illiam Whitaker, B.A., E.E.S., F.G.S.,
Assoc. Inst. C. E.

Vice-Fresideiifs.—Joh.n'Korison, M.D., D.P.H., F.G.S.; T.Vaughan
Eoberts ; George Eooper, F.Z.S. ; Arthur Stradling, M.E.C.S.,
F.Z.S.

Treasurer. — John "Weall.

Honorary Secretaries. — John Hopkinson, F.L. S., F.G. S.,
F.E.M.S., F.E.Met.Soc. ; W. E. Carter, B.A.

Lihrarian. — Daniel Hill.

Curator.— k. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S., F.E.H.S.

Other Memhers. — Charles Ashdown, F.C.S., F.E.G.S. ; John
Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.E.S., F.C.S., F.I.C. ; F. M. Campbell,
F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.M.S., F.E.S. ; Alan F. Crossman, F.L.S. ;
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.E.S.,
V.P.S.A., etc. ; Herbert George Fordham ; Edward Mawley,
Pres. E. Met. Soc, F.E.H.S.; George P. Neele; WiUiam Page,
F.S.A. ; WilHam Eansom, F.S.A., F.L.S. ; W. Lepard Smith;
G. Herbert Wailes, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.

The thanks of the Society were accorded to Mr. Arthur Stradling,
retiring from the office of President; to Dr. John Attfield, F.E.S. ,
retiring from the office of Vice-President ; and to Mr. Henry Lewis,
Mr. F. W. Silvester, and the Eev. E. T. Vaughan, retiring from
the Council.

liv PEOCEEDINGS,

E.EPOE.T OF THE CoTJNCIL FOE THE YeAK 1896.

In presenting the twenty-second Annual Eeport the Council
of the Hertfordshire l^atural History Society regrets to have to
announce a considerable falling oif in the number of members, due
chiefly to two causes — the small number of members elected during
the year, and the large number removed from the list for non-
payment of subscription. A greater number than in any previous
year have also been lost to the Society by death. On the other
hand, it is satisfactory to be able to state that, although the
attendance at the evening meetings has sometimes been small,
all the field meetings have been most successful, both as regards
the number taking part in them and the pleasure which has evi-
dently been derived from them. With the exception of the field
meeting which took place in July, at which time of the year from
several causes the attendance is usually small, the number of
members and their friends attending the field meetings was never
less than thii'ty.

During the year five ordinary members have been elected, one
honorary member, and one corresponding member ; one member
has compounded for his annual subscription ; seven members have
resigned; twenty-one have been removed from the list for non-
payment of subscription for several years ; and the Council regrets
to have to record the loss of ten members by death — one honorary
member, Mr. Isaac Brown ; four life members. Dr. Alfi-ed T. Brett,
Mr. Francis Lucas, Miss Georgiana E. Ormerod, and Mr. J. Hack
Tuke ; and five annual subscribers, Mrs. Ackworth, Colonel Capell,
Mr. Stephen Salter, Mr. W. T. Stone, and Mr. Henry Warner.
This list includes two who died before 1896, Mr. Isaac Brown and
Mrs. Ackworth, but their deaths had not been ascertained when
the previous annual report was presented.

The census of the Society at the end of the years 1895 and 1896
was as follows : —

1895. 1896.

Honorary Members 17 17

Corresponding Members 2 3

Life Members 51 48

Annual Subscribers 181 152

251 220

Mr. Isaac Brown was doubtless best known to the members of
this Society as one of the chief contributors to the first Flora of
the County, the ' Flora Hertfordiensis ' of Webb & Coleman,
having been, during the time that he resided at Hitchin, Mr.
Coleman's most valued coadjutor. His favourite study, however,
was Astronomy ; and for twenty-two years, while Principal of the
Friends' Flounder's Institute at Ackworth in Yorkshire, he kept
a meteorological register. He was a Fellow of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society for forty-four years, and of the Royal Meteoro-
logical Society for forty-five years. He presented his botanical
library and herbarium to the Hertfordshire Natural History Society

SESSION 1896-97. Iv

in 1882, and was elected an honorary member of the Society in the
following year. He was born at Amwellbury, near Ware, in 1803,
and he died at Kendal on the 3rd of November, 1895.

The death of Dr. Brett on the 11th of last July removes from
our ranks one of the founders of the Society ; in fact, the idea of
fonning a jS'atural History Society at Watford originated in a con-
versation between him and your present senior Secretary in the
summer of 1873. Dr. Erett had a very extensive medical practice,
and until a very recent period held most of the professional appoint-
ments in Watford and its neighbourhood, yet he found time to take
a prominent part in every movement for the benefit or advancement
of his town and county, devoting especial attention to everything
connected with technical instruction. He was one of the founders
of the Watford Public Library and School of Science and Art, and
for many years Honorary Librarian. But to no institution was
he more devoted than to this Society, his active interest in its
welfare never flagging for more than twenty-one years. He was
one of the Trustees and the second President, and in addition to
his two Presidential Addresses he read several papers before the
Society which will be found in the ' Transactions.' He was bom
in London in 1828, received his professional education at Guy's
Hospital, and came to Watford in 1850, residing here for forty-six
years.

Miss Ormerod died on the 19th of August. Although not so
well known as her younger sister, Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod,
whose fame as an Economic Entomologist is worldwide, she had
a thorough knowledge of Entomology. She was also an accom-
plished botanist and conchologist, a very talented artist, and
a gifted linguist. She has designed and drawn numerous entomo-
logical diagrams, depicting a large number of the most important
injurious insects in all their life-stages, which she has presented
to Agricultural Colleges and Schools in this country and in our
Colonies, and some form a portion of the Ormerod Collection of
Economic Entomology in the University of Edinburgh. She
thoroughly understood French, Italian, Spanish, and German,
having mastered the latter comparatively late in life in order to
read and translate German entomological works for her sister.

Mr. Stephen Salter and Mr. Henry Warner were members of
the Council at the time of their death. They both took a great
interest in the Society and frequently attended the field meetings,
and the former was also a very regular attendant at the evening
meetings, which Mr. Warner was only prevented from attending
by residing so far east as Wormley.

The following papers or lectures have been read or delivered at
Watford during the year : —

Jan. 21. — Notes on the Characeae, with a List of Species from the South

Midlands ; by James Saunders.
Notes on Birds observed last Spring at Mentone and elsewhere

on the Continent ; by T. Vaughan Roberts.
Feb. 25. — Anniversary Address — Mutual Aid amongst Animals ; by

Prince Kropotkiu.

Ivi PROCEEDINGS,

Marcli 12. — Hertfordshire Rainfall, Percolation, and Evaporation ; by John
Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met. Soc.
Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire during the year
1896 ; by A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S.

Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year 1895 ;

by Alan F. Grossman, F.L.S.
April 21. — Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the year 1895 ; by

John Hopkinson, F.L.S. , F.G.S., etc.
• Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the year

1895 ; by John Hopkinson.

Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St. Albans,

during the year 1895 ; by John Hopkinson.

Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertford-

shire during the year 1895 ; by Edward Mawley,
Pres. R. Met. Soc, F.R.H.S.

List of Mosses collected in the neighbourhood of Hertford ; by

Hugh Darton.

On some Overlooked Records of Hertfordshire Plants ; by

B. Daydon Jackson, Sec. L.S.

Notes on the Observation of Swallows ; by A. Sainsbury Verey,

Memb. Brit. Orn. Union.
Dec. 8. — On an Ancient British Coin found near Watford ; by
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D.,
Treas. R.S., V.P.S.A., etc.

On the Destruction of an Elm-Tree by Fungi at St. Albans ;

by George Abbey.

Report on the Conferences of Delegates to the British

Association at Liverpool in 1896 ; by John Hopkinson,
F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met. Soc.
■ 22 . — Extracts from a Naturalist's Notebook ; bv T. Vaughan Roberts.

Flying ; by the President, Arthur Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

The following lecture was delivered at St. Albans : —
Dec. 10. — Rambles by Forest, Field, and Flood ; by James Saunders.

At the meeting on the 8th of December a discussion was com-
menced on the advisability of forming Unions of Natural History
Societies, and it was continued on the 22nd of December, when
resolutions approving of the formation of such Unions were passed.
These resolutions will be printed in the report of that meeting
(see p. lii).

The following Field Meetings were held during the year : —

April 25.- — Aldbury and Ashridge Park.
May 9. — Kew Gardens.

13. — Hatfield House and Park.

23. — Colney Heath and North Mimms Park.

June 20.— Hitchin.

July 18. — Aldenbam House and Park, Elstree.
Oct. 10. — Gorhambury Park, St. Albans.

The meeting on the 20th of June was held in conjunction with
the Geologists' Association of London; that on the 10th of October
was the annual fungus foray.

For assistance at the field meetings in allowing the members
and their friends to visit private houses and parks the Society
is indebted to the Marquis of Salisbury, Hatfield House ; to
Mr. Walter H. Burns, North Mimms Park; to Lord Aldenham,
Aldenham House ; and to Mr. J. B. Taylor, Gorhambury. The

sKssiox 1896-97. Ivii

Society is also imlebtod to Prince Kropotkin for delivering; the
Anniversary Address, the President having been nuablc to do so
from ill-liealth.

The eighth volume of the present series of the Society's ' Trans-
actions ' has been completed, and the ninth has been commenced,
three parts of each, containing 220 pages and 10 plates, having
been published during the year. Four-fifths of the papers in the
eighth volume are of local interest. The Meteorology and Phen-
ology of Hertfordshire are treated of in ten papers, the usual eight
annual reports (on the rainfall, climatology, and phenology of the
County, and on the meteorology of St. Albans, each for two years),
an account of the floods of November, 1894, and a notice of the
gale of the 24th of March, 1895 ; the Botany is represented by
a paper on the Mycetozoa, 'svith a list of species from Herts, Beds,
and Bucks ; the Entomology by annual reports on the Lcpidoptera
observed, and by a paper on the "wasp infestation of 1893 ; and the
Ornithology by the usual annual reports on the birds observed,
and by a paper on birds frequenting the neighbourhood of Herons-
gate. One of the Anniversary Addresses, on the Stone Age in
Hertfordshire, and two papers on hard and soft water, with
special reference to the supply of Watford, complete the local
papers, twenty in all, to which may be added miscellaneous notes
on Meteorology and Entomology. The papers which do not relate
to Hertfordshire are five in number; a lecture on the Bronze Age,
an Anniversary Address on Man (the title being " A Wonderful
Animal"), and papers on the lower micro-organisms, on the egg
of the frog, and on the natural histoiy of the -salmon. The only
paper published in the ' Proceedings ' is a report on the Conferences
of Delegates to the British Association at Oxford in 1894, in which
is pointed out work which may be done by members of the Society
in assisting Committees of the British Association,

The volume is illustrated by the unusually large number of
sixteen plates, and by eight other illustrations. Seven of the
plates, representing bronze and stone implements, are reju-ints
from woodcuts kincUy lent by Sir John Evans and Mr. Worthington
Smith, and nine were produced from photographs at the expense of
the Society. The photographic illustration of the lieports of the
Field Meetings has been continued in this volume, eight photo-
gi-aphs taken by your Editor being reproduced on four of the plates.
Three plates are original process-reproductions from photographs
of the actual objects, and your Editor believes that in these plates
the haK-tone process has for the first time been successfully
employed in showing flint implements and lining plasmodium of
a Mycetozoon.

Owing chiefly to more expense than usual having been incurred
on the * Transactions,' six parts ha^-ing been issued with an
unusually large number of illustrations, the expenditure during
the year has been greater than the receipts, the balance being less
at the end than at the beginning of the year ; but in the present
year not more than four parts of the ' Transactions ' will be issued,

VOL. IX. — PART VIII. E

Iviii PROCEEDINGS,

and as it is not likely that there will be any exceptional expendi-
ture it may be possible to carry out the recommendation made in
last year's Report to spend only the amount received for annual
subscriptions, leaving tlae miscellaneous receipts to be added to the
invested funds of the Society.

The library is still at the old Board Room at the Waterworks,
where it is carefully housed but practically inaccessible to the
members. The donations received during the year have been
numerous. They are chiefly exchanges from other Societies, and
from the various scientific departments of the United States.
Your librarian has gone carefully through the library and regrets
to find many sets of serial publications incomplete. The library
is outgrowing the space available for it, and the question of
disposing of some of the books and unbound serial publications
not likely to be read by the members may have to be considered
by the Council and your trustees.

Although the Annual Reports are essentially retrospective, it has
been usual to throw out hints in them for the future, and in no
previous year has there been a more cogent reason for this practice
than in the present one, the year of the " Diamond Jubilee " of
our Queen. How to celebrate the longest reign of any English
Sovereign is being considered by almost every public institution in
the countries over which Queen Yictoria has ruled for sixty years,
and something should surely be done by the Hertfordshire Natural
History Society. To help charitable institutions, especially our
Hospitals, is an admirable way of commemorating this event, but
a scientific institution is the only one which can well appeal
to a scientific society, as such. It is intended this year to found
a scientific institution for Hertfordshire, to the fund for which
many members of this Society have already largely contributed.
To the proposed Hertfordshire County Museum some forty members
of this Society have already promised to contribute nearly £600,
out of a total amount slightly exceeding £1,300. An excellent
site at St. Albans has generously been offered by Earl Spencer,
and although, for the complete scheme of the Committee which
has been appointed, £5,000 is required, it has been decided to
commence operations by putting up a building which can be en-
larged at any future time so soon as the sum of £2,000 has been
raised. If forty members of the Society can give £600, an average
of £15 each, surely the remaining one hundred and eighty can
give another £600, an average of less than £3 10s. each, and if
they do so the success of the scheme will be assured. The Council
therefore ventures to ask for a subscription from every member of
the Society who has not yet promised one, sums of even 1 Os. being
acceptable. It is intended to include within the walls of the
Museum a scientific library and also a lecture-room in which
meetings of this Society may be held.

Such a commemoration of the Queen's reign will be peculiarly
appropriate, for it is mainly to her and to her Consort, Prince Albert,
in the earlier years of her reign, that we owe the magnificent group

SESSION 1896-97,

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PROCEEBrNGS,

of Museums at South Kensington. It was Prince Albert who not
only suggested the idea of the great London Exhibition of 1851,
but also that the surplus receipts fi'oni that Exhibition should be
invested in the purchase of land whereon to build Museums and
other institutions for the advancement of the Art, Science, and
Industries of our countiy.

Another way in which this year might be commemorated by
the Society is by the members endeavouring to bring up our roll
to a larger number than in any previous year. If one in every
three members would induce a friend to join the Society the total
number of members would be raised to about three hundred, which
is a considerably larger number than at any pre\-ious time.

The Council has appointed Dr. John Attfield, E.R.S., a Trustee
of the Society in place of the late Dr. Brett, and has aiTanged for
the dividends on the invested funds to be paid to the Society's
Bankers, instead of, as before, to one of the Trustees.

Additions to the Library in 1896.

Presented.
Title.
BiNNiE, A. R. On Mean or Average Annual Rainfall.

(Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.) Svo. London, 1892 .
British Association for the Advajs'cement of Science.

Report for 1895 (Ipswich). 8vo. London, 1896
Etheridge, R. Fossils of the British Islands. Vol. i.

Palffiozoic. 4to. Oxford, 1888
Evans, Sir J. On some Roman Coins found at

Brickendonbury, Hertford. (NTimis. Chron.) 8vo.

London, 1896

Lawes, Sir J. B., and Sir J. H. Gilbert. Residts of the

Rothamsted Expei-iments for the Years 1893-96. 4to.

London, 1894-96

Marriott, "W. The Meteorological Record. Vol. xiv,

No. /56 ; vol. XV, Nos. 57, 58. (Roy. Met. Soc.) Svo.

London, 1896

Ormerod. Eleanor A. Report of Observations of

Injurious Insects and Common Farm Pests during the

Year 1890. Svo. London, 1891 .
Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal.

Vols, iii-xxi. Svo. London, 1877-93
Royal Society. Report of the Meteorological Council

for the Year ending March, 1895. Svo. London,

1895

Science Gossip. Vol. ii, Nos. 22-24 ; vol. iii, Nos. 25,

27-29

Symons, G. J. (Ed.). Monthly Meteorological Magazine.

Vols, xxx and xxxi. Svo. London, 1895-96 .

Donor.
The Author.
The Association.
Mr. J. Kopkinson.

The Author.

Sir John Laices.

Sir John Evans.

The Authoress.
Sir John Evans.

J/>-. A. E. Gihhs.
The Editor.

Received in Exchange.

American Museum of Natural History. Report for the Year 1895. Svo.

New York, 1896.
Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club. Proceedings.

Vol. viii, part 3. Svo. Bath, 1896.

SESSION 189G-97. Ixi

Belfast Xatcralists' Field Club. Annual Report and Proceedings for

1895-96. 8vo. Belfast, 1896.
Birmingham Natvral History and PiiiLOSornicAL Society. Journal.

Vol. i, Xos. 8-13. Vol. ii, No. I. 8vo. Birniiugliam, 1895-96.
Boston (U.S.A.) Society of Natural History. Proceedings. Vol. xxvii.

8vo. Boston, 1895.
Brighton and Sussex Natural History SociETif. Abstract of Papers and

Report, 1895. 8vo. Brigliton, 1895.
Bristol Natur.4.lists' Society. Proceedings. Vol. viii, part 1. 8vo.

Bristol, 1896.
Cardiff Naturalists' Society. Transactions. Vol. xxvi, part 2. Vol. xxvii,

part 1. 8vo. Cardife, 1895-96.
Croydon Microscopical and- Natural History Club. Transactions.

1894-96. 8vo. Croydon, 1894-^96.
Ealing Natural Science and Microscopical Club. Report and Trans-
actions, 1895-96. 8vo. Ealing, 1896.
Edinburgh Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. vii, part 2. 8vo.

Edinburgh, 1896.
. Royal Physical Society. Proceedings. 1894-95. 8vo. Edin-
burgh, 1896.
Glasgow Natural History Society'. Proceedings. Vol. iv, part 2. Svo.

Glasgow, 1895.
, Philosophical Society of. Proceedings. Vol. xxvi. Svo.

Glasgow, 1895.
London, Geological Society of. Abstracts of the Proceedings. Session

1895-96. Svo. London, 1896.
. Geologists' Association. Proceedings. Vol. xiv, parts 6-10.

Svo. London, 1896.

Quekett Microscopical Club. Journal. Series 2, vol. vi,

Nos. 38, 39. Svo. London, 1896.

Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal. Vol. xxii.

Svo. London, 1896.

Royal jMicroscopical Society. Journal. New Series. Vol. viii.

part 1. Svo. Loudon, 1896.
Manchester Geographical Society. Journal. Vol. xi, parts 1-3, 7-9. Svo.

Manchester, 1896.
Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. xxvi, parts 5-7, 9, 10.

Svo. Manchester, 1896.

Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings.

Vol. X, parts 2, 3. Svo. Manchester, 1895.
Meridan (U.S.A.) Scientific Association. Transactions. Vol. vii. Svo.

Meridan, 1895.
Microscopy and Natural Science, International Journal of. Vol. vii,

parts 29-32. Svo. London, 1895.
New York State Museum. Bulletin. Vol. iii, Nos. 14, 15. 8vo. New

York, 1896.
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society. Transactions. Vol. vii,

part 2. Svo. Norwich, 1896.
Phil.idelphia Academy of Natural Science. Proceedings. January-March,

1896. Svo. Philadelphia, 1896.
Rochester (U.S.A.) Academy or Natural Science. Proceedings. Vol. iii.

Svo. Rochester, N.Y., 1896.
Rugby School Natural History Society. Report for the year 1895. Svo.

Rugby, 1896.
SouTHPORT Meteorological Department. Report for the year 1S95. 4to.

Southport, 1896.
L^nited States Department of Agriculture. Bulletin. No. 10. — The

North American Shrews. No. 11. — The North American Weasels.

No. 12. — The North American Moles and Lemmings. Svo. Washington,

1896.
. The Jack Rabbits of the United States. By T. S. Palmer. lb.

Ixii . PROCEEDUfGS,

United States Geological Survey. Annual Report for 1893-94, parts 1-4.
4to. Washington, 1895.

. Bulletin. No. 123. — Dictionary of Geographical Positions. By

H. Garnet. No. 124. — Revision of the American Fossil Cockroaches.
No. 125.— The Constitution of the Silicates. By W. F. Clarke. No. 126.—
A Mineralogical Lexicon of Franklin, Hampshire, and Hampden Counties.
By B. K. Emerson. No. 128. — The Bear River Formation and its
Characteristic Fauna. By C. A. White. No. 129. — Earthquakes in
California in 1894. By C. D. Perrine. No. 131. — Report of Progress of
the Division of Hydrography for the Calendar Years 1893 and 1894. By
F. H. Newell. No. 16'2. — The Disseminated Lead-Ores of South-Eastern
Missouri. By A. Winslow. No. 133. — Contributions to the Cretaceous
Pala3ontology of the Pacific Coast. By T. W. Stanton. No. 134.— The
Cambrian Rocks of Pennsylvania. By C. D. Walcott. Svo. Washington,
1895.

Upsala, University of. Bulletin of the Geological Institution. Vol. ii,
part 2, No. 4. 8vo. Upsala, 1895.

. Arsskrift. 1870, Nos. 1, 3. 1872, No. 1. 1873, No. 2. 1874,

No. 2. 1875, Nos. 1, 4, 5. 8vo. Upsala, 1870-75.

Wiltshire Arch^ological and Natural History Society. Magazine.
Vol. xxviii, Nos. 85, 86. 8vo. Devizes, 1895.

. Catalogue of Antiquities in the Museum. Part 1. Jb.

. Abstracts of luquisitiones Post Mortem. Part 4. lb.

PUECHASED.

Botany, Journal of. Vol. xxxiv. 8vo. London, 1896.

Buckler, W. The Larvse of the British Butterflies and Moths. Vol. ii.

Noctuse. {liai/ Society.) 8vo. London, 1895.
Entomologist. Vol. xxix. Svo. London, 1896.
Entomologists' Record. Vol. vii. 8vo. London, 1896.
Middlesex and Hertfordshire Notes and Queries. Vol. ii. 8vo.

London, 1896.
Nature Notes. Vol. vii. [Selhorne Society.) Svo. London, 1896.
Novitates ZoologiCjE. Vol. iii. 4to. Tring, 1896.
Ornithologist. Vol. i. [All published.) Svo. London, 1896.
Royal Natural History. Vol. vi. 8vo. London, 1896.
Year-book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and

Ireland . . . 1894, 1895. Svo. London, 1895-96.
Zoologist. 3rd Series. Vol. xx. Svo. London, 1896.

Oedinaet Meeting, 23ed Maech, 1897, at Watfoed.

William Whitakee, B.A., F.R.S., P.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E ,
President, in the Chair.

The President thanked the Society for the honour they had done
him in electing him, and expressed the hope that he would be able
to be present at most of the Society's meetings.

Mr. Thomas East Lones, M.A., LL.B,, B.Sc, and Mrs. Morrow,
were elected Members of the Society.

Miss E. M. Harry, Fairfield Eoad, Watford, and Dr. Reid,
St. Alban's Poad, Watford, were proposed for membership.

The following papers were read : —

1. "Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire during the year
1896." By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R. Met. Soc,
Assoc Inst. C.E. {Transact iotis, Vol. IX, p. 139.)

SESSION 1896-97. Ixiii

2. "J^otes on some Plants collected in Hcrtfordsliire by Miss
Maria Ransom, 1838-40." By James Saunders. {Transactions,
Vol. IX, p. 167.)

3. " Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year
1896." By Alan F. Grossman, F.L.S. {Transactions, Yol. IX,
p. 148.)

4. "On some Roman Coins found at Brickcndonbury, Hertford."
By Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S.,
V.P.S.A., etc. {Transactions, Vol. IX, p. 169.)

Ordinabt Meetdtg, 6th April, 1897, at St. Albans.

William Whitakee, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E.,
President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read : —

1. "The Earthquake of the 17th of December, 1896, as it
affected the County of Hertford." By Herbert George Fordham.
{Transactions, Vol. IX, p. 183.)

2. " Water-Levels in the Chalk near Royston." By Harold
Warren, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Communicated by H. G. Fordham.
{Iransactions, Vol. IX, p. 209.)

3. " Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St.
Albans, during the year 1896." By John Hopkinson, F.L.S.,
F.G.S., F.R. Met. Soc, Assoc. Inst. C.E. {Transactions, Vol. IX,
p. 175.)

4. "The Climate of St. Albans, deduced from Meteorological
Observations taken diu'ing the Ten Years 1887-1896." By John
Hopkinson. {Trajisactions, Yol. IX, p. 215.)

Ordinary Meeting, 30th April, 1897, at Wateord.

William Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E.,
President, in the Chair.

Miss E. M. Harry and Dr. Reid were elected Members of the
Society.

The following papers were read : —

1. "Xotes on the Birds of North Hertfordshire." By Joseph
P. Xunn. Communicated by Alan F. Crossman, F.L.S. {Trans-
actions, Vol. IX, p. 163.)

2. "Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertfordshire
during the year 1896." Bv Edward Mawley, Pres. R. Met. Soc,
F.R.H.S. {Transactio7is, Vol. IX, p. 229.)

3. "Notes on Lepidoptera observed in the Neighbourhood of
Watford in the year 1896." By S. H. Spencer, Jun. {Trmts-
actions, Vol. IX, j). 236.)

Ixiv PKocEEDrisres,

4. " Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the
year 1896." By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., P.G.S., F.R.Met. Soc,
Assoc. Inst. C.E. [Transactmis, Vol. IX, p. 241.)

Field Meeting, 3ed April, 1897.
CHESHAM AND TYLER'S HILL.

The first Field Meeting of the season was held in very un-
favourable weather, the day being bitterly cold, rain threatening
and a little falling, and the roads and paths being muddy from the
heavy rains of the previous month. The meeting was organized by
the Geologists' Association of London and was under the direction
of Mr. Upfield Green, F.G.S., the Hertfordshire Society being
invited to join in it, but no member took advantage of this invita-
tion who was not also a member of the Geologists' Association.

Leaving Chesham Station at about 3 o'clock, a somewhat steep
hill was ascended and the fields were crossed to the brickfields on
Tyler's Hill, also known as Cowcroft. This is a wooded hill of
which the upper part consists of an outlier of the Lower Eocene
beds capped by a thin bed of Drift. The outlier is one of a series
which range in a line nearly parallel with the north-western
boundary of the main mass of the Tertiary strata of which they
at one time formed a part, the intervening portion having been
removed by denudation. The presence of these outliers is probably
due to a slight change of dip of the Chalk on which they rest
causing the beds to lie in a trough and so affording them protection
from denudation. That they now form the highest ground is due
to subaerial denudation having less effect upon such beds of clay
and sand than upon the chalk by which they are surrounded, which
probably undergoes more waste from chemical dissolution than from
mechanical attrition. The wood on Tyler's Hill, the presence of
which is due to the nature of the subsoil formed by the outlier, also
affords a great protection from denudation, most of the rain which
falls upon it being absorbed by the trees so that it does not wash
away the soil.

Several sections in the brickfields were examined. In one about
25 feet of the Heading Eeds are exposed, the upper portion
consisting of about ten feet of white sand with a thin bed of clay
on the top, and the lower of about twelve feet of greyish sands
and laminated clay reposing on a layer of green-coated unwater-
worn flints and of pebbles which rests on a nearly level surface
of the Upper Chalk. In another section the surface of the Chalk
was seen to be very irregular, in fact worn away so as to form
pinnacles between which is clay with unworn flints, pebbles, and
broken shells, and with brick-earth on the top. And in a third
section about fifteen feet of the Reading Beds are surmounted by
about twelve feet of the Basement Bed of the London Clay, the
Bending Beds consisting of buff sands passing upwards into mottled
red and white sands, and the Basement Bed of laminated sandy

SESSION 1896-07. Ixv

clay reposing- on a layer of flint-pebbles, in which layer sharks'
teeth (Lamna) Avere fo:ind.

From Tyler's Hill the party crossed the valley of the Chess to
Aldridge's Dell, where there is a clialk-pit in which the Chalk
Kock is exposed, and a iew fossils were found in it.

On returning to Chesham tea was partaken of at the Chess Yale
Hotel.

In the 'Proceedings of the Geologists' Association,' vol. xv,
p. 89, will be found a list of fossils obtained from the Basement
13cd of the London Clay at Tyler's Hill, and from the Chalk Kock
at Aldridge's Dell.

Field Meeting, 24Tn April, 1897.
THE VALLEY OF THE BOURNE, B0X3I00R.

For fourteen years no water had flowed over the surface of the
ground do^Ti the Valley of the Bourne, but that the very wet
winter of 1896-97 would cause the Bourne to flow this year there
could not be the slightest doubt, and, to see if it were flowing,
the present writer twice visited the valley in March before any
water actually appeared above the surface. On the second occasion
it was ascertained that the cellar of an inn at the lower end of
the valley, which had been dry for years, was flooded. With
much labour the water had been taken out, but the next day it
was as full as before, showing that the cause of the flooding was
the raising of the plane of saturation of the chalk which occurs
preparatory to the outburst of the Bourne.

Most of the members taking part in this meeting walked from
Boxmoor Station, which was left at a quarter to three, to Bourne
End, where tea was ordered at the White Hart Inn, to be ready
on the return of the party from the soiu'ce of the Bourne.

The stream had already been seen flowing through the culvert
under the main road, and just after leaving the hamlet by the bye-
road which runs up the valley it was found that the volume of
water flowing down the usually dry bed of the Bourne was so great
as to flood this road and bar further progress. A way was, how-
ever, found through the meadows, and the stream was followed for
three miles from its junction with the Bulboume. Several times
it had to be crossed, and while some of the party jumped over it,
or into it, bridges were improvised for others out of hurdles and
bundles of wood ; at one spot a plank thrown across broke under
the weight of one of the members. The water was flowing rapidly,
here and there widening out into ponds, and a gravel-pit on its
course was full of water. At Bottom Farm there was a considerable
sheet of water, and not far above it the stream disappeared alto-
gether for a time, flowing underground only owing to the surface
of the ground having been raised to carry across the valley the lane
which leads to Harratt's End. There is a culvert under the lane,
but the water had not risen high enough to reach it. This raising

Ixvi PROCEEDINGS,

of the ground had another effect above the lane, for here the water
had accumulated, forming a large but shallow pond, above which
it was still flowing freely for nearly half a mile, the source of the
Bourne at this time being just where the valley takes a sharp turn
to the north-west. It was here flowing sluggishly through marshy
ground, its first appearance as a running stream being at the
extreme comer of a field of grass, the next, a ploughed field,
merely having indications of surface -saturation in the presence of
mud. The valley which the Bourne has formed continues for
a mile and a half beyond this point, nearly to Cross Oak, the bed of
the stream from the head of the valley to about half a mile below
Bottom Farm marking the boundary between the counties of Herts
and Bucks.

The object of the expedition, — to trace the Bourne to its source, —
having been achieved by the President and the majority of the
party, the valley was descended to Bourne End without any mis-
haps in crossing the stream, and tea was found to be waiting, not
the first edition, for some of the members had returned earlier and
had tea with others who never reached the main party.

Before the party dispersed, the President made some remarks on
the phenomena presented by the Bourne. He said that the general
slope of the country here was from north to south, and that the
inclination of the underground water-level in the Chalk roughly
followed the slope of the surface. Rain would percolate into the
Chalk until it was saturated, and when any permeable formation
was full of water it was practically impermeable, for it could not
receive a further quantity. With an average rainfall the water
which percolates into the Chalk remained underground, but with
a certain increase the slope of the underground water-level became
greater than that of the surface of the ground, and the water
consequently rose above the surface, the underground reservoir
overflowing, and in this instance forming the Hertfordshire Bourne,
There were other bournes in the southern counties, such as the
Croydon Bourne, which commenced to flow in February, nearly two
months earlier than this, the reason probably being that the out-
crop of the Chalk at Croydon was narrower and steeper.

Mr. Hopkinson then gave a list of the recorded instances of the
flowing of the Hertfordshire Bourne,— in 1853, 1873, 1876, 1877,
1879, 1881, and 1883, — with the dates of the commencement of the
flow and the position of the source ; and also the average rainfall
in the neighbourhood for the last four months of the year 1896.
The mean of ten stations, — two at Tring, two at Cowroast, one at
Northchurch, two at Bcrkhamsted, one at Great Gaddesden, and two
at Hemel Hempstead, — was as follows : — September, 6'80 inches ;
October, 3*57; November, 1*26; December, 4*25; giving a total
for the four months of 15-88 inches, which is nearly six inches in
excess of the average. The rainfall had also, he said, been rather
heavy during the first three months of 1897, especially in March,
but the present month of April, in which the Bourne commenced to
flow, was so far drier than usual.

SESSION 1896-97. Ixvii

Mr. TJrl):in Smitli estimated the present rate of the flow to be
about two million gallons a day.

(On visiiting the valley of the Bourne on the 19th of June, water
was found to be still flowing between half a mile and a mile above
lH)urne End, but at the end of the month the flow had quite
ceased.)

Field Meeting, 1st May, 1897.
ABBOT'S EIPTON AND HUNTINGDON.

The widening of the line of the Great Northern Railway, which
is now being carried on in the neighbourhood of Huntingdon, has
exposed an interesting section of the Oxford Clay, a division of the
Middle Oolite formation, and the overlying Boulder Clay. The
work is being executed under the superintendence of Mr. F. A.
Campion, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., and under his guidance the section
was examined. Most of the members, with their President,
Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., travelled from St. Albans by the 10.55
train, were met by others at Hatfield, and arrived at Abbot's
Kipton at 1 o'clock.

Lunch having been partaken of at the Inn near the station, the
walk along the line towards Huntingdon was commenced, and the
section of Boulder Clay in Stukeley cutting was soon in view.
This proved to be a very interesting exposure, the Boulder Clay
being unusually full of both large and small scratched or glaciated
boulders, many of which were found to be full of fossils. Most
of these boulders must have drifted with the great ice-sheet fi'om
the north, for amongst the rocks represented were seen several
specimens of Tealby Limestone from Lincolnshire, Carboniferous
Limestone and Coal Measure Sandstone from still further north,
and an igneous rock probably brought from a greater distance than
any of the rocks of aqueous origin. With these were huge flints,
some very distinctly glaciated, and hard chalk boulders also ice-
scratched. The prevailing fossils appear to be gryphaeas and
belemnites of Oolitic and Liassic age, but some of the Carboniferous
Limestone boulders also contained fossils.

The Oxford Clay, from which many fossils have been obtained
by Mr. Campion for the Hertfordshire Museum, was not well seen,
the best sections of it having been covered up.

After the deposition of the Boulder Clay, a milder climate pre-
vailed, and in a more recent deposit have been found horns of the
wild ox, antlers of the red deer, and remains of other animals which
roamed through the forests of those days ; but one of the most
interesting finds which has been made is that of a large number
of human remains with a few pieces of very primitive pottery.
Most of these were found when excavating for the foundations of
the new bridge where the railway crosses the Ermine Street at
Huntingdon, the remains being five feet below the present surface
of the ground. After examining this bed a large number of human

Ixviii PROCEEDINGS,

bones and a few skulls from it were seen. The teeth are in a
remarkably perfect state of preservation, but they are ground
down quite flat, this being presumably due to wear from the
mastication of food not free from grit. Another interesting point
about these human remains is the size of some of the bones, one
thigh bone being that of a man who must have been at least seven
feet in height. It is probable that this is the site of a battlefield
of Saxon times. Examples of these remains may be seen in the
temporary museum in the Market Place, St. Albaus.

Proceeding along the Ermine Street into Huntingdon, the house
in which Oliver Cromwell was born was pointed out (now No, 82,
Ermine Street) ; and in All Saints' Church was seen the entry of
his baptism on the 29th of April, 1599 (four days after his birth),
and also of the resting, within the walls of the church, of the body
of Mary Queen of Scots, in 1612, on its way from Peterborough
Cathedral to Westminster Abbey. Before the church was visited,
tea was partaken of at the Fountain Inn, nearly opposite, an
excellent repast being provided. There is one other church in
Huntingdon, St. Mary's, but at one time there were fifteen churches
in and around the town.

Leaving by an evening train, St. Albans was reached at a quarter
to ten, after an enjoyable and interesting day in perfect weather,
the excellent aiTangements made by Mr. Campion conducing much
to the success of the meeting.

Field Meeting, 22nd Mat, 1897.
ASTON AND BENNINGTON.

This was one of the most enjoyable field meetings which has
ever been held, the weather being perfect for a long walk, a cool
breeze tempering the rays of a bright sun only occasionally obscured
by a passing cloud, a beautiful part of the county being visited,
and much of interest being seen ; and yet very few members of the
Society took part in it, the number of the party being only ten.
It was under the direction of Mr. Hopkinson, who had devoted
the two previous Saturdays to finding out the prettiest walk and
making the necessary arrangements.

Starting from Kneb worth Station at about half -past eleven, the
road leading to Aston was taken for a short distance, and then
a path across the fields to Bragbury End. Crossing a tributary
of the Beane, a pretty woodland walk was taken to Aston Bury, an
old manor-house probably built by the Botelers in the early part of
the sixteenth century. It was formerly surrounded by a moat, in
part of which water still stands, and at the eastern end it is said
there was once a chapel. There are two remarkably fine carved oak
staircases, one at each end of the house, leading up to a room at
the top extending the whole length of the house, 113 feet. Various
conjectures were made as to the use of this room, which seems to

SESSION 1896-97. Ixix

have been at one time a place for Homan Catholic worship, is said at
another to have been a county ball-room, and may at another again
have been a common dormitory for the men employed on the estate.
The front of the house, which is partly overgrown with ivy, is very
fine, but the back, which faces south, and commands a pretty view
of wood and hill, is spoilt by the windows having been bricked up
at the time the window-tax was imposed.

Proceeding through meadows and across the park of Aston House,
the church, dedicated to St. Mary, was soon reached, and here the
members were met by the Hector, the Rev. G. V. Oddie, who
showed the parish register, dating from 1558. Much of the
earlier portion of this is a remarkable example of fine penmanship.
There is an entry of the sums subscribed in the parish towards
the expense of rebuilding St. Paul's Cathedral, amounting to
£16 6s. 8d. There is not much of interest in the church, but
the old rood-screen is curious, one end being carved in the
Decorated and the other in the Peqiendicular style.

After a bread-and-cheese lunch at the village inn, the Rose and
Crown, the walk was continued to Bennington, first crossing the
Beane by a foot-bridge, and then walking through the High Wood
and across the park of Bennington Lordship, permission to do so,
and also to see the ruins of the old Castle, having been kindly
granted by Mr. A. P. Pickering. St. Peter's Church, just outside
the ancient castle moat, was first visited. It is perhaps the most
beautifully-situated church in the county, unless that of Amwell
may claim the palm. It contains two fine old monuments, one
being the efiigies of a Crusader and his wife, by the arais on the
side of the tomb evidently of the family of Benstede, and the other,
of a later period, being the efiigies of a Lancastrian and his wife,
probably Sir John de Benstede and his wife Joan. The church
was built in the early part of the fourteenth century, and the
first monument, supposed by Cussans to be that of the builder, is
evidently of much older date. The parish register dates from the
year 1538.

Bennington Lordship is a comparatively modem residence built
within the ruined walls of an old moated castle. The moat has
been drained, and its once perpendicular sides are now steep slopes
tastefully laid out as part of the grounds of the house. Here and
there portions of the original walls of the castle have been left
in their ruined state, but in places, apparently with the view of
adding to the picturesqueness of the grounds, portions of the castle
have evidently been pulled down and rebuilt in other positions,
each door and window having been put together exactly as they
were originally built in the early part of the twelfth century. This
was done by a Proctor of some generations back, and has given rise
to an impression that the niins are possibly all " made ruins," but
such is not the case. Parts of the walls, with windows and door-
ways, of a castle which from the style of architecture of these
windows and doorways must have been built between the years
1100 and 1150, are still remaining in their original position, but

IxX PKOCEEDINGS,

the ruined gateway has been erected at a much more recent date
where was once the drawbridge over the moat. But while to an
antiquary it may be a matter for regi'et that any alterations have
been made in the old ruins, it cannot be denied that the work has
been most artistically carried out. The site of the Castle, there is
some reason to believe, was a seat of one of the Kings of Mercia
at least as long ago as the year 850.

The village of Bennington, with its quaint old houses, is almost
as well worth seeing as its church and its castle, and to one of
these, the Bell Inn, the members then proceeded, an-iving at the
exact time stated on the notice of the meeting, 4 o'clock, and
finding tea ready for them.

The return walk was taken through Aston, but by a totally
different route from that by which Bennington had been reached,
the high road being followed as far as Aston, and Knebworth
Station being reached from there by field-paths and for some
distance through meadows by the side of a stream.

Field Meeting, 29th May, 1897.
KEW GARDENS.

A fairly good number of members with their friends met at the
Principal Entrance to the Gardens, the greater part from Watford
and St. Albans ; some others, including the senior Secretary, were
deprived of the pleasure of being present owing to being caught,
on starting from London, in a heavy storm of rain, fortiinately
occurring whilst most were in the train.

The Rock Gardens were first visited, many interesting and
beautiful flowers being pointed out, such as the Trillium or
"Trinity Flower," so called from all its parts being in threes,
various species of Saxifraga, Aubrietia, and Trollius, a few orchids,
and the later Primulaceae. The beds of Iris germanica were much
admired ; the beautiful forms and colouring of the flowers would
run the orchids a close race were they not so ephemeral.

Many fine plants were seen in the Botanic Section, also two
lady gardeners in "rational costume" and blue aprons assidously
dutch-hoeing the beds.

The various hot-houses were next inspected, in one of which
a very fine young seedling plant of Lodo'icea seycJiellensia was
pointed out, with its double seed-nut still attached ; the nut, long
known on the Maldive coast and used as a poison antidote, was
supposed to be the fruit of a submarine tree, hence the name
" Cocoa-de-Mer." This belief obtained credence until the dis-
covery of the Seychelles group, when the tree was found with fruit.
It reaches to a height of about 100 feet, and grows on thi'ee only
out of the thirty islands comprising the group. Many attempts
have been made to introduce this beautiful tree elsewhere, all
resulting in failure ; it is believed that the plant at Kew is the

SESSiox 1896-97. Ixxi

only one in Europe. The Orchids also were inspected and much
admired, some specimens being very fine. The Saracenias and
Insectivorous plants then came in for a share of attention.

The Tropical Economic House, with its tea, cocoa, pepper, all-
spice, and other plants producing food, caused much interest ; and
in the " Greenhouse " many pretty flowers, the hybrids from
Cineraria cruenta and the Himalayan rhododendrons, were noticed.

The beautiful collection of paintings from all parts of the world
made by the late Miss M. North and bequeathed by her to Kew
Gardens, now forming the "North" Gallery, was next inspected.
The Succulent House, with its very curious occupants, was also
visited. In. the Palm House some fruiting bananas were pointed
out, but the bunches were not well set. The Temperate House,
also, was inspected. Tea was then partaken of at the Refreshment
Rooms near.

The Azalea and Rhododendron Gardens were then visited. The
variety of colour of the azalea, and the charm of evergreen foliage
combined with the gorgeous colouring of the flowers of the rhodo-
dendron, should lead these plants to be more frequently cultivated
than they are now. It has been pointed out that they can be
grown in good turfy loam without the aid of peat.

It was somewhat late for the daffodils, scillas, tulips, and other
flowers planted in the grass, but enough was left to show how
beautiful this so-called "naturalization" of bulbs can be made by
judicious planting, the display being commenced by the winter
aconite in January, and continued by the various narcissi, scillas,
tulips, etc., well into June. A meadow which has to be mown
might be made beautiful until the scythe, and no perceptible
damage would be done to the hay.

The meeting was under the direction of Mr. Daniel Hill, the
Society's Librarian, to whom the Editor is indebted for this report.

Field Meetixg, 12th June, 1897.
SOPWELL, ST. ALBANS.

Just before St. Albans is reached from London by the Midland
Railway, there may be seen between the line and the River Ver
a number of pits of sand and gravel extending over a considerable
area. Near the river the gravel has evidently been worked for
a long time, but the pits on the higher ground near the line have
only recently been opened. The pits are on the Sopwell estate
belonging to the Earl of Verulam, and it was the principal object
of this meeting to examine them by his invitation. It was
thoiight, however, that it would be well to first see something
more of the Ver and its valley, and Bricket Wood Station was
selected as the starting-point.

The meeting was under the direction of the President of the
Society, Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., and Mr. Hopkinson. At

Ixxii PROCEEDINGS,

starting tlie party was not a large one. but eventually numbered
upwards of thirty. In the meadows below Hanstcads the meeting
of the waters of the Colne and Ver was seen, the Ver here being
much the larger stream, although considered to be a tributary of
the Colne. An attempt at an explanation of this anomaly has
already been given in our 'Transactions' (Vol. VI, p. xxix).
"Waterside Farm, where a tiny stream flows into the Ver off the
Boulder Clay of Bricket Wood, was then visited, and its pretty
garden by the river shown by the Misses Elwes. The Ver has
no other existing tributary, except a few miles higher up its
valley at the village of Bcdbourn, which doubtless takes its name
from a bourne which is recorded to have formerly sometimes
flowed there, presaging sickness and dire distress. The reason
is that the Ver, throughout its course, flows entirely on the
Chalk and with this exception has no subsidiary valley of sufficient
depth to reach the plane of saturation, the only bed upon the Chalk
in the valley of the Ver sufficiently impermeable to throw off water
being the Boulder Clay at Bricket "Wood.

At Moor Mill the river was crossed and a path through the
meadows on its left bank taken for about half a mile, when it was
again crossed, only to be re-crossed finally at Park Street, and by
this means the walk to Sopwell was entirely through the meadows.
On the way the members were met by the Earl of Verulam, who
kindly in\'ited them to his residence and provided tea, which was
much appreciated after the walk of four or five miles on a hot and
sunny afternoon, for this was the first hot day of the summer and
the sky was cloudless. Lord Verulam has a collection of " curios "
of various kinds which attracted much interest ; and on a table ho
had spread out a large number of specimens from his gravel-pits,
including diifted fossils such as echinoderms and gryphseas, flints
of peculiar shape, and rocks from much older formations than any
in this neighbourhood, drifted by ice from the north. Some very
interesting fossils collected by the Hon. Captain Grimston, F.G.S.,
were also seen, and remarks upon them were made by him. These
are chiefly from the Crag of the ISTorfolk coast. Some of the rarest
have been presented by him to the British Museum, and casts of
these were shown.

Lord Verulam then conducted the party to a large pit of gravel
and sand on the high ground to the north-west of his residence,
and then to the gravel-pits nearer the river. After they had
been examined, the President, Mr. Whitaker, was called upon to
make some remarks, and, referring to the first pit visited, he
said that sand finely bedded, or current-bedded sand, must have
been deposited there by water, though he could not say definitely
whether this deposit of sand and gravel was of marine or of fresh-
water origin, no shells native to the deposit having been left in it,
but only rolled echinoderms and inocerami which had come out of
the Chalk. The greater number of the stones are flints from the
Chalk, and an enormous quantity of chalk must have been destroyed
to leave these flints. In the neighbourhood there was sometimes

SESSION 1896-97. Ixxiii

overlying the gravel a bed of loam which he thought was de-
composed Boidder Clay. This gravel, therefore, was really part
of the Glacial Drift. It was highly permeable, water easily getting
through it. Although it was of Glacial age, it was not necessarily
of glacial origin, for during the period in which icy conditions
prevailed there were intervals of milder climate.

After thanking the Earl of Verulam for his kindness the party
dispersed, a very pleasant and interesting afternoon having been
spent.

Field Meeting, 19th June, 1897.
TRING PARK AND MUSEUM.

The party assembled at the Zoological Museum which the Hon.
Walter Kothschild has established at Ti'ing on the confines of
Lord Rothschild's residence, Tring Park, and visited the Museum
by his permission, this day (a Saturday) not being one on which
it is open to the public. The meeting was under the management
of Mr. W. R. Carter, and the members were shown over the
Museum by the Director, Mr. E. Hartert.

Several fine specimens of the Apteryx, a wingless bird from New
Zealand, first attracted attention. These birds are rather larger
than our domestic fowl, and lay an egg much larger than that of
a common turkey. A very much larger egg is of course that
of the ostrich. There is also a model of the egg of a Dmornis
with a replica skeleton of the bird accurately modelled from the
original. The ostrich is a survival from a gi'oup of gigantic birds,
some of which have been non-existent for many centuiies, and
several of these are here exhibited.

Mr. Hartert then pointed out the aquatic bird section, comprising
such birds as the waders, cormorants, and gulls. Immediately
opposite these is a case containing the minor feathered denizens
of our woodlands and heaths, and near to them are the birds of the
hawk tribe, the beautiful plumage of the snowy owls being much
admired. Still richer and more important for study than the
stuffed birds is the large collection of bird-skins, which is kept
in two adjoining rooms. The monkeys attracted much attention.
A grand specimen of the gorilla figures prominently, and on his left
stands a still more hideous relative, the ourang-utan. Amongst
the smaller species the "howlers" are, perhaps, of most interest.
Travellers in South America are well acquainted with their un-
earthly vocal powers. Poor old Sally, for many years when alive
the centre of attraction in the Monkey House of the Zoological
Gardens, is here so realistically set up as almost to appear to live
again.

Next were seen some of the predatory Mammalia — the lion of
the plains of Asia and Africa, and his crafty kinsman the Bengal
tiger, the jaguar, the puma or American lion, and the cheetah or
Indian hunting leopard. Amongst them is a wild cat, a creature

VOL. IX. — PART VIII. F

Ixxiv

believed to be just on the verge of extinction in Britain, the last
specimens seen being in the most remote districts of the Highlands
of Scotland. There is also here a hybrid between a lion and a tiger.

The first floor is reached by a pretty staircase lined with photo-
graphs of animals, etc., and here, suspended from the ceiling, are
huge white sharks and other monsters of the deep, overhanging
the walrus, the tapir, and the giraffe. Around are cases full of
smaller creatures, chiefly Invertebrata, for the Museum is as rich
in them as it is in the more conspicuously exhibited Yertebrata.
It was, however, thought desirable to leave the detailed examina-
tion of these to some future visit. Adjoining the first floor is
the zebra room, and above it, reached by an iron staircase, a very
rich collection of antelopes is exhibited.

Some living animals in an adjoining enclosure were then seen,
and a pleasant walk was taken through the park, where emus
and kangaroos appeared to be as much at home as in their native
haunts. The fallow deer were much more shy, no sooner seen
than out of sight. A gigantic tortoise, one of the largest in
existence, on the other hand, took no notice whatever of his
visitors, and an emu resented being disturbed while sitting on
a clutch of its eggs.

On leaving the park, Mr. Hartert was cordially thanked for his
kind attention and requested to convey the thanks of the party
to the Hon. "Walter Rothschild. Tea was then partaken of in
Tring, and the station was reached after a pleasant drive round
the Reservoirs.

Field Meeting, 23ed Octobek, 1897.
CASSIOBURY PARK, WATFORD.

By the kind permission of the Earl of Essex and Sir Matthew
White Ridley the annual Fungus Foray was held in Cassiobiuy
Park, the Swiss Cottage woods, and the Woodwalks adjoining
Cassiobury House. The foray was under the direction of Mr.
Hopkinson, and the Fungi were identified by Mr. George Massee,
F.L.S., of Kew.

In the morning a party of eight (assembling at the principal
entrance at ten o'clock) crossed the Park to the grounds of the
Swiss Cottage, finding about twenty species in the park, and in-
creasing the number to nearly one hundred, besides several species
not identified at the time, in the damp woods on the opposite side
of the River Gade to the Swiss Cottage, which proved to be
a prolific hunting-ground, especially for the minuter forms.

In the afternoon the members, increased in number to upwards
of twenty, entered the Cassiobury Woodwalks and strolled along
the old coach-road which passes through these (now) private
grounds. The search for fungi was here made under difficulties.
The woods are preserved, and the members were restrained by an
over-zealous keeper from deviating out of this road, beyond its

SESSION 1896-97.

Ixxv

banks at least, for fear a pheasant might be disturbed. It was
afterwards ascertained that the keeper was exceeding his duty, the
Earl of Essex having kintlly intended the members to have free
access to all parts of his beautifid Woodwalks. However, this
restriction did not much interfere with the success of the after-
noon's foray, the number of species found in the morning being
nearly doubled, and there was again a much larger proportion of
microscopic fungi than has usually been found on former occasions.

The great find of the day was that of Agaricus {Clitocyhe)
Sadleri, discovered by Miss Buchanan. The species was first
found growing in the Botanic Gardens in Glasgow, and it has now
been added to the Hertfordshire Flora by a young lady whose
native place is the same as that of the fungus, or at least as
that whence came our knowledge of its existence as a species.
Miss Buchanan was also fortunate in finding another rare species,
Daldinia co7icentrica.

After a brief visit to the gardens of Cassiobury House, the
"Woodwalks were left, and the members were kindly entertained
at tea by the Society's Librarian, Mr. Daniel Hill, and his sister,
at their residence, " Herga."

It was a beautifully fine day, though rather dull in the morning,
bright and warm in the afternoon, and the sunshine brought out in
perfection the varied autumnal tints of the foliage. Altogether, an
interesting and enjoyable day was spent, and with the satisfactory
result of beating any previous record in the number of species of
fungi found.

The following is a list of the species detenuined by Mr. Massee,
those new to Hertfordshire being distinguished by an asterisk : —

Htmenomycetes.
Agaricinece.
Agaricus
(Amanita) plialloides, Fr.

,, mappa, Batuch.

,, muscarius, Z.

,, rubescens, Fers.

,, asper, Fr*

,, vaginatus, Bull.
(Lepiota) procerus, Seop.

,, mastoideus, Fr.

,, clypeolarius, Bull.

,, cristatus, Fr.

,, carcharias, Fers.

,, granulosus, Batsch.

,, delicatus, Fr.*
(Armillaria) ramentaceus, Bull.

,, melleus, Vahl.

,, • mucidus, Fr.
(Tricholoma) spermaticus, Fr.

, flavobruaneus, Fr.

,, albobrunneus, Fers.

,, rutilans, Schcejf.

,, imbricatus, Fr.

,, terreus, Schceff.

(Tricholoma) saponaceus, Fr.

„ cuneifolius, Fr.*

,, carneus. Bull.

,, personatus, Fr.

„ nudus, Bull.

,, panaeolus, Fr.

,, sordidus, Fr.
(Clitocybe) nebularis, Batseh.

,, clavipes, Fr.

,, phyllophilus, Fr.

,, candicans, Fr.

,, fumosus, Fers.

,, infundibuliformis, Sclmff.

,, gilvus, Fers.

,, tuba, Fr.

,, cyathiformis, Fr.

,, brumalis, Fr.

,, ditopas, Fr.

,, fragraus, Sow.

,, lacciitus, Scop,

,, Sadleri, Berk.
(Collybia) radicatus, Fehl.

,, platyphyllus, Fr.

,, fusipes, Bull.

,, maculatus, A. S[ S.

,, butryaceus, Bull.

Ixxvi

PROCEEDINGS

(CoUybia)

confluens, Pers.
tuberosus, Bull.

9J

xanthopus, Fr.*
dryophilus, Bull.
rancidus, Fr.

J f

ambustus, Fr.*

(Mycena)

peliantbinus, Berk.
purus, Pers.
luteo-albus, Bolt.

J)

flaTO-albus, Fr.

J f

rugosus, Fr.

J9
J J

galericiilatus, Scop.

,, var. calopus, Fr.
polygrammu3, Bull.
atro-cyaueus, Batsch.*

>>

alcalinus, Fr.

>>

ammoniacus, Fr.

J J

metatus, Fr.

J J

stanneus, Fr.

>>
J)

J >

filopes, Bull.
sanguinolentus, A. ^ S.
galopus, Fr.
tenerrimus, Berk.

) J

corticola, Schum.

(Omphalia) hydrogrammus, JV.*
,, hepaticus, Batsch.^
,, fibula, BtilL^

)»

,, var. Swartzii, Fr.*

(Pleurotus) ostreatus, /ar^.
(Eutoloma) lividus, Fi\^
,, jubatus, Fr,

J J

sericeus, Bull.

3 y

nidorosus, Fr.

,, rhodopolius, Fr*
(Clitopilus) undatus, Fr.
(Nolanea) pascuus, Pers.
(Claudopus) depluens, Batsch.
(Pholiota) togularis, Bull.

„ segerita, Fr.*

>>

>>
(Inocybe)

squarrosus, Bull.
adiposus, Fr.
calamistratus, Fr.*

} J

incarnatus, Bres.*

>>

Bongardii, TFeissm.*

J )

perbrevis, Weissm.*

)>

geophyllus,_^/Sot('.

(Hebeloma) inesopb?eus, Fr.

,, petiginosiis, Fr.*
(Flamniiila) lentus, Pers.

,, flavidus, Schceff.*

„ picreus, Fr.*
(Naucoria) melinoides, Fr.
(Gal era) tener, Schceff.

,, hypnonim, Batsch.
(Tubaria) furfuraceus, Pers.
(Psalliota) arvensis, Schceff.

,, dermoxantba, Pat.*
(Stropbaria) a;ruginosus, Curt.

,, coronillus, Bull.*

,, squamosus, Fr.

,, stcrcorarius, Fr.

(Stropbaria) sublateritius, Fr.

,, epixantbus, Fr.*

,, fascicularis, Huds.

,, velutinus, Pers.
(Hypboloma) appeudiculatus, Bull.*

,, bydropbilus, Bull.
(Psilocybe) sarcocepbalus, Fr.

,, semilanceatus, Fr,

,, spadiceus, Schceff.
(Psatbyra) corrugis, Pers.

,, semivestitus, B. ^ Br.
(Panseolus) pbalenarum, Fr.

,, campanulatus, i.

,, papilionaceus, Bull.
(PsyatbyreUa) gracilis, Fr.

Coprinus comatus, Fr.

,, atraruentarius, Fr.

,, micaceus, Fr.
Bolbitius tener, Berk.*
Cortinarius prasinus, Fr.*

,, elatior, Fr.
Paxillus involutus, Batsch.

,, paradoxus, Kalchh.*
Hygropborus pratensis, Pers.

,, virgineus, Wulf.

,, niveus, Scop.

,, coccineus, Schceff.*

,, miuiatus, Fr.*

„ puniceus, Fr.

,, psittaciuus, Schceff.
Lactarius turpis, Fr.
Russula nigricans, Fr.

,, furcata, Fr.
Marasmiiis rotula, Fr.
Leutinus cocbleatiis, Fr.*
Panus stypticus, Fr.*

Polyporece.
Boletus ecaber, Fr.

„ luridus, Schceff.
Polyporus squamosus, Fr.

,, cbioneus, Fr.
Fomes ferruginosus, Mass.*

„ annosus, Fr.
Polystictus versicolor, Fr.

,, birsutus, Fr.
Poria sanguinolenta, A. ^- S.

,, vaporaria, Fr.

Thelephorece.
Stereum purpureum, Pers.

,, rugosum, Fr.*

,, birsutum, Fr.
Corticium comedens, Fr.

,, sambuci, Fr.

„ aracbnoidium, B. ^ Br.

,, sebaceum, Mass.
Hymenocbffite corrugata, Lev.*
Peniopbora cinerea, Cke.

,, velutina, Cke.*

,, iucarnata, Mass.*

SESSION 1896-97,

Ixxvii

Tlielephora laciniata, Pers.
Coniophora arida, Karst.*
Ilirneola auriciila-]'ud;B, Berk*

Clavariece.
Typhula gracilis, Berk*

,, erytbropus, Fr*
Clavaria fragilis, Holmsk.

,, vennicularis, Scop.
Calocera cornea, Fr.

Gastromycetes.
Lycoperdon pjTiforme, Sch(eff.
Ithyphallus impiidicus, Fr.
SpliitTobolus stellatus, Tode.*

Pyrenomycetes.
Rhytisma acerinum, Fr.
Leptosphferia acuta, Fr.
Byssospliferia aquila, Fr.*
Daldinia concentrica, Fr.*
Xylaria hypoxylon, Fr.

Xylaria polymorpha, Fr.
Hypomyces rosellus, Titl.*
Sphocrella fragraria;, Fr.*

IIyi'homycbtes.

Microstroma album, Sacc*
Botrytis cinerea, Fers.*
Verticillium lateritium. Berk.*
Acrostalagmus ciunabariuus, Corda.*
Mucrosporium spb^rocephalum, Sacc.*
Tubercularia sesculi, Opiz.*

,, vulgaris, Tode.
Epicoccum pui-purascens, Ehrh.*

Myxogastres.
Chondrioderraa diffornie, Rost.
Spumaria alba, BC*
Craterium rubiginosum, Mass.*
Stemonitis fusca, Rost.
Arcyria nutans-, Rost.*
Trichia scabra, Rost.
Tubuliua cyliudrica, Rost.*

Mr. Massee contributes tlie folio-wing remarks on some of tlie
rarer or more interesting species in the above list : —

Agaricus ( Clitocyhe) Sadleri. — This very rare species, which has
only been collected two or three times previously, was first found
growing on a damp tub in the Glasgow Botanic Garden. It is
unknown outside Britain.

Agaricus {Collyhia) tuherosa. — A peculiar little species, always
growing on the decayed pileus of some large agaric, more especially
on that of Russula nigricans. The mycelium forms a little
sclerotium.

Agaricus {Collyhia) xanthopiis. — This is often confounded with
A. dryophilus, from which it differs in the broad gills being much
cut away behind.

Agaricus {Psalliota) dermoxantlia. — A species only quite recently
recorded as British. It closely resembles A. arvensis, the "horse-
mushroom," but is distinguished among other features by becoming
primrose-yellow when cut or bruised. It is esculent.

Lentinus cocldeatus. — A clustered, trumpet-shaped, tough fungus,
with a pleasant spicy smell resembling aniseed. Edible.

Boletus luridus. — A large, showy fungus. The flesh is very pale
yellow, but instantly changes to a deep indigo-blue when cut or
bruised. Poisonous.

Fomes annosus. — A parasitic fungus which is very destructive
to fir-trees. The base of the trunk is first attacked, and the
tree is eventually killed. This fungus is by some called Trametes
radiciperda.

Poria sanguinolenta. — Forms a thin broadly-effused crust on
decaying timber. Pure white, but becoming stained blood-red
when bruised. Rare.

Poria vaporaria. — Very common on decaying timber ; sometimes
becoming a true and destructive parasite.

Ixxviii PEOCEEDINGS.

Stereum rugosum. — Forms a dirty- white, inseparable crust on
branches. A true parasite, very destructive to the cherry-laurel.

Stereum Mrsufum. — Very showy. Common as a saprophyte on
decaying timber ; but at times becoming a very destructive parasite
on trees of various kinds.

Clavaria vermicularis. — A fragile little fungus, resembling a
dense cluster of crow-quills tied together ; pure white. Although
individually small, it is a social species, growing in great abundance
among short grass, and it is one of the most delicious of esculent
species, being almost indistinguishable from "cheese-straws" in
flavour when properly cooked.

Rhytisma acerinum. — Forms the conspicuous black patches on
living sycamore leaves. Diseased leaves fall early; hence, when
the disease is present in quantity, and appears year after year, as
is usually the case, the tree is seriously injured by the parasite.
The class of spores which inoculate the young leaves in spring are
only formed on the black patches of fallen leaves which have rotted
on the ground during the winter ; hence, if all diseased leaves were
collected and burned during the autumn before the spores are
mature, the disease would be checked.

Baldinia concentrica. — Amongst the largest of Pyrenomycetous
Fungi, and by no means common in Britain. The genus illustrates
an ancient and almost extinct type, its three or four species being
very widely distributed, especially in tropical regions.

Splicerella fragrance. — The cause of a very serious disease to
cultivated strawberries, more or less covering the leaves with
purplish red patches, each having a pale central spot. When the
leaves are badly diseased they fail to perform their functions, hence
there is a lack of elaborated food-supply, and consequently a poor
crop of fruit the year following the attack. This disease can be
held in check by spraying at intervals, until the flowers expand,
with a solution of potassium-sulphide — two ounces dissolved in
three gallons of water.

TEANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

^ A^ Zoolooy \\

I. r JUL 20 1942

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. X^ I b K a
MUTUAL AID AMOJs^GST ANIMALS.

By Pkince KropotkijST.
Delivered at the Annual Meeting, 2bth February, 1895, at Watford.

Ladies and Gentlemen, —

I feel very much the honour of having been asked by your
President to deliver to you — the members of the Hertfordshire
Natural History Society — the Anniversary Address on his behalf.
Perhaps, an Address on one of those subjects which are engaging
most the attention of the scientific -world at the present moment
would have been more interesting to you than one on the subject
I have chosen. However, the important recent discovery of the
new photography, which was placed before us by Professor
Pontgen, has been so extensively dealt with in the daily Press
during the six months which have elapsed since it was first
announced, that really very little can be added of interest to that
which is already known about the now famous "X rays."

"With regard to the news that Nansen has reached the North
Pole and is now returning to Europe, a few words will be
sufficient. A report has been circulated, as you know, that on
the 13th of February a telegram was received at Irkutsk,
anticipating the Yakutsk mail, and bearing the news that Dr.
Nansen had been to the Pole, that he had discovered a new land,
and was already on his journey back. I have learned from the
Russian Press that the Governor-General of Siberia, having been
besieged on all sides for authentic information about Nansen, has
telegraphed to the little town of Kirensk — the terminus of the
telegraph-line to North Siberia — ordering a special messenger
to be sent to Yakutsk, to get information from there ; and as
soon as that special messenger returns, the Governor- General will

VOL. IX. — PART I. 1

vr u

2 PEiNCE KEOPOTKrN" — aint^'ive:rsaiiy addeess:

commimicate all information to the Geographical Society at
St. Petersburg, whence the information will then be sent to
London. In the meantime, only conjectures can be made as to the
probability of the news. Perhaps I am a little prejudiced in favour
of the route which has been taken by Nansen. It is now known
that Nansen did not go so far east as he at first expected, and
it is believed that, having entered the Kara Sea, he very probably
pushed north-eastwards. This route is the one which we advocated
in Russia for an Arctic expedition, when it was going to be sent
out in 1871, and which I intended to join, but failed to do so
because the low state of the Russian finances prevented the
expedition from being sent out at all. Our idea was that if we
pushed northwards, but west of Nova Zembla, we should soon
find land, and that that would stop our advance ; and as a matter
of fact, this land was discovered the following year by the Austrian
expedition. But we thought that if we went north-east of Nova
Zembla we should have all the advantage of the warm current,
and might penetrate further north than in any other direction.
It is believed by most geographers, including the President of the
Geographical Society of London, that Nansen really took that
route; and in such case he probably went to the 82nd or the
83rd degree of latitude, and found an archipelago of land there.
Whether he has or has not reached the North Pole, he is the man
of all others in the world who is best entitled to the honour of
reaching it. All that we can now do is to wait in the expectation
that the special messenger of the Governor-General of Siberia will
return with the information that the Yakutsk mail has brought
satisfactory news from Nansen.

I will now proceed with the subject of my address — "Mutual
Aid amongst Animals."

If we look at Nature, not as it appears in books, but as it is in
reality, we shall at once perceive that there are two sets of facts
characteristic of the life of animals. One is that some species live
upon others, in many instances continually fighting with the species
which they make their food ; and the other is, that amongst most
species there is a great deal of mutual support — of life in societies,
in which they aid each other in the struggle against the difficulties
of natural conditions.

Now the qiiestion arises : " Which of these two sets of relations
between animals is the more important for the continuance of their
existence, evolution, and progressive development? " For the last
thirty-five years a great deal of importance has been attached

MUTUAL AIT) AMONGST ANIMALS. 3

to the fact of tlic mutual struggle amongst animals, while the
effects of mutual support have been totally ignored and neglected.
This has, no doubt, partly arisen from the importance which was
given by Darwin to the struggle for existence as the chief factor
in natural selection. Darwin's position in respect to this subject
is well known, and it can be summed up in very few words. His
argument is that every animal and vegetable, if not interfered with
by others, would multiply so rapidly that in a very short time
the descendants would become so numerous that there would not be
room for them to exist ; and that therefore there goes on amongst
them a fearful competition for life, in which those individuals alone
survive which are best fitted to the surrounding medium in which
they dwell.

The theory of Evolution has placed the sciences of Palaeontology
and Biology upon a philosophical basis ; in fact, it may almost
be said to have created the science of Biology. It has been proved
that evolution is continually going on, that throughout the whole
of the strata of the earth, from the earliest fossilifei'ous rocks
to the present time, species have continually varied in accordance
with the diiierent circumstances in which they have been placed.
But while it has been proved that IS'atural Selection must have
played a very important part in securing those variations which
were useful to the species, Science, during the last thirty years,
has put forward more and more that other factor, indicated by
Lamarck, and which Herbert Spencer has described as direct
accommodation to the influence exercised by surrounding circum-
stances, or adaptation to environment. Many other causes of
progressive development, besides natural selection, have been
indicated, such as physiological selection and sexual selection.
Already, in his first work on the subject, ' The Origin of
Species,' Darwin warned his followers against taking the term
of "struggle for life" in too narrow a sense. This warning,
however, has not been heeded generally ; and many who are not
much acquainted with the life of animals took up these words
and used them in a wrong sense, construing them so as to give
the idea that all organisms are continually struggling against
each other for the sheer means of existence. Every day in our
human affairs we now hear these words, "the struggle for life."
If a tribe of Red Indians be exterminated, or if men be found
dying of hunger in rich societies, it is put down to the struggle
for life. Darwin warned his followers against this narrow con-
ception, and said that they must understand the term "rather

4 PEIIfCE KEOPOTKIN AKNIYERSAEY ADDRESS :

in its metaphorical sense " than in its direct sense ; and in his
second great work, ' The Descent of Man,' he developed his
ideas so as to show that mutual aid and mutual support amongst
animals are the most important factors for the development of
moral sentiments and for the maintenance of the species,
especially of the human species. In that work he said that
"those species which contain the greatest number of mutually
sympathetic individuals have the greatest chance of surviving and
of leaving progeny." And he attributed to life in societies such
an importance that man, he said, could not have been derived from
any species which lived an isolated life, like the orang-outang or
the gorilla, but, on the contrary, that he must have taken his
origin from some sociable species like the chimpanzee, for sociability
was the greatest factor in the survival and progress of his species,
Nevertheless, these ideas have been utterly neglected, and Darwin's
followers continue to attribute to struggle within the species
the chief importance as a factor of evolution. In the year 1887,
Huxley, who had long been the most popular exponent of Darwin's
views, even came forward with an article about mutual struggle, in
which he said that J^ature was nothing but a gladiator-show where
everything was red in blood — "Nature red in tooth and claw,"
as Tennyson has expressed it ; and that in Nature the pitiless
extermination of everyone — the pitiless self-assertion of the
individual — is the guiding principle ; so that fi'om Nature we
can learn no moral lesson because she is essentially immoral.

This is what has led me to come forward and ask whether
it is true that this is the lesson of Nature. A Russian Professor
of Zoology, Kessler, a man of much experience, who has travelled
a great deal in Europe and Asia, delivered a lecture some time ago
in which he pointed out that besides the law of struggle there was
the law of mutual aid, which was much more important for the
progressive evolution of the species than the law of mutual struggle.
It will, I am sure, be found that Professor Kessler's idea is more
in. accordance with Nature, as it is in reality, than the idea
at which Professor Huxley arrived from the latest studies of his
life. If the opinion of those who have studied Nature in the
forest and the jungle, more than in the laboratory, be taken,
I am sure it will be found that the majority will take this view
of Nature. If it be endeavoured to appreciate statistically which
is the more important — mutual struggle or mutual aid — no result,
of coui'se, can be arrived at. The question can only be put in this
way : " Which is the more important for the preservation and

MUTUAL AID AMONGST ANIMALS. 5

maintenance of the species and for its further progressive
evolution?" The answer of all naturalists who have a direct
knowledge of animal life would be " Mutual support."

In illustration of this position we may take some of the lower
animals, such as the burrowing beetle. You may walk into your
garden and often see four or five of these beetles assisting one
another to bury in the earth some dead animal, in order that
they may therein deposit their eggs. They do not fight for suitable
places, but assist each other to prepare a place to put their eggs in.

As another instance from the lower animals we may take the
land-crabs, amongst which the same principle applies. At certain
seasons of the year these animals may be seen migrating in con-
siderable numbers. Though pre\dously scattered about, they must
come together before they move in their great migration-colonies.

Take, again, the so-called king-crab, or Limula. I remember
one day at the Brighton Aquarium seeing one of these animals,
with its big carapace, overturned and lying upon its back. For
two hours I watched with admiration the repeated endeavours of
other crabs to overturn it and put it upright. First one and then
another came from the bottom to the crab in distress and worked
under it, trying to lift it and put it into its proper position. When
changing their carapace at certain seasons, the common crabs are
defenceless, and Ei'asmus Darwin had already observed how other
crabs keep guard around the defenceless one to protect him from
other animals which might wound him. The observation has been
fully confirmed lately.

Among many others of the lower animals numbers of such facts
will be found to confirm the view of the advantage of mutual support,
even amongst the Invertebrata. Amongst the insects there are
numberless facts of this nature. Professor Forel has spent much
time in the study of the ants of Switzerland, and he has published a
wonderful book in which he describes their manner of living, gi^ang
facts which seem almost incredible, but which have been confirmed
by Sir John Lubbock, who has also devoted much time to the study
of the habits and customs of the ants. Above all other animals,
except perhaps man, the ants realize the need for common labour.
When one ant gets into trouble the others speedily go to its
assistance. When one of them makes a mistake in the con-
struction of a vault, others go at once and destroy it and make
another properly. When any other animal attacks or comes to
destroy an ant's nest, all the ants rush to save the larvae. They
work together to make those enclosures in which they keep

6 PEINCE EEOPOTEJN — ANNIVEESAHY ADDRESS :

their milk-cows. It is well known that the ants keep a certain
kind of animal — aphides — off the back of which they lick a
sweet liquid, and it has been observed how they capture these
insects and make a place in which to secure them. All such work
is done in common, and it has been observed how the ants support
each other in their labours, and in obtaining nourishment. When
two ants meet they exchange some sort of conversation, and if one
of them has his crop full of this liquid from the aphides he lifts his
ajiteunse and allows his hungry friend to take some of this liquid
for himself. You can never find two ants from the same colony
which will not exchange this token of friendship. At one time
Sir John Lubbock would not believe that this was possible, but he
afterwards fully verified it. This custom is so important that it
will very often be found that if two ants from different colonies
which ai'e not in friendly relations with each other happen to meet,
and one allows the other to lick this syrup, they become friends.
But, on the other hand, if two ants from the same nest meet, and
one has refused to its family relations to thus share its food, it is
treated as an enemy. This fact has been perfectly well established
by men who have made close observations of the habits of these
interesting insects.

With these relations existing, let us remark what is the result.
The ant is a very small insect ; it has no carapace to protect it ; it
has no formidable powers of attack : but in their numbers — in their
thousands — the ants are feared by much more important animals.
When a sack of ants is emptied upon a meadow, the grasshoppers
and spiders, and many other larger animals, at once take to flight.
Wasps, even, are attacked by ants. The ants are very severe
towards their enemies outside, their wars from nest to nest are
sometimes very cruel, but within the nest they find that mutual
aid and support are the best means of protecting them against
many enemies. However, in addition to the unity which exists in
the individual nests, federations of ants' nests have been found.
Forel has described such federations, and one of the best naturalists
of this country, H. W. Bates, has described in his admirable book,
' The Naturalist on the Amazons,' how, upon the pampas of South
America, there exists such federations of white ants, or termites,
there being continuous intercommunication between a number of
nests.

Turning now our attention for a while to bees and wasps,
we cannot say that amongst bees mutual support is instinctive.
On the contrary, they have often been found to become demoralized

MUTUAL AID AMONGST ANIMALS. 7

by sipping: Avliiskey or other spirits, and then they become very
antagonistic to each other. When they live in a hive near to
a sugar-factory, where they can find plenty of syrup, they lose
the habits of -work, and begin living by plundering other nests.
However, natural selection comes in here and eventually cuts oif
the generation of those individuals which abandon the life of
common work and mutual support.

When there is mutual support amongst the Invertebrata it is
said to be instinct, and no consciousness is thought to exist, but
there is also plenty of mutual support amongst the higher animals
as well.

A few examples from the life of birds will show best to what
extent they mutually support each other. Birds seldom go about
alone ; they are always to be seen in numbers ; and mutual aid and
friendship are ever to be observed in their doings. They thus
accomplish many things which they could not otherwise do. We
find mutual support even among the Haptores. Syevertsoil, the
well-known ornithologist of Russia, mentions that he once saw five
large white eagles soaring in the air at certain distances apart.
As soon as one of them had discovered something which was good
to eat, such as carrion, he descended, and immediately every one of
the other eagles also descended to the same place, and soon there
might be seen ten or twenty of the same species of eagle feeding
upon the carrion, while thousands of other birds stood near waiting
to take their turn. When such a feast is going on there is always
one eagle keeping watch as a sentinel until the others have finished
their meal. There are many cases of this kind in which there can
be no possibility of a mistake.

The kites and vultures are continually going together in associa-
tions for hunting ; they not only hunt by themselves, but as soon
as they see an eagle which has something good to eat, they rush at
it and take away the prey. The eagle is the larger and stronger
of the two species, but the kites coming together, little birds as
they are in comparison with the eagle, they attack it and take
away its food. The kites of Brazil may be found continually in
associations of six or seven. Certain vultures are well known
for their admirable capacities for association. These are the most
sociable birds of their tribe, and may constantly be found living
by two or three families in the same nest, the female birds sitting
in turn upon the eggs. This has so often been observed that it
has caused one species of the vulture to be called Sociable. Many
species of hawks have the same character. They may frequently

8 PEINCE KKOPOTKIN ANNIVEESAEY ADDEESS :

be seen enjoying sports together, for they not only go together for
utilitarian purposes, but also for enjoyment. They delight in
sharing the joys of life together.

Some of the hawks and kestrels enjoy similar social sports.
Several of them go out together in one direction, and having
flown straight for a distance they return. They are continually
indulging in this kind of sport, but always in company, never
singly. The little Egyptian vultures live in such close friendship
with each other that the zoologists who have described them say
that they have never seen them quarrel. The hawks, also, and
especially the Brazilian falcons, are noted for their sociability.

There are species of birds which are in decay. "Which are
these ? Syevertsoff, who was one of the best ornithologists, did not
hesitate in sayiug that they are the species which lack sociability,
living in antagonism to each other. The sociable species, on the
other hand, are on the increase. It may be asked how it can be
ascertained whether a species is on the increase or is decreasing.
There is no census, but there is something which bi'ings the know-
ledge. When a species has a great number of varieties, then we
may be sure that it is on the increase, and not only increasing in
numbers, but also spreading its territories ; but if a species has no
varieties, or if a genus is represented by only a single species, then
may we be sure that this species, or this genus, is in a condition
of decay and likely to die out. It is the sociable animals which are
increasing, for they are represented by numerous varieties, while
the unsociable animals are only represented by a few. This
difference between the sociable and the unsociable species of the
Raptores is especially striking.

The pelicans offer another instance of sociability. They have
large fishery associations ; they live by forty or fifty thousand
together in America ; they continually hunt in association. Having
made a half-circle from the shore, surrounding the fish, they
gradually come together, closing in the half-circle, and they thus
secure the fish. They work exactly as a man would work with
a net, which he would gradually draw towards the shore, reducing
the space between the net and the shore. Every night these
pelicans return to their own place, never quarrelling for the
possession of it ; every fiock and division has its own home,
returning to the same place night after night, and keeping posses-
sion of it for years and years.

The sparrows have a very bad reputation amongst English farmers,
but their sociability lies beyond doubt. You know the Greek

MUTUAL AID AMONGST ANIMALS. 9

philosopher who said: "As I was spealiing, I saw a sparrow
discover that there is some com which has been spilt near the
barn, and he came to tell it to his friends." But the sparrows
not only tell each other where there is food to be found, but quite
lately there was in 'x^aturc' a complaint of what these "impudent"
birds are doing in Australia. When they see a bird of prey they
come in great numbers and chase it, and they have been seen
to keep a bird of prey, which had sought refuge from them
in a bush, confined there for a whole day, by the vast numbers
with which they surrounded him.

Those who wish to get an insight into the real life of the birds
should go and see one of the lakes of Asia, or of South Russia,
or of the far west of America — one of those lakes where myriads
of birds may be seen assembling on the shores. Thousands upon
thousands of ducks and water-fowl of almost every kind may
be seen living there and enjoying their existence in perfect
harmony, sentries keeping watch to give the signal upon the
approach of an enemy. Then will be heard the dismal cry of
the hungry bird of prey, but as soon as it appears the sentries
surround it and the whole of the other birds take their action
as a warning signal for them to begin to conceal their little ones.
If the bird of prey be very hungry it will try to make a dash into
this multitude of living beings. If it be successful in getting
amongst them they will all unite to attack it ; they will splash
water at it and blind it ; they will gather round it in such numbers
and in such a manner as to bewilder it ; and the bird of prey
is compelled to retreat. The great destruction comes not in the
mature age, but in the young and early days of life, and that
is the reason why the birds come together in such numbers
to protect their progeny from birds of prey.

Go to the Arctic lands, where whole mountains are covered with
grebes, gulls, and other birds. There you will find millions and
millions of birds belonging to twenty difi'erent species living
together. You will find the dotterels, which present the ideal of
family life, and on that account the inhabitants of the Arctic
regions regret to kill them ; countless varieties of ducks ; the
egotistic swans, and so on, all living in perfect harmony. The
most striking illustration of mutual support among birds is in their
migrations. Every year, millions of them leave the northern
countries for the shores of Africa and India, coming together in
their thousands before they begin their journey, waiting for
those which have been kept by their youngsters being not quite

10 PEINCE KEOPOXKIIJ^ ANNIVEESAET ADDRESS :

ready to undertake the fliglit ; and then one morning disappearing,
all having left in one night. It has often been asked by naturalists
whether the larger birds do not help the smaller ones when
crossing the seas ; this is hardly probable, but it is certain that
some smaller birds have been seen within the emigrating columns
of much bigger birds.

You may be inclined to say that the associations which exist
between animals are all utilitarian — are associations for protection
and for aiding migration — but there are plenty of associations
amongst all birds which are meant simply for the joys of life.
Every autumn hundreds of birds come together and spend their
lives in company. The species which will be commingled are very
different. It is really astonishing how different are the species
which meet together and how different are their habits. They
devote every day a couple of hours to getting food, and then they
enjoy their lives in sport and simply in " the joy of life."

"With regard to the proportion between the numbers of the
carnivorous mammals and those which are living in societies, it will
be found that the former are very much less numerous than the
latter. Such animals as lions and tigers which produce upon
us the impression of conflict and antagonism are very small
in number, but everywhere the world teems with animals which
are gregarious. It even seems very probable that before the
intervention of man in the destruction of animals the carnivorous
animals were chiefly the scavengers of the animal world. "When
the Europeans took possession of America they saw large droves
of buffaloes traversing the country from north to south, so dense
that the buffalo-columns would keep the emigrant for two days
in the same spot, there being no possibility to pierce the column
and to pass through ; and more recently, when South Africa was
opened up by Europeans, there were found numberless herds
of gazelles and antelopes. Following these columns there are
always the carnivorous animals which prey upon the weaker
antelopes which fall behind the main herds. But even amongst
the carnivorous animals it will be found that continually they
unite for common hunt. The wolves, as we all know, organize
themselves into packs for hunting. In fact, it is only the feline
animals — those of the cat tribe — which live more or less an isolated
life. The canine animals, such as dogs, wolves, and foxes,
are all naturally social.

The black bears of Kamschatka were once sociable, even with
man, but hunting by man has destroyed their sociability and

MUTUAL AID AMONGST ANIMALS. 11

harmlcssness. Stcllcr, the naturalist •u'lio visited the peninsula
in the last century, tells that, in the house in which he was once
staying-, the parents were afraid that their boy had been lost, but
tLey eventually found him in a wood playing with the black bears.
Foxes, which live isolated here, where they are hunted, are found
living in herds in Northern Asia, and the numerous associations
of the polar foxes were the plague of the naturalists who visited
the country in the last century. All the Kodents, such as the
marmots, prairie dogs, and rabbits, are sociable animals, and
naturalists relish in telling us about the social life of the inhabi-
tants of the great prairies of Asia and America. In the case
of such animals as the ground-squii'rels, when their houses are
unearthed ample provision will be found to be laid away ; and
although they may appear to some people to be miserly, during
the winter two or three of these little animals will often be
found to be living together. Thus it appears that very many
different kinds of animals, and in immense numbers, live together
in mutual support, and that the characters of their societies widely
differ in different species.

In the class of insects the highest are the ants, bees, and wasps ;
of the bii'ds the highest are the parrots ; amongst the mammals the
highest are the apes and man ; and all these are the most sociable
of their class. A sociable life is a guarantee of security, and
therefore of the attainment of old age, and at the same time of
further development of the species. Mutual support is the way
to a higher intelligence which always reaches its highest degree
in the most sociable species : the highly sociable parrot has not
been called in vain the man-bird or the bird-man.

AVith regard to the apes and monkeys, we know that nearly
all of their species are highly sociable, and that those which arii
not, such as the orang-outang or the gorilla, must be considered
as decaying species. There is a great deal of friendship displayed
between monkeys; and the protection which they find in their
vigilant societies is such that Brehm made the remark that they
seldom die from any enemies, but chiefly die from old age only.
The monkeys are always together, and it is very difficult for
any bird or beast of prey to surprise them, as they are always
on the alert. In fact, the monkeys have only one dangerous
enemy — the creatures which your President has taken for the
subject of his studies ; I allude to the snakes.

Taking into account the whole mass of evidence showing the
extent of mutual aid and support in animal societies, we are bound

12 PEINCE KEOPOTKIN AlifNIVEBSAKY ADDEESS :

to return to the views which. Darwin emphasized in his second
great work, ' The Descent of Man.' We must bear in view
that there are two different aspects of animal life — the aspect
of the struggle for the sheer means of existence, and that of mutual
sixpport — and recognize that this last is the more important of the
two for the progressive development of the species ; the more
so, as most animals know better means to resort to in case of
scarcity than to fight for the few means of existence at hand.
Take, for instance, the beavers. "When they become too numerous
to live in any one particular spot, they do not fight for the
few means of subsistence, but they divide into parties and migrate,
one party going up the river and the other down the river. When
there is a great demand for a particular kind of food, the birds do
not fight to the bitter end for that food, but they widen their
feeding-areas, or they migrate, while some of them take to other
kinds of food.

Certain species — the most sociable and consequently the most
intelligent — do even more than that. Thus, through the researches
of Moggeridge, who died some years ago on the shores of Prance,
and devoted the last years of his life to the observation of agri-
culture among ants, it is well known that the ants prepare the
soil and plant the seeds of certain grass which they like ; that they
weed out all other gi'asses which are not good for their food;
and that when the seeds of this grass are ready, they collect them
and prevent them from fully germinating by treating them, it is
supposed, with some acid which only allows of their germination
to the extent which renders them best suited for their food. The
ants of the Tropics — the so-called parasol-ants — have even been
found to carry on horticulture, making beds for their plantations
out of chewed pellets of the leaves they collect.

All things taken into consideration, the lesson of Nature is not
competition, but the avoidance of competition. "When the means
of living become scarce, struggle for these means sets in, and
when the struggle becomes hard, there is no progress possible.
"When drought or late snowstorms deprive the horses of America
or Siberia of food, there is a general lowering of vitality in the
whole of the herd. There is a general regress of the species,
not progress. Suppose that Watford were besieged, and the whole
population were reduced to living on half-rations, or even still
further pressed, who would be the most likely to survive ? Would
it be the most intelligent, the best all round who would survive?
Certainly not. The ordeal would lower the vitality of everyone,

MUTUAL AID AMONGST ANIMALS. 13

all — tlic best and the worst — would suffer alike, and a general
regressive movement in the whole population would take place,
as is well known from direct observations upon garrisons which
have undergone such an ordeal. The fact is most certain that
if natural selection had to act only when food was scant and
must be fought for, it could produce but retrogression. The
chief progress in animal societies, and in human societies as well,
has been achieved during periods of plenty.

To say that the lesson of Nature is a lesson of immorality
is to ignore the real teachings of IS'ature. The true lesson of
Nature is not one of immorality : it shows, on the contrary, that
those species which know best how to support each other are those
which attain the greatest amount of success in their evolution.

II.

PARASITIC FUXGI: THEIR MODE OF ATTACK AXD THE
MEANS OF ITS PREVENTION.

By George Massee, F.L.S., F.R.M.S.

Abstract of a Lecture delivered at Watford, l^th November, 1895.

Although the subject of Parasitic Fungi is one upon which I have
delivered several discourses, I am bound to confess that every one
of them has been a signal failure from the point of view of certain
members of my audience, who expected to have details of their own
grievances and to hear of remedies for the particular ailments of
their own plants. If anyone has come here this evening with that
idea they will be disappointed, for my object is not to treat of the
particular cases of injury inflicted by certain species of Fungi, but
to give a general idea of their work and nature, and of the broad
principles which should guide us in our attempts to prevent them
from doing injury.

The life-history of the higher plants is simple compared with
that of these lowly organisms. When one of their seeds germi-
nates a plant springs up which is like the one from which the seed
was procured. When, for instance, a chestnut or a beech-nut is
planted and germinates, there is recognized from the first some-
thing growing as a chestnut or beech-tree, as the case may be,
which as time goes on will bear fruit similar to that from which
it springs. It is not so with Fungi. At one time they look like
one specific thing, and at another phase of their life-history they
appear to be something totally different, so different indeed that
until their history had been traced they were classified as belonging
to different groups. In the present day we can afford to laugh at
such mistakes when we find ttem in old books, but it is by the
work of the older writers that we are now able to prove step by
step that several of the different forms with which we are familiar
often belong to on^ and the same organism.

Differences in Fungi often arise from what they grow upon. If
the spores of one kind of fungus, or even of one individual plant,
be taken and sown upon different kinds of food-material, they may
give rise to what appear to be totally different things. Low down
in plant-life, as well as in animal-life, it has been found that forms
are fairly elastic, not almost rigidly alike, as each species usually
is in the higher forms of life. There is in them a certain amount
of elasticity which enables them to present themselves under
different appearances and to do different work, depending on the
circumstances under which they are placed. For instance, common
yeast, with which we are all familiar, under different circum-
stances assumes different forms, the internal machinery adapting
itself to the work which has to be done, the fungus in one case
producing alcohol, and in another sugar, with no alcohol at all,
and, if examined under the microscope, looking totally different.

G. MASSEE — PARASITIC FUNGI. 15

The ohanjic in a funij-xis, howovor, is flifPercnt from that in an
individual who varies his pursuits. Such an individual docs not
gi'ow two pairs of legs or arms as he needs them, while a fungus
will, in its own province, do such a thing ; but a simple parasitic
fungus can only do one thing at a time, not having the advantage
of the division of labour which we possess.

Coming now to our special subject, plant-diseases caused by
fungi, there ai'e some whose general aspect would have been recog-
nized at once by the aid of the lantern from the representations
of them which I have brought with me, but failing that I will
represent their characteristic features on the black-board.

One of the broadest rules which can be laid down with respect
to fungoid diseases is that all fungi are favoured in their develop-
ment by the presence of acids, while alkalies are detrimental to
them. On the other hand, the group of allied organisms — the
Bacteria, which are popularly known as "germs" — do not thrive
under the action of acids. Farmers have said that the intro-
duction of artificial manures has brought nearly all the common
plant-diseases which are due to fungi, and from their standpoint
this is practically the case ; but the scientific explanation is that
these manures, or most of them, are prepared from raw, crude
acids, and the acids which are present in all the rich modern
manures, such as bone-manure and superphosphate, favour the
development of the fungi which do so much injury. They do not,
of course, create the fungi ; they merely favour their development
in the soil, giving them an advantage in their struggle to hold
their own against hundreds of other organisms.

One of the most familiar instances of diseases caused by fungi
is that known as " finger-and-toe." It was known long before
it became so common as it is now, but it was only known that it
was something wrong with the root of a cabbage or of a turnip.
The lumps and swellings on the roots of these and other plants,
called " finger-and-toe" disease, have now been traced to a minute
organism belonging to the Mycetozoa, called Plasmodiophora
hrassica. This minute organism has done injury to the extent
of thousands of pounds to the farmers in England, but it is one of
those things which can easily be got rid of. A few drops of
ammonia in a bucketful of water, if applied to the roots of the
plant attacked, will prevent its growth, and lime in a soluble
condition will kill the spores. If quicklime be spread over the
soil, such a solution will be formed when rain falls. Potash,
however, is better than lime, because, when in solution, it is the
best manure for plants, and without it turnips cannot have their
best feeding properties, although it is possible to grow one species
of turnip when potash is not present. This fungus grows rapidly
in the soil at the present day owing to the amount of acid that is
supplied by so-called artificial manures, and that is the reason why
farmers say that with the introduction of these manures " finger-
and-toe " disease became rampant.

Hertfordshire is a rose-growing county, and probably all the

16 G. MASSEE PAEASITIC FtTNGT.

rose-growers have been troubled by finding the leaves and flo"wers
of their rose-trees covered with mildew of a greyish white colour,
which begins to show itself in the budding stage of the plant,
grows with it through the year, and in the end destroys it. The
name of this fungus is Sphcerotheca pannosa. It is called pannosa
because it forms a felt-like film of mycelium on the plant. It
travels all over a leaf, and, when it has collected a sufficient amount
of nutriment from the substance of the leaf, it creeps off and spreads
over other leaves, after a time falling off in a fine jiowder. This
is what is commonly known as mildew, and in all cases of mildew
the course of the disease is the same and the mode of attack is the
same. The great object which the fungus has in view is rapid
distribution. It is blown about by the wind, and any of it in this
state of fine powder which alights on the leaves of rose-trees
germinates when rain falls, this stage of its growth being known
as oidium. Its time of attack is when the leaves are expanding,
and, as the tree develops, the young shoots will be found to be
covered with the same kind of thing, and in addition black specks
will be seen studded over them. The object of this second kind
of fruit is to tide the fungus over the winter ; the leaves of the
tree perishing with the autumn, having done their work, the
fungus must be able to maintain its existence on the woody tissue.
Another kind of fruit, more complicated altogether, is the result
of fertilization. The spores contained in this kind will not always
germinate in the same way, varying according to the nature of the
food supplied by the plant on which they have been produced.
In the spring, when the rose-tree is beginning to expand its buds,
the temperature is just that which is required for the germination
of the spores, which then produce still smaller spores, like fine
powder. These are blown about by the wind and find places in
the opening leaf-buds of surrounding rose-trees, there repeating the
process.

There are sent to Kew myriads of examples of such plant-diseases
every year, but there is no cure for the diseases when once established,
although they may be checked. "When the leaf-buds are beginning
to expand they should be syringed or sprayed, using a bottle
something like a hairdresser's, filled with Condy's fluid — mere
watering will not do. By using Condy's fluid, which can neither
kill nor hurt any plant, and spraying the trees once or twice
a week, all the fungi will be killed during the early development
of the leaves. If, however, the disease comes out as mildew it
shows that it has done its work, and that the injury has been done
inside the leaves, the so-called vegetative portion of the fungus
being inside the leaf ; and unless this stage were anticipated there
would be no chance of success in preventing the further develop-
ment of the disease.

When geraniums are attacked by mildew I would recommend
spraying the plants in the conservatory, where myriads of germs
would be killed and no harm would be done. It may have been
noticed that geraniums which have been cut where they are

G. MASSEE — PARASITIC FUNGI. 17

diseased shrivel up. They do not die hecause they are cut and
wounded, but because a fungus has destroyed all the sap, which
it would not have done had they been sprayed with this fluid.

There is another form of microscopic fungus, with which all
must be familiar in the shape of little bright red coral-like spots
generally seen on dead sticks and branches. These are what are
termed " wound -parasites " ; they do not possess the power of
attacking li-siug plants, but will only fix upon those parts which
have been rubbed or broken, whence the name. They are to be
found on black currants and red currants, and they are especially
partial to the common sycamore. Early in the summer, and in
fact in spring, these bright red spots appear. There are some
forty or fiity species, but the commonest is that known as Nectria
cinnaharina, the spots of which when examined under the microscope
appear to stand up like little warts.

There is not, after all, much mystery in the development of
fungoid diseases. There are certain fungi which can only attack
dead matter, and there are others which can only attack living
matter ; so that we have two groups — saprophytes and parasites.
If a saprophyte be carefully cultivated it can be induced to become
a parasite, and if the spores are taken and the process is repeated
five or six times, a true parasite will in the end be obtained.

I will now refer to another kind of fungus altogether, one like
a toadstool. Agarims melleus grows at the roots of trees. And in
speaking of this I may remark that in Germany there are special
forest schools with professors of plant biology, which we might do
well to have in England. The melleus does injury to the extent
of millions of poimds in forests, and particularly in Germany,
where the woods and forests are immense. It commences at the
root and goes up the whole of the tree. It is one of those things
which are exceedingly difficult to combat, and I have seen orchards
devastated by this one fungus. A method of defence is trenching
and the filling of the trenches with quicklime or wood-ashes —
the latter because they possess a certain amount of potash.

There is another fungus similar to this which is prevalent in
French and German vineyards and attacks almost everything.
It is commonly called a root-fungus, because it does its work
underground. Several cases of its attack have been reported in
England. It is known as Dematophora vastatrix, and, owing to
the 2'apidity with which its mycelium spreads in the ground, proves
veiy destructive. The same method of prevention as with Agaricus
melleus, namely trenching, is the most practicable, filling in with
a solution of potash salts of any kind, or sprinkling with paraffin oil.

The most highly evolved of all the fungi are the puffballs or
Phalloidea3, the main agent for the dispersion of which is the wind.
Everyone is now familiar with colour and scent in connection with
the fertilization of plants. The one remarkable feature of this
group of fungi is the brilliancy of their colours. Of course this is
a strong feature in all groups of fungi, but the brilliant colours
in this particular group are always atti'active, while these fungi

VOL. IX. PART I. 2

18 G. MASSEE — PAEASITIC FUNGI.

have in addition a strong? scent. The combination of scent and
colour attracts insects, which disperse the spores, but in other
groups wind is the chief agent of spore-dispersal.

In concluding these remarks I may mention the great importance
of preventive measures, for, when once an attack gets established,
cure is almost impossible. The one general remedy which has
been used for whole groups of fungus-attacks is that which is
generally known as Bordeaux mixture. It contains two or three
per cent, of sulphate of copper in water, and is very often mixed
with a certain amount of quicklime. The great difficulty in
combating plant-diseases is in the thorough wetting of the leaves,
which should be sprayed with very fine spray both on their upper
and under surfaces. A small amount of soft soap mixed with the
solution causes it to adhere better to the foliage.

The prevalent opinion that, owing to long-continued cultivation
and intercrossing of cultivated plants, the power of resisting fungoid
attacks is lowered, is not supported by facts. Botanists are well
aware that, in a wild state, almost every kind of plant is attacked
by one or more species of parasitic fungi. On the other hand, it is
only when almost every individual of a cultivated crop is injured
that the practical man considers the attack of these same fungi as
constituting a disease. Once upon a time the same ideas held good
in the case of cholera and scarlet-fever ; at the present time we
have learned the value of isolation and preventive measures in such
cases ; but, unfortunately, those most interested in the cultivation
of plants have yet to learn that the same rule holds good in the
case of plant-diseases. This condition of things can only be remedied
when the present ignorance or indifference is replaced by the
amount of sound knowledge which will result in unity of action.
It is practically useless on the part of one individual to carry
out the known methods for the prevention of fungoid and insect
pests, if his neighbours, through lack of the required knowledge,
unconsciously favour the spread of the same.

III.

NOTES OX THE CHARACEiE, WITH A LIST OF SPECIES FE0:M
THE SOUTH MIDLANDS.

By James Saunders.
Read at Watford, 2\st January, 1896.

General Appearance and Mode of Occurrence.

The plants known as the Cliaracece or Stoneworts are an entirely
aquatic gronp, livinc: in pools, canals, lakes, and quiet rivers, as
well as less frequently in rapid streams. The English name "stone-
TTort " is applied on account of the amount of lime which is secreted
in the tissues of some of their genera. When growing they are
always submerged, and if exposed to the air they rapidly die.
Some are so sensitive to dry air that I have often found it ex-
pedient to put my specimens under pressure at the moment of
gathering, a precaution the neglect of which I have frequently
had to regret.

The stoneworts vary in colour from a dark green to a greyish
green, and, when growing in clear water, they may usually be
recognized by their denseness and rigid habit. In quiet and deep
pools they grow erect or nearly so ; in shallow brooks they are
prostrate, and in these situations they are sometimes grey and very
brittle from the incrustation of lime.

Some of the species, especially those of the genus Chara, have
a peculiar fetid odour which is very noticeable when the plants
are exposed to the effects of drought. They are sometimes so
malodorous that their presence may be detected by the organs of
smell when one is passing near them. This is most perceptible
in the evening, and I have sometimes been thus apprised of their
presence when it has been too dark to see them.

The foliage is reduced to branch-like organs. The whole of the
plant above the roots is green, and hence can assimilate. As this
function is so widely distributed in the individual, gi-owth is rapid.
Sometimes they occupy nearly the whole of the space in a recently-
made pool, especially in clay- or marl -pits. In this respect they
may be styled "the pioneers of aquatic vegetation," to quote from
a paper by Messrs. H. and J. Groves. In their decay they produce
soil in which other forms of vegetation speedily grow.

They are singularly independent of their roots, which are small,
and serve mainly for attachment. As they can flourish in situations
devoid of vegetable soil, it is evident that they grow upon the
carbon-dioxide contained in the water, their tissues being permeable
to the fluid in which they live. So little do they depend upon
their roots for sustenance that we had plants under cultivation for
a year which were devoid of those organs, they having been broken
off in obtaining the specimens.

It is note worthy that until the last 15 or 20 years the C'haraceee

20 J. SATJNDEES NOTES ON THE CHAKACE^.

have received but scant attention from Britisli botanists. This
cannot have been on account of their obscurity, for they often
occur in large masses. It may have been that they were regarded
as ill-adapted to make presentable specimens for the herbarium ;
but this is now proved to be erroneous, chiefly through the skill
and industry of Messrs. H. and J. Groves, who have expressed the
opinion that "no plants better repay a little care" (' Journ.
Botany,' 1880). These gentlemen have added largely to our
knowledge of this group, especially with regard to the critical
determination of species ; they have also enlisted the sympathies
of observers in various parts of the British Isles, through whose
efPorts many interesting points have been brought to light both as
to the distribution and as to the existence of species previously
unrecorded for Britain. Hitherto the South Midlands had been
a comparatively unexplored region in this respect. The list
appended to this paper represents fairly the forms now known
to exist in this district.

LlFE-HlSTORT.

The reproductive organs are known as globules (cf ) and nucules
(?). The former are spherical and are composed of eight flat
cells. These are shield-shaped, and from the inner side of each of
them there projects a cylindrical cell, which bears at its apex
a number of delicate filaments composed of a row of disk-shaped
cells, each of which contains an antherozoid. These are slender
spiral threads thickened at one end and terminating at the other in
two delicate cilia. The globules when ripe break up into the eight
parts of which they are composed, and the filaments rupture and
allow the antherozoids to escape. This usually happens in the
morning, and the antherozoids have the power of locomotion for
several hours. As a single globule contains from 20,000 to 40,000
of these organs, the fertilization of the nucules is usually efiPected —
at least, if one may judge by the abundance of them which may be
found on the fertile branches. Parthenogenesis also occurs.

The fruit-bearing organs consist externally of fine spiral cells,
the apices of which form the " coronula " of the nucule. When
fully ripe the antherozoids find their way through minute clefts
between the coronal cells, and thus reach the oosphere, which
they fertilize. A change takes place in the colour of the ripening
fruit, which eventually falls off and awaits development when
conditions are favourable. The fruits upon germination give rise
to a pro-embryo, which attains only small dimensions, and consists
of a single row of cells with limited apical growth. From the
pro-embryo the sexual-bearing plant is produced, which is usually
developed at nearly right angles to the former {vide Sach's
' Text-book of Botany,' ed. 2, p. 293). In the growth of the
plant the internodes are formed of a single elongated cell which
often becomes spiral.

In the genus Chara the stem and branchlets are covered with
cortical cells. The number of these parallel cortical cells bearing

J. SAUXDERS — NOTES ON THE CHARACEJE. 21

a constant relation to the branchlcts in the -whorls, this peculiarity
is used in the classification of these plants. Other points are the
characters of the coronula, the relative position of tlie nucules and
globules, and the number of cells in the ultimate branchlets.

In the younger cells the plienomenon of cyclosis, or circulation
of the protoplasmic contents, can be observed. To succeed in this
may require some amount of patience, as the motion may be
arrested in preparing the specimen for examination. After a time
the granular contents of each cell will be seen to move slowly
along one side, to traverse the width of the cell at one end, and
then to continue its course along the other side. These movements
continue indefinitely and are in one direction. In this respect they
agree with the same phenomenon as seen in Elodea, and differ from
it as it occurs in the Mycetozoa, in which the circulation is
alternately in opposite directions. This display of energy is most
evident in the youngest cells. Is it therefore connected with
gi'owth ? It can hardly be an accompaniment of assimilation, for
it is visible with artificial light other than electric.

One of the unsolved problems in the life-history of the Characeae
is the irregularity of their appearance. It does not follow that
because a certain species occurs in a pool in any one year it will
reappear the next year, and this notwithstanding the vast number
of fruits which lie in the mud from the previous season's growth.
It has been suggested by the Messrs. Groves that the excessive
development one year may exhaust that particular station of
certain constituents necessary for the growth of these plants.
This will probably account for the phenomenon in cases where,
after a season of abundance, they are absent for several successive
years. It does not, however, cover the whole field of observation,
for they may be singularly persistent even in a very small area,
the same species occurring for several seasons in succession.

The following notes, although referring only to a portion of
South Beds, were carefully taken and will illustrate the foregoing
remarks.

In 1883 Chara vulgaris nearly filled a pond at Great Braming-
ham, and fruited abundantly. It died away in situ, and did not
reappear the next season. Up to 1895 not a trace of it has been
visible, although the spot has been frequently examined. The
mud of the pool must have been crowded with ripe nucules in
an environment apparently favourable to germination. The pond
here referred to, as well as the others on which observations were
made, were but little liable to interference by artificial agencies.

Chara hisjjida, which is the largest British species, seems fairly
constant in its occurrence, as it has grown for several years in
succession in ponds at Tottemhoe. In one pool it has been remark-
ably persistent, but in 1895 the quantity of it was diminished, as
it was choked by the excessive growth of sedges.

Nitella opaca grew in Reed Pond, Sundon, in 1883 and 1884,
but was absent for several years afterwards. In another pool near
this one N. opaca was abundant in 1885, but it was replaced by

22 J. SAUNDEES NOTES ON THE CHAEACE^.

a large growth of CJiara vulgaris, whilst there was no trace of the
former species. In 1882 and 1883 N. upaca was plentiful in
the River Lea at Biscot, but since that date no trace of it has
been seen, although C. vulgaris has been fairly regular in its
appearance until 1895, when that also disappeared. In January,
1896, no stonewort of any kind was growing in that station.

Tolypella glomerata grew plentifully in a pond at Leagrave,
called Icknield Hole, in 1885, but has not been found there since,
although carefully sought for. Not long previous to its appearance
in 1885 the pond had been cleaned out, which gave the plant an
opportunity to develop. The pool is now filled with a BatracMum
and Potamogeton densus. T. glomerata also grew in abundance
iu a large tank at Wellbury, Herts, in 1888, but has not been
observed there since, its place having been occupied by Chara
Tidgaris, which has grown there for several seasons since 1888.

Tolypella intricata was first observed in the South Midlands
in 1883. In March of that year it was noticed in a small pool,
about three yards iu diameter, at Little 13 ramingham. In the
following April, Mr. H. Groves, in company with myself, visited
the spot, when it was seen that the pond was nearly filled with
the plant, which was in fine condition. Mr. Groves remarked
when seeing it that he would travel 100 miles any day to observe
such a sight. Specimens were collected, but a large quantity was
left to deposit its fruit. In the autumn of the same year the pool
was dried up through drought, the Tolypella disappearing and
leaving no visible trace of its existence. In the following year
(1884) it failed to appear. The spot was visited every few weeks
from early in the spring to late in the autumn, and in so small an
area it could not have escaped detection had it been present.
In 1885 it was fairly plentiful; in 1886 and 1887 it grew in
small quantity only; and during the autumn of 1888 it was
in fair abundance, at which period it was seen to be in fine fruit,
although spring is the normal time for this function. It reappeared
in the spring and summer of 1889, but had disappeared by the
1st of September of that year; in 1890 it was in fine condition
during the spring, but gradually dwindled away in the following
autumn. For the next four years we have no notes as to its
occurrence in this station, although it was visited by us on
several occasions during this period. In April, 1895, it was seen
in small quantity, but it is absent at the present time (Jan. 1896).

The foregoing notes are given in detail, as they describe the first
British records of the occurrence of Tolypella intricata for two or
more successive seasons in the same station.

In another spot, about two miles north of Bramingham, is a pool
about 15 feet by 3 feet in dimensions, situate in Sundon Wood,
In this small area there have been fine growths of T. intricata
in the years 1891 to 1895. Specimens have been preserved of
gatherings made 4th April, 1891; 22ud May, 1892; 16th April,
189;5 ; 15th April, 1894 ; and 14th April, 1895.

At Totternhoe, in connection with the enclosure of the common

J. SAUNDERS NOTES ON TUE CHAEACE^. 26

lands, several small driiiking-ponds were made on the rough pasture
called the Litany. In the spring of 1893 three of these contained
T. intricata, two of them scantily and the third in great luxuriance.
In 1894 it was absent from all three of these ponds, although they
had not diied up during the previous summer. In 1895 it was
absent from the pool in which it was so abundant in 1893, and
occurred plentifully in one of the others in which it previously
grew sparingly.

The question naturally arises as to the reason of the erratic
appearance of the Characeae, and also why in a given locality
a species may be present one season and in siibsequent years be
replaced by a totally different one. It is not unusual, however,
to find two or more species growing in the same pool. Replies
to these queries are yet wanting, or rather no solution of these
problems have suggested themselves to the mind of the writer.
Observations have been carried on for 13 or 14 years with the hope
of obtaining sufficient material to at least theorize on the subject,
but as yet this would be premature.

Probably the most noteworthy record is the finding of NiteUa
mucronata, a species which had only once before been recognized in
England. This was by Mr. Borrer, who discovered it in a ditch
at West Grinstead, in Sussex, in 1858, About the year 1880
Mr. H. Groves made a special journey to this spot in the hope of
finding the plant, but it had disappeared from Borrer's station.
Its re-discovery in this country is due to Mr. C. H. Davies, of
Bedford. Specimens of the plant were sent to me, with others,
by Mr. Davies, senior, early in October, 1882, with a request to
have them determined. The one referred to was doubtfully named
N. Jlexilis, but as it was barren and very fragmentary it was
forwarded to Messrs. Groves for authoritative opinion. A
letter was received by return of post naming it nmcronata, and
expressing much pleasure that it had again been found in England.
Under these circumstances I felt desirous of visiting the spot to see
it growing. The afternoon appointed turned out very wet, but I
proceeded to the place with Mr. C. H. Davies, when, to our dismay,
the station was found to be inundated, owing to the heavy rains
for which October was remarkable. Said my companion: "We
cannot get it." My reply was : " How deep is the pool? " But
that was unknown, and could not be judged by reason of the dis-
colouration of the water. After a little consideration the only
practicable plan seemed to be to wade barefoot through the flood,
sheltered by a huge umbrella to keep off a little of the overhead
deluge. This was attempted, and, by the verbal guidance of the
lad, and gauging the depth with a stick, the shallowest parts
were chosen. Eventually a water-hole was reached where the
NiteUa was supposed to grow. Carefully groping in the turgid
pool with a hooked stick, the only materials brought up were
dead leaves, twigs, and such rubbish as would be swept in by the
flood. Almost despaii'ing of success by reason of the rain above
and the waters beneath, the question was shouted to the youth

24 J. SAtWDEES — NOTES ON THE CHAEACE^.

at the brink: "Is there another water-hole?" The reply was
returned: "Yes, a little further on, near the next willow-tree."
A few more steps and this was reached, when fortunately at the
second sweep some of the much-desired plant was brought up.
A fair supply was obtained, and living plants were forwarded to
Messrs. Groves, and also to the Gardens of Cambridge and Kew.

Geogeaphical Disteibution.

The Characese are very widely distributed, as is often the case
with the fresh-water flora. They are most abundant in temperate
regions, but they grow in almost all parts of Europe, Asia, Africa,
America, and Australia. Our two commonest Charas, G. fragilis
and C. vulgaris, are well-nigh ubiquitous ; as is also our most
frequent Nitella, N. opaca.

The dispersal of the fruits of these plants over such a large
area is probably due chiefly to the agency of aquatic birds. The
fruits are minute and light, and are frequently lodged in the mud
or clay of ponds. Anyone who has observed the margins of these
land-locked waters, especially in rural haunts, will have noticed
the marks of the feet of birds, and it is easy to see that the fruits
of aquatic plants occurring in such conditions might often be
carried long distances by the birds. The mud attached to the
birds' feet would be softened when other waters were visited, and
their contained fruits would be left to germinate if the conditions
were favourable.

Fossil Chaeace^.

The wide distribution of the Characese also suggests a high
antiquity. In this respect, however, they bear no comparison
with such ancient types of plants as ferns and equisetums. The
earliest known appearance of the stoneworts is in beds of Eocene
age, in which they are represented by their curious spherical fruits.
These are sometimes present in great numbers and well preserved,
showing even their external ornamentation. Through the courtesy
of Mr. Henry "Wood, of Cambridge, I have been enabled to prepare
for the museum of the Society specimens of these fruits which
were obtained from the Eocene beds of Cambridgeshire.

In this connection may be mentioned the occurrence of these
fruits in a semi-fossil condition in the bed of an ancient pond
at Hitchin, which was exposed by digging-operations. They are
especially interesting in that they form a connecting-link between
the fossil Characese of the later geological periods and those of the
present time.

It would be interesting if the evolution of this group could
be traced, but the materials at present available are not sufficient
for the purpose. During the lapse of time between the close
of the Cretaceous period and the beginning of the Eocene there
were doubtless many changes in the organic world. The records
of this lengthy period are either destroyed or have not yet been
brought to light.

j. sat7ndees — notes on the chakaceie, 25

Chahacejs of the South Midlands.

In commending the study of the Characeae to the members of
this Society, it is with the full persuasion that the patient observer
■will be amply rewarded for his exertions and will extend our
knowledge of the distribution of these plants. At the least the
pursuit would furnish healthy recreation, if even it were not repaid
by the scientific success which a sanguine temperament may desire.

The appended list of Characeae from the South Midlands will
show that these plants are well represented in this district. The
records to which no authority is appended are now given for the
first time, and I have indicated where I can corroborate the records
of others by the usual mark (!).

Heetfordshire.

Chara fragilis, Desv. Ivel. — Offley, Hitchin. Brent. — Totteridge

Green; hb. Forster, Flora Herts, 1887, p. 516.
C. vulgaris, L. Ivel. — Offley, Hitchin; Saimders, 1883, in Flora

Herts, p. 516. Old Wellbury, Hitchin. Colne. — Bennets

End, Hemel Hempstead. Lea. — Ditches by the river at

Hertford and Cheshunt; Groves, in Flora Herts, 1887,

p. 516.
Tolypella glomerata, Chevall. Ivel. — Old Wellbury, Hitchin.
T. intricata, Leonh. Lea. — Ditches near Broxbourne, 1886 ; T. B.

Blow, in Flora Herts, p. 516.
Nitella translueens, Ag. Brent. — Totteridge Green; hb. Forster

(there recently; H Groves), Flora Herts, 1887, p. 517.
N. flexiUs, Ag. CoLNE. — Pond near Elstree. Brent. — Totteridge

Green; hb. Forster (there recently; H. Groves), Flora

Herts, 1887, p. 517.
N. opaca, Ag. Lea.— Brickendon, 1881; T. B. Blow, in Flora

Herts, p. 517.

Bedfordshire.

Chara fragilis, Desv. — Flitwick. Leagrave. Luton Hoo. Var.

capillacea. — Totternhoe. Var. Hedwigii. — Limbury.
C. contraria, Kuetz. — Totternhoe ; H. Groves and J. S.
C. hispida, L. — Maulden ; C. Crouch. Limbury. Totternhoe.

Luton Hoo.
C. vulgaris, L. — River Ouse ; H. Davies. Totternhoe, etc. Yar.

longihraeteata. — Biscot. River Lea, Luton.
Tolypella glomerata, Chevall. — Near Bedford ; H. Davies. Leagrave.
T. intricata, A. Br. — Bramingham. Sundon. Totternhoe. Lid-

lington ; C. Crouch.
Nitella mucronata, Kuetz. — River Ouse, Bedford, 1882 ; H. Davies

(also in 1883 ! and 1884 !) ; H. Groves, in 1888. River Ivel,

near Sandy, 1891.
N. opaca, Ag. — Sundon ! ; H. Groves. Biscot. Bramingham.

26 J. SATINDEES — NOTES ON THE CHAEACE^.

BtrCKINGHAMSHIRE.

CJmra fragilis, Desv. — Little Brickhill. "Woburu Sands. Var.

capillacea. — Little Brickhill.
C. hispida, L. — Little Brickhill.
C. vulgaris, L. — (Loo. not specified) ; Nicholson, in Journ. Bot.

1883. Var. longihracteata. — (Loc. not spec); Piffard, in

Journ. Bot. 1885. Yar. papillata. — Newport Pagnell ;

Piffard.

Tolypella glomerata, Chevall. — Castlethorpe ; H. N. Bixon, in

Journ. Bot. 1895.
Nitella opaca, Ag. — (Loc. not specified) ; J. Groves, in Journ. Bot.

1885.

PosTSCBiPT, April, 1896.

On the 12th of April I visited Little Bramingham, and found
that Tolypella intricata was absent from the small pool in which
it was last seen in April, 1895 ; it was also absent from the small
pond in Sundon "Wood, north of Bramingham, from which I
gathered it in the spring of every year from 1891 to 1895. On
the 18th of April I visited Totternhoe and found that this species
was absent from the pool at the Litany where it was first seen, the
place being now choked with a growth of coarse vegetation. It
was fairly plentiful in the second pool, where it grew scantily in
April, 1895. It also occurred sparingly in several places in the
old bed of the stream, which was diverted at the time of the
enclosure of the common. Chara contraria had disappeared from
its only known station in this district, where it was plentiful
in 1893.

IV.

NOTES ON LEriDOrTERA OBSERVED IN IIERTFORDSHIRE
DURING THE YEAR 1895.

By A. E. GiBBs, F.L.S., F.E.S.

Head at Watford, llth March, 1896,

My personal observations during the past year have been very
few indeed. With the exception of some evenings profitably spent
amongst the sallows in the spring, I have been able to do but little
entomological work, and I am sorry to say that several observers
who in past years have aided me very materially by sending useful
information for my annual report have no longer been able to
pursue their studies in this branch of science. I have, however,
received a most valuable list of captures from Mr. S. H. Spencer,
jun., of Watford, who is an enthusiastic collector and a careful
observer, and to whom I am indebted for much of the information
given in the present report. To Mrs. G. W. N. Harrison, of
Bamet, my thanks are also due for sending to me notes of her
observations on the rearing of several species of our common
Lepidoptera.

Sallow-beating in April yielded very good results. Mr. Arthur
Lewis and I commenced our season's work by beating, on the
10th of April, some sallows at Sparrowswick, St. Albans, and in
the neighbouring woods. "We found Taniocampa gracilis in some
quantity ; and subsequent search at Bricket Wood revealed the
presence of two moths which as a rule are scarce with us, namely,
T. miniosa and 1\ populeti. Of T. mimosa, Mr. Spencer, who was
working in the same locality, took two specimens, and Mr. Lewis
and I captured three. T. populeti proved to be more abundant
still, Mr. Spencer securing five, whilst we took several. One
curious fact which we noticed at the same time that we were
working at sallow-beating was the great abundance of the early
thorn moth {Selenia hilunaria), and especially was this the fact
on the night of the 17th of April. It was a damp night after
a heavy thunderstorm at 6 o'clock. We had not been very suc-
cessful at the sallow blossoms, the bushes being very wet, and
T. gracilis being the only moth we thought it worth while to
secure specimens of ; but at about 9 o'clock we noticed at the
corner of the scrubs near the brickfields a number of Geometers
flying about, and they turned out to be the early thorn moth. On
standing still we found that they flew to the light of our lantern,
and we were able easily to capture about a dozen in pill-boxes
without the aid of a net.

I was unable to do much sugaring during the year, and I cannot
give any information on the results of this method, except that I
believe Mr. Arthur Lewis met with a fair amount of success in his
garden and grounds at Sparrowswick.

28 A. E. GIBBS — NOTES ON lEPIDOPTEEA.

One of the chief features of Mr. Spencer's report is the good
work which he has been enabled to do at the electric light in
the neighbourhood of Watford, This light appears to offer great
attraction to moths, and Mr. Spencer tells me that on warm and
cloudy nights they come from far and near in great abundance.
On one such night he "pill-boxed" thirty-one different species
within an hour and a half, the commoner insects, such as
Xylophasia monoglyplia and Plusia gamma, literally swarming to
the electric light.

Btjtteefmes.

Mr. P. Latchmore, of Hitchin, records the unusual abundance
of orange-tips {Anthocaru cardamines) in that locality. They
appeared, he tells me, earlier than usual, and the lanes abounded
with them. Mr. S. H. Spencer says that he and his friend
Mr. Wigg found the larvae of this butterfly feeding on the seed-
vessels of Sisymbrium alliaria in Rouse Bam Lane on the 8th and
23rd of June.

> Although 1895 could not be called a Colias edusa year, like 1892,
when the insect appeared in thousands, still many specimens were
observed. I have three records of its appearance in Hertfordshire.
Mr. Arthur Lewis saw one at St. Albans on the 18th of August;
and Mr. Latchmore tells me that it was quite common on the
banks of the Great Northern Railway at Hitchin, where Dr. Davis
caught eight or nine good specimens and observed many others.
One specimen was taken at Radlett. Mr. Latchmore also says
that the brimstone butterfly (Gonepteryx rhamni) was fairly
common. He remarks : " How well preserved they look when
they emerge from their winter hybernation ! How seldom also
do they air themselves in the previous autumn ! " The railway-
banks and ridings at Bricket Wood are favourite haunts of this
conspicuous and brilliant insect, which likes to sun itself on
a bright spring day after its long winter's sleep. Mrs. Harrison,
of Baraet, tells me that last year she first observed the brimstone
butterfly on the wing on the 22nd of March, which was a bright
sunny day with a temperature of S^Q".

Mrs. Harrison has also been rearing that well-known insect the
small tortoiseshell butterfly, and has made a very interesting
observation with regard to it. She noticed that the autumn
brood remained a much shorter time in the chrysalis state than
the first brood ; pupation occupying from ten to twelve days
instead of twenty-one.

Moths.

Sphinges. — Turning now to the Heterocera, the Sphinges claim
our first attention, and at the head of the list stands the death's
head hawk -moth (Acherontia atropos). Mr. Harold Gatward reports
several captures of this insect at Hitchin, and Mr. F. Latchmore
had one specimen sent to him which was caught in a garden close
to the town. Mr. Spencer had a very damaged specimen of the
convolvulus hawk-moth {Sphinx convolvuli), an insect which is not

OBSERVED IN nERTFORDSnillE IN 1895. 29

very common in this part of Hertfordshire, brought to him on the
26th of September. Its congener the privet hawk-moth (S.
li</ustn') is also recorded from Watford by the same observer, who
netted a specimen at the electric light. Its proboscis, thorax,
and legs were covered with a yellow pollen. The elephant hawk-
moth has not been recorded during the year, but two of our
commonest sphinges, the eyed hawk-moth [Smerintlms ocellatiis)
and the poplar hawk-moth {S. poj)uli), were both observed. A
specimen of the former was sent to me by Mr. Kent, jun., of
St. Albans, on the 21st of May, and an unusually fine specimen
of the latter, measuring 3^ inches from tip to tip of its wings, was
captured by Mrs. Harrison at Barnet on the 19th of June. The
only other hawk-moth which I have to record is the humming-bird
hawk-moth {Macroghssa stellatarum), a specimen of which was sent
to me by Mr. A. C. Smith, of St. Peter's Street, St. Albans, having
been taken by him in the house. Two years previously this moth
was unusually abundant, as my report for the year 1893 shows.

BoMBTCES. — Mrs. Harrison reports the capture of the larva of
a wood leopard-moth {Zeiizera pyrina), which, however, she did
not succeed in rearing. It is not easy to induce these insects to
feed ; they are wood-borers, and in a state of nature they feed on
the living wood of various trees, but when kept in captivity they
generally sicken and die. An extraordinary find of larvte of the
emperor-moth [Saturnia pavonia) is recorded by Mr. Latchmore.
He and Dr. Davis were fishing one evening in July, when, the
sport not being very brisk, the doctor abandoned his rod and
searched for caterpillars in an osier-bed. On one osier-biish he
found no less than fifty fine full-fed specimens of this beautiful
larva. Mr. Latchmore points out that there seem to be two
different coloured varieties of the larva, and that he has noticed
this fact also among many other species. He asks if the colours
are the distinguishing marks of the male and female. Possibly
some of our members may have studied this subject, and can
give some information upon it. So far as my own limited
observations go, variety in colour appears to be generally the
result of the environment of the insect, and is adopted for
protective purposes.

One of the species of moths which Mrs. Harrison reared during
1894 was the drinker-moth {Odonestis potatoria), the larvae of
which are frequently to be found by the roadside feeding upon
grasses. She was much struck with the muscular power of this
cateiiiillar, one of which succeeded, in its eagerness for food, in
shaking the vessel in which the grass was placed. Mrs. Harrison
says that the movement of the jaws when the caterpillar is eating
is audible. She noticed that when they are spinning their cocoon
they change the position of the head, making, with no little
difficulty, within the limited dimensions of the cocoon when only
half constructed, a complete somersault, at nearly regular intervals
of twenty minutes. They appear to complete the cocoon in about
ten houi's, at least by that time it is so opaque that nothing fui'ther

30 A. E. GIBBS — XOTES ON LEPIDOPTEEA

can "be seen of the creature's movements. The emerging of the
young larvse from the eggs is a point worth noting, and is always
full of interest. Mrs. Harrison tells me that in the case of this
species it appears to take from 1 minute 40 seconds to 2 minutes,
"^^hen hatched they devour their egg-shells very voraciously.

Another larva, with regard to which Mrs. Harrison contributes
some interesting notes, is that of the gipsy -moth {Ocneria disj^ar).
She writes to me that she was very much struck with the
brilliancy of colouring of this caterpillar, especially in its early
stages, which, so far as she can discover, is not done justice to iu
the text-books. The blue-grey down its back is so rich in colour
as to be almost of a violet tinge ; the yellow introduced is of a
pure tone and very brilliant ; while the black tufts are like velvet.
It has altogether quite a striking and resplendent appearance.

The Bombyces recorded by Mr. Spencer are as follows : —
Zithosia mesomeJIa. — Five specimens beaten from heather at Bricket

Wood, June 16, 22, July 6.
Uuclielia Jacohcece. — Larvae very abundant on ragwort near "Watford

Tunnel.
Drepana hinaria. — One specimen taken at electric light, August 7.
J), ciiltraria. — One specimen at electric light.
Licranura furcula. — One specimen at electric light, August 1 6.
Lopliopteryx camelina. — One specimen at electric light.
Notodonta dictceoides. — Three specimens at electric light, August

14, 16, 17.
N. dromedarius. — Two specimens at electric light, August 16.
Thyatira derasa. — Several specimens at electric light.

Bricket "Wood is an old locality of mine for LitJiosia mesomeUa.
I beat it out of the undergrowth there years ago, and I have also
taken it at rest on the trees in the wood.

NocTTJ^. — Mr. Spencer contributes a valuable list of captures
of Noctuse. The species which he records are as follows : —
JDiloha cceruleocephala. — Larvae very abundant on hawthorn hedges

near Aldenham.
Leiicania lithargyria. — Several specimens taken at electric light.
L. pallens. — Abundant at electric light.
Tapinostola fulva. — One specimen at electric light.
Calamia lutosa. — Seven specimens at electric light.
Gortyna ochracea. — Several at electric light. Found larva) feeding

on the stems of thistles at Bricket "Wood and also on burdock

in "Whippendale Wood, June 16.
Hydrcecia nictitans. — At sugar near The Hall, Bushey, July 27,

August 14.
IT. micacia. — Four specimens at electric light, September 9.
Xylophasia monoglypha. — In swarms at electric light and sugar.
Neuronia jmpiilaris. — Fairly plentiful at electric light, August 12,

16, September 9.
Charceas gramitiis. — Two specimens at electric light, August 14, 16.

OBSERVED IN nEllTFORDSHIRE IN 1895. 31

Cerigo matura. — One specimen at electric light, and one at sugar.

Luperina cexpitifi. — One specimen at electric light.

Apamea ophiogramma. — Two specimens at electric light.

Miana arctiosa. — One specimen at electric light, July 10.

Caradrina quadrijnmctata. — One specimen at electric light.

Agrotis tritici. — Oue specimen at electric light.

A. ohscura. — One specimen at electric light.

Triphccna ianthina. — One specimen at electric light.

Amplupyra pyramidea. — Several at sugar and electric light.

A. tragopogonis. — Fairly plentiful at electric light.

Taniocampa populeti. — Five specimens at sallow in Bricket Wood,
April 10, 11, 12.

T. gracilis. — Five ditto.

T. miniosa. — Two ditto.

T. immda. — Two ditto.

Orthosia upsilon. — One specimen at sugar near Scott's "Wood, Eick-
mans worth, July 27.

Afichocelis pistacina. — Fairly plentiful at electric light.

A. lunosa. — Abundant at electric light.

A. litura. — Eight specimens at electric light.

Xanthia flavago. — One specimen at electric light.

X. gilvago. — Seventeen specimens at electric light.

Teihea suhtusa. — One specimen at electric light, August 12.

Cahjmnia diffinis. — One specimen at electric light.

Dianthcccia capsincola. — One at electric light.

D. cncuhali. — One at dusk, two at electric light.

D. carphophaga. — Found forty larvae of this moth on the bladder-
campion (Silene inflata) in a field near Chandler's Cross,
"Watford, on the 29th of June. Each larva was feeding
inside the calyx on the matured ovary of withered flowers.
The whole forty pupated, and one perfect imago appeared on
the 19th of August. The others are still in the pupa state.

Secatera serena. — One specimen at sugar in Eouse Earn Lane.
Three at electric light, July 10.

Folia flavicincta. — Several specimens at electric light.

Iliselia oxyacanthce. — Several specimens at electric light.

Phlogophora meticidosa. — Abundant at electric light.

Aplecta nehdosa. — Two specimens bred from larvae taken at sallow
catkins, Erickct Wood.

"Kyloeampa areola. — Two specimens from the trunks of oak-trees,
Bricket "Wood.

Pliisia iota. — Many damaged specimens at electric light.

P. gamma. — Abundant at electric light, in fine condition.

Euclidia gJypkica. — Fairly plentiful on railway-bank near Bricket
Wood, June 3.

Brephos parthenias. — Saw a few flying around tall sallows at
Bricket Wood, April 13.

The only additions which I have to make to Mr. Spencer's list
of Noctuse are the capture of the chamomile shark-moth [CucuUia

32 A. E. GIBBS — NOTES ON LEPIDOPTEEA.

chamomillai) in my own garden, this being the first record for
St. Albans and the third for the county ; and the finding at
rest on a tree in Luton Hoo Park, on the occasion of our field
meeting there in June, of Diantlmcia nana, Mr. Arthur Lewis
being the fortunate captor, but this was not in our county, being
a Bedfordshire record.

Geometrje. — The only recoi'd which Mr. Bowyer, of Haileybury,
is able to send me this year is that of the capture of Cidaris silaceata
at Haileybury. Mr. Spencer has sent to me the following list of
Geometers captured in the neighbourhood of Watford : —

Epione apiciaria. — One specimen at electric light, August 16.

Eugonia alniaria. — Two specimens at electric light.

E. fuscantaria. — Twenty specimens at electric light and many others

seen, August 14 to September 9.
Simera pemiaria. — On oak trunks in Aldenham "Wood and at electric

light.
Tephrosia luridata. — One specimen at dusk in Aldenham "Wood.
Geoinetra papilionaria. — One specimen at electric light, July 10.
Phorodesma pustulata. — One specimen in Aldenham Wood, June 20.
Bupalus piniaria. — Very plentiful around the tops of the Scotch

firs on Chipperfield Common ; five specimens caught. One

damaged specimen taken at dusk in Aldenham Wood.
E^ipitliecia succenturiata. — One specimen at electric light, July 10.
Tripliosa dulitata. — One specimen at electric light.
Eiibolia phimbaria. — Very plentiful on Chipperfield Common among

the gorse, juniper, and bracken, June 22.

In conclusion, I again tender my thanks to those ladies and
gentlemen who have favoured me with specimens and notes, and
1 wish to ask them and other observers to communicate to me any
observations which they may make dui'ing the present year.

V.

HERTFOEDSHIRE RAINFALL, PERCOLATION, AND

EVAPORATION.

By JoH.v HoPKixsoN, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

Read at Watford, Utk March, 1896.*
PLATE I.

Foe the last sixteen [now twenty] years I have made a special
study of the Meteorology of Hertfordshire, having taken meteoro-
logical observations in the county during that period (from 1876
to 1886 at Watford, and from 1887 to the present time at
St. Albans) in accordance with the regulations of the Koyal
Meteorological Society. For the years 1875 to 1879 and 1887
to 1891 I has-e collected records of the rainfall from all parts
of the county, the records for the years 1880 to 1886 having been
collected by 'the Rev. C. W. Harvey, F.R.Met.Soc. The general
results of the whole of these records, with tables showing the
monthly rainfall at all the stations, forming together a continuous
series of seventeen annual reports on the rainfall in Hertfordshire,
have been published in the ' Transactions of the Hertfordshire
Natural History Society.'

The rainfall, percolation, and evaporation tables accompanying
this Statement, have been compiled by me from information com-
municated to me and to Mr. Harvey by the observers during the
last seventeen years, including several old records ; from returns
sent to me by observers at my request for this special inquiry ;
and from tables published in the ' Proceedings of the Institution
of Civil Engineers.'

Rainfall.

The rainfall tables (Tables I to XI) comprise every complete
record of rainfall in Hertfordshire for the last twenty years at
least, for which I have been able to obtain the monthly fall
of rain, with the mean for the half century ending 31st March,
1892. As I consider it desirable to give the summer and winter
rainfall separately, annual returns only have been of no use to me,
and this has somewhat restricted the number and in some cases
the length of the records, but I believe that the ten rainfall
stations are so situated that they represent the county as fairly
as such a small number could be expected to do, their records
giving an average annual rainfall slightly in excess of the true
average.

In order to test their representative character I have deduced

* Reprinted verbifim from the Appendices to the ' Report of the Royal
Commission on Metropolitan Water Supply,' 1893.

VOL. IX. — PART II. 3

34 J. HOPKrXSOX HEETFOltDSHIEE RAINFALL

the mean rainfall at all the stations in Hertfordshire for which
monthly returns have been published in the ' Transactions of the
Hertfordshire Natural History Society,' varying in number from
t"sventy-six to thirty-six, for the fifteen years 1877 to 1891,
adopting this period because the number previous to the year 1877
is considerably less than twenty-six, and I find that the returns
for the whole of the stations give a mean rainfall of 27 '55 inches
per annum for this period, while the returns for the ten stations
give a mean of 27 79 inches for the same period, showing an excess
of 0*24 inch, being a little less than one per cent. As a further
test I have computed the mean annual rainfall at twenty-one
stations in the county for the decade 1880 to 1889, this being
a period which admits of comparisons being made with tables
compiled by Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., and with conclusions
arrived at by him, and I find the result to be almost precisely the
same, the mean at these stations for this period being 26' 84 inches
per annum, while the mean at the ten stations for the same period
is 27 '13 inches, showing an excess of 0'29 inch, being a little more
tlian one per cent.

It may therefore be assumed that the mean values deduced from
the records of these ten rainfall stations should be reduced by
about one per cent, to give the true mean rainfall for Hertfordshire.
In order to avoid repetition I shall use the term "year" for
the twelve months ending 31st March in all cases except w^hen
" calendar year " is specified. The terms " average " and " mean "
are used synonymously to signify the average of all the values,
not the mean between the extremes. The terms "ratio" and
"percentage" are also used synonymously, the mean in the tables
being considered as 100 instead of as imity in order to avoid the
use of decimals in the ratio columns. All measurements of rain
are given in inches of depth, sometimes abbreviated "ins."

In each rainfall table the column headed " Summer" gives the
rainfall from 1st April to 30th September, that headed " Winter"
the rainfall from 1st October to 31st March, and that headed
" year" the rainfall from 1st April to 31st March, all these tables
ending 31st March, 1892. The column headed " AVinter Ratio"
gives the percentage in each winter to the mean winter rainfall
of the period included in each table, the winter rainfall only being
thus treated because, as will hereafter be shown, upon it depends
almost entirely the amount of percolation into the Chalk, and
consequently the permanent or dry-weather flow of our rivers and
the amount of water available for our water-supply. The columns
headed "Mean of each three successive Winters" give the mean
rainfall and percentage to the mean for every three winters in
succession because the period of three years is the one adopted
by engineers in investigations on water-supply as that on which
an estimate of probable minimum supply should be based.

Table I, showing the mean summer, winter, and annual rainfall
in Hertfordshire for the half -century ending 31st March, 1892,
has been compiled from Tables II to Xi in the following manner.

PEECOLATIOX, AlfD EVAPORATION".

35

The whole of the stations being represented for tlie List twenty
years, the arithmetical mean of the values in these ten tables is
given for these years without any adjustment. Some one or more
of the stations not being represented for the first thirty years,
an adjustment has been made, where it is required, to the arith-
metical mean in accordance with, the ratio, during the last twenty
years, the rainfall at the stations represented bears to the mean
rainfall at the whole of the ten stations during the same period.
The mean annual rainfall at these ten stations for the twenty years
1872 to 1892 (April to March) being 27-71 inches, the adjustments
are as follows : — For the eight years 1842-50, minus 4f per cent.,
Kash trills being the only station represented, and its mean annual
rainfall for 1872-92 being 29-01 ins. ; for the year 1850-51, plus
2 per cent., Xasli Mills and Hitehin being the stations represented,
and their mean annual rainfall for 1872-92 being 27-32 ins. ; for
the two years 1851-53, phis 5i per cent., Nasb Mills, Hitehin,
and Royston being the stations I'epresented, and their mean annual
rainfall for 1872-92 being 26-18 ins. ; and for tbe three years
1853-56, plus 2 per cent., Nash Mills, Hitehin, Royston, and
Rothamsted being the stations represented, and their mean annual
rainfall for 1872-92 being 27-19 ins. No adjustment has been
made for the sixteen years 1856-72, the rainfall at the stations
represented during this period being, during the twenty years
187-2-92, sufficiently near the mean at the whole of the ten
stations, viz., in 1856-60 (five stations), 27-77 ins. ; in 1860-66
(seven stations), also 27-77 ins. ; in 1866-70 (eight stations),
27-61 ins. ; and in 1870-72 (nine stations), 27-78 ins.

The mean annual rainfall in Hertfordshire, as shown by this
table, for the half-century ending 31st March, 1892, is 26-33 ins.,
the mean summer rainfall being 13-24 ins., and the mean winter
rainfall 13-09 ins.

Dividing the half -century into two equal periods of twenty -five
years each, we have the following result : —

Quarter- Century.

Summer.

"Winter.

Year.

Ins.

Ratio.

Ins.

Ratio.

Ins.

Ratio.

1842-67 . . .
1867-92 . . .

12-92
I3'56

97f

12-62
13-56

96A
103I

25 '54
27-12

97
103

Mean . . .

1 3 "24

100

13-09 100

26-33

100

The rainfall during the first quarter-century was thus 3 per
cent, below the mean for the half-centuiy, and the rainfall during
the last quarter-century was 3 per cent, above it, the winter
rainfall deviating -\ per cent, more from the mean.

36

J. HOPErNSON HEETFOEDSHIHE EATNFALL,

Dividins,' the half-ccntiiiy into five periods of ten years each, "O'e

have the following result : —

Decade.

Summer.

Winter.

Year.

Ins.

Ratio.

Ins.

Eatio.

Ins.

Eatio.

1842-52 . . .
1852-62 . . .
1862-72 . . .
1872-82 . . .
1882-92 . . .

"-35
14-66
12-34

15-03
12-82

86
iioi

93^
"3*

97

11-68
11-24
12-95
14-21
13-37

97

93*

99
io8h
102

24-03
26-90

25-29
29-24
26-19

9ii
102

96
III

99i

Mean . . .

13-24

100

13-09

100

26-33

100

The rainfall during the first and third decade was thus appreci-
al'ly below the mean for the half-century, during the fourth decade
considerably above the mean, and during the second and fifth
decades very near the mean. The winter rainfall shows a con-
siderable increase in recent years, for during the first and second
decades together it averaged 5 per cent, in defect of the mean for
the half-century, and during the fourth and fifth decades together,
5 per cent, in excess of the mean, being very near the mean dm'ing
the third decade.

The progressive increase in the rainfall during the half -century,
if longer periods than decades are considered, may be clearly shown
bv taking successive periods of twenty years ending 1862, 1872,
1882, and 1892, thus:—

Period.

Summer.

Winter.

Year.

Ins.

Eatio.

Ins.

Eatio.

Ins.

Eatio.

1842-62 . . .
1852-72 . . .
1862-82 . . .
1872-92 . . .

13-00

13-50
13-69

13-93

98
102
103
105

12-46
12-60
13-58
13-79

95

96

104

105

25-46
26-10
27-27
27-72

96*

99
103?
105

If reliance can be placed on very old records, it would seem that
there has been a slight increase in the rainfall in the south-east
of England during the last century, that is to say, that the rainfall
during the fifty years 1842-92 was greater than during the fifty
years 1792-1842, but half a century is a sufficiently long period for
the purpose of this inqiiiiy. It must not, however, be presumed
that there is a secular increase in the rainfall which is likely to
continue, for there are many considerations which would lead us to
infer that the reverse is the case, the heavy rainfall of recent years

PERCOLATION, AND EVAPORATION.

37

being a more episode in a period of declining rainfall, if measnred
by centuries instead of decades, so that we should look forward to a
considerably reduced rainfall in the distant future, and to a lowering
of the plane of permanent saturation in the Chalk of the Thames
Easin from natural causes. The destruction of forests and the
lowering of the surface of the ground by subaerial denudation must
tend to reduce the rainfall, while this reduction, and the loss of
water which must take place from its gradual percolation to a lower
level owing to the secular cooling of the earth, must in time lower
the surface and lessen the contents of the underground reservoir on
which we now depend for a considerable portion of our water-supply.

As examples of old records in the Thames Valley may be
mentioned Sunbury in Middlesex, with a mean annual rainfall
of 23-72 ins. for the forty-two calendar years 1797 to 1838;
Sandhurst in Kent, with a mean of 23-89 ins. for the forty
calendar years 1820 to 1859; and Cobham in Surrey, with a
mean of 23-75 ins. for the thirty-five calendar years 1825 to 1859.

At the commencement of this statement I showed that the mean
rainfall derived directly from the records of our ten stations, would
most probably be about 1 per cent, in excess of the true mean for
the county. If we make this deduction our mean annual rainfall will
be 26*07 inches. It will now be shown that this probable excess
of 1 per cent, is more than accounted for by the smaller of our two
principal river-basins, that of the Colne, having a greater rainfall
than the larger one, that of the Lea, and each of these unequal
areas being represented by the same number of rainfall stations.

Tables II to VI give the rainfall at five stations in the catch-
ment-basin of the Iliver Colne. For the twenty years 1872-92,
they show a mean annual rainfall of 29-56 ins., the mean summer
rainfall being 14-69 ins., and the mean winter rainfall, 14-87 ins.

Tables VII to XI give the rainfall at five stations in the catch-
ment-basin of the River Lea, (Two of these stations, Hitchin and
lloyston, are just over the watershed on the north.) For the
twenty years 1872-92, these tables show a mean annual rainfall
of 25-87 ins., the mean summer rainfall being 13-16 ins., and the
mean winter rainfall, 12*71 ins.

To reduce these values to the mean for the half-centiiry, a
deduction of 5 per cent, is required (see p. 36). The corrected
values are as follows : —

Catchment-Basin.

Summer.

Winter.

Year.

Ins.

Ratio.

Ins.

Eatio.

Ins. Eatio.

Colue . . .
La ... .

13-96
12-51

106
94

14-12
12-07

108
92

28-08
24-58

107
93

Mean . . .

13-24

100

13-09

100

26-33

100

The area of Hertfoi'dshire is 633 square miles. It will be
convenient, and sufficiently precise for our purpose, to consider

38 J. HOPKINSON — HEETFOEDSHIEE EAINTALL,

its area to be 630 square miles. If the county be divided along
the water-parting of the Colne and Lea, the Colne catchment-
basin (including very small portions of the basins of the Thame
and the Brent) will be found to have an area of about 220 square
miles, and the Lea catchment-basin (including a small portion of
the basin of the Great Ouse) an area of about 410 square miles.
It is evident that a correction is required for the disparity of areas
in order to obtain an approximately true mean for the county, the
efPect of its application being to reduce the mean derived directly
from the records of the ten stations. Multiplying the inches of
rainfall in each area by the square miles it contains, and dividing
the product by the number of square miles in the two areas, the
resultant mean is 25-80 ins., thus : —

(28-08 X 220) + (24-58 X 410)

630 = ^''■^"

The following results have now been arrived at by three different
methods : —

Mean rainfall derived directly from the records of ten stations :
26-33 ins. Mean rainfall corrected by comparing ten calendar
years' rainfall with the mean at 21 stations, and fifteen calendar
years' rainfall with the mean at a varying number of stations
(26 to 36): 26-07 ins. Mean rainfall corrected for disparity of
distribution of the ten stations: 25-80 ins. The mean of these
results, the first of which is certainly too high, is 26-07 ins. I there-
fore think that we should adopt 26 inches as the nearest possible
approach in round numbers to our mean annual rainfall, of which
12-93 ins. will be our summer, and 13-07 ins. our winter rainfall.

The availability of rainfall for water-supply depends very much
upon how the rain falls. In heavy falls of short duration some
of the rain may run off the ground into ditches, and thence into
the rivers and cause floods, and if followed by drought much
moisture may evaporate, and consequently the percolation may
be comparatively small. With gentle rain continuing for a long
period, on the other hand, there will be a considerable amount of
percolation, but little evaporation, owing to the atmosphere being
kept in a more than usually humid state, and no loss by water
running off the ground. This is, no doubt, especially the case
in a chalk district. If rain fell every day in Hertfordshire, the
daily fall would be about 0-07 in. ; but the mean number of days
per annum on which at least 0-01 in. falls is about 170, and
therefore the average per diem on the days on which it does
fall is about 0153 in., the falls recorded varying from 0-0 1 in.
(the least quantity measured as a rule) to upwards of 4 inches.
iSimilarly, two moderately wet months following one another
would probably give a rather greater percolation than would
a very wet month followed by a very dry one.

Temperature also must have a considerable effect upon evapora-
tion. The higher the temperature, the brighter (or less obscured)
the sun, the more moisture will the atmosphere absorb, and the

PEECOLATIOIf, AND ETAPORAXION". 09

more will be drawn up to form cloud?. And perhaps the varying
Yt'looity of the wind will cause a still greater difference in the
amount of evaporation, and consequently in that of percolation.
But, one year with another, these causes of varying evaporation
will tend to equalize themselves, and variations in rainfall only
need be considered here.

During the twelve calendar years 1880 to 1891 there has once
been, in 24 hours, a fall of rain exceeding 4 inches (17th July,
1890, at Moor Park, Rickmansworth, 4'19ins.); there has once
been a fall of from 3 J- to 4 inches (12th July, 1889, at High
Pown, Hitchin, 3*76 ins., and at Welwyn Rectory, and Fanhams
Hall, Ware, 3-50 ins.); there has twice been a fall of from 3 to
Sh inches (26th June, 1888, at Rothamsted, 3-24 ins., and 12th
July, 1889, at five stations in the county) ; there has twice been
a fall of from 2| to 3 inches (12th July, 1889, at seven stations,
and 17th July, 1890, at four) ; falls of from 2 to 2^ inches have
been recorded on eight occasions, at three stations each on the
average; falls of from li to 2 inches have been recorded on
twenty-five occasions (that is, about twice a year) at from three
to four stations each on the average ; and falls of from 1 inch to 1 g-
have been recorded on seventy-eight occasions (that is, from six
to seven times a year) at from four to five stations each on the
average. Falls of at least an inch were general over the county on
five occasions during the last twelve years, viz. : on 17th December,
1881; 10th September, 1885; 12th July, 1889; 17th July, 1890;
and 20th August, 1891. On two of these occasions, r2th July,
1889, and 17th July, 1890, the general fall in the county was at
least 2 inches.

During the half-century ending 31st March, 1892, the greatest
fall of rain in the county in any month was 8*41 ins. at Tring
Yicarage in October, 1891, and the least was no rain at six stations
(out of thirty-six) in February, 1891. At the ten stations for
which rainfall tables are here given, the greatest fall in any
summer was 25-75 ins. at Rothamsted in 1879, and the least
was 6-05 at Hitchin in 1870; the greatest fall in any winter was
23-69 ins. at Gorhambury in 1882-83, and the least was 5-12 ins.
at Royston in 1879-80 ; the greatest fall in any year was 41*34 ins.
at Goi-hambury in 1882-83, and the least was 16-60 ins. at Royston
in 1870-71. Except in the yearly fall, the date of the extreme
anywhere has coincided with the date of the extreme in the county,
that is to say, the wettest and the driest summer, winter, and
month throughout the county have been the same as the wettest
and the driest summer, winter, and month at any one station.
But the year with the gi'eatest mean rainfall in the county was
1852-53, with 36*89 inches, and the year with the least mean
rainfall was 1854-55, with 19-33 inches. In the calendar years,
and including stations not represented in our ten rainfall tables,
the greatest fall of rain in any one year was 42*56 ins. at Moor
Park, Rickmansworth, in 1879, and the least was 15*79 ins. at
Barley, near Royston, in 1884.

40

J. HOPKIISrsON' HEETFOKDSHIKE RAINFALL,

In the half-century ending 31st March, 1892, the wettest year
was 1852-53, mean rainfall 37'08ins. or 40 per cent, above the
average for the half-century (the average here being taken at
26-33 inches), the next was 1882-83, mean 34-77 ins. or
32 per cent, above the average; the driest year was 1854-55,
mean 19-33 ins. or 27 per cent, below the average; the next was
1870-71, mean 1970 ins. or 25 per cent, below the average. The
wettest two years in succession were 1875-76 and 1876-77,
mean 33-10 ins. or 26 per cent, above the average; the next
were 1859-60 and 1860-61_, mean 31-52 ins. or 20 per cent,
above the average; the driest two years were 1863-64 and
1864-65, mean 21-48 ins. ; the next were 1873-74 and 1874-75,
mean 21-69 ins , both about 18 per cent, below the average. The
wettest three years in succession were 1880-81 to 1882-83, mean
31-99 ins., and 1878-79 to 1880-81, mean 31-86 ins., both about
2 1 per cent, above the average ; the driest three years were
1844-45 to 1846-47, mean 22-58 ins., and 1862-63 to 1864-65,
mean 22-62 ins., both about 14 per cent, below the average.

Percolation and Evaporation.

Tables XII to XIY have been compiled from tables published
in the ' Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,' but for
the purpose of this inquiry they are in a totally different form
from that of the original tables, and they give results which can
only be derived from them by calculation. Tables XII and XIII
give results of experiments made by Messrs. Dickinson & Co.,
at Xash Mills, on percolation through chalk and soil with grass
growing on the surface. Tables XIY and XV give results of
experiments made by Mr. Charles Greaves, at Lea Bridge, on
percolation through soil with gi'ass growing on the surface, and
on evaporation from the surface of water in a tank moored on
a flowing stream. And Table XVI gives results of experiments
made by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, at Rothamsted, on percolation
of rain through soil with the surface kept free from vegetation.

Erom Table XII, which gives the percolation through 3 feet of
chalk with grass growing on the surface, at Xash Mills, for the
thirty years ending 31st March, 1884, and the difference from
the rainfall, considered as evaporation, the following general results
may be deduced : —

Period.

Rainfall.

Percolation.

Evaporation.

Ins.

Ins.

Ratio to Rain.

Ins.

Ratio to Rain.

Summer
Winter . .

14-08
13-76

2-12
8-43

i57o
6i7o

11-96
5-33

857o
397o

Year . .

27-84

10-55

387o

17-29

627o

PERCOLATION, AND EVAPOEATION.

41

Ouly a small area in the county is likely to have sucli a porous
subsoil as is here represented by a gauge containing broken pieces
of chalk.

The results given in Table XI 1 1 are of the greatest value in
this inquiry, for here ■^e have a soil in as nearly as possible the
usual condition of the soil over the Chalk area of Hertfordshire.
The table gives the percolation of rain through 3 feet of soil
■svith grass growing on the surface, at Nash Mills, for the forty-two
years ending 31st March, 1884, and the difference from the rainfall,
considered as evaporation, and the following general results may
be deduced from it : —

Period.

Rainfall.

Percolation.

Evaporation.

Ins.

Ins.

Eatio to Rain.

Ins.

Ratio to Rain.

Summer
Wiuter . .

1371
13-69

0-70
6-07

57.
447o

1301
7-62

957o
567o

Year . .

27-40

6-77

24r/o

20-63

7SF/o

Table XIV gives the percolation of rain through 3 feet of soil
such as usually covers the Chalk in Hertfordshire, with grass
growing on the surface, at Lea Bridge, for the twenty-one years
ending 31st March, 1873, and the difference from the rainfall,
considered as evaporation, and the following general results may
be deduced from it : —

Period.

Rainfall.

Percolation.

Evai)oration.

Ins.

Ins.

Ratio to Rain.

Ins.

Ratio to Rain.

Summer
Winter . .

12-85
13-09

0-87
6-15

77o
47°/o

11-98
6-94

937o
537o

Year . .

25-94

7-02

277o

1892

737o

That two independent series of experiments extending over
different periods of time, and carried on at a considerable distance
apart, should give a mean annual percolation differing only 2^ per
cent, from each other, is in itself a testimony to their general
accuracy. Of the two series, the experiments at Xash ]Mills seem
to be more likely to give accurate results than those at Lea Bridge,
in the fii'st place because they have extended over a much, longer

42

J, HOPKINSON HERTFOEDSHIEE RAINFALL,

period of time, and in the second because the Nash Mills p;anp;e
gives the smallest percolation. Both gauges being artificially
filled with soil, they must be more apt to let through a greater
quantity of water than would percolate through undisturbed soil
than a less quantity. Soil, also, must frequently expand and
contract, and when contracting in a gauge it must part from the
sides of the gauge and so leave around it a space, however small,
down which water will pass more freely than through natural soil.
In the following table, therefore, in which the average percentage
of percolation and evaporation given by the two series of experiments
is calculated on the mean rainfall of Hertfordshire, the amount of
percolation is probably rather overstated, and that of evaporation
rather understated. The summer and winter rainfall are assumed
to be equal,

Period.

Rainfall.

Percolation.

Evaporation.

Ins.

Ins.

Eatio to Eain.

Ins.

Ratio to Rain.

Summer
Winter . .

13-00
13-00

c-78
5-98

67o
467o

12-22

7-02

947o
547o

Tear . .

26-00

6-76

267o

19-24

747o

From Table XV it would appear that evaporation from water
is very little greater than it is from the surface of grass-covered
soil. At Lea Bridge, for the thirteen years ending 31st March,
1873, with a mean annual rainfall of 25-93 inches, of which
r2-16ins. fell in the summer, and 13-77 ins. in the winter, the
mean annual evaporation was 20*73 ins., or 80 per cent, of
the rainfall, the evaporation in summer being 15-91 ins., or 131
per cent, of the summer rainfall, and in winter 4-82 ins., or 35 per
cent, of the winter rainfall. Thus the evaporation in summer was
rather more than three times that in winter ; or, relatively to the
rainfall, nearly four times.

These experiments are perhaps of more value in showing the
great difference there is between the amount of evaporation in
summer and in winter, than in showing the actual amount of
evaporation from the surface of water. That this probably averages
nearer 18 inches than 21, seems to be shown by a very careful
series of experiments made at Strathfield Turgiss with a gauge now
in the possession of Mr. Symons, who is continuing the experiments
in London (at Camden Square).

That there is a very great increase in the amount of percolation
through soil when its surface is kept free from vegetation, is shown
by Table XVI. This table gives the percolation of rain through
5 feet of soil, the surface of which is frequently hoed to keep it

PERCOLATION, AXD EVAPORATION.

43

free from vegetation, in a gauge ouo-tliousandtli of an acre in area,
at Rothamsted, during the twenty-one years ending 31st JSEarch,
1892, and the following general results may be deduced from it : —

Period.

Raiufall.l

Percolation.

Evaporation.

Ins.

Ins.

Ratio to Rain.

lus.

Ratio to Rain.

Summer
Winter . .

15-26
14-85

3-88
10 -02

257o
677o

11-38

4-83

757o
337o

Year . .

30-11

13-90

467o

i6-2i

547o

These results do not represent anything which takes place in
nature throughout the year in this country, for nowhere have
we soil in a natural state which is constantly free from vegetation
of any kind ; but the experiments are instructive in showing
the maximum percolation possible through ordinary soil with the
greatest artificial aid to it in the frequent hoeing of the surface
in order to keep it quite free from vegetation.

The table is also of value in this inquiry in another respect.
No other published results of experiments on percolation are
of a more recent date than 1884, while here I am able to give
the results up to the date at which all my rainfall tables terminate,
viz., the 31st of March, 1892. If the twenty-one years are divided
into three equal periods of seven years each, it will be found that
during the first seven years the percolation was 83f per cent,
of that of the whole period, during the next seven years 117 per
cent., and diuing the last seven years 99;| per cent., or practically
the average of the whole period.

The mean annual rainfall during the twenty -one years covered
by this table having been 30-11 ins., and the mean at Eothamsted
during the thirty-nine years 1853-92, as shown in Table VI,
having been 28'46ins., the mean annual percolation during the
shorter period must have been much greater than it would have
been during the longer period. But there is a still greater diff'erence
between this annual rainfall of 30-11 ins. and the mean annual
rainfall in Hertfordshire for the last half-century, viz., 26 inches.
The problem is, therefore, to determine, if possible, what would
probably have been the percolation at Rothamsted if the rainfall
there had been the same as the county average.

"We are not justified in assuming that all the rain which falls
in wet years in excess of that which falls in dry years percolates,
or that it all evaporates, nor that the percentage of percolation and
evaporation to rainfall is the same, with a varying amount of rain.
It therefore seems to me that the only way in which a satisfactory
conclusion can be arrived at is to analyze this table, computing the

44

J. HOPKINSON" — HEETFOKDSHIEE EAINFALL,

mean rainfall and percolation in so many of the drier years as have
together a mean rainfall about equal to the county mean. Out
of the twenty-one years 1 find that the ten driest years have
a mean rainfall of 25*87 ins., and a mean percolation of 10"28ius.,
and that the eleven driest years have a mean rainfall of 2 6' 2 3 ins ,
and a mean percolation of 10'44ins. Averaging these results, the
mean rainfall is 26-05 ins., almost the same as our county mean,
and the mean percolation 10-36 ins. Proceeding in the same way
with the summer and winter rainfall of these years, the general
results are as follows ; —

Period.

Eainfall.

Percolation.

Evaporation.

Ins.

Ins.

Eatio to Eain.

Ins.

Eatio to Eain.

Summer
Winter . .

13-40
12-65

2-62
7-68

197.
6o7o

10-78
4 "97

8i7o
4o7o

Year . .

26-05

10-30

39r/o

1575

6or/o

If the accuracy of these conclusions, and also of the experiments
on -which they are founded, be admitted, it follows that with the
mean county rainfall the percolation at Rothamsted would exceed
the mean of that at Nash Mills and Lea Bridge by 1-84 in., or
13 per cent, of the rainfall in the summer, 1-70 in., or 14 per cent,
of the rainfall in the winter, and 3-54 ins., or 135^ per cent, of the
rainfall in the year, the excess representing the decreased amount
of evaporation due to the absence of vegetation at Rothamsted.

In the course of a discussion at a meeting of the Institution of
Civil Engineers in March, 1891, Dr. J. H. Gilbert [now Sir Henry
Gilbert] said that he and Sir John Lawes considered that the
deduction from the amount of percolation through soil destitute
of vegetation which should be made for the presence of vegetation
■would vary from 2 to 7 inches or more per annum from downs
or waste lands to heavily cropped land; and that "taking the
average of a large area around London, partly covered with vege-
tation and partly bare, over a number of seasons, they thought
that between 3 and 4 inches should be deducted," a conclusion
which is confirmed, or at least very strongly supported, by the
above investigation.

In order to test the difference in percolation and evaporation in
wet and dry years, where there is vegetation, I have selected from
the forty- two years' record of percolation at Nash Mills, the six
wettest summers, winters, and years, and the six driest summers,
winters, and years, and have computed the averages of rainfall,
percolation, and evaporation, and the ratio of each to the mean
rainfall, percolation, and evaporation of the whole period.

PEECOLATIOIf, AND EVAPORATION.

45

Tlic six wettest summers, winters, and years give the following

averages

\ —

Period.

Rainfall.

Percolation.

Evaporation.

Ins.

Eatio to Mean.

Ins.

Ratio to Mean.

Ins.

Ratio to Mean.

Summer
Winter
Year .

19-93

20-93

36-99

i457o
i537o
i357o

2-33
11-31

11-69

3337o
186=/,

i737o

17-60
9-62

25-30

i357o
126%

I227o

Thus, with six summers' rainfall averaging 45 Y>er cent, above
the forty-two years' mean, the percolation averaged 233 per cent,
above it, and the evaporation only 35 per cent, above it. In the
winters and years the difference was much less, but even in
the six wettest years, with a rainfall averaging one-third above
the mean, the percolation increased more than three times as
much as did the evaporation.

The following averages are given by the six driest summers,
winters, and years : —

Period.

Rainfall.

Percolation.

Evaporation.

Ins.

Ratio to Mean.

Ins.

Ratio to Mean.

Ins.

Ratio to Mean.

Summer
Winter
Year .

8-81

8-59
19-94

647o
637o
737o

0-07
1-97
3-49

io7o

327o
527o

8-74
6-62

16-45

677o
877o
8o7o

Thus, with six summers' rainfall averaging 36 per cent, below
the forty-two years' mean, the percolation averaged 90 per cent,
below it, and the evaporation only 33 per cent, below it. In the
winters the reduction in the rainfall made very little difference
to the amount of evaporation, for with a rainfall 37 per cent,
below the mean, the evaporation was only 13 per cent, below it,
■while the percolation was as much as 68 per cent, below it, the
reduction in evaporation being scarcely one-fifth that in percolation.
The average winter percolation being nearly eight times as much as
the average summer percolation, we see what a very great difference
a small rainfall in the winter will make to the annual percolation.
"With about three-quarters the average annual rainfall, the perco-
lation is reduced -to nearly half the average, while there is only
a reduction of one-fifth in -the evaporation.

These results may now be applied to the rainfall in the catchment-
basins of the rivers Colne and Lea. With a total divergence of
17-05 ins. in the rainfall, there is a divergence of 8-20 ins. in the
percolation, or rather less than half. Assuming that the difference

46

J. HOPKrNSO:^ — HEETFOEDSHIEE EAINFALL,

between tbe rainfall and percolation proceeds at an uniform rate,
for every inch of rainfall there Avill be a difference of 0-48 inch in
percolation, and on this supposition the following will represent
approximately the mean annual percolation and evaporation in the
two divisions of our county, the mean for the county being added
for comparison : —

Catchment-
Basin.

Rainfall.

Percolation.

Evaporation.

Ins.

Ins.

Ratio.

Ins.

Ratio.

Colne . .
Lea

28-08
24-58

772
608

27r/o

24f7o

2036
18-50

72r/o

75i7o

County .

26-00

676

267o

19-24

747o

The River Colne leaves our county at Harefield, and at about
that point, or a little higher, it has been proposed to withdraw
from the Chalk a large quantity of water for the supply of Loudon.
The River Lea is regularly gauged at Feilde's Weir, and above
that point is included all the area of chalk within its basin. It
will be convenient to estimate the areas of these two catchment-
basins, irrespective of the boundaries of Hertfordshire, above these
points. The method I have pursued is that of drawing the areas
on stout paper, cutting them out, and weighing them. The result
1 have arrived at is that the area of the Colne above Harefield
is approximately 235 square miles, and that the area of the Lea
above Feilde's Weir is approximately 410 square miles. In the
catchment-basin of the Colne about 195 square miles are on
the Chalk, and about 40 square miles are on Tertiaries (Reading
Reds and London Clay). In the catchment-basin of the Lea about
295 square miles are on the Chalk, and about 115 square miles are
on Tertiaries (Reading Beds and London Clay). The following
appear to be approximately the areas drained by the tributcary
streams, and by the main streams outside the basins of their
tributaries : —

Catchment-Basins.

Chalk.

Tertiaries.

Total.

p, , fChess . .

^^^'^^ Gade . .
above -- y

rLea . . .

Lea Mimram

above J Beane . .

Feilde's 1 Rib . . .

Weir Ash . . .

Utort . .

Square miles.

36
88

36

35
67

30
«3
52

35
28

Square miles.

2

2

I
35
23

2

5

5

10
70

Square miles.

38
90

37
70
90

32
88

57
45
98

Total . . . .

490

155

645

PERCOLATION, AND EVAPORATION. 47

It has been estimated by Mr. W. Whitakcr, F.R.S., that in the
Geological Survey Maps, sheets 7 and 46 S.E., in which much
the greater portion of the above area is represented, out of nearly
600 miles square coloured as bare Chalk, the Chalk which would be
coloured as bare on Maps showing the Drift beds, occupies only
about 34 per cent, of the area, 21| per cent, of the Chalk area
being covered by permeable beds, 41 per cent, by mixed beds
(partly permeable and partly impermeable), and 3-^ per cent, by
impermeable beds. I have converted the square miles given
by Mr. AYhitaker into percentages of the whole area. If we
consider the mixed beds as half permeable and half impermeable,
it follows that 24 per cent. (20+ + 3^) should be deducted from
the area of Chalk, that is Chalk not covered by Tertiary beds,
to arrive at the area of permeable strata. The Chalk area of the
Colne must therefore be reduced from 195 square miles to 148, and
the Chalk area of the Lea from 295 square miles to 224.

An inch of rain per annum percolating throughout an area
of a square mile will yield 39,623 gallons of water per diem.
Therefore 7 "72 ins. percolating per annum through the 148 square
miles of permeable strata in the catchment-basin of the Colne and
its tributaries above Harefield will yield about 45 million gallons
per diem, and 6'08ins. percolating per annum through the 224
square miles of permeable strata in the catchment-basin of the Lea
and its tributaries above Feilde's Weir will yield about 54 million
gallons per diem. The total yield from percolation through the
Chalk is therefore 99 million gallons per diem.

To the amount of rain which percolates through the Chalk
should be added that which runs off the surface of the impermeable
strata. It is very difficult to form any estimate of this. There
must be much more evaporation from the surface of impermeable
beds than from the surface of permeable beds, for wherever water
stands it must be exposed much longer to evaporating influences
(the heat of the sun, drying winds, etc.) than when it sinks
beneath the surface. If we assume that impermeable beds yield
with ordinary, or not very heavy, rainfall, half the amount of water
that permeable beds do, we shall probably be very near the mark.
On this assumption the 87 square miles (40 + 47) of impermeable
beds in the Colne area will yield about 12^ million gallons per
diem, and the 186 square miles (115 -|- 71) of impermeable beds
in the Lea area will yield about 20^ million gallons per diem.
This brings the yield of the Colne area above Harefield to
572" million gallons, and that of the Lea area above Feilde's "Weir
to 7H million gallons. The total yield of the two areas with
ordinary rainfall should therefore be about 132 million gallons
per diem.

But occasionally we have very heavy rain, which runs rapidly
off impermeable beds ; when excessively heavy it may even run off
permeable beds, but that is rarely the case. It is as impossible
to estimate the yield of these heavy falls, as it would be futile
to rely upon them for our water-supply. They temporarily

48 J. HOPKINSOX — HERTFORDSHIEE EAIIS^FALL,

augment the volume of water in our rivers, sometimes to such
an extent that they cause floods, but their effects soon cease.

Even the estimated extra supply of 33 million gallons per diem
derived from rain running off impermeable beds should not all be
counted on as available for water-supply. It is essentially
a winter supply, and in winter less water is required than in
summer. We should therefore base our estimate of what we can
rely upon on the available summer supply, and this is almost
entirely derived from the rain which percolates through the Chalk
in winter. With a gentle rain, even if long continued, it is seldom
that any runs off the surface into our rivers in summer ; it is only
when there is a very heavy rain that it does so, and then only
on impermeable beds, except perhaps once a year or so when about
an inch falls in a few hours. The occasional flooding of the Lea
Yalley below Feilde's Weir, when very heavy rain falls in the
summer, is, doubtless, almost entirely due to the large Tertiary
area in the Valley of the Stort (two and a half times that of the
Chalk area). In the Colne Valley I have never seen any of
the tributaries of the Colne flooded in summer. Their valleys are
entirely cut out of the Chalk, except that they have about five
square miles of Tertiary outliers in them. But of the 70 square
miles in the Colne Valley alone {i.e., excluding its tributaries)
above Harefield, about half are occupied by Tertiary beds, and
when two or three inches of rain fall in as many days, which very
rarely happens, or when a long wet period culminates in a heavy,
though smaller, fall than this, whether in winter or summer, the
valley is flooded for a day or two about Watford and Rickmans-
worth. This water quickly runs off, and its presence is not an
indication that the Chalk is saturated up to it. The Chalk
doubtless receives some flood-water from impermeable beds, as in
swallow-holes, but I believe that there is only one district where
any very considerable quantity is thus absorbed, and that is the
upper valley of the Colne near North Mimms, which will be
referred to presently.

It might be suggested that flood-water could be utilized by
making reservoirs where our valleys are subject to inundation, but
such water is wholly unsuitable for drinking purposes. Excessively
heavy rain carries off everything loose with which it comes in
contact, and as much of our land is heavily manured, a consider-
able quantity of manure must be carried off it. Nearly all our
Sewage Farms are on the banks of our rivers, necessarily on low
land and liable to be flooded, water at such times running off them
into the rivers. Water, therefore, should not be drawn from our
rivers in times of flood, much less should flood-water be stored for
future supply.

The results given above are based on the average rainfall and
percolation for a long period. Eut we cannot rely upon the
average, or anything near the average, year by year, or for a
short series of years. Taking the average ratio of percolation
in the experiments on percolation through soil at Nash Mills,

PERCOLATION, AND EVAPORATION.

49

Lea Eridgo, and Eotliamstod, so far as either series of experiments
is available for the half-century ending 31st March, 1892, the
follo\ving' will be found to be the percentage to the mean in
each year : —

Year.

Ratio.

157

Tear.

Ratio.
168

Year.

Ratio.
97

Year.

Ratio

Year.

Ratio.
164

1842-43

1S52-53

1862-63

1872-73

140

1882-83

43-44

145

53-54

61

63-64

54

73-74

27

83-84

n

44-45

105

54-55

28

64-65

74

74-75

56

84-85

88

45-46

133

55-56

92

65-66

172

75-76

108

85-86

123

46-47

90

56-57

75

66-67

lOI

76-77

142

86-87

99

47-48

132

57-58

los

67-68

SO

77-78

80

87-88

71

48-49

102

58-59

23

68-69

118

78-79

128

88-89

98

49-50

21

59-60

138

69-70

76

79-80

128

89-90

"5

50-51

125

60-61

153

■ 70-71

71

80-81

175

90-91

63

51-52

55

61-62

109

71-72

79

81-82

94

91-92

126
102I

1842-52

1064

1852-62

95

1862-72

89

1872-82

108

1882-92

The smallest ratio of percolation in any year was 21 per cent,
in 1849-50, the next, 23 per cent, in 1858-59; the smallest in
any two years in succession was 412- per cent, in 1873-74 and
1874-75, the next, 44^ per cent, in 1853-54 and 1854-55; the
smallest in any three years in succession was 60 per cent, in
1853-54 to 1855-56, the next, 64 per cent, in 1873-74 to 1875-76.
We may, therefore, expect to have three years in succession with
an average percolation of about 4 inches of rain, being 60 per cent,
of our county average of 6*76 inches. We may also have three
successive years with an average percolation of 9|- inches of rain,
being 44 per cent, above the average, as in 1878-79 to 1880-81.

If, instead of taking the ratio to the mean of the three series
of experiments, we take the actual amount of percolation through
soil at Nash Mills and Lea Bridge, it will be found that for the
three years 1854-55 to 1856-57, the average annual percolation
at Lea Bridge was 3-63 ins., and that for the three years 1869-70
to 1871-72 at IS^ash Mills it was 3-75 ins. Even if we take such
a long period as six years, we get a mean annual percolation of
less than 4 J inches, for during the six years 1853-54 to 1858-59,
at Lea Bridge, the average was 4-33 ins., and during the six years
1866-67 to 1871-72, at Nash Mills, it was 4-30 ins.

In three successive years, therefore, the average annual supply
from the catchment-basins of the Colne and Lea may be from about
35 to 40 per cent, less than the estimated average for half a centuiy,
and in six successive years it may be about 25 per cent, less than
this average.

It may be noticed that the ratio of percolation during the
second, fourth, and fifth decade of the half-century corresponds
very closely with the ratio of winter rainfall during these decades,

VOL. IX.

-PART II.

50 J. nOPKINSON HERTFOBDSHIRE EAINFAXL,

the difference being IJ, ^, and ^ per cent, respectively; not nearly
80 closely in any decade with the ratio of annual rainfall ; and
that it does not correspond at all with the ratio of summer rainfall.
If the ratio of percolation be calculated on the mean proportions
to the rainfall in summer and winter at jSTash Mills and Lea Bridge,
that is 6 per cent, of the summer rainfall and 46 per cent, of the
winter rainfall, the ratios of percolation in each decade should be
as follows: — First decade, 96 per cent.; second, 95h per cent.;
third, 98 per cent; fourth, 109 per cent. ; and fifth, 101^ per cent.
The differences between these calculated ratios and the actual ratios
as given in the above table, for the second, fourth, and fifth decade,
are respectively ^, 1, and 1 per cent., thus showing that it makes
very little difference whether we estimate the percolation on the
proper proportion of summer and winter rainfall or on the winter
rainfall alone.

The much higher ratio of j)ercolation than of rainfall to the
mean of the whole period in the first decade seems to be due to
excessive percolation during the first few years of the experiments
at Nash Mills. There must always be an undue amount of perco-
lation for some time after the natural soil has been disturbed.
The same thing is shown at the commencement of the experiments
at Lea Bridge, but here the normal percolation was reached much
sooner than at Nash Mills. At Rothamsted, where the soil was
not disturbed, the gauges being built up around it, there was no
excessive percolation at the commencement of the experiments.
The small ratio of percolation in the third decade, which is the
mean of the ratios at Nash Mills and Lea Bridge, is due to there
being a very small amount of percolation at Nash Mills during two
years of rather small rainfall. The character of the rainfall may
be the cause of this, but that could only be ascertained by an
examination of the daily fall.

The period from which the mean ratio of percolation at Rotham-
sted is taken (the last 21 years) having a rainfall 5 per cent, above
the average for the half-centuiy, all the ratios during this period
are lower than they would have been if the experiments there
had been carried on for the half-century, for the mean percolation
would then have been less. For the last eight years the ratios are
to the mean of the percolation at Rothamsted only, and therefore
they are a little too low, as will doubtless appear when the results
of experiments at Nash Mills and Lea Bridge during these eight
years are made known.

In calculating the areas of the different catchment-basins, and
the probable yield of water from the rain which falls on them,
I have assumed hitherto that the water-partings on the surface of
the country correspond with the water-partings underground ; that
is to say, that the rain which percolates in each catchment-basin
keeps within that basin after it arrives at the plane of saturation
in the Chalk ; but there are good grounds for inferring that such
is not always the case. Some of the rain which falls in the upper
part of the Colne basin almost cei'tainly is carried underground

PEBCOr.ATION, AND EVAPORATION. 51

into the Lea basin, while none whicli falls in any pai't of the
Lea is likely to get into the basin of the Colno.

Two causes combine to produce this eifect : one natural, the
other artihcial. The natural cause is the dip of the Chalk from
N.W. to S.E., from the Colne to the Lea. The artificial cause
is the loATcring of the plane of saturation of the Chalk in the Lea
valley by the large amount of water pumped from great depths.

The Chalk is our great water-bearing stratum; firstly, owing
to its pervious nature, the whole of it being permeable, but its
permeability or water-bearing capacity decreasing towards its base ;
and secondly, because the water contained in it is held up by the
Gault Clay on which it rests, the Upper Greensand, which usually
in other districts separates these two formations, being absent or
reduced to a very thin bed. The Gault is usually spoken of as
an absolutely impervious bed of clay, but no rock (using the term
in its geological sense) which is in the least moist can be absolutely
impervious to moisture. The loss of water by percolation through
the Gault must, however, be very slight, and we may consider it
to be practically impervious.

The permeable Chalk and the underlying impermeable Gault dip
slightly in Hertfordshire from N.W. to S.E., the gradient being at
least 60 feet to the mile in the N.W. and 30 feet to the mile in
the S.E.

The inclination of our valleys, and consequently of our rivers,
and of the surface of the underground water in the Chalk is less
than this, varying from about 24 feet to the mile in the N.W. to
about 12 feet to the mile in the S.E.

Some of the rain which percolates into the Chalk must filter
slowly through it, some must get into cracks or fissures which
are more or less vertical and are called "pipes," and some may be
rapidly carried away in " swallow -holes." Pipes are frequently
seen in vertical or oblique sections, as in chalk-pits and railway-
cuttings, when the chalk is not protected from the percolation of
water into it by impermeable beds of clay reposing upon it, but
when there are such impermeable beds no "pipes" are seen,
showing that water does not then percolate into and dissolve it
to any appreciable extent. These "pipes" may in course of time
be so enlarged, and the chalk in which they are formed may be
so much dissolved away, that they become "swallow-holes," the
difference between "pipes" and "swallow-holes" being that in
pipes the insoluble residue of the chalk is left more or less in its
original position, the beds above gradually sinking and taking the
place of the soluble residue, so that no open channel is left, and in
"swallow-holes" the chalk is washed away with all its contents,
such as flints, and an open channel is formed, down which large
quantities of water may freely pass.

At intervals in the Upper Chalk, layers of flints occur, with
usually a few feet of chalk between them. They are absent below
the Chalk Kock which forms the boundary between the Upper and
the Middle Chalk.

52 J. HOPKINSON — HERTFORDSHIRE RAINFALL,

The interstices in the layers of flints being more open than in
the solid chalk between them, and the dip of the Chalk being at
a higher angle than the dip of the plane of saturation, water
finding its way into these layers will flow more readily, or more
quickly, along them than it will flow in the solid chalk, which
offers a very great frictional resistance to its passage. The dip
of the Chalk being from N.W. to S.E., there must be a natural
tendency for water to flow in that direction.

The water-parting between the catchment-basins of the Colne
and Lea from near Dunstable on the N.W. to a little beyond
Hatfield on the S.E., trends nearly in the same direction as the
Chalk dips, but at this point it takes a turn to the S. From
a N. and S. direction it turns a little to the W. near Northaw,
and continues in the same direction to near Barnet. If, therefore,
water is flowing in the Chalk from N.W. to S.E., it must, to the
S. of Hatfield, flow, underground of course, out of the basin of the
Colne aud into that of the Lea.

On the opposite or W. side of the Colne basin, as far S. as
Harefield at least, there is no such cause for an accession of water
underground, so that the underground reservoir of the basin of the
Lea will obtain an accession of water at the expense of that of
the Colne, while the loss to the Colne will not be compensated for
from an outside source.

The Lea basin, on the other hand, probably loses more water on
the E. than it gains from the Colne on the W., for the boundary of
its watershed on that side runs in a N.E. to S.W. direction. This
is almost on the strike of the Chalk, or at a right angle to its dip,
and therefore the natural flow of the water in the Chalk will be
almost directly away from the basin of the Lea on its south-
eastern boundary.

The abstraction of a large quantity of water from the Chalk
in the Lea basin must tend, by lowering the plane of saturation,
to enlarge the subterranean basin, causing the water - parting
underground to gradually recede beyond the water-parting above
ground. How far this is the case in this or any district, can only
be ascertained by actual hydro-geological surveys such as have been
carried on by Mr. Joseph Lucas.

That the plane of saturation in the Chalk sho\ild not be unduly
lowered is most important for the welfare of Hertfordshire, our
chief industries — agriculture, watercress-growing, brewing, and
paper-making — being dependent, for their successful carrying on,
upon the presence of a certain amount of moisture in the subsoil
in the case of agriculture, and upon an abundant supply of water
in the Chalk in the case of the other industries.

Our rivers are chiefly fed by the natural overflow of the water
in the Chalk, which finds its way to the surface in springs, most
of which are in the banks and beds of the rivers, their flow being
thus constantly augmented without accession of water from any
tributary streams.

Owing to the permeable character of the Chalk, the water in any

PERCOLATION', AND EVArORATION. 53

river flowing orcr it, if no impermeable bed intervene, would sink
through it and disappear from the surface if the plane of saturation
were lower than the river-bed.

The Chalk is well known to be more impervious under the
London Clay than where it comes to the surface, this being most
probably due in part to the pressure of the London Clay and the
Woolwich and Reading beds on which it rests, and in part to
the thick bed of clay preventing the percolation of water into it,
and consequently preventing it from becoming more porous by the
dissolving action of water and carbonic acid. "Water, therefoi'e,
flowing in the Chalk from N.W. to S.E., meets with a partial
obstruction when it gets to this denser chalk under the London
Clay, and this must have the effect of retarding its rate of flow
towards the Thames.

The preservation of this partial barrier to the comparatively free
passage of the water is necessary to prevent it from running too
freely away from the higher ground to the wells under London, as
it might do but for this, notwithstanding the impediment to its
flow by friction in its passage laterally through the Chalk.

The abstraction of a large quantity of water by pumping from
a considerable depth anywhere in the Chalk, but more especially
along or near the line of its outcrop from under the Tertiary beds,
which line extends in Herts from near Bishop's Stortford in the
N.E. to Rickmansworth in the S.W., would be equivalent to the
destruction of this partial barrier, as the water would be removed
much more rapidly than it could percolate through the Chalk
under the London Clay.

Such abstraction of water by deep pumping anywhere along this
line, and the removal to a distance of the water raised, would
unduly lower the surface of the water in the Chalk at the points
of abstraction, and this lowering would gradually extend in diy
seasons over the whole of the Chalk area to the N.W. The
springs which now find their way into our rivers would be drawn
upon, and would not only cease to rise, but in extreme cases might
be converted into " swallow-holes," the water in the rivers sinking
into the channels which have been formed by the springs.

This conclusion is not merely formed from theoretical con-
siderations, but also from a change which must have taken place
in a district well known to me, and which may have taken
place in others. This district is the upper portion of the Valley
of the Colne.

All the water which flows down the Colne from the London
Clay area on the S. towards North Mimms is now usually absorbed
by " swallow-holes " at Potterells and in the bed of the Colne
between Potterells and the London Clay area. I have seen this
part of the River Colne under almost every variety of condition ;
when the water did not reach so far as the "swallow-holes"
at Potterells, sinking into the bed of the river in other (smaller)
"swallow-holes" above this point; when the water was rushing
down them with great force (one at least is so large that a man

54 J. HOPKINSON HEETFORDSHIRE RAINFALL,

might be carried down it) ; and when the level of the underground
water had been so raised by the winter's rain that a lake was
formed at this point, the water flowing out of it along the usually-
dry channel of the Colne through j^orth Mimms Park. In this
park there is a mansion overlooking this dry river-bed. As it faces
the north, I think it must have been built when water flowed
much more frequently from Potterells than it does now ; for surely
the mansion would not have been built with this aspect, to overlook
the bed of a river which is now dry except for a short time during
or after very wet winters.

I have long been puzzled to account for the phenomena here
presented, until it occurred to me that the plane of saturation in
the Chalk may have been lowered as far as this spot by the
abstraction of water at the pumping-stations in the Yalley of the
Lea, 8 miles to the east, or E.S.E. I have since then ascertained
that the late Eobert AVilliam Mylne formed the opinion that the
Amwell Springs in the Yalley of the Lea are fed by water from
these swallow-holes. Whether this be the case or not, it will be
apparent that water getting into the Chalk here and meeting with
beds of flints, will be more likely to follow the dip of these beds
towards the S.E. than it would be to follow, underground, the
course of the Colne in a directly opposite direction to the dip of
the Chalk, for it could only follow this direction by percolating
through beds offering varying degrees of resistance to its passage,
which would not be the case if it followed the dip of the Chalk.

If the water-level in the Chalk, in whichever direction from the
river these swallow-holes convey water away from it, were higher
than the bed of the river, the channels which now usually convey
water from the river would convey water from the saturated chalk
into the river. Even if they do not directly communicate by open
passages with higher strata, hydrostatic pressure would cause the
water in them to rise into the river. This may occasionally happen
now, and if the channels existed when the plane of saturation
inclined downwards from the higher ground around them perma-
nently, as it now only does occasionally, these channels, if then
existing, would have been the channels of springs.

The water flowing down the Colne, where it is joined by its
tributary the Ver, is now usually only a small fraction of that
flowing down the Yer. If such had been the case when these
rivers were named, the Yer would have been considered the main
stream, with the name of Colne, or the river below the junction of
the two would have been called the Yer.

The catchment-basin of the Colne, above its junction with the
Yer, has a greater area than the catchment-basin of the Yer, the
chief reason why the Colne is here so much smaller than the Yer
being that so much water is lost to it in swallow-holes. Another
reason is that the Yer drains a larger area of permeable beds.

The Yer is much farther from any point of great abstraction
of water than is the iippcr part of the Colne, and its waters ai'e
considerably augmented by springs in its bed at various points.

AND EVArOllATION. 55

The conclusion is irresistible that if a great quantity of water
■were abstracted from the Chalk at Watford, Ilickmansworth, or
Harefield, the same thinj;; would happen to the Ver as has doubtless
liappenod to the Colno, the sprin<;s in its bed would be converted
into swallow-holes, and the same would happen to the Gade (with
its tributary the Bulbourne) and the Chess.

"When a great quantity of water is pumped from a well in the
Chalk, an inverted cone of exhaustion is formed, its apex being at
the point of abstraction or surface of the water in the well after
the water has been lowered by pumping, and its base (inverted)
at the plane of saturation of the Chalk.

This is not a true cone, for its outline, in section, will not be

straight, but curved something like this — ^\ y^ , the reason

being that the effect of the abstraction of water, in partially drying
the chalk, will be greater near the well than at a distance from it.
The deeper the well, and the lower the point to which the water
is reduced, and the greater the distance to which lateral headings
are driven, the larger will this cone of exhaustion be, and the
greater will be the area injuriously affected by it.

As water will percolate more rapidly through layers of flints
than through solid chalk, in sinking a well in the Upper Chalk,
water will naturally flow freely into it as each layer of flints
is reached, and slowly into it from the chalk between the layers.
It might therefore be possible to abstract a large quantity of water
fi'om a lower bed of flints without immediately drawing the water
out of a higher bed, but as the whole of the Upper Chalk is very
permeable, sooner or later the water in the higher bed of flints
must percolate through the chalk between the two layers and get
into the lower layer, if that be exhausted, or partially exhausted
of the water it contains.

The whole of the Chalk being thus permeable, though varying
in the degree of permeability, a guarantee that a well will be
carried a certain depth into it and will be " stein ed" to that depth
and made quite watertight so as to prevent water from getting into
it from an adjoining stream flowing over the Chalk, or fi'om other
(shallower) wells in its vicinity, is of no more value than would be
a guarantee that water would only be pumped from the bottom
of a tank in order not to lower the surface of the water at or near
the top of it, except that in the case of the tank the water would
be immediately lowered, and in the case of the Chalk it would take
some time to percolate from the higher level to the lower. A more
precise parallel, obviously, would be found in a filter, and no one
would contend that water could be drawn from the bottom of
a filter without lowering the surface at the top of it, although
some time would be taken for the water to filter through.

Therefore, experiments of short duration, made with the object
of testing the effect of pumping in one well upon the level of the
water in an adjoining well, are of no value ; it may be some time
before the effect shows, but the cone of exhaustion of one must

56 J. HOPKINSON HERTFORBSHTEE RAINFALL,

eventually intersect the cone of exhaustion of the other. It may
also be a long time before the abstraction of water from a deep well
affects the flow of an adjoining stream on the Chalk, but that it
must eventually do so is certain.

If, however, the water raised be used in the district from which
it is obtained, that is to say, if it be not conveyed away to a
distance, as from the Colne Valley or the Lea Valley to London,
the river flowing by on the Chalk will only be depleted above the
point of abstraction, for all the water raised from the Chalk will
be returned to the river, the greater part probably as effluent water
from sewage. The water we raise in Hertfordshire for the supply
of our towns, except the comparatively small amount sent away
by brewers and mineral-water manufacturers, does not reduce the
volume of the Colne and Lea below the points where they leave
our county, so that we only take what is our own, and we restore
it after we have made use of it, robbing no one. If it be taken
from us and conveyed to London, it is sent into the Thames below
London ; our rivers are completely robbed of it ; and their volume
below the points of intake, if the water be taken directly from the
rivers, and both above and below, if it be taken from the Chalk,
will be permanently reduced.

PERCOLATION, AND EVAPOBATION.

57

Table I. — !Mean Rainfall in Heutfobdshiee foe the Half-
Centukt ending 31st Makch, 1892.

Year.

Summer.

Winter.

Year.

Winter

Mean of each three

Ap -Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

Ap.-Mar.

Ratio.

successive Winters.

1S42-43

Ins.
11*57

Ins.
12-83

Ins.

24-40

7o
98

Ending
31 Mar.

Mean.

Eatio.

43-44

13-37

14-68

28-05

112

Ins.

/o

44-45

7-69

12-49

20-18

95

1845

13-33

102

45-46

II -02

13-26

24-28

lOI

46

13-48

103

46-47

10-95

12-32

23-27

94

47

12-69

97

47-48

1077

1509

25-86

"5

48

13-56

103

48-49

12-38

12-85

25-23

98

49

13-42

102

49-50

13-25

8-17

21-42

63

50

12-04

92

1850-51

12-23

14-26

26-49

109

1851

11-76

90

51-52

10-31

10-84

21-15

83

52

11-09

85

52-53

18-50

18-58

37-08

142

53

14-56

III

53-54

16-27

8-95

25-22

68

54

12-79

98

54-55

9-70

9-63

19-33

74

55

12-39

95

55-56

13-34

13-55

26-89

103

56

10-71

82

56-57

14-98

11-73

26-71

90

57

11-64

89

57-58

14-80

11-83

26-63

90

58

12-37

94

58-59

13-04

9*12

22*l6

170

59

10-89

83

59-60

16-58

15-15

31-73

16

60

12-03

92

1860-61

19-50

II -81

31-31

90

1861

12-03

92

61-62

9-96

12-16

22-12

93

62

13-04

100

62-63

13-81

11-08

24-89

85

63

11-68

89

63-64

12-13

10-63

22-76

81

64

11-29

.86

64-65

8-47

11-74

20 -2 1

90

65

11-15

85

65-66

12-46

19-68

32-14

150

66

14-02

107

66-67

I6-2I

13-09

29-30

100

67

14-84

113

67-68

14-97

11-22

26-19

86

68

14-66

112

68-69

10-07

16-04

26 • l-l

122

69

13-45

103

69-70

11-88

12-68

24-56

97

70

13-31

102

1870-71

7-51

12-19

19-70

93

1871

13-64

104

71-72

15-93

11-18

27-11

85

72

12 -02

92

72-73

13-69

19-44

33-13

148

73

14-27

109

73-74

11-65

9-59

21-24

73

74

13-40

102

74-75

10-75

11-40

22-15

87

75

13-48

103

75-76

15-99

17-10

33-09

131

76

12-70

97

76-77

13-67

19-45

33-12

148

77

15-98

122

77-78

14-51

12-42

26-93

95

78

16-32

125

78-79

18-15

14-54

32-69

III

79

15-47

118

79-80

22-56

6-30

28-86

48

80

11-09

85

1880-S1

16-21

17-83

34-04

136

1881

12-89

98

81-82

13-15

14-02

27-17

107

82

1272

97

82-83

14-53

20-24

34-77

155

83

17-36

133

83-84

13-65

"•53

25-18

88

84

15-26

117

84-85

10-08

12-63

22-71

97

85

14-80

113

85-86

13-66

14-75

28-41

113

86

12-97

99

86-87

"-55

15-07

26-62

115

87

14-15

108

87-88

9-13

11-34

20-47

87

88

13-72

105

88-89

13-64

11-50

25-14

88

89

12 64

97

89-90

16-72

1 1 "57

28-29

88

90

11-47

88

TOL. IX. PART II.

58

J. HOPKINSON — HERTFORDSniEE RAINFALL,

1890-91
91-92

Ins.
11-65
13-60

Ins.

8-50

16-61

Ins.
20-15
30-21

7o

65

127

1891
92

Ins.
10-52
12-23

80
93

Mean

1324

13-09

26-33

100

Table II. — Rainfall at Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead,
1st April, 1834, to 31st March, 1892.

Tear.

Summer.

Winter.

Year.

Winter

Mean of each three

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

Ap.-Mar.

Ratio.

successive Winters.

1834-35

Ins.
13-27

Ins.
10-91

Ins.
24-18

7o
80

Ending
31 Mar.

Mean.

Eatio.

35-36

11-99

16-39

28-38

120

Ins.

7o

36-37

I2-20

16-71

28-91

123

1837

14-67

108

37-38

9-80

9-81

19-61

72

38

14-30

105

38-39

io-8i

12-58

23-39

92

39

13-03

96

39-40

17-41

14-71

32-12

108

40

12-33

90

1840-41

9-68

10-32

20-00

76

1841

12-54

92

41-42

16-95

16-56

33-51

121

42

13-86

102

42-43

12-15

13-46

25-61

99

43

13-45

99

43-44

14-04

15-41

29-45

113

44

15-14

III

44-45

8-07

13-11

2i-i8

96

45

13-99

103

45-46

"•57

13-93

25-50

102

46

14-15

104

46-47

11-50

1293

24-43

95

47

13-32

98

47-48

11-31

15-84

27-15

116

48

14-23

104

48-49

13-00

13-49

26-49

99

49

14-09

103

49-50

13-91

8-58

22-49

63

50

12-64

93

1850-51

11-82

14-71

26-53

108

1851

12-26

90

51-52

9'25

10-75

20-00

79

52

"-35

83

52-53

19-97

20-27

4024

149

53

15-24

112

53-54

16-79

9-66

26-45

71

54

13-56

99

54-55

9-47

9-32

18-79

68

55

13-08

96

55-56

12-66

14-48

27-14

106

56

11-15

82

56-57

14-86

11-96

26-82

88

57

11-92

87

57-58

14-11

II -81

25-92

87

58

12-75

94

58-59

12-27

9-64

21-91

71

59

11-14

82

59-60

18-31

16-49

34-80

121

60

12-64

93

1860-61

20-40

11-56

31-96

85

1861

12-56

92

61-62

10-38

12-63

23-01

93

62

13-56

99

62-63

14-37

II-OI

25-38

81

63

11-73

86

63-64

13-40

9-24

22-64

68

64

10-96

80

64-65

8-42

10-93

19-35

80

65

10-39

76

65-66

12-60

20 -OO

32-60

147

66

13-39

98

66-67

15-59

12-60

28-19

92

67

14-51

106

67-68

14-37

11-36

25-73

83

68

14-65

107

68-69

10-05

17-58

27-63

129

69

13-85

102

69-70

1 2 -80

13-33

26-13

98

70

14-09

103

1870-71

7-59

12-54

20-13

92

1871

14-48

106

71-72

16-09

11-25

27-34

83

72

12-37

91

72-73

14-44

21-55

35-99

158

11

15-11

III

73-74

11-29

8-91

20-20

65

74

13-90

102

74-75

10-71

11-69

22-40

86

75

14-05

103

PERCOLATION, AND EVAPOEATION.

59

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

Ins.

7o

1875-76

15-00

17-28

32-28

127

1876

12-63

93

76-77

i4'2S

20-69

34-94

152

77

16-55

122

77-7S

1374

13-74

27-48

lOI

78

17-24

127

78-79

18-46

14-62

33-08

107

79

16-35

120

79-So

25-09

5-84

30-93

43

80

11-40

84

1880-81

16-40

20-37

3677

149

1881

13-61

100

81-82

14-85

14 82

29-67

109

82

13-68

100

S2-83

16-52

22-67

39-19

166

83

19-29

142

83-84

13-92

12-95

26-87

95

84

i6-8i

123

84-85

9-76

14-53

24-29

107

85

16-72

123

85-86

14-04

15-16

29-20

III

86

14-21

104

86-87

12-22

16-31

28-53

120

87

15-33

112

87-88

9-24

12-64

21-88

93

88

14-70

108

88-89

14-20

12-29

26-49

89

89

13-75

101

89-90

16-61

10-57

2718

78

90

11-83

87

1890-91

11-65

8-82

20-47

65

1891

10-46

77

91-92

14-50

16-95

31-45

125

92

1211

89

Mean

1 3 -45

13-64

27-09

100

Table III. — Eainfall at Kenswoeth, 1st April,

31st March, 1892.

1870, to

Year.

Slimmer.

Winter.

Tear.

Winter

Mean for each three

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

Ap.-Mar.

Eatio.

successive "Winters

Ending
31st Mar.

Mean.

[

Ratio.

1

Ins

Ins

Ins

7o
94

1

1870-71

7-44

13-25

20-69

Ins.

7o

71-72

17-56

1161

29-17

82

72-73

1338

19-86

33-24

141

1S73

14-91

106

73-74

1382

10-35

24-17

74

74

13-94

99

74-75

1007

11-61

21-68

83

75

13-94

99

75-76

17-34

18-07

35-41

128

76

13-34

95

76-77

14-90

19-99

3489

142

77

16-56

117

77-78

1668

13-62

3030

97

78

17-23

122

78-79

20 '8 1

1381

34-62

98

79

15-81

112

79-80

24-26

6-91

3117

49

80

11-45

81

1880-81

18-52

15-85

34-37

112

18S1

12-19

87

81-82

14-46

14-15

28-61

TOO

82

12-30

87

82-83

1522

20-89

36-11

148

83

16-96

120

83-84

13-44

"■53

24-97

82

84

15-52

110

84-85

11-32

12-98

24-30

92

85

15-13

107

85-86

1364

15-20

2884

108

86

13-24

94

86-87

11 98

15-63

27 61

111

87

14-60

104

87-88

953

"•54

21-07

82

88

14-12

100

88-89

13-39

13-16

26-55

94

89

13-44

95

89-90

18-55

12-33

30-88

87

90

12-34

88

1890-91

13-54

8-43

21-97

60

1891

11-31

80

91-92

14-31

19-17

33-48
28-82

136

92

13-31

95

Mean

14-73

1409

100

60

J. HOPKINSON HEETFOEDSHIEE EAINFALX,

Table IY. — RAUfFALL at Beekhamsted, 1st Apeil, 1856, to

31st Maech, 1892.

1
Ycdr

Summer. 1

Winter.

Year.

Winter

Mean of each three

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

Ap.-Mar.

Eatio.

successive Winters.

1856-57

Ins.
16-99

Ins.
13-78

Ins.
30-77

7o
92

Ending
31st Mar.

Mean

Ratio.

57-58

14-42

12-27

26-69

82

Ins.

7o

58-59

13-18

I1-12

24-30

74

1859

12-39

83

59-60

17-53

16-90

34-43

"3

60

13-43

90

1860-61

2127

13-16

34-43

88

1861

13-73

92

61-62

iri7

14-52

25-69

97

62

14-86

99

62-63

14-07

12-78

26-85

85

63

1349

90

63-64

13-81

1224

26 05

82

64

13-18

88

64-65

9-25

12-93

22-l8

86

65

12-65

84

65-66

"•95

21-91

33-86

146

66

15-69

105

66-67

18-31

14-73

3304

98

67

16-52

no

67-68

15-61

12-72

28-33

85

68

16-45

no

68-69

12-97

18-56

31-53

124

69

15-34

102

69-70

12-90

14-33

27-23

95

70

15-20

101

1870-71

9-40

14-16

23-56

94

1871

15-68

104

71-72

16-90

12-69

29-59

85

72

13-73

91

72-73

15-63

22-82

38-45

152

73

16-56

no

73-74

13-24

11-05

24-29

74

74

15-52

104

74-75

11-97

13-32

25-29

89

75

15-73

105

75-76

16-98

19-56

36-54

130

76

14-64

98

76-77

14-60

21-24

35-84

142

77

18-04

120

77-78

14-44

14-38

28-82

96

78

18-39

123

78-79

20-42

17-40

37-82

116

79

17-67

118

79-80

24-65

6-91

31-56

46

80

12-90

86

1880-81

18-35

20-56

38-91

137

1881

14-96

100

81-82

15-11

14-91

30-02

99

82

14-13

94

82-83

16-08

23-32

39-40

156

83

19-60

131

83-84

13-38

12-86

26-24

86

84

17-03

114

84-85

10-67

14-31

24-98

95

85

16-83

112

85-86

12-33

16-32

2S-65

109

86

14-50

97

86-87

11-05

17-03

28-08

113

87

15-89

106

87-88

8-82

12-43

21-25

83

88

15-26

102

88-89

13-10

13-68

26-7S

91

89

14-38

96

89-90

14-61

12-17

26-78

81

90

12-76

85

1890-91

11-65

8-36

2001

56

1891

11-40

76

91-92

13-15

! 18-55

i
1

31-70

124

92

13-03

87

Mean

14-44

15-00

29-44

100

1

PERCOLATIOX, AND EVAPOEATIOX.

61

Table V.— Eaixfall at Goehambtirt, St. Albaxs, 1st Apeil,
1860, TO 31sT Maech, 1892.

Year.

Summer.

1 Winter.

Tear.

Winter

Mean of each three

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

Ap.-Mar.

Eatio.

successive Winters.

1860-61

Ins.

19-33

Ins.
12-34

Ins.
31-67

7o
85

Ending
31st Mar.

Mean.

Eatio.

61-62

1060

1283

23-43

89

Ins.

0/

62-63

15-30

12-28

27-58

85

1863

12-48

86

63-64

13-45

10-65

24-10

74

64

11-92

82

64-65

10-04

1202

22-o6

83

65

11-65

81

65-66

12-59

22-06

34-65

152

66

14-91

103

66-67

1748

13-91

31-39

96

67

16 00

in

67-68

1 6 -06

11-89

27-95

82

68

15-95

no

68-69

10-78

17-34

28-12

120

69

1438

99

69-70

1205

14-29

26-34

99

70

14-50

100

1870-71

8-99

13-14

22-13

91

1871

14-92

103

71-72

16-66

11-89

28-55

82

72

1311

91

72-73

15-60

22-62

38-22

156

73

15-88

no

73-74

11-54

9-45

20-99

65

74

14-65

lOI

74-75

ii-i6

12-42

23-58

86

75

14-83

103

75-76

15-90

16-34

32-24

113

76

12-74

88

76-77

14-08

20-55

34-63

142

77

16-44

114

77-78

16-29

13-76

30-05

95

78

i6'88

117

78-79

17-83

12-50

30-33

86

79

15-60

108

79-80

22-50

7-39

29-89

51

80

11-22

78

1880-81

16-17

22-21

38-38

154

1881

14-03

97

81-82

14-14

15-57

29-71

108

82

15-06

104

82-83

17-65

23-69

41-34

164

83

20-49

142

83-84

14-49

13-72

28-21

95

84

17-66

122

84-85

10-46

15-02

25-48

104

85

17-48

121

85-86

15 06

14-70

29-76

102

86

14-48

100

86-87

11-51

15-31

26-82

106

87

14-94

103

87-88

9-30

11-64

20-94

80

88

13-88

96

88-89

13-92

11-75

25-67

81

89

12-90

89 .

89-90

16-36

11-35

27-71

79

90

11-58

80

1890-91

10-97

8-71

19-68

60

1891

io-6o

73

91-92

13-71

19-50

33-21

135

92

13-19

91

Mean

14-12

14-46

28-58

100

62

J. HOPKUfSON HEETFOKDSHIEE EAINFALL,

Table YI. — Eainfall at Eothamsted, Hakpendex, 1st April,
1853, TO 31sT March, 1892.

Ycsr.

Summer.

Winter.

Year.

Winter

Mean of each three

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

Ap.-Mar.

Eatio.

successive AVinters.

1853-54

lus.
17-54

Ins.
9-61

Ins.
27-15

7o
70

Ending
31st Mar.

Mean.

Eatio.

54-55 .

10-28

9-53

19-81

69

Ins.

/o

' 55-56

15-50

14-82

30-32

107

1856

u-32

82

56-57

15-52

12-27

27-79

89

57

12-21

88

57-58

15-32

11-93

27-25

86

58

1301

94

58-59

12-35

9-53

21-88

69

59

11-58

84

59-60

17-38

14-59

31-97

106

60

1202

87

1860-61

21-50

11-14

32-64

81

i86i

11-75

85

61-62

10-98

12-45

23-43

90

62

12-73

92

62-63

15-74

I2-8l

28-55

93

63

12-13

88

63-64

13-04

10-73

23-77

78

64

12-00

87

64-65

9-71

11-56

21-27

84

65

11-70

85

65-66

12-47

20-33

3280

147

66

14-21

103

66-67

18-25

13-34

31-59

97

67

15-08

109

67-68

15-54

11-55

27-09

84

68

15-07

109

68-69

IO-2I

14-32

24-53

104

69

13-07

95

69-70

11-62

13-33

24-95

96

70

13-07

95

1870-71

7-79

12-76

2055

92

1871

13-47

97

71-72

17-22

11-52

28-74

83

72

12-54

91

72-73

14-13

19-99

34-12

145

12,

14-75

107

73-74

11-68

983

21-51

71

74

13-78

100

• 74-75

13-10

13-40

26-50

97

75

14-41

104

75-76

17-39

19-28

3667

140

76

14-17

103

76-77

14-92

21-36

36-28

155

77

18-01

130

77-78

14-43

13-92

28-35

101

78

18-19

131

78-79

iS-66

16-97

35-63

123

79

17-42

126

79-80

25-75

7-03

32-78

51

80

12-64

91

1880-81

17-06

19-32

36-38

140

1881

14-44

105

81-82

13-76

16-06

29-82

116

82

14-14

102

82-83

16-37

21-77

38-14

158

83

19-05

138

83-84

14-64

12-81

27-45

93

84

16-88

122

84-85

11-15

14-11

25-26

102

85

16-23

117

85-86

14-88

15-56

30-44

"3

86

14-16

103

86-87

1258

16-02

28-60

116

87

15-23

no

87-88

9-19

11-86

21 05

86

88

14-48

105

88-89

1656

12-36

2892

89

89

13-41

97

89-90

19-14

12-83

31-97

93

90

12-35

89

1890-91

13-36

8-99

22-35

65

1891

11-39

82

91-92

14-61

16-85

31-46

122

92

12-89

93

Mean

14-65

13-81

28-46

100

PERCOLATION, AND EVAPOEATION.

63

Table VII. — Rainfall at The Firs, Hitchin, 1st Apeil, 1850,

TO 3 1st March, 1892.

Year.

Summer

Winter.

Year.

Winter

Mean of each three

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar

Ap.-Mar

Ratio.

successive Winters.

Ending

1850-51

Ins.

I2-l6

Ins.
13-25

Ins.
25-41

7o

no

31 Mar.

Mean.

Eatio.

51-52

10-92

10-47

21-39

87

Ins.

%

52-53

16-58

16-59

33-17

138

1853

13-44

112

53-54

15-84

7-69

2353

64

54

11-58

96

54-55

9-27

9-52

18-79

79

55

11-27

94

55-56

I2-00

11-83

23-83

99

56

9-68

81

56-57

15-39

9-38

24-77

78

57

10-21

85

57-58

15-95

11-70

27-65

97

58

10-97

91

58-59

14-02

7-10

21-12

59

59

9-38

78

59-60

I6-II

14-04

30-15

117

60

10-95

91

1S60-61

18-57

11-40

29-97

95

1861

10-85

90

61-62

8-64

10-93

19-57

91

62

12-12

lOI

62-63

12-44

9-17

21-61

76

63

10-50

87

63-64

10-97

10-93

21-90

91

64

10-34

86

64-65

7-25

10-71

17-96

89

65

10-27

85

65-66

13-46

18-43

31-89

154

66

1336

III

66-67

13-70

12-03

25-73

100

67

13-72

114

67-68

13-90

9-94

23-84

83

68

13-47

112

68-69

10-46

14-02

24-48

117

69

12-00

100

69-70

10-83

1 1 -01

21-84

92

70

11-66

97

1870-71

6-05

II 13

17-18

93

1871

12-05

100

71-72

14-18

13-10

27-28

109

72

11-75

98

72-73

11-82

13-81

25-63

"5

73

12-68

106

73-74

10-96

10-49

21-45

87

74

12-47

104

74-75

9-98

11-39

21-37

95

75

11-90

99

75-76

15-96

17-38

33-34

145

76

13-09

109

76-77

12-62

17-43

30-05

145

77

15-40

128

77-78

14-85

ii-io

25-95

92

78

15-30

127

78-79

17-44

12-48

29-92

104

79

13-67

114

79-80

20-42

7-27

2769

61

80

10-28

86

i88o-8i

15-77

15-26

31-03

127

1881

11-67

97

81-82

11-83

11-96

23-79

100

82

11-50

96

82-83

13-63

18-08

31-71

151

83

1510

126

83-84

13-36

9-85

23-21

82

84

13-30

111

84-85

10-92

11-15

22-07

93

85

13-03

109

85-86

14-17

13-94

28-11

116

86

11-65

97

86-87

10-76

15-05

25-81

125

87

13-38

III

87-88

896

10-51

19-47

88

88

13-17

no

88-89

u-44

983

21-27

82

89

11-80

98

89-90

15-55

10-77

26-32

90

90

10-37

87

1890-91

10-87

7-21

18-08

60

1891

9-27

77

91-92

12-25

15-27

27-52

127

92

11-08

92

Mean

12-91

I2-OI

24-92

100

64

J. HOPKINSOir — HEETFOKDSHIEE RAINFALL,

Table YIII. — Rainfall at "Welwyn, 1st Apkil, 1872, to

31st Maech, 1892.

Year.

Summer.

Winter,

Tear.

Winter

Mean of each three

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.- Mar.

Ap.-Mar.

Eatio.

successive Winters.

Ending

1872-73

Ins.
1277

Ins.
18-28

Ins.
31-05

7o
137

31 Mar.

Mean.

Eatio.

73-74

11-32

8-81

20-13

66

Ins.

7o

74-75

12-41

lo-ii

22-52

76

1875

12-40

93

75-76

16-32

16-83

33-15

126

76

11-92

89

76-77

1294

18-72

31-66

140

77

15-22

114

77-78

13-80

"■53

25-33

86

78

15-69

118

78-79

16-95

16-51

33-46

124

79

15-59

117

79-80

19-80

5-63

25-43

42

80

11-22

84

1880-81

15-00

17-11

32-11

128

1881

13-08

98

81-82

1273

13-58

26-31

102

82

12-11

91

82-83

14-54

18-62

33-16

139

83

16-44

123

83-84

12-97

iri6

24-13

84

84

14-45

108

84-S5

10-10

12-18

22-28

91

85

1399

105

85-86

13-50

15-60

29-10

117

86

12-98

97

86-87

12-41

13-88

2629

104

87

13-89

104

87-88

9-21

10-54

19-75

79

88

13-34

100

88-89

14-56

iro8

25-64

83

89

11-83

89

89-90

17-72

11-70

29-42

88

90

ii-ii

83

1890-91

12-23

9-66

21-89

72

1891

io-8i

81

91-92

13-83

15-46

29-29

116

92

12-27

92

Mean

13-75

13-35

27-10

100

Table IX. — Rainfall at Bayfoedbitry, Hertfoed, 1st April,
1860, to 31st March, 1892.

Year.

Summer.

Winter.

Year.

Winter

Mean of each three

Ap.-Sept.

Oct -Mar.

Ap.-Mar.

Eatio.

successive Winters.

1860-61

Ins.
17-92

Ins.
11-74

Ins.
29-66

7o
91

Ending
31st Mar.

Mean.

Eatio.

61-62

9-30

11-73

21-03

91

Ins.

7o

62-63

12-71

9-90

22 -6 1

77

1863

11-12

86

63-64

"-54

9-93

21-47

77

64

IO-55

82

64-65

7-67

12-28

19-96

96

65

10-71

83

65-66

12-07

18-41

30-48

143

66

13-54

105

66-67

15-96

13-55

29-51

105

67

14-75

115

67-68

14-28

10-34

24-62

81

68

14-10

no

68-69

8-31

16-74

25-05

130

69

1354

105

69-70

11-51

12-38

23-89

96

70

13-15

102

1870-71

6-08

II 95

18-03

92,

1871

1369

106

71-72

15-70

10-15

25-85

79

72

11-49

89

72-73

12-74

20-72

33-46

161

73

14-27

111

73-74

11-27

9-97

21 -24

78

74

13-61

106

74-75

9-74

10-58 1

20-32

82

75

1376

107

PEECOLATIOX, AND EVAPORATION-.

G5

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

Ins.

7o

1875-76

15-78

16-25

32-03

126

1876

12-27

95

76-77

1274

20-09

32 -S3

156

77

15-64

121

77-78

1290

11-59

24-49

90

78

15-98

124

78-79

21 "26

13-86

35-82

108

79

15-18

118

79-80

20-72

5-40

26-12

42

80

1028

80

1880-81

14-90

15-98

30-88

124

1881

11-75

91

8t-S2

"•43

13-43

24-86

104

82

ir6o

90

82-S3

11-98

18-53

3051

144

83

15-98

124

83-84

10-78

10 -88

21-66

85

84

14-28

III

84-85

8-57

10-78

19-35

84

85

13-36

104

85-86

12-98

14-19

27-17

no

86

11-95

93

86-87

10-49

14-34

24-83

III

87

13-10

102

87-88

9-43

10-63

20-06

83

88

13-05

lOI

8S-S9

12-43

10-57

23-00

82

89

11-85

92

89-90

17-11

11-83

2894

92

90

IIOI

86

1890-91

10-41

8-34

18-75

65

1891

10-25

89

91-92

12-97

14-86

2783

"5

92

1 1 -68

91

Mean

12-64

12-87

25-51

100

1

Table X, — Rainfall at Much Hadham, 1st Apkil, 1866, to

31st March, 1892.

Year.

Summer.

Winter.

Tear.

Winter

Mean of each three

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

Ap.-Mar.

Katio.

successive Winters.

1866-67

Ins.
16-56

Ins.
13-12

Ins.
29-68

7o

lOI

Eudiufj
31st Mar.

Mean.

Eatio.

67-68

15-58

II 78

27-36

91

Ins.

°l

68-69

7-72

16-36

24-08

126

1869

13-75

106

69-70

12-14

12-16

24-30

94

70

13-43

104

1870-71

7-41

11-04

18-45

85

1871

13-19

102

71-72

15-61

10-04

25-65

77

72

1 1 -08

86

72-73

13-52

18-78

32-30

145

73

13-29

103

73-74

12-62

8-76

21-38

68

74

12-53

97

74-75

10-23

10-04

20-27

77

75

12-53

97

75-76

14-27

15-52

29-79

120

76

11-44

88

76-77

12-91

18-47

31-38

143

77

14-68

113

77-78

13-41

1 1 -06

24-47

85

78

15-02

116

78-79

16-39

15-00

31-39

116

79

14-84

115

79-80

20-59

5-54

26-13

43

80

10-53

81

1880-81

15-12

17-02

32-14

131

1881

12-52

97

81-82

11-90

14-06

25-96

108

82

1221

94

82-83

12-36

18-11

30-47

140

P

1640

127

83-84

13-14

10-85

23-99

84

84

14-34

III

84-85

9-38

11-73

21-11

91

85

13-56

105

85-86

13-47

14-19

27-66

no

86

12-26

95

86-87

10-99

14-22

25-21

no

87

13-38

103

87-88

9-36

11-09

20-45

86

88

13-17

102

88-89

14-82

ii-i6

25-98

86

89

I2-l6

94

89-90

1 6 -68

11-62

28-30

90

90

11-29

87

1890-91

12-12

925

21-37

71

1891

10-68

83

91-92

13-85

15-78

29-63

122

92

12-22

94

Mean

13-16

12-95

26-11

100

66

J. HOPKINSOIf — HERTFOEDSHIEE EAINFALI,

Table XL — Rainfall at Royston, 1st April, 1851, to
31st Maech, 1892.

Year.

Summer.

-Winter.

Year.

Winter

Mean of each three

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

Ap.-Mar.

Eatio.

successive "Winters.

EntUu*^

1S51-52

Ins.
9-13

Ins.
9-64

Ins.
18-77

7o
85

31 Mar.

Mean.

Eatio.

52-53

1 6 "04

15-98

32-02

142

Ins.

%

53-54

13-61

8-17

21-78

73

1854

11-26

100

54-55

9-03

9-37

18-40

83

55

11-17

99

55-56

1215

12-04

24-19

107

56

9-86

87

56-57

I2*I4

11-26

23-40

100

57

1089

97

57-58

14-17

11-46

25-63

102

58

11-59

103

58-59

13-37

8-21

21-58

73

59

10-31

91

59-60

1359

13-73

2732

122

60

11-13

99

1860-61

17-51

11-36

28-87

lOI

1861

11-10

99

61-62

8-65

10-02

18-67

89

62

11-70

104

62-63

12-07

9-62

21-69

85

63

10-33

92

63-64

8-71

10-69

19-40

95

64

ion

90

64-65

6-92

11-74

18-66

104

65

10-68

95

65-66

12-05

16-63

2868

147

66

13-02

115

66-67

13-84

11-48

25-32

102

67

13-28

118

67-68

14-43

10-14

24-57

90

68

12-75

113

68-69

10-03

13-43

23-46

119

69

11-68

104

69-70

11-20

10-58

21-78

94

70

11-38

101

1870-71

6-84

9-76

1 6 -60

86

1871

11 26

100

71-72

13-48

8-37

21-85

74

72

9-57

85

72-73

12-84

15-98

28-82

142

73

11-37

101

73-74

8-78

8-28

17-06

73

74

IO-88

96

74-75

8-11

9-46

17-57

84

75

11-24

100

75-76

14-93

14-46

29-39

128

76

10-73

95

76-77

12-73

15-92

28-65

141

77

13-28

118

77-78

14-50

9-55

24-05

85

78

13-31

118

78-79

12-60

12-23

24-83

108

79

12-90

114

79-80

21-84

5-12

26-96

45

80

9-30

82

1880-81

14-79

14-62

29-41

130

1881

10-99

97

81-82

11-24

11-67

22-91

103

82

10-47

93

82-83

10 96

1667

2763

148

83

14-32

127

83-84

16-34

8-70

25-04

77

84

12-35

109

84-85

8-49

9-52

18-01

84

85

II 63

103

85-86

12-57

12-60

25-17

112

86

10-27

91

86-87

11-53

12-86

24-39

114

87

11-66

103

87-88

8-24

10-55

18-79

94

88

I2-00

106

88-89

"■95

9-17

2112

81

89

10-86

96

89-90

14-85

10-56

25-41

94

90

10-09

90

1890-91

9-73

7-19

16-92

64

1891

8-97

80

91-92

I2-8I

13-68

26-49

121

92

10-48

93

Mean

12-16

11-28

23-44

100

PERCOLATIOX, .VXD EVAPORATION.

67

Table XII. — Percolatioij THROUGn 3 feet of Chalk with grass

GROWING ON THE SURFACE ; AND EVAPORATION FROM THE SURFACE,
BEING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PERCOLATION AND THE

Eainfall ; AT Nash Mills, Hejiel Hempstead, 1st April,
1854, TO 31sT March, 1884.

Year.

Percolation.

Evaporation.

Summer.

Winter.

Year.

Summer.

Winter.

Year.

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

April -

March.

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

April -

March.

lus.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

1854-55

3-45

3-45

33

9 '47

5-87

15-34

89

55-56

2-30

10-47

1277

121

10-36

4-01

14-37

83

56-57

3-09

719

10-28

98

11-77

4-77

16-54

96

57-58

1-32

7-16

8-48

80

12-79

4-65

17-44

101

58-59

•84

2-69

3-53

34

11-43

6-95

18-38

106

59-60

4-22

12-44

1666

158

14-09

4-05

18-14

105

1860-61

8-94

7-55

16-49

156

11-46

4-01

15-47

90

61-62

I -02

8-19

9-21

87

9-36

4-44

13-80

80

62-63

177

5-50

7-27

68

12-60

5-51

18-11

105

63-64

•19

5-89

6-08

58

13-21

3-35

16-56

96

64-65

•45

3"55

4-00

38

7-97

7-38

15-35

89

65-66

12 05

12-05

114

12 60

7-95

20-55

119

66-67

•20

6-97

7-17

67

15-39

5-63

21-02

116

67-68

1-39

5-36

675

64

1298

6-00

18-98

no

68-69

•42

II-2I

11-63

no

963

6-37

16-00

93

69-70

2-00

8-76

10-76

102

10-80

4-57

15-37

89

1870-71

5-35

5-35

51

7-59

7-19

1478

86

71-72

172

9'5o

11-22

106

14-37

1-75

16-12

93

72-73

270

16-05

1875

178

11-74

5-50

17-24

100

73-74

4-40

4-40

42

11-29

4-51

15-80

91

74-75

•65

5-57

6-22

59

10-06

6-12

16-18

94

75-76

3 '46

10-29

1375

130

11-54

6-99

18-53

108

76-77

I-I5

II 77

12 92

123

13-10

8-92

22-02

127

77-78

i-6o

8-91

10-51

100

12-14

4-83

16-97

98

78-79

5"

7-94

13-05

124

13-35

6-68

20-03

116

79-80

12-82

4-28

17-10

162

12-27

1-56

13-83

80

1880-81

3-20

13-36

16-56

157

13-20

7-OI

20-21

117

81-82

11-38

11-38

108

14-85

3-44

18-29

106

82.83

2-64

17-16

19-80

188

13-88

5-51

19-39

112

83-84

•33

8-56

889

84

13-59

4-39

1798

104

Mean

2'12

8-43

IO-55

100

11-96

5-33

17-29

100

68

J. HOPKrNSON — HEKTFOKDSHIEE EAINFAII,

Table XIII. — Percolation theough 3 feet of Soll with grass

GEOWING ON THE SUEFACE ; AND EvAPOEATION FEOM THE
SIJEFACE, BEING THE DIFFEEENCE BETWEEN THE PeECOLATION

AND THE Rainfall; at Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead,
Isi Apeil, 1842, 10 3 1st Maech, 1884.

Tear.

Percolation.

Evaporation.

Summer.

Winter.

Tear.

Summer.

Winter.

Tear.

Ap.-Sept,

Oct. -Mar.

April- March.

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

April-March.

lus.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

1842-43

1-30

9 "34

10-64

157

10-85

4-12

14-97

73

43-44

•99

8-86

9-85

145

13-05

6-55

19-60

95

44-45

7-10

7-10

105

8-07

6-01

14-08

68

45-46

...

9-01

9-01

133

"■57

4-92

16-49

80

46-47

•28

5-84

612

90

11-22

7-09

18-31

89

47-48

8-94

8-94

132

IX-3I

6-90

18-21

88

48-49

■70

6-22

6*92

102

12-30

7-27

19-57

95

49-50

. . *

1-44

1-44

21

13-91

7-14

21-05

102

1850-51

...

8-49

8-49

125

11-82

6-22

18-04

87

51-52

•04

3-66

370

55

9-21

7-09

16-30

79

52-53

1-50

IO-74

12-24

181

18-47

9-53

28-00

136

53-54

•24

4-22

4-46

66

16-55

5-44

21-99

107

54-55

2-45

2-45

36

9-47

6-87

16-34

79

55-56

•19

6-82

7-01

103

12-47

7-66

20-13

98

56-57

279

373

6-52

96

12-07

8-23

20-30

98

57-58

II [

5-64

675

100

13-00

6-17

19-17

93

58-59

•80

•09

•89

13

11-47

9-55

21-02

102

59-60

9-27

927

137

18-31

7-22

25-53

124

1860-61

316

761

1077

159

17-24

3-95

21-19

103

61-62

I-I3

7-42

8-55

126

9'25

5-21

14-46

70

62-63

2-39

3-56

5-95

88

11-98

7-45

19-43

94

63-64

318

3-i8

48

13-40

6-06

19-46

94

64-65

•35

3-42

377

56

807

7-51

15-58

76

65-66

10-47

10-47

155

12-60

9-53

22-13

107

66-67

•03

4-64

4-67

69

15-56

7-96

23-52

114

67-68

•18

2-03

2-21

33

14-19

9-33

23-52

114

68-69

•04

7-64

7-68

"3

10-01

9-94

19-95

97

69-70

•02

4"5o

4-52

67

12-78

883

21-61

105

1870-71

208

2-08

31

7-59

10-46

18-05

88

71-72

...

465

4-65

69

16-09

6-60

22-69

no

72-73

I -co

11-25

12-25

181

13-44

10-30

23-74

115

73-74

1-86

1-86

27

II -29

7-05

18-34

89

74-75

•05

4-15

4-20

62

10-66

7-54

l8-20

88

75-76

6-o8

6-08

90

15-00

1 1 20

26-20

126

76-77

•50

10-13

10-63

157

1375

10-56

24-31

118

77-78

1-04

400

5 "04

74

12-70

9 74

22-44

109

78-79

216

575

7-91

117

16-30

8-87

25-17

122

79-80

694

279

973

144

18-15

3-05

21 -20

103

18S0-81

i3'59

13-59

201

16-40

6-78

23-18

112

81-82

6-24

6-24

92

14-85

8-58

23-43

114

82-83

•48

II 67

12-15

179

16-04

1 1 00

27-04

131

83-84

4-53

4-53

67

13-92

8-42

22-34

108

Mean

•70

6-07

6-77

100

13-01

7-62

20-63

100

PEECOLATION, AND EVAPORATION.

69

Table XIV, — Percolation through 3 feet of Soil with grass

GROWING ON the SURFACE ; AND EVAPORATION FROJI THE
SURFACE, BEING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PERCOLATION

AND THE Rainfall; at Lea Bridge, 1st April, 1852,
TO 31sT March, 1873.

Tear.

Percolation.

Evaporation.

Summer.

Winter.

Tear.

Summer.

Winter.

Year.

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

April- March.

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

April-March.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

1852-53

2 -co

8-87

10-87

155

14-50

7-63

22-13

117

53-54

2 "00

2-00

4-00

57

15-00

7-50

22-50

119

54-55

1-42

1-42

20

9-00

7-60

16-60

88

55-56

•03

572

575

82

10 -66

9-09

1975

105

56-57

■14

3-59

373

53

13-82

6-56

20-38

108

57-58

1-92

578

770

no

13-46

6-97

20-43

108

58-59

I "40

•90

2-30

33

12-35

7-96

20-31

107

59-60

•60

9"2I

9-81

140

14-98

4-89

19-87

105

1860-61

4-23

6-12

10-35

147

15-60

7-65

2325

123

61-62

•19

6 "20

6-39

91

9-32

8-30

17-62

93

62-63

1-65

5-85

7-50

107

11-50

5-00

16 50

87

63-64

4-24

4-24

60

10-48

571

16-19

86

64-65

•06

6-33

6-39

91

7-65

4-27

11-92

63

65-66

•86

12-44

13-30

190

12-12

5-97

18-09

96

66-67

1-42

7-87

9-29

133

14-33

7-12

21-45

113

67-68

•09

4-60

4-69

67

14-39

6-46

20-85

no

68-69

•04

8-59

8-63

123

7-79

7-45

15-24

81

69-70

•16

5-82

5-98

85

9-59

6-85

16-44

86

1870-71

■05

771

7-76

no

6-91

6-33

13-24

70

71-72

•45

6 -So

7-25

103

14-53

5-05

19-58

103

72-73

I -06

9-04

10-10

144

13-59

11-29

24-88

132

Mean

•87

6-15

7-02

100

11-98

6 '94

18-92

100

Table XV. — Rainfall, and Evaporation from the surface of
"Water, at Lea Bridge, 1st April, 1860, to 31st March, 1873.

Eainfall.

Evaporation.

Year.

Summer.

Winter.

Year.

Summer.

Winter.

Year.

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

Ap.-Mar.

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

April-Mar.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

1860-61

19-83

13-77

33-60

1683

5-77

22-60

109

61-62

951

14-50

2401

18-52

5-62

24-14

"7

62-63

13-15

1085

24.-00

13-52

3-98

17-50

84

63-64

10-48

995

2043

14-85

2-58

17-43

84

64-65

7-71

1060

18-31

l6-2I

298

19-19

93

70

J. HOPKINSON' — HEETFOEDSHIEE EAIlfFALL,

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

°/o

1865-66

1298

18-41

31-39

16-85

3 17

20-02

97

60-67

1575

1499

30-74

1525

5-86

2I-II

102

67-68

14-48

11-06

25-54

1435

493

19-28

93

68-69

783

16-04

23-87

19-08

742

26-50

128

69-70

975

12-67

22-42

1387

4-67

18-54

89

1870-71

6-96

14-04

2I-00

16-96

4-79

21-75

105

71-72

14-98

11-85

26-83

14-35

473

1908

92

72-73

1465

20-33

3498

16 15

6-21

22-36

108

Mean

1216

1377

25-93

15-91

4-82

2073

100

Tabit: XVI. — Percolation- theotjgh 5 feet of Soil with the

SURFACE KEPT FEEE FEOM VeGETATION ; AND EVAPORATION FROM
THE SURFACE, BEING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PERCOLATION

AND THE Rainfall; at Eothamsted, Haependen, 1st April,
1871, TO 31sT March, 1892.

Tear.

Percolation.

Evaporat

ion.

Summer.

Winter.

Tear.

Summer.

Winter.

Tear. |

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

April

Mar.

Ap.-Sept.

Oct.-Mar.

April -

Mar.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

1871-72

3-25

5-60

8-85

64

13-97

5-92

19-89

123

72-73

1-57

11-64

13-21

95

12-56

8-35

20-91

129

7374

•58

3-16

374

27

II-IO

6-67

17-77

no

7475

•79

6-21

7-00

50

12-31

7-19

19-50

120

75-76

4-59

12-97

17-56

126

12-80

6-31

19-11

118

76-77

3-82

15-31

19-13

138

II'IO

605

17-15

106

77-78

3-06

8-75

1 1 -81

85

11-37

5-17

16-54

102

78-79

5-99

13-25

19-24

139

12-67

3-72

16-39

lOI

79-80

11-94

3-82

15-76

113

13-81

3-21

17-02

105

1880-81

5-54

15-15

20*69

149

11-52

4-17

15-69

97

81-82

3-03

I0-20

13-23

95

10-73

5-86

16-59

102

82-83

3-82

17-09

20-91

150

12-55

468

17-23

106

83-84

3-55

8-41

11-96

86

11-09

4-40

15-49

96

84-85

2-59

9-58

12-17

88

8-56

4-53

13-09

81

85-86

4-54

12-57

17-11

123

10-34

2-99

13-33

82

86-87

2-76

I TOO

13-76

99

982

5-02

1484

92

87-88

■90

9-02

9-92

71

829

2-84

11-13

69

88-89

5-55

8- 10

13-65

98

IIOI

4-26

15-27

94

89-90

6-77

9-28

1605

115

12-37

3-55

15-92

98

1890-91

2-94

5-80

8-74

63

10-42

3-19

13-61

84

91-92

3-95

13-50

17-45

126

IO-66

3-35

1401

86

Mean

3-88

10-02

13-90

100

II 38

483

16-21

100

PEECOL.\TIOX, AND EVAPOEATIOX.

71

SUrPLEMENTARY TABLES.
To Table I. — Mean Rainfall in Hertfordshire.

Year.

Summer. Winter.
Ap.-Sept. Oct -Mar.

lear.
Ap.-Mar.

Winter
Ratio.

Mean of each three
successive Winters.

1892-93
93-94

94-95
95-96

Ins.

13-86

8-36

13-34
12-00

Ins.

12-90

14-53
14-13
13-87

Ins.

26-76
22-89

27-47
25-87

7o

99
III

108
1 06

Ending
31 Mar.

Mean.

Ratio.

1893
94

95
96

Ins.

12-67

14-68

13-86

14-18

7o
97
112
106
108

To Table II. — Rainfall at Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

Ins.

7o

1892-93

14-25

13-14

27-39

97

1893

12-97

95

93-94

7-44

16*46

23-90

121

94

15-52

114

94-95

14-10

14-68

28-78

108

95

14-76

109

95-96

12-13

13-86

25-99

102

96

15-00

no

To Table III. — Rainfall at Kensworth.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

Ins.

7o

1892-93

14-56

12-89

27-45

92

1893

13-50

96

93-94

8-87

14-96

23-83

106

94

15-67

III

94-95

13-58

16-52

30-10

117

95

14-79

105

95-96

14-49

15-75

30-24

112

96

15-74

112

To Table IV. — Rainfall at Berkhamsted.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

Ins.

7o

1892-93

14-68

13-56

28-24

90

1893

13-49

90

93-94

7 -61

16-12

23-73

108

94

16-08

107

94-95

12-99

15-95

28-94

106

95

15-21

lOI

95-96

11-97

14-57

26-54

97

96

15-55

104

To

Table V. — Rainfall at GoRHAiiBirRY,

St. Albans.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

Ins.

7o

1892-93

14-10

13-78

27-88

95

1893

14-00

97

93-94

9-69

17-87

27-56

124

94

17-05

118

94-95

15-99

15-95

31-94

no

95

15-87

no

95-96

12-61

15-34

27-95

106

96

16-39

"3

To Table YI. — Rainfall at Rothamsted, Harpenden.

Ins. ■

Ins.

Ins.

7o

Ins.

°/o

1892-93

13-90

13-76

27-66

100

1893

13-20

96

93-94

9-00

16-54

25-54

120

94

15-72

114

94-95

14-08

14-95

29-03

109

95

15-08

109

95-96

12-87

15-46

28-33

1X2

96

15-65

113

72

J. HOPErNSOIf HEETFOEDSniEE EAINTALL, ETC.

To Table VII. — Rainfall at The Fies, Hitchin.

Year.

Summer.
Ap.-Sept.

Ins.

13-46
7-80

13-45
12-99

Winter.
Oct.-Mar.

Year. "Winter
Ap.-Mar. Ratio.

Mean of each tliree
successive Winters.

1892-93
93-94
94-95
95-96

Ins.

11-30

12-35
12-99
12-97

Ins.

24-76
20-15
26-44
2596

/o

94
103
108
ic8

Ending
31 Mar.

Mean.

Ratio.

1893
94
95
96

Ins.

11-26

12-97

12-21

12-77

7o
94
108
102
106

To Table VIII. — Eainpall at Welwyn.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

Ins.

7o

1892-93

13-67

13-09

26-74

98

1893

12-73

95

93-94

8-93

12-95

21-88

97

94

13-83

104

94-95

12-79

13-11

25-90

98

95

1305

98

95-96

11-39

13-70

25-09

103

96

13-25

99

To Table IX. — Rainfall at Batfoedbitet, Heetfoed.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

°/

/o

Ins.

7o

1892-93

12-93

12-41

25-34

97

1893

11-87

92

93-94

7-44

13-15

20-59

102

94

13-47

105

94-95

11-56

1225

23-81

95

95

i2-6o

98

95-96

9-65

12-57

2222

99

96

12-66

99

To Table X. — Rainfall at Much Hadham,

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

°/

Ins.

7o

1892-93

12-94

13-37

26-31

103

1893

12-77

99

93-94

7-91

13-94

2105

108

94

14-36

III

94-95

13-55

12-90

26-45

100

95

13-40

104

95-96

10-30

13-11

23-41

lOI

96

13-32

103

To Table XI. — Rainfall at Royston.

Ins.

Ins.

Ins.

7o

Ins.

7c

1892-93

14-11

11-75

25-86

104

1893

1087

96

93-94

892

10-90

19-82

97

94

1211

108

94-95

11-30

I2-02

23-32

107

95

11-56

103

95-96

11-62

11-38

23-00

101

96

11-43

102

VI.

NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED IN HERTFORDSHIRE DURING

THE YEAR 1895.

By Alan F. Grossman, F.L.S.

Read at Watford, \7th March, 1896.

I HAVE not lived in Hertfordshire long enougli to know very
much about the distribution of the birds of the county ; but from
•what I have already seen, and from studying the former records
of the rarer species, I should think that our county, considering
its physical features and its position, would afford to the field-
naturalist plenty of opportunities for studying the habits of
many kinds of birds. There are certainly some birds breeding
in Hertfordshire which do not nest in the majority of the English
counties, or at any rate in such numbers as they do with us. First
among these, comes that splendid bird the great crested grebe.
Few counties, with the exception of I^Torfolk, can claim that this
bii'd nests with them in such numbers as it does with us at the
Tring Reservoirs ; while it is not everywhere that one can find
the pochard, tufted duck, and shoveller breeding.

I have great pleasure in announcing that, owing to the repre-
sentations of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society, an order
has been made by the Home Secretary, under the ' Wild Birds
Protection Act, 1894,' adding certain birds to the schedule of the
Wild Birds Protection Acts, 1880 and 1881, and also protecting
the eggs of certain birds which are mentioned in the order. I
sincerely hope that these Acts, with the Order, will be enforced,
and that all the members of this Society will do their best to
spread a knowledge of them. All game-preservers should forbid
their keepers to kill the owls and hawks, as most birds of these
species do a great deal of good, in fact very much more good than
harm. Farmers also ought to protect these birds, as they are
extremely useful in keeping down mice and other small animals,
which otherwise would increase in such quantities as to become
a regular plague.

Turning now to my proper subject, which is a report on the
Bii'ds of Hertfordshire for the year 1895, I have three birds to add
to the list. Two of these did not actually occur in 1895, but as
they have not yet been recorded in our ' Transactions,' it becomes
ray duty to mention them in my report. There is another bird
which 1 think should be added to our list ; of this I can, however,
find no actual record. The bird I am referring to is the great
bustard. In the ' Dictionary of Birds,' edited by Professor Newton,
under the heading of "Bustard," comes the following sentence:
" From other English counties, as Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire,
and Berkshire, it disappeared without note being taken of the

event " In Alorris' ' British Birds ' it is stated that Ray

and Willoughby mentioned Royston Heath as a place frequented by

VOL. IX. — PART III. 6

74 A. F. CEOSSMAN — XOTES 0^ BIRDS

this species. These statements seem to point to the fact that the
bustard was formerly resident in Hertfordshire, but there is still no
specific mention of the bird having been actually obtained in the
county. Very probably, indeed, this is nearly all that will ever
now be known about its occurrence here, unless some one seeing
this report may call to mind having heard somebody in days
gone by speaking about the bird having been obtained or seen in
Hertfordshire. Besides these birds I have to mention the occurrence
of several others, which, although not new to the Hst, are only very
occasional visitors to our county.

1. White Wagtail {Motacilla alha). — This bird does not appear
to have been recorded before in Hertfordshire, although most
probably it occurs annually. Mr. Eivers first mentioned its
occurrence in our county, for in a letter to me he stated that he
had seen one of these birds in company with two pied wagtails
at Sawbridgeworth, on March 17th last year. On April 6th I saw
a bird of this species at Wilstone Reservoir, feeding on some
floating masses of reeds which had been washed down by the force
of the storms of March. On April 21st Mr. Rivers examined
a wagtail's nest in a thick yew hedge, and found that there were
twelve eggs in it. Three of these eggs he afterwards sent to me
for examination, and one of them is certainly different from the
others, though whether it is a white wagtail's egg or not, I do not
attempt to say, but it seems extremely probable that such is the
case, as Mr. Rivers saw both a white and a pied wagtail about
round the nest. During the spring and summer I saw several
white wagtails, and I have good reason to believe that the species
nested near Eerkhamsted and reared its young, inasmuch as I saw
some young wagtails about the place where I had continually seen
a pair of birds of the white species. Mr. Kearton, in his recent
book on ' British Birds' ISTests,' remarks of this bird : " Migratory,
but little is known of its comings and goings. Although a common
bird on the Continent, only a few well-authenticated instances
of its breeding in the British Isles are on record, and those in the
southern counties of England. It is, however, thought that it may
often have been overlooked from the fact that its general appearance
and eggs are so similar to those of the pied wagtail to all except
the practical and experienced ornithologist." Mr. Saunders, in his
' Manual of British Birds,' says : " This bird occurs all over Europe
and Northern Asia, as well as in Asia Minor, Palestine, and
Northern Africa. The situations selected for the nest are similar
to those chosen by the pied wagtail, while the eggs, though
sometimes of a rather bluer grey with bolder ashy markings,
frequently cannot be distinguished from those of that bird, and
their average measurements are identical." The bird practically
takes the place of the pied wagtail on the Continent.

2. Two-BAEKED Ceossbill {Loxia hifasciata). — In the 'Zoologist'
for 1893, there is a note from Mr. H. Somers Rivers of the
supposed occurrence of the American white - winged crossbill
(Z. leuco2)tera) in Hertfordshire. I wrote to Mr. Rivers for

OBSERVED Ilf HEETFOKDSniRE IN 1895. 75

particulars, Avliich he gave mc, and lie also most kindly lent me
the bird for inspection. I showed it to Mr. Hartcrt, Curator
of the Tring Museum, and he, after referring to the late
Mr. Seebohm's book on ' British Birds,' decided that it must be
L. bifasciata, that is the two-barred crossbill, and not the American
species. This bird was shot by Mr. Rivers on January 11th, 1890,
in a larch wood at Tharbies, near Sawbridgeworth. It was
swinging underneath a branch at the top of a tree, and was alone
at the time. From its general plumage, which was a dull green,
it appears to be a female, but unfortunately the sex was not
ascertained by dissection. According to Saunders' ' Manual of
British Birds,' "this bird inhabits the coniferous forests of jS^orthern
Russia and Siberia, as far as the Pacific ; wandering in autumn
and winter to South Sweden, Denmark, Heligoland, North
Germany, Holland, Belgium, the North of France, North Italy,
Austria, and Poland." In the British Isles the first recorded
specimen was obtained near Belfast in Ireland, in 1802, since
which time several specimens have been obtained in the United
Kingdom. The American form is considered by many authoi-ities
to be only entitled to subspecific distinction.

3. Baillon's Ce.\ke {Porzana Bailloni). — Mr. "W. H. M. Ayres,
in a note to the 'Zoologist' for 1892, recorded the occurrence of
this bird in Hertfordshire. The specimen in question was shot on
October 24th, 1891, in the marshes near Cheshunt, which were
then in flood. The bird was in good plumage, but very thin. It
was sent to Mr. Rowland Ward for preservation, and was identified
by him. In the fourth edition of Yarrell's ' British Birds,' mention
is made that this bird appears to be somewhat irregularly fhstributed
on the Continent, but this statement is probably owing to insufficient
information. The bird seems to have nested on one or two occasions
in England, but even the records of its occurrence are far from
numerous.

Miscellaneous Notes.

Ring-Ouzel {Turdus torquatus). — On April 7th I saw one of these
birds on Berkhamsted Common. It settled on the top of a tree,
where I had a good view of it, and I watched it for some time.
Mr. Rivers saw one at Sawbridgeworth on April 9th. Most of
the former recorded occurrences of this sj)ecies in Hertfordshire
have been in the autumn.

"Wood -Weex {Phylloscopus sihilatrix). — This bird, which is
plentiful in most of the woods in the neighbourhood of Berk-
hamsted, arrived there very late last spring.

Gr A sshoppek -Warbler {Locustella ncevia). — This bird occurs
plentifully on Berkhamsted Common. AVhen .singing it keeps its
bill open all the time, showing up very conspicuously the bright
fleshy yellow colour of the inside of its mouth.

Gke.it Gret Shrike (Lanius excuhitor). — In Mr. Rivei's' note to
the ' Zoologist ' about the two-barred crossbill, he also mentions an
example of the great grey shrike, which was shot on December

76 A. F. CROSSMAIf — NOTES ON BIEDS

5th, 1890, on Eoderick's Farm, near Latton Mill, about 100 yards
from the Essex border, while it was sitting on the top of a little
oak-tree in a hedgerow. It was a young male. The bird has
frequently occurred in Hertfordshire.

Hawfinch ( Coccothraustes vulgaris). — This bird has been recorded
fairly often in Hertfordshire, but does not appear to have been con-
sidered a regular resident. My experience in 1895 makes me think
that at any rate in the district around Berkhamsted the hawfinch
is not only resident, but is even plentiful. In March I saw several
of these birds, and eventually on March 27th I saw a flock of at
least fifty hawfinches on the edge of Berkhamsted Common, near
the rifle-butts. They utter a note very like the "tit. tit" of
a robin, biit of course a good deal louder, and, when flying, the
white on their wings and tail shows very distinctly. After that
date I continually saw hawflnches when I went to likely places,
and on May 19th I found a nest with four eggs. It was placed
on the branch of an old thorn-tree, and was made of sticks and
lichens, with a lining of fine roots and a little grass. In my opinion
the hawfinch is a much commoner bird than it really appears to be,
as it is often very hard to see on account of its shyness.

Goldfinch ( Carduelis elegans). — I only saw a goldfinch on three
occasions in 1 895, in the neighbourhood of Berkhamsted. Mr. Elvers
mentions its occurrence at ISawbridgeworth in the spring, and I saw
some there in August.

Siskin {Carduelis spinus). — Mr. Bivers, in a letter, told me of
the occurrence at Sawbridge worth, about March 12th, of three
of these birds, which stayed there for some days. There were
two males and a female, and the former sang a good deal. They
were very tame, allowing him to go within a few feet of them.
Mr. Littleboy mentioned the occurrence of the siskin several times,
always in the winter, but since his death it does not seem to have
been recorded in the Society's ' Transactions.'

BEiMBLiNG {FringiUa montifringilla). — This bird occurred in
vast numbers towards the end of March in the neighbourhood of
Berkhamsted. "When flying, bramblings look very like chaffinches,
but one of their chief distinctions is the white above the tail. I
saw many which were assuming the breeding-plumage, their black
heads showing up conspicuously. They were usually feeding on
the ground under beech-trees, and were always restless, continually
fluttering off the ground and settling again. Their principal
note seems a long-drawn " chee. " On March 20th I noticed
one of these birds with a white head. The latest date on which I
observed the brambling was April 6th, when I saw a single one at
Pendley Manor. " This bird has," according to Mr. Saunders,
"very rarely been found nesting in the British Isles, usually
retiring further north to breed ; but the late Mr. T. H. Booth
stated that in June, 1866, while fishing in the river Lyon, in
Perthshire, he had occasion to climb a beech-tree to disentangle
his line, when he disturbed a female brambling from her nest
with three eggs."

OBSEKVED IX nEllTFORDSniRE IX 1895. 77

Lesser Redpoll [Linota rnfescens). — On February lOtli, 1895,
I saw one of these birds feedinp: on the bank of the canal between
Borkhamstcd and Boxmoor. It was very tame, and was nearly
caught several times. In fact, once I threw my cap over it, but
the cap fell over, and the bird escaped. There do not seem to
be many records of the lesser redpoll having been observed in
Hertfordshire, but it probably occurs frequently, although seldom
recorded.

Crossbill {Loxia curvirostra). — Mr. Lewis, in his last report,
mentioned the occurrence of the crossbill near Berkhamsted and
at Tring in the early pax't of 1895. They were again seen at the
former place in March and April. On March 3rd I saw a single
bird on the edge of Northchvirch Common. On March 10th I heard
some in Ockridge Wood, and on March 17th I observed what was
evidently a pair at the same place, when I heard the male bird
singing. On April 7th I noticed a party of these birds in the same
wood feeding on the buds and cones of larch-trees. Some of them
uttered a note very like a loud chirp of a cock sparrow. I think
it quite possible that some of these birds strayed to breed in
Ockridge Wood, although of course their staying so late in the
year is no proof of their doing so. The crossbill has on numerous
occasions bred in the southern portions of Great Britain, while
in some of the more northern parts it breeds plentifully. In the
fourth edition of Yarrell, Hertfordshire is mentioned as being one of
the counties in which this bird has nested, but there are no details.

Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopus major). — This bird
is fairly plentiful in the neighbourhood of Berkhamsted. It also
occurs near Sawbridgeworth, for Mr. Rivers saw one there in
December.

Lesser Spotted Woodpecker {Dendrocopus minor). — This bird
is found in some numbers near Berkhamsted, especially in Ashridge
Park. Mr. Yaughan Roberts informs me also that it is not uncommon
near Watford. Its flight is rather slow, and very undulating.

Tawxt Owl {Syrnium aluco). — On May 18th I saw a pair of
these birds flying in broad daylight in Ashridge Park.

Peregrixe Falcox {Falco peregrinuH). — On March 16th, 1895,
when coming home from Tring, I was lucky enough to see a
peregrine falcon at Pendley Manor. It made a stoop at a partridge,
which, however, it did not succeed in striking. From its size
I should say it was a female. In a letter to me Mr. Sainsbury
Terey sent the following note: "Mr. Grifiin, taxidermist, Rick-
mansworth, has obligingly shown me a male specimen of Falco
peregrinus, captured in August, 1895, at Croxley Green." The
peregrine falcon has occurred on several occasions in Hertford-
shire, and it is a great pity that it should nearly always get shot.
It is a bird which might be said to have the highest sporting
instincts, as it seldom, if ever, condescends to kill a bird except
in full flight.

Cormoraxt {PhaJacrocorax carlo). — On October 31st, James
Street, the keeper at Tring Reservoirs, saw a bird of this species

78 A. F. CHOSSMAK NOTES ON BLRDS

tliere. The cormorant has been recorded five times in Hertford-
shire, the last time being in October, 1888, when one was seen at
the Reservoirs.

CoiiiioN Bittern {Botaurus stellaris). — Mr. Sainsbury Verey has
informed me that Mr. Griffin showed him a specimen of the bittern
which was shot some thirty years ago in a field immediately opposite
his place of business at Eickmansworth. Several occurrences of
this bird have been recorded in this county, and in 1849 a nest
with four eggs was found at one of the Tring Eeservoirs. This
is a bird that has become a thing of the past so far as breeding
in this country is concerned, and unfortunately the words of the
poet who said —

" No more the screaming bittern, bellowing harsh.
To its dark bottom shakes the shuddering marsh,"

are only too true. Every year we hear of the slaughter of some
of these fine birds ; and no doubt if such useless slaughter ceased,
we should sometimes have the bittern nesting again in parts of the
country suited to it, although many of its former haunts have
disappeared before agriculture.

^ViLD Geese. — On March 11th Mr. Arthur W. Dickinson saw
nearly a hundred wild geese passing eastwards over New Farm,
ISt. Albans, but did not distinguish the species. On November 30th
my father saw fifteen wild geese pass over Berkhamsted, but in
this case also the species was not distinguished.

Shovellee [Spatula clyfeata^. — This handsome duck bred near
one of the Reservoirs in 1895. The birds first appeared there
on April 6th, and Street found a nest with eggs in a field about
two miles from the Reservoirs on May 13th. The young birds
were hatched a few days later.

AViGEON {Mareca penelope). — This bird occurred in small numbers
at the Tring Reservoirs during 1895. One of its notes is a shrill
" whew," and, when it is flying, its wings look much more pointed
than those of the common wild duck.

Pochard {Fuligula ferina). — This bird was plentiful at the
Reservoirs in the early part of the year. Pochards swim very low
in the water, and when flying look much shorter in the neck and
body than the mallard. They utter a hoarse note, something like
that of a carrion-crow, but not nearly so loud nor so prolonged.
The female, which is of a dark dusky-grey colour, is very dull
in comparison with the male. The latter has a chestnut-coloured
head, and a light grey body, which, in the distance, with the sun
shining on it, looks nearly white. The first nests were found
about May 11th. The pochard lays from seven to fourteen eggs,
and the nests, which are usually made of grass and down, are
placed amongst the undergrowth by the side of the water. Young
pochards have a light patch by the eye, instead of a light eyestreak
as young wild ducks have.

Tufted Duck [Fuligula cristata). — This bird also occurs at the
Tring ReseiToirs, but not so plentifully as the pochard. These

OBSERVED IX UERTFORDSHIEE IN 1895. 79

birds nest much later than the last-mentioned duck, laying from
eiglit to twelve eggs. The nest is usually made of grass or sedge
and down, and is placed amongst rushes or sedge, most often near
the edge of the water.

Goosander {Mergus merganser). — On IN'ovember 25th Street saw
two of these birds at the Ileser\'oirs. Two were also shot at the
Keservoirs in February, 1885.

KiNG-DovE [Columba palumhus). — This bird was remarkably
plentiful during the winter of 1894-5, vast flocks being seen in the
neighbourhood of Berkhamsted and AVatford.

Ringed Plover {^gialitis hiaticula). — On August 7th Street
saw a ringed plover at the Reservoirs, and on August 30th his
son saw several at "Wilstone Reservoir. On I^ovember 7th I saw
one of these bii'ds feeding on the mud at Startop's End Reservoir.
In Air. Littleboy's report for 1887, he mentions that Street thought
that this bird bred at the Reservoirs, but I think that possibly this
is a mistake, as there does not seem to be a suitable place for it to
nest there.

Dublin {Tringa alpina). — On August 31st I saw four of these
birds feeding round the Little Tring Reservoir. One of them still
retained some of the black feathers of the breeding plumage on
the breast. The bird probably occurs annually at the Reservoirs,
although not always reported.

RrFF {Machetes pugnax). — On August 17th I saw two of these
birds at Little Tring Reservoir. By the buff tinge of the plumage
on the back, they were probably young birds. When on the wing
they flew rather slowly. I saw one of them swimming. Street shot
one of these a day or two after I had seen them. This bird has
been recorded on two other occasions in Hertfordshire, both at the
Reservoirs, namely, in 1884 and 1886; and on the latter occasion
two males were procured at a shot. The ruff used formerly to
breed in many of the marshy districts of England, but drainage,
wnth other causes, has induced them to become only visitors on
the spring and autumn migrations, although possibly a few pairs
may still rear their broods in this country.

Green Sandpiper {Totamis ochropus). — On the same date as I saw
the ruffs, namely, August 17th, I also observed a green sandpiper.
It appeared to me to be rather larger than the common species,
and also darker in colour, and it did not fly so erratically as that
bird. This bird is mentioned in Mr. Littleboy's Register as being
a regular spring \'isitant near Ickleford, and in the same book there
are several other records of its occurrence in Hertfordshire.

Common Redshank (Totamis calidris). — On October 10th Street
saw some redshanks at the Reservoirs. This bird has been obtained
three times before in Hertfordshire, the last occasion being in
June, 1891, when one was picked up on the Midland Railway
between St. Albans and Radlett.

Greenshank {Totanus canescens). — On April 6th I observed one of
these bii'ds on Little Tring Reservoir. It got up as we approached,
and flew across the Reservoir, uttering a loud melodious whistle.

80 A. F. CEOSSMAN — NOTES ON BIEDS

The two narrow light bars on the wings of the bird showed up
very plainly while it was flying. Street told me that it usually
occurred at the Kesei^voirs during the spring and autumn migration.
On April 7th, and again on April 19th, Street saw one of these
birds. The greenshank has been recorded on two former occasions,
namely, in 1880 near Watford, and in 1885 at the Eeservoirs,
when two were shot.

CiiELEW [Numenius arquaUis). — One of these birds was seen at
the Reservoirs on Api'il 29th, and on August 16th Street saw
fifteen of them at Wilstone Reservoir. On December 21st he
observed sixteen of these birds, which is the largest number he had
ever seen together at the Reservoirs. The curlew has been recorded
on several occasions in Hertfordshire.

Black Tern {Eydrochelidon nigra). — One of these birds was
seen at the Reservoirs by Street on April 17th, and on the 20th
I saw one at Marsworth Reservoir. On May 6th Street observed
a large party of common terns at Wilstone Reservoir, and amongst
them were a few black terns. On August 7th he saw three more,
and on August 17th I noticed another. Several of these birds
have been obtained in Hertfordshire, and it was thought at one
time that some pairs had stayed to nest at the Reservoirs, but the
fact has never been proved. This is another bird which formerly
bred commonly in the Fen districts, but which has now been
banished chiefly by drainage.

Common Teen {Sterna Jluviatilis). — The common tern occurred
on several occasions in 1895 at the Reservoirs, and on one occasion
(May 6th) Street saw nearly fifty of them in company with some
black terns. This bird, which occurs nearly every year at Tring,
has been seen on several occasions at Elstree Reservoir, and in
1881 some were killed in the neighbourhood of Royston.

Lesser Teen {Sterna minuta). — On October 10th Street saw
three of these birds at the Reservoirs. In 1882 some of these
birds were obtained at Royston; while in April, 1886, two were
obtained at the Reservoirs by the Hon. Walter Rothschild, and one
was also obtained there in 1885.

Common Gull {Larus camis). — On August 17th I observed what
I took to be a bird of this species at the Reservoirs, and on
November 25th Street saw several of them there. It has occurred
frequently in Hertfordshire.

Black-backed Gulls. — On June 14th, and again on ITovember 3rd
and December 17th, Street saw some black-backed gulls at the
Reservoirs, but he did not mention to what species they belonged.
The great black-backed gull has occurred on a few occasions in this
county, but the lesser black-backed gull has only been procured
once.

Kittiwake {Jiissa tridactyla). — On Tilay 19th I saw a kittiwake
flying over Kerkhamsted Common. In January, 1885, two were
shot at the l^escrvoirs, and in February in the same year one was
picked up at London Colney, near St. Albans. These are the only
recorded occurrences in Hertfordshire.

OBSEllVED IN nEETFOKDSHIRE IN 1895. 81

Little Auk {Merguhis alle). — A bird of this species was picked
lip at Sarratt on or about January of last year, and was to have
been reported in the ' Field ' ; but at that time these birds were
obtained in such numbers in various parts of the country, that the
report was crowded out, and the bird was not recorded in that
paper. The little auk has occurred on five former occasions in
Hertfordshire, the last being on November 22nd, 1893, when
one was picked up between Litlington and Royston.

Great Chested Grebe [Podicipes cristatus). — This magnificent
bird, now so scarce in most parts of England, is, I am pleased
to say, comparatively plentiful at the Tring Reservoirs, where
I should think there were from forty to fifty pairs in 1895. They
arrived there about the middle of March, coming in the night.
I heard several of them utter a kind of croak when I first saw
them on March 16th. When they begin building, they fly about
a good deal, and are at that time rather noisy. They usually fly
very noiselessly, and when flying show a large patch of white on
their wings. 1 examined some of their nests one day, all of which
were made of decayed water-weeds, built on a foundation of dead
reed-stems, and were placed in the water among the reeds. In all
the nests the eggs were either partially or totally covered up with
weeds, and the largest number that I found in one nest was four.
These birds sometimes catch fish so large that they can scarcely
swallow them. Young birds appear to be of a greyish colour
striped with brown. The grebes left the Reservoirs about
November 6th.

Little Grebe {Podicipes fluviatilis). — This bird seems very
plentiful on the rivers Gade and Colne. They make a noise
very like the laughing note of a kestrel. In the breeding plumage,
they have a very bright chestnut- coloured throat. 1 examined
several of their nests. They were always built of decayed water-
plants, and were, with one exception, floating nests, that is to say,
nests built on the water, but anchored by some weeds. The
exception was placed on the bank by the side of the water, which
is a veiy unusual place for this bird to build in. These birds
usually cover up their eggs when they leave their nest, using their
beak to put the weeds over ; these weeds used for covering up the
eggs were always fresh and green. They sit very high on the nest,
and when cb-iven off quickly return, using their beak to uncover
the eggs, and not their feet as one might suppose ; when they have
returned to their nest they lay the weeds from off the eggs all
round the nest, so that they can easily reach them if again
disturbed. The largest number of eggs I have found in one nest
was five. This biitl is, curiously enough, far from plentiful at the
Reservoirs.

82

A. F. CROSSMAN — NOTES ON BIRDS

Arrivax'and Departure of Migrants.
Summer Migrants.

Species. Locality.

EiNG-OuzEL Berkliamsted

[Tardus torquatus) Sawbridgeworth

"Wheatear Tring Reservoirs

[Haxkola cenanthe) Sawbridgeworth

"Whinchat Berkhamsted

[Pratincola rubetra) Bushey

Stonechat Berkhamsted

(P. rubicola)

Eedstart Berkhamsted

[Ruticilla phcenicurus) Sawbridgeworth

Nightingale Berkhamsted

{JJaulias luscinia) Near St. Albans

Watford

Radlett

Hatfield

Hitchin

Harpeuden

AVormley

Sawbi'idgeworth

Near Tring

Ashwell

St. Albans

Greater "Whitethroat Sawbridgeworth

{Silvia cmeria) St. Albans

Berkhamsted

Lesser "Whitethroat Tring Reservoirs

[S. curruca) Sawbridgeworth

Blackcap Sawbridgeworth

{S. atricapilla) Berkhamsted

Garden -Warbler Berkhamsted

{S. hortensis)

Chiffchaff Sopwell, St. Albans

{Phylloscopus rufus) Radlett

Berkhamsted

Sawbridgeworth

New Farm.St. Albans
Tring Reservoirs

Willow-Warbler Sawbridgeworth

{P. trochilus) Radlett

St. Albans

Wood-Warbler Aldbui-y, Tring

(P. slhilatrix)
Reed-Warbler Tring Reservoirs

{Acrocephalus strcperus)

Sedge-Warbler Sawbridgeworth

[A. phragmitis) St. Albans

Great Gaddesden

Grasshopper-Wakbler Berkhamsted

[Locustella nccina) Bushey

Yellow Wagtail Tring Reservoirs

{Motacilla Rail) Berkhamsted

Date.

Observer.

Ap

ril 7..

..A. F. C.

„ 12..

..H. S. Rivers.

Mar. 27..

..J. Street.

Ap

ril 2..

..H. S. Rivers.

„ 21..

..A. F. C.

„ 22..

..A. F. C.

M;

ir. 27..

..A. F. C.

Ap

ril 7..
, 15..

..A. F. C.
..H. S. Rivers.

, 12..

..Mrs. E. Mawley.

, 17..

..Arthur Lewis.

, 17..
, 17..

..Mrs. Bishop.
..Miss Lubbock.

, 17..

.J. Brown.

, 17..

.J. E. Little.

, 18..

.J. J. Willis.

, 18..

..Miss Warner.

, 18..

..T. J. Mann.

, 19..

..J. Street.

, 19..

..H. G. Fordham.

, 20..

..Henry Lewis.

, 19..

..H. S. Rivers.

, 20..
, 21..

..Henry Lewis.
..A. F. C.

, 19..

.J. Street.

, 24..

..H. S. Rivers.

, 17..

...H. S. Rivers.

, 20..

..A. F. C.

, 27..

..A. F. C.

Mf

ir. 18..

..Henry Lewis.

, 30..

..Miss Lubbock.

, 31..

..A. F. C.

Ap

ril 1.
, 2..

. H. S. Rivers.
..A. W. Dickinson

, 13..

..J. Street.

, 10..

..H. S. Rivers.

, 13..

..Miss Lubbock.

, 20..

...Henry Lewis.

Mf

ly 12..

..A. F. C.

April 18 J. Street.

,, 29 H. S. Rivers.

May 8 Henry Lewis.

,, 8 A. F. C.

April 21 A. F. C.

,, 22 A. F. C.

„ 13 J. Street.

,, 19 A. F. C.

OBSEKVED IX HERTFOEDSUIEE O 1895.

83

Species.
Tree-Pivit

{Anthus trivialis)
Eeu-macked Shrike

{Zaniiis collurio)

Spotted Flycatcher
{Muscicapa grisola)

Locality. Date. Observer.

St. Albaus April 20 Henry Lewis.

Tring Reservoirs

Berkhainsted

Suwbridgewortli

Ilitchiu

Sawbridgewortli

Berkhamsted

Eadlett

Ashwell

Ashwell (last seen)

Worraley

Watford

St. Albans

Swallow

{Hiruitdo rustica)

HorSE-MARTIN ...

[Chelidon urbica)

Sand-Marti.v

[Cotile riparia)

Swift

[Cypselus apus)

"Wryneck

{lynx torquilla)
Cuckoo

[Cuculus canorus)

Berkbamsted

, , (last seen)

Tring Reservoirs

Beaumonts Farm,

St. Albans

Ashwell

Ashwell (last seen)

Wormley

"Worniley (last seen)
New Farm, St.

Albans

Watford

Watford (last seen)

Ilarpenden

Radlett

Near St. Albans

Sawbridgeworth

St. Albans

Hatfield

Trtno: Reservoirs .....

Tring Reservoirs
Sawbrido^eworth

Sawbridgeworth
Triuff Reservoirs

May 12 J. Street.

„ 15 A. F. C.

,, 16 H. S. Rivers.

„ 4 J. E. Little.

„ 7 H. S. Rivers.

,, 9 Mrs. E. Mawley.

,, 19 Miss Lubbock.

,, 21 H. G. Fordhara.

Sept. 3 H. G. Fordham.

May 25 Miss Warner.

,, 28 Mrs. Bishop.

,, 30 Miss Moore Smith.

Mar. 28 Mrs. E. Mawley.

Oct. 14 A. F. C.

April 7 J. Street.

,, 11 John Boyes.

,, 11 H. G. Fordhara.

Oct. 16 H. G. Fordham.

April 13 Miss Warner.

Oct. 20 Miss Warner.

April 14 A. W. Dickinson.

,, 15 Mrs. Bishop.

Oct. 9 Mrs. Bishop.

April 16 J. J. Willis.

,, 17 Miss Lubbock.

,, 17 Arthur Lewis.

„ 17 T. J. Mann.

,, 20 Henry Lewis.

,, 21 J. Brown.

„ 7 J. Street.

7 J. Street.

20 H. S. Rivers.

25 H. S. Rivers.

29 J. Street.

6 Henry Lewis.

9 A. F. C.

St. Albaus May

Berkhamsted ,,

Radlett April 11 Miss Lubbock.

New Farm, St.

Albans

Harpeuden

The Grange, St.

Albans

Hatfield

Berkhamsted

Beaimionts Farm,

St. Albans

Watford

Hitcliin

Sawbridgeworth

Radlett

Wormley

Tring Reservoirs

,, 7 A. W. Dickinson.

„ 8 J. J. Willis.

,, 10 Mrs. Hopkinson.

,, 10 J. Brown.

,, 11 Mrs. E. Mawley.

,, 11 John Boyes.

,, 12... Mrs. Bishop.

,, 14 J. E. Little.

,, 14 H. S. Rivers.

,, 17 Miss Lubbock.

,, 17 Miss L. Warner.

,, 18 J. Street.

84 A. F. CEOSSMAN — NOTES ON BIEDS.

Species. Locality. Date. Observer.

TuRTLE-DovE Berkharasted April 27 A. F. C.

{Tiirtur communis) Asliwell May 2 H. G. Fordham.

Ashwell (last seen) Sept. 10 H. G. Fordham.

Tring Reservoirs May 4 J. Street.

Sawbridgeworth ,, 11 H. S. Elvers.

Landrail Tring Reservoirs April 20... J. Street.

[Crex pratensis) Berkhamsted ,, 21 A. F. C.

Common Sandpiper Tring Reservoirs ,, 19 J. Street.

[Totanus hypoleucus)

"Winter Migrants.

Redwing Berkhamsted Oct. 27 A. F. C.

{Turdus iliacus) Sawbridgeworth ,, 27 H. S. Rivers.

Fieldfare Tring Nov. 7 A. F. C.

[T. pilaris) Sawbridgeworth

(last seen) April 2 H. S. Rivers.

(first seen) Nov. 9 H. S. Rivers.

Ashwell „ 11 H. G. Fordham.

Berkhamsted

(last seen) April 27 A. F. C.

Grey "Wagtail Berkhamsted Oct. 27 A. F. C.

[Mofacilla melanope)

Hooded Crow Ashridge Park, Tring ,, 27 A. F. C.

{Corvus cornix) Ashwell Nov. 12 ....H. G. Fordham.

Sawbridgeworth ,, 16 H. S. Rivers.

Berkhamsted

(last seen) April 6 A. F. C.

I should like to mention that it is not only notes upon rare
birds that I wish to receive, but also notes on the distribution
and habits generally of any birds which occur in Hertfordshire.
Our Society does not want to be merely the means of recording
the slaughter of rarities, but to be of some assistance in teaching
what is the distribution of all birds within the limits of the county,
thus contributing to the general knowledge of the birds of Great
Britain. This can only be done by means of accurate observers
in different parts of the county. With regard to recording all
birds, accuracy is strictly necessary. In the case of a rare bird,
which has been shot, it should, if possible, be seen before it is
skinned, and in that state submitted to some competent authority ;
but if that cannot be done, it should be produced after it has been
preserved, and the person who procured it should be thoroughly
cross-examined as to the occurrence. When a bird has only been
seen and not shot, such an accurate description should be given by
the person who saw it as should easily enable a practical ornitho-
logist to recognize it from such description.

In conclusion, let me thank all those who have been kind enough
to send me notes for this paper. I hope they will continue to do
so, and will also do what they can to get others to do the same, so
that we may hope in time to attain to a good knowledge of the
birds of Hertfordshire.

yii.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT THE GRANGE,
ST. ALBANS, DURING THE YEAR 1895.

By JoHK HoPKiNsoN, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.E.Met.Soc.

Read at Watford, 2\st April, 1896.

LoifGiTUDE of Station, 0° 20' 7" W. ; Latitude, 51° 45' 9" IS".
Cistern of barometer 388 feet, ground-level at thermometer- sci'een
380 feet, and at rain-gauge 379 feet, above Ordnance Datum.
Thermometers (in Stevenson screen) 4 feet, and top of rain-gauge
1 foot, above the ground. Observations taken at 9 a.m.

The accompanying tables (pp. 86, 87) give the monthly means,
etc., of the daily observations in 1895, and the following is the
usual summary for the seasons : —

Means foe the Seasoxs from Dec. 1894 to Nov. 1895.

Seasons,
1894-95.

Pressure.

Temperature.

Humi-
dity.

Cloud.

Force

of
Wind.

Rainfall.

Mean.

Daily
Range.

Total.

Days.

Winter

Spring

Summer

Autumn

ins.
29-965

29935

29-977
29-984

0

33 '4
47-6
60-4
50-6

0

10-4
17-2
17-9
15-4

7o
84
81

72

86

0-10

7-3
6-3
5-8
6-0

0-12

17
17
1-6

1-5

ins.

477

3-50
9-46
7-82

48
35

40

In the next table the chief results, monthly and annual, are
compared with the means for the ten years 1877-86 at Watford.

Difference in 1895 from Means of 1877-86 at Watford.

Months.

Pressure.

Temperature.

Humi-
dity.

Cloud.

Force

of
Wind.

Rainfall.

Mean.

Daily
Range.

Total.

Days.

in.

0

0

7n

0-10

0-12

in.

January

— •302

— 5-0

—0-4

+ I-0

=

-0-09 + 7

February

+ •163

-13-2

+1-9

—16

—1-4

'3

— 2-41 — 12

March

-212

—12

+02

+ 6

+0-9

— •2

+ 0-02 -f 5

April

+ -O52

=

— 0-6

-1-6

-ho-3

— ■4

— 1-06

— 2

May

+ 147

-1-2 -3

+2-6

—1-6

—■3

— I -91

— 10

June

+ ■130

+1-4

-f3-2

— 6

— 1-4

— -I

—2-47

— 8

July

-•055

— I'O

—08

— I

+02

+•2

+2-42

— I

August

+ •004

-|-0-2

— 0*2

=

— 1-2

— -2

-1-I-50

-H 4

September

+ •199

-1-3 -5

-1-5-2

— 2

—27

— •4

— 1-89

— 9

October

— -060

—3 5

— o'5

— 2

+0-I

— ■3

—0-45

— 2

November

+ •003

-f2-o

—0-4

-1-2

-1-I-3

4-1 -47

-f 3

December

— -140

-fo-9

-1-0-3

— I

— 0-6

-f-I

—0-49

+ 2

Year

— -005

— i-o

+0-8

— I

-0-4

— -2

-5-36

-23

86

J. HOPKHS'SOIs" — METEOROLOGICAL OBSEEVATIOIJ-S

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P

88 J. HOPKrySOX METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERYATIONS

The year 1895 was cold on the whole, but persistently warm
throughout the summer, the defect in temperature being almost
entirely due to the very cold January and excessively cold
February ; October, also, was a very cold month, while September
was very warm. The mean daily range of temperature was
greater than usual, chiefly owing to the high day temperatures
in September, and, to a less degree, in June. The mean pressure
of the atmosphere was about the average of the ten years 1877-86
at Watford The lowest pressure recorded at 9 am. was 28"862 ins.
on 28th March, and the highest was 30-624 ins. on 2nd May,
giving a range of 1 762 in. The rainfall was much below the
average of the ten years 1877-86, and a little below a long-period
average. The number of wet days was much less than usual.
February, May, June, and September were very dry months ; July,
August, and November were very wet. While the humidity of
the air was about the average throughout the year, it was very
unequally distributed in the months, February being excessively
dry, and July also very dry, while in March and April the air was
very moist. The prevailing direction of the wind was westerly.
The most memorable feature of the year will be the ten weeks'
frost with which it commenced ; but more abnormal even than this
was the heat of September.

In the winter of 1894-95 (December to February) the mean
pressure of the atmosphere was a little below the average, the
mean temperature was excessively low, with about an average
mean daily range, the air was very dry, the sky of average bright-
ness, and the rainfall very small, but on about the usual number of
days. A mild and rather wet December was followed by a cold
and wet January, and on the 26th of that month a very cold period
set in, continuing throughout the greater part of February, the
persistence of the cold weather throughout the greater part of
January and February being the most remarkable feature of the
winter. Probably in no previous winter has the water-supply
been so much interfered with owing to burst service-pipes.

In the spring (March to May) the mean pressure of the atmo-
sphere was about the average, the mean temperature was rather
high, with a considerable mean daily range, the air was humid, the
sky of average brightness, and the rainfall very small, on a small
number of days. The high mean temperature was due to the
warmth of the days, the nights not being warmer than usual. On
the 30th of May the high maximum of 82°'3 was reached.

In the summer (June to August) the mean pressure of the
atmosphere was rather high, the mean temperature was about the
average, with a considerable mean daily range, the air was rather
diy, the sky very bright, and the rainfall very heavy, but on less
than the usual number of days. The average daily rainfall during
the last half of the summer was ten times as great as it was during
the first half, and seven and a half times as great as it was
during the long dry period which lasted from the latter part of
the winter to the middle of the summer.

TAKEN AT ST. ALBANS IN 1895.

89

In tlie autumn (September to Xovcmbcr) the mean pressure of
the atmosphere Tras rather high, the mean temperature was high,
Avith a considerable mean daily range, the air was of average
humidity, the sky rather bright, and the rainfall rather heavy,
but on less than the usual number of days. The high mean
temperature of the autumn is due to September being unprece-
dcntedly warm. October and November had identically the same
mean temperature, November being about as much warmer than
the average as October was colder.

The difference between these seasons and the means of the
seasons for 1877-86 at Watford, is shown in the following table.
It should be pointed out that the comparison of the rainfall is with
an exceptionally wet series of years.

Difference in 1894-95 from Means of 1877-86 at Watfoed.

Seasons,
1894-95.

Pressure.

Temperature.

Humi-
dity.

Cloud.

Force

of
Wind.

Rainfall.

Mean.

Daily
Range.

Total.

Days.

"Winter

Spring

Summer

Autumn

in.
— "oig
— -004
+•026
+•147

0
-4-5

+ 1-2

+i"7

0

+0-4
+08
+07
+1-5

7o

— 6

+ 4

0-10

— "2

— ■I

—•8
-■5

0-12

-•3
—•3

ins.
-3-02
-2-85

+1-45
-<)-87

— 3

— 7

— 5

— 8

ITOTES ON THE MoNTHS.

Janttaet. — Very cold, with about an average daily range of
temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and low pres-
sure, a cloudy sky, and a heavy rainfall on a very large number
of days. Coldest days 27th, mean 23°'7, and 30th, mean 23°-6 ;
warmest day 20th, mean 44°-8. Min. below 32° on 22 days,
below 22° on 5 (27th to 31st) ; max. above 42° on 5 days (16th to
20th). The temperature did not reach freezing-point on the 6th,
10th, 11th, and 28th to 31st. The last six days were the coldest,
having a mean temperature of 25°-0 (9 a.m. 23°*9, min. 19°5,
max. 31°'7). Rain (or snow) fell every day but 6th, 8th to 11th,
26th, and 30th.

February. — Excessively cold, with a considerable daily range of
temperature, an excessively dry atmosphere of very high pressure,
a bright sky, and an exceedingly small rainfall on very few days.
Coldest day 7th, mean 16°-4 ; warmest day 24th, mean 38°-2.
Min. below 32° on 24 days, below 22° on 15, below 12° on 3 (6th,
7th, and 8th). The ten days 5th to 14th were the coldest, having
a mean temperature of 21°M) (9 a.m. 18°*2, min. 14°-8, mas.
30°-0). This is.l6°-5 below the mean for the month for the
previous eight years. The minimum reading, 10°'l, is 7°*7 lower
than in any previous February, and 1°'7 lower than in any previous
winter, during that period. Ilain (or snow) fell only on 1st,
2nd, 13th, 18th, and 24th. The month was as remarkable for the

VOL. IX.

-PART III.

90 J. HOPKmSON — METEOEOIOGICAX OBSERVATIONS

extreme dryness of th.e air as it was for the intense and persistent
cold and small rainfall.

March. — Of average temperature, and -with an average daily
range, a humid atmosphere of low pressure, a rather cloudy sky,
and an average rainfall on more than the usual numher of days.
Coldest day 3rd, mean 30°-0 ; warmest day 22nd, mean 51°-4.
Min. below 32° on 9 days ; max. above 42° on 25 days, above 52°
on 12. A "partial drought" of 32 days, with a rainfall of
0-17 in., terminated on the 5th. On the 24th, early in the after-
noon, there was one of the most destructive gales which has ever
passed over Hertfordshire. Many trees were blown down in the
neighbourhood of St. Albans and elsewhere nearly all over the
county, and other damage was done. An account of this gale has
already appeared in the 'Transactions' (Vol. VIII, p. 199).

April. — Of average temperature, and with an average daily
range, a humid atmosphere of average pressure, a sky of average
brightness, and a rather small rainfall on the usual number of days.
Coldest day 4th, mean 38°-4 ; warmest day 20th, mean 55°-8.
Min. below 42° on 19 days, below 32° on 2 (1st and 14th); max.
above 52° on 22 days, above 62° on 5 (9th, 17th, 19th, 20th, and
29th). Nearly all the rain fell during the last half of the month,
the fall from the 1st to the 15th being 0*10 in. and from the 16th
to the 31st r22 in. There was a slight fall of snow on the 3rd.

Mat. — A warm month, with a considerable daily range of
temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and high pressure,
a bright sky, and a very small rainfall on very few days. Coldest
day 17th, mean 41°-1; warmest day 30th, mean 66°-9. Min.
below 42° on 10 days; max. above 52° on 25 days (every day but
15th to 20th), above 62° on 20 days, above 72° on 4 (12th, 13th,
29th, and 30th), above 82° on one day (30th). The maximum on
this day (82°'3) is the highest temperature which I have recorded
in any May. Rain fell only on 1st, 17th, 23rd, 30th, and 31st.
There was thus an "absolute drought" of 15 days from 2nd to
16th. On 17th there was a slight fall of snow early in the
morning, and on this day the maximum temperature was only
47°'0, giving a range of the maximum of 35°-3 in the month.

June. — Eather warm, with a large daily range of temperature,
a very dry atmosphere of high pressure, a bright sky, and a very
small rainfall on very few days. Coldest day 15th, mean 51°'5 ;
warmest day 23rd, mean 67°'5. Min. below 52° on 21 days,
below 42° on 2 (13th and 15th) ; max. above 62° on 29 days
(every day but 12th), above 72° on 10 days. Rain fell only on
1st, 4th. 11th, 18th, 28th, and 29th. A "partial drought" of 35
days, with 0-33 in. of rain, terminated on the 27th.

July. — Of average temperature, and with an average daily
range, an atmosphere of average humidity and pressure, a sky of
average brightness, and an excessively heavy rainfall on the usual
number of days. Coldest day 28th, mean 53°-2 ; warmest day 8th,
mean 67°-l. Min. below 52° on 12 days; max. above 62° on 30
days (every day but 28th), above 72° on 9. Most of the rain fell

TAKEN AT ST. ALBANS IN 1895. 91

during the latter part of the month, the fall between the 1st and
17th being 0-51in,, and between the l8th and 31st 4-37 ins. This
is the exact amount which fell between the 2nd of March and the
1 7th of July, or for four and a half months ; and from the beginning
of February to that date, or for more than five and a half months,
only 4-62 ins. fell. There was a very severe thunderstorm at
about 1*30 p.m., followed by hail, on Friday the 19th, when a
house in St. Albans was struck by the lightning and considerable
damage was done.

August. — Of average temperature, with an average daily range,
an atmosphere of average humidity and pressure, a bright sky, and
a very heavy rainfall on a large number of days. Coldest day 1st,
mean 56°- 1 ; warmest day 22nd, mean 69°-0. Min. below 52° on
14 days; max. above 62° on 29 days (everyday but 3rd and 13th),
above 72° on 6. Rain fell every day but one (9th) from 2nd to
14th, and every day but one (23rd) from 21st to 28th, to the
extent of 3'20ins. in the first period and 0-90 in. in the second.
Much of the rain was due to thunderstorms, some of which were
of exceptional severity. The first was on the 4th, between 5 and
5.30 p.m. Then came a very severe one, on Saturday the 10th,
between 9 and 10.30 p.m., when damage was done in St. Albans
to buildings, and to trees in the neighbourhood. Rain fell heavily,
flooding the low-lying lands and doing much damage to the crops.
Early in the morning of Thursday the 22nd (between 3 and
5 o'clock) there was another very severe thunderstorm, with hail,
which did much damage, but St. Albans did not suffer so much as
other parts of the county. In the evening the storm was renewed.
On the afternoon of Saturday the 24th there was another thunder-
storm, but it was not severe at St. Albans.

SEPTEiiBEii. — An unprecedentedly warm month, with a very
great daily range of temperature, a rather dry atmosphere of very
high pressure, an exceedingly bright sky, and a very small rainfall
on very few days. Coldest clay 21st, mean 52°*6; warmest day
27th, mean 68°-4. Min. below 52° on 14 days; max. above 62°
on 29 days (every day but I'ith), above 72° on 16 days. Nearly
all the rain in the month was due to a thunderstorm early in the
morning of Saturday the 7th, 0'66 in. then falling, while only 0-06
fell during the rest of the month, on 10th, 18th, and 19th. The
mean temperature of September exceeded the average for any of
the three summer months for the previous eight years at St. Albans.
The last nine days had the very high mean temperature of 64°-4,
and on each of these days the sky was absolutely cloudless at 9 a.m.

October. — Very cold, with an average daily range of tempera-
ture, a rather dry atmosphere of nearly average pressure, a sky of
average brightness, and a little less than the average rainfall on
the usual number of days. Coldest day 26th, mean 39° 8 ; warmest
day 1st, mean 62°-3. Min. below 42° on 17 clays, below 32° on 7
(2^lth to 3(ith) ; max. above 52° on 17 days, above 62° on 2 (1st
and 3rd). The first half of the month was much warmer than the
second half, the mean temperature from 1st to 15th being 51°0

92 J. HOPKINSON — METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

(9 a.m. o0°-3, min. 44°-0, max. 57°-8), and from 16tli to 31st
40°-3 (9 a.m. 3y°-5, min. 34°-5, max. 47°-0). The week from
24tli to 30tli was ver^ cold, having a mean temperature of 35°-8,
and the minimum in the shade sinking every night to below
freezing-point, which is unprecedented for October on so many
consecutive nights. Most of the rain fell duiing the first half of
the month, the fall from 1st to loth being 2'15ins., and from 16th
to 31st 0-46 in.

XovEMBEK. — A warm month, with an average daily range of
temperature, a humid atmosphere of average pressure, a cloudy
sky, and a very heavy rainfall on a large number of days. Coldest
days 18th, mean 38°-l, 24th, mean 38° 2, and 27th, mean 38°-2 ;
warmest day 16th, mean 54°-l. Min. below 42° on 19 days, below
32° on 3 (18th, 19th, and 27th) ; max. above 52° on 13 days, above
62° on one day (16th). The mean temperature was exactly the
same as in October, the month being as much warmer than the
average as October was colder. Rain fell daily from 3rd to 15th,
to the amount of 2 "97 ins. There was a display of the aurora
borealis on the evening of the 9th.

December. — A rather warm month, with an average daily range
of temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and rather low
pressure, a sky of average brightness, and about an average rainfall
on a large number of days. Coldest day J 1th, mean 30°-0 ;
warmest days 30th, mean 49°'0, and 31st, mean 49°-2. Min.
below 42° on 28 days (every day but 6th, 30th, and 31st), below
32° on 12 days; max. above 42° on 18 days, above 52° on 3 (4th,
5th, and 30th). A lunar halo was observed between 5.30 and
6 p.m. on the 1st. There was a gale of wind during the night of
the 4th-5th, exceptionally strong early in the morning.

vrii.

CLDIATOLOGICAL OBSERYATIOXS TAKEX IN HERTFORDSHIRE

IN THE YEAR 1895.

By JoHi\ HoPKiifsojf, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

Read at Watford, 2\st April, 1896.

PLATE II.

This is the ninth annual report of observations made at our five
Climatological Stations, and comprises the usual series of tables.

The mean temperature of Hertfordshire in 1895, deduced from
these observations, was 0°-2 above that of the previous eight years,
and 0°-7 below the mean of 1882-86. The year was therefore of
about an average temperature. The mean daily range was great,
being 1°"3 above the mean of 1887-94, and 1°'0 above that of
1882-86. The extreme range was great, owing to the very low
temperature (1°*0) recorded at Xew Barnet in February. The air
was drier and the sky brighter than usual. The rainfall was rather
small and on much less than the usual number of days. Boyston
as usual had the highest temperature and New Barnet the greatest
range.

The observations are made at 9 a.m., the maximum temperature
and the rainfall being entered to the previous day.

BOYSTON.

(London Boad.)

Latitude : 52° 2' 34" N. Longitude : 0° 1' 8" W. Altitude :

301 feet.
Observer: Hale Wortham, F.R.Met.Soc.

Months

Temperature of the Air

3

0

1

3

Rain

Means

Extremes

-4-9

n
3
0

S

<

a
0

Mean

Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

o

32-4

28-2

43-1
488

55-8
60-4

617
63-1
617
46-3
46-5
387

0

27-5
20-9
34-8
39-3
437
480

50-9
530
50-2

39-3
40-4

33-8

0

372
35-4

584
67-9
727

725
732
73-2
53-4
52-6

43 "5

0

97

14-5
i6-6
19-1
24-2
247

21-6

20 2
230
14-1
122
97

0
164

3-5
23-2
27-9

327
361
45-2

43-3
366
26-1
280
20 0

0
49-1

45-1
611

69-9
85-9
83-8

84-5
8i-i

81 -2

737
63-1
550

85-9

7o
87
80

85
82
70

75
76
81

85
92
87

6-8
5-4
6-9
5-9
4-8
5-9
67
6-2
2-6
6-9
70
7-6

ins.

2-45

■22

I -Si

•66

•39

3-84

512

79
1-99

3 '28
1-52

21

4
16

9

7
6

14

15

4

17

19

14

Year

489

40 2

57-6

174

3-5

81 6-1

22 '90 146

94

J. HOPKINSON — CLIMATOLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS

BEEKHAMSTED.

(Eosebank.)
latitude: 51° 45' 40" N. Longitude : 0° 33' 30" W. Altitude

400 feet.
Observer: Edward Mawley, Pres.R.Met.Soc.

Months

Temperature of the Air

"b

0

f— 1

1

0

P
0

Eain

Means

Extremes

0

a

Q

Mean

Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Jau

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

0

317

27-8
42-4

47-5
54-3
586
61 0
6i-i
60 -6
45 'o
45-8
38-5

0

26-8
21 -o
34'8
39'i
43 'o
46-8
51-8
52-2

48-5
37'2
40-0

337

0

36-6
346

49 '9
56 0
65-6

70 '4
70-2
699

727

52-9
51-5
43 4

0

9-8

I3'6

151
169

22"6
23-6
18-4
177
24*2
157

ii'5
97

0

15-5

7-5

22-5

29 2

35 '3
36-4
43 "4
427

35-8

237
26-9

20-8

0

49 '2
45'i

63 -2
64 0
82-9

8o-i

802

79-2

82-2

71-8
61 -8
54'6

7o
94
76

88
80
67

65
70

75
80

88

92

93

81

8-3
7-2

7-6
7-2
4-3
57
7'5
5-8
4-8
7'3

8'5

ins.

3-12

•19
I '64
165

■54

•45
4-53
3-89

•91

2-95
4'53

2-22

22

4
18

14

5

8

12

19

6

16

19
20

Year

47 "9

39 -6

561

16-5

7'5

82-9

6-9

26-62

•63

8T. ALBANS.

(The Grange.)

Latitude: 51° 45' 9" N. Longitude: 0° 20' 1" W. Altitude

380 feet.

Observer: John Hophinson, F.R.Met.Soc.

Temperature of the Air

S

0

T

0

P
0

5

Rain

Mouths

Means

Extremes

0
P
0

S

-A

1-

0

Mean

Min.

Max. 1 Range

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

0

32-3
287
41-8

47 '5
54'5
59'3
60 -8
61 -2
6i-5
457
457
38-3

°
27-8

22-6
34-3

39 '6
44 '2
486
52-6

53'i
508

39 '2

39 '9

33-1

0

36-8
34-8
49 3
55 4
64-9
69-9
69 0
69 2
72-3

52 '2
51-5

43 '5

0
90

12-2
15-0

158
207

21-3

16-4

i6-i

215
13-0

II-6

io"4

0

156
lo-i

239
30-5
35 -o
34-8
46 I

44 9

42-2

26-2

30'7
238

0

50-0
44-8
580
64-8
82-3
80-5
800
79 -o
81-9
71-8
62-5
546

°l

/o

90

73
88
82
72
67
li
77
81

85
91
89

8-3
6-2

7 "2

6-8
4-8
4 '9
67
57
37
6-6
7-8
67

ins.
2-50

•18
1-68
I 32

•50
•39

4-95

4-12

72

2-6i

4 '49
2-14

24
5

17
13

5
6

14
18

4

15
21

19

Year

48-1

40-5

557

I5'2

lo-i

823

81

6-3

25 60

161

TAKEN IX HERTFOEDSHIEE IN 1895.

95

BENNINGTON".

(Bennington Lodge.)

Latitude: 51° 53' 45" N

407 feet
Observer: Bev. J. D. Parker, LL.D., F.R.Met.Soc

Longitude : 0° 5' 20" W. Altitude

Months

Temperature of the Air

a

©

I
0

f

0

r— t

Q

Eain

Means

Extremes

a
p

0

a

<

1
«

22

8

17

13

6

7
15
14

5
16

20
17

Mean

Min. Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept.

0

31-6
28-2

42-3
47-5
53-9
59 -o
6i-i
6i-i
6i-i

45-6
45-6

38-1

0

27-3
22-3

34-9
39-3
43-3
48-0
52-0
529

50-5
386

39-9
33-5

0

35-8
34-1
497
55-8
64-4
701
70-1
69-4
717

52-5
51-3
42-8

0

8-5
1 1 -8
14-8
i6-5

2I'I
22-1

i8-i

I6-5

21-2
139

ii'4

9-3

0

17-3

97

23 '6

30-9
35-8
37 -o
44-8
43-8
409

25-9
287
21 "9

0
50*2

44 "4
6i-i
647

8i-3
81 -o
79-9

79 9
8o-i
72-2
628
54-5

7o
91
77

88
80
69
64
68

77
78

85
90

91

8-6
7-1

8-5
77
5-0
6-6

7-4
57
5-3
77
7-9
8-1

ins.

2-17
•27

1-68

I'll
•47
•35

4 -06

3-37
•96

2-IO

3-65
I -81

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year 47-9

40-2

55-6

15-4

97

81 -3

80

7-1

22 00

i6o

NEW BARNET.

(Gas Works.)
Latitude: 51° 39' 5" N. Longitude: 0° 10' 15" W. Altitude

212 feet.
Observer : T. R. Martin, C.E.

Months

Temperature of the Air

a

0

1

Eain

Means

Extremes

c
p
0

a

a

a

14
3

14
9
3
4

II

17

2
II
17

14

119

Mean

Min.

Max. Range

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

0

31 "9
27-4
41-9

477
54*4
59-2

62'2

61-5
59-8
450

45'i
379

0

26-2
i8-6
32-4
369
408

447
507
50-5
45 "o
35-5
38-3
323

0

37-6
36-1
51-5
58-4
68 -o

737
737
72-5
747
54-4
51-9
43-5

0

II -4

17-5
191

21-5
27 2
29-0
23 0
22 -o

297
18-9

13-6

1 1 -2

0

9-0
10

175
24-8
31-0
318
38-0
38-0

32-5
160
24-0
170

0
520

46 '2
63 0
67-0

86-8

847
83-0
83-0

84-5
74-3
63-2
58-0

/o

88
78
86
81

74
72
70
76
84
89
87
88

7-0

5-9

6-0
67
45
57
61

5-6

3-1
6-6

7-0
7-3

ins.

I 89
•17

1*64

i-i6
■40
•30

4 '03
3-09

1-28

2-66
4-42
2-i8

Year

47-8

376

58-0

20 '4

I"0

86-8

81

6-0 23-22

96

J. HOPKINSON — CITMATOLOGICAL OBSEBVATIOXS.

HERTFORDSHIRE.

Means of Cliraatological Observations (with extremes of tempera-
ture) in 1895, at Royston, Berkhamsted, St. Albans, Bennington,
and New Barnet.

Months

Temperature of the Air

©

s

Kain

Means

Extremes

a
0
S

CO

>%

OS

21

5

16
12

S
6

13
17
4
15
19
17

150

Mean

Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April ....

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

o

32-0

28-1

42-3

478

54-6

59-3
61-4
6r6
60 9
45-5
457
38-3

0

27-1
2ri

34-3
38-8

43 "o
47-2
5i'6

52-4
49 'o
38-0
397
33-3

0
36-8

35-0
50-4
56-8
66-2

71-4
7I-I
70-9
72-9

53'i

51-8
43-3

0

97
13-9
i6-i
i8-o
23-2
24-2
19-5
i8-5

23-9
15-1

I2-I
lO'O

0

9-0
10

17-5
24-8
31-0
31-8
38-0
380

32-5
i6-o

24*0
1 70

i-o

0

520
46-2
63-2
69-9
86-8
847

84-5
83-0

84-5
74-3
63-2
58-0

7o
90

77
87
81
70
69
71
77
80
86
90
90

7-8
6-4
7-2
6-9
47
5-8
6-9
5-8
3 9
7-0
7-6
7-6

ins.

2-43

•21

1-69

1-23

4-28
3-92

•93
2-46
4-07
1-97

Year ....

48-1

39-6

56-6

170

86-8

81

6-5

24-08

Results of Climatological Observations, 1887-94.

Stations.

Temperature of the Air

0
rH

1
0

s
0

5

Rain

Means

Extremes

4^

1
S

02

OJ

Mean

Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Royston

0

486
47-6

47-9
47 '6
477

0

40-5
39-9
407
40-4
38-6

0

567
55-2
55 -o
54-8
56-9

0
16-2
153
143
14-4

i8-3

0

4'3
10-8
10-9
107

4-0

0

93-0
91-0
91-0
90-9
94*5

94*5

7°
83

P
83
81

83

6-2

7-1
67

7-3
6-2

ins.
22 08
25-98
26-8S
24-40
2388

162
181
186
190
144

Berkhamsted ....

St. Albans

Bennington

New Barnet ....

County

47-9

40 0

557

157

4-0

83 , 67

24-64

173

IX.

REPORT OX PnEXOLOGICAL PHENOMENA OBSERVED IN
HERTFORDSHIRE DURING THE YEAR 1895.

By Edward Mawley, Pres.R.Met.Soc, F.R.H.S.,
Phenological Recorder to the Royal Meteorological Society.

Mead at Watford, 2\st April, 1896.

The only alteration in the list of observing stations since the
last report was issued, is the addition of a new one, that at
"Wormley near Broxbourne, in which locality an observer was then
much wanted. At the present time the only parts of the county
where observers are still required, in order to make the organization
complete, are those in the neighbourhood of Bishop Stortford in the
east and of Buntingford in the north-east.

The following table gives the names of the localities represented,
their approximate heights above sea-level, and the names of the
observers : —

Station.

Watford (The Platts)

Radlett (Xewberries)

St. Albans (The Grange)

St. Albans (Addiscombe Lodge)

St. Albans (Worley Road)

Berkhamsted (Rosebank)

Harpenden

Broxbourne ("Wormley)

Hatfield (Symonds Hyde)

Hertford

Hitchin

Ashwell (Odsey)

Height above

Sea -level.

240 feet.

320 „

380

400

300

400

370

120

300

140

230

260

Observer.

Mrs. G. E. Bishop.
Miss E. M. Lubbock.
Mrs. J. Hopkinson.
Miss E. E. Smith.
Henry Lewis.
Mrs. E. Mawley.
J. J. Willis.
Miss L. Warner.
T. Brown.
W. Graveson.
J. E. Little, M.A.
H. G. Fordham.

The "Winter of 1894-5.

December proved a very mild winter month, but throughout
the rest of the season singularly cold weather prevailed. To
give some idea of the persistent character of the cold, it may be
mentioned that between the 21st of January and the 21st of
February, or for a month, there did not occur at Berkhamsted
a single night when the minimum thermometer in shade failed
to register a temperature below the freezing-point. The frost,
however, was not only continuous, but also, at times, remarkably
severe. For instance, on four consecutive nights in February,
a thermometer exposed on the surface of the snow showed from
33 to 34 degrees of frost. The ground, although covered Avith
a layer of snow from two to four inches deep during the three

98

E. MAWLEi' — PHENOLOGICAL PHENOMENA

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100 E. MAWLEY — PHENOLOGICAL PHENOMENA

coldest weeks of tlie winter, became frozen to a very unusual
depth. Even under grass the soil was at one time found to be
at a freezing temperature twenty inches beneath the surface.

Owing to the unseasonable mildness and wetness of the late
autumn and early winter, there was a plentiful supply of keep
on the farms for cattle and sheep until very nearly the end of
December ; but throughout the prolonged fi'ost that followed, the
growth of the grass and young wheat was completely arrested.
All the swedes and turnips remaining in the fields were destroyed,
also the winter supply of green vegetables in the gardens. Half-
hardy shrubs suffered severely; while the commons presented a
very forlorn appearance, owing to the winter frosts having killed
all the spines upon the gorse, as well as many of the bushes.

Mrs. Mitchell reports that at "Watford the laurels and bays were
very severely injured ; Miss Lubbock that at Radlett the laurestinus
and laurel were severely nipped, also beans, oats, etc., where not
sufficiently covered by snow ; Mr. Henry Lewis that in his garden
at St. Albans the green vegetables were nearly all killed, a few
wretched remnants of sprouting brocoli only remaining ; and
Miss L. Warner that at Wormley the gorse had suffered greatly.

The Spring.

This was a very warm and dry season. The most noteworthy
meteorological features affecting vegetation were — (1) the absence
of anything like severe cold, the exposed thermometer at no time,
after the tirst few nights in March, showing more than eleven
degrees of frost, (2) the scanty rainfall, particularly in May, and
(3) the remarkable duration of sunshine in that month.

Until the diy weather began to make itself felt in the pastures,
this was a very favourable spring indeed for the farmer. The land,
owing to the beneficial effect upon it of the prolonged frost, was
in splendid working condition. Indeed, seldom have spring com
and other seeds been sown with as little trouble, and on so
satisfactory a seed-bed. Towards the end of the season, however,
the check caused by the dryness of the soil was beginning to cause
serious apprehensions.

For some time after the long winter frost had come to an end
the ground remained very cold. It is therefore not surprising
to find that all the early spring flowers were singularly late
in making their appearance. Our observer at Hertford, Mr.
Graveson, regards this retardation of the blossoming of the earliest
native plants as " the most remarkable feature of the year." " By
the end of March," he says, "I had only observed half as many
flowers in bloom as in either of the two previous years at the same
time." The average date for the first flowering of the hazel in the
previous nineteen years is January 27th, but last year the fertile
flowers did not make their appearance until March 11th, or forty-
tliree days late. The coltsfoot was twenty-two days later than the
moan date, the wood-anemone seventeen days late, and the black-
thorn nineteen days late. From that time, the end of the third

OBSEETED IX HEHTFOnDSHIKE 1^1895. 101

week iu April, the previous ■warm weather, although there had
been a marked deficiency of sunshine, began at last to inci'ease
perceptibly the underground temperature. This is shown by the
next plant on the list, the garlic hedge-mustard, which was only
four days behind its average time of coming into flower. The
horse-chestnut was a week earlier and the hawthorn a day earlier
than their respective means, while the white ox-eye was only two
days late.

The thrush, taking all the stations reporting upon it, was first
heard on February 25th, or forty days behind its average date for
the county. All the spring migrants on the list arrived at about
their usual time, the swallow being one day late, the cuckoo one
day early, and the flycatcher two days late.

The honey-bee was not seen to visit flowers until March 17th,
or forty- seven days later than usual. Wasps, however, made their
appearance only two days late. The small white butterfly was
eight days late, while the orange-tip butterfly, judging by the only
two records sent in, was ten days late.

Several observers remark on the very scanty show of blossom
on the hawthorn, "some of the bushes," as stated by Miss Warner,
" being without a single bud."

My report would not be complete without some mention of the
strong gale of March 24th ; but, as this has been dealt with in
a separate paper by Mr. John Hopkinson,* I will only state here
that this gale appears to have been as severely felt in Hertford-
shire as in almost any part of the country. The velocity of the
wind on that occasion was the greatest that has as yet been recorded
by my anemograph since it was first erected at Berkhamsted in the
spring of 1885. Mr. Little, writing from Hitchin, states that he
saw four trees, all elms, uprooted in a quarter of an hour, and
that he counted thirty-six trees (elms, a few poplars, and one ash)
which had been blown down within a comparatively small area.
He adds that a friend counted fifty- six uprooted trees in the same
locality — between Hitchin and Arlesey.

The Summer.

Throughout the first half of the season the weather continued
very warm and dry, but during the second half the temperatures
were, as a rule, rather low for the time of year, and the rainfall
was exceptionally heavy. In order to give some idea as to the
trying nature of the drought, which may be said to have lasted
from the end of April until the middle of July, to all but
deep-rooted plants, I may state that for seven consecutive weeks
not a di'op of rain-water came through the two and a half feet
of soil in either of my percolation- gauges — one containing the
heaviest, and the other the lightest soil of the district. Then,
as giving some explanation of the surprising nature of the change
that took place when the rainy period set in, it should be mentioned

* ' Transactious,' Vol. YIII, p. 199.

102 E. MAWXEY — PnENOLOGICAL PHENOMENA.

that by Midsummer-day — that is to say, only a week after the
drought came to an end — ten gallons of water had passed through
the gauge containing heavy soil, and 8^ gallons through the light-
soil gauge. Both gauges are a yard square.

Owing to the continued dry weather the grass made scarcely
any growth. Consequently the crop of hay proved extremely
light, but, where cut in good time, of excellent quality. Both
on the farms and in the gardens, seeds of all kinds in many cases
failed to germinate. The pastures became very dry and bare,
and the wheat and other cereals made, as a rule, but little progress.
As is usual under such conditions, crops growing on deep and
retentive soils fared much better than those on light and shallow
ones. The effect of the heavy rains which set in shortly after
the middle of July, was almost immediately apparent on the grass
lands, which were soon clothed with luxuriant herbage, while
the turnips and swedes were also greatly benefited. But the
change unfortunately came too late for the corn, although even
here some good was also done. The harvest began early, but was
frequently inteiTupted by rain.

Mr. Willis states that at Harpenden "the first ear of wheat
was fully out on June 8th." The frost which occurred on the
night of June 14th ''injured scarlet-runners and potatoes in places
at Odsey." Much of the young bracken was also killed on Berk-
ham sted Common. From two districts reports were received of
the foliage of trees being injured by caterpillars. Mr. T. Brown
writes that great damage was done in the neighbourhood of Hitchin
by caterpillars in some of the woods, " Oak, hornbeam, and hazel
were chiefly attacked, while beech is almost uninjured. Some of
the oaks are as bare as in midwinter." Miss Warner states that
" the hornbeams on Broxbourne Common were nearly bare, and
quite brown instead of green, in consequence of the frost."

All the plants on the list which flowered during the summer
were in advance of their average dates, the dog-rose being two days
early, black knapweed and harebell five days early, and the greater
bindweed seven days early.

The Atjttjmn.

Both September and November were unusually warm. On the
other hand, during the greater part of October the temperature
remained low. There was but little rain in the early part of the
season, but November proved exceptionally wet. The record
of bright sunshine in September was singularly good.

Harvest operations were greatly hindered by the stormy weather
in Aiigust, and mnch of the corn was in consequence gathered in
in a more or less unsatisfactory condition. The yield of all the
cereals was, moreover, very poor, being lighter than in any recent
year with the exception of 1893. In fact, the only satisfactory
farm-crop was that of potatoes, which proved abundant. The
grass grew rapidly during the rainy period of July and August,

OBSEEVED IN HERTFORDSHIRE IN 1895. 103

and whore a second crop of hay vras taken the yield was remarkably
good. With the exception of the dry period in September, when
the grass was beginning to look quite brown again, there was
always abundant keep in the pastures until the close of the year.

Apples proved a heavy crop, and there was also a good yield
of strawberries, raspberries, and currants, but there were com-
paratively few pears or plums.

Instances of second flowering and fruiting were very numerous.
Mr. "Willis, writing from Harpenden, remarks that " a characteristic
of this season was the second blossoming of many fruit trees and
wild plants. On the same trees were observed ripening apples and
blossoms, the wild rose had red berries, flowering buds, and open
blooms, and many fully-ripe strawberries were gathered at the
beginning of October." Air. A. E. Gibbs mentions the second
blossoming of several spring-flowering perennials at St. Albans, and
the unusual circumstance of the Jerusalem artichoke perfecting its
flowers. As regards injurious insects, he states that "the winter of
1894-5, though so severe, seems to have had little effect upon
insect-life so far, at any rate, as common garden pests are concerned.
I have found them more numerous than ever. The dahlias had
an exceptionally bad time with the earwigs, while my lawn has
been ruined by what I believe to be daddy-long-legs grubs ; such
soft-bodied things as slugs have been also very numerous and
destructive this year." I^ot only was the tipula grub destructive
at St. Albans, but Mr. John Hopkinson, writing on September 25th,
remarks that the crane-fly {^Tipula olcracea) was also unusually
abundant there. The same thing was likewise noticed at Berk-
hamsted about that time.

The ivy, owing no doubt to the great heat of the weather
in September, came into flower a fortnight before its usual time.

X.

LIST OF MOSSES COLLECTED IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF

HERTFORD.

By Hugh D.oiton.

Communicated, with an Introduction, by James Saunders.

Read at Watford, 2\st April, 1896.

The following list of mosses collected by Mr. Hugh Darton, of
Beninghoe, Hertford, forms an interesting addition to our know-
ledge of the distribution of these plants in Hertfordshire. It
shows careful work, especially amongst the minute forms, such
as Pottia and SphcBrangium, and also the difficult genus Barhula.
It contains about twenty species additional to those enumerated
in the list furnished to the Society by Mr, A. E. Gibbs, which
appeared in Vol. Ill, Part 2 (1884), of its 'Transactions.' These
additions are indicated by an asterisk.

All the specimens on which records are founded have passed
through the hands of the writer, and any critical species have
been submitted to specialists for an authoritative opinion.

It would appear from an examination of all the lists of Herts
mosses known to myself, that the SplmgnacecE. are rare in the
county. Sphagmim suhsecundum, S. contortum, and S. cymhifolium
seem to exhaust the list. Mr. Darton writes that the first is still
to be found on Hertford Heath, whence Coleman recorded it. It
is desirable to obtain confirmations of Webb and Coleman's records
for S. sqtinrrosum and S. acutifoliuni. As both of these occur in
Beds and Bucks, it is highly probable that they also grow in
Herts. Those interested in the cryptogamic flora would, no doubt,
be amply rewarded by searching for them. Some ten years ago
the scrub of Bricket Wood was rich in forms of S. stcbsecmidum,
but in a recent visit to the spot it was noticed that the bog-mosses
were fast disappearing. Those members of the Society who reside
near Berry Grove Wood and Little Berkhamsted would find these
localities worthy of careful investigation for the Sphagnacece.

The records sent by Mr, Darton are all for the Lea division of
the county. The actual specimens are in his possession, and he
will gladly show them to anyone interested in these plants,

ACEOCAEPI,

Weissia viridida, Brid. — Bank by road to Reformatory, Bengeo,
April, '94 (fertile). Bank by footpath between Foxleys Wood and
Stapleford Church, April, '94 (fertile). Bank by Hertingfordbury
Road, March, '92 (fertile). Bank between Stapleford and Waterford,
March, '92 (fertile). Bank by Sacombe Road, March, '92 (fertile).

/r. cirrhata, Hedw. — Palings skirting Bayfordbury Park, by
Bayford Road, 1.H88 (fertile). Tree trunk near Baas Hill, Brox-
boarne, April, '92 (fertile). Palings by footpath between North

MOSSES COLLECTED NEAR HEKTFOED. 105

Eoad and "Watci-ford Marsh, near Geldings, Marcli, '92 (fertile).
Eottcn wood, Mangrove Lane, March, '92 (fertile). Palings by
farmyard, Eriekcndonbury, February, '94 (fertile).

DirraneUa laria, Hedw. — Clay suil, Brickendou Lane, March, '92
(fertile). Clay soil, Waterford Marsh, December, '92 (fertile).

'^' Campylopus pijrifomus, Brid. — Peaty soil in woods bordering
Pembridge Lane, April, '87 (fertile).

Pleuridium nitiduin, Hedw.— Margin of pond, Bedwell Park,
Essendon, October, '94 (fertile). Margin of pond between Pryors
Wood and Goldings Wood, Hertford Heath, September, '94 (fertile).

^Sjiharangium midicum, Schreb. — Old ant-heaps, Brickendon
Fields, October, '94 (fertile). Fallow field, Chapmore End,
January, '94 (fertile).

Poftia minutula, Schwg. — Fallow soil near Mole wood Mill,
March, '92 (fertile).

*/*. cavifolia. — Hertingfordbury Eoad, Hertford, February, '94
(fertile).

*P. intermedia, Turn. — Fallow field by St. John's Wood, Chap-
more End, January, '94 (fertile). Fallow soil near Molewood
Mill, March, '93 (fertile). Sandy bank by North Eoad, near
"Jacob's Ladder," November, '93 (fertile). Bank between
Waterford and Bull's Mill, December, '93 (fertile).

*P. Star/ccana, Hedw.— Fallow field by St. John's Wood, Chap-
more End, January, '94 (fertile). Fallow field between Cole Green
and Essendon, October, '94 (fertile). Bank between Waterford and
Bull's Mill, December, '93 (fertile).

Bidymodon ruheUus, B. & S. — Tree trunks, Panshanger Park,
on slope towards Birch Green, July, '85 (fertile).

*i). sinuostis, Wils. — Tree trunk between Bengeo Hall and AVare
Park, February, '94 (barren).

'^'Barhula cuneifoUa, Dicks. — Bank by Hertingiordbury Eoad,
December, '93 (barren).

*JB. marginata, B. & S. — Brickwork by bridge over "old"
Eiver Eib near Bengeo Gate of Ware Park, February, '94 (fertile).

*5. rigidula, Dicks. — Wall near Bengeo Cottage, January, '93
(barren).

£. revoluta, Schwg. — Wall in field between "old" and "new"
Eiver Eib, Bengeo, March, '93 (fertile).

^B. Brchissoni, Brid. — Eotting willow stump, osier island,
Ware Park Fields, December, '93 (barren).

B. Iceripila, Brid. — Stump by "new" Eiver Eib near Westmill,
March, '93 (fertile). Tree trunks on slope towards Birch Green,
Panshanger Park, July, '85 (barren). Tree trunk near Waterford
Hall, March, '92 (barren). Tree trunk near Hertingfordbury Gate,
Panshanger Park, March, '92 (barren). Willow trunk, Ware Park
Fields, November, '93 (fertile). Tree trunk on right of road to
Sacombe near lane to Chapmore End, January, '94 (fertile). Tree
trunks, Tewin Water Park, April, '94 (fertile).

^B. latifolia, B. & S. — Eotting trunks by river Lea outside
Woolmers, October, '94 (barren). Eotting trunks by ditch. Ware

VOL. IX. — PART III. 8

106 H. DAKTOJf — IIST OF MOSSES

Park Fields, February, '94 (barren). Rotting wood by Eiver Eib
between Westmill and Bengeo, March, '92 (barren).

Grimmia apocarpa, L. — Stonework of bridge on North Road,
near Molewood, July, '86 (fertile). Roof of stable, Molewood Mill,
February, '92 (fertile).

^Zygodon viridissimus, Dicks. — Tree trunk near Bengeo Hall,
February, '94 (barren). Stump in hedge, Bayford, January, '94
(barren). Tree trunks, Tewin Water Park, April, '94 (barren).

Orihotrichim affine, Schrad. — Alder trunk, Panshanger Park,
July, '85 (fertile). Rotting wood, Waterford Marsh, March, '92
(fertile). Stump in lane between Bramfield and Marden Hill,
March, '92 (fertile).

0. Lyellii, H. & T. — Trunks of poplars at Poplar Green,
Tewin, in extraordinary abundance, 1887 (barren).

'^Ephemerum serratum, Schreb. — Fallow fields between Bengeo
and Chapmore End, October, '94 (fertile).

'^'Phjficomitrella patens, Hedw. — Mud dredged from affluent of
Manifold Ditch, King's Meads, December, '93 (fertile). Mud
dredged from ditch, Waterford Marsh, extremely abundant,
November, '93 (fertile).

'^Funaria fascicularis, Dicks. — Fallow field between Bengeo and
Chapmore End, January, '94 (fertile).

Bariramia pomiformis, L. — Banks by roadside between Bramfield
and Bull's Green, nearest the latter, March, '92 (fertile). Bank in
Thieves Lane, near Bramfield Road, December, '85 (barren). Sandy
bank, Hertford Heath, May, '85 (fertile). Bank by roadside above
Stapleford, April, '94 (fertile).

Philonotis fontana. — Near Chadwell, April, '85 (barren).

"^Leptobryum pyriforme, L. — Sandy soil on old willow stump
on east side of River Beane below St. Leonards, April, '94
(fertile).

JVeiera carnea, L. — Clay bank of River Beane near Ware Park
Mill, May, '94 (fertile). Clay bank by River Beane, Waterford
Marsh, April, '94 (fertile).

Bryum atropurpureum, W. & M. — Lawn at Beninghoe, April, '94
(fertile).

B. pseudo-triquetrum, Hedw. — Ditch between the Lock and
River Beane, King's Meads, December, '93 (barren).

Aulacomnium audrogymim, L. — Rotting stump between St.
Margarets and Hertford Heath, August, '93 (barren). Banks,
Broxbourne Woods, April, '92 (barren). Bank in copse between
Bengeo Hall and Bengeo (Cottage, February, '92 (barren). Rotten
wood on trees near Bengeo Gate of Ware Park, March, '92 (barren).
Banks by roadside between Bramfield and Bull's Green, March, '92
(barren).

A. palustre, L. — By margin of " Utricularia Pond," Broxbourne
Common, April, '92 (barren).

Atrichum undulatum, L., var. minor. — Gravelly soil, Foxleys
Wood, Stapleford, March, '92 (fertile). Between Bramfield and
Bull's Mill, March, '92 (fertile).

COLLECTED NEAR HEKTFORD. 107

Pogonatiim aloides, Hedw. — Ditch sides and banks, Hertford
Heath, April, '85 (fertile).

AlTPHOCARPI.

*Fissidens incunnis, W. & M. — Brickendon Lane, February, '94
(fertile).

'^F. vin'duhcs, Wils. — Near Bull's Mill, Hertford, December, '93
(fertile).

F. adiantoides, Hedw. — Fallow soil on graves, Tewin Church-
yard, April, '94 (barren). Bank in Warren, near St. Leonard's,
Bengeo, February, '92 (barren). Chalk slope at Chadwell (? var.
collinus), Decembei', '93 (barren).

PLETJROCARPr.

Leslcea pohjcarjya, Ehrh. — Bank of River Lea, near Eoxford Farm,
March, '92 (fertile). Stump by ditch, Waterford Marsh, March, '92
(fertile). Stumps, osier island, Ware Park Fields, December, '93
(fertile). Trees by ditch, Ware Park Fields, February, '94.

CUmacium dendroides, L. — King's Meads, on edge of ditch where
Allium vineale grows, almost extinct, the situation being too dry,
December, '93 (barren). Boggy field near Roxford Farm, March,
'88 (barren). Island near Poplar Green Gate, Panshanger Park,
March, '92 (barren).

Isothecium mi/urum, Poll. — Stumps, Little Molewood, April, '85
(fertile). Stumps, Broxbourne Woods, April, '92 (barren). Stumps,
Brickendon Lane, March, '92 (barren). Hedge-bank, near Bram-
field, towards Bull's Green, March, '92 (barren). Tree trunks,
slope towards Birch Green, Panshanger Park, August, '85 (fertile).
Stumps, Foxley's Wood, Stapleford, March, '92 (barren).

Campfothecium lutescens, Huds. — Gravelly soil by North Road,
Hertford, March, '92 (barren). Chalk-pit behind Hertford Union,
1885 (barren). Bank on left of lane to Brickendon, 1887 (barren).

Brachyihecimn glareosum, B. & S. — Roadside, Gallows Plain,
November, '85 (fertile).

B. albicans, Neck. — By footpath, between North Road and
Wateriord Marsh, near Goldings, March, '92 (barren).

EurhyncJiium Sivartzii, Turn. — Osier island. Ware Park Fields,
March, '92 (barren). Marshy soil by ditch-side between Tewin
Water Park and Panshanger Park, May, '90 (barren). By foot-
path between Waterford Marsh and North Road, near Goldings,
1891 (fertile).

E. pumilum, Wils. — Brickendon Lane, 1887 (barren).

Rhynchostegium confertum, Dicks. — Hedge-bank near Sacombe
Road, February, '92 (fertile). Willow by river under Little
Molewood, March, '92 (fertile). By roadside, Gallows Plain, 1886
(fertile).

Plagiothecium undulatmn, L. — Panshanger Park, between the
"House" and Tewin Road Lodge, nearest former, March, '92
(barren).

108 MOSSES COLLECTED NEAE HERTFORD.

"'Amhhjstegium irriffuum, Wils. — Rotting woodwork by river,
T\'aterford Marsh, April, '94 (fertile).

Hijpnum aduncmn., Hedw. — King's Meads, July, '85 (barren).
Pond in copse, Mangrove Lane, June, '85 (barren).

*j^. adunciim, var. Kneiffii, Bry. Eur. — Ditch between the
Lock and Eiver Beane, King's Meads, March, '92 (barren),

H. filicinum, L. — Ditch near Balance House, King's Meads,
September, '94 (fertile).

*iZ! mollMscum, Hedw. — Damp furrows in Brickendon Fields,
!February, '87 (barren). Bank by road to Brickendon, near
Clements, July, '85 (barren).

H. clrywpliyllum^ Brid. — Chalk slope at Chadwell, December,
'93 (barren).

S. stellatum, Schreb. — Damp furrows in Brickendon Fields,
April, '87 (barren).

H. cordifoliiim, Hedw. — Ponds, Pryors "Wood, Hertford Heath,
February, '87 (barren).

H. Sckreheri, Ehrh. — Hertford Heath, August, '93 (barren).
Bull's Green, near Bramfield, March, '92 (barren). Roadside near
the "Oak," Panshanger Park, March, '92 (barren). Broxbourne
Woods, April, '94 (barren). Bedwell Park, Essendon, September,
'94 (barren).

Hylocomium splendens, Dill. — Bull's Green, near Bramfield,
March, '92 (barren). Island near Poplar Green Gate, Panshanger
Park, March, '92 (barren). Broxbourne Woods, April, '92 (barren).

H. triqueUmi, L. — Fir clump in Brickendon Fields, February, '87
(fertile). By footpath between Waterford Marsh and North Road,
near Goldings, March, '92 (barren). Bull's Green, near Bramfield,
March, '92 (barren). Chalk slope at Chadwell, December, '93
(barren).

XI.

EEPORT OX THE RAINFALL IN HERTFORDSHIRE IX

THE YEAR 1895.

Ey John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

Read at TFatford, 2Ut April, 1896.

ALTHoroH the number of our rainfall stations is the same as in
the last few years, namely 40, there are a few alterations in the
staif of observers. The usual return has not been received from
Oaklands, "Watford, owing to the record being incomplete, and
Cheshuut College disappears from our list, the observer there
having left the neighbourhood. On the other hand we have, a new
station at Northchurch, near Berkhamsted, and another at Saw-
bridgeworth. The latter is an important acquisition, for it is in
the river-district of the Stort, which has hitherto been entirely
unrepresented. The number of daily records received is 33, which
is two less than that for the previous year, but the same as that for
the year 1893.

Particulars of the 40 rainfall stations, and the monthly and total
rainfall and number of days in the year 1895 on which at least
0-01 inch of rain fell, or, when the measurement is taken to
thousandths of an inch, 0-005 inch, are given in Tables I and II,
pp. 111-113.

The following supplementary table (Table III) gives sis other
records of the rainfall in the year. Two of these are the records of
additional gauges at Rothamsted, and four are taken from ' British
RainfaU, 1894.'

Table III. — Supplemeijtaiiy xo Tables I a>'d II.

«

-^

s

4.

7.
8.

>>

9.

12.

Station.

Observer.

Gauge.

Rain-
fall.

Days.

183

140

157
141

138

Dia-
meter.

Height

above

Sea.

Trino;— Xew Mill

R. Leah

ins.

5

5
8
72x87
10
5

feet.
450
283
420
420

305
405

ins.
26-90
2590

25-37
27-16
24-30
25-28

Kind's Lanfflev

I. Butler

Harpenden — Rothamsted

Elstree— Aldenham House
WcItsth — Danesbury

(Sir J. Lawesaud)
(Sir H.Gilbert (

E. Beckett

A. M. Blake

The mean rainfall in the county in the year 1895 was 24-91
inches. This is 1-83 inch below the average for the decade
1880-89, and 1-52 inch below that for the half-century 1840-89.
The year was, therefore, rather a dry one. The number of wet
days was considerably less than usual, the average throughout the
county being 1 1 per cent, less than the mean during the 20 years
1870-89.

110 J. HOPKIKSON EEPOET ON THE

Tlie second half of the year is usually wetter than the first half,
hut this year the difference was very much greater than usual, only
6-84 inches, or 27^ per cent, of the year's rain, falling in the first
six months, while 18-07 inches, or 72 J per cent., fell in the last six
months. The only season which was wet was the summer, but the
first of the three summer months, June, was very dry. November
was a very wet month. While the three months, July, August, and
November, had excessive rainfall, the three months, February, May,
and June, were abnormally dry, the aggregate rainfall in the three
wet months being nearly ten times as much as in the three
dry ones.

Droughts in 1895. — Accepting as before the definitions of
Mr. Symons (in 'British Rainfall') of an "absolute drought"
as a period of more than 14 consecutive days without any rain, and
a " partial drought" as a period of more than 28 consecutive days
with an aggregate rainfall not exceeding O'Ol inch per day, there
were three absolute droughts in 1895, and two partial droughts.

The first absolute drought occurred at 22 out of the 33 stations
for which I have the daily rainfall, lasting for

22 clays, February 2 to February 23, at 10 stations.

21 ,, >> ^ )) >)

■^'- )) )> " )> >>

■1-9 5> >» " >> >>

^" )) >> ^ >> >>

16 ,, ,, 2 ,, ,,

15 ,, ,, 2 ,, ,,

15 ,, ,, D ,, ,,
The second absolute drought lasted for

19 davs, April 28 to May 16, at 2 stations.

16 .; May 1 „
1^ >) >> ^ it )}

The third lasted for

20 days, Sept. 11 to Sept. 30 at 2 stations.
19 12 - - -

15 ,, ,, 20 ,, October

The first partial drought prevailed at all stations, commencing
on the 2nd of February and lasting at most of the stations until the
5th of March, its average duration being about 33 days, and the
average rainfall 0-006 in. per diem. It lasted for at least

30 days, February 2 to March 3, at the 33 stations.

22

3

23

1

21

1

23

1

17

2

16

1

17

2

20

1

16,

at

2

16

)>

1

16

>>

9

30

at

2

30

)9

1

4

1 ^

1

32

2

5

29 of these.

35

2

8

2 >> })

45

2

18

■'■J) _ )»

37

January 28

5

4 stations.

40

„ 25

5

3 of these.

42

„ 23

5

■^ >> >>

RAINFALL IN nERTFOHDSHIRE FN 1895.

Ill

Table I. — Hertfordshire Hainfall Stations, 1895.

10.

>)
>>

12.

13.
))

14.

15.

16.

17.

)>

>>

18.

Station.

*Royston

*Odsey

Hitcliin— The Firs

* ,, Baucroft

The Maples .....

* ,, High Dowu

*Tring — Elm House

,, Pendley Manor

Cowroast

*Northchurch— The Limes...
*Berkhamst6d — Rosebank ..

* ,, Fairhill

*Great Gaddesden Vicarage...
*H. Hempstead — Apsley Mills

* „ Nash Mills..

*Kenswortli— The Grove ....

Harpenden — Eothamsted ..

*St. Albans — Gorhambury ...

* ,, The Grange ...

* Watford — Frograore

„ ColneVal.WaterWks.
*Ilickmansworth — Moor Park

*WelwTO Rectory

*Hatfield— Brocket Hall

*Datch worth Rectory

Hertford — Marden Hill

*Stevenage— "Weston Park ...

* ,, Bennington House ...

*Therfield Rectory

*Throcking Rectory

*Buutingf ord — Hamels Park

*Much Hadham

*Sawbridgeworth — Cowicks

*Hertf ord — Baj-f ordbury

*Ware — Red House

* ,, Fanhams Hall

*Broxbourne — Stafford House
*Chesliunt — Old Nursei'ies ...
*Xew Barnet — Gas Works ...
*Southgate — The La^vns

Observer.

Hale Wortham ....
H. George Fordham

AVilliam Lucas

Francis Ransom

William Hill

Joseph Pollard

E. J. Le Quesne
J. G. Williams..,

Gordon Thomas ....

F. L. Sutton

Edward Mawley ....
W. Bonner Hopkins

Rev. W. T. Drake .
J. Dickinson & Co. .

Miss S. Grace Jones
Lawes and Gilbert ...

W. Newberry

John Hopkinson

Artbur P. Blathwayt

William Yerini

Lord Ebury

Rev. Canon Wingfield
Lord Mount Stephen
Rev. J. Wardale ....
Richard Hoare

M. R. Pryor

Rev. Dr. Parker

Rev. J. G. Hale

Rev. C. W. Harvey...
E. Wallis

T. WoodhamMott ...

Harry W. Towse

W. Clinton Baker ..

Joseph Francis

Miss Joyce Croft

G. J. Newbery

Paul and Son

T.H.Martin

George A. Chiu-ch ..

Diameter

of
Gauge.

ins.

8

5
5
8

5

5
5

5
5
8

5

8
24

12

5
5
5
5

5
5
5

5
5

5
5

5
5
5

5
6

8

5
8

5

5
8

5

Height of Gauge
above

Ground. Sea-level

ft. ins.

0 6

1 o

2
O
I

I

I

2

I
I
I

I

O

3

I

o
I
I

8
o
o
o

o
9
9

o

9
o
o

I o

1 o

2 O

0 4

1 o

I o

O lO

0 8

1 o

4 3
I o
I o

o
o

I 2

0 9

1 o

I o

I o

o 9

0 6

ft.+

269 TF
256 /K

238 A
212 T

220 7i\

422 /[^
460

500 ?

394 L

400 ?

401 ^
550 T

427 /N
260

237"

630 B
420 T
423 T
380 /i\

182

220
340 ^K

228 T
250

386 T
257 T

470 T

408 /]\

500
484 T
400 T

222 B

240

250
112 T
253 T

118T
92 T
212

240 T

* Daily fall received for these stations.

t For explanation of these symbols see Vol. VII, p. 53.

112

J. HOPKINSON — EEPORT OX THE

Table II. — Rainfall in

EivER District.

f <] I. Ehee
1^3. Hiz

r§

} 4. Up,

m
c

a

CO

H

^.<

Thame

6. Bulbourne

7. Gade

8. Ver

10. Lo. Colne

12. Mimram

13. Beane

14. Rib

15. Ash

16. Stort

17. Upper Lea

18. Lower Lea

Station.

Eoyston..
Odsey

Hitchin— The Firs

, , Bancroft

,, The Maples ..
,, High Down..

Tring — Elm House

,, Pendley Manor

CowToast

Northchurch — The Limes
Berkhamsted — Rosebank
,, Fairhill ....

Great Gaddesden Vicarage

Hemel Hempstead — Apslev Mills
Nash Mills ....

Kensworth — The Grove ...
Harpenden — Rothamsted
St. Albans — Gorhambury
,, The Grange...

"Watford — Frogmore

,, Colne Valley Waterworks
Rickmansworth — Moor Park

"Welwyn Rectory

Hatfield— Brocket HaU

Datchworth Rectory

Hertford— Marden Hill

Stevenage — "Weston Park
Bennington House

Therfield Rectory

Throcking Rectory

Buntingford— Hamels Park

Much Hadham

Sawbridgeworth — Cowicks ...

Hertford —Bayfordbury

"Ware — Red House

,, Fanhams HaU

Broxbourne — Stafford House

Cheshunt — Old Nurseries

New Barnet — Gas "Works

Southgate — The Lawns

Jan.

ins.
2-45

221
2-69

3 "04

3-65
265

2-82

2-99

3-08
2-98
3-12
270

2-95
2-44

2-35
3-05

2-II
2-63
2-50

2-51

2-45
2-90

2*42
2-13
1-89
1-99

2-36
2-17

2-62
2-19
2*29

2-i6
2-27

2 -08
2-22
1-98

1-73
1-90
1-92

2-38

Feb.

:n.
•22

•33

■21
■31

•41
•17

•23
•21

•20
•19
•19
•13

•21

•17
•06

•28
•18

•18

■13
•13
•03

•16
•16
•19

•31

•27

•33
•21

•43
•24
•39

■14
•32

•14

•19

•14
•12
•17

Mean for the County

2-47

•21

RAINFALL IN HERTFORDSHIEE IN 1895.

113

Hertfordshike in 1895.

Apl.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year.

Days.

ins.

•83
i-oi

ins.
•66
•86

in.

•39

•46

ins.
3-84
3-53

ins.
5-12
5-69

ins.
79

I^OO

ins.
1-99

2^II

ins.
3-28
3-42

ins.
1^52

r65

ins.
22-90
23-82

146
162

I -08

I-I9

I-I3
118

•70
•83

74
•99

•48
■51
•46
•49

478

477
4-68

4-50

5-03

5-26
5 '04
5-15

•92
i-oo

•98

•91

2-50

2-6o
2^56
2-57

383
3-92

4-03

4-30

179
i^9x

1-94
179

25-95
27-41
27-55
26-54

151

169

X48

• 153

i-6i
i-8i

•40
•50

•60

•54

4-15
4"43

4 "06
4-II

•87

•92

•277
3-i6

4-55
4-8x

2-35
2^30

26-44
27-79

164
X76

1-85
1-56
1-65

1-38

•59
•51
■S3

•43

•52

•45
•44

3-94
4-32
4-53
4'49

4-87
4-29

3-89
371

•85

•95
•91

•92

2-76
277
2-95
2-63

4-54
4-65
4-54
4-48

2^21
2^X2
2^22

2^02

27-30
2663
26-62
24-94

134
162
160

1-44
1-51
1-30

•67

77
•76

•50
•47
•45

5-21
4-94
501

378
3-47
372

•90

I -06

•89

2^8o

3 '02

3-i8

4-45
4-68
4-28

2^X9
2^20

2^04

26-81
26-50
25-52

153
135

147

1-68
1-44

1-37
1-32

•58
•65
•49
•50

•61

■43
•50

•39

5-80
4-96
5-48
4-95

471
3-85
3-82

4^12

I-II
•97

•95

■72

2-84

2^51

2^88

2^6l

5-02
4-69
5-13
4-49

2-29
2-15

2-19

2^X4

29-86
25-77
27-37
25-60

154
151

155
x6x

176
1-69
178

•20

•13

•21

•50
•59
■49

5-53
5-48
6 -08

2^91
2-68
3-38

•97
•80

i-oo

2^I7

2^52
2-76

4-85
3-6i
5-39

2-13

2'05

2-8o

25-35
23-78
28-79

147
134
137

1-09
1-28

1-22

1-33

■37
•48
•60
•42

•48
•44
•44
•50

479
4-60
4"oo
473

373
3-38
4-52
3-II

•93

I -07

•90

•82

2^38

2^6o
3-00

3-41

4-26
4-37
3-95
3-43

2-X7

2^o6
x^86
1-93

24-36
24-10
24-24
23-42

131
156
X48
136

113

I-II

I-I9
•47

•69
•35

4-90
4-06

5-53
3-37

•78
•96

2-37
210

4-ox
3-65

1-96
x-8i

27-25
22-00

147
160

I -03

1-24
I -02

78

i-6i

•40

•51

•55
•62

4-45
4-59
4-00

6-12

3-97
3-i8

■86
74
•97

2^38

2^X8
2X1

372

3-52
3-51

1-84

173
x-94

26-39
24-50
22-39

155
165
X24

1-34

•48

•42

4-00

3-44

•62

2^24

3-64

2-2X

22-74

X48

1-32

•97

•48

4-12

2-97

•81

2-54

3-42

2-49

23-77

152

i-oo

I-I7

•91

•57
•71

•44

•34
•41
•32

3-90

3"97
3-80

3-17
2-93
2 -80

•67
•61
■67

2-68

2^IO

2-57

370
3-46
3-65

1-94

1-93
x^90

21-80
21-58
20-75

133
125

X26

1-34
I-I7
i-i6

1-22

•33
■37
•40

•47

•46
•42
•30

•63

3-93

3-58
4-03
3-80

2-84
277
3-39
2-54

•95

•99

i-oi

■86

2-i8
2^28
2^69
2-85

3'42
3-82
4-39
370

2-2X

2^08

2^x8
2-23

21-13

2X-27
23-22

22-46

163

130

187

1-32

•59

•48

4-52

3-91

■89

2-58

4-xx

2^o6

24-91

150

114 J. HOPKIXSOIJ" — EEPOET OX THE

The second partial drougM lasted for at least

33 days, April 28 to May 30 at 4 stations.
44 ,, ,, 28 ,, June 10 ,, 3 of these.

"1 )) >) -^^ )> n 1' )> - )) )j

35 ,, May 24 ,, ,, 27 ,, 10 stations.
41 ,, ,, 18 ,, ,, 27 ,, 5 of these.

Distrihidion of Rainfall throughout the Year. — Of the total
rainfall, 19 °/q fell during the winter months (Jan., Feb., and
Dec), 15 °/q during the spring (March to May), 36 °/q during the
summer (June to August), and 30 °/q during the autumn (Sept. to
jS^ov.). The fall during each quarter and each season, and the
deviation from the mean for the half -century liS40-89, were as
follows : —

Fall. Diff.

"Winter 4-74 ins. —1-26 in.

Spring 3-68 —1-84

Summer 8-91 +1-93

Autumn 7-58 —0-35

Fall.

Diff.

1st quarter

... 4-45 ins.

— 1-18 in.

2ncl ,,

... 2-39

—3-62

3rd „

... 9-32

+2-00

4lli ,,

... 8-75

+1-28

July, August, and November were excessively wet ; scarcely any
rain fell in February ; and May, June, and September were also
very dry. The difference in each month from the mean for the
half- century was —

in. in. in. in.

Jan 4-0-16 April —0-46 July +202 Oct —0-36

Feb —1-50 Mav —1-54 Aug -fl-53 Nov +1-.55.

Mar +0-16 June —1-62 Sept — 1-54 Dec -|-0"08

Thus the fall for the first six months was 4 80 ins. below the
mean, and for the last six months 3*28 ins. above the mean; and
while three months had over an inch and a half more than the
average rainfall, three months had more than an inch and a half
less than the average.

The absolute maximum falls in any one day in each month,
and the stations recording them, were —

ins. ins.

Jan. 19— Kensworth 1-06 July 19— Moor Park 1-84

Feb. 24— Eed House, Ware 0-24 Aug. 21— Kensworth 1-78

Mar. 27— Bancroft, Hitchin 0-62 Sept. 6— Brocket Hall 1-01

April 26 -Moor Park 0-6.5 Oct. 8— High Down 0-87

May r2— Sawbridgeworth 0-62* Nov. 8— Frogmore, Watford 1-16

June 11— Weston Park 0-28 Dec. 14— Kensworth 1-01

* Also at Throcking on the 23rd.

The wettest day in each month was —

January 19th at all stations.

February 1st at 22, 24th at 14, 1st and 24th at 4.

March 26th at 18, 27th at 19, 26th and 27th at 3.

April 24th at 1, 25th at 36, 26th at 2, 28th at 1.

May 17th at 24, 23rd at 11, 30th at 2, 31st at 2, 17th and 23rd at 1.

June 1st at 2, Uth at 12, 18th at 9, 28th at 1-5, 11th and 28th at 2.

July 18th at 18, 20th at 3, 21st at 17, 27th at 2.

RAINFALL IN HEETFORDSHIKE IN 1895.

115

August lOtli at 1, 13th at 22, 20th at 2, 21st at 11, 22iid at 2, 3rd and 13th
at 2.

September 6tb at all stations.

October otb at 14, 8th at 25, oth and 8th at 1.

November 5th at 20, bth at 1, 10th at 3, 15th at 13, 22nd at 1, 2Sth at I,
29th at 1.

December 12th at 2, 14th at 34, 29th at 2, 14th and 24th at 1, 14th and
29th at 1.

The day iu each month on which a heavy fall of rain was most
general over the county was therefore —

Jan. 19th
Feb. 1st
March 27th

April 2oth
May 17th
June 28th

July 18th
Aug. 13th
Sept. 6th

Oct. 8th
Nov. 5th
Dec. 14th

The number of wet days in the year (average of 38 gauges) was
150, being 18 below the mean for the 20 years 1870-89. Of the
total number there were 41 (or 27 °/q) in the winter months, 34 (or
23 °/o) in the spring, 37 (or 25 °/q) in the summer, and 38 (or
25 °/q) in the autumn.

The average number of wet days in each month, and the
deviation from the mean for the 20 years 1870-89, were as
follows : —

Jan. 20+5

April 12

— 1

July

14 =

Oct.

14 — 1

Feb. 4—10

May 6

— /

Aug.

16 +3

Nov.

20 +4

March 16 + 3

June 7

—6

Sept.

4 —9

Dec.

17 +1

Bistrihution of Rainfall throughout the County. — The following
table (Table IV) gives the mean fall for each month and for the
year in each of the five river-districts represented, and in the two
main hydrographical divisions of the county, the catchment-basins
of the Great Ouse and the Thames, and also the difference in the
year from the mean for the decade 1880-89.

Table IV. — Rainfall in the Rivee-disteicts.

Months.

Cam.

IVEL.

Thame.

COLNE.

Lea.

Ouse.

Thames.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

Jan

2-33

301

2-90

270

2-15

2-78

2-42

Feb

•27

•28

•22

•16

•23

•28

-20

March

1-68

1-94

2 '02

174

173

1-86

175

April

•92

114

1-71

1-55

I-I7

1-07

1-36

May

•76

•81

•45

■50

-62

•80

•56

June

•43

•49

■57

■49

•47

•47

•48

July

3-68

4-68

4-29

5-05

4-18

4-35

4-55

August

5-40

5-12

4-08

3-80

3-53

5-20

3-67

Sept

•90

•95

•90

•93

•85

■93

-88

October

205

2-56

2-96

274

2-48

2-39

2-62

Nov

3-35

4-02

4-68

4-63

375

3-80

4"i7

Dec

1-59

1-86

2*33

2 -20

2-03

1-77

2-15

Year

23-36

26-86

2711

26-49

23-19

25-70

24-81

Diff.from
1880-89

— o'i4

+ 1-59

—2-48

—2-36

+1-02

—2-34

116

J. HOPKINSON EEPOET Olif THE

The mean rainfall in each of the minor river-basins or sub-
districts represented, was as follows : —

mi?.

Cam Rhee 23-36

IvEL Hiz 26-86

Thamk Upper Thame 27*11

^Bulbourne 26-36

Gade 27-15

Ver 26-64

Lower Colne 24-03

COLNE .

Lea.

ins.

r Mimram 24-03

Beane 25-62

Rib 24-43

.^ Ash 22-74

Stort 23-77

Upper Lea 21-38

^ Lower Lea 22-02

The total yearly fall ranged from 20*75 inches at Fanhams Hall,
Ware, to 29-86 ins. at Kensworth.; and the total monthly fall from
0-06 inch at J^ash Mills in February, to 6-08 ins. at Moor Park in
July. The greatest fall in any one day was 1-84 in. at Moor Park
on the 19th of July.

Distribution of Haiti/all in each Month. — The nomenclature used
in the following account of the chief falls of rain is the same as in
my previous reports, falls of at least ^ inch being styled consider-
ahle, f inch very considerable, 1 inch great, \^ inch very great,
\-\ inch heavy, and \^ inch very heavy. There was no excessive
(2 inches) fall in the year. This analysis only applies to the
thirty-three stations for which I have returns of the daily rainfall.

Janca.iit. — Rainfall a little above the average and on a large
number of days, in the form of snow except for a few days about
the middle of the month. The 19th was a very wet day at all
stations, the fall being considerable at nine, very considerable at
twenty-two, and great at Kensworth (1*06 in.) and Moor Park
(1-07 in.).

Febetjart. — An excessively dry month, with rain or snow on very
few days. There was no considerable fall at any station.

Maech. — Rainfall a little above the average and on a rather
large number of days. Snow fell only on a few days at the
beginning of the month. There was a considerable fall of rain at
five stations on the 27th.

Apeil. — A rather dry month, with rain on the usual number of
days. There was a considerable fall at eleven stations on the 25th.

Mat. — A very dry month, with rain on very few days. There
was a slight fall of snow early on the morning of the 17th. On the
12th the fall of rain was considerable at one station; on the l7th it
was considerable at one ; on the 23rd it was considerable at two
(from a thunderstorm) ; and on the 30th it was considerable at one
(High Down, Hitchin). This, also, was due to a thimderstorm
which passed over the north of the county and was most severe just
beyond our borders, in Bedfordshire and Cambridgeshire. At
Pirton, a village a little to the north of High Down, Hitchin,
a wheat-stack was struck by the lightning and set on fire, and five
men who were sheltering under it were struck, one of them being
killed on the spot and another very seriously injured. Almost
immediately afterwards a cottage in Pirton was struck, and, with
thi'ee others adjoining it, burned to the ground. Rain fell in

EAINFAIL IN HERTFORDSHIRE IN1895. 117

torrents wlicii the storm was at its lieiglit, and the road between
Hitchin and Pirton was in one place about two feet under water,
while at Hitchin, three miles off, there was scarcely any rain. At
Melbourne, three miles from Royston, a chapel was struck, and
a cottage struck and burned down.

JuA'E. — A very dry mouth, with rain on veiy few days. There
was no considerahle fall at any station.

July. — An excessively wet month, but with rain on no more than
the usual number of days. On the 1 8th the fall was considerahle at
three stations, and very co7isiderable at two ; great at Bancroft,
Hitchin (1-06 in.); veri/ great at Northchurch (1'25 in.), The
Grange, St. Albans (r25in.). High Down, Hitchin (1-26 in.),
Eosebank, Berkhamsted (l"27in.), and Fairhill, Berkhamsted
(I'ol in.) ; heai-1/ at Great Gaddesden (1-56 in.), Nash Mills, Hemel
Hempstead (1-58 in.), Frogmore, Watford ( 1*59 in.), Apsley Mills,
Hemel Hempstead (l"69in,), Kensworth (1-70 in.), and Gorham-
buiy, St. Albans, (IwSin.) ; and veri/ heavy at Moor Park (1-84 in.).
On the 20th the fall was considerahle at fourteen stations, very
considerable at four, and great at Broxbourne (1-10 in.). On the
21st it was considerable at ten stations, and very considerable at ten;
great at Hamels Park, Buntingford (r06in.), Bancroft, Hitchin
(1-08 in.), and Bennington House (ri5in.); and very great at
Throcking Rectory (r33 in.), and Therfield Rectory (1"45 in.). On
the 23rd the fall was considerable at eight stations; and on the 27th
co?isiderable at twenty-one, and very considerable at six. Most of
these heavy falls of rain were due to thunderstorms. At St.
Albans, and probably elsewhere, there was one in the night of the
18th-19th (really early in the morning of the 19th), to which the
rain of the 18th was due, and another in the afternoon when a
house in St. Albans was struck and much damaged ; considerable
damage was also done to fruit-trees by hail. On the afternoon of
Sunday the 21st there was a thunderstorm of great violence in the
neighbourhood of Welwyn. Trees were struck by the lightning,
and glass and crops were damaged by hail. The hailstones were
very large, measuring two inches in circumference.

August. — Also a very wet month, and with rain on rather more
than the usual number of days. On the 3rd the fall was consider-
able at nine stations, and very considerable at two ; on the 4th it was
considerable at one ; and on the 5th it was considerahle at five. On
the 10th it was considerable at seven, very C07isiderable at two, and
great at TTeston Park (M8 in.) and Odsey (r24 in.). On the 13th
it was considerable at three stations, and very considerable at
seventeen; great at Royston (1*01 in.), Gorhambury, St. Albans
(1-05 in.). Moor Park (1-07 in.). The Grange, St. Albans (1-08 in.).
High Down, Hitchin (1-09 in.), Therfield Rectory (Ml in.), and
Apsley Mills, Hemel Hempstead (1-14 in.) ; and very great at If ash
Mills, Hemel Hempstead (1*28 in.), Weston Park (1-31 in.), and
Moor Park (r35in.). On the 21st it was very considerable at four
stations; great at North church (1*02 in.); very great at Elm
House, Tring (1-31 in.), Royston (1-33 in.), and Bancroft, Hitchin

118 J. HOPKENSON EEPORT ON THE

(1-42 in."); heavy at Odsey (1*52 in.), and High Down, Hitchia
(1-52 in.); and very heavy at Kensworth (1-78 in.). On tlie 22Dd
the fall was considerable at five stations, and very consideralle at
two. Several of these falls were due to thunderstorms, which were
even more prevalent than in July. I have thunderstorms recorded
at St. Albans on the 4th (5 to 5.30 p.m.), 10th (9 to 10.30 p.m.),
night of 21st-22nd (early morning) with hail, and also evening
of 22nd, and afternoon of 24th. The storm of the night of
Saturday the 10th was very severe in the north of the county, and
seriously interfered with harvest-work ; at St. Albans a building
was struck and several trees were damaged by the lightning.
The storm of Thursday morning the 22nd was most severe, but
of this a separate account is appended, so it need not be further
alluded to here.

Septembee. — A very dry month, with rain on very few days ; in
fact neai'ly all the rain in the month fell in the night of the
6th-7th, making the 6th appear a very wet day at all stations.
The rain entered to this day was consideralle at seven stations, very
consideralle at twenty-five, and great at Brocket Hall (I'Ol in.).
This was due to a thunderstorm, some of the effects of which are
mentioned in an appendix. There was also a thunderstorm on
Tuesday evening the Si^d, with no rain, and in fact in bright sun-
shine. At Therfield some cottages were struck by the lightning
and the roof and walls shattered to pieces which were sent flying
in all directions.

OcTOBEE. — A wet month as usual, but with rather less than the
average amount of rain, on about the usual number of days. On
the 5th the fall was consideralle at fifteen stations, and very
consideralle at three ; on the 8th it was consideralle at ten, and
very consideralle at five; and on the 10th it was consideralle at
one (Datchworth Rectory).

November. — A very wet month, with rain on a large number of
days. On the 5th the fall was consideralle at sixteen stations,
very consideralle at five, and great at Elm House, Tring (1*01 in.),
and Kensworth (1*07 in.); on the 8th it was consideralle at one
station (Moor Park), and great at Frogniore, "Watford (ri6in.);
on the 10th it was consideralle at nine stations; on the 15th it
was consideralle at thirteen, and very considerable at three ; on the
28th it was consideralle at three ; and on the 29th it was considerable
at ten stations.

December. — Rainfall a little above the average, and on a con-
siderable number of days. The 14th was a very wet day at all
stations, averaging over 0'40 in., but only reaching 0"50in. at two
stations, the fall being consideralle at one station (Moor Park), and
great at Kensworth (101 in.).

EAIXFALL IN HEETFOEDSniEE IN 1895. 119

APPENDIX.

Tlie Thunderstorms of the 22nd of August and the 7th of Septemler.
— The summer and early autumn of 1895 have been remarkable
for tbe number of thunderstorms which have occurred, doing much
damage in various parts of the country, and Hertfordshire suffering
severely. In several of these storms there have been only one
or two casualties, but in two of them considerable damage was
done throughout a great part of Hertfordshire. Both storms
occurred in the early morning, a rather unusual time.

The storm of Thursday, the 22nd August, was accompanied by
heavy hail, by which most of the damage was done. It appears to
have lasted from 2 to 5 a.m., being most severe between 3 and 4.
In the neighbourhood of Berkhamsted, Hemel Hempstead, Redbourn,
and Harpenden the destruction of property was due to hail, the
hailstones being variously estimated as from the size of walnuts
to that of bantams' eggs. About Redbourn and Harpenden some
of the houses had not a sound piece of glass left in their windows,
and in one street in Harpenden nearly 300 window-panes were
broken, while the glass in conservatories was in some cases com-
pletely demolished. At Harpendenbury Farm turkeys were killed
by the hailstones. In the centre of the county the hailstorm was
less severe, but there were casualties from the lightning. At
Hertford, between 2 and 5 a.m., the thunder and lightning were
incessant, the heavens being one continuous sheet of flame. In
Panshanger Park a wych-elm was struck and two bullocks were
killed by the lightning, one sheltering under this tree, and the
other under a clump of trees not far off. On Lawrence End Farm
seven young pedigree beasts met with a similar fate.

The rainfall during this storm was very unevenly distributed
over the county, being very heavy in the north, light in the
south-west, and erratic in the east. In the Ouse river-basin it
averaged r45 inch, ranging only from 1*32 in. to 1-52 in. ; in the
northern portion of the Colne it averaged 1"10 inch, ranging from
0'8l in. to 1"78 in. ; but in the southern portion of this river-basin
it only averaged 0*22 inch, ranging from O'lOin. to 0*36 in. In
the Lea river-basin the average was 0*41 inch, and the range
fi'om 0-10 in. to 094 in.

The storm was renewed for a short time at 8 o'clock in the
morning, and again in the evening at the same hour, when vivid
forks of lightning played on an almost continuous sheet-lightning.
Shortly after 8 p.m. two Alderney cows and a heifer wei-e killed on
Townsend Farm, St. Albans, and cattle were also killed at about
the same time at Panshanger and elsewhere.

The storm of Saturday, the 7th of September, was very severe
in the south-west of Hertfordshire. At Rickmansworth it is
stated to have been one of the heaviest which has been known
for several years. It lasted from 3 to 5 a.m. The rain fell in
torrents, floocUng some of the houses in High Street and others

120 J. HOPKHSrSOIf — THE EAINFALL IN 1895.

in the low-lying parts of the town. At Watford, at about 4.30,
a house was struck and the stack of chimneys crashed through
the roof. In the centre of the county it was most severely felt
in the neighbourhood of Codicote, where houses were flooded,
and at Potters Heath a cottage was struck by the lightning, the
slates being torn off part of the roof, and the Joists set on fire.
In the east of Hertfordshire the storm was terrific How it
behaved at Hoddesdon was thus described in the ' Hertfordshire
Mercury' of the 14th of September: — "In the early hours of
Saturday morning there was a terrific thunderstorm, accompanied
by very vivid lightning and a deluge of rain. About 4 a.m.
there were some extremely vivid flashes of lightning, followed
by a tremendous crash of thunder and other noises, which very
much alarmed the inhabitants of Eriscoe Koad; and later in
the morning it was found that Crofton Villa had been struck
by lightning. A stack of chimneys was shattered, and the tiles
of the whole of the roof were loosened, whilst one side of the
wall was bulged out and shivers of the woodwork were driven
into the brick wall. After striking the chimney the lightning
appears to have passed down the roof, scorching the verge-board
and pulverizing the face of the bricks. It then spent itself
down the waterpipe at the side, which is broken. Hundreds of
bricks and tiles (whole and in pieces) were scattered over the
garden and the adjacent gardens, and sent flying to a distance
of many yards. Inside the house the chimney-wall was cracked
all the way down to the fireplace in one of the upstair rooms,
the stove and its surroundings being forced out into the room.
In the front sitting-room, underneath it, the marble mantel was
broken to pieces. There is quite a large hole in the roof, and
at 10 a.m. there was a strong smell of sulphur very perceptible
along the front of the house." There seems to have been only
one other case of structural damage in the east of the county.
The windmill near Much Hadham was struck, and several of
the sails were torn off.

During this storm heavy rainfall was general all over the
county. In the Ouse river-basin the fall averaged 0-82 inch,
ranging from 0-73 in. to 0-90 in. ; in the Colne it averaged
()-83 inch, ranging from 0*66 in. to 0-94 in. ; and in the Lea
it averaged 1*78 inch, ranging from 0*54 in. to TOl in.

XII.
ON SOME OVERLOOKED RECORDS OF HERTFORDSHIRE PLANTS.

By B. Daydok Jackson-, Sec.L.S., Hon. Memb. Herts

Nat. Hist. See.

Read at Watford, 2lst April, 1896.

Having recently come upon certain records of Hertfordshire
plants 'n'hieh seem to have escaped the notice of the late Mr. A. B,.
Pryor, I thought the Society which published his ' Flora ' would
like to have the same laid before it, which I now have the honour
of doing.

In 1892 Mr. J. Lucas published a translation of part of Kalm's
' Travels,' which relates to his visits to England in 1748 and 1751 :
a copy of this work having lately been added to the library of the
Herbarium of the Boyal Gardens at Kew, I looked into it, and
soon found much to arrest my attention.

Pehr Kalm was born in Finland in the year 1715, studied botany
under Linnteus at Upsala, and, as he showed marked acuteness
as a botanist, was sent to North America to collect plants. He
spent six months in England whilst on his outward voyage, and
about five weeks on his homeward way, laden with so ample
a store of new plants, that Linnjeus was cured of a fit of the gout
by the excitement of their arrival.

Kalm reached England on the l7th of February, 1748, and left our
shores for America on the 11th of August of that year. During the
interval he paid two visits of some extent — ( 1 ) to Woodford, which
does not immediately concern us, and (2) to Little Gaddesden,
which directly appeals to us. The visit to our county was
accomplished at the desire and at the cost of Baron Bielke,
a Swedish nobleman, to see and report on the farming practice
of William Ellis, a man who enjoyed a great reputation in rural
economy, but still more for his writings on that subject. With
Lars Jungstrcim, a gardener and fellow-countryman, Kalm spent
from 25th March to 15th April in the neighbourhood of Little
Gaddesden, and recorded all the operations which came under his
observation which seemed to differ from the farming processes
carried on in Sweden, evincing close observation and shrewdness.
He learned more from the neighbours of Ellis than from that
person himself, who seems to have shown himself very " close "
and jealous of imparting any information gratuitously. His land
is described as being the worst cultivated of any round about,
a fact which goes far to confirm the account of Ellis which is given
below.

Kalm anticipated some modem developments, by examining
certain haystacks to discover the constituents of the hay. One was
in Ashridge Park, and although it may not have been of purely
Herts growth, yet, as the plants mentioned are of very wide
distribution and very common, I have included them. The second

VOL. IX. — PART IV.

122 B. D. JACKSON — ON SOME OVERLOOKED RECORDS

stack was well within our borders, namely at Hudnall. In most
cases Kalm cites the names given in Linnaeus' s ' Flora Suecica,'
ed. 1 (1745), to which he had contributed information.

These records, amounting to 58, naturally escaped attention
so long as they existed only in their original form, as part of
' En resa till Norra America . . . af Pehr Kalm,' . . . Stockh.
1753-56.

The foregoing statement induced me to refer to the account
of Ellis which is given by Mr. James Britten in the English
Dialect Society's volume for 1880, p. 30, where it forms part
of a treatise on old fanning words, including names of plants.
As I expected, I found many weeds and well-known plants
mentioned, all under their vernacular names, which I have included
in the following list, under the detennination given by Mr. Britten,
checking them occasionally with the reductions afforded by Messrs.
Britten and Holland in their ' Dictionary of English Plant Names,'
issued by the same Society, in 1878-86. There is one alteration
I have made where Narthecium ossifragum, Huds., a plant not
recorded for the county, is cited as the equivalent of Ellis's
" moor- grass " : in this case I have taken the more likely reduction
of Messrs. Britten and Holland, Eriophorum angustifolium. The
description given by Ellis of a certain poisonous weed, undoubtedly
belongs to Ifercurialis perennis, although Mr. Britten fails to
identify the plant.

I extract the following account of Ellis from Mr. Britten's
remarks in the volume already cited: — "Ellis was a farmer at
Little Gaddesden, in Hertfordshire, during the last century. Very
little is known about him, but from his ' Modern Husbandman '
we gather incidentally that he had been fifty years a resident in
the locality, which makes it probable that he was born there ;
that he had travelled both in England and on the Continent ; that
he had a wife and six children, the latter of whom he took pains

to train in agiicultural pursuits It is clear that he was

a man of much intelligence, although he refers to his ' illiterature ' :
his writings have a strong local colouring, and record for the
most part his experience as a Hertfordshire farmer" (p. viii).
Again, quoting from his posthiimous 'Husbandry abridged,' 1772,
Mr. Britten continues — "His education was something not much
superior to that of the general run of common farmers, but he
inherited from nature strong and active parts, which enabled him

to rise into a sphere superior to his brethren Any person

in Great Britain might send for him, on paying for his time and

expenses Having engaged for larger quantities of MSS.

than his materials of real excellence would allow, all his pieces are
nearly equal in being filled with trash. This did his reputation
so much mischief, and at last injured him so much with the
public, that he no longer found any pecuniary advantage in
writing, but stuck to his farm, and very wisely depended on that
alone .... instruments, he procured them, and sold them to
any persons. . . . . Ellis made a trafiick, sometimes profitably,

OF HERTFORDSHIRE PLANTS.

123

of plou2:hs, drill-ploughs, horscbrcalcs, etc. This induced him to
be very volumiuous in their description and very hyperbolical in
their praise" (pp. xii, xiii).

In Kalm's pages -svill bo found additional light on the character
of this striking personage, but I cannot stay to dwell on it.

By inspection of the list it will be seen that nearly 100 common
plants, which were for the most part supposed to be recorded for
the first time as natives of Hertfordshire about the year 1838, are
now vouched for about ninety years earlier.

The an-angement and nomenclature are the same as in Pryor's
' Flora of Hertfordshii'e.' I have cited the authority and the date
for the earlier records, together with the date which appears in the
Flora itself.

Clematis Yitalba, Z.
Ficaria verna, Huds.
Kanunculus repens, L. (vel E.. acris ?)

Flammula, Z.

arvensis, Z.

Raphanistrum innocuum. Medic.
Nastiu'tium officinale, R. Br.
Alliaria officinalis, Andrz.
Brassica campestris, Z.
Sinapis arvensis, Z.
Erophila vulgaris, DC.
Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Moench
Silene Cucubalus, Wihel
Githago segetum, Desf.
Cerastium vulgatum, Z.
Linum catharticum, Z.
Acer campestre, Z.
Ilex Aquifolium, Z.

Ellis,

1750

1838

Kalm,

1748

n

Ellis,

1750

>>

>>

1749
1750

)>
)>

Kalm,

1748

Ellis,

1750

)!

1749

1839
1838

Kalm,

1748

>>

Ellis,

1750

))

>>
Kalm,

It
1748

1839
1838

Ulex

europseus.

Ononis arvensis, Z.
Anthyllis Vulneraria, Z.
Medicago lupulina, Z.
Trifolium pratense, Z.

repens, Z.

Lotus pilosus, Beeke

corniculatus, Z.

Lathyrus pratensis, Z.
Vicia Cracca, Z.

sativa, Z.

Ervum hirsutum, Z.
Pnmus avium, Z.

spinosa, Z.

Spiraea Ulmaria, Z.
Filipendula. Z.

Rubus "fi-uticosus" (ulmifolius, Schott?)

csesius, Z.

Fragaria vesca, Z.

Ellis,

1750

Kalm,

1748

Ellis,

1736

Kalm,

1748

M

n

Ellis,

1750

Kalm,

1748

Ellis,

1750

Kalm,

1748

1815

Ellis,

1750

1838

5 (

Kalm,

1748

1846

)'

))

1849?

Ellis,

1750

1838

Kalm,

1748

J)

124

B. D, JACKSON — ON SOME OVEELOOKED RECORDS

Rosa rubiginosa, Z.

canina, L.

Sorbus Aria, Crantz.
Crataegus oxyacantha, L.
Setlum Tulgare, Link.
Scandix Pecten-Veneris, L.
Anthriscus silvestris, Hojfm.
Hedera Helix, L.
Galium verum, Z.

Aparine, Z.

Senecio Jacobfea, Z.
Achillea Millefolium, Z.
Chrysanthemum segetum, Z.
Leucanthemum viilgare, Lam.
Bellis peremiis, Z.
Tussilago Farfara, Z.
Cirsium lanceolatum, Sco]^.
SeiTatula tinctoria, Z.
Centaurea nigra, Z.
Taraxacum officinale, Weber
Hieracium umbellatum, Z.
Helmintia echioides, Gaertn.
Calluna Erica, DC.
Fraxinus excelsior, Z.
Calystegia sepium, R. Br.
Cuscuta europaea, Z.
Echium vulgare, Z.
Verbascum Thapsus, Z.
Veronica agrcstis, Z.
Ehinanthus minor, Elirli.
Prunella vulgaris, Z.
Lamium pui-pureum, Z.
Thymus Serpyllum, Z.
Primula vulgaris, ILuds.
Plantago media, Z.
Rumcx Acetosa, Z.
Polygonum amphibium, Z.
Daphne Laureola, Z.
Mercurialis perennis, Z.
Urtica dioica, Z.
Humulus Lupulus, Z.
Ulmus campestris, Z.
Quercus pedunculata, ETirh.
Carpinus Betulus, Z.
Corylus Avellana, Z.
Populus alba, Z.

tremula, Z.

Salix Caprea, Z.
Alnus glutinosa, Oaertn.
Narcissus pseudo-Narcissus, Z.

Kalm,

1748

1815

Ellis,

)5
1750

1849
1846?

Kalm,

1748

1838

Ellis,

1750

1838?

■>■>

11

11

1 *f
Kalm,

1748

11

11

Ellis,

1750

11

r>

j>

11

Kalm,

1748

11
11

Ellis,

1750

11

Kalm,

1748

11

>>

>>

11

Ellis,

1750

11

11

Kalm,

1748

1815

■>■>

11

1838

>>

11

11

Ellis,

1759

11
11

Kalm,

1748

11

Ellis,

1750

If

11

>>

Kalm,

11

1736
1748

1839
1838

11
11

Ellis,

1750

11

Kalm,

1748

11

>>

11

1)

5J

11

))

>>

11

If

>>

»

if

Ellis,

11
1750

If

11

Kalm,

1748

1815

Ellis,

1750

1838

Kalm,

1748

))

Ellis,

1750

11

Kalm,

1748

11

>>

11

11

»>

11

If

Eliis,

1750

1843

>>

11

1838

j>

11

If

Kalm,

11
1748

11
1815

OF HEETFORDSniRE PLANTS. 125

Allium vinealo, L.

Eriophorum angustifolium, Roth.

Anthoxantliuiu odoratuiii, L.

Alopociirus inyosuroidt's, Uuds.

Phleum pratcnse, L.

Cynosurus cristatus, L.

Agrostis vulgaris, JJ'^ith.

Holcus mollis, Z.

Arrhenatherum avcnaccum, Beam.

A vena pratonsis, L.

Daetylis glomcrata, L.

Eromus secalinus, L.

Festuca clatior, L.

rubra, X.? [vel F. ovina, Z., 1843)

Briza media, Z.
Poa pratensis, Z.
Lolium temuleutum, Z.

percnne, Z,

Equisetum arvense, Z.
Pteris Aquilina, Z,

Two plants mentioned by Ellis are doubtful, the " sedge, or
round rush," -which is probably a common species of Juncus, and
" white bennet," as to the identity of which I can hazard no
conjecture.

In conclusion I may append a short list of Ellis's works from
which the foregoing notices have been drawn : for a fuller account
of them I must refer inquirers to Mr. Britten's volume previously
cited (pp. ix-xi).

{a) 1736. ' Xew Experiments' (incorporated in (e)).

(h) 1738. ' Timber Tree Improved' (reissued in {$)).

[c) 1749. ' Shepherd's Guide.'

{d) 1750. ' Country Housewife.'

{e) ,, 'Modem Husbandman,' in eight parts, some of which
probably were issued in advance of the date on the title-page.

(/) 1759. 'Practical Farmer,' ed. v (incorporated in (e)). The
previous editions must have come out very early in the literary
career of Ellis, but I have not succeeded in seeing them.

Ellis,

1750

1838

>>
Kalm,

1749

1748

Ellis,

1750'

))

Kalm,

1748

>)

>>

)>

>>

f>

>>

>>

Ellis,

1750

>>

Kalm,

1748

1843

Ellis,

1736

1838
1843

Kalm,

1748

1838

■>■>

1880
1838

Ellis,

1750

181S

Kalm,

1748

1838

jj

>>

>j

j>

>>

>>

XIII.

NOTES OF THE OBSERVATION OF SWALLOWS.

By A. Sainsbukt Vekey, Memb. Brit. Oni. Tlnion.

Mead at Watford, 2lst April, 1896.

(Abridged.)

The training of the Swallows in tlie art of flight commences
from their earliest infancy. So soon as the wings are little more
than mere flappers, the young birds leave their nests, and then,
small huddled-up bunches of feathers, sit perched upon rails or
fences, taking their first glimpses of the world. I have never
yet been able to ascertain how the little birds become aware of
the approach of their parent with food. Often, as I have watched
them, long before I could distinguish the particular bird from
others of its kind flying about, the inert little heaps would display
unusual animation ; then suddenly one would rise perpendicularly
in the air, when the parent, descending in the same line, trans-
ferred the food to its mouth. The old birds always feed their
young in the air in this manner, for wei'e they to meet in
a horizontal direction there would be danger of collision, and
it would be difficult also to transfer the food.

Later on in their lives swallows seem to establish training-
grounds. About midsummer some favourable spot is selected,
and there in the evening a school of the biixls assembles, and then,
high in air, with screams and mad gambols and in wanton delight,
they combine business with pleasure. I have often observed
them, and felt the better for it. There is one such playing-field
(if, indeed, the tenn can be at all properly applied to anything in
the realm of air) near the Vicarage at Mill End, Rickmansworth,

There is no better method of studying much that takes place
in Swallowland than by walking through a country village. TJpon
the lowly tenement of the labourer no costly decorations have
been lavished, so Nature herself has stepped in to adorn it, and
its walls and eaves, no longer bare, are embellished with Nature's
homes, and the swallow sings — for swallows do sing — from the
chimney-top above. Who has not entered into the spirit of the
wild chase when the parent swift is leading its screaming young
through eveiy devious way ? Who, also, when a river runs close
to the village, has failed to see the sand-martin come flying in, and
then, making two or three rapid courses up and down the length
of the street, hasten back again to the flowing stream of his watchful
care ? The swift, however, docs not belong to the swallow family,
but now takes its place in classification in company with the
nightjar among the Picarife or woodpeckers. Nevertheless, he still
displays a marked predilection for assimilating his habits to that
of his old friends the swallows.

I now come to a very interesting phase of Swallowland, one,
too, that I have repeatedly met with since my first observation.

NOTES OF THE OBSERVATION OF SWALLOWS. 127

As, one day early in September, I was walking across an old
common, my attention was attrai'ted by the notes of the swallow,
which I fonnd proceeded from some twenty or thirty birds
clustering round a small fir-tree, upon the branches of which
several of them had already perched. Approaching them very
closely, I sat down to watch them, and was somewhat surprised
to observe that they appeared to be all young birds, for in none
of them could I discover those two long tail feathers which
are so characteristic of the adult swallow. At length all had
settled upon the tree, when suddenly there sounded the cry of
a swallow from some distance off on the common, and instantly
the birds were again in motion, rising with one accord into the
air and quickly betaking themselves in the direction whence
the cry proceeded. I thought that I had seen the last of them,
but in a short space of time back they all came, straggling in
two and three at a time, fatigued, seemingly, for they settled
immediately on the tree, and then, for the first time, I coidd
perceive an adult bird. He was a grand specimen, and, as he
flew over my head at a height of only a few feet, seemed rather
to court the admii'ation his power of flight demanded. Not for
long did he leave the young birds to tlaemselves, which at his
call directly rose and followed him, to return in time to rest once
more ; and again and again did I see this repeated.

The only conclusion I could arrive at was, that the bird actually
was training the younger ones for the migration they shortly
would have to make, and marvellously, patiently, and well did he
perform the duty. As I have already said, I have frequently
seen the same thing happen since.

It often used to puzzle me why the swallow should have those
two elongate tail-feathers, and at length I concluded that it may
be for this reason. In the young birds these feathers do not
extend much beyond the others, and their tails are wedge-shaped.
But then, young swallows do not obtain their food in quite the
same manner as the old birds. They frequent open spaces, and catch
their prey by hawking after it in the air. The adult swallows, on
the other hand, as often, and with exceedingly swift flight, traverse
hedgerows, lanes, and other narrow ways thickly obstructed by
ti-ailing boughs and branches, and by projecting twigs and sprays.
Now if we watch a swallow swiftly approaching us as we saunter
along those country lanes we all love so well, we notice that the
bird is bearing directly down upon u.s without altering its course,
and, indeed, there seems to be a risk of its colliding with us. But
observe it carefully, and just at that very moment when collision
appears inevitable, one wing is suddenly thrown up and then
so forcibly brought down again as instantaneously to change the
course sufficiently to avoid us, and the little bird, flashing past,
almost brushing us as it does so, has demonstrated to us such
a knowledge of dynamic force, and the power of controlling it, as
might put on their mettle even the na^■igators of our "ocean
greyhounds." But now, if we tui'n round, we see that one powerful

128 A. S. VEREY — OBSEEVATION OF SAVALLOWS.

stroke has upset the equilibrium of the delicate fabric, and yonder
goes the swallow, oscillating violently from side to side, the lateral
motion, however, being at once checked by the elongate feather
on one side. By this sudden arrest the body of the bird is sent
rebounding upon the opposite feather, only in turn to be stopped
by it ; and thus the bird continues swaying fi'om side to side, until,
the disturbance gradually subsiding, equilibrium is restored. And
this, I think, may be an explanation of what would otherwise
appear strange to us, for the swallow is the only one of the family
possessed of this peculiar tail.

A fascinating question is : Do swallows hibernate ? But I must
touch upon it only briefly. The belief that they do so is, I think,
more fiiTaly held in America than in our own country.

Certain it is, that for some time after the departure of the
main body of swallows, barely-fledged young birds are commonly
to be seen, and these again as suddenly disappear. What becomes
of them? It is difiicult to suppose that they can in any way
fit themselves in time for a supplementary migration, for their
insect food is daily becoming scarcer, and, on the other hand,
to argue on insufficient data that they must all die, is to pay
no very high compliment to the prudence and foresight of nature.
The difficulty which has always confronted us is that no bird,
so far as I am aware, has ever been found in a state of hibernation.
But I will mention a fact that is very helpful to us, for indeed it
takes us very far on the way.

My old and very dear fiiend, the late Dr. Henry Thornton
"Wharton, used often to relate to me how well he recollected that,
■when a boy at Mitcham Rectory, as he stood one Chi-istmas Day in
a room but seldom used, in which a fire had just been lighted,
he saw two swallows in a semi-torpid condition come tumbling
down the chimney.

In the early morning of Lord Mayor's Day, in the year 1878,
I saw from the can'iage of a train stopping at Godalming Station,
six or seven martins. A bright, cheerful sun had risen upon
a cold, frosty morning, and the birds were endeavouring to gain
some warmth from it ; poor benumbed things, very feeble in their
flight and veiy unlike the swallows of summertime, yet there they
were unmistakably.

We can only hope to elucidate the mystery by patient wanderings
in Swallowland.

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XIV.

ON THE DESTRUCTION OF AN ELM-TREE BY FUNGI AT

ST. ALBANS.

By Geoege Abbey.

Commuuicated by A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S.

Read at Watford, Sth December, 1896.

PLATE III.

The pair of elm -trees at the intersection of Victoria Street
with Upper Lattimore Road are the oldest, and until this year
were the finest, arboreal specimens belonging to the Corporation of
St. Albans. There are several elms of the same age in various
parts of the city, namely, on land for sale off Beaconsfield Koad,
on private ground on the east side of Hattield Road, at the north
boundary of Clarence Park, on the St. Peter's Park estate, and on
St. Germain's Farm, St. Michael's, within the walls of the ancient
city of Verulamium. There are many others outside the city
boundary, as on the north side of Hatfield Road near the Cemetery,
at St. Stephen's, and on the Redbourn side of St. Albans.

All these trees appear to have at one time been hedgerow
timber, planted simultaneously by the lords of Gorhambury and
Althoi-pe — the Earl of Verulam and Earl Spencer, K.G. There
are trees of the same age on the south-east boundary of the lawn
at Porter's Park, Shenley, which, I have been informed, were
planted by the celebrated English Admiral, Earl Howe, during his
possession of that delightful estate. Probably Earl Howe prompted
the owners of neighbouring estates to plant timber trees. Be that
as it may, it is a remarkable circumstance that all the English
elms ( Ulmus campestris) of stateliness and grandeur in the city of
St. Albans and its environs appear to be of the same age. There
are also some elm-trees of the same age on the Marshall'swick
estate, and in the hedgerows on Beaumont's Farm, but those in the
" Avenue " belong to a more recent date.

Earl Howe — one of the highest of the great sea-captains of
Britain — was born in 1725, and died in 1799. During his resi-
dence at Porter's Park he added a morning-room to the mansion,
in imitation of a captain's cabin, with a southern and western out-
look, and on the south-east of the lawn he planted the elm-trees,
which, from their size and other characteristics, appear to be con-
temporaneous with others at Newberries, Radlett ; with the two in
Victoria Street ; and with those mentioned on the estates of the
Earl of Verulam and Earl Spencer. The age, therefore, of these
trees, is not more than 150 years, even from the seed. Few of the
trees exceed twelve feet in circumference, or about four feet in
diameter, at three feet from the ground. All the trees, except the
one which has just perished, arc remarkably healthy and vigorous,

130 G. ABBEY — ON THE DESTKUCTION

not nearly at their best by another 150 years, hence the loss of this
one is the more lamentable.

Elms thrive singularly well on the soil of St. Albans and its
neighbourhood, which is calcareo-siliceous in some places and
calcareo-argillaceous in others. The ancient Britons and Romans
took care to pitch their habitations where the soil was capable of
producing "the staff of life," where rich pasturage was abundant
and there was a plentiful supply of pure water. And the monks,
with their learning, the Abbots of St. Albans in particular, always
kept an eye on the good things of the earth : hence they farmed
the best lands, and, with the barons, occupied the best situations.
Elms and nettles, both belonging to the natural order Urticacese,
grow on good land, their whipcord-like roots taking a deep hold
(with a wide range) of the soil, and therefore the elms derive
abundant nutrition from the siliceous and argillaceous drift beds
overlying the Chalk, and pump up moisture, or absorb that which
is supplied to them by capillarity, from great depths, so that
they are but little inconvenienced by droughty weather.

The soil of St. Albans (and the same may be said of that of
"Watford) is essentially suitable for elm-trees, as shown by their
making more rapid growth than any other tree, except perhaps
poplars. The elm, however, is not a desirable town tree, for the
limbs are liable to be broken by high winds, and the tree itself
sometimes snaps off bodily near the ground. But this scarcely
applies to the St. Albans elms, for, owing to the peculiar nature of
the soil, they build up their structures solidly, yet with remarkable
elasticity. The elm also bears pollarding well ; consequently when
the trees get too large, and may possibly endanger the public
safety by the falling of branches or the downfall of the tree, the
head may be cut off with the certainty that it will foiTa another
quite as fine or finer, and thus make a more suitable town tree.

The mischief to the elm-tree in Victoria Street commenced by
horses biting the bark, but this was not broken through until the
winter of 1892-93, when the tree was run into and abraded by
some heavily-laden vehicle. The bark around the wound, as shown
at A in the accompanying plate (Plate III), dried up in shreds,
and no callus was formed around the wound in the following
summer, as would be the case under normal conditions, the tree
striving to cover the wound by occlusion, as represented at B,
and making a special effort in that direction by the growth of
cellular tissue around the circumference of the injured area. In
the following year (1894) it was noticed that the bark surrounding
the wound had become of a pale colour, as shown at C.

The malady being evidently due to a fungoid growth, observa-
tion was kept on the tree for the appearance of the fungi. They
were anticipated to appear in tlie aiitumn, and to be PoJyporuH
sulplvureus, as several tine specimens of this species were found
on two elm -trees in Beaumont's Avenue, and the spores were
supposed to have come from there in 1893. They did nt)t appear
in 1895, but the bark became pale in colour all round the tree,

OF AN ELM-TREE AT ST. ALBANS, 131

and it was inferred that the mycelial hyphte of some fungus were
located in the alburnum and inner bark, living on the cambial
layers and epidermal cells, and by destroying them cutting off
the supply of sap to the parts above, the tree meanwhile being
outstripped in growth by its companion on the opposite side of
Upper Lattimore Road. This difference in gi'owth during three
years indicates the impoverishing power of the invading fungus,
and shows the rate at which elm -trees increase in height and
cii'ciimference.

At last, in the early months of 1896, certain fungoid growths
appeared at the circumference of the wounds, for the stem had
been still further bitten by horses through the bark down to
the wood. They were of an irregular tuberculous or lobed
character, and yellowish in colour. As some of the outgrowths
were knocked oif, and I dreaded not having another oppoi'tunity,
I made a sketch of the lower part of the tree by lamplight on
the 3rd of February. B is a facsimile, the scar and cause of the
mischief being shown at a, the fungus at 5, and the recent abrasure
of bark at c, the last-mentioned being of no consequence, as this
part had been traversed by the mycelial hyphse of the parasite.
This by its presence had offered an inducement to the hungiy
animals, for it was not only on the side next Victoria Street, but
also at the back, that it was eaten off more or less, and nowhere
but overlying the fungal hyphae. A cluster of the fungus showing
the upper part of the pileus, natural size, is represented at E.
As there were no teeth, or very few, on the upper surface, it was
concluded to be Hydnum ochraceum, Pers., especially as the club-like
processes characteristic of Hydnum diversidetis, Fries., were wanting
or very indefinitely present on the margin. Eventually, however,
a fairly representative specimen, shown at F, natural size, was
secured, and from its regular spines, awl-shaped and three lines
long, proved to be H. diversidens. Probably both forms were
present, that is S. ochraceum and H. direrst'detis, for there is
frequently a strange consortism amongst fungi, rendering it
extremely difficult to pitch upon the right delinquent. In this
case, however, I consider that the enemy was M. diversidens, as
shown at F on the under-side. The pileus is thick and fleshy,
and probably edible, while that of if. ochraceum is thin and
coriaceous, and this species is certainly not the active agent in the
destruction of trees. The spores are shown at G, highly magnified.
They are borne in foui's on the basidia (c), and, being very minute,
are readily dispersed by wind, and those which happen to alight
on the wounded surface of a suitable host, gcnninate at once. At
H the spores are shown still more highly magnified. In the
wound of the tree the spore (/), by the stimulus of moisture
and the nutrition of the sap, develops a germ-tube from one
end {g), or both ends (A), and this geim-tube grows into the
crevice formed by the separation of the bark of the tree from
the wood, due to the wound. It then emits a ferment, breaks
down the living cell-walls, abstracts and appropriates their contents,

132 G. ABBEY DESTETJCTION OF AN ElM-TREE.

and continiies to enlarge and multiply its hyphoe or mycelium.
As shown at /, the contents of the original cell fonning the spore
are absorbed by the growing geiTQ-tube, now called a hypha [i),
and the cell (/) is emptied of the protoplasm transmitted from
the parent. The spore itself never enters the tissue of the tree,
but remains outside in the wound, as shown by the dotted line k.
It is the hyi)ha alone which enters the living tissues, and now
by its own efforts maintains its existence independent of the parent
cell. Though lost to view it grows and multiplies, forming
a mycelium or bundle of hyphse, and producing a white-rot in
the wood. In due course the fungus prejjares for reproduction,
the hyphfe thickening and pushing from their outward ends white
sporophores into the air, which thus appear above the surface as
incrustations or brackets, as shown in the figure I) at h. The
hymenium or fi'uit-producing surface is disposed on downward-
directed spines, as seen in the figure F at d, of unequal length,
and the basidia with their four slender processes termed sterigmata,
from each of which a spore is developed. These spores when ripe
are disseminated far and wide by the wind.

Such is a brief outline of the life-history of the fungus Sydnum
dwersidens, a parasite on beech, birch, elm, hornbeam, and oak
trees. It always enters its host by a wound, never through the
unbroken cortex.

"Whence came the spores which attacked this particular tree
is unknown, for there are no other trees in the neighbourhood
of St. Albans known to be infested by the same species. This
neighbourhood is, however, singularly rich in parasitic fungi, no
finer specimens of witches' -broom existing than on the hornbeams
near the lodge of Sopwell, and on birch at Cunninghame Hill
Farm.

The dead tree in Victoria Street has had its limbs lopped, but
it ought to be bodily carted away for the sake of those which are
left, for both above and below where the once grand specimen has
been girdled, the bark is very light- coloured, evidence that its
organized substance is still being fed upon, and still fostering
fungi, some of the spores of which may be carried by the wind
to wounds on otlier elm -trees and do like damage. Its near
neighbour, the noble elm on the opposite side of Upper Lattimore
Road, ought also to be protected by a strong iron guard, else it
may share a similar fate.

[March, 1897. — The tree has now been felled and removed. — Ed.]

XV.

ON AX AXCIEXT BRITISII COIN FOUND NEAR WATFORD.

By Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S.,

Y.P.S.A., etc.

Read at JFatford, Sth December, 1896.

The gold coin, of which a figure (slightly less in diameter than
the original) is given above, vras found during the autumn of
1895 by a man who was excavating for the foundations of a house
at Callow Land or New Watford, about a mile from "Watford
Station in a northerly direction. From the finder it came into
the hands of Messrs. Spink & Son, from whom I obtained it. It
may be described as follows : —

Obv. — Portions of a rude imitation of the laureate head of
Apollo on the Macedonian Philippus ; the leaves
of the wreath nin in opposite directions from a faint
transverse line ; in front are some curved lines and
pellets, a crescent-shaped protuberance, and a some-
what oval ring ornament ; behind are some veiy
faint traces of ornamentation.

liev. — Disjointed horse 1., the off foreleg bent to an acute
angle at the knee, the near leg slightly bent in
front of a wheel with four spokes, from the rim
of which a line nms to the knee of the horse ;
above, a reversed T-shaped figure between two
slight protuberances ; the head of the horse is large
and its outline fonned by raised lines.

^. 8H grains.

■2 »'

This coin is uninscribed, and differs in several respects from
any that have been published. In general character, however, it
closely approximates to coins usually found in Yorkshire and
in the adjoining counties to the south, such as those inscribed
VEP CORF. (Evans, 'Ancient British Coins,' pi. xvii, figs. 5-7).
The reverse is much like that of some uninscribed coins from the
Yorkshire district, such as Ev., pi. xvii, figs. 10, 11, but differs
in giving the wheel and the bent fore-leg of the horse. The
open character of the horse's head bears much analogy to that
of the head of the animal on the reverse of the coins reading

DVMNOCOVEROS, cto.

134

SIR JOHN EVANS — ON AN ANCIENT BRITISH COIN.

There can, therefore, be little doubt that this coin was struck
at some place considerably to the north of Hertfordshii'e. Its
extremely degenerate types, and its light weight, 81^ grains —
precisely the same as that of the uniface coin, Ev., pi. xvii,
fig. 11 — assign the coin to a very late place in the ancient British
coinage, and not improbably to a time when the southern part of
this island was already under Roman rule. Coins of this class
have indeed been found associated with Eoman denarii struck but
a year or two before the invasion of Claudius in a.d. 43.

It is useless to speculate on the way in which this northern
coin found its way into Hertfordshire. It was, however, dug up
not far from what seems to be a Roman road, leading fi'om Watford
to Verulamium, and there is a strong temptation to suggest that
it may have been part of the spoil of some Roman soldier
returning from the conquest of the territory of the Brigantes by
Petilius Cerealis in a.d. 7 1 .

[Reprinted from the 'Numismatic Chronicle,' 3rd series, vol. xvi, p. 183.]

XVI.

THE ROXTGEX OR "X" RAYS.

By Thomas M.^nsell, F.R.M.S., F.R.P.S.

A Lecture delivered at Watford, l&th January, 1897.
(Abridged.)

In the history of science there has never been so much research
concentrated on one particuhir field of investigation as at the
present time, when in all the principal physical laboratories of
Europe inquiries are being made into the effects and causes of
the new species of radiation called by one of the early discoverers
"X" rays, the name having been given by Professor Rontgen
because their nature is unknown, and in mathematical problems
X represents the unknown quantity.

"We all know that any ordinary source of electricity, whether
a battery, dynamo, or friction machine, has two terminals, called
positive and negative. When these are connected by means of
a wire we form what is called a circuit. If we even cut the wii'e
the current still ti'ies to pass, and tends to leap across the gap in
the form of sparks. This is called the "spark-gap," and the
length of spark is a rough measure of the voltage or pressure of
electricity.

If when we are producing the spark it is surrounded by a partial
vacuum, the electric force is more easily able to pass. To make
such a vacuum we have to fuse wires into the opposite ends of
a closed tube of glass and exhaust the air by means of an air-pump.
As the exhaustion proceeds, the sparks pass so rapidly that one
thinks there is a continuous string of light through the tube. On
further exhaustion the string of light widens until it appears like
a luminous glow ; and in the end the light in the tube almost
disappears, while the tube itself commences to shine with a
fluorescent light.

Many years ago Professor "William Crookes showed that, when
the exhaustion in a vacuum-tube becomes about one-millionth
of an atmosphere, the molecules of the residual gas have a free
path in which they can move, without causing a visible glow in
the tube. At this stage the molecules are attracted to the
negative pole or "cathode." According to Professor Lodge, if we
reduce the atmospheric pressure to one-hundred millionth of an
atmosphere, there still remains in eveiy cubic inch of the tube
something like 1,540 billion complete molecules. We call this
radiant matter " cathode " rays, and it will be seen that when
the current is turned on through a vacuum-tube and a magnet is
brought near the tube, the beam will be deflected, that is to say,
the cathode rays are deflected by magnetism. Tliis deflection of
the cathode rays is one of the peculiarities which distinguish them
from the "X" rays of Rontgen.

I have no doubt that many of my audience do not know the

136 T. MANSELL THE BONTGEN OR "x" RAYS.

difference between " Crookes tubes" and " Geissler tubes"; and
I therefore show some of both. Crookes' and Geissler's tubes, so
that it may be understood more exactly what happens when these
photographs are taken.

The chief difference between Geissler tubes and Crookes tubes is
this : In a Geissler tube the exhaustion is very much less than in
a Crookes tube, the light which we see in the Geissler tube being
due to the luminescence of the residual gas.

The one now shown is a Geissler tube with a fancy pattern of
glass tubing inside, and a small amount of air ; when the current
is turned on, it will be seen that this will light up in different
colours, due to the different qualities of glass which have been
used in the' making of the tube.

In a Geissler tube with different fluid substances surrounding
the inner tube through which the current is passed, although by
the ordinary electric light these substances appear to be of the
same colour, when the current is passing they will fluoresce with
different colours. If the Geissler tube be further exhausted.
a different phenomenon will be obtained — that of Crookes. If
the current be turned on through a Crookes tube, it will be
observed that the tube is not so strongly illuminated as was the
case in the Geissler tube, but owing to radiation which takes place
from the large terminal, the flat piece of mica inside the tube
coated with calcium-sulphide will become intensely luminescent.

The discovery of the "X" rays by Professor Eontgen was
due, as is so often the case, in some measure to an accident. He
was experimenting with a Crookes tube wrapped in an opaque
material, and on his bench he had laid a piece of sensitive paper,
on which he found, after a powei-ful current had passed through
the tube, that a black mark had been formed.

Eetracing our steps we have, first, a tube in which the gas
is luminescent ; then one in which the gas loses most of its
luminosity ; and lastly, one containing a solid substance upon
which the cathode rays from the negative electrode play, rendering
it luminescent.

The cathode rays, as shown by Lord Kelvin in his works, are
due to the residual gas particles contained in the tube being
electrified. The real work done is not by these cathode rays inside
the tube, but by the invisible or "X" rays outside the tube, and
when we come to Riintgen Photography we have to some extent
ceased to have to do with the cathode rays.

"We are unable at the present time to decide what these rays
on the outside of the tube are. Is it that the cathode rays, after
being filtered through the glass, become converted into something
else, or is it that the cathode rays, beating on one side of the
glass, set up some form of vibration on the other side of the
glass ? Some say that they are very long waves, corresponding to
infra-red light; others say that they are short, corresponding to
ultra-violet light. My conclusion is that they are short waves,
and correspond to ultra-violet light.

T. MANSELL — THE RoNTGEN OR "x" RAYS. 137

The essential differences and similarities between the cathode
rays and Rciutgen's " X " rays are : —

"X" rays are not deflected by magnets, cathodic rays are;
"X" rays are not absorbed or diffused so readily as cathodic
rays; "X" rays will traverse several inches of wood and even
several inches of aluminium or glass, while cathodic rays fail to
pass through any but thin films of glass and aluminium; "X"
rays excite fluorescence, and give shadowgrams at a distance of
eighty inches fi'om the tube, whilst cathodic rays are absorbed or
diffused at a distance of fifty inches.

The main points of similarity between the two are their powerful
action on photographically sensitive films, and their rectilinear
propagation as shown by the sharply-defined shadows.

In a darkened room, paper covered on one side with barium
platino-cyanide lights up with brilliant fluorescence when brought
into the neighbourhood of the Crookes tube ; and, with its aid,
paper is very transparent ; objects can be seen through a book of
over 1,000 pages, two packs of cards, and a thick block of wood.
A sheet of aluminium 15mm. thick still allows these "X" rays
to pass; water, and several other fluids, are very transparent to
them ; salts of metals, either solid or in solution, behave as a rule
as the metals themselves.

Barium platino-cyanide is not the only fluorescent substance
acted on by the "X" rays. Calcium sulphide, uranium-glass,
rock-salt, and Iceland-spar exhibit fluorescence just as well, and
have the advantage of being much cheaper.

The tubes must be constructed of glass which is of sufficient
thickness to withstand the heat ; otherwise, as in the case of
those made with lead glass, they easily crack. To avoid such
an accident we are obliged to give intervals of rest during the
exposure, which is a great drawback in the case of a surgical
shadowgraph.

Some workers have suggested that the rays proceeded in direct
lines fi'om the cathode through the sides of the tube, and not
from the surface of the tube itself. I exposed a plate in front
of the tube (opposite the cathode) and another at the side of the
tube, its surface parallel with the main axis of the rays, if pro-
ceeding, as suggested, in a direct line from the cathode. The
results, developed together, gave every sign of equal exposure.

Lenard, in his investigations on cathode rays, has shown that
they belong to the ether, and can pass through all bodies, and
"X" rays behave in the same manner.

Professor Thompson has shown that a photographic plate enclosed
in a vacuum-tube is not acted upon by the cathode rays produced
in the tube. This is no doubt due to the absence of oxygen on
the plate.

The discovery of Pratt and Bennett that the rays have killed
certain bacteria, viz., those of cholera, anthrax, pneumonia, diph-
theria, and others, is, if true, of great interest to the medical
profession.

VOL. IX. — PART IV. 10

138 T. MANSELL — THE EOTTGEN OE "x" EATS.

Little now remains to say, except that it must appear to everyone
that this discovery is of great importance, especially for surgery,
because it gives one a means of seeing the interior of the body.

The amount of knowledge that has been acquired during this
century upon scientific subjects is very much greater than in all
previous centuries put together. I do not wish for a moment
to lessen the credit due to Rontgen in connection with the dis-
covery of which I have had the pleasure of showing some
illustrations this evening, but we must remember that Kontgen
simply worked upon a foundation laid by Lcnard, Crookes, Hertz,
Clerk Maxwell, Faraday, and others, and the most important thing
which he discovered was that bone was much less transparent than
flesh to the "X" rays.

We know that knowledge, and the discoveries that make know-
ledge, do not proceed from single brains, but are subject, as is
everything else, to the law of evolution, and are the result of
the cumulative workings of many minds.

[JSTumerous experiments were made by Mr. Mansell, and skia-
graphs taken at the commencement of his lecture were developed,
and lantern-slides made from them by Mr. F. Downer were shown
on the screen at the conclusion of the lecture, with many other
lantern-slides illustrating the subject.]

XVII.

REPORT ON THE RAINFALL IN HERTFORDSHIRE IN THE

YEAR 189G.

By John HoPKixsoN, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Mct. Soc, Assoc. Inst. C.E.
Read at Watford, 23rd March, 1897.

For several years the number of our rainfall stations has been
40. This number is now increased to 44. One station, Brocket
Hall, disappears fi'om our list, owing to Lord Mount Stephen's
gardener who took the observations having left, and none of his
other gardeners having been instructed to continue them. On
the other hand, there are five stations added to the list — Bulbourne,
near Tring; Offside Cottage, Cowroast ; Laurel Bank, King's
Langley ; Bone Hill, St. Albans ; and Aldenham House, Elstree,
on the Upper Colnc. Hitherto one station, Odsey, has been outside
the county boundary, in Cambridgeshire, but almost surrounded
by Hertfordshire ; now there are two similarly circumstanced,
Bulbourne being just over our border in Buckiaghamshire, at the
extremity of a spur of that county which projects into Hertford-
shire. This latter station is on the water-parting between the
river basins of the Thame and the Bulbourne, but the ground on
the Bulbourne side seems to rise a little higher than that in the
direction of the Thame, and therefore it is placed in that district,
notwithstanding its name.

The number of daily records which has been received is 35,
which is two more than for the previous year, but the same number
as that for the year 1894.

Particulars of the 44 rainfall stations, and the monthly and
total rainfall and number of days in the year 1896 on which at
least O'Ol inch of rain fell, or, when the measurement is taken
to thousandths of an inch, 0"00.'i inch, are given in Tables
I and II, pp. 141-143.

The mean rainfall in the county in the year 1896 was 26-70
inches. This is 0-04 inch below the average for the decade
1880-89, and 0-27 inch above that for the haK-century 1840-89.
The year was, therefore, one of about average rainfall. The mean
number of wet days in the year was exactly the average for the
twenty years 1870-89.

In the distribution of the rainfall between the two halves of
the year there is not much difference between 1895 and 1896.
In the fonner year 27^ per cent, of the year's rain fell in the first
six months, and 72 J per cent, in the last six months; in 1896
the fall in the first half of the year was 7*9 1 inches, or 30 per
cent, of the whole, and the fall in the second half was 18'79 inches,
or 70 per cent, of the whole year's fall. The autumn was much
the wettest season, having II "14 inches of rain, or 42 per cent,
of the year's fall in one quarter of the year. September was an
excessively wet month.

140 J. HOPKINSON REPORT ON THE

Droughts in 1896. — Accepting as usual Mr. Symons' definitions
of an "absolute drouglit " as a period of more than 14 consecutive
days without any rain, and a "partial drought" as a period of
more than 28 consecutive days with an aggregate rainfall not
exceeding O'Ol inch, per day, there was one absolute drought in
1896, and one partial drought.

The absolute drought occurred at 24 out of the 35 stations for
which I have the daily rainfall, its average duration being 22 days.
It lasted for

34 days, April 17 to May 20, at 1 station.

33

))

17

19

2

82

It

17

18

1

29

11

17

15

1

25

11

17

11

2

25

I)

23

17

1

20

11

30

19

1

18

11

30

17

2

20

May

1

20

2

19

))

1

19

3

17

11

1

17

3

17

1 1

2

18

2

16

11

2

17

1

15

11

2

16

2

The partial drought prevailed at all stations, commencing on the
17th of April and lasting at most of the stations until the 3rd
of June, its average duration being 45 days, and the average rain-
fall 0'007 in. per diem. It lasted for at least

33 days, April 17 to May 19, at the 35 stations.

34 ,, ,, 17 ,, ,, 20 ,, 33 of these.

46 „ ,, 17 ,, June 1 „ 27 ,, „

47 ,, ,, 17 ,, ,, 2 ,, 26 ,, ,,
4o ,, ,, 1/ ,, ,, o ,, 2o ,, ,,

Dktrihution of Rainfall throughout the Year. — Of the total
rainfall, 19 °/q fell during the winter months (Jan., Feb., and
Dec), 17 °/o during the spring (March to May), 22 °/q during the
summer (June to August), and 42 "/^ during the autumn (Sept. to
Nov.). The fall during each quarter and each season, and the
deviation from the mean for the half -century 1840-89, were as
follows : —

Fall. Diflf. Fall. DifE.

1st quarter 476 ins. — 0"87 in. Winter 5'06 ins. — 0*94 in.

2nd ,, 3-15 —2-86 Spring 4-.58 —0-94

3rd ,, 10-37 +3-05 Summer 5-92 —1-06

4th „ 8-42 -j-0-95 Autumn 11-14 +3-21

September was excessively wet ; March, October, and December
were also very wet; and August was rather wet. February and
May were exceedingly dry ; January and April were also veiy
dry ; and July and November were rather dry. The aggregate

RAINFALL IN HERTFORDSHIKK IN 1896.

ni

T.VRT.E I. IIeRTFORDSUTRE ll.VINFALL S

lATlONS,

1896.

Q

Station.

Observer.

Diameter

of

Gauge.

He

ght of Gauge
above

Ground.

Sea-level.

1.
3.

>>
>)

4.

>»

j»

6.

))
>»

7.
8.

> >

9.

10.
)>
>»
12.

J >

13.

M

14.

)>

»>

15.

16.

17.

J>
J)

18.

>)

>>

*Royston

Hale Wortham

II. George Fordham

William Lucas

ins.
8

5

5
5
8

5

5
5
5

5
5
5
8

5
8

24
12

5

5
5

5

5

5

losqr.

5
5
5

5
5
5

5
5

5
5
5

5
6
8

5

8

5

5
8

5

ft.
o
I

2
O
I
I

I
2
2

3

I
I
1
I

I
o

3
I

o

I
I

I

4

I
I

2

O

I

o

o

I

4
I
I

I

I

I

o

I

I
I
o
o

ins.

6

o

I

9

I
I

2
O

3
8

4
o
o
o

o
9
9
o

o

9
o
o
o

9
o
o
o

6
o

lO

8
o

3
o

o
o

0
2

9

o

o
o

9
6

ft.+
269 1\

256 4\

238 7n
212 T

220 4\

422 —

460
500 ?
401

394 L
420 ?
400 ?
401"^
550 T

427 /N
260

237 T

283 7\

630 B

420 T

423 T

336 7\
305
182
220
340 /f\
228 P
386 T

257 T

470 T
408 ~

500
484 T
400 T
222 B
240

250
112 T
253 T

118T
92 T

212

240 T

*Odsey

Hitchin— The Firs

* ,, Bancroft

,, The Maples .....

* ,, High Down

*Tring — Elm House

Francis Ransom

William Hill

Joseph Pollard

E. J. Le Quesne

J. G. Williams

,, Peudley Manor

* ,, Bulbourne

Gordon Thomas

Gordon Thomas

Richard Leah.

Cowroast

* , , Offside Cottage . . .
*Xorthchurch — The Limes...
*Berkhamsted — Rosebank ..

* „ Faii-hiU

*Great Gaddesden Vicarage...
*H. Hempstead — ApsleyMills

* „ Nash Mills..
Kg.'s Langley — Laurel Bank

*Kensworth— The Grove

Harpenden — Eothamsted ...
*St. Albans — Gorhambury ...

* ,, The Grange ...

* ,, BoneHiU

* Elstree — Aldenham House

* Watford — Frogmore

„ ColneVal.WaterWks.
*Rickmansworth — Moor Park

*Welwyn — Bridge House ...

*Datchworth Rectory

Hertford— Marden Hill......

*Steveiiage— "Weston Park ...

* ,, Bennington House ...

*Therfield Rectory

F. L. Sutton

Edward Mawley

W. Bonner Hopkins...

Rev. W. T. Drake ..
J. Dickinson & Co. ...

)>
Isaac Butler

Miss S. Grace Jones
Lawes and Gilbert ...
W. NewbeiTy

John Hopkinson

II. J. T. Broadwood

Edwin Beckett

Arthur P. Blathwayt
William Verini

Lord Ebury

B. Wilfred Thomas ...

Rev. J. Wardale

Richard Hoare

M. R. Pryor

Rev. Dr. Parker

Rev. J. G. Hale

Rev. C. W. Harvey...
E. Wallis

*Throcking Rectory

*Buntingf ord— Hamels Park
*Much Hadham

T. Woodham Mott ...

Harry W. Towse

W. Clinton Baker ..

Joseph Francis

Miss Joyce Croft

G. J. Xewbery

Sa-wbridgeworth — Cowicks

*Hertf ord — Bayiordbury

*Ware — Red House

* ,, Fanhams Hall

*Broxbourne — Stafford House
*Cheshunt — Old Nurseries ...
*New Barnet — Gas Works ...
*Southgate — The Lawns

Paul and Sou

T. II. Martin

George A. Church ...

Daily fall received. t For explanation of tliese symbols see Vol. VII, p. 53.

142

J. HOPKINSON — EEPOET ON THE

Table II. — Rainfall in

River District.

f ^

g 1

ID

1. Rhee

3. Hiz

s I 4. Up.Thame

6. Bulbourne

la

o
O

Station.

7. Gade

8. Ver

9. Up. Colue
L 10. Lo. Colne i

I

12. Mimram

13. Beane I

14. Rib

»< 15. Ash
16. Stort

17. Upper Lea

18. Lower Lea

Royston

Odsey

Hitchin— The Firs

,, Bancroft

The Maples ....
,, High Down....

Tring — Elm House

,, Pendley Manor
,, Bulbourne

Cowroast

Offside Cottage

Northchurch — The Limes

Berkhamsted — Rosebank

,, Fairhill

Great Gaddesden Vicarage

Hemel Hempstead — Apsley Mills ...

Nash Mills

King's Langley — Laurel Bank

Kensworth — The Grove

Harpenden — Rothamsted

St. Albans — Gorhambury

The Grange..
,, Bone Hill

Elstree — Aldenham House

"Watford — Frogmore

,, Colue Valley Waterworks
Rickmansworth — Moor Park

"Welwyn — Bridge House

Datchworth Rectory

Hertford— Marden Hill

Stevenage — Weston Park ....
Bennington House

Therfield Rectory

Throcking Rectory

Buntingford— Hamels Park

Much Hadham

Sawhridgeworth — Cowicks .

Hertford — Bayfordbury

Ware — Red House

,, Fanhams Hall

Broxbourne — Stafford House

Cheshunt — Old Nurseries

New Barnet— Gas Works

Southgate — The Lawns

Mean for the County

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

in.

in.

ins.

•8i

•49

3-27

•72

•41

320

•70

•37

3-o8

•77

■45

3-32

•76

•36

3-30

•73

•45

3-38

•83

•38

3-30

•96

•41

3-45

•84

•42

318

I-I2

•38

3-32

i-io

•38

3-24

I -05

•39

3-51

■97

•38

3-52

i-oo

•41

3-60

I -08

•50

3-93

•90

•50

3-82

•74

•34

328

•87

•44

3-88

I-2I

•59

3-80

I -06

•.S6

3-62

•91

•47

376

79

•46

3-62

•84

•47

3-93

•84

•50

362

•78

•39

3-47

•81

•39

3-32

I-I9

•51

4-27

•78

•39

3-76

•69

•42

3-14

•76

•35

3-42

•72

•48

376

•66

■47

3-34

•86

•44

3-30

•69

•54

3'40

•So

•48

3-60

■86

•48

3-68

•98

•69

4-10

•56

•44

3-15

•59

•44

323

•58

■44

3 06

•60

•39

378

•54

•36

315

•79

•37

3-47

•70

•41

3-19

■S3

•44

3'49

RAINFALL IN nERTFOEDSHIEE IN 1896.

143

Hertfordshire in 1896.

Apl.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year.

Days.

in.

in.

ins.

ins.

in*.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

■85

•30

2-02

■65

2-38

5-25

2^96

1-05

3-06

23-09

169

I -03

•32

2-12

■85

2-i6

6^68

2^82

0-99

2^46

2376

181

75

•32

1-59

i-oi

2^38

585

3-36

i-io

3-21

23-72

178

•86

•36

1-84

ri9

2-43

5-85

3-34

ri7

3 "40

2498

179

■78

•31

1-64

ro6

2-35

575

3-42

n2

3-29

24-14

161

75

•40

1-21

1-30

2-42

6-46

319

•93

3-15

24-37

164

74

•36

2^03

•88

3-52

6-88

3-34

ri8

4-13

27-57

183

•82

•42

1^90

I'lO

3-50

7-08

4-04

1-41

4-50

29-59

210

•91

•39

2-00

•86

3-14

5-91

3-51

I^20

399

26-35

164

79

•40

171

•87

2^69

7-22

3-83

131

4-28

27-92

•81

•38

174

•89

2-78

7-13

3-87

I 34

4-25

27-91

181

•69

•28

2-04

•72

2-68

6-70 ■

3-30

1-31

4-15

26-82

154

•70

•26

2^19

•81

279

6-54

3-50

I 33

4'3i

27-30

165

77

•28

2^l6

79

2-85

6-25

3-23

•81

4^i8

26-33

178

I-I9

■32

1-95

IT9

277

673

3 '49

1-36

3-89

28-40

170

•94

•42

r62

I -60

2^67

6-54

3-57

1-40

4-69

28-67

161

•70

•28

I -60

1-42

2-69

6-65

3-57

I-I5

4-13

26-55

154

•86

•35

1^48

1-49

277

674

3"64

1-34

4-58

28-44

•92

•47

2-31

1^29

3-36

6^i9

3-82

r27

3-89

29-12

169

•88

•45

2-09

I-2I

2-78

7-66

3-87

r29

4-05

29-52

171

•83

•34

174

I -06

2-56

6-8o

3-82

1-31

4"24

27-84

172

•87

•34

I 60

•90

2^42

669

3-46

1-49

4^i6

26-80

178

•72

•30

179

•96

2^7I

6-33

322

1-44

376

26-47

159

•58

•10

2-i8

•96

3-i6

6-02

274

1-34

3-50

25-54

•49

•27

1-41

1-53

3-60

7-29

2-96

1-36

3-89

27-44

158

•54

•30

171

I-2I

2-85

7-13

2-95

I 32

376

26-29

160

74

•27

1-68

1-41

3-32

7-97

372

1-50

479

31-37

171

•70

•35

2-II

•97

2-13

6^62

3-63

1-31

3-82

26-57

176

•58

•24

1-86

•71

2-32

6-46

3-II

i-io

3-46

24-09

148

•68

•24

2-40

•85

2-48

6-37

2-89

1-34

3-6i

25-39

156

•82

•36

2-51

I-2I

2^71

6^40

3"62

r-44

3-24

27-27

163

•64

•25

2-34

I^20

2^98

6^26

3"43

r29

3-6i

26-47

170

I-I3

•40

2-64

•96

2-47

5-59

333

IT2

3-30

25-54

181

•93

•31

2-i8

ri7

3-00

5 '92

3-39

1-59

3-48

26-60

177

73

•39

2^41

•92

2-87

5-80

3-52

1-21

3-58

26-31

151

•70

•39

2-87

•81

3-25

5-49

3-19

1-27

3-82

26-81

168

1-12

•43

2-94

1-34

376

7-44

3-92

ro8

3-67

31-47

165

•59

•24

2^36

79

2-96

6-30

274

I^2I

371

25-05

163

•58

•28

3-35

ri6

2-86

8-07

2-85

1^22

329

27-92

150

•57

•31

3-08

175

3-31

6-20

3-34

I •So

4^io

28-54

159

•63

•23

2-38

•67

3-37

6^24

337

r24

3-34

26-24

170

•65

•27

2 -02

•70

2-«3

6^i3

3-33

r25

3-25

24-48

177

•54

•23

1-91

•98

2-44

679

3-07

I-I9

4-02

25-80

•56

•28

1-92

•98

I 93

6-13

3-14

I-I7

3-80

24-21

185

77

•32

2 -06

1-05

2-8i

6-51

3-37

r26

379

26-70

168

144 J. HOPKINSON — EEPOKT ON THE

rainfall in the four very wet months was about seven and a quarter
times that in the four very dry ones. The difference in each month
from the mean for the hali-century was —

in. in. in. in.

Jan —1-48 April —1-01 July —1-45 Oct -f 0-43

Feb —1-27 Mav —1-81 Aug -1-0-43 Nov —1-30

Mar +1-88 June —0-04 Sept -["^-OS Dec 4-1-81

Thus the fall for the first six months was 3-73 ins. below the
mean, and for the last six months 4 '00 ins. above the mean ; and
while one month had more than four inches above the average, no
other month deviated as much as two inches from the average, and
only three months more than an inch and a half from it.

The absolute maximum fall in any one day in each month,
and the stations recording them, were —

in. ins.

Jan. 24— Kensworth 0-40 July 26— Apsley Mills,

Feb. 20— Moor Park, Eick- Hemel Hempstead 1-15

mausworth 0-22 Aug. 31 — Sawbridgeworth 1"08

Mar. 18— Broxbourne 0-97 Sept. 12— Odsey 1-76

April 10— Great Gaddesden 0-48 Oct. 6— Gorhambury 0-97

May 21— Kensworth 0-34 Nov. 7— Moor Park 0-59

June 24— Fanhams Hall, Ware 1-33 Dec. 4— Pendley, Tring 0-92

The wettest day in each month at 43 stations was —

January 24tli at 37, 25th at 6.

February 8th at 15, 12th at 1, 20th at 16, 29th at 10, 8th and 20th at 1,

March 17th at 21, 18th at 3, 20th at 18, 22nd at 1.

April 4th at 10, 10th at 24, 11th at 4, 12th at 2, 16th at 1, 4th and 10th at 1,
12th, 14th, and 16th at 1.

May 18th at 2, 20th at 1, 21st at 40.

June 7th at 2, 10th at 33, 24th at 8.

July 7th at 3, 16th at 1, 23th at 2, 26th at 37.

August 9th at 2, 10th at 5, 19th at 9, 25th at 8, 31st at 18, 10th and
31st at 1.

September 1st at 2, 4th at 5, lOtb at 7, 12th at 10, 23rd at 1, 24th at 18.

October 6th at 35, 12th at 1, 15th at 3, 19lh at 4.

November 7th at 34, 14th at 8, 7th and 14th at 1.

December 2nd at 2, 4th at 41.

The day in each month on which a heavy fall of rain was most

general over the county was therefore —

Jan. 24th April 10th July 26th Oct. 6th

Feb. 20th May 21st Aug. 31st Nov. 7th

March 17th June 10th Sept. 24th Dec. 4th

The number of wet days in the year (average of 40 gauges) was
168, being exactly the same as the mean for the 20 years 1870-89.
Of the total number there were 41 (or 24 %) in the winter
months, 39 (or 23 %) in the spring, 35 (or 21 °/o) in the summer,
and 63 (or 32 °/q) in the autumn.

The average number of wet days in each month, and the
deviation fi'om the mean for the 20 years 1870-89, were as
follows —

Jan. 10 — 5 April 11 —2 July 9 — 6 Oct. 20 +5

Feb. 8 — 6 May 4 —9 Aug. 16+3 Nov. 10 —6

March 24+11 June 10 —3 Sept. 23 +10 Dec. 23+7

BAINFALL IN nERTFOKDSniRE IN 1896.

145

Distribution of Rainfall throughout the County. — The following
table (Table III) gives the meau fall for each mouth and for the
year in each of the five river- districts represented, and in the two
main hydrographical divisions of the county, the catchment-basins
of the Great Ouse and the Thames, and also the difference in the
year from the mean for the decade 1880-89.

Table III. — Rainfall in the River-disteicts.

Months.

Cam.

IVEL.

Thame.

COLNE.

Lea.

Ouse.

Thames.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

Jan

n

■74

•88

-96

•72

•75

•85

Feb

•45

•38

•40

•45

•45

•41

■45

March

323

3-27

3-31

3-64

3 '44

3-26

3-50

April

■94

■81

•82

•78

•71

•85

-76

May

•31

•35

•39

•32

■31

•34

•32

June

2 '07

1-57

1-98

1-83

2-43

1-74

211

July

•75

I-I4

•95

I-I3

I -or

i-oi

I -06

August

2-27

2-39

3-39

2-86

280

2-35

2-86

Sept

579

5-98

6-62

6-8i

6-37

5-97

6-6i

October

2 89

3-33

363

3-48

329

3-i8

3^41

Nov

I -02

i-o8

1-26

1-31

1-28

1-06

i'30

Dec

276

3-26

4-21

4-14

3 59

3-09

3-90

Tear

23-43

24-30

27-84

27-71

26 40

24-01

27-13

Diff.from
1880-89

— 0-07

—0-97

— 1-26

+0-85

—0-47

— 0'02

The mean fall in each of the minor river-basins or sub-districts
represented, was as follows : —

ins.

Cam

Rhee

... 23-43

IVEL

Hiz

... 24-30

Thame...

Upper Thame

.- 27-84

^Bulbourne

.. 27-26

Gade

... 28-01

Colne ....

- Ver

... 27-97

Upper Colne

... 25-54

Lower Colne

... 28-37

Lea.,

ins.

Mimram 25-36

Beane 26-87

Rib 26-15

Ash 26-81

Stort 31-47

Upper Lea 27-17

Lower Lea 25-18

The total yearly fall ranged from 23-09 inches at Royston to
31-47 ins. at Cowicks, Sawbridgeworth ; and the total monthly
fall from 0*10 inch at Aldenham House, Elstree, in May, to
8-07 ins. at the Red House, Ware, i^n September. The greatest
fall in any one day was 1-76 inch at Odsey, on the 12th of
September.

Distribution of the Rainfall in each Month. — The nomenclature
used in the following account of the chief falls of rain is the same
as in my previous reports, falls of at least i inch being styled
considerable, f inch very considerable, 1 inch great, 1^ inch very
great, \\ inch heavy, and If inch very heavy. There was no
excessive fall (2 inches) in the year. This analysis only applies
to the thirty -five stations for which I have returns of the daily
rainfall.

146 J. HOPKTNSON — KEPOET ON THE

January. — A very dry month, with no snow, the rain falling on
two-thirds the average number of days. There was no considerable
fall of rain at any station.

Febkuahy. — An exceedingly dry month, having little more than
half the rainfall of January, with scarcely any snow, and rain on
little more than half the average number of days. As in January
there was no considerable fall of rain at any station.

Maech. — A very wet month, the rainfall being more than double
the average and on a large number of days, with occasional falls of
snow. On the 17th the fall of rain was considerable at twenty-six
stations, and very considerable at one ; on the 1 8th it was consider-
able at two ; on the 20th considerable at thirteen and very considerable
at five ; and on the 22nd it was considerable at one.

April. — A very dry month, with rain on a rather small number
of days. A partial drought commenced on the 17th and lasted
at all but a few stations to about the end of the following month.
There was no considerable fall of rain.

Mat. — An exceedingly dry month, having even less rain than
February, and on a very small number of days, being less than
a third the average. The rainfall was about one-seventh the
average, and only just over the amount which would have consti-
tuted the month one of partial drought throughout the whole
county. There was no considerable fall of rain.

June. — Rainfall about the average, nearly all falling within
the first ten days, and the number of wet days being small. On
the 7th the fall was considerable at four stations ; on the 10th con-
siderable at seventeen, very considerable at twelve, and great at
Weston Park (I'OSin.); and on the 24th (on the east of the
county only) considerable at five stations, very considerable at one,
and very great at the Eed House, Ware (1-32 in.), and at Fanhams
Hall, Ware (1-33 in.).

July. — A dry month, the rainfall being less than half the
average and on about two-thirds the usual number of days. On
the 7th the fall was considerable at one station and very considerable
at one ; and on the 26th it was considerable at eight stations, very
considerable at two, and great at Apsley Mills, Hemel Hempstead
(1-15 in.). During a violent thunderstorm on the 7th a "re-
markably brilliant thunderbolt " is reported to have fallen near
Dunstable.

August. — A rather wet month, with rain on rather more than
the usual number of days. On the 9th the fall was coyisiderable
at one station, and on the lOth at five ; on the 19th it was con-
siderable at eight and very considerable at one ; on the 25th it
was considerable at four; and on the 31st it was considerable at ten
and very considerable at four.

September. — An excessively wet month, the rainfall being
nearly three times the average and greater than in any previous
month since these reports were commenced more than twenty years
ago, the only near approach to it being in October, 1891, when
the average rainfall throughout the county was 6*24 inches. There

RAINFALL IN HEKTFORDSnUlE IN 1896. 147

were nearly twice ns many wet days as usual. There were two
days on which the rainfall was at least considerable at all the
stations in the county, the 4th and the 24th, although the greatest
fall at any one station occurred on the 12th. On the 1st the
fall was considerable at thirteen stations, verj/ considerable at nine,
and c/reat at Odsey (l-0;3in.) and Thcrfield (1-07 in.). On the
4th it was consideraile at five stations, very considerable at twenty-
eight, ?axi]. great at "Weston Park (1*04 in.) and lioyston (l"07in.).
On the 5th it was considerable at one station and very considerable
at one ; and on the 8th it was considerable at four and very con-
siderable at one. On the 10th it was considerable at thirteen, very
consideraMe at thirteen, great at Datchworth (TIS in.), and
very great at the Eed House, Ware (r36 in.). On the 12th it
was considerable at ten stations, very considerable at sixteen, great
at Frogmore, Watford (1-OOin.), Bayfordbury, Hertford (1-00 in.),
Southgate (1*05 in.), Northchui'ch (l'07in.), Bancroft, Hitchin
(r09in.). Offside Cottage, Cowroast (1-13 in.), and New Bamet
(ri9in.), and very heavy at Odsey (r76in.). On the 13th it
was very considerahle at one station (Red House, Ware) ; on
the 17th it was considerable at one station; and on the 22nd it
was considerable at twenty-one stations and very consideraMe at
one. The heavy falls of rain in this remarkable month closed
on the 24th, when the fall was considerable at four stations, very
considerable at twenty-two, and great at Offside Cottage, Cowroast
(1-00 in.). The Grange, St. Albans (1-01 in.), Welwyn (1-01 in.),
Bayfordbury, Hertford (1-02 in.), the Red House, Ware (1-02 in.),
Great Gaddesden (1*04 in.), Elm House, Tring (1*07 in.), Gorham-
bury, St. Albans (TIO in.), and Moor Park, Rickmansworth
(ri5in.). During a thunderstorm on the 8th rain fell at
Rosebank, Berkhamsted, for five minutes at the rate of two
inches per hour, and for ten minutes at the rate of an inch and
a half per hour.

OcTOBEK. — A very wet month, although the rainfall was not
much above the average, this usually being the wettest month in
the year. The number of wet days, however, was one-third
more than usual. On the 6th the fall was considerable at eighteen
stations and very considerable at eight ; and there was a co7isiderable
fall at four stations on the 12th, at one on the 15th, and at eight
on the 19th. There were several thunderstorms.

November. — A dry month, the rainfall being about half the
average, and on a small number of days. Nearly all the rain fell
during the first half of the month, and the only considerable fall
was on the 7th at seven stations.

December. — A very wet month, the rainfall being about double
the average, and on half as many more days than usual. On the
2nd the fall was considerable at five stations ; on the 4th it was
considerahle at twenty-six stations, and very considerable at eight;
and on the 24th it was considerable at six.

XVIII.

NOTES ON BIEDS OBSERVED IN HERTFORDSHIRE DURING

THE YEAR 1896.

By AxAjf F. Ckossman, F.L.S.

Read at Watford, 23rd March, 1897.

I HATE not many notes to report on birds which have actually
occurred in our county in 1896, inasmuch as I find the greatest
difficulty in obtaining correspondents. Most people appear to think
that I only want records of rare birds. This, however, is not the
case, as I am only too glad to get notes on any birds, whether rare
or common, that are seen in Hertfordshire. A thorough know-
ledge of the avifauna of the county can only be obtained by such
assistance, as it is impossible for one man to carefully study every
district.

To try to make up for such shortcomings with regard to birds
observed in 1896, I have been searching various books with a view
to bringing before the Society old records of birds formerly seen
in Hertfordshire, but which have never been recorded in our
* Transactions.' Amongst other books I studied ' The Birds of
Berks and Bucks,' by the late Captain Clarke Kennedy; and 'The
Birds of Middlesex,' by Mr. J. E. Harting, who is an honorary
member of this Society. From the former I gained much informa-
tion about birds which had up to the date of publication of the
book — viz. 1868 — occurred at the Tring Reservoirs; and from the
latter, which was published in 1866, I obtained a few records of
birds which had been found at Elstree Reservoir. All the in-
formation taken fi'om these two books, and from any others which
I have examined, I have incorporated in my present paper. It
seems to me that a recorder to a Natural History Society should do
his best to bring before such Society not only records of recent
events or discoveries, but should also from time to time endeavour
to search up all old records which have not appeared in the
' Transactions ' of the Society, in order that if anyone in time to
come shoiild wish to bring out a fauna of the county, he would
have before him all the materials for doing so without having also
the trouble of searching through a vast amount of literature and
obtaining possibly very small results. This is what I have been
endeavouring to do, and I only hope that my efforts may be of
assistance to some future author of a book on the birds of Hert-
fordshire.

Although I have no record of any bird new to our county list
having been obtained in 1896, I have the pleasure of directing
your attention to four birds, which, although they occurred or are
reported to have occurred in Hertfordshire some years ago, do not
appear to have been mentioned in our ' Transactions.' I can give
very little information about these birds, except the fact that they

A. F. GROSSMAN — BIRDS OBSERVED IN 1896. 149

or their eggs have been seen. Three out of the four occurred at
the Tring Reservoirs, and no doubt is likely to attach to the reports
of them, inasmuch as the vast expanse of water there would be
a very likely spot for them. "With regard to the fourth, however,
I hesitated very much at first as to whether I should make any
mention of it, but eventually I decided to bring the record before
the Society for what it is worth. The fintling of the eggs of the
bird referred to was recorded by a man who was one of the first
field naturalists of his day. I refer to the late Mr. F. Bond, but
of course there is the chance of his having been falsely informed.

Following the usual order observed in former reports, I will first
state what I know about the birds new to the county list, and will
then proceed to give such notes on any other birds as appear to me
to be of sufiicient interest to introduce into this report.

1. Great Eeed-Waebler (Acrocephalus Uirdoides). — Mr. A. G.
More, in his excellent paper on " The Distribution of Birds in
Great Britain during the Nesting Season," which appeared in
the 'Ibis' for 1865, stated that the late Mr. F, Bond told him
that he had seen three eggs of this bird which were taken in
Hertfordshire, Unfortunately, no particulars are given either as to
locality or date. I should think from what I have heard about
the great reed-warbler that the only place suitable for it in this
county would be one of the Tring Reservoirs, but this, of course,
is only a surmise. I can get no further infonnation about these
eggs, and, as Mr. Bond died in 1889, it is improbable that any
more will ever be forthcoming. This bird has only occurred on
a few occasions in Great Britain, and hence it seems curious that
no other details were mentioned in this instance. It is a bird which
cannot be mistaken, and furthermore it is bold and is very con-
spicuous fi'om its large size and its loud harsh song. Mr. Howard
Saunders states that south of the Baltic the reed - warbler is
abundant in summer in suitable localities thi-oughout Europe as
far south as the Mediterranean ; he also mentions that it breeds
annually as near to us as Calais, and is common in Belgium and
Holland. In the breeding-season it need only be looked for in
reed-beds. The nest he describes as being a compact cup-shaped
structure some five inches deep, composed of dry reeds and grass
with a lining of the finer portions and the flowers of the same, the
whole being closely bound to and suspended from several upright
reed stems. The eggs, four, five, or six in number, are pale
greenish-blue, botched and speckled with ash-grey, russet-brown,
and dark olive.

2. White - FRONTED Goose {Afiser albifrons). — Captain Clarke
Kennedy stated that he was informed by the Rev. H. H. Crewe
that this species had been observed at the Tring Reservoirs. Until
I went thoroughly into the old records of the birds of Hertfordshire,
for the pui-pose of preparing this paper, I was under the impression
that this bird had already been recorded in our ' Transactions,' but
I find that this is not the case, and that therefore it is an addition
to our county list. It is, however, unfortunate that there is not

150 A. F. GROSSMAN — NOTES ON BIRDS

more information iu ' The Birds of Berks and Bucks ' about this
and the two following species. The white-fronted goose is only an
annual winter visitor to the British Islands, its chief nesting-
grounds being in Siberia.

3. Gadwall (Anas strepera). — The gadwall is also stated, on
the authority of Mr. Crewe, to have been occasionally killed at
the Reservoirs. This duck, according to Mr. Howard Saunders,
is uncommon except in Norfolk and one or two spots in the
Midlands. In Norfolk, however, on certain estates, it breeds in
large numbers, and I would refer anyone desiring further infor-
mation on the subject to Stevenson's 'Birds of Norfolk.'

4. Velvet Scoter (CEdemia fusea). — Mr. Crewe also mentioned
that this bird had occurred on two occasions at Tring, but gave
no further details. The velvet scoter, which may easily be
distinguished from the common scoter by its larger size and its
wing, is far less numerous on our coasts, but one or two pairs may
often be observed with almost every flock of the common bird on
certain parts of our coasts. The late Mr. Booth believed that
a few pail's breed in parts of the Northern Highlands, but this
has never been actually proved.

Miscellaneous Notes.

Blackbird [Turdus merula). — Amongst the information I obtained
from Captain Clarke Kennedy's book on the ' Birds of Berks and
Bucks,' was the statement that several black and white birds
of this species were observed in Ashridge Park during the year
1862.

Eing-Ouzel {Turdus torquatus). — On 8th May, 1896, my brother
saw one of these birds near a little pond on Berkhamsted
Common. Mr. Latchmore informs me that ring-ouzels are seen
regularly eveiy spring at Ickleford, near Hitchin ; and Mr. Lucas
states that his father used frequently to see these birds on his
lawn at the latter place, but that they have not appeared there
in recent years. On looking through the past records of this bird
in Hertfordshire, I find that between 1877 and 1886 it was
reported nearly every year, and that, with two exceptions, all
the examples were seen in the autumn. From 1886 to 1895 I can
find no records of this bird in the ' Transactions,' but I was able
to report its occurrence in two localities in the latter year during
the spring migration. A striking feature about the appearance
of the ring-ouzel in this county is the late date on which it has
so often occurred, several of the records being in November, and
one being so late as December 12th, on which date in 1882
the late Mr. Littleboy saw two or more at Caldecott. In the
'Zoologist' for 1879 there is an interesting article by Mr. Harting
on the occurrence of this species in the British Isles during the
winter, in which he enumerates several well-authenticated instances
of the bird remaining so late with us.

Stonechat {Pratincola ruhicola). — I observed the stoncchat on
Berkhamsted Common on 25th and 27th December, 1896. It is

OBSEEVED IN HEKTFORDSniRE IN 1896. 151

probable that it remained with us on account of the unusually
mild weather wbieli lasted up to the end of the year.

Redbreast {Erithacus ruhecula). — Captain Clarke Kennedy states
in his book that in the summer of 1802 he found in a lane near
Berkhamsted a robin's nest containing four pure white eggs, which,
however, appeared pink before they were blown. In Vol. VIII
of our ' Transactions ' Mr. Lewis mentions some apparently white
eggs of this bird, but on closer examination very faint markings
could be observed.

Wood -Wren {PhijUoscopus sihilatrix). — The wood -wren was
rather late in am'S'ing near Berkhamsted in 1896. In two woods
at least, where I observed it in 1895, it did not appear at all,
while, on the other hand, I heard it on June 20th at Ockridge
Wood, where I did not notice it in the previous year. I heard
the bii'd singing as late as July 5th, near Aldbury, and on the
following day in Frithsden Copse. On May 31st I found in
a w^ood above Aldbuiy a nest belonging to this species containing
seven eggs. It was placed amongst a lot of undergrowth, and was
extremely difficult to find ; in fact, I only discovered it after
a long search by following and watching the hen bird. Young
birds were eventually hatched from this nest. In the wood in
question the wood-wren was fairly plentiful, and one could see
several pairs there in an afternoon. Mr. Harting, in the ' Birds
of Middlesex,' states that this bird used to occur in the neigh-
bourhood of Bushey.

Grasshopper- Warbler {Locustella n(Bvia). — This bird was very
plentiful on Berkhamsted Common in 1896. I also heard it
singing on King's Langley Common. The latest date on which
I heard one singing was July 7th, on Berkhamsted Common.

Co.ix-TiTJiousE (Parus hritannicus). — Captain Clarke Kennedy
mentions in his book that he once found a nest of this species
built in a haystack at Little Gaddesden. This seems a very
unusual situation for this bird to build in, but the tits are famous
for choosing curious nesting-sites.

Marsh-Titmouse {Parus palustris). — Mr. Rivers informs me that
he found a marsh-tit's nest with young birds in a hole in the wood
of an orchard-house. He does not state whether the hole was
dug out by the bird itself, but this species very often digs out
a hole in a rotten post or stump for its nest. A noticeable fact
about the marsh -tit is that, when it does dig out its own nesting-
hole, as a rule no chips are to be found on the ground below,
proving clearly that the bird carries them away.

Pied Wagtail {Motacilla luguhris). — This bird appeared to stay
with us during the whole of the winter of 1895-96, and I also
saw it in December, 1896, near Berkhamsted. Mr. Rivers tells
me that he found a nest of this species in the yew-hedge, in nearly
the same place as the nest containing twelve eggs which he found
in 1895, and which I mentioned in my report for that year under
the head of the next species. Later on in the season he found
a second nest in nearly the same spot.

152 A. F. GROSSMAN NOTES ON BIHDS

White Wagtail {Motacilla alba). — I saw this "wagtail on several
occasions near Berkhamsted in 1896, but could obtain no actual
proof of its nesting in the neighbourhood.

Geet Wagtail {Motacilla melanope). — This bird remained with
us in 1896 until nearly the end of March, and appeared again about
the middle of September, which was nearly a month earlier than
the date on which I first saw it in 1895.

Meadow-Pipit {Anthus pratensis). — I saw one or two pairs of
meadow-pipits on Berkhamsted Common during the summer, but
could not discover whether they were actually nesting there. The
bii'd appears to nest in the neighbom'hood of Boyston, but there
does not seem to be any other place in the county where the fact
of its nesting has been actually proved.

Gkeat Grey Shrike (Zanius excubitor). — Mr. F. Sutton informed
me that he shot a male of this species at Hill Farm, Xorthchurch,
in January, 1886. It was sitting on a high tree, and when shot
fell off into the snow, and on account of its colour could not at
first be found. He has the specimen in his possession now.
Mr. Latchmore states that he has one of these birds which was shot
on Norton Common, near Baldock, and Mr. Lucas tells me that
specimens have been seen from time to time near Hitchin. This
bird has been obtained in Hertfordshire on about a dozen occasions
since 1880.

Pied Flycatcher {Muscicapa atricapilla). — A specimen of this
species was seen in Hitchin by Mr. Lucas in the summer of 1896,
and was eventually shot and preserved. Mr. Latchmore also
mentions that the pied flycatcher has occasionally been seen in the
neighbourhood of Hitchin. Only thi'ee examples of this bird have
been previously recorded in Hertfordshii'e, the last of the three
being shot at Stevenage in May, 1887.

Hawfinch {Coccothraustes vulgaris). — The hawfinch was fairly
plentiful in the Berkhamsted district in 1896, although I did
not notice it in such large numbers as in 1895. On June 21st
I saw three of these birds in our garden at Berkhamsted feeding
on a cherry-tree ; so far as I could see, they were a female and
two young birds. Mr. Rivers informs me that this species is
resident in the neighbourhood of Sawbridgeworth, and he mentions
Pishiobuiy as a place where he thinks they nest, although he
has not had an opportunity of actually verifying the fact. He also
says that one or two families may sometimes be seen during the
summer feeding together on the peas in his garden. Mr. Lucas
states that he has observed this bird in the neighbourhood of
Hitchin, while Mr. Nunn informs me that within the last three
years the hawfinch has established itself in the parish of Therfield,
very much to the annoyance of gardeners there. In the 'Zoologist'
for 1849 there is a note from the late Rev. H. H. Crewe, in which
he mentions that a male hawfinch had been killed at Berkhamsted
about six years previously, and that in April, 1849, he had
observed a pair in a wood near Tring, and he then wrote as if
this species was at that time a comparatively rare bird in the

OBSERVED IN HEETFORDSniKE IN 1896, 153

norfh-wcst portion of HertfordshiiT. T am glad to bo able to say-
that this is uot uow the case, but that the tine bird may now be
considered as a fairly plentiful and incrcasinfj; resident.

Goldfinch {Cardue/is elegans). — The g-oldtinch has been I'eported
to me as having- been seen on several occasions in the district around
Berkhamsted during the latter part of 1896, both in small parties
and singly. In April of that year I found a nest of this species
containing young birds in a small fir spinney just outside the
borders of the county; it vras placed at the end of a bough of
a small pine, and -was built of moss and lined "with what appeared
to be catkins. Although this nest was not actually in Hertford-
shire, it is interesting to know that a bird which is in some
districts becoming very scarce still nests at least near to our
county. Mr. H. S. Eivers tells me that he frequently saw
goldfinches about near Sawbridgeworth in 1896, and that he is
almost certain that a pair nested in his garden, although he could
not actually discover the nest.

Tree-Spakrow [Passer montanus). — This bird, according to
Mr. Harting, used occasionally to be observed in small flocks at
Elstree during the winter-time. Mr. Numi tells me that during
the last few years the tree-sparrow has commenced to nest in the
neighbourhood of Eoyston, where in former times it was only
a -winter visitor.

Mealy Redpoll {Linota linaria), — Mr. Harting, in his book on
the 'Birds of Middlesex,' states that a pair of these birds were
obtained near Elstree in 1866, and further that he had been
informed that the bird might be procured there in most years.
This bird has only been recorded in Hertfordshire on one other
occasion, when one was taken by a bird-catcher on the north-
western border of the county, towards I-vinghoe, According to
Mr. Howard Saunders the mealy redpoll is a regular winter visitor
to the north of the British Isles, but becomes less plentiful further
south.

Lesser Redpoll {Linota rufescens). — Mr. Lucas informs me that
he has observed this species in the neighbourhood of Hitchin, and
he also says that he possesses some eggs which were taken in that
locality. Mr. Rivers states that on 29th July, 1896, he saw
a lesser redpoll on a birch-tree in his grounds at Sawbridgeworth.
This is the first occasion on which he has observed the bird in
that district.

CiRL-BuNTiNG {Emheriza cirlus). — Mr. More, in the ' Ibis ' for
1865, mentions that on 4th June, 1864, the Rev. H. H. Crewe
found near Tring a nest of the cirl-bunting containing three eggs.
The chalk hills of Hertfordshire are mentioned by Mr. Howard
Saunders in his * Manual ' as one of the breeding-places of this
species, and in Vol. VIII of oux ' Transactions ' it is mentioned
as ha-ving been very plentiful around Tring in 1894,

Jackdaw ( Corvus monedula). — Mr. Silvester informs me that on
10th March, 1896, his ploughman, who was rolling a meadow
on Hedges Farm, St. Albans, about ten o'clock in the morning,

VOL. IX. — PART IV. 11

154 A. F. GROSSMAN — NOTES ON BIRDS

saw a flock of rooks attack three jackdaws, two of which they
killed, the third managing to escape for a time. As soon, however,
as they had despatched the two, the rooks started full cry after the
sxjjvivor, and although the man did not see the finish, he had no
doubt that it shared the same fate as the others. This is a most
curious circumstance, and one would very much like to know the
reason of this apparently unprovoked assault.

Nightjar ( Caprimulgus europceus). — I saw the nightjar on several
occasions near Berkhamsted. They seemed particularly plentiful
on the Common, and could be heard there on most evenings during
the summer. "When disturbed they usually fly only quite a short
distance, and then settle again. A young bird of this species was
shot near Northchurch on October 6th. Mr. Lucas mentions the
bird as occurring at Wain Wood, near Hitchin, and Mr. Latchmore
states that it is very common in certain localities in that district.

Wryneck {lynx torquilla). — The wryneck was fairly plentiful in
the Berkhamsted district in 1896. The latest date on which I saw
one was September 5th, at Northchurch. I was particularly struck
with its flight, which reminded me of that of a red-backed shrike,
for which, indeed, I mistook the bird at first. Mr. Eivers reports
this bird from Sawbridgeworth, and Mr. Lucas has observed it in the
neighbourhood of Hitchin. Mrs. Bishop informed Mr. T. Yaughan
Roberts that the bird is observed annually in her garden at Watford.

Great Spotted Woodpecker {Bendrocopiis major). — This bird was
very plentiful in West Herts during the year 1896. I saw several
holes in a wood called Frithsden Beeches, which were apparently
tenanted by this species, and under one of them I found egg-shells
from which young birds had been hatched. The bird occurs near
Hitchin, and Mr. Rivers has frequently observed it around Saw-
bridgeworth.

Lesser Spotted Woodpecker [Bendrocopus minor). — Mr. Harting,
in the ' Birds of Middlesex,' mentions this bird as having been
observed near Elstree. Mr. Latchmore and Mr. Lucas both inforai
me that they have seen it near Hitchin, and it also occurs near
Sawbridgeworth. I myself saw several of these birds near Berk-
hamsted in 1896.

Kingfisher {Alcedo ispida). — The kingfisher was fairly plentiful
along the Canal and River Bulboume, near Berkhamsted, in 1896.
On the other hand, Mr. Latchmore states that in the neighboui'hood
of Hitchin this species is nearly extinct, owing to the way in which
it is destroyed there by birdcatchers, who hang a silk net over the
arch of a bridge, and then drive the birds up or down stream, as
the case may be ; in this way they are easily caught. He suggests
that the kingfisher should be protected all the year round in Hert-
fordshire, which, if possible, would be a very good thing to do.

Long-eared Owl {Asio otus). — In ' The Birds of Berks and
Bucks,' Ashridge Park is mentioned, on the authority of the Rev.
Dr. Jenks, as a regular breeding-place of this bird.

Tawny Owl {Syrnium aluco). — A curious circumstance is men-
tioned in the 'Field' of 18th May, 1895, by Mr. Naylor, of

OBSERVED IN IlERTFORDSHrRE IN 1896. 155

Am-^vcllbury, Ware. He stated that on May 12th of that year
ho found a young bird of this species nearly fledged, having
cWdently fallen out of the nest, which, however, he could not
discover. He earned it into the shade. Towards evening it
became much livelier, and managed to climb upon a railing about
eighty yards from the house. On going to look at it about 8 p.m.,
and while still some ten yards away from it, one of the old birds
swooped down on him from a neiglibouring tree unseen, striking
him a heavy blow on the ear and cheek and drawing blood with
claws and beak. The blow was almost a knock-down one, but the
bird passed on immediately.

Hen-Haeeier [Circus cyaneus). — Mr. Lucas tells me that he
once saw a hen-hamer near Hitchin. About the year 1845 a pair
of these birds were shot in the parish of Sandon. They were pre-
served by the late Mr. Norman, and were in the possession of the
late Mr. Hemy Fordham at the time of his death. The only other
record that I can find of this bird in Hertfordshire is of one that
was killed near Weston Manor, Stevenage, on 28th October, 1883.

Peregrine Falcon {Falco peregrimcs). — A female of this species
was killed on 6th August, 1896, on Mr. Sutton's premises at North-
church, by a boy with a stick, while it was attacking some fowls.
It is now in the possession of Mr. W. Sutton. On December 20th
in the same year a fine specimen was shot on the very borders
of the county near Brockley Hill, by Mr. Arthur Wilshin.
Mr. Latchmore mentions that this bird has occasionally been
obtained in the neighbourhood of Hitchin, but gives no further
information. Mr. Nunn informs me that a pair were shot by
a keeper in Newnham plantation, not far from Baldock, about the
year 1878, and were formerly in the possession of Mr. Simpson.
In my report for 1895 I mentioned two other occasions on which
the peregrine had occurred in that year in Hertfordshire.

Hobby [Falco suhhuteo). — Mr. Latchmore has in his possession
some eggs of this hawk which were taken at Stevenage. Mr. Nunn
infonns me that when he went to reside in the parish of Kelshall
in 1847, the hobby was fairly plentiful in that neighbourhood, but
that in 1849 the last bird obtained in that parish was shot from the
nest. The bird is now in his possession. The hobby has been
recorded as nesting in Hertfordshire on one other occasion, A nest
with four eggs was found in Moor Park by a keeper in 1881.

Merlin {Falco cesalo7i). — Mr. Thompson, of Elstree, informs me
that a merlin was observed near there in December, 1896, and
Mr. Lucas states that it has been seen at times near Hitchin. This
bird has only been recorded as having been shot in this county on
five other occasions. One was shot at Hitchin, but no date is
given, and it is probably one of those mentioned by Mr. Lucas.
The other four were obtained at Tring, two being shot there in
February, 1886, and two in January, 1887.

OsPREY {Pandion haliaetiis). — In the 'Ibis' for 1865 there is
a letter from the Rev. H. H. Crewe about a pair of ospreys which
frequented the Tring Reservoirs during the month of September,

156 A. F. CROSSMAN — NOTES ON BIEDS

1864. On the 30th of that month the female waf? shot while
devouring a fish. The male continued in the neighbourhood for
some time and then disappeared. This species has been recorded
in our ' Transactions ' on several occasions, the most recent record
being of one that was seen fishing in the E,iver Lea, near Wheat-
hampstead, in September, 1887.

Little Bittern [Ardetta minuta). — In the ' Birds of Middlesex,'
Mr. Harting mentions a male of this species in good plumage,
then in the collection of Mr. Bond, which was obtained at Elstree
Eeservoir in 1840. There is one other record of this bird in
Hertfordshire. On 17th October, 1884, one was shot near the
Carthagena "Weir near Broxboume.

BiTTEEN {Botaurus stellaris). — Mr. Lucas informs me that
a bittern was heard near Hitchin in 1894, and Mr. Latchmore
states that one, now in the possession of Mr. William Hill, was
shot near there some years ago.

"Whoopee {Cygnus fmm'cus). — The Rev. H. H. Crewe informed
Captain Clarke Kennedy that this bird was an occasional visitor
to the Tring Eeservoirs. From oiu* ' Transactions ' I find that
in the winter of 1875-76 a pair of whoopers fi'equented a piece of
water in Great Gaddesden parish, and that in 1892 thirty were
seen flying over Hertford, one of them being afterwards shot at
Woodhall.

Common Sheldrake {Tadorna cornuta). — This bird is also men-
tioned as an occasional visitor to the Tring Reservoirs. In
December, 1896, one was also observed at Elstree Reservoir, where
another is recorded as having been shot in 1883. The only other
record of this species in Hertfordshire is of one seen at Tring in 1888.

Pintail {Bafila acuta). — The pintail formerly occurred at Tring
every winter, but in recent years it has only been recorded on
two occasions in this county, both being at Tring.

Teal {Querquedula crecca). — I observed this species at the Tring
Reservoirs on several occasions in 1896, and Mr. Thompson tells me
that the keeper at Elstree Reservoir also saw it there occasionally.

Widgeon [Mareca penelope). — The widgeon used formerly to occur
plentifully at Tiing during the winter, but is now usually seen
there only in small parties. Street saw five there on 5th January,
1896. The bird is also frequently seen at Elstree.

ScAtrp {Fidigula marila). — The scaup is mentioned in ' The Birds
of Berks and Bucks ' as being an occasional visitor to the Reser-
voirs at Tring. In recent years it has only been recorded in
Hertfordshire on two occasions, viz., one at Easneye, near Ware,
in 1881, and one at Tring in 1884.

Golden-eye ( Clangula glaucion). — This bird appears to have
always been a fairly regular winter visitor to Tring, and the year
1896 was no exception in this way, as Street saw nine there on
January 6th. It is only veiy rarely that drakes in full plumage
are seen there, the annual ^-isitors being usually females and young
birds. In 1849, at the beginning of the year, a fine male in full
plumage was obtained.

OBSERVED IN nERTFOKDSlIUlK IN 1896. 167

Common Scoter ((Edemia nigra). — In tlic 'Birds of Ecrks and
Pucks ' the scoter is lueutioiu'd as having been observed at Tring.
"Within recent times it has occurred at liushey Heath, a pair having
been seen there in 1881, and at Tring, where a female was shot
in October, 1884.

Goosander {Jfergus merganser). — Small parties of goosanders
used occasionally to visit the Tring Reservoii's in fonner years, but
of late they have been less frequent. In January, 1896, however,
Street saw two there.

Eedbreasted Merganser [Mergus serrator). — This bird also
appeared at the Tring Eeservoirs there at times, but does not seem
to have done so recently. At Munden House, near Watford, there
is a pair of these birds which were obtained there between 1840
and 1850.

Stock-Dote {Columla osjias). — Captain Clarke Kennedy, in his
book, states that the stock-dove formerly nested in large numbers
in Ashridge Park, and I can bear witness to. their being fairly
plentiful there at the present time.

Quail [Coturnix communis). — Mr. Sainsbury Verey informed
me that he heard a quail near Heronsgate early in June. 1896.
Mr. Lucas gives this as one of the birds observed near Hitcliin,
and Mr. Latchmore states that it breeds in that neighbourhood
every year.

Spotted Crake {Porzana maruetta). — Mr. Latchmore has a spotted
crake which was killed by flying against the telegraph-wires near
Hitchin in November, 1893, and has seen others obtained in
that locality. He also states that one was found dead in August,
1896, at Offley. Mr. Lucas informs me that one was procured
in the Hitchin district during the past winter.

Stone-Cprlkw [Q^dicnemus scolopax). — In the 'Birds of Berks
and Bucks,' Captain Clarke Kennedy mentions, on the authority
of the Kev. H. H. Crewe, that this bird was formerly very common
in the neighbourhood of Tring. Mrs. Ashby, of jS'orcott Hill Farm,
has in her possession a stuffed specimen which, was obtained some
twenty years ago, at Dudswcll, between Berkhamsted and Tring.
This is a very light-coloured bird. Mr. Lucas states that the
stone-curlew is still faiiiy plentiful in the neighbourhood of
Hitchin, and Mr. Latchmore infonns me that it breeds near
Hexton. On the other hand, Mr. Nunn tells me that he has
known of no eggs ha^-ing been found in the Royston district since
1894. This bird, which frequents much the same sort of country as
the great bustardiised formerly to do, seems, I am sorry to say, to be
gradually disappearing fi'om our county. I should be very glad
of any notes on the habits and distribution of the bird in Hertford-
shire, in order that, in times to come, our descendants may not
be without some information about it, as is unfortunately the case
with us with reference to the great bustard, which disappeared
from the county without any record at all having been kept even
as to when the last one was seen.

Dotterel {Eudromias morinellm). — Mi*. Latchmore informs me

158 A. F. CKOSSMAN — NOTES ON BIRDS

that the dotterel comes every spring to the hills near Royston,
resting there a few days on its way north, and appearing there
again in the autumn. He also tells me that he has seen some
very fine specimens which were obtained by a farmer at Walliagton,
near Baldock. In the 'Birds of Berks and Bucks' there is
mention made of a male obtained by one of Lord Brownlow's
keepers on 14th August, 1862, on the very borders of the county,
in a cornfield near Ivinghoe.

Ringed Plovee {jS^gialitis Maticula). — This bird occurs at the
Tring Reservoirs every year on migration.

Golden Plover (Charadrius pluviatilis). — Large parties of golden
plovers appeared at Tring in December, 1896.

Gret Plover {Squatarola helvetica). — I am informed that in the
spring of 1893 a female of this species was found at Royston,
having come in contact with the telegraph-wires. The only other
specimen of this bird recorded in Hertfordshire was shot near the
Tring Reservoirs in 1885.

Oyster - Catcher {Hmmatopus ostralegm) . — - An oyster - catcher
was killed at Elstree Reservoir early in April, 1866. The only
other specimen recorded in Hertfordshire was also shot at Elstree ;
this was in February, 1868,

Great Snipe {GalUnago major). — In the 'Birds of Middlesex'
Mr. Harting mentions a bird of this species as having been obtained
at Bushey Heath, but gives no particulars. This bird appears
to have occurred on one other occasion in this county, an albino
specimen ha-v^g been obtained at Tring.

Dunlin {Tringa alpnia). — This bird is mentioned by Mr. Harting
as frequenting Elstree Reservoir during the winter. It is also
an annual visitor to Tring, where Street saw some in August,
1896.

RuPF (Machetes pugnax). — A reeve was obtained at Chisfield
Park, near Stevenage, about fourteen years ago, and is now in the
possession of Mr. C. Poyntz Stewart. In my report for 1895
I mentioned the various occasions on which this bird has occurred
in Hertfordshire.

Common Sandpiper (Totanus hypoleucus). — Mr. Latchmore informs
me that a nest of this bird was found by the miller of Hyde Mill,
near Hitchin ; it was placed under a high bank at the sluice-pit.
Mr. Latchmore says that he himself used frequently to flush the
birds from the place, but never thought of looking for a nest. No
actual date can be given by the miller as to when he found the
nest. This is the first time that this bird has been recorded as
nesting in Hertfordshire.

Green Sandpiper {Totanus ochropus). — This bird occurs annually
at the Tring Reservoirs and also in the neighbourhood of Hitchin.

Redshank {Totanus caUdris). — On September 19th Street saw
two birds at Tring, presumably, from his description, of this
species. In my last report I enumerated the various instances of
the occurrence of the redshank in Hertfordshire.

Greenshank {Totanus canescens). — The greenshank occurred at

OBSERVED IN HERTFOUDSnilfE IN 1896. 159

Tring during the autumn migration. It may now, I think, be
considered an annual visitor there.

Common Curlew {Numenius arquatus). — In April, and again in
August, some birds of this species were observed at Tring.

Black Tern {Hydrochclidon nigra). — This bird appeared in large
numbers at Tring during the summer of 1896, as many as sixty
having been seen there together on May 11th.

Common Tern {Sterna fluviaUlis). — This species was also fairly
plentiful at Tring in 1896. Mr. Rivers informs me that on August
18th and again on September 27th he saw a bird presumably of
this kind at Sawbridge worth.

Arctic Tern {Sterna macrura). — The Rev. H. H. Crewe informed
the author of ' The Birds of Berks and Bucks ' that the Arctic tern
used occasionally to visit the Tring Reservoirs. The only recent
record, however, of this bii'd in Hertfordshire, is of one shot at
Tring in the spring of 1886.

Lesser Tern {Sterna tnimita). — Street informs me that he saw
two lesser terns at Tring on 17th October, 1896. Some were seen
there about the same time in 1895, as I mentioned in my report
for that year.

Black-headed Gull {Lartis ridihundus). — A few birds of this
species were observed at Tring at various times in 1896. On
March 15th Mr. Rivers observed one sailing about at Sawbridge-
worth.

Common Guxl {La/rus canus). — Street mentions the occurrence of
certain gulls at various times, which he speaks of as common gulls.
Though probably these were not all '■'■ Larus canus,^^ some of them
were most Likely of that species. In 1896 small parties of these
so-called common gulls appeared at Tring nearly every month.
Mr. E. W. Arnold mentioned to Mr. Hopkinson that two gulls
were seen flying over Redboum about the first week in February.

Black-backed Gull {Larus fuscus vel mariniis). — Street also in-
forms me of the occurrence of black-backed gulls at the Reservoirs
occasionally, but he does not state whether they were lesser or
great black-backed gulls.

Little Auk {Mergulus alle). — In my report for 1895 I mentioned
the occurrence of a little auk at Sarratt, but could give no date.
I have since ascertained that the actual date was January 25th.
Mr. Nunn informs me that in the autumn of 1894 a little auk,
which is now in the possession of Mr. D. H. Nash, stuffed, was
brought to him alive at Royston. Mr. Latchmore also tells me
that in the winter of 1895-96 little auks were picked up dead at
Hitchin, Welwyn, and Ashwell.

Great Northern Diver {Colymbus glacialis). — Captain Clarke
Kennedy mentions that an immature specimen of this bird was
obtained at one of the Tring reservoirs in December, 1841. This
species has only been recorded in this county on four other occa-
sions— two being obtained at different times at Elstree Reservoir,
one being shot in January, 1887, and another being seen in
February of the same year at Tring.

160

A. F. GROSSMAN — NOTES ON BIRDS

Arritax and Departure of Migrants.

Species.

EiNG-OuZEL

[Tiirdus torqnatus)
Wheatear

{Saxicola cenanthe)
"Whinchat

{Fratincola rubetra)

(Last seen)
Redstart

{Ruticilla phcenicurus)

Nightingale

{Daulias luscinia)

Summer Migrants.

Locality. Date. Observer.

Berkhamsted May 8 A. Crossman.

Tring Reservoirs Mar. 30 J. Street.

Sawbridgeworth April 28 H. S. Rivers.

Common Whitethroat
{Silvia cmerea)

(Last seen)
Lesser "Whitethroat

[Silvia ciirruca)
Blackcap

{Silvia atricapilla)
Garden -Warbler

{Silvia hortensis)
Chiffchaff

{Phylloscopus ri<ftis)

Berkhamsted Sept.

Sawbridgeworth April

St. Albans ,,

Watford ,,

Hitchin ,,

Berkhamsted ,,

St. Albans ,,

Ashwell , ,

Hatfield ,

Wormley ,,

Sawbridgeworth ,,

Harpendeu ,,

Watford ,,

St. Albans ,,

Sawbridgeworth ,,

Berkhamsted Sept.

Sawbridgeworth April

7 A. F. C.

28 H. S. Rivers.

29 H. Lewis.

18 C. Worte.

19 J. E. Little.

20 Mrs. Mawley.

21 H. Lewis.

23 H. G. Fordham.

24 T. Brown.

25 Miss Warner.

25 H. S. Rivers.

28 J. J. Willis.

24 C. Worte.

25 H. Lewis.

26 H. S. Rivers.

5 A. F. C.

28 H. S. Rivers.

(Last seen)
Willow-Wren

{Phylloscopus trochilus)

(Last seen)
Wood-Wren

{Phylloscopus sibilatrix)
Reed-Warbler

{Acrocephalus streperus)
Sedge-Warbler

{Acrocephalus phragmitis)
Grasshopper- Warbler

{Locustella ncevia)
Yellow Wagtail

{Motaeilla Eaii)
Tree-Pipit

(Anthus trivialis)

(Last seen)
Red-backed Shrike

{Lanius collurio)
Spotted Flycatcher

{Muscicapa grisola)

Sawbridgeworth Mar. 24 H. S. Rivers.

Watford April 19.... C. Worte.

Watford „ 26 C. Worte.

Berkhamsted Mar. 20 A. F. C.

Sawbridgeworth ,, 21 H. S. Rivers.

Radlett ,, 27 Miss Lubbock.

Berkhamsted Sept. 18 A. F. C.

Sawbridgeworth April 18 H. S. Rivers.

St. Albans ,, 25 H. Lewis.

Berkhamsted Sept. 7 A. F. C.

Watford April 27 C. Worte.

Tring Reservoirs

Watford

Watford

Sawbridgeworth
St. Albans

Tring Reservoirs

17 J. Street.

25 C. Worte.

22 C. Worte.

25 H. S. Rivers.

26 H. Lewis.

9 J. Street.

Swallow

{Hirundo rustica)

St. Albans ,, 19 H. Lewis.

Sawbridgeworth ,, 22 H. S. Rivers.

Berkhamsted Sept. 5 A. F. C.

Berkhamsted May 6 A. F. C.

Berkhamsted April 20 Mrs. Maw'ley.

Sawbridgeworth May 14 H. S. Rivers.

Ashwell „ 17 H. G. Fordham.

St. Albans ,, 31 H. Lewis.

Berkhamsted April 11 Mrs. Mawley.

St. Albans 12 H. Lewis.

OBSERVED IN nEUTFOUDSIURE IN 189G.

161

Species.

Swallow „...

{Hirundo rtistica)

Locality.

Date.

Observer.

Watford Ai)ril 14 Mrs. Bishop.

Hovse-Martin

[Hirundo urbica)

Sawbridi^eworth

Trinji: lleservoirs ,,

Ilitfhin ,,

Hattield „

Worniley ,,

Ash well ,,

Harpenden ,,

Radlett ,,

(Last seen) Watford Oct.

Sawbridgeworth ,,

Ashwell , ,

Berkhamsted ,,

Watford April 20

St. Albans „ 27

Sawbridgeworth ,, 28.

15 II. S. Rivers,

16 J. Street.

17 J. E. Little.

22 T. Brown.

24 Miss Warner.

25 II. G. Fordham.

26 J. J. Willis.

28 Miss Lubbock.

18
19
23,

San'd-Martix ...

[Cotile riparia)

S^^^FT

[Ci/pseltts apus)

(Last seen) Berkhamsted Oct.

Sawbridgeworth Nov.

Watford April

Tring Reservoirs ,,

Sawbridgeworth ,,

(Last seen) Berkhamsted _. Oct.

Mrs. Bishop.

H. S. Rivers.

H. G. Fordham.

24 Mrs. Mawley.

" ..C. Worte.

.11. Lewis.

.II. S. Rivers.

13 A. F. C.

1 H. S. Rivers.

6 C. Worte.

10 J. Street.

25 H. S. Rivers.

13.. ..A. F. C.

Sawbridgeworth May 9 H. S. Rivers.

Watford
St. Albans.

(Last seen) Berkhamsted Aug.

Nightjar (Last seen)

{Caprimulgiis europceus)

Wryneck

{lynx torquiUa) (Last seen)

Cuckoo

{Cucuhis canorus)

St. Albans

Sawbridgeworth Sept.

Northchurch Oct.

St. Albans April

Northchurch Sept.

St. Albans April

Tring Reservoirs ,,

Wormley ,,

Watford „

Hitchin ,,

Hatfield ,,

Sawbridgeworth ,,

Turtle-Dove

[Turtur communis)

(Last seen)

Landrail

[Crex pratensis)

Common Sandpiper

[Totanus hi/poleucifs)

(Last seen)

Berkhamsted ,,

Radlett ,,

Harpenden ,,

Ashwell ,,

Watford ,,

Sawbridgeworth May

Berkhamsted Sept.

Watford April

9 C. Worte.

10 H. Lewis.

14.... A. F. C.
15 A. F. C.

3 H. S. Rivers.

6 J. Bunker.

17 H. Lewis.

5 A. F. C.

12 Mrs. Hopkinson.

17 J. Street.

17 Miss Warner.

19 C. Worte.

19 J. E. Little.

20 T. Brown.

20 H. S. Rivers.

20 Mrs. Mawley.

21 Miss Lubbock.

22 J. J. Willis.

26 H. G. Fordham.

27 C. Worte.

17 H. S. Rivers.

18 A. F. C.

24 C. Worte.

Tring Reservoirs ,, 27 J. Street.

Sawbridgeworth May 10 H. S. Rivers.

Sawbridgeworth Sept. 1 H. S. Rivers.

Winter Migrants.

Redwing (Last seen) Sawbridgeworth Mar. 11 H. S. Rivers

(ye«-c?Msi/tacM«) (First seen) Sawbridgeworth Oct. 18 H. S. Rivers

Berkhamsted ,,

Fieldfare Radlett ,,

(Turdus pilaris) Berkhamsted ,,

Sawbridgeworth Nov

20 A. F. C.

9 Miss Lubbock.

20 A. F. C.

6 ....H. S. Rivers.

162 A. F. CKOSSMAN — NOTES ON BIEDS.

Species. Locality. Date. Observer.

Grey "Wagtail (Last seen) Berkhamsted Mar. 25 J. G. Grossman.

(Motacilla melanope)

(First seen) Berkhamsted Sept. 17 A. F. C.

Sawbridgeworth Oct. 3 H. S. Rivers.

Hooded Crow (Last seen) Sawbridgeworth Mar. 22 H. S. Rivers.

(Cor«;Mscorai.(;) (First seen) Sawbridgeworth Oct. 17 H. S. Rivers.

AshweU ,, 22 H. G. Fordhara.

Odsey ,, 22 H. G. Fordham.

I should like to ask members of this Society, when they see
stuffed birds preserved in houses in Hertfordshire, to inquire
whether such birds were obtained in the county, and if they were,
to obtain further particulars about them, and to let me have such
particulars, and also to inform me of the whereabouts of any such
specimens. By this means much information might possibly be
obtained about birds which have been procured in our county in
former times. With reference to birds mounted in cases, I would
remind you that very often some particulars are written on the
back of the case, and that such particulars may be the means
of bringing to light the histoiy of the bird. I should like to get
correspondents from the central parts of the county, such as the
districts around Hertford, Hatfield, and Buntingford, and also from
the eastern side of the county where it borders on Essex, in which
part I have at present only one correspondent — Mr. Rivers, of
Sawbridgeworth. It would be of great assistance to me if members
living in those districts which I have just mentioned, would, if
not interested in ornithology themselves, try to get some friend
to send me notes on the birds of their neighbourhood every year.
I have received some most useful information from Hitchin and
Iloyston. The notes from the latter place include so much of the
history of the avifauna of the district, that it is proposed to read
them before the Society as a separate paper.

In conclusion, I beg to thank all my correspondents most heartily
for their assistance in supplying me with materials for this paper,
and I only hope that they will be kind enough to continue their
efforts in that way through many years to come.

XIX.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF NORTH IIERTFORDSHIRE.

By Joseph P. Nunn,

Communicated by Alan F. Grossman, F.L.S.

Read at Watford, SO th April, 1897.

Up to the close of the first half of the present century the
northern part of Hertfordshire had a fairly good avifauna, but by
the introduction of the gamekeeper and the modem gunner it was
soon stript of its feathered inhabitants, and to ever expect a return
of our lost birds to our woods and fields is as hopeless as a return
to the good old times when agriculture was remunerative.

It must be understood that the following remarks refer to the
locality of Royston, Therfield, Kelshall, and Sandon, the last three
parishes having large open fields to the north, backed up by hills
and woods on the south.

In the Forties the great plover was fairly common all along the
open fields, but as agriculture improved it gradually became scarce,
and it is now very sparingly represented. I have heard of none
breeding in the neighbourhood since 1894, when I found a pair of
eggs on my land just over the border in Cambridgeshire. The
dotterel {Eiidro7nias morinellus) always appeared at the time of the
spring migration, but now it is a very rare visitor. It is quite
twenty years since I have seen any : I then saw about sixty in one
pack, which is the greatest number I have ever seen together.
I could not have been mistaken, for I walked quite on to them,
and although I put many of them up, they did not leave the field ;
on the following day, however, they had taken their departure.

The wheatear in those days (the Forties) nested very freely on
Royston Heath, but now only a few may occasionally be seen
on migration. The only local eggs I have in my collection I took,
about forty years ago, from a nest on our heath.

Wildfowl were always seen in considerable numbers passing
south during the winter in days gone by, but they no longer have
a line of flight over this district.

The larks are to the present day always seen passing south at
the commencement of severe weather, but they now take their line
cither east or west of the town of Royston, and are never seen
passing directly over as they did in former days : indeed, it is quite
the exception to see even a small flock passing directly over the
town. The nightjar was never common. I have but one local egg
in my cabinet, which I obtained in the year 1845. I have not
heard of one being found since. Goldfinches used to breed within
a few yards of the house in which I now reside in the town of
Royston, but ere the Fifties arrived they had departed, and are
scarcely ever now seen in a wild state. The Royston or hooded

164 J. p. NUNN — ON THE BIRDS

crow was a constant visitor, and in considerable numbers during
the winter, but of late years we have seen very few of them.
They generally used to arrive about October 18th.

Before leaving the Forties I may say that a woodchat shrike
{Lanius pomeranus^) was shot at Sandon, and came into the
possession of the late Mr. John Norman, but I am unable to give
any more particulars. About the same time (1845) a pair of hen-
harriers {Circus cyaneus) were shot in Sandon. They were pre-
served by the late Mr. John Norman, and were in the possession of
the late Mr. Henry Fordham at the time of his death.

In the year 1847 I went to reside in the parish of Kelshall, the
upper part of which was then almost a forest in its primeval state.
I found the rooks and jackdaws breeding in the village, and the
can-ion-crow, sparrow-hawk, kestrel, hobby, magpie, white and
long-eared owls, and jay in undisturbed possession of the woods,
but when a keeper was installed in this El Dorado, most of these
birds were cleared off. The carrion-crow (Corvus corone) was
the first to disappear ; then followed the beautiful hobby \Falco
subbuteo), the last of which was shot from the nest in the breeding
season of 1849, and is now in my possession. I have never heard
of another being seen. The owls kept losing ground, and, at the
time of my leaving Kelshall in 1870, they were quite rare birds:
however, as they lost ground on the hills, they established them-
selves in the plantations on the northern border, and now breed
there. The long-eared owl is a temble enemy to our small birds,
and there is a most decided falling-off of all the small birds in the
plantations referred to, which are commonly known as The Fox
Covert or Church Hill Plantations.

The short-eared owl is occasionally seen in our tumip-fields in
the autumn. The kestrel still lingers in the open fields called
Odsey Heath. A few years back a nest with eggs was found on
the top of a wheat-stack, but, needless to say, the eggs were
destroyed.

The magpie, which was common over all this district, is now
extinct. The jay, on the other hand, has held its own against
all comers, and is fairly numerous.

The woodpeckers were never common, although the whetile
(the local name for the green woodpecker) was frequently heard.
I never, however, met with it breeding. In the spring of 1893
a pair of the lesser spotted woodpecker {Pictis minor) were shot
about a mile soiith of Eoyston. The nightingale never paid us
a visit in the woodlands, but the whitethroat was exceedingly
plentiful. The strong and beautiful hawfinch never visited us,
but, curious to relate, it has within the past three years established
itself in the \illage of Therfield, very much to the annoyance of
the gardeners. I have never seen but one of these birds in its wild
state near Eoyston.

* [This is probably the woodchat referred to in the 'Zoologist' for 1892,
p. 348, as having been shot near Baldock in the spring of 1856, although the
date mentioned by Mr. Nuun is somewhat earlier. — A. F. C]

OF NORXn ITEItTFORDSmUE. 10)5

Since the cold winter of 1894 the common (now nncommon)
linnet lias disappeared, and on the west side of Iloystou is a rare
bird ; it would not be possible to find a pair of them.

The swift in the Forties was quite a rare bird at Royston ; now
it breeds there freely. On the other hand, in those days it was
a constant visitor to Kelshall and Sandon, and bred there, but in
the Sixties it was scarcely ever seen at either of these places.

The plovers — golden plover ( Charadrius pluvialis) and green
plover ( Vanellus cristatus) — appear to be rather erratic in their
movements. In the Forties thousands of golden plovers used to
visit the neighbourhood of Odsey Heath during the autumn. In
the Fifties they discontinued their visits, but now they have
appeared again in very considerable numbers in our fields on the
extreme northern borders of Herts, and during the winter of
1895-96 both the green and golden plovers were to be seen in
numbers never before witnessed. It was truly a most wonderful
sight when they were all on the wing together, the whole country
being full of them : the plovers stayed with us until the 4th of
March, 1896, on which day the lapwings took their depai'ture, not
even a stray bird being left to tell the tale, and the golden plovers
left the next day. Both kinds returned during the closing days of
October, 1896, but left as soon as the snow came, about Christmas,
reappearing about the middle of February, though not in their
former numbers.

In the spring of 1893 that rare bird the grey plover {Squaterola
helvetica) was found here (Royston), having come in contact with
the telegraph-wires. The specimen, which was a female, came
into the possession of the late Mr. W. Norman, who brought it
to me. I have no other record of this bird having been seen here.

In the autumn of 1894 a little auk was brought to me alive:
it is now in the possession of Mr. D. H. Nash, of Royston.

I have never met with the tawny owl in Hertfordshire, although
it has been found nesting a couple of miles over the border in
Cambridgeshire.

During my twenty-three years on the hills in North Herts, I
never met with the tree-sparrow {Passer montanus), but within the
last five years I have received the eggs from that district. This
bird, although having always been a constant visitor during the
"svinter to the immediate locality of Royston, has only very recently
stayed to nest, but now I find it breeding freely on my farms.
It is exceedingly curious how little is known of the tree-sparrow,
very few people being aware of its existence.

In former times I used to hear the grasshopper-warbler, but
I have never heard of its nest having been found. The kingfisher
used occasionally to pay a visit to our ponds, but never stopped to
nest. The red-backed shrike (Lanius collurio) may be seen nearly
every year along the borders of Hertfordshire and Cambridgeshire,
but I have never met with it on the hills.

The peregrine {Falco peregrhms) is occasionally seen in our open
fields. The last pair of these birds I have any recollection of

166 J. p. NTTNJSr — BrRDS OF NORTH HERTFORD SHIHE.

having been shot were killed by the keeper in the Newnham
Plantation, not far from Baldock, about the year 1878. They were
a fine pair, and are or were in the possession of Mr. Simpson.

I may state that the foregoing remarks, with a few exceptions,
apply chiefly to the hilly and wooded districts, while the following
refer to the district aroimd Eoyston, which I regret to say is rapidly
becoming a birdless region. It is true we have a sample avifauna,
but no birds — not even Passer domesticus — in bulk. The wryneck
is a lost bird : I cannot say that of the nuthatch, having never
seen but one in the district. All the ordinary tits breed here, and
also the goldcrest. The nightingale is found in numbers, and
nearly all the general run of common birds. As we have no water,
I have no aquatic birds to report beyond a water-rail {Rallus
aquaticus) caught in the town, having come in contact with the
telegraph-wires, which are responsible for the lives of very many
biixls.

The main causes of the decrease of birds are : (1) the cats, which
are far too numerous and utterly useless; (2) the gardeners;
(3) the modem gunner. " The Boy" is not in it, for birdsnesting
is not carried on as it was formerly.

XX.

NOTES ON SOME PLANTS COLLECTED IN HERTFORDSHIRE
BY MISS MARIA RANSOM, 1838-1840.

By James Saundees.

Head at Watford, 2Srd March, 1897.

The small herbarium formed by Miss Maria Ransom, of Hitcbin,
afterwards Mrs. R. Marsb, of Luton, is now in tbe possession of
her son, Mr. Marsb, at present residing at Bedford. Tbe collection
was lent to tbe writer that it might be seen if there were any
records of sufficient interest to be preserved in the ' Transactions '
of the Society. Tbe few that are so regarded are enumerated
below.

The specimens are still in good condition, and exhibit great care
in pressing and mounting. They were originally intended for
exhibition at some flower-shows at Hitcbin. Those for tbe first
occasion, about forty species, were mostly of the commoner kinds,
while those for the second included the rarer forms.

Miss Ransom had tbe advantage of the acquaintance and assist-
ance of the late Mr. Isaac Brown, an honorary member of the
Society, and also of tbe late Mr, William Dawson, both of whom
resided at Hitcbin at this period, which no doubt accounts
in some measure for tbe general accuracy of the names. Except
in one or two instances they are correct, and in these cases the
specimens probably have not been seen by either of them. It is
possible that some of the specimens were given to Miss Ransom by
Mr. Brown, as the stations for them are tbe same as appear in
Webb and Coleman's ' Flora ' with his authority.

The most noteworthy omission of a locality for a specimen is
that for Lrosera anglica, which is the true plant, and just such
as one might find in the New Forest. This is unfortunate, as
there is no record known to the writer of tbe occurrence of this
species in Hertfordshire, although it is recorded by Abbott as
growing in Ampthill Bogs, in Bedfordshire, circa 1798, a specimen
being preserved in bis herbarium at Turrey Abbey. In the absence
of any evidence of Miss Ransom's specimen having been found in
Hertfordshire, the species is omitted from this list.

The original an-angement was that of tbe Linnean system, but
tbe sequence and nomenclature here adopted is that of Pryor's
* Flora of Hertfordshire,' published by this Society.

Myosurus minimus, L. Ivel. — Ippollitts.

Ranunculus parviflorus, Z. Ivel. — Ickleford Road, Hitcbin.

Batrachium tricbophyllum, F. Schultz., var. Godroni, Gren. Ivel. —

Bearton Closes, Hitcbin. (First record.)
B. bederaceum. Gray. Ivel. — West Mill, Ickleford.
Helleborus foetidus, L. Lea. — Hoddesdon.

168 J. SAUNDERS — PLANTS COLLECTED IN HEETFOEDSHIRE.

Aquilegia vulgaris, L. Ivel. — "Wellbury, Hitchin.
Alyssum calycinum, L. Ivel. — Oughton Head, Hitchin,
Parnassia palustris, L. Ivel. — Ougliton Head Common, Hitchin.
Dianthus Armeria, L. Lea. — Fairhmds Farm, Stevenage.
Sagina ( = Spergula) nodosa, Fenzl. Ivel. — Walsworth Common,

Hitchin.
Geranium columbinum, L. Lea. — Hertford.
Astragalus danicus, Retz. {= K. hypoglottis, Z.). Lea. — Lilley

Hoo. (Still there in 1895.— J". S.)
Lathyrus Nissolia, L. Lea. — Hertford.
Yicia sylvatica, L. Ivel. — Wain Wood, Hitchin.
Chrysosplenium oppositifolium, L. Lea. — Hoddesdon.
Bupleurum rotundifolium, L. Ivel. — Near Grove Mill, Hitchin.

(First record. )
Adoxa moschatellina, L. Lea. — Near Lilley Hoo.
Galium cruciatum. With. Ivel. — Hexton.
Dipsacus pilosus, L. Lea. — Near Hertford.
Campanula Trachelium, L. Ivel. — High Down Wood, Hitchin.
Blaxtonia ( = Chlora) perfoliata, Huds. Ivel. — Hexton.
Cuscuta europaea, Z. Ivel. — In a bean-field at Bearton Napp,

Hitchin.
Lycopsis ( = Anchusa) arvensis, Z. Ivel. — Near Highbury, Hitchin.
Lithospermum officinale, Z. Ivel. — Cadwell, Ickleford.
Melampyrum cristatum, Z. Ivel. — Chapelfoot, Ippollitts.
Orobanche minor, Sm. Ivel. — Hitchin Hill. (First record.)
Samolus Valerandi, Z. Ivel. — Oughton Head Common, Hitchin.
Anagallis tenella, Z. Ivel. — Oughton Head Common.
Hottonia palustris, Z. Ivel. — Walsworth Common, Hitchin.
Daphne Laureola, Z. Ivel. — Cadwell, Ickleford.
Triglochin palustre, Z. Lea. — Hoddesdon. (First record.)
Potamogeton densus, Z. Ivel. — Norton Common, Baldock.
Herminium Monorchis, R. Br. Ivel. — In a chalk-pit on the

Preston Road, Hitchin.
Fritillaria Meleagris, Z. Lea. — Hoddesdon.
Asplenium Adiantum-nigrum, Z. Ivel. — Near Ippollitts.

Trans.JIertsKcvt.But. Soc.,Fol.JX. Ft. IV.

A U TOT Y P E

ROMAN COINS FOUND AT
BRICKEN DON BURY, HERTFORD.

XXI.

ox SOME ROMAN COINS FOUND AT BRICKENDONBURT,

UERTFOKD.

By Sir Jonx Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S.,

Y.P.S.A., etc.

Read at Watford, 12rd March, 1897.

PLATE IV.

In excavating at Brickendonbury, the seat of Mr. George Pearson,
about a mile and a half south of the town of Hertford, the workmen
came upon a small hoard of lloman denarii, for the most part of base
metal. The excavation was for a sunk flower-bed, ten yards east
of the house. The coins lay in a small recess cut in the virgin clay
and covered with eight inches of clay and natural soil, and upon
the old surface there lay about eighteen inches of made-up ground
derived from an ancient moat close at hand when in course of con-
struction. This shows no disturbance since its first deposition.

The following is a summary of the coins which I have examined,
with the names of the Emj^erors, Empresses, and Csesars represented
in the hoard : —

Commodus

Pertinax .

Scptimius Severus

Julia Dorana

Curacalla

Plautilla

Geta

Diadumenianus

Elagabalus

Julia Paula

A quilia Severa .

Julia Sofemias .

Julia Maesa

Severus Alexander

Salhistia Barbia Orbiaua

Julia Mamsea .

Maximinus

Maximus

Gordianus III .

Pupienus

Philippus I

Philippus II .

Trajanus Decius

Herennia Etruscilla

Herennius Etruscus

1

1

33

15

20

2

8

2

67

5

2

15

23

144

3

30

19

1

25

1

9

1

2

2

1

43.9.

VOL. IX. — PAIIT V.

12

170 SIE JOHN EVANS — ON ROMAN COINS

There must have been in the deposit rather more than 450 coins
in all, the greater number of which came into the possession of
Mr. Pearson, who kindly placed them in my hands for exami-
nation. I am indebted to Mr. R. T. Andrews, of Hertford,
not only for calling my attention to the coins, but also for
making a preliminary arrangement of them. In describing them
I have referred for details to Cohen's '■ Medailles ImiHriales.''

Full particulars of the various types of these coins are given in
the 'Numismatic Chronicle' (3rd series, vol. xvi, pp. 192-201),
and it would be needless to reproduce them here. As might be
expected in the case of so extensive a deposit, there are several
scarce varieties present, some of them being of Emperors whose
coins are but seldom found in Britain, and others presenting rare
reverses of those whose coins are as a rule common.

It will be well to say a few words with regard to some of these
scarcer pieces. The coins of Pertinax, in any metal, are of
extremely rare occurrence in Britain, and none were present in
the Lime Street hoard found in 1881,* the coins in which cover
nearly the same period as those in the hoard now under con-
sideration. Although the reign of Pertinax lasted rather less
than the first three months of a.d. 193, a considerable variety
of his coins was struck, and Cohen enumerates 59 types in gold,
silver, and copper. The denarius with the type of ^quitas is
among the more common of his silver coins (PI. IV, Fig. 1). The
same type was used on some of his other coins, both in gold and
bronze. It became a favourite device among the succeeding
emperors, the moneyers probably regarding it as complimentary
to their justice in making the coins of full weight.

Among the coins of Severus some few call for remark. One
with p . M . TK . p . VI . cos . II . p . p ., and Fortune standing to the
left, holding a rudder placed on a globe, and a comucopise on the
reverse, does not occur in Cohen with imp . x on the obverse. More
interesting is a coin with the Emperor on horseback on the reverse,
and the legend s . p . Q . r . optimo principi (PI. IV, Fig. 2). This
type occurs also in gold and bronze, in the latter case with the
addition of s . c . to the legend, showing that it was struck in the
Senatorial mint. Those in gold and silver were apparently struck
in the Imperial mint, and as they all belong to the early part
of the reign of Severus, they seem to indicate some decree of
the Senate expressing its satisfaction at his having overcome his
rivals Pescennius Mger and Clodius Albinus.

A coin with victor . ivst . avg . (Cohen, 738) is also worthy of
notice. This, too, belongs to the year a.d, 193, or the beginning
of the reign of Severas. The legend expanded would appear to be
viCTORiAE ivsTi AVGVSTi. The title of Justus was assumed by
Pescennius Niger, from whom Severus must have borrowed it.
There are indeed silver coins of Pescennius with precisely the
same type and legend,

* ' Xum. Clirou.,' 3rJ series, vol. ii, p. 57; vol. iii, p. 278.

FOUND AT BErCKENDONBURT, HERTFOllD. 171

A BONAE SPEi reverse is also one of those of Pescennius, wliose
hopes, however, were not so satisfactorily realized as those of
Severus. The coin bearing it is scarce, and the Brickendonbuiy
specimen ditfers from that in Cohen in not ha^'ing• ir . co . on the
obverse (PL IV, Fig. 3).

The coins of Julia Domna, the wife of Sevenis, present but little
novelty. One, however, with the legend saecvli felicitas, presents
the type of the Empress sacrificing at an altar, as on the large brass
coin with the same legend (Cohen, 178), and thus constitutes
a variety not given by Cohen among the silver coins of Domna

(PI. iY,'rig. 4).

Among the scarcer coins of Caracalla are some with maeti vltoki
and voTA svscepta x, but they can hardly be regarded as rare. One
with peofectio avg. is somewhat rarer. It belongs to the year
A.D. 213, and appears to refer to his expedition into Gaul (PL IV,
Fig. 5). A coin of the fourteenth year of his Tribinutian Power
differs from Cohen, who gives the type for his thirteenth year only.

The coins of Plautilla, the wife of Caracalla, and of Geta, his
brother, though somewhat scarce, do not require any comment.

Diadumenianus, the son of Macrinus, is rei^resented in the hoard
by two coins, both of some degree of rarity, though the types are
of an ordinary character. A specimen, with the peinceps ivven-
TVTis reverse, was present in the Lime Street hoard (PL IV, Fig. 6).

The coins of Elagabalus are among the most numerous in the
hoard, and present several of the devices commemorative of the
worship of the Sp'ian sun-god, from whose name that commonly
given to this Emperor has been adopted. On one of the coins, with
the legend invictvs saceedos avg., the Emperor is represented with
what would appear to be a horn upon his head on the obverse,
probably as an emblem of power. On the reverse another horn is
sometimes shown at his feet, but the Hertford example varies
somewhat from Cohen's description* (PL IV, Fig. 7). For a notice
of this rare coin Cohen may be consulted. The homed head of the
Emperor occurs on a few coins of other types.

The only other coin of Elagabalus to which attention may be
called is one reading p . m . te. p . v . cos . iiii .p.p., with Provi-
dentia standing to the left holding a wand and cornucopia? ; at her
feet a globe. This is not described by Cohen, but the type of the
reverse is the same as that of the large brass coin 'No. 212.

The coins of Julia Paula, though by no means common, present
types already well known. Those of Aquilia 8evera, another of
the wives of Elagabalus, are of greater rarity, but in that case also
there is no novelty about the de^•ice.

Those of Julia Soaemias, the sister of Julia Domna and daughter
of Julia Maesa, are fairly numerous in the hoard, though hardly
common coins.

Those of Julia Maesa, the clever grandmother of Elagabalus, are
more numerous still, but require no comment.

* 'Mid Imp.,' 2ncl edition, vol. iv, p. 329.

172 8IR JOHN EVANS — ON ROMAN COINS

A third of tlie hoard consists of coins of Severus Alexander, with
a great variety of reverses, but among them none that can be
classified as rare. Perhaps the most scarce is one with fides
EXEECirvs (Cohen, No. 49). Of those with the legend fides
MiLiTVM there were three examples, one with Fides seated and two
with Fides standing (PI. IV, Fig. 8).

The coins of his wife, Sallustia Barbia Orbiana, are certainly
rare, but three specimens, with the reverse concordia avgg., were
present (PI. IV, Fig. 9). There were none in the Lime Street
hoard.

The coins of Julia Mamaea, the mother of Alexander, are
numerous in the deposit, but none exhibit rare reverses.

The coins of Maximinus I are all of a common character, but
that of his son Maximus is of considerable rarity, though it bears
a device trite on the coins of the Caesars, peinc. ivventvtis
(PI. IV, Fig. 10).

The reverses on the coins of Gordianus Pius are for the most
part common, but that of diana lvcifeea is scarce, and seems
more fi^tting for a coin of an empress than for one of an emperor
(PL IV, Fig. 11). One with fides milix. presents a variety not
given in Cohen.

The coin of Pupienus, the colleague of Balbinus, whose reign
lasted but three months in a.d. 238, is rare, and, moreover, the
coins of this Emperor but seldom occur in Britain, though two
were present in the Lime Street hoard, already frequently men-
tioned (PL IV, Fig. 12).

The coins of Philippus I are common, though those recording
the Ssecular Games on the thousandth anniversary of the foun-
dation of Rome, with the wolf and twins, and what may be
regarded as a miliarium rather than a cippus, are highly interesting.

The coin of Philippus II is rather scarce, but veiy well known.
Those of Trajanus Decius, relating to his campaigns in Dacia and
Pannonia, are interesting, but not rare, and those of his w^ife
Etruscilla and his son Herennius close the list. They bear but
ordinary devices upon them.

The coin of Herennius must have been struck in the year
A.D. 249 or 250, as it gives his title as Caesar. He received the
title of Augustus in a.d. 251, and together with his father was
killed in battle near Abricium, in Thrace, in that year.

The probability, therefore, is that the Brickendonbury hoard,
which, so far as I know, includes no coins of Trebonianus Gallus,
was deposited about a.d. 250 or 25 L It consequently seems to
have been buried at about the same time as that which was found
in Lime Street, the coins in which extended fi'om the days of
Commodus to those of Trajanus Decius * In describing that hoard
I remarked that "of what was taking place in Britain at the
period when Decius, Gallus, Volusian, ^milianus, and Valerian
successively wore the purple, we know but little. This country

* 'Num. Cliron.,' Srd ser., vol. ii, p. 60.

FOUND AT BEICKENDOXBUET, HEETFORD. 173

was, however, in all probability cut off from all connection with
any central authority, and its inhabitants left much under their
own government, such as it may have been."

But though history is silent, my friend Mr. Havcrfield, of Christ
Church, Oxford, has called my attention to the testimony of
inscribed stones found in Britain, and from the inscriptions on mile-
stones— which, by the way, seem to have been altered from time to
time, so as to bear the name of the reigning emperor — the isolation
does not appear to have been so complete as I supposed. The
names of Gallus and Yolusian * occur together on milestones at
Bittern, near Southampton, and at Gretabridge, Yorkshire, and
together with that of Decius on a stone at Castlcford f in the same
county. Those of Gallus and Volusian are also recorded together
in inscriptions on the Roman wall, J and those of Valerianus,
Gallienus, and Valerianus Caesar are found in an inscription at
Caerleon. ||

It would seem, then, that the government of Britain must have
been carried on in the normal manner, until the revolt of Postumus,
in A.D. 258, severed Gaul, and with it probably Britain, from the
rest of the Roman Empire, and paved the way for the advancement
of Yictorinus, Marius, and the Tetrici, of whose reigns so many
numismatic and other monuments still exist among us.

At the same time the correspondence in date between the Lime
Street and the Brickendonbury hoards may be significant of the
setting in of disturbances in Britain and of those " twenty years of
shame and misfortune" to the Roman Empire, of which Gibbon §
speaks, having already commenced in this country.

jN'or are similar indications wanting in Northern Gaul. At
Jupille, ^ near Liege, in Belgium, in June, 1895, a still larger
hoard of denarii than that of Brickendonbiuy was unearthed.
Though a few of the earlier coins go back to the time of Nero
and Yitellius, nearly half of them were struck under Severus
Alexander, Maximinus, and Gordianus III, the latest examined being
of Philippus and Otacilia. The date assigned by Dr. Simonis for
the deposit of this hoard is between a.d. 244 and 249, but there
is no reason why it might not have been a year or two later.

Another hoard found near Luzy*'* (Nievre) must be of nearly the
same date, the last coins in it being of Philippus I and Otacilia.

A complete list of the coins will be found in the article in the
' Numismatic Chronicle ' already referred to (3rd ser., vol. xvi,
p. 191).

* ' Corp. Insc. Brit.; pp. 1148, 1182.
t Epheraeris, vol. viii, pp. 1104, 1105.
X ' G.I.B.; pp. 646, 949.
II 'C.I.B.; p. 107.
§ ' Decline and Fall,' cbap. x.
ir 'Rev. Beige de Num.; 1896, p. 128.
** 'Rev. Arch.; vol. xxxi, 1876, p. 436.

174 SIR JOHIT EVANS — ON ROMAN COINS.

Explanation of Plate IV.*
Tig.

1 . Pertinax. aeqvit . avg . tr . p . cos . ii . Equity standing 1.

2. Septimms Severus, s.p.q.r. optimo principi. Emperor on

horseback 1.

3. Septimius Severus. bonae spei. Hope walking 1. Without

II. CO. on obv.

4. Julia Bomna. saecvli peltcitas. Empress at altar.

5. Caracalla. profectio avg. Caraealla standing r., two standards

behind.

6. Diadumenianus. princ. iwentvtis. Caesar standing — three

standards.

7. Elagabalm. invictvs sacerdos avg. Elagabalus horned 1., at

altar.

8. Severus Alexander, fides militvm. Fides standing between

two standards.

9. Sallustia Barbia Orhiana. concordia avgg. Concord seated 1.

10. Maximus. prtnc. iwentvtis. Maximus standing 1., two

standards behind.

11. Gordianus III {Pins), diana ltcifera. Diana standing r.

12. Pupienus. p. M. tr. p. cos. ii. p. p. Felicity standing 1.,

with caducous.

* Repriuted from the ' Numismatic Chronicle,' 3rd ser., vol. xvi.

XXII.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIOXS TAKEN AT THE GRANGE,
ST. ALBANS, DURING THE YEAR 1896.

By JoHjf HoPKrNsoif, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R. Met. Soc, Assoc. Inst. C.E.

Read at St. Albans, 6th April, 1897.

LoNGrruDE of Station, 0° 20' 7" W. ; latitude, 51° 45' 9" N".
Cistern of barometer 388 feet, ground-level at thermometer-screen
380 feet, and at rain-gauge 379 feet, above Ordnance Datum.
Thermometers (in Stevenson screen) 4 feet, and top of rain-gauge
1 foot, above the ground. Observations taken at 9 a.m.

The accompanying tables (pp. 176, 177) give the monthly means,
etc., of the daily observations in 1896, and the following is the
usual summary for the seasons : —

Means foe the Seasons from Dec. 1895 to Nov. 1896.

Seasons,
1895-96.

Pressure.

Temperature.

Humi-
dity.

Cloud.

Force

of
Wind.

Rainfall.

Mean.

Daily
Range.

Total.

Days.

Winter

Spring

Summer

Autumn

ins.
30-182
30-084
30-020
29-902

0

387
48-4
61-0
46-4

0
10-9

158
i8-2

II-5

7o
90

78
72

88

0-10

7-4
6-4
6-4
6-4

0-12
1-6

2-1

1-6
1-8

ins.
3 "39
4-83
4-92
11-67

39

43
35
56

In the next table the chief results, monthly and annual, are
compared with the means for the ten years 1877-86 at Watford.

DiFFEEENCE IN 1896 FEOM MeANS OF 1877-86 AT "WaTFOED.

Months.

Pressure.

Temperature.

Humi-
dity.

Force

Rainfall.

Mean.

Daily
Range.

Cloud.' of
Wind.

Total.

Days.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November
December

in.

+ •345
+ •389

— •145

-4.-289
+ •292

— -005

+ •098
-I--II6
-•187

— •174

+ •246
—•170

0

+3-0
—1-5
+3-4
+ 1-8
-fo-8

+3-2
+1-8
—2-8
—07

-3 5
—3-3
-f-o-6

0

— Q-I

-f2-6

-1-9

—1-4

+ 1-4
+0-3
+3 9

1-2

-47

—1-2

— 1;5

7o
-\- I

+ 2

+ 2

— I

+ I

— 3

+ 5
+ 4
+j

+ 3

0-10
+0-4

— O'l

+ 1-2

-0-5
-1-3
+0-2
— 10
-0-3

+0-5
— o-i
— 0-6
— 0-2

0-12
— -I

—•3

+ •4

— -2

+ •2

— -2

+~3

— -2

+•2

in.

— I 80

— 2-13

+ 1-96

-1-51
— 2 07

— 1-26
—1-63
— 020
+4 -08
+o"40
—1-53
+1-53

— 6

— 8

+14

— 3

— ID

— 4

— 6
+ 2
+11
+ 4

— 7
+ 7

Tear

+■093

+0-3

—0-4

=

— O'l

=

—4-16 — 6

176

J. HOPKINSO^r — ITETEOEOLOGICAl OBSERVATIONS

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TAKEN AT ST. ALBANS IN 1896.

177

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178 J. HOPKINSON METEOROLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS

The year 1896 was rather warm, except towards the end of the
summer and throughout the autumn, October and November being
especially cold months ; on the other hand, January, March, and
June were very warm. The mean daily range of temperature was
less than usual, chiefly owing to the abnoiTual character of the
weather in September, the days being much colder and the nights
warmer than usual in that month. The mean pressure of the
atmosphere was much above the average. It was very high
throughout January and February, and especially so for the seven
days from 29th January to 4th February, the mean then being
30 744 inches (reduced to 32° and to sea-level). The lowest
pressure recorded at 9 a.m. was 28*687 ins. on 4th December,
and the highest was 30-925 ins. on 30th January, giving the
unusually large range of 2-238 ins. The rainfall was about the
average of a long period, but considerably below the average of
the ten years 1877-86. There were about as many wet days as
usual. Nearly three times as much rain fell in the second half of
the year as in the first half, the fall fi'om January to June being
7-68'ins., and from July to December 19-12 ins. March, October,
and December were very wet months, and September was exces-
sively wet, being the wettest month for the ten years during
which my observations have been taken at St. Albans, and wetter
than any month at Watford in the previous ten years during which
I took observations there, the nearest approach to it being in
October, 1882, when 6- 10 ins. of rain fell. The humidity of the
air was about the average, but it varied greatly during the year,
June and July having a very dry atmosphere, while in September
and December it was very moist. Thunderstorms were less
frequent than usual, and there were no very severe ones.

In the winter of 1895-96 (Dec. to Feb.) the mean pressure of
the atmosphere was very high, the mean temperature was above the
average, with a considerable mean daily range, the relative
humidity and amount of cloud were about the average, and the
rainfall was very small and on very few days. January was
warmer than either December or February. The fertile flowers
of the hazel were open on the 16th of January, and the catkins
were then shedding; wasps appeared on the 19th of January, and
the honey-bee first visited flowers on the 8th of February.

In the spring (March to May) the mean pressure of the atmo-
sphere was high, the mean temperatm-e was considerably above the
average, with nearly the average mean daily range, the relative
humidity and amount of cloud were about the average, and the
rainfall was rather small, but on about the usual number of
days. March had three times as much rain as April and May
together, and was much more humid and cloudy than those months.
A partial drought commenced on the 17th of April and at the end
of May had lasted forty-five days, with 0-37 inch of rain. The
cuckoo was heard on the 10th of April, and the nightingale
on the 23rd. The hawthorn well merited its name of "may,"
coming into fiower on May Day,

TAKEN AT ST. ALBANS IN 1896.

179

In the summer (June to August) the mean pressure of the
atmosphere was rather high, the mean temperature was a little
above the average, with a considerable mean daily range, the air
was very dry, the sky rather bright, and the rainfall very small,
being but little more than half the average and on a small number
of days. A very dry period of four months' duration terminated
about the begiuuiug of August, having little more rain than fell in
Mai'ch, and little more than half as much as fell in September.

In the autumn (September to November) the mean pressure
of the atmosphere was a little below the average, the mean
tcmperatiu'e was very low, with a very small daily range, the air
"was rather moist, the sky rather bright, and the rainfall very
heavy, and on a large number of days. The very low temperature
is almost entirely due to the coldness of October and November,
while the excess in the rainfall is more than accounted for by the
very wet September.

The difference between these seasons and the means of the
seasons for 1877-86 at Watford is shown in the following table,
the comparison of the rainfall being with an exceptionally wet
series of years.

Difference in 1895-96 frou Means of 1877-86 at "Watfokd.

Seasons,
1895-96.

Pressure.

Temperature.

Humi-
dity.

Cloud.

Force

of
Wind.

Eainfall.

Mean.

Daily
Range.

Total.

Days.

"Winter

Spring

Summer

Autumn

in.
+ •198

+ •145
+ •083
— •082

0
-fo-8

-j-2-O
+07

0

+0-9
— 06
+ 10

—2-4

7o

-3
+ 2

0-10
— o*i

— 02
— o-i

0-12

— O'l

— 0-2
+0-I

ins.
—4-42
— I "62
—3-09
+2-98

— 12

+ I
— 8
+ 8

Notes on the Months.

January, — Very mild, with about an average daily range of
temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and very high
pressure, a very cloudy sky, and a small rainfall on less than the
average number of days. Coldest day 23rd, mean 32°* 8 ; warmest
day 17th, mean 45°-8, Min. below 32° on eleven days; max.
above 42° on twenty-one days.

Febrtjart. — Rather warm, with a considerable daily range of
temperature, a rather humid atmosphere of very high pressure,
a sky of average brightness, and a very small rainfall on less than
the average number of days. Coldest day 26th, mean 27°* 1 ;
warmest days 9th, mean 45°-6, and 29th, mean 45°-8, Min.
below 32° on thirteen days, below 22° on one day (26th) ; max.
above 42° on eighteen days, above 52° on five. The only really
cold period was from 23rd to 27th, the mean temperature of these
five days being 32° (9 a.m. 30°-5, min. 25°-7, max. 39°-7). This
is 8°'7 below the mean for the three winter months.

180 J. HOPKrySOX — ]U:ETE0E0L0&IC.\X OBSEEVAXIOIfS

March. — Very warm, with a small daily range of temperatiu'e,
a rather humid atmosphere of rather low pressure, a cloudy sky,
and a very hea\'y rainfall on a large number of days. Coldest day
13th, mean 37°"3 ; warmest day 22nd, mean 53°-4. Min. below
42° on twenty-three days, below 32° on four (13th, 15th, 19th,
and 28th) ; max. above 52° on twelve days, above 62° on one day
(24th). There were not two days together without rain, which
fell on every day but 3rd, 10th, 12th, 19th, and 24th.

April. — Hather warm, with a small daily range of temperature,
a rather dry atmosphere of considerable pressure, and a small
rainfall on less than the usual number of days. Coldest day 2nd,
mean 40°-3 ; warmest day 26th, mean 56°-8. Min. below 42° on
nineteen days; max. above 52° on twenty-one days, above 62° on
five. Nearly all the rain fell during the first half of the month,
there being only 0-03 in. after the 16th, on two days.

May. — Of average temperature, with a rather large daily range,
an atmosphere of average humidity and considerable pressure,
a bright sky, and a very small rainfall on very few days. Coldest
day 1st, mean 42°'8 ; warmest day 12th, mean 60°'5. Min. below
42° on thirteen days; max. above 52° on tWenty-nine days (all
but 1st and 2nd), above 62° on sixteen, above 72° on three (12th,
14th, and 29th). Eain fell only on 12th, 18th, 20th, 21st, and
22nd, and from 17th April to 19th May inclusive only 0-06 in. fell
on four days.

June. — Very warm, with about an average daily range of
temperature, a very dry atmosphere of average pressure, a sky
of average brightness, and a small rainfall on a rather small
nvimber of days. Coldest day 26th, mean 56°"8 ; warmest day
16th, mean 70°'2. Min. below 52° on twelve days, below 42°
on one day (1st); max. above 62° on twenty-eight days (all but
7th and 10th), above 72° on ten. Between the 3rd and 10th
1*35 in. of rain fell on six days, and for the rest of the month
only 0*25 in. fell on four days. There were several thunderstorms
during the wet period, the most severe commencing about 10 p.m.
on the 4th. On this night the lightning struck an outbuilding at
the St. Albans Union workhouse, damaging the roof, wrenching
a door from its fastenings, throwing it to the ground, and loosening
part of the brickwork.

Jdlt. — Rather warmer than June, but not so much above the
average in temperature, with a large daily range, a dry atmosphere
of rather high pressure, a bright sky, and a very small rainfall on
a small number of days. Coldest day 16th, mean 54°-5 ; warmest
day 21st, mean 69°"9. Min. below 52° on fourteen days; max.
above 62° on twenty -nine days (all but 1st and 16th), above 72°
on eighteen days, above 82° on two (14th and 21st). The high
mean temperature of the month is entirely due to the wannth of
the days, the nights being of the average temperature while the
days were several degrees warmer than the average. There was
a thunderstorm on the 7th accompanied by only 0*05 in. of rain.

Attgust. — A rather cold month, with a small daily range of

TAKEN AT ST. ALBANS IN 1896. 181

temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and rather high
pressure, a rather bright sky, and about the average rainfall on the
usual number of days. Coldest day 2Gth, mean 52°'2 ; warmest
day 13th, mean 64°'8. ilin. below 52° on twenty days; max.
above 62° on twenty-eight days fall but 8th, 9th, and 2Gtli),
above 72° on one day (loth). There was an unusual absence of
thunderstorms, but tlie rather heavy falls of rain on the 19th
(()"42 in.) and 2oth (O'oo in.), and the smaller fall on the 31st
(0-23 in.), were due to thunder-showers in stoz-ms which did not
reach St. Albans.

September. — Of nearly average temperature, with a very small
daily range, a very humid atmosphere of low pressure, a rather
cloudy sky, and an excessively heavy rainfall on a very large
number of days. Coldest day 21st, mean 47°*4 ; warmest day
9th, mean 62°-6. Min. below 42° on four days; max. above 52°
every day, above 62° on twelve days. The rainfall was about
three times the average and on nearly twice the usual number of
days, and as before stated the month was the wettest on my
record for twenty years (ten at Watford and ten at St. Albans).
The only days without rain were the 6th, 15th, 16th, 23rd, 29th,
and 30th. The fall exceeded half an inch on six days, three-
quarters of an inch on two of these, and one inch on one of these.
Thunderstorms were frequent, and severe in the early part of the
month.

October. — A cold month, with a rather small daily range of
temperature, a humid atmosphere of low pressure, a sky of average
brightness, and a heavy rainfall on a considerable number of days.
Coldest day 2Mth, mean 35°-6; warmest days 3rd, mean 57°-0,
and 4th, mean 56°'8. Min. below 42° on twenty-one days, below
32° on four (19th, and 28th to 30th); max. above 52° on eleven
days. Rain fell every day from 2nd to 20th, and on 24th and
25th. There were slight thunderstorms on 14th and 24th, which,
however, were heavy in some parts of the county.

NovEiiBER. — Also a cold month, with a small daily range of
temperature, an atmosphere of average humidity and high pressure,
a bright sky, and a small rainfall on a small number of days.
Coldest day 30th, mean 3l°-0; warmest days 12th, mean 43°"5,
and 22nd, mean 43°'7. Min. below 42° every day, below 32° on
nine days ; max. above 42° on twenty -three days. The 7th was
also a very cold day, mean 34°-0, and the last eight days were very
cold, having a mean temperature of 35°'5 (9 a.m. 34° 6, min.
32°-5, max. 39°-4).

December. — Of about average temperature, with a small daily
range, a humid atmosphere of low pressure, a sky of average
brightness, and a very heavy rainfall on a large number of days.
Coldest days 17th, mean 29°-6, and 18th, mean 29°-3 ; warmest
day 26th, mean 43° 8. Min. below 42° every day but one (3'ist),
below 32° on fourteen days; max. above 42° on nineteen days.
The only cold period was from 1 6th to 24th, the mean temperature
of these nine clays being 31°-5 (9 a.m. 31°2, min. 28°-U, max.

182

J. HOrXINSOX — METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

35°-4). Eain or snow fell every clay but 7tli, 15tli, 16th, ISth,
22iid, 23rd, and 25th. Snow fell on the 17th, 19th, 20th, and
21st, but the total precipitation was only equivalent to 0"12 inch
of rain.

Appendix to
Report on the Rainfall in 1896.

The following table gives six records of the rainfall in the year
1896 supplementary to the forty-four monthly records on pp. 141-
143 of the above Report. Two of these are the records of additional
gauges at Rothamsted, and the remaining four are taken from
'British Rainfall, 1896,' published since my Report was printed.

-4^

GO

o

8.

10.

12.
13.

Station.

Observer.

Gauge.

Rain-
fall.

Days.

Dia-
meter.

Height

above

Sea.

Harpenden — Eothamsted

Watford— Oaklands

St. Alban's Road

Wehvyn — Danesbnry

Bennington

iSir J. liRwesandl
) Sir H. Gilbert \

E. Harrison

H. Ruddle

ins.
8

72x87
5
5
5
5

feet.
420
420

273
250

400

ins.
28-98

3133

29-24
2694
26-51
27-53

161
180
172
117
164
181

A. M. Blake

Miss C. Nihill

XXIII.

THE E-VriTHQUAKE OF THE 17th OF DECEMBEK, 1896,
AS IT AFFECTED THE COUNTY OF HERTFORD.

By Herbert George Fordham.

Read at St. Albans, 6th April, 1897.

PLATE V.

Introduction^.

The efPects of earthquakes such as we cxpei'ience in the British
Isles are commonly so slight and insignificant, as compared with
those which occur in other parts of the world, that it can hardly
be expected that any deductions of direct scientific value can be
obtained from their consideration.

J^Tevertheless, in the aggregate of knowledge no fact, or collection
of facts, is to be despised, and we should not be doing our duty in
Hertfordshire were we to fail in recording all that is known of
even so trifling a shock as that of the ITtli of December. 1896, as
its effects were felt within the county and on its borders. We may
hope that, although no substantial addition to our information on
the subject of earthquakes can be expected from what is recorded
in the following pages, the results of this inquiry may yet help
in a small way to the building up of knowledge, and in the
accumulation of that mass of minor details upon which important
advances in information are based.

HaA-ing, on a fonner occasion, undertaken to deal with phenomena
which, at first attributed to terrestrial movement, ultimately turned
out to owe their origin to a very different cause,* I have now been
asked to collect such information as may be available as to the
earthquake of the 17th December. Accordingly, I have, through
the public Press and the monthly circulars of our Society, appealed
generally to the public, and especially to our members and coiTe-
spondents, for information as to the localities at which the shock
was experienced in the early morning of Thursday, 1 7th December,
1896, and as to its effects and character. A similar inquiry, ex-
tending to the whole kingdom, has been undertaken by Mr. Charles
Da\-ison, Sc.D., F.G.S., of 373, Gillott Uoad, Birmingham, Secretary
of the British Association Seismological Investigation Committee.

A Committee on Earthquakes was first appointed at the Leeds
meeting of the British Association (1890), but with a somewhat
limited reference (that of establishing instruments for the systematic
recording of earth tremors in this country). Five Reports of the
Committee have been presented to the Association, dealing mainly
with the preliminary question of the instruments available for
recording earth tremors. During fifteen years up to 1 895, another

* See " The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887 " (' Traus. Herts Nat.
Hist. Soc.,' Vol. V, p. 33).

184 H. G. FOEDHAM — THE EAETHQITAKE

Committee of the British Association had been investigating the
seismic phenomena of Japan, and at the Ipswich Meeting (1895)
these two committees were amalgamated under the title of "The
Committee on Seismological Observations," and the new Committee
presented its first Report at last year's meeting at Liverpool.*

In view of future shocks it is very desirable that the class of
facts which may be usefully noted by observers should be widely
known, and I think therefore that no apology is needed for re-
printing here the set of queries published by Dr. Davison in the
newspaper press under date of the 19th of December, 1896, and
which may be referred to by persons noticing any vibration or
movement of the earth, and who may wish to record their sensa-
tions shortly.

" 1. — Name of the place where the eai'thquake was observed.

"2. — Time at which it was felt, if possible to the nearest
minute.

"3. — (rt) What was the nature of the shock? (b) Did the
shock consist of two distinct parts, separated by an
interval of a few seconds ? (c) If so, which part was
the stronger, and how long was the interval between
the two parts '?

" 4. — How many seconds did the shock last, not including the
accompanying sound ?

" 5. — Was the shock strong enough (a) to make doors,
windows, fire-irons, crockery, etc., rattle ; (b) to
cause the chair, etc., on which the observer was
resting to be perceptibly raised or moved; (c) to make
chandeliers, pictures, etc., swing, or to stop clocks?

" 6. — (ff) Was the shock accompanied by any unusual rumbling
sound; and, if so, what did it resemble? (b) Did
the beginning of the sound precede, coincide with, or
follow, the beginning of the shock, and by how many
seconds? {c) Did the end of the sound precede,
coincide with, or follow, the end of the shock, and by
how many seconds ? "

My investigation of the causes of the disturbance experienced on
20th November, 1887, extending over a very considerable area in
the South Midlands of England, showed conclusively that what
was in the first instance attributed to an earthquake, was really
due to the passage of a bolide or meteorite through the atmosphere
across the district, and its explosion at various points on its course.

So far as I am aware, the series of facts collected in that case
present the only fairly complete study we have (in this country, at
all events) of such an occurrence. They are of interest in them-
selves, but perhaps their value really lies in their assisting, in some
measure, to establish the distinctions between the effects of earth
tremors and aerial shock on individuals and objects on the surface

* ' Report of the Briiish Association for the Advancement of Science,'
Liverpool, 1896, p. 180. (Lomlou : John Miuray, 1896.)

OF THE l7rn OF DECEMBER, 1896. 185

of the eartli, wliilc> tliey also mark certaiu characteristics common
to both kinds of disturbance, which may lead (and probably have
actually led in the past) to a confusion of the two sources. Indeed,
with our present knowledge, we niay be permitted to suspect that
some, at least, of the older statements purporting- to relate to earth-
quakes may really refer to the effects of concussion of the air
produced by explosions at high altitudes in the air itself.

But, however this may be, there can be no doubt that the shock
recorded in the south of England on 17th December is attributable
solely to a movement of the earth.

Although some observers speak of movement of the air, and of
noise which might be associated with aerial shock, there can be
no doubt that the passage of an explosive meteorite through the
atmosphere at night would light up, and probably very brilliantly,
a great expanse of country. At half-past five in the morning on
17th December, the moon, though nearly fidl, was very low on
the horizon, and it is hardly possible that such a light as must
have been caused, had a bolide passed across the south of England
at that time, would have escaped the notice of the many persons
who are abroad during the night.

It will be remembered, perhaps, that the bolide of the 2Cth
November was (so far as I could ascertain) actually seen by two
persons only, one at Hertford and the other at Solihull near
Birmingham ; but in that case the time was 8.20 a.m., and therefore
in broad daylight, and the weather was dull and foggy.

An explosive bolide may, however, be distinctly seen in broad
daylight, and even in bright sunliglit when very near the surface
of the earth, though this is very uncommon. In Switzerland on
the 20th June, 1890, fi'agments of a luminous falling mass, which
had probably broken up very high in the atmosphere, were seen
in the afternoon in bright sunlight at three ditferent points many
miles apart by different observers, of whom I had the good fortune
to be one.''''

Apart from these considerations, it will be seen, on looking
through the various statements I have collected from Hertfordshire,
that the shock felt on 17th December, 1896, is generally described
as of a different character from that of 1887. Even a slight com-
parison of the statements printed in Vol. V of our ' Transactions,'
p. 35 et seq., with those incorporated in this paper, will establish
this distinction in the mind of the reader.

I propose to deal with my materials very much as I did with
those I obtained in 1887, that is to say, to let observers speak for
themselves and in their own language. If this language is not
always scientific it is at all events natural, a characteristic of the
first importance in such matters as we have under examination.
It will be convenient to add a short general summary.

Before proceeding to set out the statement of observers, I should

* See "Note sur le bolide du 20 Juin. 1890," par H. G. Fordhara (' Bull.
Soc. Yaud. Sc. Nat.,' S"" serie, vol. xxvii, p. '2'20) ; and " A Meteorite observed
in Switzerland" ('Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Vol. YI, p. 193).

VOL. IX. — PART V. 13

186 H. G. FOEDHAM THE EARTHQUAKE

like to draw attention to tlie Report on the East Anglian Earth-
quake Oi 1884, published by the Essex Field Club,"^ as a model of
what may be achieved in this branch of scientific investigation by
a local scientific society. It is perhaps the only monograph extant
of a modern British earthquake. Complete and exhaustive as it is,
and highly valuable as a record, it is also well worth study as an
example of an inquiry, and as a guide to systematic observation and
to the collection of facts in an investigation of great extent and
difficulty.

I cannot pass from this general and introductory portion of my
work without thanking the Editors and Proprietors of the various
local newspapers for the assistance they have so readily given to
me in obtaining information ; and I must also record my thanks to
all those who have taken the trouble to communicate to me their
impressions and experiences, as well as to Dr. Davison, who has
been good enough to let me look through his letters from Hertford-
shire. The information I have taken fi'om the communications
made to Dr. Davison I have distinguished by an asterisk {'^').

The geographical order of the observations and notices given
below is generally from west to east. The plans in the text are
drawn, as nearly as the information given me allows, on a scale of
about xio") or 10 feet to an inch.

Observations and Notes.

Tring. — I was awoke on the morning in question by a shaking
or rocking of my bed. I was alone at the time, and my impression
was that something or somebody was under the bed. I got up, and
the impression was so strong that I looked under the bed and then
at the time, which was about 5.30. — J. G. Williams, Pendley
Manor, Tring.

* I distinctly felt my bed, a large heavy iron one, tremble and
shake beneath me. I was sound asleep, when I awoke suddenly
and felt wide awake. Then 1 felt a strange but distinct shaking ;
but shaking is not quite the word, it [the bed] seemed to move to
and fro under me. In the High Street, two sisters living together
say that their house shook, windows rattled, and they thought
someone was trying to wake them by violently shaking their front
door. One friend felt as if someone was shaking the bed violently.
— Wilhelmina [Mrs. S. G.] FouUces, Grove Lodge, Tring.

Berkhamsted. — At Berkhamsted many people thought that
the foundations of their houses had given way. — Herts Mercury,
19 Bee, 1896.

I was from home at the time of the earthquake, but on my
return the next day, could not find the slightest sign of the
disturbance of the pencils or pen of any of my self-recording
meteorological instruments, not even on the trace of the self-
recording rain-gauge, which is sunk more than a foot deep in the

* 'Report on the East Anajlian Earthquake of April 22iid, 1884,' by Professor
R. Meldola and William White ('Essex Field Club Special Memoirs,' vol. i,
8vo, pp. 224. London: Macmillan, 1885). See also 'Trans. Herts Nat.
Hist. Soc.,' Vol. IV, p. 23.

OF THE ITxn OF DECEMBER, 1896. 187

ground. — Edward Mawley [Pros. R. Met. Soc, F.R.H.S.], Rosehank,
Berkhamsted.

* Little Gadbesden. — The shock was rather sliglit, of two
distinct parts, iirst a rumbling noise, then a rattling, the interval
between being only a second or two. My cupboard doors were
thrown open, although locked for certain at night; my bed was
slightly lifted, my windows rattled very much. The sound
resembled that of a traction-engine moving heavily along. It
followed the shock by about a few seconds. Time, 5.30. — [Fraulein]
M. A. Haftslein, Little Gaddesden House, Berkhamsted.

Kensworth. — 5.35 a.m. iSharp shock of earthquake. Furniture
and crockery, etc., shaken and rattled. — [Missj S. Grace Jones,
The Grove, Kensworth.

*IlEiiEi, Hempstead. — In bed on first floor. Awakened by the
noise, as of the fall of some heavy body, or of an explosion at
some little distance. A slight rocking of the bed felt. Time,
about 5.45. — [8ir] John Evans [K.C.B., D.C.L., Treas.R.S., etc.],
j^ash Mills, Uemel Hempstead.

RiCKMANSwoRTH. — I was staying in Rickmansworth in a house
near the cemetery. I was awake early and had just put out
my candle, when I felt a very gentle trembling of the bed ; there
was no wind, no one moving in the house. The trembling was
repeated — then a third time— and immediately it seemed as if
someone raised the bed and tried to twist it. It made me feel
giddy, although it was soon over, and I knew then what it was.
The whole room seemed to be twisted, and to resist and creak.
I looked at my watch and found it 5.30. My maid, sleeping
in a room opposite, was greatly alarmed, and she, too, felt the
bed and room twisted. It was a very different movement from
any I had felt before, in some far stronger and longer shocks, in
the extreme north of Scotland. It did not, however, wake another
person in the same house. — Sophie D. [Mrs. Clarence] Fry, Rough
Down. North wood, Middlesex.

*The observer was indoors, in bed, on first floor. Time, 5.25.
The duration of the shock one or two seconds ; it was strong enough
to make windows, doors, fire-irons, etc., rattle. Several persons
in the town say that it caused beds to be perceptibly moved.
In several houses crockery was thrown down. There was no
particular sound, except that of a concussion, just as if some huge
van or traction-engine had been overturned in the street close
by. The shock was felt with more or less intensity in nearly
all the towns and villages near. — A. E. Northey [Vicar of
Rickmansworth], The Vicarage, Rickmansivorth.

King's Laxgley ; Abbots Langley ; Bedmoxd ; Leavesden
Asylum. — Oscillations of beds and jarring of ornaments ex-
perienced.— Watford Observer, 19 Dec, 1896.

Leavesdex. — The earthquake was felt at this cottage by three
old people, about half-past five in the morning, two feeling as
though the bed was lifted up, the other was shaken. — [Mrs.] K,
Kentish, Rose Cottage, Woodside, Leavesden.

188 H. G. FORDHAM — THE EAETHQIJAKE

* T was suddenly awakened by my bed rocking backwards and
forwards. I cannot say bow many seconds it bad been doing so,
but I had time to light a lamp by my bedside before it stopped.
I concluded something very heavy had fallen in one of the rooms,
though I was at a loss to account for the prolonged and exaggerated
result of such an occurrence. I cannot truthfully say that I was
awakened by any sound, but for some time afterwards 1 lay awake
listening to the unusual crackings that went on in the brickwork
of the chimney. I looked at my clock when I woke and noticed
it was just about 5.30 a.m. No one else in the house had been
awakened, but most of the inhabitants of the village had similar
tales to tell of their beds shaking. In one house a short distance
off, a cousin of mine was awake all night, and heard curious sounds
in the air "like rushing water." She also experienced the same
rocking sensation, and heard plaster, etc., give way in the house,
which caused her alarm. — E. Peach, Leavesclen Green, Watford.

Watford. — Hundreds of people in Watford were awakened from
their sleep by the movement of their beds and the loud rattling of
crockery. There was first a rumbling noise, and then a shaking of
the earth, occasioning the jarring of window-sashes, doors, picture-
frames, and even the movement of furniture. Professor Attfield,
r.R.S., favours us with the following particulars: — "The effects
of the earthquake this (Thursday) morning were felt by me in my
private house, ' Ashlands,' at 5.34, Greenwich time. They lasted
for twenty seconds. The first effect noticed was the noisy vibration
of a nearly empty 150-gallon cistern in a north attic of the second
floor. That was followed, within ten seconds, by the moderate
rattling of the window-sashes in my bedroom on the first floor
and at the south corner. The whole house shook slightly. Other
inmates were not awake. I was already awake. By subsequent
comparison of watches, I find that the effects were experienced at
Sudbury, Middlesex, by Mr. T. J. Hanip, at practically the same
timey— Watford Observer, 19 Dec, 1896.

I was suddenly awakened, and that thoroughly, either by the
first shock, if thei'e were two, or by some concussion, my first
impression being that an explosion had occurred. Immediately
afterwards the windows of the room rattled violently, the bed
heaved perceptibly, the sensation being that a wave had passed
under it, and the doors of a large wardrobe swung open. The
shock lasted sufficiently long for me to call my wife's attention to
the fact that the jugs on the washstand were vibrating considerably,
which they continued to do for some seconds after I had spoken.
My son, who was sleeping in a room overhead, was aroused in
a similar manner, and he described the oscillation and vibration
as so violent that he came downstairs thinking there had been
an explosion in the house. The time, as nearly as possible, was
5.25 a.m. l^eighbours opposite seem to have had a similar ex-
perience, while some on either side knew nothing of the shock.
I annex a ground plan of room, showing position of wardrobe and
bed. My impression was that the wave passed under the bed

OF THE 17xn OF DECEMBEE, 1896.

189

longitudinally, from S. to N., or vice versa, though I think the
former. The opening of the wartlrohe doors would indicate a wave

Plau Xo. l.--Denham Lodge, Watford.

E. or W., although one from N, or S. would affect them, as they
do not fit very closely and were not secured in any way. — Sidney
Martin, Benham Lodge, Watford.

I was awake early that morning and my husband and I both
heard first a sort of thud, and then directly afterwards the brass
handles of our bedi-oom furniture (hanging handles) rattled noisily,
but we did not feel any movement of bed or room. The time was
either just before or just after 5.30 a.m. had struck, but I cannot
now [6 Jan., 1897] remember which; probably the latter, I think.
I subjoin a rough plan of my room. It faces almost due S. As

Uressin^'Sih

Plan No. 2.— Mayfield, Upton Road, Watford.

the handles would swing backwards and forwards, not from side to
side, I suppose their movement was E. and W. The dressing-table
also has drop-handles ; if they had been the ones to swing, it
would have been a 1*^ . and S. movement, and I cannot, of course,
say certainly which handles they were, but as the sound seemed to
come from the wardrobe we took for granted it was so. — Janet
[Mrs. A.] King Smith, Magfield, Upton Road, Watford.

We felt the earthquake here. This house is of three stories, and
it was only felt in the top one by my son and daughter who
occupy the two bedi'ooms on that floor. The former was awakened

190

H. G. FOEDHAM THE EARTHQUAKE

by what appeared to him to be a loud noise. He fancied that a
picture on the wall must have fallen down, and when called later
on asked the servant whether what he fancied had taken place.
This is about all he can say with any certainty. My son fancied
that he heard the crockery on his washing-table shaking, but of
this he is not absolutely certain. No picture actually fell. At the
same time my daughter was awakened by a shaking of her bed
from side to side and by a bell on the wall of her room ringing.
She was a good deal frightened. The bed lies [see rough plan]

fi.

Sell

Plan No. 3. — Yerulam House, Watford.

almost N. and S. The bell is on the wall forming the eastern
boundary. When the bell is rung by pulling the stiing the clapper
woiild move N. and S. ; it might be made to sound if the bell
were shaken in any direction, but it only swings naturally as
shown on the plan from N. to S. — T. Vaughan Roberts, Verulam
House, Watford.

* My house is situated at the S.E. end of Watford and about 50
yards from the River Colne on low-lying ground. The time at
which the shock was felt was between 5.33 and 5.34 a.m. Both
my mother and myself were awakened by the shaking of the beds.
My bed appeared to be shaken as if by a succession of waves
following one another fairly rapidly (say about three per second).
It was a regular motion, and I could not hear the slightest noise.
The duration of the shock was from four to six seconds. On feeling
the peculiar motion I immediately thought it was an earthquake,
and listened intently for a rumbling sound which I expected, but
could hear absolutely no noise whatever, neither from the effects of
the shock nor accompanying it. I made a thorough examination
of the house afterwards and could find nothing displaced, with the
exception of one pictiu-e in my room slightly tilted. Only one
shock was felt. The wave-like motion appeared to pass from
"WSW. to ENE., as my bed lies in that direction, and the move-
ment seemed to commence at my feet and pass away towards my
head ; and this is borne out by my mother, whose bed appeared to
rock from side to side, the direction of her bed being at right
angles to mine. — Geo. H. Haywood, 287, High Street, Watford.

OF THE 17tIT of DECEMBER, 1896.

191

BusnEY. — The earthfiuako was felt hero. — Watford Observer ^
19 Dec, 1896.

Aldfxii.vm. — The carth(piake was felt here. There was no noise
accompanyiug it. Beds seiaued to be lifted up and then to fall gently
down again. My manservant told me about it when he called me
at 7.30, before any of the household had seen anyone outside. The
time by my man's watch was 5.35 ; both he and his wife were
greatly alarmed. I did not wake at all, and none of my cottagers
felt anything. This house is about three-quarters of a mile from
any other; it is on the bank of the lliver Oolne, upon the Chalk
just outside the edge of the London Clay. — S. Taprell Holland^
Otterspool, Aldenliam.

This place is between Radlett and Aldenham, and on the morning
of Dec. 17, at 5.30, I was awakened by my door being burst open,
and it seemed as if some heavy person had come into the room and
was raising the bed, which seemed to be rocking. I called out
"Who is there?", lit a candle and shut the door, and it again
burst open and the walls cracked all round the room. Such was
my impression. I should say the rocking was certainly on the
W. side of the room, and I should think the second opening of

to

/

/

/

Plan No. 4.— The Folly, Aldenham.

the door was within (say) three minutes. The time was 5.30. —
[Miss] Emily Brunner, The Folly, Aldenham.

Redbouen. — Our Redbourn correspondent writes : — " Many of
the inhabitants here were considerably alarmed on Thursday early
mom (about 5.30) by a shock of ' earthquake,' which was felt all
over the village. Some maintain that their beds swayed, others
that the bedi'ooms and house shook and trembled, while crockery
jingled together in uneartlily fashion. The heavier sleepers were
inclined to be sceptical, but the general experience was conv-incing.
It is thirty-four years ago last October that a similar shock was
felt, so asserts an old inhabitant." * — Herts Advertiser, 19 Dec., 1896,

* This refers, probably, to the earthquake of 6 Oct., 1863, about 3.22 a m.,
■which was felt in the Midlanil and Southern Counties of England and in Walea
and Ireland. If so, the interval is 13 anl not 34 years.

192

H. G. FOEDHAM — THE EARTHaUAKE

Mr. E. "W. Arnold, Redbourn Bury, St. Albans, felt the sbock,
and knew it to be an earthquake. He therefore looked at his watch,
and found the time to be 5.35. That is the time of the principal
shock, but that was preceded by a slighter tremor lasting about
half a minute. Crockery in his room rattled, and he felt his bed
lift up, first at one corner, he thought, and then at another, at the
end of the tremor. His sister, in a room a little distance off, felt
her bed shake, but sideways, not up and down. The house has
only two floors, and both these rooms are on the upper floor. At
Little Mill (formerly called Do-Little Mill) a rumbling noise was
heard preceding the principal shock. This mill is about half-way
between Kedbourn and Redbourn Bury. Both places are on the
River Yer, within a few yards of the river and about level with
it. — Letter from John Eopkinson [F.L.S., F.Gr.S., F.K.Met.Soc],
The Grange, St. Albans.

I enclose a rough sketch of both my room and my sister's. With
regard to my sister, she felt her bed rock from side to side, but
could not tell which side started first, being asleep when the move-
ment began. With regard to my own sensations, which were very

WUd

ow.

M- Ari,olcl's ftoor

Wi'nd,

OW.

//ii Siiter^s Roo TnJ

Plan No. 5. — Redbourn Bury, St. Albans.

distinct, being well awake all through it, I should say the feeling
was similar to being in a boat, but a much rougher motion. The
head of my bed rose first, and went on diagonally across as I have
shown ; after that a good many things in the room rattled, but
I cannot say that I heard any noise, though one or two people
living not far off told me afterwards that they did. I do not know
whether the situation of our house was in any way the cause of the
shock being felt so distinctly, for we are on rather low ground
close to the River Ver. —^. W. Arnold, Redbourn Bury, St. Albans.
Hakpenden. — Whilst in bed, I experienced a -s-ibratory motion
which thoroughly woke me up ; a few seconds afterwards a severe
shaking occurred (apparently from undulatory movement) followed
by a very distinct upheaval — my bed feeling as if lifted 3 or 4
inches. I concluded it was an earthquake, and at once struck
a light and noted the time, about 5.35 a.m. One of my servants
thought part of the house had fallen, and got iip ; whilst di-essing

OF THK iTrn OF DECEMBER, 1896. 193

she thought there was another shaking, but slight. The ceiling of
a detached room over an open porch was cracked, as also was a pane
of glass in a conservatory on the opposite side of the house. This
house is situated on high ground, about 427 feet above the sea. —
£dward Diirnford, Lieut.- Colonel, Rothamsted Lodge, Uarpenden.

At Haqienden several persons complained of having felt the
shock, and all give about the same time — from 5.30 to 5.45 a.m.
Several report that they felt tlieir beds shake, and others that
thev heard articles in the rooms shake about. — Herts Advertiser^
\\i'l)ec., 1896.

St. Albans. — Mr. F. A. Campion, of Netria, Bricket Eoad,
St. Albans, told me that he found most of the pictures hanging on
the walls of his house out of position after the shock. Uuestioning
him closely as to this, I ascertained that the pictures on the east
and west walls were more disturbed than those on the north and
south walls, that they were on the average half an inch out of
position, and that most of them were raised on the east, and lowered
on the west. I then looked at mine and found that in my dining-
room all the lighter pictures on the east and west walls were
slightly raised on the east, some being quite half an inch out of
square and others rather less. On the same walls there is one very
heavy picture which remained in its proper position, and so did all
on the north and south walls. 1 feel sure that all were nearly
horizontal on the previous day. They are oil-paintings and heavier
than the water-colours in my drawing-room. These also were
askew on all the walls, but with no regularity, which I attribute
to the fact that they more easily swing backwards and forwards.
Mr. Campion, who is Engineer to the Great Northern Eailway
Company, says that the point of suspension of his pictures was
altered, but I cannot be certain that this was the case with mine.
You will see what is the position, height above the sea, etc., of my
house from one of my meteorological papers which I send you.*
For east and west walls I should have said ESE. and WNW.
true ( = S.E. and N.W. magnetic, nearly). Mr. Campion's house is
more nearly true N. and S., etc. It is to the S.E. of mine and
overlooks my meadow, and is about 50 feet lower than mine. It is
modem and thinly built, while mine is 1 80 years old and has one
inner y^dSS. two feet thick. Although the shock did not awaken me,
one of my servants felt it. She first thought that a man was
walking heavily across her room, and then she felt her bed lift up
and go down again. She looked at a clock in the room and found
that it was 5.35. It is a large room at the opposite end of the
house to mine, and three servants sleep in it. The two others were
asleep, but this one, our housemaid, told the others when they
awoke what a fright she had had. I have heard of two other
servants in the town, in different houses, who had just the same
experience, first thinking that a man was in the room, and then
feeling their bed go up and down. One of Mr. Campion's servants
heard a chair rattle as if it had been dropped upon the floor, and

* Long. 0° 20' 7" W. ; lat. ST 4o' 9" N. ; height above sea-level, 380 feet.

194 H. G. FOEDHAir THE EARTHQUAKE

one gentleman in St. Albans heard the flap of a small table in bis
bedroom move up and down several times, the flap knocking
against its support. From all this it seems that tbe vibration or
oscillation was an up-and-down one, eventually if not at first. The
time is variously given here as between 5.30 and 5.35 — I believe
the latter is most likely to be correct — and the duration of the
shocks as about half a minute, from which, knowing how apt we
all are to underrate that interval, I should think it most probable
that it was about a quarter of a minute. — John Hopkinson, The
Grange, St. Albans.

1 was lying awake at the time, so I am able to say that there
was no noise either preceding or accompanying [the shock]. The
movement was a vibration, or shaking, lasting perhaps as much
as half a minute, and causing the china on a washstand in the room
to rattle very audibly. There was no feeling of the bed being raised,
nor of a wave of shock such as I have felt on one previous occasion.
The time was, as near as 1 could tell, 5.30 a.m. My house has only
cellars, ground floor, and first floor, on which are the hedrooms. —
[Miss] Eleanor A. Ormerod [F.ll. Met.Soc], Torrington Souse,
St. Albans.

The impression produced on the mind of a correspondent at
St. Albans was that someone had tilted his bed upward from
beneath him. — Herts Mercury, 19 Dec, 1896.

In St. Albans the "wave" caused no little consternation, as in
other parts of the country. The motion was experienced at about
5.30 a.m. Several of the wakeful citizens assert that they felt the
oscillation quite distinctly, while others were aroused fi-om their
slumbers by the unusual tremors, the jingling of crockery, and the
slamming of doors. Some seemed to think that an explosion had
occurred, while others state that they experienced a movement
such as that caused by the heavy traffic near their dwelling,
unaccompanied, however, by any of those familiar sounds. The
vibration lasted several seconds. — Herts Advertiser, 19 Dec., 1896.

New Barnet. — About 5.27 or 5.30 a.m. on 17th Dec, Mrs. Fryer
and myself were awakened by a noise as of heavy pictures or
furniture falling in the dining-room below, and almost immediately
we felt our beds rock with a decided movement from E. to W. I
then noticed a sort of creaking of the outer wall as after a severe
strain. The whole shock did not appear to last more than three or
four seconds. — A. Ellen Coles, Beaufort Lodge, New Barnet.

Oscillations were experienced at Barnet. — Herts Mercury, 19 Bec.^
1896.

Hatfield. — On the occasion of the recent earthquake, bottles
piled up in my cellars here were thrown down and strewed about
the floor. They were all secure at night. — C. Butler [F.S.A.],
Warren Wood, Hatfield.

An engine-driver on the Great Northern Railway declares that
after passing Hatfield the line practically rocked, and he feared
that either the permanent way had subsided or that his train had
become derailed. — Herts Mercury, 19 Bee, 1896.

OF THE IYtU 01' DECEMBER, 1896. 195

*NoKTn MiMMS. — I i'l'lt it very distiuctly where I live, which
is sixteen miles north of London, and four miles from Hatfield.
I occupy a room at the top of the house (third floor) faeinp^ N.E.
I was awake at the time, but was so startled that I did not look
at my clock at once; when I looked it was 5.35. No tremulous
motion was felt. I cannot say for how many seconds the vibration
lasted. It was quickly over. I only felt one vibration. I did not
notice any tremulous motion after the vibration. The movement
gradually increased in intensity, then died away. The shock was
not strong enough to cause doors, etc., to rattle, but the bed was
perceptibly moved, neither was it strong enough to stop clocks, etc.
The shock was accompanied by an unusual rumbling sound, and it
seemed as though everything in the house was falling down. The
beginning of the sound preceded the shock. — A. M. Bales, Hawks-
head House, Hatfield.

Lillet. — I was at Putteridge Bury, about half awake, and
thought there was a big dog in the room scratching himself hard
and shaking the floor rhythmically, and making the washhand-stand
clatter. As I knew the dogs in the house, and did not mind their
being in the room, I paid no further attention, but at daybreak
I found there was no dog and the door was shut. — M. R. Pryor
[M.A., F.Z.S.], Weston, Stevenage.

PiRTOX. — A lady friend of mine tells me she was awoke by
feeling her bed rock, and herself rocked or thrown or jerked from
side to side, E. to W., and that she heard a noise directly after
that appeared to be a long way off ; that would be about the
time [of the earthquake] as reported in the ' [Herts] Express.'
Her father and mother did not feel it, although they sleep in the
same house, but her room and the kitchen under her form a kind of
lean-to to the house, which may account for it. The person referred
to was awake (instead of being awoke) when the shock was felt, and
had been for some time previous to its being felt, I have learned
since that in a cottage erected three or four years ago, about thirty
yards from the place where the other house stands, the timepiece
on the mantelpiece was found to have been stopped — time half -past
five or twenty-five minutes past five (I forget now exactly which),
and a vase was found leaning against the said timepiece. The
timepiece stood on the mantelpiece facing nearly due N., and the
vase stood on the "W. side of and fell to the timepiece ; thus it fell
'E.— William Hare, Pirton, Hitclmi.

*HiTCHiN. — Was in bed on the second floor of house. Shock
recognized, and time taken at once — 5.34 a m. No tremulous
motion. Three main vibrations lasting two or three seconds. Self
and wife happened to be awake. We were lying heads W., feet
E. (nearly) ; we were moved in bed with three distinct movements,
the first rolling us very gently to the N., the second to the S., and
the third back to N. The movements were very distinct and
easy, nothing jerky or violent. There was no perceptible vertical
motion. The windows shook and the bed-hangings moved dis-
tinctly. No other movement noticed. No damage to buildings

196 H. G. FORDHAM — THE EAKTHaUAKE

in this neighbourhood. No sound noticed. — William Hill [F.G.S.],
The Maples, Hitchin.

We were awakened about 5.30 on the morning of the 17th
December. We felt our beds rock, and one sister who was
sleeping on a higher floor than the rest felt the furniture shake and
thought a wardrobe would fall on to her bed. My mother heard
a prolonged noise, as of plaster and bricks falling, and my brother
heard distinct knocks, as of hammering, and, thinking burglars
were getting in, we partially dressed and went round the house, but
could see nothing. In the morning we discovered two cracks in
the dining-room walls, fi'om floor to ceiling. The room had been
enlarged about ten years before, and it was probably a weak place
in the building. The servants sleeping in another wing were not
disturbed and heard nothing. — Grace Lucas, Tile House, Hitchin.

Our correspondent states that a sharp shock was felt in Hitchin
and neighbourhood at 5.35, and many people were awoke by the
movement of the furniture in their houses, but no damage was
caused. — Herts Mercury, 19 Dec, 1896.

The shock of earthquake which was felt over such a large part
of the country on Thursday morning was noticed by a good many
people in this neighbourhood, some of them being roused by the
movement of furniture in their bedrooms. The time, as near
as can be ascertained, was between twenty-five and twenty-six
minutes to six. Mr. AVilliam Hansom, writing from Fairfield,
Hitchin, says: — "With the view of eliciting further reports in
this district, I will describe in a few words what I felt sure was
the shock of an earthquake. Whilst lying awake on my back in
bed, the first indication I noticed was an instantaneous motion by
being turned from one side to the other and back again, the motion
being very similar to that experienced when driving in a carriage
over a depression in the road. Immediately afterwards, the two
windows in my room chattered, and likewise the glass in the wash-
stand. A noise resembling the discharge of a distant fog-signal
followed. I then lighted a candle, and, looking at my watch, noted
the time to be twenty minutes to six o'clock."

While in most respects the descriptions of the occurrence given
by different people almost exactly agree, the widest discrepancy
exists between the causes to which those who felt the shock
attributed their sensations at the moment. The passing of a steam-
roller was the explanation which occurred to many ; while not
a few appear to have jumped to the more alarming conclusion
that burglars were at the bottom of the disturbance — were, some
supposed, under the shaken or upraised beds ! — and we hear of
one house in Hitcliin having been searched from top to bottom for
the imaginary intruders, while in other instances startled sleepers
were afraid to speak or stir lest they should become the objects of
the burglars' attention. — Herts Express, 19 Bee, 1896.

The position of my bedroom is as under, on the first floor of the
house. On the washstand against the N.W. window the glasses
and basin rattled considerably. The X.W. window rattled most.

OF THK ITtH of DECEMBER, 1S96.

197

The S.W. window, whifli might have been more tightly fastened,
not so much. The height of Fairfield is 276 feet above the sea,

K.

V/indov^.

Plan No. 6.— Fairfield, Hitchin.

and to the first bedroom floor 287 feet 6 inches. The windows
are sash windows. — fVilUam Ransom [F.S.A., F.L.S.], Fairfield,
Hitchin.

* Stevenage. — Time about 5.25 a.m. House felt as though it
was about to fall. Only one shock. The bed was raised and shook
violently. Everything rattled in the room, and the dogs down-
stairs barked. There was a loud rumbling, like a heavy train
passing. — W. Brudenell Rooke, The Firs, Stevenage.

About 5.30 on 17th Dec, I was awoke quite suddenly by the
violent shaking of my bed. The shock was so violent that it sent
me nearly out of bed. I got up at once and went into the next
ward, where there was a patient under treatment. . . . Nothing
had been felt by Mrs, Mardell in the room under mine, though she
was quite awake, or by Ada Chalkley, the patient, who was sound
asleep when I went into the ward to see if anything were wrong,
but the shake I felt I shall never forget. — Charles Mardell, Care-
taker, Isolation Hospital. Pin Green, Stevenage.

In a subsequent letter Mr. Mardell states that his bed stood
E. and W., and tl)at the movement came from the N. — [H. G. F.j

Westox. — My eldest daughter, sleeping at the top of this house,
felt a strange vibration. — M. R. Pry or, Weston, Stevenage.

Ardeley. — My daughters were sleeping in separate bedrooms
(adjoining), and both were awake at the time and distinctly [feltj
the shock. Their beds were raised and went back with a thud. The
shock consisted of two distinct parts, if not three, with an interval
of a few seconds ; they think the second part the stronger. The
time was about 5.35 a.m. They heard no sound, only the moving
motion. A grey parrot we have (the cage standing on a table)

198 H. 6. FOEDHAM — THE EAETHQUAKE '

screamed vociferously as though much frightened, a thing she had
never been known to do before in the night. A cottager living
a short distance from us also felt the shock in the same way. We
understand at about two miles from us a cottager had some
ornaments shaken from his mantelpiece. — Sarah Darly, White Hall
Farm, Luffenhall, Ardeley, Stevenage.

*Time, 5.3U a.m. Bed shook and furniture, also basin on the
washhand-stand, etc. Did not notice any interval. The duration
of the shock was three or four seconds. A rustling sound, like
birds in the chimney, was heard. The sound was heard first, then
the furniture shook, and then the bedstead. The motion seemed to
travel from S.E. to N.W. — Observers: [Miss] Mary H. Young,
and [Mrs.] Mary Ann Wright, Moor Hall, Ardeley.

* Locality, five and a half miles \V. of Stevenage. The observer
"was in bed asleep on the first fioor. Time, about 5.30 a.m. The
shock was just like the approach of a very heavy goods train, and
the consequent gradual sensation of noise. Its duration was thirty
seconds. The window, crockery, fire-irons, etc., rattled, and the
bed shook violently. The sound became gradually louder, and then
died away. — Maude Josephine Scott , Ardeley tiury.

Watton. — I was one of those aroused by the earthquake, and as
very few people in our district felt it, I think it worth -while to
mention it to you. The shock was not very severe, but was strong
enough to make the windows, etc., rattle, and lasted a few seconds.
I cannot really give a more accurate account, as by the time I was
thoroughly awake it was all over. I confess I was one of the
foolish persons to whom the idea of burglars occurred in the first
instance ; but having felt the earthquake about fiiteen years
ago,* I soon realized what it was. — Ahel H. Smith [M.P.], Watton
Rectory, Hertford.

Bramfield. — The shock of the recent earthquake was felt at
" Green Hill Farm," which is situated a mile from the village.
The house stands alone, on rather high ground, and being very
much exposed has often been felt to shake when the wind is rough,
but never to roch in the peculiar manner experienced on the
morning in question. The occupants of two bedrooms distinctly
felt the beds rock to and fro, and the sensation experienced thereby
was novel, puzzling, and ever-to-be remembered. An unusual,
indistinct, and indescribable sound preceded the movements, which
were followed by a perfect silence and calm. One of our men, on his
way to work through the woods which surround our fields, states
that the pheasants and [other] birds suddenly made a loud cry and
flutter as though greatly agitated. The time was about half-past
five in the morning. 1 was wide awake at the time, half lying and
partly sitting in bed, my head resting on the back of the bedstead,
hesitating to face the i;npleasant but inevitable duty of getting up.
The position was excellent fox feeling and hearing all that occurred.
— J. Salmon, Green Hill Farm, Bramfield, Hertford.

* Probably the East Anglian earthquake of 22nd April, 1884.

OF TnE 17X11 OF ■PFCEMBER, 1896.

199

* Little Berkhamstead. — I find only one person in this villafj;e
who perceived the eartlupuike, and tliat sli;::htly. — G. Gibson,
Rector, The Rector}/, Little Rerkhamstead, Hertford.

Hertixgfoiidbuky. — Mr. W. E. Tophara, of Hertinj^fordbury,
states that he was awakened by the bed being violently shaken,
and the rings on the cnrtain poles jingling together, and he could
also liear the pheasants in l*anshanger Park crowing and calling in
an excited manner. Another member of the family had similar
experiences; but as this is the third shock felt there since 1«80,
Mr. Topham at once guessed the cause of it, and found the time to
be exactly 5.30. — Herts Mercury, 19 Bee, 1896.

* Batfokdbtjry. — Observer in doors, on the first floor, awake, in
bed. The time was 5.32 a.m. There was no tremulous motion
either before or after the principal vibrations. Of the latter there
were about twelve (probably more), lasting about fifteen seconds.
The movement increased in intensity up to about the ninth
vibration and then died away. The doors and windows, etc.,
rattled violently, and the bed was perceptibly moved. No clocks
were stopped or ornaments overthrown, and there was no structural
damage to buildings. No sound was heard and there was no wind
at the time. Position of bed N.E. and S.W., and the apparent
course of the shock was across it — S.E. to N.W. The oscillations
were purely horizontal — a rocking motion. Windows began to rattle
at about the eighth vibration. — W. Clinton Raker [F. R. Met. Soc],
Rayfordhury, Hertford.

Pengeo. — I distinctly felt the earthcpiake here on the 1 7th
ultimo [1 7th December]. The time was about 5.30 a.m. I was
perfectly aware of what was happening, having been in earthquake

%

A

nhh

^ \

\

riau No. 7.-

-Bengeo Hall, Ilertford.

countnes, and consequently accustomed to shocks of the kind. My
bed shook with apparently a side-to side motion, and the flaps of
a table in my room chattered while the shock lasted. The room
I was occupying is on the second floor. Aspect towards the N.E.
Head of bed against the N.E. wall, as shown in rough plan. The

200 H. G. FORDHAM THE EAUTHaUAKE

flaps of the table were at either end where marked A and B. Of
course the flaps of the table were hanging down. My house is on
r.sing ground in the valley of the Kiver Rib. — Hellier R. H.
Gosselin, Bengeo Hall, Hertford.

* Hertford. — A shock was felt at 4.20 a.m. by my daughter,
who was woke up by it, and got out of bed directly and looked
at the time, and also out of doors to see if it could be anything
outside. I did not feel this shock, but must have awoke soon after,
as at 4.353^ a m. my bed was shaken up and down and slightly in
the direction of N".E. and S.W. for two seconds, not more. Neither
of us felt anything that is said to have happened at 5.35. I am
sure as to my observation of the time, and so is my daughter.
There was a distinct lifting of the bed at 4.20. — R. T. Andrews,
25, Castle Street, Hertford.

A Hertford correspondent says: — " Two distinct shocks of earth-
quake were experienced early on Thursday morning in the town
and neighbourhood. The one generally felt was at 5.35, but in
one case, at least, an earlier shock was felt, between four and five
o'clock. The rattling of crockery was noticed, but no harm was
done." — Herts Express, 19 Dec, 1896,

The shock was felt by several persons in Hertford and the
neighbourhood. Mr. Leonard McMulIen, of Sele Cottage, North
Eoad, informs us that he experienced two shocks, the first one
between four and five o'clock, and the second one at 5.35, when
there was a distinct shaking of the bedroom and a jingling of
the glasses on the washstand. Mr. W. P. Willson, who lives
close by, states that the shock was rather severely felt at his
house at 5.35 a.m. In one of the rooms the bed was shaken
sideways, the shock appearing to come from north to south ;
while in other rooms, where the beds are placed in a different
position, the head and foot of the bedsteads seemed to be lifted
up. The shock appeared to last quite half a minute. Similar
occurrences were noted in ditfercnt parts of the town and at
Bengeo. One lady informs us that she felt her bed tremble, and
the walls appeared to be shaking. — Herts Mercury, 19 Bee, 1896.

Ware. — At Ware the shock Avas also experienced, the time
being taken as 5.35. — Herts Mercury, 19 Bee, 1896.

Two gentlemen living close to Ware distinctly felt the shock
of the earthquake on 17th Dec, at 5. GO a.m., although unable
to account for it until reading next day's paper. — George I'rice,
Ware.

The earthquake was felt at 5.30 a.m by our servants sleeping
on the second floor of this house — so much so that they got
up and lighted a candle, thinking there might have been a gas-
explosion. They reported what they had felt, and said it must
have been either an earthquake or an explosion. No one sleeping
on the first floor was disturbed. — T. Fow ell Buxton, Easneye, Ware.

HoDDESDox.— Mr. F. M. Campbell [F.L.S., F.Z.S.] of Eose Hill,
HoddesdoD, reports that the earthquake was felt at Hoddesdon,
but not l)y him.— H. G. F.

OF THE iTin OF DECEMBER, 1896. 201

*' "VValtham Ckoss. — Time about 5.35 a.m. In one room on the
second floor one shock -was felt ; in another room on tlio same floor
two shocks were felt, with scare(>ly any intei'val. In the former
case the bed was raised with some force, considerably shaking
the occupant who was already awake. In the latter case the
bed was slightly raised twice, waking the occupant, in both
cases gi^'iug the impression that there was some one under the
bed ; no rumbling or other noise was beard. — E. M. Gower,
Theohalds, Waltham Cross.

* Cheshunt. — The observer was in bed fast asleep on tbe second
floor, the house being three stories high above basement. Time,
5.30 a.m. There was a violent sbaking of tbe bed, apparently
not vertical. The bed was very distinctly moved, waking up botb
the observer and bis wife with alann, but nothing was overthrown.
F. F. Lamhert [Vicar], Cheshunt Vicarage.

* AsHWELL. — I was sleeping in my own bouse. The Buiy,
Asbwell, when for a drowsy moment I fancied I was in my berth
on board ship and that that ship was rolling beavily. The
windows and door rattled. I lit a match, realizing the cause,
and found it was 5.35 by my watch. — Wolverley A. Fordham
\_The Bury, Ash well, Baldoch'].

Miss Mabel Fordbam, Elbrook House, was awakened and
fi-ightencd, and got out of bed and went to the nurse's room,
saying her bed was shaking. She was afraid to go to bed again
and got up and dressed. — H. G. F.

Whether I was asleep or not I cannot tell, but all at once
there was a most terrific gust of wind, apparently blowing
through the trees at tbe corner of the bouse and scattering the
leaves in all directions, and I could not understand it because
I knew there [were] no leaves on the trees. It appeared like
two gusts following (quickly one on the other, and then all was
quiet again. — Moses Humphry, Slipend, Ashwell.

Sandon. — I must give you my version of that commotion
a fortnight ago last Thursday, about 35 minutes past five o'clock
a.m. I bad been lying awake, I may say, for an hour. It made
me think more of an avV-quake than an earth-c^^c. I heard
it distinctly for about 30 seconds. It appeared like a rushing
mighty wind, about twelve feet from the ground. Tbe sound
■with it was like boys sliding on rougb ice, with hobnails in
their shoe-soles. Sound travelling from west to east, very rapidly,
into space. — W. H. Lees \_C.C.'\, iSandon Bury.

[Mr. Lees tells me also that the sound was peculiar and be was
startled by it, that the house did not shake, and that it was dark
and no Kght was seen. — H. G. F.]

Therfield. — The earthquake shock of last week was noticed in
this village. At the residence of Mrs, Francis we understand that
tbe sensation was felt as if someone had hold of the bedstead and
was shaking it. Mr. Shackleton, churchwarden, also noticed it, but
attributed the noise at tbe time to horses kicking in tbe stables
adjoining. — Herts ^ Cambs Reporter, '24 Dec, 1896.

VOL. IX. PART V. 14

202 H. G. rOEDHAM — THE EARTHQUAKE

RoYSTOJsr. — I was awakened, as near as I can tell, about half-past
five by a most peculiar rumbling and grating sound, appearing to
come in a south-westerly direction. By the time I had done
speculating as to its cause, the window of my room loudly rattled,
and I expected to hear a sound of wind with it, but nothing more
was heard by me. — [Mrs.] A. E. Hughes, High Street, Royston.

On Thursday, 17th Dec, 5.30, upon retiring to my bed I was
very much alarmed, owing to a violent shaking, lasting, of course,
only a few seconds. On inquiring next day I found nothing
otherwise than normal. — W. L. Farnham, Limes, The fFarren,
Royston.

Eeed. — About 5.35 on the 17th Dec, I felt my bed rock from
north to south for three or four seconds very distinctly, and the
shaking of a partition gave me a fright. — John Wilson, Goodfellow
Farm, Reed.

BucKLAND. — First it was like gusts of wind, and then as
though the house was all falling down, and the bedsteads shook
as though someone was shaking them, and then all was quiet. —
William Jarman, Hodenhoe Farm, Buckland, near Buntingford.

Bakkway. — Mr. J. J. Balding, of Barkway, told me in conversa-
tion that his bed shook as if a traction-engine was passing in the
road. He thought it was an earthquake. Also that two ladies, in
different houses in the High Street, Barkway, 200 yards apart, felt
the shocks, and that one of them got up. — H. G. F.

Westmill, Buntingford. — I felt the earthquake of l7th December
distinctly in this house. I had been awake some time, and was just
falling asleep when I was startled by feeling my bedroom heave
gently up and down. The bed-curtains rustled and the curtain-
rings rattled. There were no other sounds, and the night was very
still. I did not look at my watch, so cannot fix the time, except
that it was early morning. — Louisa R. Greg, Coles, Buntingford.

* Braughing. — Shocks were felt by my wife, sons, and daughter,
in bed on first and second floors, about 5.30 a.m. I slept through
it. They say they all felt the bed shake considerably for some
time, but they cannot give any exact account either of their
sensations or of the duration. Nothing was thi'own down. I
fancy some fresh cracks were made in ceilings, but no plaster fell.
I do not think any sound was heard here, but a good many people
in the neighbourhood were disturbed by the motion. — P. G. Ward,
[Vicar], Braughing Vicarage, Ware.

Bishop's Stoetfoed. — On Thursday morning, between half-past
five and six o'clock, an inhabitant of Bishop's Stortford was aroused
by the peculiar movement of the bed. It, and the room in which
it stood, shook so much that under ordinary Stortford circumstances
it would have occasioned no little alarm ; but the occupant,
reflecting that the town was now the happy possessor of a steam-
roller, and tliat it was doubtless rumbling along on its way to some
early rendezvous, turned contentedly over and peacefully went to
sleep again. The shock was distinctly felt in many parts of
Hertfordshire, and as far east as the borders of Essex. It was

OF TUE ITth of decembee, 1896. 203

noticed at Bishop's Stortforii by several persons. — Herts Sf Essex
Observer, 19 Bee, 1896.

It [the eaith(]uake] was scarcely noticed in the disti'ict generally.
— Mardon Bros., Herts i^- JEssex Observer, Uishop^s Stortford.

I add a few notes relating to localities in adjoining counties.

Bedfordshire.

Luton. — At Luton two or three distinct shocks are stated to
have been felt, and several persons allege that their houses
trotubled for fully thirty seconds, causing many articles of furniture
to be shifted. -Herts Mercury, 19 Dec, 1896.

Shillington. — The shock was felt here. — William Hare, Pirton,
Hitch in.

EiGGLESW.iDE. — The earthquake was distinctly felt here at
5.30 a.m. Persons living near the Market Place were aronsed, and
thought the old Shambles had fallen ; and on the Station Road
houses aud beds were shaken. — Herts Express, 26 Bee., 1896.

Himtingdonsh ire.

HoNTiNGDON^. — The Earthquake — Several people assert that they
were awakened from their sleep by hearing a noise, and through the
shaking which took place, but it does not appear to have been very
marked. On the other hand, there were many people up at the
time, and they heard or felt nothing. — Cambridge Independent Press,
24 Bee., 1896.

Camhridgeshire.

Cambridge. — [The Observatory.] — We have no special instru-
ments for recording seismic disturbances. Mercury readily trans-
mits tremors, and the earthquake of 1884* was detected here by
means of the circular trough of mercury under the transit
instrument. However, as the earth(]^uake of 17th December
occurred so early in the morning there was no chance of any of
the observers being fortunate enough to detect it in that way.

The corrections for the transit instrument are obtained with
great exactness, and any slight shift of the telescope would at once
have been detected by means of the star reductions. However, the
corrections have been carefully scrutinized, and, as far as can be
made out, there is no indication whatever of any shift of the in-
strument.— Letter from Miss A. Walker, The Observatory, Cambridge.

The seismic disturbance which passed over England on Thursday
morning was felt between 5.34 and 5.35 a.m. by Mr. Howell Pain,
of Sidney Street, who was awakened by the shock. — Cambridge
Independent Press, 18 Bee, 1896.

Ely. — The Earthquake. — The following letter appears in a
London contemporary : — Sir, I see no notice in this morning's

* "Mr. H. Todd, writing from the Cambridge Observatory, states that at
the time of the earthquake, observations for the determination of the level of the
transit instrument were in progress, and the mercury was so disturbed that the
observer had to wait some time, thinking that it arose from some waggon passing
along the road." — ' Tlce East Aiii/lian Earthquake o/1884,' p. 128.

204 H. G. FOEDHAM — THE EAETHQTJAKB

paper of tlie earthquake having been felt in the East of England,
so it may be interesting to mention that three people in dilferent
rooms in this house distinctly felt it. Two were awakened by the
shock, and the third, already awake, with a candle lighted, saw
that it was half-past five a.m. They spoke of it when they came
down, and it was suggested that it might have been caused by
a passing traction-engine, but the motion was described as quite
of a different kind — not a quick -v-ibration, but rocking. — I am,
Sir, your obedient servant, Florence [Lady AlwyneJ Compton, The
Palace, Ely, 18th Dec. — Cambridge Independent Prens, 24 Dec, 1896.

SUMMAEY AND CONCLUSIONS.

It will be seen from the foregoing notes and communications that
the earthquake was more or less definitely felt over the whole area
of the County, seventy-three observations distributed over forty-
seven distinct localities having been recorded, leaving no part of
the County of any considerable extent untouched.

The shock was more marked on the western than on the eastern
side of the County, and I cannot learn that it extended into Essex.

There seems to be no clear difference in its recorded effects as
between localities at various altitudes above the sea, or between
those situated on different rock-formations, or on superficial clays
and gravels as compared with those on the bare chalk. Had the
movement been more pronounced and striking in its effects, no
doubt classification would have been possible on such lines.

Nor is there any special deduction of scientific interest to be
obtained from the experiences of observers relative to the character
or duration of the earth-movement. My information comes almost
entirely fi-om persons who were in bed at the time of the earth-
quake, and their sensations are generally expressed in much the
same terms ; a lifting or rolling movement of the bed is almost
universally spoken of. Opinions vary as to the direction to be
ascribed to the movement, and the ideas of persons suddenly awoke
from sound sleep, as occurs in many cases, would necessarily be
vague. The position and structural arrangements of the building
in which an observer is placed, seem to affect the local movement,
and may, in some cases, seriously deflect a horizontal tremor. At
best a human being is a very unsatisfactory instrument for recording
with any exactness the eff'ects of terrestrial vibrations.

As to inanimate objects, we have a few scattered details. They
relate to the movement of pictures suspended on the walls of houses
(St. Albans) ; to the stopping of a clock and the falling of a vase
(Pirton) ; to the ringing of a bell (Watford) ; the swinging of the
handles of furniture (Watford), and of the flaps of a table
(Bengeo) ; the opening of doors (Little Gaddesden, Watford, and
Aldenham) ; the throwing down of bottles piled up in a cellar
(Hatfield) ; the swaying of bed-hangings (Hitchin and Westmill) ;
and the falling of ornaments from a mantelpiece (Ardeley). The
rattling of windows and of crockery and other light articles of
furniture was pretty-generally noticed.

OF THE l7xn OF DECEMBER, 1896. 205

StructiU'al damage to buildings is, where recorded (and that
in three instances only), of the very slightest character. At
Kotluunstod Lodge, Harpcnidon (a house situated on high ground,
427 i'ei't above the sea), Colonel Diirnford states that the ceiling of
a detached room over an open porch was cracked, as also was
a pane of glass in a conservatory on the opposite side of the house.
At Hitcbin (Tile House) two cracks were made in the wall of
a dining-room, extending from floor to ceiling. Cracks in a ceiling
are reported, but doubtfully, from Braughing.

As to the character of the movement, there is a very general
agreement. XTndulations or swaying as of a ship at sea, or of
a carriage driven over a depression in a road, are spoken of by
observers who were awake prior to the movement and were thus
well able to record their impressions. Several of my correspondents
thought their beds had been lifted up by a person underneath,
many speak of the bed being lifted, others of a rocking motion.
An engine-driver on the Great Northern Railway near Hatfield,
the only outdoor observer whose experiences have been noted, felt
the line rock. Various terms are used in the descriptions given
by observers of their sensations — "slight rocking," "trembling,"
*' rocking backwards and forwards," " bed lieaved as if a wave had
passed under it," "wave-like motion," " rolling motion," "turned
from one side to the other," " beds raised and went back with
a thud," "rock to and fro," "violently shaken," "rocking,
horizontal motion," " side-to-side motion " — occur in the accounts
transcribed, and represent the general impression of the forty or so
persons who speak distinctly on this point.

The result seems to indicate pretty clearly that a terrestrial
undulation took place, the movement being variously translated
according to the position and structure of the buiklings in which
the observers were at the moment, but being generally comparable
as regards the observers to that of a ship at sea under which
a wave or more than one wave passes.

There is a conflict of evidence as to accompanying sounds.
In a large number of cases a rumbling sound is recorded. The
following are representative examples of the expressions used by
observers : — Like a traction-engine moving heavily along (Little
Gaddesden) ; fall of a heavy body, or explosion at a distance
(Hemcl Hempstead) ; concussion as of a van or traction-engine
overturned (Kickmansworth) ; a sort of thud ; a loud noise
(Watford); a rumbling noise (Redbourn) ; as of heavy furniture
falling (New Baruet) ; unusual rumbling noise (North Mimms) ;
noise a long way off ( Pirton) ; prolonged noise ; like discharge of
distant fog-signal (Hitcbin) ; loud rumble, like heavy train
(Stevenage) ; like heavy goods train (Ardeley) ; rumbling and
grating (Eoyston) ; unusual sound (Braughing).

On the other hand, some very competent observers speak posi-
tively as to the absence of noise, and these reports come from
various districts: — Watford (Mr. G. H. Haywood); Aldenham
(Mr. S. T. Holland) ; St. Albans (Miss Ormerod) ; Hitcbin

206 H. G. FORDHAM — THE EARTHQUAKE

(Mr. W. Hill) ; Ardeley ; Bayfordbury (Mr. W. Clinton Baker) ;
Waltham Cross ; and Buntingford,

A possible explanation of this discrepancy may be found in
the difficulty in discriminating between sound- vibration ac-
companying or produced by the earth-movement itself, and the
noise of moving objects, which would be purely local. That
there was no general aerial wave seems clear, several notes
from various parts of the County expressly stating that there
was no vsdnd ; but in one district, or rather on one narrow line of
country, stretching in a N.W. and S.E. direction, three of my
correspondents agree in speaking of strong gusts of wind (Slipend,
Sandon, Buckland). AVhether this was a collateral circumstance
or a variety in the impressions received from the terrestrial move-
ment, I cannot say; the former seems the more probable conclusion.

A few instances are cited of the effect of the shock on wild and
domestic animals. As has been often observed, any unusual aerial
or terrestrial disturbance has a terrifying influence on the higher
classes of animals ; a thunderstorm, an explosion, or an earthquake,
are equally noticed by them. In the present instance at Stevenage
dogs barked in a house, at Ardeley a parrot screamed, and from
Bramfield and Hertingfordbury we have reports that pheasants
called out.

On the duration of the general movement and the number of
distinct tremors we have a variety of notes. In the majority of
cases only one movement is spoken of, no distinction being made
between the minor shocks or vibrations which by some persons are
recorded. At Little Gaddesden two distinct parts to the shock,
with an interval of only a second or two, are reported. Three
gentle tremblings of the bed, and then a lifting and twisting motion,
are noted at Eickmans worth. Mr. G. H. Haywood, of Watford,
experienced a succession of waves following one another fairly
rapidly (say about three per second ?) during four to six seconds.
Miss Brunner, The Folly, Aldenham, writes of a door opening
twice at an interval estimated at three minutes. At Redbourn the
principal shock was preceded by a slight tremor lasting about half
a minute. Colonel Durnford (Rothamsted Lodge) was awakened
by a vibratory motion, which was followed in a few seconds by
a severe shaking. Miss Ormerod (St. Albans) gives the duration
of the disturbance as " perha[)s as much as half a minute." At
Hitchin Mr. Hill noticed "three main vibrations, lasting two or
three seconds." At Stevenage one shock only is recorded by
Mr. W. Brudenell Rooke and Mr. Chas. Mardell. From Ardeley we
have various accounts: — a " shock consisting of two distinct parts,
if not three, with an interval of a few seconds" (Luffenhall) ;
shock, with no interval, lasting three or four seconds (Moor Hall) ;
movement lasting thirty seconds (Ardeley Bury). Mr. W. Clinton
Baker, of Bayfordbury, says there was no tremulous motion either
before or after the principal vibrations. The latter he describes as
" about twelve vibrations (probably more) lasting about fifteen
seconds," and increasing in intensity up to the ninth. At Hertford

OF THE IVxn OF DECEMBER, 1896. 207

"quite half a minute" is pjiven (Mr. W. P. "VVillson). Two shocks,
with scarcely any interval, were felt near Waltham Cross.
Mr. John "Wilson writes of a movement lasting three or four
seconds at Reed.

It will be seen that the duration of the movement as a whole is
variously estimated from one or two or a few seconds only up to
fifteen seconds (Bayfordbury), twenty seconds (Dr. John Attfield,
iMl.S., Watford), thirty seconds (Ardeley Eury), to " quite half
a minute" (Hertford), and even to three minutes (AldcnhamV

As to the time, very little satisfactory and exact information is
available. Unfortunately no recording instruments of any kind
help us on this point. Mr. Mawley's meteorological instruments
at Berkhamsted show no trace of any disturbance, and at the
Cambridge Observatory, where the East Anglian earthquake of
1884 was (almost accidentally) noticed, the shock that we are now
considering passed unobserved.

Many observers, however, note the time, and there are (as might
be expected) considerable variations. Out of 47 notes, three are as
early at 5.25, one as late as 5.45. Between these two extremes
the largest number (23) give 5.30, and 13 give 5.35 as the time.
In general we may take it that these are round figures.

Exact observations appear to be given by : — Mr. Sidney Martin,
"Watford, 5.25 " as nearly as possible" ; Miss Ormerod, St. Albans,
5.30 " as near as I could tell " ; Mr. W. Clinton Baker, Bayford-
bury. 5.32 ; Mr. G. H. Haywood, Watford, 5.33 to 5.34 ; Mr. W.
Hill, Hitchin, 5.34; Dr. Attfield, Watford, 5.34 "Greenwich
time"; Miss Grace Jones, Kensworth, 5.35; Mr. E. W. Arnold,
Iledbourn Buiy, 5.55 ; and, on the whole, the balance of proba-
bility seems in favour of 5.34 as being the nearest minute, for the
western side of the County at all events.

Finally, some materials have accumulated pointing to the direction
of propagation of the undulatory or wave-like movement which
seems to have traversed Hertfordshire in the superficial crust of
the earth. The sketch -plans incorporated in the text are princi-
pally published as helping to elucidate this point. The results,
however, are by no means clear. Where there are personal observa-
tions as well as the movements of inanimate objects in the same
locality, they do not always agree. For instance, it will be
seen on referring to Plan jS'o. 1, p. 189, that while the observer
thought that the movement was from S. to N., the wardrobe doors
were opened by a motion which, it would seem, must have been
approximately from W. to E., or E. to W. At Watford also the
observer was shaken from W. to E., but the bell which was rung,
if it swung as it Avould naturally swing, would move on a north-and-
south line. It appears, however, that the bell could be made to ring
if shaken in any direction. It is possible to bring into harmony the
movement experienced by Miss Brunner at Aldenham with the
opening of the door reported by her, by assuming a movement from
a south-westerly direction, though the door would apparently be
most liable to be affected in the way stated by a movement from

208 H. G. FORDHAir — THE EARTHQUAKE OF 1896.

the south (see Plan No. 4, p. 191). The sensations of two persons
in adjoining rooms at Redbourn Bury do not altogether agree.
The one speaks of movement from E.JST.E., the other of one from
N.N.E., but the discrepancy here is not considerable. The swaying
of pictui'es at St. Albans does not establish any well-marked line
of direction. At Pirton, in the north of the County, the stopping
of a clock, the fall of a vase, and the personal sensation of an
observer, all point to an E. and W. movement ; and at Bengeo, as
shown on the plan (Plan No. 7, p. 199), the movement of the
bed and of the flaps of the table standing at its foot coincides in
direction.

It may be said that of the eight cases in which inanimate objects
can be appealed to, a westerly and easterly movement is either
definitely indicated or can at least be inferred as possible.

Sixteen personal impressions are recorded. Of these, one refers
to a movement from S. to N., three from N. to S., three from S.K.
to N.W., and one N'.W. to S.E. Six speak of the movement as
coming from the W. or from a westerly point, and two from the
opposite quarter. Thiis the balance of numbers is clearly in favour
of a movement on a AV. and E. line, which seems the probable
general direction of the movement. Deviations from that general
direction must, if this be accepted, be accounted for by reference to
local circumstances, either relating to the character of the deep-
seated or superficial geological formations, or to the structure and
position of buildings.

It remains to notice the earlier shocks which are reported from
Hertford. Mr. R. T. Andrews, of Castle Street, who did not notice
the movement between five and six, gives a distinct account of a
shock he felt at 4. 35 J, and mentions that his daughter was awakened
by a yet earlier shock at 4. '20. Mr. Leonard McMullen, of
Hertford, also felt a shock between four and five, and there can be
no doubt of the fact, although, curiously enough, these vibrations
have not been recorded elsewhere in the county.

I have now endeavoured to sum up, as shortly as possible, in the
above few pages, the results and more salient features of the
detailed observations previously printed. For more minute par-
ticulars students will, no doubt, study the detailed observations
themselves ; but the more casual reader will probably be content
with the simimary.

The scientific results of my inquiry, as I have previously hinted,
are not large or important. They are nevertheless not devoid of
interest. As a matter of county record I hope they are fairly
complete. They may be more interesting when read into and
with the elaborate study of this eartluiuake now in the hands of
Dr. Davison. Until that work sees the light mine must speak
for itself.

^0 6 3X

'^ Zoolooy 'VV

JUL 20 1942 y

1 1 B R A K '

Trows. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc, Vol. IX, Plate VI.

MAP OF THE COUNTRY AROUND ROYSTON.

SCALE: 1 INCH = 1 MILE

XXIV.

"WATER-LEVELS IX THE CHALK NEAR ROYSTON.

By Harold Warren-, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.

Communicated by II. G. Fordham.

Read at St. Albans, 6th April, 1897.

PLATE VI.

I HATE been asked to bring- before the Society the results I have
obtained by taking the water-levels in several of the wells and
springs in the north-east of Hertfordshire and south-west of
Cambridgeshire. The district embraced, as shown on the map, is
about sixty square miles in extent, with lloyston nearly at its
centre, and Ashwell at its extreme west. This includes the whole
breadth of the Chalk escarpment, which here reaches its highest
point at Therfield, and throws out at its base the magnificent line
of springs which feed the Eiver Rhee or western branch of the Cam.

This being a bare chalk area, the plane of saturation almost
invariably rises beneath high ground, the springs below increasing
or decreasing according to the hydi'ostatic pressure behind them,
thus maintaining a general balance. The variation of level due to
rainfall is, of coiu-se, felt in the wells on the higher grounds more
than in the shallower wells and streams in the valley.

The wells in which these water-levels were taken all derive
their water-supply fi-om the Middle and Lower Chalk, only those at
Therfield and Great Chishall being sunk through a few feet of
Upper Chalk, while the springs in the valley, as is well known,
are thrown out by the Totternhoe Limestone, which everywhere
overlies the Chalk Marl in this district.

For the sake of comparison with other years I show on a table
the monthly rainfall at Odsey and Therfield for 1895, and also

Rainfall.

Depth of

Rainfall.

Depth of

1895.

water in
Therfield

1895.

water in
TherHeld

Odsey.

Therfield.

well.

Odsey.

Therfield.

well.

ins.

ins.

ft. ins.

ins.

ins.

ft. ins.

Jan

2'2I

2-62

July

3-53

4 '45

Feb

•33

•33

23 3

Auofust

5-69

6-12

26 9

March

1-55

175

28 0

Sept

I 00

•86

April

i-oi

1-03

31 4

October

2"II

2-38

Mav

•86

78

32 9

Nov

3-42

372

June

•46

•51

32 0

Dec

1-65

1-84

20 9

a somewhat broken record of the depth of water in the well at
Therfield Rectory for the same period, taken at the end of each
month .

VOL. IX. PART VI.

15

210 H. WAEEEJT — WATER-LEVELS NEAR ROTSTON.

The levels, with one or two exceptions, were taken between the
30th of December, 1895, and 10th of January, 1896, at about
which time the winter rise of level usually commences in this area.
This is shown in the records given by Mr. Fordham in his papers
on the Barley and Odsey wells (see ' Transactions,' vol. v, p. 20 ;
vol. vi, p. 31).

On the map will be seen the surface-contours, and I have also
attempted to show in dotted lines the subterranean contour of
saturation where it is 145 feet above Ordnance Datum, but it is
difficult to plot this with accuracy as the wells are in some cases
few and far between. The small circles on the map show the
position of the wells and springs in which levels have been taken.

I have prepared four typical sections, showing the hydrostatic
gradients in this district. I do not think these need much comment
beyond a short description of their direction (shown on the map).

Section No. 1 is taken through the line of springs which rise at
the base of the Chalk outcrop from Ashwell to Shepreth. It will
be seen that with the exception of the Upper Gatley Spring,
which is only about 3 ft. 9 ins. lower than that at Ashwell, there is
an almost unifonn gradient throughout. From Ashwell Spring
(145-9 ft. O.D.) to Shepreth Spring (71-8 ft. O.D.) there is a fall of
74 feet, giving an average gradient of nearly 5 feet per mile.

Section No. 2 is taken higher up the escarpment nearly parallel
to the above, that is, in an E.N.E. direction, fi'om the " Hare and
Hounds" Inn near Odsey, through Koyston, to the "Coach and
Horses " Inn on the Newmarket Road. There appears to be
a slight depression imder Eoyston, but I do not think this is due to
any permanent lowering of the line of saturation by pumping.

Section No. 3 is taken across the outcrop from Therfield Rectory
to Litlington Spring. The levels shown in this section were taken
on the 30th of March of this year, and must not be confused with
the others, which were all taken on the dates before mentioned. It
will be seen that the well at Therfield is actually over the ridge
separating the Cam and Lea basins.

I had hoped to have got some levels in other wells near here,
in order to ascertain how nearly the underground parting-line
corresponds with the surface-ridge, but unfortunately I have been
unable to do so. I think, however, there is little doubt but that
this well does drain towards the Cam valley, as, the outlet being
comparatively near, there would be an easier passage for the water
in this direction than there would be towards the Lea valley.

From Therfield Rectory (284-2 ft. O.D.) to Litlington Spring
(105-3ft. O.D.) there is a fall of 179 feet, giving an average gradient
of 45 feet per mile from the top of the ridge to the outlet spring
at the bottom.

Section No. 4 is another cross-section from Therfield Rectory
through Royston and out at Melboum Spring. This gives a fall
of 177 feet and a gradient of 35|- feet per mile.

The following is the list of wells, giving level at the surface,
■VN'hich is generally the well-coping, the water-level, the level of

'o
o

O p

o -
a

<-<i
c

I

to a

"o •

o

o

11^
o
o

Water Line 192

Harj ana

Hounds

Odsey

Grange

The
Thrift

Well 01 £0

Ivy Farm

Koyston
"Water Vorks

'VeiT

Coach and
Horses.

(73
o

H

t— (
O

o
to

55
5»-

s

St

Co

Si
Si

Os

Si
St4

145-03

1_42-13

^ASliwell
Sprinp

Uatlcy
Spring

105-38

:.itlingtci:i

Spyms

Bass insbo urn

Spring

6e-£2

KnRcaworLh
Spring

o

H

M

O

O

J"

53

J"

76-eo

71 -861

Mel bo urn
Spring

Shepreth
Spring

212

H. WARREN — WATER-LEVELS NEAR ROYSTON.

the bottom of the well, date when levelled, and where levelled
from. B.M. indicates that the levels were taken from an
Ordnance Bench Mark ; Road mark that they were taken from an
Ordnance road-level as marked on the 6-inch plans. The wells
are taken as nearly as possible in order from west to east.

Wells.

HareparkFarm (Royston

and Baldock Road) ....

" Hare & Hounds" P. H.

(near Odsey)
The Sinks, Ash well

Cottages on Morden Rd.

(1 mile from Ash well

Station)

Hill Farm, ()d.sey

"Travellers' Rest" P. H.

(Ashwell Station)

Odsey — No. 1 well

,, No. 2 well

Odsey Grange

Heath Farm, Odsey

" Horse & Groom" P.H.

(The Thrift)

Thrift Farm

Highfield Farm

Wing Hall

Therfield Rectory

Surface -
level.

Ivy Farm, Royston

The Hoy Farm

Barn near the Hoy

Royston Waterworks ....

Royston Brewery

Wickes Hall

Mill End Farm

Flint Hall

Farm on Cambridge

Road

Burloes Farm

Heath Farm

Newsells Barns

Noons Folly Farm

Barley (Mr. Wilkinson).

King's Building

Heath Farm (Newmarket

Road)

"Coacb& Horses" P.H.

(Newmarket Road) ....
Great Chishnll (Cottages

near Church)

ft.

272'I

2389
190-9

188-9
222 5

279-0
255-9

243' I
265-8
310-9

240-7
252-8
204-1

33I-I
509-2

224-5
146-6

159 2
196-2
208 -8
339-0

352-9
390-1

177-7
298-3

245 "I
1626
304-1
174-2

219-8

129-5

432-8

Water-
level.

ft.

I95'i

191-9
157-9

148-9
158-0

156-5
174-9
164-1
177-8
196-4

1487

153-3
1508

194-3
253-9
2842
116 5
99-1
1002
108-9
115-8
132-0
193 6
141-3

92-5
123-8
146-2
176-1
1181
167-1
1178

105-3
88-0

i8i-8

Bottom
of well.

ft.
166-1

175-9
1529

141-9

152-5

148 o

159-8
1521
1623
1729

136-7
139-8
142-8

233-2

102-5
94-1
952
91 -6

115-5
162-9

123-8

85-5
114-3
126-7
156-1

104-4
1391

104-5
96-3
81 -o

149-8

When
levelled.

3/1/96

31/12/95

3/1/96

31/12/95

6 '1/96
30/3/97

31/12/95
30/3/97
4/1/96
30/12/95

4/1/96

7/1/96
9/1,96

7/1/96

10/ 1/96

7/1/96

8/1/96

)>

9/1/96
8/1/96

10/1/96

8/1/96

9/1/96

Where

levelled

from.

Road mark.

B.M.
B.M.

B.M.

Road mark.

B.M.
B.M.
B.M.
B.M.
B.M.

B.M.
B.M.
B.M.
B.M.
B.M.
B.M.
B.M.
B.M.
B.M.
B.M.
B.M.
B.M.
B.M.
B.M.

B.M.
B.M.

Road mark.

B.M.

B.M.

B.M.
Road mark,

B.M.

B.M.

B.M.

Section Xo. 3. — From TlwrfieU Rectory to Litlington Spring.

Lltliiigton
Spring

50 ft. above Ordnance Datum.

Sectiox No. 4. — From Therfield Rectory to Melhourn Spring.

Sppi-ng

50 ft above Ordnance Datum.

£000 0

Horizontal Scale.

4.000 8.000

Vertical Scale.
100 0 100

12.000 ft,.

200 ft.

214

H. WAESEN — WATEE-LEVELS NEAK EOTSTON.

Springs.

Water-
level.

Date.

Where

levelled

from.

ft.

Ashwell Spring, Herts

i45'9

3/1/96

B.M.

Euddery Spring ,,

152-3

? J

Koadniark.

Upper Gatley Spring, Cambs

1421

) 1

B.M.

Litlington Spring ,,

105-3

30/3 '97

B.M.

Bassiugbourn Spring ,,

946

30/12,95

Eoad mark.

Kneesworth Spring ,,

86-2

10/1/96

B.M.

Melbourn Spring ,,

76-8

30/12/95

B.M.

Shepretb Spring ,,

71-8

1 0/1/96

B.M.

XXV.

THE CLIMATE OF ST. ALBANS,

DEDUCED FROM :\[ETEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN
DURING THE TEN YEARS 1887-1896.

By JoHX HoPKiNsojf, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc, Assoc. Inst.C.E.

Read at St. Albans, 6th April, 1897.

FouK years ago I commuuicated to the Society a paper on " The
Climate of Watford, deduced from Meteorological Observations
taken during the ten years 1877-1886." This paper was published
in the ' Transactions ' of the Society for iS'ovember, 1893 (Vol. YII,
pp. 219-232). The observations, commenced at Watford in 1876,
have been continued at St. Albans from 1887 to the present time,
and the general results have been printed annually in the
* Transactions.'

The present communication is an attempt to deduce the chief
elements of the Climate of St. Albans from these observations. In
the former paper it was stated that for all elements of climate but
the rainfall it is not likely that the mean annual value deduced
from any ten years' observations will differ greatly from the mean
for a much longer period, nor that the extremes will be greatly
exceeded. It is generally admitted that with an increase of
elevation with places similaiiy situated in other respects the mean
temperature will be lower. The level of the ground at my
thermometer-screen at St. Albans is 157 feet higher than it was at
Watford : the mean temperature at St. Albans for the ten years
1887-1896 was 0°-3 lower than it was at Watford for the previous
ten years. Again, with an increase of elevation the extreme
range of temperature is usually reduced : the extreme range at
St. Albans during the last ten years was 4°*4 less than it was
during the previous ten years at Watford. The range, however, is
likely to vary more from one period to another than is the mean,
and I do not place much reliance upon this test of the value of
ten years' observations. The slight difference in altitude between
Watford and St. Albans is not likely to affect the humidity of the
air or the amount of cloud : the mean of both of these for the
last ten years at St. Albans was exactly the same as it was for the
previous ten years at Watford. With regard to rainfall it was
stated in the previous paper that the mean rainfall of any place
cannot be directly ascertained, with any probability of accuracy,
from observations extending over a shorter period of time than
40 or 50 years. The true mean rainfall at St. Albans is not likely
to be greatly different from that at Watford, but at the higher
altitude there should be rather more rain : the mean annual
rainfall at St. Albans for the ten years 1887-96 was, however, 4-22
inches less than it was for the ten years 1877-86 at Watford.
This is because the earlier period was an exceptionally wet one in

216 J. HOPKDTSOJf THE CLIMATE OF ST. ALBANS.

this part of England. Any diiference, therefore, between the two
places in these elements of climate is traceable to known causes,
and the rainfall appears to be the only element affected by the
shortness of the periods of observation.

]n the former paper were given the reasons for the sequence of
the tables which revealed the climate of Watford. As the same
sequence is followed here, these reasons may be repeated. "After
temperature and rainfall, the sequence of phenomena in relative
importance, as indicating the nature of the climate of any place,
is probably humidity, cloud, and wind. Atmospheric pressure can
scarcely 'be considered an element of climate, but in determining
the character of other meteorological phenomena it is of paramount
importance, and it will therefore be discussed first. For a similar
reason — the cause preceding the effect — humidity, cloud, and wind
will be discussed before rainfall."

Some information will first be given as to the locality where the
observations have been made, the instruments used, and the method
of observation and reduction. This will be followed by a discussion
of the general results obtained.

SiTUATlOIf OF StATIOIJ.

The Granqe, St. Albans.— Latitude, 52° 45' 9" N. ; longitude,
0° 20' 7" W. (of Greenwich). Centre of St. Albans (the Town
Hall) 170 yards WSW. ; Parish Church (St. Peter's) 340 yards
NNE. Ground-level at thermometer- screen 380 feet above mean
sea-level (Ordnance Datum) and at rain-gauge 379 feet ; cistern of
barometer 388 feet above Ordnance Datum.

The situation is very open and well elevated above the valley of
the Ver. The ground slopes downwards slightly towards the south
for a short distance and then much more steeply in the same
direction. It also falls on either side of this main gradient, so
that the contour is convex, being made up of a south-westerly
slope to the River Ver, which is half a mile distant, and of a south-
easterly slope to the Eiver Colne, distant about three miles. The
ground rises to about 410 feet half a mile to the north-east, and
falls to about 250 feet half a mile to the south. The distances
given above indicate the position of the thermometer-screen and
rain-gauge ; the barometer is 200 feet to the west-north-west ;
part of the increase in its altitude is due to the slope of the ground
and part to the height of the ground-floor of the house above the
ground-level and the height of the barometer above the floor.
The elevations were ascertained by levelling from a bench-mark
(3S4-3ft.) on the wall by one of my own gate-posts about 40 feet
from the barometer.

The subsoil is gravel on chalk, and there is a considerable depth
of surface-soil, but this, having very little clay in its composition,
soon transmits the rain which falls upon it to the pervious gravel
underneath. The natural level of the plane of saturation in the
chalk is about 130 feet beneath the surface, but it is lowered by
pumping at the waterworks about one-third of a mile to the

J. norKINSON — THE CLIMATE OF ST. ALBANS. 217

nortli-novth-cast. It rises very slightly from the river, close to
■which there is another pumpiiig-station.

There are a few large trees on the north and east of the rain-
gauge and thermometer-screen, but they are sufficiently distant to
have no appreciable effect on either the temperature or the rainfall
recorded. The wind-vane, wdien first erected, was rather too near
them, but it was removed to above the roof of the house in 1890.

IxSTErsiENTS, AND MeTHOD OF OBSERVATION AND REDUCTION.

Barometer, a Fortin standard witli tube half an inch in inteiTial
diameter. Thermometers, dry-bulb, -wet-bulb, Negretti maximum,
and Rutherford minimum, 4 feet above the ground in a Stevenson
screen, over grass. Rain-gauge, Snowdon pattern, 5 inches in
diameter, top of rim 1 foot above the ground (grass), capacity of
receiver 8 inches depth of rain. "Wind-vane on a pole erected on
the top of the house, with nothing to interfere with the free action
of the wind upon it, the nearest objects of equal height being some
trees about 100 feet to the east.

Observations taken at 9 a.m. (or a little before that hour).
Readings of minimum thermometer entered to the day of observa-
tion, of maximum thermometer and rain-gauge to the previous
day. Readings corrected for index-errors of instruments, and
barometer-readings corrected to 32° in accordance with the temper-
ature shown by attached thermometer, and reduced to sea-level.
No corrections made for diurnal range of pressure or temperature,
the mean temperature adopted being the arithmetical mean of the
minimum and maximum readings. Reductions made from tables
in the Royal Meteorological Society's ' Hints to Meteorological
Observers,' by "William Marriott (2nd and 3rd editions).

During the whole of the ten years there has been no intermission
in any of the observations except in the reading of the barometer,
the observations during my absence from home having been taken
by others. Barometer-readings have been supplied by calculation
from the readings at other stations in Hertfordshire for each day on
which they have been omitted.

General Results and Inferences.

All the more important elements of the climate of St. Albans
being given in the tables, it is only necessary to state here some
of the general results which may be arrived at from their examin-
ation, and inferences which may be drawn from their study, the
tables giving the information, and these remarks being merely
a commentary upon them. Occasionally, however, a fact may
be stated which is neither shown in the tables nor can be deduced
from them. Such of the values given as are considered to be
approximately correct elements of the climate of St. Albans are
usually expressed in the present tense.

In dividing the year into seasons, the months of March, April,
and May are considered as spring ; June, July, and August as
'Ummer; September, October, and November as autumn; and
December, January, and February as winter.

218 J. HOPKINSON THE CLIMA.TE OF ST. ALBANS.

Pressure of the Atmosphere (Tables I-III, p. 219). — The mean
pressure was the same (29*990 ins.) during each half of the period.
The year of lowest pressure was not the wettest, nor was the year
of highest pressure the driest, in the series. Both these years were
in the second half of the period.

Pressure was considerably above the mean in the first and the
last year of the series, appreciably below the mean in three years,
and the mean or very near it in five years The average annual
deviation from the mean was 0'023 in. AVhilst the lowe.st and the
highest mean annual pressures deviated almost equally from the
mean for the whole period, the lowest pressure recorded deviated
0-5 17 in. more from the mean than did the highest pressure, and
the mean of the lowest pressures deviated from it 0*441 in. more
than the mean of the highest pressures.

The extreme range of pressure was 2"387 inches, being from
28-538 inches on 11th November, 1891, to 30-925 inches on 30th
January, 1896.

On the average, pressure is low in spring and autumn, a little
higher, but still below the mean, in summer, and considerably
above the mean in winter. It is lowest in October and highest in
February. The season with the lowest mean pressure was the
spring of 1890 (29-8o6 ins.), and that with the highest the winter
of 1890-91 (30-226 ins.). The months with the lowest mean
pressure were February, 1893 (29-700 ins.), and October, 1889
(29'703 ins.) ; the month with the highest mean pressure was
February, 1891 (30-488 ins.). This was the month of least
rainfall.

Temperattire of the Air (Tables IV- VI, p. 221). — The second
half of the period was about a degree warmer than the first half,
the mean temperature during the first five years being 47°-46, or
0°-53 below the mean for the period (47°-99), and during the
second five years, 48°-52, or 0°-53 above the mean, the difference
therefore being 1°*06. Both the coldest and the warmest year
occurred during the later period, 1892 being the coldest and 1893
the warmest, and giving an extreme annual range for the whole
period of 3°-3. No other years differ from each other in their
mean temperature so much as two degrees, and the annual average
deviation from the mean is 0°-65, the temperature being below the
mean in five years, above it in four, and equal to it in one year.

The coldest year had no other special characteristics, but if the
9 a.m. temperature be taken into consideration, 1888 comes out as
the coldest, and that had the least daily range of temperature, the
most cloudy sky, much the fewest days of clear sky, and much the
largest number of days of overcast sky. The warmest year had the
greatest daily range of temperature, the cMest atmosphere, the
clearest sky, the greatest number of days of clear sky, and much
the smallest number of days of overcast sky.

The extreme range of temperature was 80°-9, the absolute
minimum being 10°- 1 on 7th February, 1895, and the absolute
maximum 91°-0 on 18th August, 1893,

J. norKINSON — THE CLIMATE OF ST. ALBANS. 219

Table I. — 2[ean and Extreme Pressure in each Year, at 9 a.m.

Year.

Mean.
Ins.

Absolute l\rin.

Ab.solute Max.

Range.
Ins.

Ins.

Date.

Ins.

Date.

1887
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96

30-034
29-967
29-985
29-984
29978
29-967
30-001
29 990
29-947

30-045

28-820
28-837

28-975
28-712

28-538
29-136

28753
29-1 so
28-862
28-687

Nov. 3
Mar. 28
Mar. 20
Jan. 23
Nov. 11
Feb. 18
Feb. 21
Nov. 14
Mar. 28
Dec. 4

30-S60
30-742

30-713
30717
30-338
30-601

30-750
30-642
30-624
30-925

Feb. 7
Jan. 10
Jan. 4
Feb. 23
Feb. 18
Mar. 31
Dec. 30
Dec. 27
May 2
Jan. 30

2-043
1-905
1-728
2-005
1-800
1-465
1-997
1-492
1-762
2-238

Mean

29 '990

28-848

30-691

1-843

Table II. — Seasonal Pressure at 9 a.m.

Season.

Mean.
Ins.

Min. seasonal
pressure.

Max. seasonal
pressure.

Range.
Ins.

Ins.

Year.

Ins.

Year.

Snrinff

29-966
29-979
29-968
30-046

29-856
29-903
29 -888
29-932

1890
1S88
1S91
1892-93

30-137
30-096
30-058
30-182

1893
1887
1890
1895-96

0-281
0-193
0-170
0-250

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Table III. — Monthly and Annual Pressure at 9 a.m.

Month.

January ...
February...

March

April

May

June

July

August

September
October ...
November
December

Year

Mean.

Min. monthly

Max. monthly

Range.

Ins.

pressure.

pressure.

Ins.

Ins.

Year.

Ins.

Year.

30-055

29-727

1895

30-374

1896

0-547

30-101

29-700

93

30-488

91

0-788

29-919

29-615

88

30-147

93

0-432

29-973

29-750

89

30-165

96

0-415

30 -006

29-803

91

30-257

96

0-454

30-040

29-947

88

30212

87

0-265

29-941

29-746

88

30-064

87

0-218

29-957

29-825

91

30-050

93

0-225

30-040

29-784

96

30-179

88

0-395

29 -900

29-703

89

30-119

90

0-416

29-965

29-710

87

30-231

89

0-581

29-982

29-796

96

30-205

89

0-409

29-990

29-615

1888

30-488

1891

0-873

220 J. HOPKmsox — the climate of st. albaits.

The annual mean daily range of temperature, 14°*4, varied from.
13°-0 in 1888 to 16°-6 iii 1898.

Autumn is warmer than spring by l°-2, almost entirely owing to
the colder nights in spring; but the excess of the temperature of
summer over that of winter is more due to the warm days in
summer than to the cold nights in winter. Spring is 10°*8 wanner
than winter, and summer 12°"2 warmer than spring; autumn is
11°"0 colder than summer, and winter 12°'0 colder than autumn.
Thus winter passes more slowly into spring than does spring into
summer, while summer passes rather more slowly into autumn than
does autumn into winter.

The mean daily range of temperature is greatest in summer and
least in winter, and greater in spring than in autumn ; but the
absolute range has been greatest in spring and least in winter, and
greater in autumn than in summer. The nights are much colder in
spring than in autumn, while the days have very nearly the same
temperature in each season ; in summer they are not nearly so
much warmer than in autumn as are the days.

January is on the average the coldest month, and July the
warmest. The temperature increases from January to July, and
decreases from July to January, as follows : —
Increase : ^

Jan. to Feb. TO

Feb. to March 4-0

March to April 5-2

April to May 6-3

May to June 6-4

June to July 1"6

Assuming that the mean temperature of each month occurs about
the middle of the month, it would appear that the increase of
temperature is most rapid during the month of May, or from the
middle of April to the middle of June ; and that the decrease is
much the most rapid during the months of September and October.

Both the days and the nights are coldest in January and warmest
in July.

The mean daily range of temperature is least in January and
greatest in June. The increase and decrease are as follows : —

o o

Jan. to Feb. +1-4 July to August — 0-5

Feb. to March +2-4 August to Sept. — 0-8

March to April +3-0 Sept. to Oct. —2-1

April to May +0-7 Oct. to Nov. —2-7

May to June +0-6 Nov. to Dec. 0-0

June to July — 1-7 Dec. to Jan. — 0-3

Thus the mean daily range increases in the early part of the year
■January to June) more rapidly than it decreases in the rest of the
year (June to January). The greatest increase (March to April) is
due to the cold nights (not to warm days) in April.

Temperatures below freezing-point (32°) have occurred in every
month but the three months of summer and the first month of
autumn — June to September. Only once has the temperature been

Decrease :

o

July to August

0-6

August to Sept.

3-5

Sept. to Oct.

9-2

Oct. to Nov.

4-5

Nov. to Dec.

5-4

Dec. to Jan.

1-3

J. nOPKIXSOX — THE CLIMATE OF ST. ALBANS. 221

Table IY. — Jlcan and Extreme Temperature in each Year.

Year.

Mean.

Means of

Mean

daily

Range.

Absolute Min. and Max.

Abso-
lute
Range.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Day.

Max.

Day.

1887

o

47 -2

0
397

0
547

0
15-2

0

137

Jan. 2

0

86 -o

July 3

0
72-3

88

47 -o

40-5

53-5

13-0

18-4

Feb. 25

838

Aug. 10

65-4

89

477

4I-I

54-4

13-3

i6-8

Feb. 13

800

Aug. 1

64-0

90

48*0

407

55-2

14-5

127

Dec. 23

78-1

Aug. 5

65-4

91

47 '4

40-4

54 "4

l4'o

II-8

Dec. 24

79-6

Sept. 1 1

67-8

92

46-9

397

54-0

14-3

i6-i

Dec. 29

79-8

June 10

637

93

50-2

41-9

S8-S

166

147

Jan. 5

91-0

Aug. 18

76-3

94

48-8

42 'O

55-6

13-6

10-9

Jan. 6

81 6

July 6

707

95

48-1

40-5

557

15-2

lo-i

Feb. 7

82-3

May 30

72-2

96

48-6

417

557

14-0

20 '9

Feb. 26

84-3

July 14

634

Mean

48-0

40-8

55-2

14-4

14-6

827

68-1

Table Y. — Mean and Extreme Seasonal Temperature.

Season.

Mean.

Means of

Mean

daily

Range.

Absolute Min. and Max.

Abso-
lute
Range.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Year.

Max.

Year.

Spring

Summer

Autumn

Winter ....

0
47-6

59-8
48-8
36-8

0

38-4

51-2

42*2

31-3

0

54-8
68-3

55-3
42-2

0

16-4
I7-I
13-1
10-9

0

15-8
34-8
i8-6

lO'I

1890
95

87
95

0

82-3
91-0
81-9
65-3

1895
93
95
91

0

66-5
562

63-3
55-2

Table YI. — 2Iean and Extreme Monthly and Annual Temperature.

Month.

Mean.

Means of

Mean

daily

Range.

Absolute Min. and Max.

Abso-
lute
Range.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Year.

Max.

Year.

Jan

Feb

M arch

April

May

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

0

36-0

37 -o
41 "O
46-2

52-5
58-9
60-5

59 '9
56-4
47-2
427
37-3

0

30-8

31-2

34 "o
377
43 '6

497
522

51-8
48-6
40-6

37-4
32-0

0
4I-I

42-9
481

54-8
61-4
68-1
68-9
68 -o
64-2

53-9
48-0
42-6

0

IO-3
117
14-1
17-1
17-8
18-4

167
i6-2

15-4
13-3
io'6
IO-6

0

io'9
lo-i
15-8
26-3
291
34-8
40-5
42-4

35-3
26-2
i8-6
1 1 -8

1894
95
90
87
92
95
88
91
87
95
87
91

0

57-6

65-3
66-5

777
82-3
861
86 -o
91-0
81-9
71-8
62-5
55-8

1888
91
90
93
95
93
87
93
95
95
95
8^

0

467
55-2
507

51-4
53-2
51-3
45-4
48-6
46-6
45-6
43-9
44-0

Year 48-0

40-8

55-2

14-4 lo-i 1 1895 91-0

1893

80-9

222 J. HOPKINSOX THE CLrMATE OF ST. ALBANS.

below freezing-point in May — on the 7tli of May, 1892. The
average number of fi'osty nights (not including ground-frosts) has
been as follows : —

Jan.

16

April 3

July

0

Oct.

3

Feb.

15

May 0

August

0

Nov.

6

March

11

June 0

Sept.

0

Dec.

15

Jan.

0

April 5

Feb.

0

M ay 14

Mar.

1

June 25

Temperatures above 62° have occurred in every month but the
three months of winter. Only twice has the temperature been
above 62° in November — on the 1st of jS'ovember, 1894, and on the
16th of November, 1895. The average number of days on which
the maximum temperature has exceeded 62° has been as follows : —

July 28 Oct. 2

August 27 JMov. 0

Sept. 18 Dec. 0

The minimum temperature has been below 1 2° on five nights
during the whole period — 24th December, 1891, 6th January,
1894, and 6th, 7th, and 8th February, 1895. The maximum has
been above 82° on 26 days in all — on one day in May (."iOth May,
1895), seven days in June, nine days in July, and nine days in
August; fifteen of these 2() days were in 1893.

The minimum temperature of the year has occurred three times
in January, four times in February, and three times in December ;
the maximum has occurred once in May, once in June, three times
in July, four times in August, and once in September.

Temperature, Humidity, and Cloud at 9 a.m. (Tables YII-IX,
p. 223). — The temperature of the air in these tables is that
shown by the dry-bulb thermometer, the temperature of evaporation
that shown by the wet-bulb. From these values the temperature
of the dew-point, or that at which dew would be deposited, is
calculated. The thermometric dryness is the difference between
the temperature of the air and that of the dew-point ; the relative
humidity is the percentage of moisture in the air to its complete
saturation, represented as 100.

The mean temperature at about 9 a.m. is on the average 0°*5
lower than the mean of the minimum and maximum temperatures ;
in no year has the difference exceeded 0°-8. (The observations
have as a rule been taken a few minutes before nine, which probably
accounts in some measure for the discrepancy of about half a degree
between these and the "Watford observations.)

From January to April, and from September to December, the
temperature at about 9 a.m. is appreciably lower than the mean of
the mimimum and maximum ; in May it is a little higher, and
from June to August (the three summer months) it is about the
same. The mean of the 9 a.m., the minimum, and the maximum
temperatures, probably gives a truer mean for the day than does
the mean of the minimum and maximum alone. If this be the
case the mean diurnal temperature in the first and last four months
in the year is probably rather lower than that given in Table VI,
and in May rather higher, the mean being true for the summer
months, while for the year it would be 47°'8.

J. HOPKINSON THE CLIMATE OF ST. ALB.iNS.

223

Table VII. — Temperature, Humidity, and Cloud, in each Year,

at 9 a.m.

Table YIII. — Seasonal Temperature, Humidity, and Cloud, at 9 a.m.

Temperature of

Rela-

Short

Days of

Season.

Dry-
ness.

tive
Humi-

of
Satu-

Cloud,
0-10

.. Evapo-

Dew-

Clear

Over-

ration.

point.

dity.

ration.

Sky.

cast.

o

0

0

0

/o

7o

Spring ...

462

43-1

397

6-.';

79

21

6-4

16

37

Summer. . .

597

55-4

,Si-6

81

73

27

6-4

12

32

Autumn...

482

4b-4

44-5

37

87

13

6-7

16

40

Winter ...

35«

34«

33-1

27

89

II

71

14

48

Table IX. — Monthly and Annual Temperature, Humidity, and

Cloud, at 9 a.m.

Month.

Temperature of

Dry-
ness.

Rela-
tive

Humi-
dity.

Short

of
Satu-
ration.

Cloud,
0-10

Days of

Air.

Evapo-
ration.

Dew-
point.

Clear

Sky.

Over-
cast.

Jan

Feb

March . . .

April

May

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

0

35-4
35-6
39-9
457
52-9
587
606

59-8
56-0
46-4
420
365

0

34-5
34"4
380

42-4
48-8

54-4
56-0

559
53-4
44-8
409
35-6

0

330
32-3
35-5
387
44-8

50-3
520

52-5
509
43 'o

39-5
340

0

2-3
3-4
4 '4
7-0
81
8-4
8-6
7'3
51
3"4
2-5
2-5

7o
91
87
84
77
74
74
74
77
83

88

91
90

7o
9
13
15
23
26
26
26

23
17
12

9
10

7-6
7-0
6-6
6-4
6-3
6-4
6-6
6-2
6-4
6-4

7-3
6-8

3
5
6

5
5
5
4
3
5
7
4
6

18
14
14
12
II
II
II
10
10

r4
16
16

Year

47-5

44'9

42-2

5-3

82 18

67

58

157

224 J. HOPKINSOIf — THE CLniATE OF ST, ALBANS.

The spring and summer half of the year is much drier than the
autumn and winter half, having 12 per cent, less mean relative
humidity. Summer is drier than spring by 6 per cent. ; autumn
is di-ier than winter by 2 per cent. iSpring and summer are the
brightest seasons ; winter is the most cloudy one ; autumn having
the mean amount of cloud of the year. Summer and winter have
fewer days of clear sky than spring and autumn ; spring and
autumn have nearly the same number of days of overcast sky ;
summer has much the fewest, and winter has much the greatest
number.

The air is driest in May, June, and July, and most humid in
November, December, and January, the humidity decreasing each
month from January to May, and increasing each month from July
to jN"ovember. Although as a rule the colder months are the more
humid, the air is much drier in comparison with the temperature
in the spring than it is in the autumn ; thus April is much drier
than September although its temperature is about the same.

Force and Direction of the Wind at 9 a.m. (Tables X-XII, p. 225).
— Although the force of the wind is arrived at, in the absence of
an anemometer, in the same way as is the amount of cloud, that
is by estimation, it is much easier to estimate the proportion of
cloud to clear sky when the whole sky is in sight, than it is to
estimate the projiortionate force of the wind when there is nothing
to compare the force with at any time but a vague recollection
of what it has been at other times. It is even difficult to say
sometimes whether the air should be considered calm or as having
the force 1 on Beaufort's scale. Again, as we never experience the
force 12 (a hurricane) in this country, it is difficult to say how
near this is approached in a severe gale. The greatest force, on
this scale, at which I have estimated the wind at 9 a.m. on any
occasion, is 6 : this has occurred several times in some years and
in others not once. The greatest estimated mean force in any
month is 2'8 (in March, 1891); the least in any month is 1'2 (in
January, 1887, November, 1892, and September, 1893). The
mean annual force has varied from 1-6 to 1-9. The wind is
strongest in spring, lightest in summer, and the mean force of the
year in autumn and winter, but the seasonal variation is very
slight. It is strongest in March and lightest in June.

With regard to direction, S.AY. winds are much the most pre-
valent, and are followed in frequency by W. winds; E. and S.E.
winds are the least frequent. The wind has been S.W. on as many
as 78 days in the year, and it has been E. and S.E. on as few as IH.
S.W. winds prevail most in summer and least in spring, and are
more prevalent in autumn than in winter; N.E. winds are pre-
valent in spring, and W. ■winds in summer. There is no gi'eat
preponderance of winds from any other quarter in any season.
S.W. and W. winds prevail most in August; N.E. winds most in
April. There are very few E. winds in August and October.
Calms occur most often in December; much the least often in
March, April, and July.

J. HOrKINSON THE CLIMATE OF ST. ALBANS.

225

Table X. — Force and Direction of the Wind in each Year, at 9 a.

m.

Year.

Mean

Force,

0-12.

Number of Days of

N.

N.E.

E.

S.E.

S.

S.W.

W.

N.W.

Calm.

1887

17

45

55

21

16

29

57

39

60

43

88

1-9

51

53

21

23

46

55

47

44

26

89

1-9

50

49

25

25

47

53

49

47

20

90

1-9

31

47

32

25

28

7«

62

3«

24

91

1-9

46

37

16

21

3«

7«

56

45

28

92

17

40

50

34

26

18

71

49

42

3b

93

1-9

37

39

27

33

44

69

63

27

26

9i

17

36

3«

32

36

51

71

47

33

21

n^

1-6

42

36

35

30

3^

52

63

36

33

96

1-8

50

33

20

28

49

61

55

50

20

Mean

1-8

43

44

26

26

39

64

53

42

28

Table Xr

— s-^^.

wnal Force and Di)

ection

of the Wind at 9 a.

m.

Mean
Season. Force,
0-12.

Number of Days of

N.

N.E.

E.

S.E.

S.

S.W.

W.

N.W.

Calm.

Spring..
Summer
Autumn
Winter..

1-9

17
1-8
1-8

127

lo-i

no

9-0

15-9
9-1
9-6
9-1

9-0
4 '9
5-4
7-0

6-3
5-8
7-0

7-2

77

1 1 '3

97

IO"I

13-6
19-9
16-3
147

11-8

157

I2'I

13-4

IO-5

9-9

II-3

io'6

4-5
5-3
8-6

9-2

Table XII. — Monthly and Annual Force and Direction of the Wind

at 9 a.tn.

Month.

Mean
Force,

Number of Days of

0-12.

N.

N.E.

E.

S.E.

S.

S.W.

W.

N.W.

Calm.

Jan

17

3-6

2-1

1-6

27

3-5

5-6

4*3

4-3

3-3

Feb

1-9

3-4

4*3

2-5

1-9

2"I

3-9

4-3

3-3

2-6

March . .

2-1

3-0

4-2

27

1-8

3-5

5-9

5-1

3-8

i-o

April

1-9

47

6-2

3 '4

1-8

1-8

4 "4

3-6

27

I 4

May

1-8

5-0

5-5

2-9

27

2-4

3-3

31

4-0

19

June

1-6

4-5

4-6

20

2-0

yo

4-8

4-0

2-6

2-0

July

1-8

3-1

2-6

1-8

2-2

4-0

67

5-1

3-5

I '4

Aug

1-8

2-5

1-9

i"i

1-6

37

8-4

6-6

3-8

2-2

Sept

17

3-0

3-9

2-1

2*1

3-0

5-5

4'i

4-1

3-2

Oct

1-8

4 -2

2-5

0-8

1-9

37

6-2

3*9

4-b

3-2

Nov

1-8

3-8

3-2

2-5

3"o

3-0

4-6

4'i

2-6

3-2

Dec

17

2-0

27

2-9

2-6

4-5

5-2

4-8

3-0

3-3

Year

1-8

42-8

437

26-3

26-3

38-8

64-5

53-0

42-3

27 -6

VOL. IX. — PART VI.

16

226 J. HOPEINSOJS'^ — THE CLIMATE OF ST. ALBAKS.

Rainfall (Tables XIII-XV, p. 227). — There could scarcely
have been a better decade than 1887-96 from which to form an
idea of the rainfall of St. Albans, for the mean rainfall throughout
the county has been very nearly the average of a long series of
years. In the fifty-seven years ending 1896 the mean annual
rainfall at all the stations in Hertfordshire was 26 '3 3 inches. In
this determination no adjustment has been made for the disparity
of distribution of the rainfall-stations. The rainfall increasing
from east to west, and there being a larger number of stations for
the area in the west than in the east, the mean value derived from
all the stations requires a deduction in order to arrive at the true
mean for the county, which is probably about 26 inches. How
this value has been arrived at will be seen on referring to pp. 37
and 38 of the present volume of our ' Transactions.' The mean
annual rainfall at all the stations in Hertfordshire for the ten years
1887-96 was 25-21 inches. This requires a slight deduction for
disparity of distribution of the stations, and we may fairly consider
that the true mean was about 25 inches. Whether the values
arrived at be thus adjusted or not, the rainfall during the last ten
years will be found to have been a little under 4 per cent, below
the mean for the last fifty or sixty years. In such a very varying
element of climate as rainfall this is a very slight difference, and
it may be neglected for all practical purposes. Applying the
correction, however, the mean annual rainfall at St. Albans for the
last ten years, 26*74 inches, would be raised to 27-81 for the last
half-century, but if we wished to arrive at the probable value for
the last century a deduction would have to be made, and the true
mean value would be between 27 and 27J inches.

For the last half-century the following was probably the ap-
proximate mean monthly and seasonal rainfall : —

March 2-15 June 1-86 Sept. 2-25 Dec. 2-23

April 1-37 July 3-27 Oct. 3-44 Jan. 1-88

May 1-98 Aug. 3-03 Nov. 3-09 Feb. 1-26

Spring 5-50 Summer 8-16 Autumn 8-78 Winter o-37

"Winter and spring have each 20 per cent, of the year's rainfall,
summer has 29 per cent., and autumn has 31 per cent. Spring
has 23 per cent, of the year's wet days, summer has 24 per cent.,
autumn has 26 per cent., and winter has 27 per cent.

The fall of rain varies on the average most in summer and least
in autumn, and more in winter than in spring, the mean deviation
from the average fall for each season having been as follows : — In
spring 154 in., in summer 1-78 in., in autumn 1-^9 in., and in
winter 1-65 in. The extreme deviation, however, has been greatest
in spring and least in winter, the wettest spring (1889) having had
five times as much rain as the driest (1893), and the wettest winter
(1892-93) only twice as much rain as the driest (1887-88); and
it has been rather greater in summer than in autumn.

February and April are much the driest months; July and
October are the wettest, followed closely by August and j^ovember.

J. HOrKINSON — THE CLIMATE OF ST. ALBANS. 227

Table XIII. — Rainfall in each Year.

Year.

Mean.
Ins.

Min. monthly
faU.

Max. monthly
fall.

Max. in 24 hours.

Days of

In.

Month.

Ins.

Month.

Ins.

Date.

Rain.

Snow.

1887
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96

19-84
28-29

29-45
23-27

31-13
25-84
25-00
32-20
25-60
26-80

•64

•72

1-14

•59
•05

•87
•14
1-86
•18
•34

Feb.

Sept.

Nov.

Sept.

Feb.

April

April

Feb.

Feb.

May

3 "40
4-70

5-36
417
6-35
4-23
5-07
4-81

4-95
6-69

Nov.
Nov.
July
July
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Nov.
July
Sept.

-68
2-40

2-95
2-00

1-35
1-55
2-02

1-42

1-25

I -01

Nov. 3
June 26
July 12
Jidy 17
Aug. 20
Aug. 27
Oct. 9
Aug. 24
July 18
Sept. 24

162
194
186
188
201
179
170
212
161
178

25
24
29
25
23
36
22

14

36

8

Mean

26-74

•65

4-97

1-66

183

24

Table XIV. — Seasonal Rainfall.

Season.

Mean.
Ins.

Min. seasonal
fall.

Max. seasonal
faU.

Max. in 24
hours.

Days of

Ins.

Year.

Ins.

Year.

Ins. Year.

Rain.

Snow

Spring ..
Summer
Autumn
Winter. .

5-29
7-85
8-44
5-16

2-30
2-60
4-62
3-39

1893
87
90
95-96

6-96

11-45

11-64

6-85

1894
88
96
93-94

1-38

2-95
2-02
1-40

1889
89
93
94

41
43
49
50

6

0

2

16

Table XV. Monthh/

and Annual Rainfall

Mean.

Min. monthly
fall.

Max. moutlily
fall.

Max. in 24
hours.

Days of

Month.

Ins.

In.

Year.

Ins.

Year.

Ins.

Year.

Rain.

Snow.

Jan

I -81

•79

1896

2-94

1890

-76

1895

19

7

Feb

I-2I

•05

91

3-36

93

-50

94

13

5

March...

2-07

•51

93

3-62

96

•92

94

16

S

Apiil

1-32

-14

93

2-47

89

•41

95

13

I

May

1-90

-34

96

4-51

89

1-38

89

12

0

June ....

1-79

-39

95

3-79

88

2-40

88

II

0

July ....

3-15

-88

87

S-36

89

2-95

89

16

0

Aug

2-91

1-07

87

4-29

91

1-55

92

16

0

Sept

2-i6

■59

90

6-69

96

I -01

96

13

0

Oct

3-31

i-oi

88

6-35

91

2-02

93

18

I

Nov

2-97

1-14

79

4-81

94

1-40

94

18

I

Dec

2-14

-66

90

4-16

96

•81

91

18

4

Year

26-74

•05

1891

6-69

1896

2-95

1889

183

24

228 J. HOPKINSON — THE CLIMATE OF ST. ALBAKS.

The least fall of rain in any season was 1-61 in. in the spring of
1893, the least in- any month was 0-05 in. in February, 1888; the
greatest fall of rain in any season was 11*14 ins. in the autumn of
1896, the greatest in any month was 6-69 ins. in September, 1896 ;
the greatest fall in any day (of 24 hours ending 9 a.m. on the
following day) was 2-95 ins. on the r2th of July, 1889.

Falls of rain exceeding one inch in 24 hours have occurred on
eighteen occasions, averaging 1'47 inch each fall.

Absolute droughts (periods of more than fourteen consecutive
days without rain) have occurred on ten occasions, their average
duration being 20 days. The longest was 29 days, from 18th
March to 15th April, 1893; the next in duration was 27 days,
from 7th June to 3rd July, 1887.

^Exceptional Phenomena. — Only a few of the more remarkable
meteorological phenomena which have occun'ed at St, Albans are
here enumerated, in chronological order. The references are to
my accounts of the phenomena in the Society's ' Transactions.'

The year 1887 was very dry, the rainfall being 26 per cent,
below the average for the ten years. In 1888 there fell in nine
hours in the night of 26th-27th June, 2*40 inches of rain, being
at the rate of 0-27 inch per hour. In 1889 there fell on 12th July.
2-95 inches of rain, and on the following day 0-23 inch, making
3*18 inches in two days. The great frost of 1890-91 lasted for
the eight weeks fi'om 26th November to 20th January, the mean
temperature during this period being 29°-3, or 2°-7 below freezing-
point (VI, 172). In February, 1891, only 0-05 inch of rain fell.
In 1892 the minimum shade temperature on 7th May was 2°-9
below freezing-point; there was a white frost on 15th June and
18th September; and on 24th October the minimum shade
temperature was 5°-5 below freezing-point. There was a severe
thunderstorm on the night of 28th-29th June (VII, 180, 212).
The year 1893 was exceptionally warm, and had several very
severe thunderstorms in July, August, and November; a violent
gale and heavy snowstorm on 1 8th November ; and a still more
furious gale, which did much damage, on 12th December (VIII,
41-44, 63-64). In 1894 there were 8-33 inches of rain in October
and November together, causing serious floods (VIII, 141-146).
In 1895 occurred the great frost of ten weeks' duration which
did so much damage to water-pipes, and, by their leaky condition
during the dry weather which succeeded it in the spring, helped
to cause the water-famine in the east of London. The frost was
most severe between 26th January and 14th February (IX, 88, 89).
In March occurred a gale which blew clown many trees (VIII,
199-202). September was exceedingly warm (IX, 91). In 1896
September was excessively wet, 6-69 inches of rain falling, and
in October 3 46 inches, more than half as much rain thus falling
in two months as fell in the whole of the year 1887.

XXVI.

REPORT ON PEEXOLOGICAL PHENOMEXA OBSERVED IN
HERTFORDSHIRE DURING THE YEAR 1896.

By Edwaed Mawlet, Pres.R.Met.Soc, F.E.H.S.,
Phenological Recorder to the Royal Meteorological Society.

Read at Watford, 30th April, 1897.

The list of observing stations remains the same as in the previous
report. The only hicalitios where new observers are at the
present time still greatly needed are those in the neighbourhood
of Bishop's Stortford in the east, and Buntingford in the north-
east. If these gaps in the distril)ution of the stations coidd only
be filled up, the organization for the county might be regarded as
sufficiently complete.

The following table gives the names of the observers, the districts
they represent, and the approximate height of the stations above
sea-level : —

Station.

Watford (The Plaits)

Radlett (Xewberries)

Broxbourne (Wormley)

St. Albans (The Grauge)

St. Albans (Addiscombe Lodge)

St. Albans (\\^)rley Road)

Bei-khamsted (Rosebauk)

Hatfield (Symouds Hyde)

Hertford

Harpenden

Hitchin

Ashwell (Odsey)

Height above

Sea-level.

240 feet.

320 „

120

380

400

300

400

300

140

370

230

260

Observer.

Mrs. G. E. Bishop.
Miss E. M. Lubbock.
Miss L. Warner.
Mrs. J. Hopkinson.
Miss E. F. Smith.
Henry Lewis.
Mrs. E. Mawley.
T. Brown.
W. Graveson.
J. J. Willis.
J. E. Little, M.A.
H. G. Fordham.

The Winter of 1895-96.

Taken as a whole this was a very warm winter, the only
other recent winter with as high a mean temperatiu'e being that
of 1893-94. Kot only did the weather continue unseasonably
warm, as a rule, but there also occurred very few really cold
nights. Only towards the end of Febniary did the thermometer
exposed on my lawn at Berkhamsted show more than 13 degrees
of fi'ost, and even then the lowest reading registered by it was
only 17 degrees below the freezing-point. In December there
was nearly a seasonable quantity of rain, but taking January and
February together, the fall was lighter than for the same two
months in any of the previous 41 years, which is as far back as
the Berkhamsted rainfall records extend. Although this winter

230

E. MAWLEY — PHENOLOGICAL PHEXOMElSrA

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232 E. MAWLEY — PHEXOLOGICAL PHEIfOMEXA

was singularly warm and dry the atmosphere on the whole re-
mained calm and humid, and there was an unusually scanty record
of clear sunshine.

From an agricultural point of view, the winter of 1895-96 must
be regarded as having been in almost every respect a remarkably
favourable one. Owing to the dry and open weather, the cultiva-
tion of the land was scarcely interrupted for a single day. During
February the ground was in such splendid condition for working
that the arrears of wheat-sowing, due to the wet autumn, were
soon made up, and the grain was sown under the most favourable
conditions possible. The autumn-sown corn was also benefited
by the mild season, and yet never became sufficiently forward to be
considered " winter proud." This was no doubt in a great measure
due to the paucity of sunshine. Moreover, the grass in the pastures
remained fresh and green thi'oughout the whole season. Unlike
the previous winter, there was always a plentiful supply of green
vegetables in the gardens.

Our Watford representative, Mrs. Gr. E. Bishop, mentions the
scarcity of ivy and holly-berries in December, and the unusually
green appearance for the time of year of the grass, both in the
fields and on the lawns, at the end of February. Miss E. F. Smith,
as illustrating the open character of the season, states that as early
as the 20th of January she had noticed buttercups, both creeping
and bulbous, in flower by the roadside close to St. Albans. At
Berkhamsted the winter aconite was in blossom in my garden on
January 9th, or a fortnight earlier than its average date for the
previous seven years, and three days earlier than in any of those
years.

The first plant on the list, the hazel, taking the mean date for
all the stations, came into blossom four days in advance of its
average date for the preceding nineteen years, while the coltsfoot
was one day early.

The song-thrush was first heard after the beginning of the year
on Januaiy 12th, which is four days earlier than its usual time.

The honey-bee first visited flowers three days later than the
mean date.

The Spring.

The weather of March may be concisely described as having been
warm, wet, and windy ; whereas April and May, although also
warm for the time of year, were remarkably dry, and had an
unusually calm atmosphere. The first two months of the season
proved sunless, while May, on the other hand, continued singularly
bright even for this sunny mouth.

Throughout the greater part of the quarter the weather-con-
ditions were again favourable for the farmer. Indeed, until about
the middle of May, seldom has the prospect, all things considered,
been so promising. About this time, however, the continued dry
weather was beginning to make itself seriously felt, and especially
by the pastures, the grass in which made scarcely any growth.

OBSERVED IN HERTFOUBSniRE IN 1896. 233

Owiup: to the same cause seeds germinated slowly, and in many
cases failed to come up at all.

The most noteworthy feature of this spring was undoubtedly
the abundant blossom on all kinds of flowering shrubs and trees,
including fruit-trees, the hawthorn bushes especially presenting in
many cases one continuous sheet of bloom.

^Irs. Bishop reports tliat at the end of May the lawns at "Watford
were mucli burnt up, while the grass intended for hay was very
thin and short. Miss Lilian Warner, writing from Wormley early
in April, remarks that "the unusually mild winter had made less
ditference in the flowering of early spring plants than might have
been expected — the coltsfoot, wood-anemone, and blackthorn not
being out so early as they often have been after a moderately hard
winter." The chill given to the ground by the cold spell at the
end of February, and the absence of sunshine afterwards, no doubt
caused these early plants to flower later than they otherwise would
have done.

Tlie wood-anemone, taking the mean date for all the records sent
in, was two days later than the nineteen years' average, the black-
thorn nine days early, the garlic hedge-mustard six days early, the
horse-chestnut eleven days early, the hawthorn thirteen days early,
the white ox-eye one day early, and the dog-rose six days early.

The three spring migrants on the list, for which we have average
dates, arrived somewhat behind their usual time, the swallow being
nine days late, the cuckoo five days late, and the nightingale seven
days late.

The "wasp was first seen nine days in advance of its average date,
but the three butterflies made their appearance later than usual,
the small white being nine days late, the orange-tip one day late,
and the meadow-brown eight days late.

The Summer.

June and July were both hot months, but during August the
temperature remained unifonnly low for the season. A good deal
of rain fell during the first ten clays in June, and again in the latter
half of August, but throughout the intervening ten weeks the rain-
fall was extremely light. The record of sunshine was much in
excess of the average in June and July, whereas August proved
very gloomy for a summer month. Taking the season as a whole
the winds were light and unusually dry.

The rain which fell in the early part of June proved very
beneficial to all farm and garden crops, but of course came too
late to save the hay, the yield of which was extremely light. It
served also to start into growth many of the recently-sown seeds.
The ground had, however, previously become so dry that the good
effect of those heavy rains soon passed away, and a second drought,
accompanied by great heat and cli-ying winds, set in.

In order to give some idea of the nature and duration of
these two droughts, a few extracts from the records of one of my
percolation gauges may be of interest. The gauge referred to is

234 E. MA-WLET — PHES^OLOGICAX PHEIfOMElsrA

a yard square, and contains 2J feet of the heaviest soil to be found
in the neighbourhood of Berkhamsted, a mixture of clay and flints.
It has no grass growing upon it, but is kept constantly hoed on the
surface to prevent the formation of cracks. Taking this gauge as
a guide, the first drought may be said to have lasted from the 22nd
of April to the 10th of June, or for exactly seven weeks, while the
second began on the 17th of June and came to an end nine weeks
later, on the 1 9th of August. During the dry periods mentioned,
no measurable quantity of rain-water came through the soil in this
gauge, and for nineteen consecutive days in the first drought, and
for thirty -seven consecutive days in the second, no water at all.
On July 26th rather more than a quarter of an inch of rain fell,
which is equivalent to a gallon and a half on every square yard
of sui-face, and yet after this tolerably heavy rainfall my lawns
remained nearly as brown as before, showing how extremely dry
the soil had previously become.

Mr. Willis states that at Harpenden the first wheat-ear was out
of its sheath as early as June 3rd.

The black knapweed came first into flower two days in advance
of its average date, the harebell three days late, and the greater
bindweed eleven days early.

The Autumn.

This was a very cold quarter, and also an extremely wet one.
A great improvement in the weather, however, took place in
JN^ovember, which although also cold, had a small rainfall, and for
the time of year a very dry atmosphere and a splendid record of
sunshine. During September and October the wind was on several
occasions very high, while November, on the other hand, proved
on the whole unusually calm.

The heavy rainfall in September soon made itself evident in the
pastures, which, for the first time for several months, were clothed
with green herbage. The root-crops were also benefited, so that
from this time there was never any lack of keep for the sheep and
cattle. At first these rains were also welcomed by the farmer as
facilitating the working of the land, and the planting of autumn
com, but later on the ground became in such a wet and sodden
state that it was not until the very end of October that further
cultivation was possible. Fortunately, I^ovember proved fine and
dry, and farming operations were then resumed under very favour-
able conditions.

All the wild autumn fruits, such as acorns, the hips of the dog-
rose, holly and hawthorn berries, etc., were surprisingly plentiful
and fine. Mushrooms and other fungi were also unusually numerous
early in the season.

Judging by the reports which appeared in the ' Agricultural
Gazette ' on July 27th, the only really abundant farm-crop in
Hertfordshire was that of wheat, whereas all the others were more
or less under average, the yield of tui'nips, mangolds, and hay
being specially poor.

OBSERVED IN nERTFORDSHIKE IN 1896. 235

There -were good crops of all the small fruits, but apples, pears,
and plums were in most places below average. lu luy own garden
the yield of apples was very good, but much damage was done to
tluMU by high winds. I estimated at the time that nearly one-
fourth of the total number were blown from the trees by high
winds during September.

From Kadk^tt Xiss E. M. Lubbock reports that strawberries
were coming again into blossom on October iHth. The same
observer mentions the great quantity of acorns on the oaks. Also
that begonias, heliotropes, etc., which were then in full bloom,
were cut off and bku-kcned by frost during the night of October
18tli. On the same night the dahlias in my own garden at
Berkhamsted were greatly crippled by fi-ost, but not entirely
killed until the night preceding the 28th, which is three days
earlier than the average date of their destruction in the previous
eleven years. At Watford, dahlias and scarlet-runner beans also
succumbed to the latter frost. Miss E. M. Smith states that at
St. Albans Gloire de Dijon roses were still flowering in her garden
on November 30th.

The last plant on the list, the ivy, flowei'cd on September 25th,
or two days in advance of its average date.

XXVTI.

NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA OBSERVED IN THE NEIGHBOUEIIOOD
OF WATFORD IN THE YEAR 1896.

By S. H. Spenceb, Jun.

Read at Watford, 30th April, 1897.

A LARGE number of motlis visited the sallow-bloom, among which
were some good specimens of Tmiiocampa populeti and miniosa.
Sugaring during the year yielded but poor results. At ivy-bloom
a few moths were taken, but owing to the very wet autumn the
bloom was soon destroyed.

At light many moths made their appearance, but not in such
large numbers as in the pre\-ious year. While collecting at dusk
in the garden of "Elmcote," Watford, Mr Arthur Cottam had the
good fortune to capture a specimen of that recently-found moth,
Plusia Dioneta, and we have together prepared the following note
on the appearance of the above species in England : —

'■'■ Plusia moneta was first taken in Great Britain on 25th
June, 1890, by a schoolboy at Dover, as it was hovering over
a Delphinium blossom. In recording this capture Mr. Barrett
remarks ('Entomologists' Monthly Magazine,' vol. xxvi, p. 255)
that it is a rather curious fact, but one well established, that those
seasons which are remarkable for unfavourable weather, and con-
sequent scarcity of insects, are also noticeable for the unexpected
occurrence of novelties or rarities. On the night of the 2nd July
in the same year another was taken, by Mr. W. Holland, flying
about a gas-lamp at a railway station near Beading. And in
August one was taken at Cambridge, by Mr. J. C. Rickard, at rest
just outside Downing College grounds.

"In 1891 a specimen was taken at Dover on the 20th September,
evidently one of the second brood. In 1893, on about the lOth
Jialy, a specimen was taken at the flowers of Nicoiiana affinis at
Tonbridge. In 1894 a specimen was taken at Sprowston, near
Norwich, on 26th June, by Mr. B. Tillett, hovering over a large
rose-bush, at about 9.-30 p.m., and another at Eastbourne, on the
13th July, by Mr. Saunders, flying at privet-bloom in College
Road. In 1895 Mr. Tillett took another specimen at Sprowston
on the 26th June, at sugar, where one had been taken by his brother
the previous year. In the same year two were taken at Harrow
Weald, Middlesex, by Mr. Peers, the son of the Vicar, but he did
not record the captures, and I am not able to give the dates.

"The first specimen taken in Hertfordshire was captured by
Mr. Arthur Cottam in Watford, on the 19th June, 1896. He was
catching the moths that came to a large clump of honeysuckle
(then in full flower) in the garden of 'Elmcote,' with the late
\\v. Clarence E. Fry, who then resided there. It was nearly ten
o'clock when the insect was taken, and although Mr. Cottam, from
its shape when he held his net against the sky, thought it was

LEriDOrXEKA. OBSERVED IN 1896. 237

a PImia of soiuo sort, and said so to Mr. Fry, it was too dark to
see what it was, and it was only wlion Mr. Cottani reached home
that he discovored the value of his capture. In the last week of
June and the first week of July, 1896, eight specimens were taken
at Triug, and in fact tlie insect is now becoming- fairly common
all over the south of England. Last year, besides those already
mentioned, four were taken at Leatherhead, Surrey ; nine at
Weybridge, also in Surrey ; three at Bromley, Kent ; a long series
at Ascot, Berks ; and single specimens at Waltham Cross, Sutton,
"Winchester, Wallington, Ashford, Wye, Folkestone, Hastings,
Bournemouth, etc. ; and Mr. Sidney Webb stated that it appeared
at Dover as a second brood at large.

" The tendency of insects to move in the direction from east to
west has been noticed for some years by continental entomologists,
and is clearly shown by this insect. It was known to be a common
insect in the south and south-east of Germany, but until 1875
was not recorded from the north-west of Germany, nor from the
IS'etherlands. Bnt in 187n began the invasion of those districts,
and it rapidly spread over them. Herr Hoffmann, of Hanover,
writing in 1890, stated that having crossed the Channel he expected
moneta would probably spread as rapidly over England. In this
surmise he appears to have been correct. Duponchel, however,
stated that as early as 1829 it was found in France as far north as,
and only at that time in, Normandy, where it was double-brooded,
and fed on a variety of plants, including sunflower and Jerusalem
artichoke, burdock and cucumber. According to this statement, its
first appearance in the north of France is by no means recent.
This infonnation was given to the French Entomological Society
on the 10th December, 1890, by the veteran Lepidopterist
Mens. J. Fallon.

" For the above particulars as to the geographical distribution of
the insect we are indebted to various articles in the ' Entomologists'
]\ronthly Magazine' for the years 1890-91, by Mr. C. J. Barrett,
Herr Hoflfmann of Hanover, and others.

"P. moneta is a very lovely insect, the prevailing colour being
a metallic golden grey tinged with pink. The orbicular stigma
is circular, and bright gold, and a smaller circular spot, also gold,
joins it. They look like two minute coins side by side, hence the
name. The palpi are remarkable, being long and recurved. The
larva feeds on aconite (monkshood), and the young larva in May
spins the young shoots of the plant together. Later the large
yellow cocoon can be found hanging on the under-side of a leaf."

In the following account of the more interesting captures, when
the name adopted differs fi-om that in South's List, the latter has
been inserted as a synonym.

Sphinges.

ChoRrocampa porcellus. — On June 16th I captured a fine specimen
of this moth flying around honeysuckle in the garden of "Elmcote,"
AVatford.

238 S. H. SPENCEE — NOTES ON LEPIDOPTEEA.

Smerinthus ocellatiis. — The caretaker of the Endowed Schools
sent me a pair of the moths in cop., which he found in the phiy-
ground. I obtained a large number of ova, and bred some fine
specimens.

S. tilim. — Three specimens taken during June at electric light.

BOMBTCES.

Nola cucullatella. — Saw several specimens at electric light.

Zeuzera pyrina. — Mr. Edwin Jackson brought me a specimen
which he found near The Hall, Biishey, on June 26th.

Trichiura cratcegi. — On Sept. 10th I took a specimen at electric
light.

Pcecilocampa popuU. — Mr. Cottam found this moth fairly plentiful
at electric light, jS'ov. 24th, Dec. 10th.

CUsiocampa {= Bomhyx) neustria. — Mr. Cottam found some webs
of larvae on sloe at Bricket Wood.

Odonestis potatoria. — Several specimens at electric light.

Drepana falcataria. — One damaged specimen at electric light,
June 4th.

D. liamula (= hinaria). — One specimen at electric light, June 4th.

Dicranura furcula. — One specimen at electric light.

D. bifida. — One specimen at rest on a fence in Clarendon Koad at
8 o'clock in the evening of May 23rd.

D. vinula. — Mr. Cottam found a specimen on an aspen at Bricket
Wood.

Pterostoma palpina. — Two specimens at electric light, June 4th
and 15th One specimen near Watford tunnel, June 22nd.

Notodoyita dromedarius — Several specimens at electric light.

Pygcera {= Phalera) hucephala. — Larvae plentiful on lime-trees
along the roads.

Phragmatohia fuliginosa. — Two specimens at electric light in
June.

Tkyatira derasa. — One specimen at light, near Watford tunnel,
June 22nd.

Cymatophora flavicornis (=or). — I found the larvae of this moth
at Bricket on the young birch-trees on May 16th. The perfect
insect emerged during the following March. Mr. Cottam took this
moth at rest on the young birch-trees on Stanmore Common.

!R0CTU^.

Acronycta pai. — A specimen at honeysuckle in Mr. Ery's garden.

Diloba ccBruleocephala. — Taken at electric light. Nov, 4th.

Leiicania comma, wipura, and pallens. — Plentiful at electric light
in June.

Nonagria typhce (= arundinis). — On Sept 1st, a dark warm
night, I took a specimen of this beautiful moth at electric light.

Neuria saponaria {= reticulata). — Mr. Cottam took two specimens
at light in his house.

Neuronia popularis. — Abundant at light.

Luperina cespitis. — Several specimens at electric light.

OBSEEVED NEAR "WATFORD IN 1896. 239

Apamea ophiogramma. — Mr. Cottam took a specimen at electric
light.

Mamestra jpersicarioi. — Good specimens at electric light, on
June 29th.

Caradrina ciibiciilaris {= quadripimctata). — Three specimens at
electric light, June 4th and loth.

Agrotis puta. — Two specimens at electric light.

A. exclamationis. — Swarmed at electric light in June.

Noctua augur, plecta, C-nigrufu, bella (= rubi), and xantJio-
grapha, at electric light, C -nigrum and xanthographa being very
plentiful and hella fairly plentiful.

Amphipyra pyramidea. — A few at light and sugar.

rachnobia ruhricosa. — Fourteen specimens at electric light on
a dark night in April.

Taniocampa gothica. — Not so common as usual at sallow.

T. instahilis (= incerta). — At sallow and light.

T. populeti. ~ A few specimens at sallow and light.

T. stabilis. — At sallow and light.

T. gracilis. — A few specimens at sallow,

T. miniosa. — More plentiful than usual when the sallow-bloom
■was nearly over.

T. munda. — Very few specimens.

T. cruda {=puherulenta). — In abundance at sallow and light.

Orthosia lota and macilenta. — A few at ivy -bloom, Oct. I7th
and 21st.

Anchocelis lunosa. — Abundant at electric light.

A. litura. — A few specimens at electric light.

Cerastis vaccinii and spadicea. — At ivy-bloom and light. A few
hibernated specimens at sallow in March and April.

ScopeloHoma sntellitia. — At ivy-bloom, and a few hibernated
specimens at sallow.

Xanthiaflavago. — Two specimens at electric light.

X. aurago. — One specimen at light in the Hall Road.

X. gilvago. — Several specimens at electric light.

Cirrhcedia xerampelina. — On August 31st, a dark night,
Mr. Cottam and I each took a specimen at electric light.

Bianthoecia carpopliaga — The larva; I found last year (1895)
pupated, and the perfect imago first appeared on 1 6th May, 1896,
and on through the first fortnight of June.

Hecatera seretia. — One specimen at light, June 22nd.

Polta flavocincta. — Mr. Cottam found several specimens on the
fences here. He gave me a larva which was feeding on the ivy
outside his house, and it turned out to be of this species.

Fhlogophora meticulosa. — Very abundant, principally at electric
light.

Iladena pini. — Some fine specimens at electric light, June 4th.

CucuUia unihratica. — Several specimens of this moth were netted
whilst flying aroUnd honeysuckle, by Mr. Cottam and myself, in
Mr. Fry's garden, on June 16th, 23rd, and 24th. Two specimens
at electric light.

240 S. H. SPENCEE — NOTES ON LEPIDOPTEEA.

Plusia chryaitis. — Taken at electric light, fairly plentiful. A
specimen over sweet-william blooms.

P. festuc(B. — On August 31st Mr. Cottam took a good specimen
of this beautiful moth at electric light.

P. iota. — Two specimens at electric light, June loth.

P. vioneta. — This great prize for the year was taken by
Mr. Cottam in Mr. Fry's garden whilst flying around honeysuckle.
A short account of the history of this interesting moth has ah'eady
been given.

P. gamma. — Not so plentiful as last year.

Brei)lios fartlienias. — Saw several sj)ecimens at Bricket Wood.

Geometry.

Amphidasis prodromaria [=strataria). — A specimen reared from
pupae found beneath an oak-tree in Howse Barn Lane.

Geometra pajnlionaria. — Two larvae found on young shoots of the
birch at Bricket Wood.

Melanthia ruhiginata (= bicolorafa). — One specimen of this
beautiful little moth taken in the garden of ''Elmcote," Watford.

XXVIII.

CLLMATOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN IN HERTFORDSniRE

IN THE YEAR 1896.

By JoHif HoPKixsox, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met. Soc, Assoc. Inst. C.E.

Bead at Watford, ZOth April, 1897.

The year 1896 is the tenth at which observations have been
made at our five Climatohigical Stations, and this report, which
comprises the usual series of tables, thus completes a decade.

The mean temperature of Hertfordshire in 1896, deduced from
these observations, was l°-0 above that of the previous nine years,
and 0°'l above the mean of 1882-86. The year was therefore
above the average temperature. It had an average mean daily
range of temperature, and although the maximum was rather high
the extreme range was not great. The air was of average humidity,
and the sky was nearly of the usual brightness. The rainfall was
about the average for the county for the last half-century. Royston
was as usual about a degree warmer than any of the other places,
and New Barnet had much the greatest range of temperature.

The observations are made at 9 a.m. at all the stations, and are
entered to the day of observation, except the maximum temperature
and the rainfall, which are entered to the previous day.

ROYSTON.

(London Road.)

Latitude : 52° 2' 34" N. Longitude : 0° 1' 8" W.

301 feet.
Observer: Hale Wortham, F.R.Met. Soc.

Altitude :

Months

Temperature of the Air

a

3

w

0
»— )

1
0

J
0

Rain

Means

Extremes

§

0

a
<

Q

Mean Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

o

40*0
395

45 '4
486

537
63-6
64-5
59-5
57-3
457
39-1
38-1

0

35-1
33 -o

38-1
39-3
42-5
52 0

52-3
50-1
50*2
387
33 '4
33-6

0

44 '9
46-1

527
57 9
64-8

75-2
768
689
643
527
44-8
427

0

9-8
13-1
14-6
i8-6
22-3
23-2
24-5
188
141
i4"o
1 1 -4

9-1

0

24-0
180
30 '6

29-5
32-6

43 4
44-2
42-6
39 -o

307
24-0

24'2

0

52-1

56-3
67-2
667

77-9
86-2
89-0
76-0

71-4
65-8

50-9
520

/o

86
84

83
80

74

75
70

78
83
87
89
89

77
7-4
7-0

6-4

57
6-6

5-9
67

7-1
6-8
6-2
8-0

ins.
•81
•49

3-27

•85
•30

2 -02

•65
2-38

5-25
2-96
1-05
306

15

8

23
12

4
10

7
13
22
20
II
24

Year

49-6

41-5

57-6

i6-i

i8-o

89-0

81

6-8

23-09

169

VOL. IX. — PART VI.

17

242

J. HOPKINSON CIIMATOLOGICAX OBSERVATIONS

Latitude

BEEKHAMSTED.

(Eosebank.)

51° 45' 40" N. Longitude : 0° 33' 30" W. Altitude

400 feet.
Observer: Edward Mmvley, Pres.R.Met.Soc.

Months

Temperature of the Air

"b

0

.— f

1

0

i
0

Eain

Means

Extremes

a

p
0

a
<

CO

Q

Mean

Min. Max. Eange

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

0

39 6
39-1
44-8
48-1

53-0
61 -3
62-6
58-4
56-3
45 '4
39-8
38-3

0

35 -o
327
377
39-1
41-8
50-8

5I-I

49-2

50 '2
38-1

33*9
337

0

44-1
45-6
51-9
57-1

64 "2

71-8
74-1
67-6
62-4
527
457
429

0

9-1
1 2 '9
142
i8-o
22 '4
2ro
23-0
18-4

1 2 "2
14-6

II-8
9-2

0

26*2
i8-6
27-0

29 "4
30-1

36-3
41-4
41-4

36-5
26-8

23-3
208

0

52*2

56-1

65-3
66-6

77-4
81-9

849
75-2
70-6
61 -8
52-4
52 '4

7o

93
90

84

77
68
70
65

77
85
88

89
95

8-5
7-6
8-0
7-6

5-5
T3
6-1

7-4
7-9
6-6
6-2
8-0

ins.

•97

•38

3-52

71

•26

2-19

•81

278

6-54

3-50

^■33

4-31

II

8

23
10

2
II
10
16

23
20

9
22

Tear

48-9

4I-I

567

15-6

i8-6

84-9

82

7-2

27-30

165

ST. ALBANS.

(The Grange.)

Latitude: 51° 45' 9" K Longitude: 0° 20' 7" W. Altitude

380 feet.

Observer: John Hopkinson, F.R.Met.Soc.

Months

Temperature of the Air

2
p

0

1

0

1

0

Eain

Means

Extremes

p
§
S
<

CO

p

Mean

Min.

Max. Eange

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

0

39-6
387
44*5
47-6

52-9
61 "4
63-0
58-2
55-8
45-1
39 'o
37-9

0

34-9
32-3
381
40*1

43-1

52-2
52-4
507
50-0

39 'o
33-8
332

0

44 '2
45-2
51-0

551
62-6
70-6

73-5
65-8
61 -6

51-3

44*3
427

0

9-3
129

I2'9

15-0
19-5
18-4
211

15-1
II-6

12-3

IO-5
95

0

267
20-9
29-5
32-0
34 "o
377
45-3
438

38-3
27-9

25-3
24-5

0

51-2

567
63-3

64-8

75-1
8i-i

84-3
727
68-9

6i-5
49-8
507

7o
91
91
85

75
73
70

69
78
87
89
89
93

8-0
7-5
7-5
6-4

S'l
6-5
5-5
6-6

6-9
6-4
5-9
7-1

ins.

79

•46

3-62

•87

•34

I -60

•90

2-42

669

3-46

1-49

4'i6

II

9
26
12

5
10

9
16

24

21
II

24

Year

48-6

417

557

14-0

20*9

84-3

82

6-6

26-80

178

TAKEN IN nEETFOKDSnrRE IN 1896.

243

BENNINGTON.
(Bennington House.)

Latitude : 51° 53' 45" N. Longitude : 0° 5' 20" W. Altitude :

407 feet.
Observer: Eev. J. B. Parker, LL.B., F.R.Met.Soc.

Months

Temperature of the Air

0

1

§
0

Rain

Means

Extremes

a
0
S
<

a:
>-,

ci

Q

10
10

25

II

4
9
7

13

22
21
12
26

Mean

Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

o

39-1
38-8
44 -2

477
52 '6

6i'4

63-1

58-6

561
45-3
39 '4
38-1

0

347
32-8

37-5
39-3
42-3

5i'4
52-0

49 9
50-2

387
34-2
338

0

43-5
447
51-0
56 'O
62 '9
71-5
74-2

67-3
62-0

51-9
446

424

0

8-8
II-9

135
167
20 -6

20-I
22'2

I7'4
ii'8

132

io'4
8-6

0
26-7

20-8

297
31-3

33-5
39-0

440

430

37-9

27 'O

23-9

25-6

0

51-3
55'5
63 '4
65 '8
77-0
8i'i

85 '2

75-1
687
61 '9

519
51-6

7o
92
90
84

75
69

68
62

7?,
86

89
88

93

80

77
8-2
8'o
5 9
7-9
6-4
7-1
7-5
7-4
5-9
8-2

ins.
■66
•47

3 '34
•64

•25
2 '34
I -20
298
6-26

3" 43
I -29

3-6i

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

487

41-4

56 0

I4'6

20 -8

85 '2

81

7-4

2647

170

NEW BAENET.

(Gas Works.)
Latitude : 51° 39' 5" N. Longitude : 0° 10' 15" W.

212 feet.
Observer : T. H. Martin, C.E.

Altitude

Months

Temperature of the Air

S

0

.—1

1

0

'S
0

0

Rain

Means

Extremes

g

a

m

03

Q

8
6
20
8
2

9

8

II

22

18

9

19

Mean

Min.

Max. Range

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

0

39-2
390

447
48 '2

53-0
62-0

63-1
58'5
56'7

45-1
38'9
37 9

0

33"i
31-3
36 0

37-4
39 5
48-7
49T

47-3
48-2

36-3
31 '9
32-1

0

45*2
46-6

53-4
59-0
66-5

75-4
770
69-8

65 '2

53-9
45-9
437

0

I2'I

15-3

17-4
2 1 '6

27-0
267

27 '9

22'5

i7'o
17-6
140
11-6

0

20 'O
150
22 -o
24-0
25 "O

30-8
370
38-0

32-0

22 0
15-0
19-5

0

55-5
57-8
66-5
68-5
79-2
86-8

89-5
77-8

75 -o
64-5
53-0
52-0

°/

la

88
90
86
79
74
73
67
76
88
88
86
91

77
6-4

7-5
6-9

51

5-5
4-9
6-8
6-8
5-2
5-3
77

ins.
79
•37

3-47
■54
•23

I -91

•98
2 '44
6'79

3-07
119
4 02

Year

48-9

39-3

58-5

I9'2

I5-0

89-5

82

6-1 25-80

140

244

J. HOPKINSOIf — CLIMATOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE.

Means of Cliraatological Observations (with, extremes of tempera-
ture) in 1896, at Royston, Berkhamsted, St. Albans, Bennington,
and New Barnet.

Months

Temperatui-e of the Air

0

1— c

1

1— f

f

0

0

Rain

Means

Extremes

a
3
0

S
<!

Q

II

8

23
II

3
10

9

14

23
20
10
23

Mean

Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April ....

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

o

39*5
39 -o

447
480

53 -o
61-9

63-3
587
56-4
45-3
39 '2
38-1

0

34-6
32-4

37-5
39-0
41-8
510
51-4
49-5
49-8
38-1
33-4
33 '3

0

44 '4
45-6
52-0
57-0
64-2
72-9

75-1
67-9

63-1
52-5
45 "o
42-9

0

9-8
13-2

14-5
i8-o
22-4
21-9

237
18-4

13-3
14-4

1 1 -6

9-6

0

20 -o
15-0

22-0
24-0
25-0
30-8

37 -o
380
32-0
22 -o

15-0
19-5

0

55-5
57-8
67-2
68-5
79-2
86-8

89-5
77-8

75 -o
65-8

53 -o

52-4

7o
90

89

84

77
72
71
67
76
86
88
88
92

8-0

73
7-6
7-1

5-5
6-8

5-8
6-9
7-2

6-5
5-9

7-8

ins.
•80
•43

3-45
■72
•28

2-OI

•91

2 -60

6-31

3-48
1-27

3-83

Year ....

48-9

41 "O

56-9

15-9

15-0

89-5

82

6-9

26-09

16S

Results of Climatoiogical Obseevations, 1887-95.

Stations.

Temperature of the Air

2
1

0

f
5

Rain

Means Extremes

a
1
S
<

>->

Q

Mean

Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Royston

0

48-6
47-6
47 "9
477
47-8

0
40-4

39-9
40-7
40-4
38-5

40 0

0

56-8
55-3

55-1

54'9
57-1

55-9

0
16-4

15-4
14-4

14-5
186

0

3-5

7-5
lo-i

97
i-o

0

93 'o
91-0
91-0
90-9
94 '5

7°
83

82
81
83

6-2
7-1
67

7-2

6-2

ins.
22-17
26-05
26-73
24-14
23-81

160
179
184
186
141

Berkhamsted

St. Albans

Bennington

New Barnet

County

47 "9

15-9

i-o

94-5

82

67

24-58

170

INDEX.

A.

Abbey, G. : On the Destruction of an
Elm-Tree by Fungi at St. Albans,
xlii, 129-132.

Abbot's Lanc^ley, earthquake of Dec.
1896 felt at, 187.

Abbot's Eipton visited, lx%ii.

Abbott, G., on District Unions of
Natural History Societies, sliii.

Acrocarpi of Hertford, 10-1.

Acroccphalus turdoidcs new to Herts,
149.

Additions to the Library in 1895,
xx^ii ; in 1896, Ix.

Address, Anniversary, 1S96, 1.

u^J(/ialitis hiaticula at Tring Eeser-
voirs, 79, 158.

Agaricus exceJsas, violaceo-ater, and
eircnsis found at Gorhambury,
xxxix, xl ; A. Sadlcri found at
Cassiobiu-y, Ixxv, lxx\ii ; A. melleus
a true root-fungus, 17.

Aid, mutual, amongst animals, 1.

Aldbury A^sited, xxx.

Aldenham, rainfall at, in 1895, 109;
in 1896, 142 ; earthquake of
Dec. 1896 felt at, 191.

Aldenham House visited, xxxvii.

Amphocarpi of Hertford, 107.

Anas strcpera new to Herts, 150.

Ancient British coin found near
Watford, 133.

Animals, mutual aid amongst, 1.

Anniversary Meetings, Feb. 25, 1896,
xviii ; Feb. 26, 1897, liii ; Address,
1896, 1.

Anser alhifrom new to Herts, 149.

Anthropometric measiu-ements, xv.

Ants, their social habits, 6 ; as agri-
culturists and horticultiu'ists, 12.

Apes highly sociable, 11.

Apsley Mills, Hemel Hemp-stead, rain-
fall at, in 1895, 112 ; in 1896, 142.

Ardeley, earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt
at, 197.

Ardetta minuta in Herts, 156.

Ashridge Park Ai-sited, xxx.

Ash well, phonological observations at,
in 1895, 98, 99 ; in 1896, 230, 231 ;
earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt at, 201.

\0L. IX. — PART IX.

Asia otus in Ashridge Park, 154..
Aston Bury visited, Ixviii.
Aston Church visited, Ixix.
Auk, little, in Herts, 81, 159.
Autumn of 1895, S'J, 102; of 1896,
179, 234.

B.

Babington, Prof.C. C. (Hon. Memb.),
obituary notice of, xx.

Balance-sheet for 1895, xxvi; 1896, lix.

Barkway, earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt
at, 202.

Barnet, New, climatological observa-
tions at, in 1895, 9^ ; iJi 1896,
243 ; earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt
at, 194.

Bayfordbury, Hertford, rainfall at,
1860-96, 64, 72; in 1895, 112; in
1896, 142; earthquake of Dec. 1S96
felt at, 199.

Bedfordshire, Characeaj of, 25 ; earth-
quake of Dec. 1896 felt in, 203.

Bedmont, earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt
at, 187.

Bees, their habits, 6.

Bengeo, earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt
at, 199.

Bennington Aisited, Ixix ; climatological
observations at, in 1895, 95 ; in
1896, 243 ; rainfall at, in 1895,
112; in 1896, 142, 182.

Bennington Church and Lordship
Aisited, Ixix.

Bcrkhamsted, rainfall at, 1856-96, 60,
71; in 1895, 112; in 1896, 142;
climatological observations at, in
1895, 94; in 1896, 242; pheno-
logical observations at, in 1895, 9S>
99 ; in 1S96, 230, 231 ; earthquake
of Dec. 1896 felt at, 186.

Berkhamsted, Little, earthquake of
Dec. 1896 felt at, 199.

Birds, memorial to Herts County
Coimcil for the protection of, xxiii ;
order of Home Secretary protecting,
xxiv ; mutual support in, 7 ; observed
in Herts in 1895, 73 ; in 1896, 148;
of North Herts, 163.

Bishop's Stortford, earthquake of Dec.
1896 felt at, 202.

18

246

INDEX.

Bittern, common, at Riekmansworth,

78 ; near Hitchin, 156 ; little, in

Herts, 156.
Bomhyces in Herts in 1895, 29 ; near

Watford in 1896, 238.
Bone Hill, St. Albans, rainfall at, in

1896, 142.
Botaurus sfdlaris at Eickmansworth,

78; near Hitchin, 156.
Bonlder Clay in Stukeley cutting,

Himtiu.<rdon, Ixvii ; at Bricket

"Wood, Ixxii.
Bourne, the Hertfordshire, visited when

flowing in 1897, Ixv.
Bramhling, habits of, 76.
Brarafield, earthquake of Dec. 1S96

felt at, 198.
Braughing, earthquake of Dec. 1896

felt at, 202.
Brett, Dr. A. T., on parasitic fungi,

ix ; obituary notice of, Iv.
Erickendonbury, Hertford, Roman

coins found at, 169.
British Association, reports on Con-
ferences of Delegates to, Ipswich,

1895, x; Liverpool, 1896, xlii;

Earthquake Committee, 183.
British coin, ancient, found near

Watford, 133.
Brocket Hall, Hatfield, rainfall at, in

1895, 112.
Brown, Isaac (Hon. Memb.), obituary

notice of, liv.
Broxbourne, rainfall at, in 1895, ^^^ !

in 1896, 142.
Buckinghamshire, Characeae of, 26.
Buckland, earthquake of Dec. 1896

felt at, 202.
Bulboiirne, rainfall at, in 1896, 142.
Buntingford, rainfall at, in 1895, 112 ;

in 1896, 142.
Bushey, earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt

at, 191.
Butterflies in Herts in 1895, 28.
Buxton, A. F., on the diving of the

duck, xxix.

C.

Cam district, rainfall in, in 1895,
115; in 1896, 145.

Cambridgeshire, earthquake of Dec.
1896 felt in, 203.

Cardnells dcgans and spinus in Herts,
76 ; C. cletjans nesting in Herts, 153.

Cnssiobiiry Park visited, Ixxiv ; fungi
of, Ixxiv.

Chalk, at Hitchin, xxxv ; its area in
Colne and Lea basins, 46 ; per-
colation of rain through, 47 ; as
a water-bearing stratum, 51 ; water-
levels in, near Roystou, 209.

Chalk Rock at Aldridge's Dell. Ixv.
Chara vnl(iaris at Great Bramingham,

21 ; C. hispida at Totternhoe, 21.
Characete, notes on, 19 ; general

appearance and mode of occurrence,

19 ; life-history, 20 ; geographical

distribution, 24 ; geological distribu-
tion, 24 ; of Herts, 25 ; of Beds,

25 ; of Bucks, 26.
Cheshunt, rainfall at, in 1895, ^^2;

in 1896, 142 ; earthquake of Dec.

1896 felt at, 201.
Circus cyancus near Hitchin, 155.
Cirl-bunting breeding near Tring, 153.
Climate of St. Albans, 215.
Climatological observations in Herts

in 1895, 93; in 1896, 241.
Cobham, Surrey, rainfall at, 1825-59,

37.
Coccothraustes vulgaris a resident in

Herts, 76, 152.
Coin, an ancient British, foimd near

Watford, 133.
Coins, Roman, found at Brickendon-

bury, 169.
Colne basin or district, rainfall in,

1872-92, 37; in 1895, 115; in

1896, 145.
Colney Heath visited, xxxiv.
Cohnnha cenas nesting in Ashridge

Park, 157.
Colymbus glacialis in Herts, 159.
Conferences of Delegates to British

Association, Ipswich, 1895, ^ '■>

Liverpool, 1896, xlii.
Cormorant at Tring Reservoirs, 77.
Coturnix communis in Herts, 157.
Council elected, 1896, xviii ; 1897,

liii; report of, for 1895, xix ; for

1896, liv.
Cowroast, Tring, rainfall at, in 1895,

112; in 1896, 142.
Crabs aiding each other, 5.
Crake, spotted, near Hitchin, 157.
Crossbill, two-barred, new to Herts,

74 ; common, in Herts, 77.
Crossman, a. F. : Notes on Birds

observed in Hertfordshire during the

year 1895, xxviii, 73-84 ; . . .

during the year 1896, Ixiii, 148-162.
Crvptogamic plants, Ksts of, xxxviii,

ixxv, 25, 104.
Curlew at Tring, 80. 159.
Cygnus musicus in Herts, 156.

D.

Dafila acuta at Tring, 156.

Baldinia concentrica found at Cassio-

bury, Ixxv, Ixxviii.
Danes'bury, VVelwvn, rainfall at, in

1895, 109; ill 1896, 182.

INDEX.

2-17

Dartox, II. : List of Mosses collected

iu the Neiijhbourhood of Uertford,

xxix, 104-108.
Diitchworth, rainfall at, in 1895,

112; iu 1S96, 142.
Days of rain in 1895, ^^^J ^^ 1896,

144.
December, 1896, earthquake of, 183.
Dematophora vastatrix, a root-fungus,

17.
Dendrocopus major and minor in Ilerts,

77, lo4.
Destruction of an elm-tree by fungi

at St. Albans, 129.
Diver, great northern, in Herts, 159.
Droughts in 1S95, 110; iu 1896, 140.
Duck, how does it dive r* xxix ; tutted,

habits of, 78.
Dunlin in Herts, 79, 158.

E.

Earth temperature, xii.

Earthquake of 17th Dec. 1896, 183;
observations and notes, ISO ; summary
and conclusions, 204.

Ellis, Wllliam, of Little Gaddesden,
122 ; his early records of Herts
plants, 123.

Elm-tree destroyed by fungi, 129.

Elstree, rainfall at, in 1895, 109 ! ^^
1896, 142.

£mberiza cirlus breeding near Tring,
153.

Eocene, Lower, at Tyler's Hill, Ixiv.

Erratic blocks, xlviii.

Ethnographical survey, xvi, xlix.

Evans, Sir John : On au Ancient
British Coin found near Watford, xl,
133-134; On some Roman Coins
found at Brickeudoubury, Hertford,
Ixiii, 169-174.

Evaporation in Herts, 40 ; from chalk
at Nash Mills, 1S54-84, 40, 67 ;
from soil at Xash Mills, 1S42-84,
41, G8 ; at Lea Bridge, 1S52-73,
41, 69; from water at Lea Bridge,
1860-73, 42, G9 ; from soil at
Rothamsted, 1871-92, 43, 70.

Evolution, 3.

Expeudituie in 1895, xxvi; in 1896,
lix.

Fairhill, Berkhamsted, rainfall at, in

1895, 112; ill 1896, 142.
Falco percgrinus in Herts, 77, loo ;

F. suhbuteo nesting in Herts, 155 ;

F. ccsulon in Herts, 155.
Falcon, peregrine, in Herts, 77, 155.
Eanhams Hall, Ware, raiufall at, iu

1895, 112; in 1896, 142.

Field Meetings, 1896, April 25,
Aldbury and Asliridge Park, xxx ;
]\Iay9, Kew Gardens, xxxi; May 13,
Hatfuld I'ark, xxxii ; May 23.
Colney Heath and North Mimms
I'ark, xxxiv ; June 20, Hitchin,
XXXV ; July 18, Aldenham House,
Elstree, xxxvii; Oct. 10, Gorham-
bury Park, St. Albans, xxxviii;
1897, AprQ 3, Tyler's Hill,
Chesham, Ixiv; April 24, the
Valley of the Bourne, Boxmoor,
Ixv ; May i, Abbot's Eipton and
Huntingdon, Ixvii ; May 22, Aston
and Bennington, Ixviii ; May 29,
Kew Gardens, Ixx ; June 12, Sop-
well, St Albans, Ixxi ; June 19,
Tring Park and Museum, Ixxiii ;
Oct. 23, Cassiobmy I'ark, Watford,
Ixxiv.

Fiuger-and-toe disease in plants, 15.

Floods and flood-marks, xiii.

Flowering plants, lists of, 123, 167.

Fly-catcher, ])ied, at Hitchin, 152.

FoRDHAM, H. G. : The Earthquake of
the 17th of December, 1896, as it
affected the County of Hertford,
Ixiii, 183-208.

Fossil Characete, 24.

Fuligula. cristata, habits of, 78 ;
F. marila in Herts, 156.

Fungi of Gorhambiuy Park, xxxviii ;
of Cassiobury Park, Ixxv ; parasitic,
14 ; elm-tree destroyed by, 129.

G.

Gaddesden, Great, rainfall at, in 1895,

112; in 1896, 142.
Gaddesden, Little, earthquake of

Dec. 1896 felt at, 187.
Gadwail new to Herts, 150.
Gales in Herts in 1895, 90, 92, 101.
Gallhiaijo major in Herts, 158.
Geography iu schools, xv.
Geological photographs, xlviii.
Geology of Aldbury, xxx ; of Hitchin,

XXXV ; of Tyler's Hill, Chesham,

Ixiv ; of Abbot's Ripton and

Huntingdon, Ixvii; of Sopwell,

St. Albans, Ixxi.
Geometric in Herts in 1895, 32 ; near

Watford iu 1896, 240.
GiBBS, A. E. : Notes on Lepidoptera

observed in Ilertfordshiie during

the year 1895, xxviii, 27-32.
Goosander at Tring Reservoirs, 79, 157-
Goose, white-fronted, new to Herts,

149.
Gorhambury, St. Albans, rainfall at,

1860-96, 01, 71 ; iu 1895, 112; in

1896, 142.

248

INDEX.

Gorhambury Park visited, xxxviii ;
fungi of, xxxviii.

Grasshopper-warbler plentiful, 75, 161.

Great Gaddesden, see Gaddesden.

Grebe, great crested, at Tring Reser-
voirs, 81 ; little, on the Gade and
Colne, 81.

Greenshank on Tring Reservoirs, 79,
158.

Gull, common and black-backed, in
Herts, 80, 159.

H.

Hadham, Much, rainfall at, 1866-96,
65,72; in 1895, 112; in 1896, 142.

Scematopus ostralegus at Elstree
Reservoir, 158.

Hamels Park, Buntingford, rainfall at,
in 1895, 112; in 1896, 142.

Harpenden, rainfall at, 1853-96, 62,
71; in 1895, 108, 112; in 1896,
142, 182 ; percolation through soil
at, 1871-92, 70; phenological
observations at, in 1895, 98, 99 ; in
1896, 230, 231 ; earthquake of Dec.
1896 felt at, 192.

Hatfield, phenological observations at,
in 1895, 98, 99 ; in 1896, 230, 231 ;
rainfall at, in 1895, 112 ; in 1896,
142 ; earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt
at, 194.

Hatfield Park and House visited,
xxxii.

Hawfinch a resident in Herts, 76, 152.

Hemel Hempstead, rainfall at, 1834-
96, 58, 71 ; in 1895, 112 ; in 1896,
142; earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt
at, 187.

Hen-harrier near Hitchin, 155.

Hertford, rainfall at, 1860-96, 64, 72 ;
in 1895, 112 ; in 1896, 142 ; pheno-
logical observations at, in 1895, 98 ;
in 1896, 230 ; mosses collected near,
104 ; Roman coins found near, 169 ;
earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt at, 200.

Hertfordshire, Lepidoptera observed
in, in 1S95, 27 ; rainfall, percola-
tion, and evaporation in, 33 ; hydro-
geology of, 51 ; birds observed in,
in 1895, 73 ; in 1896, 148 ; cKmato-
logical observations in, in 1895,
93 ; in 1896, 241 ; phenological
phenomena observed in, in 1S95,
97 ; in 1896, 229 ; report on the
rainfall in, in 1S95, 1^9 ; in 1896,
139, 182 ; plants, overlooked records
of, 121; plants collected in, 1838-40,
167 ; earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt
in, 183.

Hertingfordbury, earthquake of Dec.
1S96 felt at, 199.

High Down, Hitchin, rainfall at, in
1895, 112; in 1896, 142.

Hitchin visited, xxxv; lake bed, fossils
found in, xxxvi ; rainfall at, 1850-96,
63, 72 ; in 1895, 112 ; in 1896, 142 ;
phenological observations at, in 1895,
98, 99 ; in 1896, 230, 231 ; earth-
quake of Dec. 1896 felt at, 195.

Hobby nesting in Herts, 155.

Hoddesdon, thunderstorm of Sept. 1895
at, 120 ; earthquake of Dec. 1896
felt at, 200.

HoPKiNSON, J. : Report on the Con-
ferences of Delegates to the British
Association at Ipswich in 1895,
x-xvii ; ... at Liverpool in 1 896,
xlii-1; Hertfordshire Rainfall, Per-
colation, and Evaporation, xxviii,
33-72 ; Meteorological Observations
taken at The Grange, St. Albans,
during the year 1895, xxix, 85-92 ;
. . . during the year 1896, Ixiii,
175-182; Climato'logical Observa-
tions taken in Hertfordshire in the
year 1895, xxLx, 93-96 ; ... in
the year 1896, Ixiv, 241-244 ; Report
on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in
the year 1895, -"^^i^. 109-120 ; . . .
in the year 1896, Ixii, 139-147; The
Climate of St. Albans, deduced from
Meteorological Observations taken
during the Ten Years 1887-1896,
Ixiii, 215-228.

Huntingdon visited, Ixvii.

Huntingdonshire, earthquake of Dec.
1896 felt iu, 203.

Huxley, Prof. T. H. (Hon. Memb.),
obituary notice of, xx.

Hydrochelidon nigra at Tring, 80,
'159.

Hydrogeology of Hertfordshire, 51.

I.

Income and expenditure in 1895, xxvi ;

in 1S96, lix.
Ivel district, rainfall in, in 1895, 115 ;

in 1896, 145.

Jackson, B. D. : On some Overlooked
Records of Hertfordshire Plants,
xxix, 121-125.

K.

Kalm. Pehr, his travels, 121 ; his
early records of Herts plants, 123.

Kenshall, birds of, 163.

Kensworth, rainfall at, 1870-96, 59,
71; in 1895, 112; in 1896, 142;
earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt at, 187.

Ivew Gardens visited, xxxi, Ixx.

INDEX.

249

King's Langlcy, rainfall at, in 1896,

142; earthquake of Doc. 1896 fult

at, 187.
Kittiwake on Borkhamsted Common, SO.
KuoroTKiN, PiiiNCE : Annivorsary

Address — Mutual Aid amongst

Animals, xviii, 1-13.

L.

Lanius excubitor in Herts, 75, 152.

Lartis caiiiis in Herts, 80, 159 ;
i. ridihtoidus in Herts, 159.

Lea basin or district, rainfall in, 1S72-
92, 37 ; in 1895, 115 ; in 1896, 145.

Lea Bridge, percolation through soil
at, 1852-73, 41, 69 ; evaporation
fnmi water at, 1860-73, 42, 69.

Leavesden, earthquake of Dec. 1S96
felt at, 187.

Lepidoptera observed in Herts in 1895,
27 ; near Watford in 1896, 236.

Library, additions to, in 1895, xxvii;
in 1896, Ix.

Lillev, earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt
at,' 195.

Linota rufescens in Herts, 77, 153 ;
L. linaria in Herts, 153.

List of fungi seen in Gorhambury
Park, xxxviii ; in Cassiobury Park,
Ixxv ; of CharaceiB from the South
Midlands, 25 ; of mosses collected
near Hertford, 104 ; of Hertford-
shire plants, 123, 167.

Little Berkhamsted, see Berkhamsted.

Little Gaddesden, see Gaddesden.

LocKstclla nmvia plentiful, 75, 151.

Loudon Clay at Tyler's Hill, Ixiv.

Loxki hifasciata new to Herts, 7'! ;
L. curvirostra in Herts, 77.

M.

Miwhetes piignaxm'Keris, 79, 158.

Mammals, carnivorous, less numerous
than social mammals, 10.

Mansell, T. : The Eontgen or " X "
Rays, lii, 135-138.

Mareca penelope in Herts, 78, 156.

Massee, G. : Parasitic Fungi, their
Mode of Attack and the Means of
its Prevention, ix, 14-18 ; list of
Gorhambury fungi, xxxviii ; list
of Cassiobury fungi, Ixxv.

Mawley, E. : Report on Phenological
Phenomena observed in Hertford-
shire during the year 1895, xxix,
97-103; . . . during the year 1 896,
Ixiii, 229-235.

Melboiu-n Rock near Hitchin, xxxv.

Merganser, red -breasted, at Tring
Reservoir.s, 157.

Mcifjultts allc in Herts, 81, 159. "

Mergus merganser at Tring Reservoirs,
79, 157; M. serrntor ihcxe, 157.

^lerliu in Herts, 155.

Meteorological observations, x ; early
records, xii ; photography, xiv ;
oliservations at The Grange, St.
Albans, in 1895, 85; in 1896, 175.

Midlands, South, CharaceiB of, 19.

JMigranls, summer, arrival and de-
parture in 1895, 82; in 1896, 160;
winter, in 1895, *^^ ' "^ 1896, 161.

Minims, North, earthquake of Dec.
1896 felt at, 195.

Monkeys highly sociable, 11.

Moor Park, Rickmausworth, rainfall
at, in 1895, 112 ; in 1896, 142.

Mosses collected near Hertford, 104.

IlotaciUn aUni new to Herts, 74.

Moths in Herts in 1895, 28.

Much Hadham, see Hadhara.

3Iuscicapa atrieapiUa at Hitchin, 152.

Museums, local, a federal staff for,
xlvi.

Mutual aid amongst animals, 1 .

N.
Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, rain-
fall at, 1834-96, 58, 71 ; iu 1895,

112; in 1896, 142; percolation

through chalk at, 1854-84, 67 ;

through soil, 1842-84, 68.
Natural History Societies, District

Unions of, xliii, 1, lii.
Nature, antagonism and cooperation

in, 2 ; avoidance of competition

in, 12.
Nectria cinnabaria, a wound-parasite,

17.
New Barnet, see Barnet.
Nitella opaca at Suudon and Biscot,

18 ; iV. mucronata at Bedford, 23.
Noctuaj near Watford iu 1895, 30 ; in

1896, 238.
North Herts, birds of , 163.
North Mimms Park visited, xxxiv ;

see also ilimms.
Northchurch, rainfall at, in 1895, 112 ;

in 1896, 142.
Nuiucniits arqiiatus at Tring, 80, 159.
NuNN, J. P. : Notes on the Birds of

North Hertfordshire, Ixiii, 163-166.

0.

Observation of swallows, 126.

Observations, meteorological, x ; seis-
mological, xiv ; meteorological, at
St. Albans in 1895, 85 ; in 1896,
1 75 ; climatological, in Herts in

1895, 93; in 1896, 241; pheno-
logical. in Herts iu 1S95, 97 ; in

1896, 229.

250

INDEX.

Odsey, Ashwell, phenological observa-
tions at, in 1895, 98, 99; in 1896,
230, 231 ; rainfall at, in 1895, 112 ;
in 1896, 142.

(Edemia fitsca new to Herts, 150 ;
CE. nigra in Herts, 157.

(EdimeiHUs scohpax disappearing from
Herts, 157.

Ordinary Meetings, 1895, ix-xvii ;

1896, xvii-xviii, xxviii-xxix, xl-Ui;

1897, lii-liii, Ixii-lxiv.
Ormerod, Miss G., obituary notice

of, Iv.
Osprey in Herts, 155.
Oiise basin, rainfall in, in 1895, 115;

in 1896, 145.
Overlooked records of Herts plants, 121.
Owl, tawny, in Ashridge Park, 77 ;

pugnacity of, 154 ; long-eared, in

Ashridge Park, 154.
Oxford Clay near Huntingdon, Ixvii.
Oyster-catcher at Elstree Keservoir, 158.

Tcnidion halia'etus in Herts, 155.

Papers, list of, read iu 1895, ^^ '■> ^^
1896, Iv.

Parasitic fungi, 14.

Pendley Manor, Tring, rainfall at, in
1S95, 112; in 1896, 142.

Percolation in Herts, 40 ; through
chalk at Nash Mills, 1854-84, 40,
67 ; through soil at Nash Mills,
1S42-S4, 41, 68 ; at Lea Bridge,
1852-73, 41, 69 ; at Eothamsted,
1871-92, 43, 70.

Petrie, Prof. W. M. F., on a federal
staii' for local museums, xlvi.

FliaUwrocorax carlo at Tring Reser-
voirs, 77.

Phenological work, xii ; phenomena
observed in Herts in 1895, 97 ; in
1896, 229.

Photographs, geological, xlviii.

Photography, meteorological, xiv.

Pintail duck at Tring, 156.

Pipes iu the Chalk, 51.

Pirton, earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt
at, 195.

Plant-diseases caused by fungi, 15.

I'lauts, cryptogamic, Hsts of, xxxviii,
Ixxv, 25, 104 ; flowering, overlooked
records of, 121 ; collected iu Herts,
1838-40, 167.

riasmodinpliora brassiccc, finger-and-
toe disease in plants, 15.

Pleurocarpi of Hertford, 107.

Plover, winged, at Tring, 79, 158;
golden, at Tring, 158 ; grey, iu
Herts, 158.

Pochard, habits of, 78.

Podiceps cristatus at Tring Eeservoirs,
81 ; P. fluviatilis on the Gade and
Colne, 81.

Porzana maruetta near Hitchin, 157.

Proceedings, session 1895-96, ix ;
1896-97, xl.

Q.

Quail in Herts, 157.
Querquedula crecca in Herts, 156.

R.

Radlett, phenological observations at,
in 1895, 98, 99 ; in 1896, 230,231.

Rainfall in Herts, 33 ; mean annual,
in Herts, 1842-92, 38, 57, 91 ; at
Nash Mills, 1834-96, 58, 71 ; at
Kensworth, 1870-96, 59, 71 ; at
Berkhamsted, 1856-96, 60, 71 ;
at Gorhambury, 1860-96, 61, 71 ;
at Rothamsted, 1853-96, 62, 71 ; at
Hitchin, 1850-96, 63, 72 ; at
Welwyn, 1872-96, 64, 72 ; at Bay-
fordbiiry, 1860-96, 64, 72; at Much
Hadham, 1866-96, 65, 72 ; at
Royston, 1866-96, 66, 72 ; in Herts
in 1895, 109; in 1896, 139, 182.

Rambles by forest, field, and flood, li.

Ransom, Miss M., plants collected in
Herts by, 167.

Rays, the Riiutgen or "X," 135.

Reading Beds at Tyler's Hill, Ixiv.

Records, early meteorological, xii ; of
river- and well-levels, xiii ; of floods,
xiii ; overlooked, of Herts plants,
121.

Redbourn, earthquake of Dec, 1896
felt at, 191.

Red House, Ware, rainfall at, in 1895,
112; iu 1896, 142.

Redpoll, lesser, in Herts, 77, 153;
mealy, in Herts, 153.

Redshank in Herts, 79, 158.

Reed, earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt
at, 202.

Reed- warbler, great, new to Herts, 149.

Report on the Conferences of Delegates
to the British Association, Ipswich,

1895, x; at Liverpool, 1896, xliv ;
of the Council for 1895, xix ; for

1 896, liv ; on phenological phe-
nomena in 1895, 97 ; in 1896, 229 ;
on the rainfall in Herts in 1895,
109 ; in 1896, 139.

Rickmansworth, rainfall at, in 1895,
112; in 1896, 142; earthquake of
Dec. 1896 felt at, 187.

Ring-ouzel in Herts, 75, 150.

Rism tridacttjla on Berkhamsted Com-
mon, 80.

River temperature, xi ; levels, xiii.

INDEX.

251

Roberts, T. V. : Notes on Tiirds
observed last Sprinix at Ah-iitone
and elsewhere on the Continent,
xvii ; Extracts from a Naturalist's
Notebook, Hi (titles only).

Eodents sociable animals, 11.

Roman coins found at Brickendonburj-,
Hertford, 1G9.

R6nt<?en or "X" rays, 135.

llothanisted, Ilarpeuden, rainfall at,
1853-96, 62, 71 ; in 1895, 10'-^.
112; in 1896, 142, 182; percolation
through soil at, 1871-92, 70.

Rovston, rainfall at, 1851-96, 66,
72; in 1895, 112 ; in 1896, 142;
climatological observations at, in
1895, 93 '; in 1896, 241 ; birds of,
163; earthquake of Dec. 1S96 felt
at, 202 ; -water-levels in the Chalk
near, 209.

Ruff in Herts, 79, 158.

S.
St. Albans, ordinary meetings at, in

1895, ix ; in 1896, li ; in 1S97,
Ixiii ; field meetings at, in 1S96,
xxxviii ; in 1897, Ixxi ; moths found
at. 27; rainfall at, 1860-96, 61, 71 ;
in 1895, ^1'^ ' i° 1896, 142; meteoro-
logical observations at, in 1895,
85; in 1896, 175; climatological
observations at, in 1895, 94 ; in

1896, 242 ; phenological observa-
tions at, in 1895, 98, 99 ; in 1896,
230, 231 ; elm-tree destroyed by
fungi at, 129; earthquake of Dec.
1896 felt at, 193 ; climate of, 215.

Sallow-beating at St. Albans, 27.

Sandhurst, Berks, rainfall at, 1820-59,
37, vi.

Sandon, birds of, 163 ; earthquake of
Dec. 1896 felt at, 201.

Sandpiper, green and common, in
Herts, 79, 158.

Saundees, J. : Notes on theCharaceae,
with a List of Species from the
South Midlands, xvii, 19-26 ; Notes
on some Plants collected in Hertford-
shire by Miss Maria Ransom, 1839-
40, Ixiii, 167, 168; Rambles by
Forest, Field, and Flood, li-lii.

Sawbridsceworth, rainfall at, in 1895,
112; in 1896, 142.

Scaup duck in Herts, 156.

Schools, teaching of geography in, xv ;
anthropometric measurements in, xv.

Scoter, velvet, new to Herts, 150 ;
common, in Herts, 157.

Sea temperature, xi.

Seebohm, H. (Hon. Memb. and Pres.),
obituary notice of, xxi.

Scismological observations, xiv.

Sheldrake, common, in Herts, 156.

Shoveller breeding near Tring, 78.

Shrike, great grey, in Herts, 75, 152.

Siskin in Herts, 76, 153.

Snipe, great, in Herts, 158.

Sopwell, St. Albans, visited, Ixxi.

South Midlands, Cbaracero of, 19.

Southgate, rainfall at, in 1895, 112;
in 1896, 142.

Spatula chjpcata breeding near Tring,
78.

Spexceh, S. H. : Notes on Lepi-
doptera observed in the Neighbour-
hood of Watford in the year 1896,
Ixiii, 236-240.

SplKcrothcca pannosa, rose-tree mUdew,
16.

Sphinges in Herts in 1895, 28 ; near
Watford in 1896, 237.

Spring of 1895, 88, 100 ; of 1896, 178,
232.

Squatarola helvetica in Herts, 158.

Sterna Jliiviatilis and mimitn in Herts,
80, 159; S. camis in Herts, 80;
S. macrura at Tring, 159.

Stevenage, rainfall at, in 1S95, 112;
in 1896, 142 ; earthquake of Dec.
1S96 felt at, 197.

Stock-dove nesting in Ashridge Park,
157.

Stone-ctirlew disappearing from Herts,
157.

Stoneworts or Characeae, 19.

Stradling, a.: Flying (title only),
lii ; Anniversary Address — Serpents
and Umbrellas (title only), liii ; on
natural objects depicted on ancient
coins, xli ; remarks on elm-trees,
xlii ; on the death of Dr. Brett, 1.

Summer migrants, arrival and de-
parture of, in 1895, 82 ; in 1896,
160.

Summer of 1895, 88, 101 ; of 1896,
179, 233.

Sunbury, Middlesex, rainfall at, 1797-
1838, 37.

Survey, ethnographical, xvi, xlix.

Swallow-holes in the Chalk, 61, 53.

Swallows, observation of, 126.

Symons, G. J., on meteorological
observations, x.

Syrnium aluco in Ashridge Park, 77.

TaiJorna eornuta in Herts, 156.

Teal in Herts, 156.

Temperature, of sea and river, xi ;

of earth, xii.
Tern, black, common, and lesser, at

Tring, 80, 159; Arctic, at Tring, 159.

252

INDEX.

Tertiariei5, at Tyler's Hill, Ixiv ; area
of, in Colne aud Lea basins, 46.

Thame district, rainfall in, in 1895,
115; in 1896, 145.

Thames basin, rainfall in, in 1895,
115 ; in 1S96, 145.

Therfield, rainfall at, in 1895, 112;
in 1896, 142; birds of, 163; earth-
quake of Dec. 1896 felt at, 201.

Throckino-, rainfall at, in 1895, 112;
in 1896, 142.

Thunderstorms in 1895, 91, 117, 118,
119; in 1896, 146, 147, 180, 181.

TohjpeUa glomerata at Leagrave and
Wellbury, 22 ; T. intrkata at Little
Braraingham, 22 ; at Totternhoe,
23, 26,

Totanus ochropiis, calidris, and cnnes-
cens in Herts, 79, 158 ; T. hypuleucui
nesting in Herts, 158.

Tring, rainfall at, in 1895, 109, 112;
in 1896, 142 ; earthquake of Dec.
1896 felt at, 186.

Tring Park and Museum visited, Ixxiii.

Triiif/a alpina in Herts, 79, 158.

Turdns torquatus in Herts, 75, 150.

Tyler's Hill, Chesham, visited, Ixiv.

U.

Underground waters, xlix.
Unions of Natui'al History Societies,
xliii, I, lii.

V.

Verey, a. S. : Notes of the Observa-
tion of Swallows, xxix, 126-128.

Verulam, Earl of, reception of
members by, Ixxii.

W.

"Wagtail, white, new to Herts, 74.
Waltham Cross, earthquake of Dec.

1896 felt at, 201.
Ware, rainfall at, in 1895, 112 ; in

1896, 142 ; earthquake of Dec. 1896

felt at, 200.
Warren, H. : Water-Levels in the

Chalk near Royston, Ixiii, 209-214.
Wasps, their habits, 6.
Water-levels in the Chalk near

Royston, 209.
Waters, underground, xlix.

Watford, ordinary meetings at, in 1895,

ix-xvii ; in 1896, xvii-xviii, xxviii-

xxix, xl-lii ; in 1897, lii-liii,

Ixii-lxiv ; Lepidoptcra observed near,

in 1895, 30; in 1S96, 236; pheno-

logical observations at, in 1895, 98,

99 ; in 1896, 230, 231 ; rainfall at,

in 1895, 112; in 1896, 142, 182;

ancient British coin foimd near, 133 ;

earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt at, 188.
Watton, earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt

at, 198.
Well-levels, xiii.
Wehvyn, rainfall at, 1872-96, 64. 72 ;

in 1895, 112; in 1896, 142, 182.
Westmill, earthquake of Dec. 1896

felt at, 202.
Weston, earthquake of Dec. 1896 felt

at, 197.
Weston Park, Stevenage, rainfall at,

in 1895, 112 ; in 1896, 142.
Wettest days in 1895, ^^'^ ! i^^ 1896,

144.
Whitaker, W. , on the Bourne, Ixvi ;

on the sand and gravel at Sopwell,

St. Albans, Ixxii.
Whooper swan in Herts, 156.
Widgeon in Herts, 78, 156.
Wild birds. Memorial to Herts County

Council for the protection of, xxiii ;

Order of Home Secretary protecting,

xxiv.
Winter migrants, arrival and departure

of, in 1895, 84; in 1896, 161.
Winter of 1894-95, 88- 97 ; of 1895-96,

178, 229.
Woodpeckers, great and lesser spotted,

in Herts, 77, 154.
Wormley, phenological observations

at, in 1895, 98, 99 ; in 1896, 230,

231.
Worsley - Denison, H. W. S. :

Charles Darwin : his Life and

Work (title only), ix.
Wound-parasites, 17.

"X" or Eontgen rays, 135.

Zoological Museum, Tring, visited,
Ixxiii.

APPENDIX.

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
AND FIELD CLUB.

Jtjly, 1898.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Elected

1875 AUuian, George James, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.U.S.E.,
r.L.S., M.R.I.A., Emeritus Professor of Natiiral
Histoiy, University of Edinburgh, Ardmore, Park-
stone, Dorset ; and Athenceum Club, London, S. W.

1882 Cooke, M. C, M.A., LL.D., A.L.S., 146, Junction Road,

London, N.
1879 Etheridge, Robert, F.R.S., F.E.S.E., F.G.S., 14, Carhjle
Square, Chelsea, London, S. W.

1893 Flower, Sir WiUiam Henry, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.C.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Pres. Z.S.,
26, Stanhope Gardens, London, S. W.

1890 Geikie, Sir Archibald, Sc.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Director-General of the Geological
Surveys of the United Kingdom, 28, Jermyn Street,
London, S.TF.

1875 Glaisher, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soc,
The Shola, ITcalhJield lioad. South Croydon.

VOL. IX. — PART IX. 19

2 LIST OF HEMBERS.

1879 Harting, James Eclmuncl, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Mem. Brit. Orn.

Union, Linnean Society, Burlinyton House, London, W.

1877 Henslow, Rev. George, M.A., P.L.S., F.G.S., E.E.H.S.,

Drayton House, Ealing.

1875 Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, Il.N., K.C.S.I., C.B., M.D.,
D.C.L. (Oxon.), LL.D. (Cantab.), F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., etc.. The Camp, Sunningdale, Berks.

1886 Jackson, Benjamin Daydon, Sec.L.S., Clevedon, Cautley
Avenue, Clapham Common, London, S. W.

1883 Jones, Thomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S., ex-Professor of
Geology at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst,
\7 , Parson'' s Green, Fulham, London, S.W.

1875 Lubbock, Rt. Hon. Sir John, Bart., P.C, M.P., D.C.L. ,

LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., High Elms,
Farnhorongh, Kent; and 15, Loynhard Street, London,
E.G.

1881 Ormerod, Eleanor A., F. R. Met. Soc, F.E.S., Torrington
House, St. Allans.

1880 Sclater, Philip Lutley, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,

F.G.S., Sec.Z.S., 3, Hanover Square, London, W.

1876 Symons, George James, F.R.S., Sec.R.Met.Soc, 62, Camden

Square, London, N. W.

1896 Wallace, Alfred Russel, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Parhstone,
Dorset.

1876 Whitaker, William, B.A. (Lond.), F.R.S., Pres. G.S.,
Assoc. Inst. C.E., Peesident, Freda, Campden Road,
Croydon.

COEEESPONDING MEMBEES.

1895 Massee, George, F.L.S., F.R.M.S., Pres. Brit. Mycological

Soc, 1, Kent Road, Kew.

1896 Rudlcr, F. W., F.G.S., M.A.I., Curator of the Museum of

Practical Geology, 28, Jermyn Street, London, S. W.

1894 Saunders, James, 49, Rothesay Road, Luton.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

All asterisk before a name indicates a Life Member.

Elected

1887 Andre, R., Melrose, Bushey Grove, Watford.

1879 Andrews, R. Thornton, Castle Street, Hertford.

1892 Archer, Miss Janet, St. George's Villa, Chalk Hill, Watford.

1890 Ashdown, C. H., F.C.S., F.R.G.S., Monastery Close,

St. Allans.
1883 *Attenborough, Mrs., Hatjdon Hill, Bushey, Watford.
1877 *Attfiekl, John, M.A., Th.D., F.K.S., F.C.S. , F.I.C.,

Aslilands, Watford; and 111, Temple Chambers,

London, E. C.
1897 Attfiekl, D. Harvey, M.A., M.B., CM., D.P.H., Ashlands,

Watford.

1879 Austin, Vernon, Blairgowrie, Bengeo, Hertford.

1893 Baklwin, W. Wallis, Netherheys, Watford.

1879 ^Barclay, Robert, High Leigh, Hoddesdon.

1891 Barchiy, Robert P., High Leigh, Hoddesdon.
1887 Beck, Ernest, Hoddesdon.

1892 Benskin, Thomas, Glenthorne, Harrow Weald.

1880 Berkeley, B. Comyns, Collett Hall, Ware.

1883 *Berry, F. Haycraft, M.D. (Lond.), Wattsford House, Watford.

1883 *Bickersteth, John P., Grove Mill Hoicse, Watford.

1880 Bishop, Mrs., The Platts, Watford.

1885 Blathwayt, Arthur P., Frog more, Watford.

1894 Braithwaite, Cecil, Colnehurst, Watford.
1887 Brown, Arthur M., M.A., Beech Grove, Tring.

1885 Burchell-Heme, Rev. H. F. H., Bushey Grange, Watford.

1884 Burr, E. T., Oakley Lodge, Clarendon Road, Watford.

1881 *Bushby, Lady Frances, Wormley Bury, Hoddesdon.
1880 Butcher, H. 0. F., High Street, Ware.

1889 *Butler, Charles, F.S.A., Warren Wood, Hatfield.

1885 Buxton, Johii Henry, ILmsdon Bury, Ware.
1879 Buxton, Thomas Fowell, Easneye I'ark, Ware.

4 LIST OF MEMBEKS.

1879 Campbell, Frank Maule, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., F.E.S.,

Brynllwydivyn, Machynlleth.
1896 Campion, F. Arthur, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Netria, St. Allans.
1875 *Carew, Mrs., Carpenders Parh, Watford.
1879 *Carlile, James W., Ponsbourne Parh, Hertford.
1886 Carter, W. E., B,A., Hon. Sec, Ameshury, Maiden Road,
Watford.

1875 Chater, Edward M., St. Allan's Road, Watford.

1877 Clarendon, Eight Honourable the Earl of, Grove Parh,

Watford] and 11, Berheley Square, London, W.
1879 *Cowper, Eight Honourable the Earl, K.G., Panshanger,
Hertford ; 5, *S^^. James' Square, London, S.W.; and
Athenmim Club, S. W.

1894 Cox, Alfred E., Buffield, Upton Road, Watford.

1876 *Croft, Eichard Benyon, E.N,, Fanhams Hall, Ware.

1878 *Croft, Mrs,, Fanhams Hall, Ware.

1895 Crossman, Alan F., F.L.S., St. Cuthherts, Berkhamsted.
1894 Curry, Charles Albert, Woodoahs, Richmansworth.

1888 Daw, S, J,, Ye Ingleside, Langley Park, Watford.

1890 Downer, Frederick, High Street, Watford.
1894 Dudgeon, Arthur, Northlank, Watford.

1885 Durrant, John Hartley, F.E.S,, Entomological Secretary
to Lord Walsingham, Merton Hall, Thetford.

1893 Edmonds, Mrs,, ^r(?^^^c^ iZoMse, Queen's Road, Watford.
1883 Ekins, Arthur E., F.C.S., County Laboratory, St. Albans.
1892 Essex, Eight Honourable the Earl of, Little Cassiobury,

Watford.
1875 *Evans, Sir John, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas. E,S,,

V.P.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Assoc, Inst. C.E,, etc.,

JV^ash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

1891 Evans, Lewis, F.S.A., Barnes Lodge, King's Langley.

1888 Farries, Thomas, Nascot Grange, Watford.

1892 Y\^,W^S^\^m'S., Street Lodge, Watford.
1875 ^Tordham, H. George, Odsey, Ashwell, Baldoch.

1879 *Gibbs, Arthur E., F.L.S., F.E.S., F.E.H.S., Ctjeator,

Avenue House, St. Albans.
1891 Gibbs, Eichard, The Hollies, St. Albans.
1875 Gibbs, Surgeon-Major J. G., Riggendale Road, Streatham,

London, S. W.
1879 Gilbert, Sir Joseph Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.E.S., F.L.S.,

F.C.S., F. E. Met. Soc, Harpenden.

LIST OF MEMBERS. S

1804 Goodwin, J., Langley Park House, Watford.

1898 Cioodyear, Frederick, Fallow Corner, North Finehley.

1880 Giimtliorpo, Eic;ht Honourable Baron, LL.D., Q.C.,

F.R.A.S., ^Batch Wood, St. Albans; and 33, Queen

Anne Street, London, W.
1875 Groomc, John Edward, King''s Langley.
1891 Gruggen, W., L.R.C.P.E., 14, Cleveland Mansions, Kilhurn,

London, N. W.

1875 *Halsey, Thomas F., M.P., Gaddesden Place, Hemel Hemp-
stead', and 73, Eaton Place, London, S.W.
1894 Hardy, W. J., F.S.A., Milton Cottage, St. Albatis.

1889 Harford, W. M., Manor House, Btishey, Watford.
1897 Harry, Miss R. M., Gartlett, Clarendon Road, Watford.
1897 Harvey, Thomas Morgan, Bohm Lodge, East Barnet.

1890 Headley, F. W., M.A., HaiJeyhury College, Hertford.
1894 Hcaton, Noel, 26 & 27, Coleman Street, London, E.C.
1887 Honty, Robert, Langley House, Ahhofs Langley.

1885 Hill, Daniel, Libeaeian, Herga, St. Andrew'' s, Watford.

1881 Hill, William, F.G.S., The Maples, Hitchin.
1879 Hoare, Richard, Mar den Hill, Tewin, Hertford.

1875 Holland, Stephen Taprell, Otterspool, Aldenham, Watford.

1875 Holland-Hibbert, Hon. A. H., Munden House, Watford.

1894 Holloway, William, r^e i2?)fe?, Watford.
1875 Hophinson, Mrs. James, Holly Banh, Watford.

1875 *Hopkinson, John, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.R.Met Soc,
Assoc. Inst.C.E., Hon. Sec. and Editor, The Grange,
St. Albans ; and 34, Margaret Street, London, W.

1875 *Hopkinson, Mrs. John, The Grange, St. Albans.

1883 ^Hovell. T. Mark, F. R. C. S. (Edin.), Boreham Holt,
Elstree; and 3, Mansfield Street, Cavendish Square,
London, W.

1892 *Hndson, George Bickersteth, M.P., Frogmore, Hertford.
1885 Hughes, T. McKenny, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S.,

Professor of Geology in the University of Cambridge,
Trinity College, Cambridge.

1895 Jackson, E. H., 5, Loiver Derby Road, Watford.
1875 James, J. Heniy, Kingswood, Leavesden, Watford.
1894 Janes, Clement, Hunter'' s Farm, Leavesden, Watford.
1877 Jeans, Mrs., Eastleigh, Essex Road, Watford.

1894 Johnson, Edmund L., ^<'«^Me«e, Watford.
1890 Jones, Charles E., i^M-s-se?^ 7^«rw?, Watford.

1896 Jordan, J. Dcnison, Priory View, St. Albans.

1893 Jourdain, Miss, Corran, Watford.

6 LIST OF MEMBEKS.

1897 Keating, Miss Geraldine, Cannon Mill Cottage, Chcsham.

1893 Kember, Mrs., Tregantle, Luton Road, Harpenden.

1893 Kent, Harold, Roseherry, Watford.

1879 Keyser, Charles Edward, P.S.A., Aldermaston, Berks;

and 47, Wilton Crescent, London, S. W.

1894 King, Ai-tliur, M.B., Belmont, Watford.

1892 Knyvett, Felix Sumner, Asliwelltliorpe, Watford.

1889 Lawrance, Venerable Archdeacon, M.A., The Rectory,

St. Albans.

1892 Lewis, Arthur, Sparroiosivich, St. Albans.

1880 Lewis, Henry, Worley Road, St. Allans.

1896 Lilley, Cecil W., The Chestnuts, Wealdstone, Harrow.
1883 Lloyd, Frederick George, Langley House, Langley, Bucks.

1897 Lones, Thomas East, M.A., LL.B., B.Sc, Rokehy Lodge,

St. Allan's Road, Watford.

1890 ^'Longman, A. H., Shendish, Hemel Hempstead.

1889 *Loyd, E. H., Langleylury, Watford.

1891 *Lubbock, Henry, Newherries, Radlett.
1876 *Lucas, William, The Firs, Hitchin.

1876 McFarlane, "W. McMurray, Loudwater, Rickmansworth.

1875 McGill, H, J., Aldenham, Watford.

1894 Mackay, "W. Eonald, Shirley House, Watford.

1894 Mahon, F. C, Wolfeville, Clarendon Road, Watford.

1893 Manning, Percy, M.A., F.S.A., Beechfield, Watford.

1895 Marchant, J. F., Heronsgate, Rickmansivorth.

1881 ^Marshall, Rev. C. J., M.A., Shillingstone Rectory, Dorset.
1875 *Marshall, Frank E., M.A., Harrow.

1890 Mawley, Edward, Sec. E,. Met. Soc, F.R.H.S,, Rosehank,

Berkhamsted.

1894 Metcalfe, W., Woodford Road, Watford.

1895 Meux, Sir Henry Bruce, Bart., Theobalds, Waltham Cross.
1895 Moon, Henry George, London Road, St. Albans.

1882 Morison, John, M.D., F.G.S., St. Peter's Park, St.Alhans.
1895 Myddelton, Thomas Cheadlc, Spencer House, St. Albans.

1893 x^eele, G. P., The Lawn, Clarendon Road, Watford.
1880 Ncish, J. Watson, Highfield, Watford.

1883 Nicholson, Sir Charles, Bart., K.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,

F.G.S.. P.P. Met. Soc, The Grange, Tottcridge.
1889 Norman, F. H., Moor Place, Much Hadham.

1894 Oddic, E. G., Oxford Lodge, Watford.
1894 Osborne, Mrs., Widcombc Lodge, Watford.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 7

1895 Page, William, F.S.A., The White Rouse, St. Allans.

1893 Pank, John Lovcll, Barnet.
1889 n'anton, J. A., Wayside, Watford.

1885 *Parkcr, Eev. J. D., LL.D., F. R. Met. Soc, Bennington

House, Stevenage.
1897 *Pearson, George, Brichendonhury, Hertford.
1879 Phillips, Frederick AY., Manor House, Hitchin.

1876 *Pollard, Joseph, High Down, Hitchin.
1879 Price, George, Tolethorpe, Ware.

1887 Procter, Harold, Hmiton Bridge, Watford.

1881 *Pryor, Marlborough R., M.A., F.Z.S., Weston Manor,

Stevenage.
1892 Puddicombe, W. K, M.R.C.S., London Road, St. Albans.

1881 ^Ransom, Francis, 13, Bancroft, Hitchin.

1877 *Ransom, Wmiam, F.S.A., F.L.S., Fairfield, Hitchin.

1897 Reid, A. Lestock, M.D., St. Allan's Road, Watford.

1892 *Riggall, James K., Stalheim, Station Road, Watford.

1887 Roberts, T. Vaughan, NutfieU, Watford.

1875 Rooper, George, F.Z.S., Nascot House, Watford.

1888 ^Rothschild, Honourable Walter, F.L.S., Tring Pa/rl, Tring ;

and New Court, London, E. C.

1894 Rudyard, H. Ashton, M.D., St. Allan's Road, Watford.

1898 RjTiian, Hemy John, Thorpedale, Chorley Wood, Richnans-

worth.

1891 Sainsbury, Percy Hamilton, HusTcards, Watford.

1879 *Salisbuiy, Most Noble the Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S.,

Hatfield House, Hatfield; and 20, Arlington Street,
London, S. W.
1883 *Seebohm, Frederick, The Hermitage, Hitchin.

1878 Selby, Miss, Battlers Green, Radlett.

1891 Sell, Miss L. C, Gartlett, Clarendon Road, Watford.

1880 SheUy, Charles Edward, M.A., M.D. (Cantab.), M.R.C.S.,

Fore Street, Hertford.
1883 Sherry, Hcniy S., Bynmore, Watford.
1875 Silvester, Frank W., Hedges, St. Allans.

1893 Slinn, E. J., Langsyne, Watford.

1891 Slocombc, Edward, Oxhey Warren, Watford.

1881 Smith, Abel H., M.P., Watton, Hertford.
1875 Smith, Josei)h G., Hamper Mills, Watford.

1879 Smith, Urban A., Assoc. M. Inst. C. E., 14, Endsleigh

Gardens, London, N. W.

1875 *Smith, W. Lei)ard, Ravello, Rosslyn Road, Watford.

» LIST OF MEMBERS.

1880 *Smitli-Bosaiiquet, Horace J., F.R.G.S., Broxbourne Bury,

Hoddesdon.
1894 Spencer, S. H., Jun., 76, Gladstone Road, Watford.
1883 Stradling, Arthur, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., Flores, Watford.

1875 Thairlwall, F. J., 12, Upper Park Road, London, N. W.
1887 Thomhill, James, Oxford House, St. Albans.
1886 Tuck, Horace J., St. Leonardos, Bengeo, Hertford.
1894 Turner, Thomas, Cassiobury Mills, Watford.

1875 Verini, "William, Birchfield Cottage, Watford.

1896 Verulam, Right Hon. the Earl of, Sopwell, St. Albans.

1879 "Wailes, G. Herbert, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Rounton, Watford.

1875 "Walker, J. "Watson, Cefn Llys, Stanley Road, Watford.

1893 Wallen, Frederick, 96, Gower Street, London, W.C.

1892 ^Wardale, Rev. John, M.A., Datchworth Rectory, Stevenage.

1881 "Weall, John, Treastteer, Rutland Lodge; and 38, High

Street, Watford.

1894 Wells, T. P. Grosart, L.R.C.P. (Edin.), London Road,

St. Albans.

1895 ^White, Miss Rose, Marlborough Road, St. Albans.

1881 *Wigram, Miss E., Moor Place, Much Hadham.

1894 "Williams, "W. H., Meherley, Alexandra Road, Watford.

1892 Wilks, E. T., F.R.G.S., Clarendon Road, Watford.

1894 "Wilson, Rev. Arthur, M.A., Leavesden Vicarage, Watford.

1875 *-"Wilson, Miss Mary, 4, Essex Road, Watford.

1894 "Wood, Mrs., 66, Oxford Terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.

1882 *Woods, Thomas Hoade, Burrants, Watford.

1897 "Worssam, Henry J., Marlborough House, St. Albans.

J

( W^'

JUNE Price Is. [1896

TUANSACTI OXS

OF TUK

HEKTFOEDSHIRE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD CLXTB

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.O.S.

VOL. IX. PART 1.

CONTENTS :

PA a K

1. Auuiveisary Ackkess — Mutual Aid amougst Animals. By Prince Kropotkiu. 1

2. I'arasitic Fungi : their Mode of Attack and the Means of its Prevention.

By George Massee, F.L.S., F.R.M.S 14

3. Xotes on the CharaceiB, with a List of Species from the South Midlands. By

James Saimders 19

4. Xotes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire dui'ing the year 1895.

By A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S 27

(The couducliug parts of Vol. VIII mil be published coucurreutly with the

earlier parts of Vol. IX.)

LOKDOX :
GURXEY & JACKSON, Successors to VAX VOORST, PATERXOSTER ROW.

HERTFORD :
STEPHEN .\UST1N AND SONS, PRINTERS, FORE STREET.

1896.

^^l/{

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of -the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, Ethnology, Pre-Norman Archseology, and Topography
of the County of Hertford. 2. The publication of the results of such investi-
gation made by its Members. 3. The dissemination amongst its Members of
information on Physics and Biology. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted), o. The discom-agement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the "Watford Endowed Schools at
least once a month during the Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, and other places. Field meetings
are held dm-ing the Spring and Summer in various parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of 10s., and an Annual Subscription of 10«..
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, Daniel Hill, Herga, Watford; and to the Museum, to the
Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S , Avenue House, St. Albans. Subscriptions, etc.,
are payable to the Treasurer, John AVeall, 38, High Street, Watford.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remitting* the price to the Assistant, H. Foxon, 38, High Street, Watford.
They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of tlie Honorary Secretaries —

JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc., The Grange, St. Albans.
W. II. CARTER, B.A., Amesbui-y, Watford.

PUl^LTOATrONS OF THE SOCIETY.
A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By the lute A. 11. I'll YOU, 15. A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

"With au Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of ike COUNTY,

By JOHN HOrKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price 14.?.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society.

Vol. I. 1875-78. (328 pai^es.) Price 10s. &d.

In Parts: — 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. &d.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (336 pages.) Price lOs. Gd.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. 6(/. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society.

Vol. I. lcS80-82. (352 pages.) Price lis.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, and 5, Is. &d. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. II. 1882-84. (366 pages.) Price 11.?. 6^.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. Qd. each; 5, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. III. 1884-86. (358 pages.) Price lis. 6rf.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. M. each ; 4, 7, 8, and 9, is. each.

Vol. IV. 1886-88. (296 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VII. 1892-94. (312 pages.) Price 10s.

In Parts: — 1-7, Is. each; 8 and 9, Is. Qd. each.

Vol. VIII. Parts 1, and 4-7. Is. Qd. each. Parts 2 and 3, Is. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H. GEORGE FORDHAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water-Supply.

By JOHX HOPKIXSOX, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.
36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

JjHt of Frint.)

LONDON :

GURNEY & JACKSON, Successoks to VAN VOORST, Paternoster Row.

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

GOTjnsroxL-

ARTHUR STRADLING, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

1i?ioe-3?i|esidents :

Prof. John Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.I.C.

John Morison, M.D., D.P.H., F.G.S.

T. Vaughan Robeuts.

George Rooper, F.Z.S.

John "Weall, Watford.

3^onot]at|y $eci|8tai|i88 :

John HoPKiNSON, F.L.S., F.G.S. , F.R.Met.Soc, The Grange, St. Albans.
W. R. Carter, B.A., A/iiesl/iiri/, Watford.

Daniel Hill,

Serga, Watford.

(|;ut|atoti :

A. E. GiBBS, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Avenue House, St. Albans.

©theij ^embei|s:

F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
Alan F. Grossman, F.L.S.
Sib John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L.,
LL D., Sc.D , Treas.R.S., V.P.S A.
H. George Fordham.
Henry Lewis.

Edward Mawley, Pres.R.Met.Soc.
William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.
Stephen Salter.

F. W. Silvester.

Rev. E. T. Yaughan, M.A.

G. H. Wailes, Assoc. M.Inst. C.E.

Zoology.

RECORDERS.

Pbe-historic Archaeology. —Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc.,
Nash Mills, Heniel Hempstead.
''Mammalia.- — T. Vaiighan lioberts, Verulara House, Watford.
AvES. — Alan F. Grossman, St. Cuthhert's, Berkharasted.
Reptilia and Amphibia.— Arthur Stradling, F.Z.S., Watford.
Lepidoptera.— A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans.
Arachnida.— F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.
Mollusca. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
^Rotifera and Protozoa. — F. W. Phillips, Manor House, Hitchin.
^I'hanerogamia and FiLTCES. — Miss Sclhy, Battler's Green.
I Charace-e, Musci, Hepatic.^;, and Mycetozoa. — James Saunders,
Rothsay Road, Luton.
Fungi. — George Massee, F.L.S., 1, Kent Road, Kew.
VDesmide^ and DiATOMACE.a<;.— Francis Ransom, Hitchin.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.

Meteorology.— John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

Botany.

Banhens:
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

y,.. y^

JULY.] Price Is. 6d. [1896.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFORDSHIRE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD OLXJB

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. IX. PART 2.

CONTENTS :

PACK

•5. Hertt'oixlshire Raiufall, Pereolation, and Evaporation. By John Hopkinsou,

F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R..Met.Soc. (Plate I.) U

(The concluding parts of Vol. VIII will be published concurrently with tlu-

earlier parts of Vol. IX.)

LONDON :
GURXEY & JACKSOX, Successors to VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

HERTFORD :
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTERS, FORE STREET.

1896.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorologj-,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, Ethnologj', Pre-Nonnan Archaeology, and Topography
of the County of Hertford. 2. The publication of the results of such investi-
gation made by its Members. 3. The dissemination amongst its Members of
information on Physics and Biologyi 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the VertebVata excepted). 5. The discouragement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

Evening meetings of the Society are lield at the Watford Endowed Schools at
least once a month during the "Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertfofd, and other places. Field meetings
are held during the Spring and Summer in various parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of lOs., and an Annual Subscription of 10*.,
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, Daniel Hill, Herga, Watfotd; and to the Museum, to the
Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans. Subscriptions, etc.,
are payable to the Treasurer, John Weall, 38, High Street, Watford.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remitting the price to the Assistant, H. Foxon, 38, High Street, Watford.
They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of the Honorary Secretaries —

JOHN HOPKINSOX, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc., The Grange, St, Albans.
W. K. CARTER, B.A., Amesburj-, Watford.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By the late A. R. PRYOR, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

"With an Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of the COUNTY,

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price 14s.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society.

Vol. I. 1875-78. (328 pages.) Price 10s. Qd.

In Parts: — 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. Qd.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (336 pages.) Price 10s. &d.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 4, 6, and 6, Is. &d. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society.

Vol. I. 1880-82. (352 pages.) Price lis.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, and 5, Is. Qd. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. II. 1882-84. (366 pages.) Price lis. 6^.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. %d. each ; 5, 7, 8, and 9, is. each.

Vol. III. 1884-86. (358 pages.) Price lis. 6<f.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. &d. each; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IV. 1886-88. (296 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VII. 1892-94. (312 pages.) Price 10s.

In Parts: — 1-7, Is. each; 8 and 9, Is. M. each.

Vol. VIII. Parts 1, and 4-7. Is. &d. each. Parts 2 and 3, Is. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H, GEORGE FORDHAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water- Supply.

By. JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.
36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the library.

{Out of Print.)

LONDON :

GURNET & JACKSON, Successoks to VAN VOORST, Paternoster Row.

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

OOTJIN-OIIj.

arthur stradling, m.r.c.s., f.z.s.
Vice-Hfijesidents:

Prof. John Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.I.C.

John Morison, M.D., D.P.H., F.G.S.

T. Vaughan Roberts.

George Roofer, F.Z.S.

John "Weall, Watford.

;)^onoi|ai|y ^eci|etai|ie$:

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S. , F.R.Met.Soc, TJie Grange, St. Albans.

W. R. Carter, B.A.

Libi|aj|ian :

Daniel Hill,

Herga, Watford.

Amesburij, Watford.

^uwatoti :

E. GiBBS, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Avenue House, St. Albans.

F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
Alan F. Crossman, F.L.S.
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L.,
LL D., Sc.D , Treas.R.S., V.P.S.A.
H. George Fordham.
Henry Lewis.

pflember^s :

Edward Maw^ley, Pres.R.Met.Soc.
William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.
Stephen Salter.

F. W. Silvester.
Rev. E. T. Vaughan, M.A.

G. H. Wailes, Assoc. M.Iust. C.E.

RECORDERS.

Pre-kistoric Archeology.— Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc.,
Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

'Mammalia. — T. Vaughan Roberts, Verulam House, "Watford.

AvES. — Alan F. Grossman, St. Cuthbert's, Berkhamsted.

Reptilia and Amphibia.— Arthur Stradling, F.Z.S., Watford.
Zoology. -{ Lepidoptera. — A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans.

Arachnida. — F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.

MoLLUscA.— John Hopkinson, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.

^RoTiFERA AND Protozoa. — F. W. PhilHps, Manor House, Hitchin.
^I'hanerogamia and Filtces. — Miss Selby, Battler's Green.

Charace.e, Musci, Hepatic^, and Mycetozoa. — James Saunders,
Botany. ^ Roth.say Road, Luton.

Fungi. — George Massee, F.L.S., 1, Kent Road, Kew.

-Desmidee and Diatomace^. — Francis Ransom, Hitchin.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.

Meteorology. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

IKanhetis:
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

SEPTEMBEE.] Price Is. 6d. [1896

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFORDSHIRE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD CLXJB.

EDITED BY JOHN EOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. IX. PART 3.

CONTENTS :

PAOK

Xotes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year 1895. By Alan

F. Grossman, F.L.S 73

7. ileteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St. Albans, during the

year 1895. By John Hopkinson, F.L.S. , F.G.S., F.ll.Met.Soc H.'i

8. Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the year 1895. By

John Hopkinson. (Plate II.) 93

*. Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertfordshire during the

year 1895. By Edward Mawley, Pres.R.Met.Soc, F.R.H.S 97

10. List of Mosses collected in the neiglibourhood of Hertford. By Hugh Darton 104

11. Report on the Rainfall in Hertford.shire in the year 1895. By John

Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc lOD

(Parts 8 and 9 of Vol. YIII, completing that Volume, will follow the

present part.)

LON"DON :
GURNEY & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW

HERTFORD:
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PKINTERS, FORE STREET.

1896.

HEETrORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTOEY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, Ethnology, Pre-Norman Archaeology, and Topography
of the County of Hertford. 2. The publication of the results of such investi-
gation made by its Members. 3. The dissemination amongst its Members of
information on Physics and Biology. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discouragement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the "Watford Endowed Schools at
least once a month during the "Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, and other places. Field meetings
are held dui-ing the Spring and Summer in various parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of 10.s., and an Annual Subscription of 10s.,
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, Daniel Hill, Herga, "Watford; and to the Museum, to the
Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue Hoiise, St. Albans. Subscriptions, etc.,
are payable to the Treasurer, John "Weall, 38, High Street, "Watford.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remittiug the price to the Assistant, H. Foxon, 38, High Street, "Watford.
They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of the Honorary Secretaries —

JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.. The Grange, St. Albans.
"W. E. CARTER, B.A., Amesburv. AVatford.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By the late A. R. riU'OR, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDQN JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

"With an Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of the COUNTY,

By JOHN HOI'KIXSOX, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price Hs.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society.

Vol. I. 1875-78. (328 pages.) Price 10s. '6<?.

In Parts: — 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. &d.

A'OL. II. 1878-80. (33G pages.) Price 10s. M.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. 6(/. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society.

Vol. I. 1S80-82. (352 pages.) Price lis.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, and 5, Is. M. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

YoL. II. 1882-84. (366 pages.) Price lis. &d.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. Qd. each; 5, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. III. 1884-86. (358 pages.) Price lis. Qd.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. M. each; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IV. 1886-88. (296 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VII. 1892-94. (312 pages.) Price 10s.

In Parts: — 1-7, Is. each; 8 and 9, Is. 6d. each.

Vol. VIII. Parts 1, and 4-7. Is. Qd. each. Parts 2 and 3, Is. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H. GEORGE FORDHAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water-Supply.

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.

36 pages, -with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

{Out of Print.)

LONDON :

GURNET & JACKSON, Successoks to VAN VOORST, Paternoster Row.

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

;tf i|esident :
ARTHUR STRADLING, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

Prof. John Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.I.C.

John Morison, M.D., D.P.H., F.G.S.

T. Vaughan Roberts.

George Roofer, F.Z.S.

John "Weall, Watford.

;^onoria»|i} ^ecrietaijies :

John Hofkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc, The Grange, St. Albans.
"W. R. Carter, B.A., Amesbury, Watford.

Libi|ai|ian :

Daniel Hill,

Serga, Watford.

iDthe;| !

F. M. Camfbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S.

Alan F. Grossman, F.L.S.

Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L.,

LL D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S., V.P.S.A.
H. George Fordham.
Henry Lewis.

A. E. GiBBS, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Avenue House, St. Albans.

»embet|S :

Edward Mawley, Pres.R.Met.Soe.
William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.
Stefhen Salter.

F. W. Silvester.

Rev. E. T. Vaughan, M.A.

G. H. Wailes, Assoc. M.Inst. C.E.

RECORDERS.

Pre-historic Archjeologt.— Sir Jolin Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc.,
Nash Mills, Herael Hempstead.
'Mammalia. — T. Vaughan Roberts, Verulam House, Watford.
Aves. — Alan F. Crossnian, St. Cuthbert's, Berkhnmsted.
Reftilia and Amphibia. — Arthur Stradling, F.Z.S., Watford.
Zoology. \ Lefidoptera. — A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Alb.ins.
Arachnida. — F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.
Mollusca. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
^Rotifera and Protozoa. — F. W. Phillips, Manor House, Hitchin.
'Phanerogamia and Filtces. — Miss Selby, Battler's Green.
i Charace^, Musci, Hefatic^, and Mycetozoa. — James Saunders,
Botany. -! Rothsay Road, Luton.

Fungi. — George Massee, F.L.S., 1, Kent Road, Kew.
-Desmide^ and Diatomace.e. — Francis Ransom, Hitchin.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S. , St. Albans.

Meteorology. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

JBankeiis:
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

— TK^./i

JULY.] Price Is. 6d. [1897.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFORDSHIRE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD C LUB.

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKIA'SOiV, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. IX. PART 4,

co:^fTENTS :

PACK

12. On some Overlooked Records of Hertfordshire Plants. By B. Daydon

Jackson, Sec.L.S 121

13. Xotes of the Observation of Swallows. By A. Sainsbury Verey, M.B.O.U. 120

14. On the Destruction of an Elm-Tree by Fungi at St. Albans. By

George Abbey. (Plate III.) .'.. 12ii

lo. On an Ancient British Coin found near Watford. By Sir John Evans,
K.C.B., D.C.L , LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S.; Y.P.S.A., etc.
(Illustrated.) \-i-'>

16. The Eontgen or "X" Rays. By Thomas Mansell, r.R.M.S., F.R.P.'S. 133

17. Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the year 1896. By John

Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.O.S., F.R.Met. Soc, Assoc. Inst. C.E 13ti

18. Xotes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year 1896. By Alan

F. Grossman, F.L.S H^

19. Xotes on the Birds of North Hertfordshire. By Joseph P. Xnnn 163

20. Xotes on some Plants collected in Hertfordsliire by Miss Maria Kansom,

1838-1840. By James Saunders 1G7

LONDON :

GURXEY & JACKSOX, Successors to VAX VOORST, PATERXOSTER ROW

HERTFORD:
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTERS, FORE STREET.

1897.

K

HERTFOEDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, Ethnology, Pre-Norman Archaeology, and Topography
of the County of Hertford. 2. The publication of the results of such investi-
gation made by its Members. 3. The dissemination amongst its Members of
information on Physics and Biology. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discoru-ageraent of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the Watford Endowed Schools at
least once a month during the Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, and other places. Field meetings
are held during the Spring and Simimer in various parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of 10.«., and an Annual Subscription of 10*.,
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, Daniel Hill, Herga, Watford; and to the Museum, to the
Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S , Avenue House, St. Albans. Subscriptions, etc.,
are payable to the Treasurer, John Weall, 38, High Street, Watford.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remitting the price to the Assistant, H. Foxen, 38, High Street, Watford.
They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of tlie Honorary Secretaries —

JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S. , F.G.S., etc., The Grange, St. Albans.
W. R. CAETER, B.A., Amesbury, Watford.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

A FLOKA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By the late A. R. rilYOR, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

With an Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of the COUNTY,

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo , pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price 14s.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society.

Vol. I. 1875-78. (328 pages.) Price 10s. &d.

In Parts: — 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. &d.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (336 pages.) Price 10s. M.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. M. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society.

Vol. I. U80-82. (352 pages.) Price lis.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, and 5, Is. Gd. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. II. 1882-84. (366 pages.) Price lis. Qd.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. Q>d. each; 5, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. III. 1884-86. (358 pages.) Price lis. 6«/.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. Qd. each ; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IV. 1886-88. (296 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VII. 1892-94. (312 pages.) Price lOs.

In Parts: — 1-7, Is. each; 8 and 9, Is. Qd. each.

Vol. Vlli. 1894-96. (300 pages.) Price 12s.

In Parts: — 1, and 4-8, Is. Q>d. each; 2, 3, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IX. Part 1, Is. Parts 2-4, Is. Qd. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H. GEORGE FORDHAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water-Supply.

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.

36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

[Out of Frbit.)

LONDON :

GURNEY & JACKSON, Successoks to VAN VOORST, Paternosteu How,

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

O O TJ IN" O 1 1...

WILLIAM WHITAKER, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E.

John Morison, M.D., D.P.H., F.G.S.

T. Vaughan Roberts.

George Roofer, F.Z.S.

Arthur Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

^qeasutiei] :

John "Weall, 38, Sigh Street, Watford.

JjJonot;ai|y ^ecr{etai|ies :

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S. , F. R. Met. See, Assoc. Iiist. C. E.,

The Grange, St, Albaus.

"W. R. Carter, B.A., Amcsbury, Watford.

Daniel Hill,

Herga, Watford.

A. E. GiBBS, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Avenue Souse, St. Albans.

Charles AsHD0wx,F.C.S ,F.R.G.S. Herbert George Fordham.

John Attfield, M.A.,Ph.D., F.R.S., , Edward Mawley, Pres.R.Met.Soc.

F.C.S., F.I.C. George P. Neele.

F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S. William Page, F.S.A.

AL.4N F. Ci{ossM.iN, F.L.S. William R.\nsom, F.S.A., F.L.S.

Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., ; W. Lepard Smith.

LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S., V.P.S.A. G. H. Wailes, Assoc. M.Inst. C.E.

RECORDERS.

Pre-historic Arch.'eology.— Sir John Evaus, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc.
Nash Mills, Heinel Hempstead.

Mammalia. — T. Vaughan Roberts, Verulara House, Watford.

AvES. — Alan F. Crossman, F.L.S., St. Cuthbert's, Berkhamsted.

Reptilia and Amphibia.— Arthur Stradling, F.Z.S.. Watford.
Zoology. Lepidoptera.— A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans.

j^RACHNiDA. — F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.

Mollusca. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.

RoTiFERA AND pROTozoA. — F. W. PhilHps, Mauor House, Hitchin.
/Phanerogamia AND FiLTCES. — Miss Selby, Battler's Green.

Charace.e, Musci, Hepatic^, and Mycetozoa. — James Saunders,
Botany. - Rothsay Road, Luton.

Fungi. — George Massee, F.L.S., 1, Kent Road, Kew.
'-Desmide^ and Diatomace^.— Francis Ransom, Hitchin.
Geology.— John Morison, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.
Meteorology.— John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology.— Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

Banheijs:
LONDON AND COUNTY B.\NK, WATFORD.

^-TK^, /O/

OCTOBER.] Price Is. 6d. [1897.

TEANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFOEDSHIRE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD OLXJB

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. IX. PART 5.

CONTENTS :

I'AOK

21. On some Roman Coins found at Brickeudonbury, Hertford. By Sir John

Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S., V.P.S.A., etc.
(Plate IV.) 1G<»

22. Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St. Albans, during the

year 1896. By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met. Soc,
Assoc. Inst. C.E 175

23. The Earthquake of the 17th of December, 1896, as it affected the County

of Hertford. By Herbert George Fordham. (Plate V.) 183

LONDO^N" :
GURNET & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

HERTFORD :
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTERS, FORE STREET.

1897.

u/f

HEETFORDSHIEE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, Ethnology, Pre -JSTorman Archaeology, and Topography
of the County of Hertford. 2. The publication of the results of such investi-
gation made by its Members. 3. The dissemination amongst its Members of
information on Physics and Biology. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Xatural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discouragement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of -which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the "Watford Endowed Schools at
least once a month during the Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, and other places. Field meetings
are held during the Spring and Summer in various parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of 10s., and an Annual Subscription of lO.s.,
for -which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, Daniel Hill, Herga, Watford; and to the Museum, to the
Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans. Subscriptions, etc.,
are payable to the Treasurer, John Weall, 38, High Street, Watford.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remitting the price to the Assistant, H. Foxen, 38, High Street, Watford.
They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of the Honorary Secretaries —

JOHX HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.. The Grange, St. Albans.
AV. R. CAETER, B.A., Amesbmy, Watford.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By tlie late A. R. PRYOR, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

"With an Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of Ihe COUNTY

By JOHN HOrKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii and 588, ■with three Maps. Price 14s.

Transactions of the "Watford Natural History Society.

Vol. I. 1875-78. (328 pages.) Price 10«. Qd.

In Parts:— 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. %d.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (336 pages.) Price 10s. %d.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. 6(/. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society

Vol. I. 1880-82. (352 pages.) Price lis.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 3, and 5, is. &d. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, is. eacli.

Vol. II. 1882-84. (366 pages.) Price lis. 6rf.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. (id. each; 5, 7, 8, and 9, is. each.

Vol. III. 1884-86. (358 pages.) Price lis. 6«f.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. Qd. each ; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IV. 1886-88. (296 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, la. each.

Vol. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VII. 1892-94. (312 pages.) Price 10s.

In Parts: — 1-7, Is. each; 8 and 9, Is. Q>d. each.

Vol. VIII. 1894-90. (300 pages.) Price r2s.

In Parts: — 1, and 4-8, Is. Qd. each; 2, 3, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IX. Part 1, Is. Parts 2-5, Is. Qd. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H. GEORGE FORDHAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water- Supply.

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.

36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

{Out of Frint.)

LONDON:

GURNEY & JACKSON, Successoks to VAN VOORST, Paternosteh Row,

HERTFORD: STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

OOTJlsrOIL.

Ifijesident:
WILLIAM AVHITAKER, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E.

1^Jce-3?i|esidents :

John Morison, M.D., D.P.H., F.G.S.

1\ Vaughan Egberts.

George Roofer, F.Z.S.

Arthur Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

John "Weall, 38, Hiffh Street, Watford.

5^onoriai|y ^ecijetaijies :

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F. R. Met. Soc, Assoc. last. C.E. ,

27ic Grange, St. Albans.
W. R. Carter, B.A., Ameshury, Watford.

Libijariian; (^uijator:

Daniel Hill, | A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Herga, Watford. \ Avenue House, St. Albans.

®thei| ^^emb8i|s:

Charles AsHDOAVN,F.C.S.,F.R.G.S. \ Herbert George Fordham.
John ATTFiELD,M.A.,Ph.D., F.R.S., i Edward Mawley, Pres.R.Met.Soc.

F.C.S., F.I.C
F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
^LAN F. Grossman, F.L.S.
Sir John Evan.s, K.C.B., D.C.L.,

LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S., V.P.S.A.

George P. Neele.

William Page, F.S.A.

William Ransom, F.S.A. , F.L.S.

W. Lepard Smith.

G. H. Wailes, Assoc. M.Inst. C.E.

RECORDERS.

Pre-historic Archeology.— Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc.
Nash IMills, Hemel Hempstead.
'Mammalia. — T. Vaughan Roberts, Veruhara House, Watford.
AvEs. — Alan F. Crossman, F.L.S., St. Cuthbert's, Berkharasted.
Reptilia and Amphibia. — Arthur Stradling, F.Z.S.. Watford.
Zoology. -| Lepidoptera.— A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans.
Arachnida.— F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.
Mollusca. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
\_RoTiFERA AND Protozoa. — F. W. PMllips, Manor Ilouse, Hitchin.
/-Phanerogamia and Filices. — Miss Selby, Battler's Green.
I Charace.i3, Musci, Hepatic^, and Mycetozoa. — James Saunders,
Botany. J Rotbsay Road, Luton.

Fungi. — George Massee, F.L.S., 1, Kent Road, Kew.
^DEsMiDEiE and DiATOMACEyTi. — Fraucis Ransom, Hitchin.
Geology.— John Morison, M.D., F.G.S. , St. Albans.
Meteorology. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S,, The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

BauHeiis:
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

/

DECEMBER.] Price Is. 6d. [1897.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFOEDSHIEE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD CLUB.

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. IX. PART 6.

CONTENTS :

PAGE

24. "Water - Levels in the Chalk near Roy.ston. .By Harold Warren,

Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. (Plate VI, with other illustrations.) 209

25. The Climate of St. Albans, deduced from Meteorological Observations

taken during the Ten Years 1887-1896. By John Hopkinson, F.L.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.Met. Soc, Assoc. Inst. C.E 215

26. Eeport on Phenol ogical Phenomena observed in Hertfordsliire during the

Year 1896. By Edward Mawley, Pres. R. Met. Soc, F.E.II.S 229

27. Notes on Lepidoptera observed in the Neighbourhood of "Watford in the

Year 1896. By S. H. Spencer, Jun 236

28. Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the Y'ear 1896. By

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc 241

LONDON :
GURNET & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

HERTFORD :
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTERS, FORE STREET.

1897.

\ I -l

\i

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, Ethnology, Pre-Norman Archgeology, and Topography
of the County of Hertford. 2. The publication of the results of such investi-
gation made by its Members. 3. The dissemination amongst its Members of
information on Physics and Biology. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discoui-agement of
the practice of removing' rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the Watford Endowed Schools at
least once a month during the "Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, and other places. Field meetings
are held during the Spring and Summer in yarious parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of 10«., and an Annual Subscription of 10s.,
for which they may, if prefeiTed, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, Daniel Hill, Herga, "Watford; and to the Museum, to the
Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans. Subscriptions, etc.,
are payable to the Treasurer, John Weall, 38, High Street, "NYatford.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remitting the price to the Assistant, H. Foxen, 38, High Street, "Watford.
They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of the Honorary Secretaries —

JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.. The Grange, St. Albans.
W. E. CAETER, B.A., Amesbury, Watford.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By the late A. E. PRYOR, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

"With an Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATF., BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of the COUNTY,

By JOHN IIOl'KINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price 14«.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society.

A'oL. I. 1875-78. (328 pages.) Price 10«. 6(f.

In Parts: — 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. M.

YoL. II. 1878-80. (336 pages.) Price 10s. &d.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. 6;/. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society.

YoL. I. 1880-82. (352 pages.) Price lis.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, and 5, Is. 6^/. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

YoL. II. 1882-84. (366 pages.) Price 11 «. 6f/.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. &d. each ; 5, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

YoL. III. 1884-86. (358 pages.) Price lis. 6fl'.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. 6d each ; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

YoL. lY. 1886-88. (296 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

YoL. Y. 1888-90. (288 pages.)' Price 9.?. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

YoL. YI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

YoL. YII. 1892-94. (312 pages.) Price 10s.

In Parts: — 1-7, Is. each; 8 and 9, Is. M. each.

YoL. YIII. 1894-96. (300 pages.) Price 12s.

In Parts: — 1, and 4-8, Is. Qd. each; 2, 3, and 9, Is. each.

YoL. IX. Part 1, Is. Parts 2-6, Is. Q>d. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H. GEORGE FORDHAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water- Supply.

By JOHN IIOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.

36 pages, with Colom-ed Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

{Out of Print.)

LONDON :

GURNET & JACKSON, Successors to YAN YOORST, Paternoster Row.

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

O O TJ Isr O I L.

WILLIAM WHITAKER, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E.

John Morison, M.D., D.P.H., F.G.S.

T. Vaughan Egberts.

George Roofer, F.Z.S.

Arthur Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

John Weall, 38, Righ Street, Watford.

Uonoiiajiy $eci|8tai|jes:

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F. R. Met. See, Assoc. Inst. C. E.,

The Grange, St. Albans.
"W. R. Carter, B.A., Amcshurij, Watford.

Libi|at|ian :

Daniel Hill,

Herga, Watford.

^utjatoi] :

A. E. GiBBS, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Avenue House, St. Albans,

Charles AsHDo-\TN,F.C.S,F.R.G.S. i Herbert George Fordham.
John ATTFiELD,M.A.,Ph.D., F.R.S., ! Edward Mawley, Pres.R.Met.Soc.

F.C.S., F.I.C.
F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
Alan F. Ckossman, F.L.S.
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L.,

LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S., V.P.S.A.

George P. Neelb.

William Page, F.S.A.

William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.

W. Lei'Ard Smith.

G. H. Wailes, Assoc. M.Inst. C.E.

RECORDERS.

Pre-historic Archjeology. — Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc.
Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.
TMammalta. — T. Vaughan Roherts, Verulani House, Watford.
AvES. — Alan F. Grossman, F.L.S., St. Cuthbert's, Berkhamsted.
Reptilia and Amphibia. — Arthur Stradling, F.Z.S., Watford.
Zoology. ■{ Lepidoptera.— A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans.
Arachnida. — F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.
Mollusca.— John Hopkiiison, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
^RoTiFERA and Protozoa. — F. W. PhilHps, Manor House, Hitchin.
^ Phanerogamia and Filtces. — Miss Selby, Battler's Green.
Charace.e, Musci, Hepatics;, and Mycetozo^. — James Saunders,
Botany. -, Rothsay Road, Luton.

Fungi. — George Massee, F.L.S., 1, Kent Road, Kew.
'Desmideje and DiATOM.iCE^. — Francis Ransom, Hitchin.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.
Meteorology. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

33anheji8:
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

APRIL] Price la. [1898.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFORDSHIRE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD OLTJB

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKINSOy, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. IX. PART 7.

CONTENTS :

PA(iF.

Proceedings, Session 1895-96 ix

Report on the Conferences of Delegates to the British Association at Ipswich in

1895. By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S. , F.R.Met. Soc x

Report of the Council for the Year 1895 ..;..... xix

Appendix A. Memorial to the Hertfordshire County Council for the protection

of certain Wild Birds xxiii

Appendix B. Order of the Home Secretary protecting certain Wild Birds xxiv

Income and Expenditure for the Year ending 31st December, 1895 xxvi

Additions to the Library in 1895 xxvii

Reports of the Field Meetings in 1896 xxx

LONDOX :
GURNEY & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

HERTFORD :

STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTERS, FORE STREET.

1898.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorolog)-,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, Ethnology, Pre -Norman Archaeology, and Topography
of the County of Hertford. 2. The publication of the results of such investi-
gation made by its Members. 3. The dissemination amongst its Members of
information on Physics and Biology. 4. The formation of a Library of worfiS on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, 'Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discowagement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the Watford Endowed Schools at
least once a month during the Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally, at St. Albans, Hertford, and other places. Field meetings
are held during the Spring and Summer in various parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of \0s., and an Annual Subscription of 10«.,
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, Daniel Hill, Herga, Watford; and to the Museum, to the
Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S , Avenue House, St. Albans. Subscriptions, etc.,
are payable to the Treasurer, John Weall, 38, High Street, Watford.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remitting the price to the Assistant, H. Foxen, 38, High Street, Watford.
They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of the Honorary Secretaries —

JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S. , F.G.S., etc.. The Grange, St. Albans.
W. E. CARTER, B.A., Amesbury, Watford.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.
A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

liy the late A. K. I'RVOR, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

With au Introduction ou tlic

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of Ihe COUNTY,

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price lis.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society.

Vol. r. 1875-78. (328 pages.) Price 10s. Qd.

In Parts: — 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. &d.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (336 pages.) Price 10s. M.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. 6(/. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society.

Vol. I. ie80-82. (352 pages.) Price lis.

In Parts ; — l, 2, 3, and 5, Is. M. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. II. 1882-84. (366 pages.) Price lis. 6ff.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. &d each; 5, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. III. 1884-86. (358 pages.) Price lis. Qd.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. ^d. each; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IV. 1886-88. (296 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages.) I'rice 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. lu 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VII. 1892-94. (312 pages.) Price 10s.

In Parts: — 1-7, Is. each; 8 and 9, Is. M. each.

Vol. VIII. 1894-96. (300 pages.) Price 12s.

lu Parts: — 1, and 4-8, Is. Qd. each; 2, 3, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IX. Part 1, Is. Parts 2-6, Is. Qd. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H. GEOEGE FORDHAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water- Supply.

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.
36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

[Out of Print.)

LONDON :

GURNET & JACKSON, Suctessoks to A'AN VOORST, Paternoster Row.

HERTFuRD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

o o TJ nsr o I Hj.

3?i|esident:
WILLIAM WHITAKER, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E.

"Vice-|*iie8idents :

Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.ll.S., V.P.S.A., etc.

T. Vaughan Roberts.

George Roofer, F.Z.S.

Arthur Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

^i|easui|ei| :

John Weall, 38, High Street, Watfurd.

Honoijaiiy ^ecijetaiiies:
John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S. , F. R. Met. Soc, Assoc. Inst. C.E. ,

The Grange, St. Albans.
W. R. Carter, _B. A., Amesbiiry, Watford.

laibiiaijian :
Daniel Hill,

Herga, Watford.

^.ui|atoti :
A. E. GiBBS, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Avenue Home, St. Albans.

i©thm| ft^embei|s:

Charles Ashdown,F.C.S.,F.R.G.S.
John Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.,

F.C.S., F.I.C.
Arthur P. Blathavayt.
F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
Alan F. Crossman, F.L.S.
Herbert George Fordham.

F. C. Mahon.

John Morison, M.D., D.P.H.,

F.G.S.
George P. Neele.
William Page, F.S.A.
James Saunders.
W. Lepard Smith.

RECORDERS.

Prb-historic Archaeology. — Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc.
Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.
'Mammalia. — T. Vaughan Roberts, Verulam House, Watford.
AvES. — Alan F. Crossman, F.L.S. , St. Cuthbert's, Berkhamsted.
Reptilia and Amphibia.— Arthur Stradling, F.Z.S.. Watford.
Zoology. \ Lepidoptera.— A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans.
Arachnida. — F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.
MoLLuscA.— John Hopkinson, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Rotifera and Protozoa. — F. W. Phillips, Manor House, Hitchin.
/ Hhanerogamia AND FiLiCES. — Miss Selby, Battler's Green.
I Characete, Musci, Hepaticje, and Mycetozoa. — James Saunders,
Botany. 4 Rothsay Road, Luton.

I Fungi. — George Massee, F.L.S., 1, Kent Road, Kew.
vDesmide^ and Diatom acete. — Francis Ransom, Hitchin.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.
Meteorology.— John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R. Met. Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

Banhetis:
LOXDOX AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

JUNE.] Price Is. [1898.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFOEDSHIEE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD CLUB.

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., E.G.S.

VOL. IX. PART 8.

CONTENTS :

PAliK

Proceedings, Session 1896-97 xl'

Report on the Conference of Delegates to the British Association at Liverpool

in 1896. By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc xlii

Rambles by Forest, Field, and Flood. By .James Saunders li

Report of the Council for the Year 1896 iiv

Income and E.xpenditure during the Year ending 31st December, 1896 lix.

Additions to the Library in 1896 Ix

Reports of the Field Meetings in 1897 Ixiv

LONDON :
GURNEY & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

HERTFORD :
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTERS, FORE STREET.

1898.

..n^

,^

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, Ethnology, Pre-Norman Archaeology, and Topography
of the County of Hertford. 2. The publication of the results of such investi-
gation made by its Members. 3. The dissemination amongst its Members of
information on Physics and Biology. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discouragement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the Watford Endowed Schools at
least once a month during the "Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, and other places. Field meetings
are held during the Spring and Summer in various parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of 10s., and an Annual Subscription of 10«.,
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, Daniel Hill, Herga, "Watford; and to the Museum, to the
Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S , Avenue House, St. Albans. Subscriptions, etc.,
are payable to the Treasurer, John "Weall, 38, High Street, Watford.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remitting the price to the Assistant, H. Foxen, 38, High Street, Watford.
They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of the Honorary Secretaries —

JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S. , F.G.S., etc.. The Grange, St. Albans.
W. R. CAETER, B.A., Amesbury, Watford.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By the late A. R. TRYOR, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

With an Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of the COUNTY,

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii and 588, -with three Maps. Price 14.«.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society.

Vol. I. 1875-78. (328 pages.) Price 10«. 6«?.

In Parts:— 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, \s. Qd.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (336 pages.) Price 10s. M.

In Parts:— 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, 1«. 6<f. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society.

Vol. I. 1880-82. (352 pages.) Price lis.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, and 5, Is. M. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, is. each.

Vol. II. 1882-84. (366 pages.) Price lis. &d.

In Parts:— 1-4, and 6, Is. Gid. each ; 5, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. III. 1884-86. (358 pages.) Price lis. 6^?.

In Parts :— 1 , 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. Qd. each ; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IV. 1886-88. (296 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VII. 1892-94. (312 pages.) Price 10s.

In Parts: — 1-7, Is. each; 8 and 9, Is. %d. S&ch.

Vol. VIII. 1894-96. (300 pages.) Price 12s.

In Parts :— 1, and 4-8, Is. M. each ; 2, 3, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IX. Part 1, Is, Parts 2-6, Is. &d. ; 7 and 8, Is. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H. GEORGE FORDHAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water- Supply.

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.
36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

{Out of Print.)

LONDON :

GURNEY & JACKSON, Successoks to VAN VOORST, Paternoster Row

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

GOTJn^OIL.

^\aLLIAM WHITAKER, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. lust. CE.

li^ice-|^i|esidents:

Sib John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.E.S., V.P.S.A., etc.

T. Vaughan Roberts.

George Roofer, F.Z.S.

Arthur Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

John "Weall, 38, Sigh Street, Watford.

;^onoi|a)iy ^ec»|etaiiies:
John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F. R. Met. Sec, Assoc. lust. C. E.,

The Grange, St. Albans.
W. R. Carter, B.A., Amesburg, Watford.

Libi|ai|ian :

Daniel Hill,

Herga, Watford.

^ui|atoti :

A. E. GiBBS, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Avenue Souse, St. Albans.

Charles Ashdown, F.C.S, F.R.G.S.
John Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.,

F.C.S., F.I.C.
Arthur P. Blathwayt.
F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
Alan F. Crossman, F.L.S.
Herbert George Fordham.

(^thetj ^emb8i|s:

F. C. Mahon.
John Morison

F.G.S.
George P. Neele.
William Page, F.S.A
James Saunders.
W. Lepard Smith.

M.D., D.P.H.,

RECORDERS.

Pre-historic Archjeology.— Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc.
Nash Mills, Herael Hempstead.
'Mammalia. — T. Vaughau Roberts, Verulani House, Watford.
Aves. — Alan F. Crossman, F.L.S. , St. Cuthbert's, Berkhamsted.
Reptilia and Amphibia.— Arthur Stradling, F.Z.S., Watford.
Zoology. -{ Lepidoptera.— A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans.
Arachnida. — F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.
MoLLuscA. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
^RoTiFERA and Protozoa.— F. W. Phillips, Manor House, Hitchin.
^Phanerogamia and Filtces. — Miss Selby, Battler's Green.
Charace.13, Musci, Hepatics:, and Mycetozoa. — James Saunders,
Botany. - Rothsay Road, Luton.

Fungi.— George Massee, F.L.S., 1, Kent Road, Kew.
-DESMiDEiE AND DiATOMACEJE. — Fraucis Ransom, Hitchin.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.
Meteorology. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S,, The Grange, St, Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R. Met. Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

JSankeiis:
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

ft
/

AUGUST.] Price Is. [1898.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFOEDSHIEE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD OLXJB

EDITED BY JOHN EOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. IX. PART 9.

CONTENTS :

Title Page, Table of Contents, etc

Index 2J/i

List of Members - i

LONDOX :
GURXEY & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

HERTFORD :
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PUINTERS, FORE STREET.

1898.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, Ethnology, Pre-Noiman Archaeology, and Topography
of the Count}' of Hertford. 2. The publication of the results of such investi-
gation made by its Members. 3. The dissemination amongst its Members of
information on Physics and Biology. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discouragement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the "Watford Endowed Schools at
least once a month during the "Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, and other places. Field meetings
are held during the Spring and Summer in various parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of 10«., and an Annual Subscription of 10*.,
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, Daniel Hill, Herga, "Watford; and to the Museum, to the
Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans. Subscriptions, etc.,
are payable to the Treasurer, John "Weall, 38, High Street, "Watford.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remitting the price to the Assistant, H. Foxen, 38, High Street, "Watfcn-d.
They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of the Honorary Secretaries —

JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc., The Grange, St. Albans.
"W. E. CARTER, B.A., Amesbury, "Watford.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By the late A. R. PRYOR, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

With an Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of the COUNTY,

By JOHN HOrKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price 14s.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society.

Vol. I. 1875-78. (328 pages.) Price \0s. 6d.

In Parts:— 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. 6d.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (336 pages.) Price 10s. 6d.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. 6d. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society.

Vol. I. l?S0-82. (352 pages.) Price lis.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, and 5, Is. 6d. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. II, 1882-84. (366 pages.) Price lis. 6d.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. 6d. each ; 5, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. III. 1884-86. (358 pages.) Price lis. 6d.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. 6d. each; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IV. 1886-88. (296 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VII. 1892-94. (312 pages.) Price IDs.

In Parts :— 1-7, Is. each; 8 and 9, Is. 6d. each.

Vol. VIII. 1894-96. (300 pages.) Price 12s.

In Parts: — 1, and 4-8, Is. 6d, each; 2, 3, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IX. 1896-98. (338 pages.) Price lis. 6d.

In Parts: — 1, Is.; 2-6, Is. 6d. each; 7-9, is. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H. GEORGE FORDHAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water- Supply.

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S. , etc.

36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

{Out of Frint.)

LONDON :

GURNEY & JACKSON, Successoks to VAN VOORST, Paternoster Row,

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

c o TJ nsr o I Hj.

WILLIAM WHITAKER, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. last. C.E.

■>^ice-3?i|esidents :

SiK John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S., V.P.S.A., etc.

T. Vaughan Roberts.

George Roofer, F.Z.S.

Arthur Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

^i|easui|ei| :

John Weall, 38, High Street, Watford.

3^onoi|aiiy ^ecijetanies :

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F. R. Met. Sec, Assoc. Inst. C. E.,

The Grange, St. Albans.
W. R. Carter, B.A., Amesbarg, Watford.

Libqatjian ;

Daniel Hill,

Serga, Watford.

(£ui|atoii:
A. E. GiBBS, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Avenue House, Ht. Albans.

lDthei| pt^embeiis:

Charles Ashdotvtj, F.C.S ,F.R.G.S.
John Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.,

F.C.S., F.I.C.
Arthur P. Blathwayt.
F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
Alan F. Grossman, F.L.S.
Herbert George Fordham.

F. C. Mahon.

John Morison, M.D.

F.G.S.
George P. Neele.
"William Page, F.S.A.
James Saunders.
W. Lefard Smith.

D.P.H.,

Zoology. -

RECORDERS.

Pre-historic Archeology. —Sir Jolin Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc.
Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead,
r Mammalia. — T. Vaughan Roberts, Verulam House, Watford.
AvES.— Alan F. Crossman, F.L.S., St. Cuthbert's, Berkhamsted.
Reftilia and Amphibia. — Arthur Stradling, F.Z.S., Watford.
Lefidoptera.— A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans.
MoLLuscA. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S. , The Grange, St. Albans.
^Rotifera AND Protozoa. — F. W. Phillips, Manor House, Hitchin.
rPHANEROGAMiA AND FxLTCES. — Miss Selby, Battler's Green.
Characeje, Musci, Hepaticje, and Mycetozoa. — James Saunders,

Rothsay Road, Luton.
Fungi. — George Massee, F.L.S., 1, Kent Road, Kew.
^DesmidejB AND DiATOMACE.^i. — Francis Ransom, Hitchin.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S. , St. Albans.
Meteorology. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R. Met. Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

Botany.

^anhetis :
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

3 2044 106 261 043

DIGEST OF THE

LIBRARY REGULATIONS.

No book shall ^be taken from the Libwiry without the
record of the Librarian.

No person shall ba allowed to reta^ more than five vol-
umes at any one tiipe, unless h^ special vote of the
Council.

Books may be kept but on/ calendar month ; no longer
without renewal, and renew'^^^ay not be granted more tlian
twice.

A fine of five cents pyr daV incurred for every volume not
returned within the ^le specified by the rules.

The Librarian riiay demand\the return of a book after
the expiration often days from tlte date of borrowing.

Certain books, so designated, cai^not be taken from the
Library without special permission.

All books must be returned at leastHwo weeks previous
to the Annual Meeting. \

Persons are responsible for all injury or loss of books
charged to their name.

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