ees . wy Es 6 : 1 SO eo te BR wh Wo AY EY Say mer J a : : yf “ER te Sey 4 Pole th Faai br 3 ps , Bi) eA : astra ae 4 tae ee . zu ' . Reh : Ta ne Pa ' roe af | ; Soe SE % i tenn of AE rake at th A oh A 4 vw pdaneties : 9 ey # tet = ' , Aa Har tae ures mask Hes i ‘i +48 } e rer ti vty ined rate wa Seat ARAM err et 4 $6 eat) ANTES 4 eretike deere aaa ; lg. it af ee, de ode oe Se sada ae fa es : } ig te 2 7 F, A miveh * Gai ra ait re ‘ . eae : aie wt . 5 % : Digtes ener * gh in VA REAR 7 7 i i ; + 1 7 ‘ 40 és foe bois ; - < mets ae : r. : ; s ‘ , j a ' SPA ape gee ie . : ae whoa ; patie Lgeag tay y Drala 4 ag! oe 4 fact ; ; Do Pa Ay Rm y a had od See Be st Srey tate he i te ee : By case ; aN : Raise x : ae rere le ot ae inte i vane hae 2 4 * 2 * 7 x¢ ? 4s 8 - : ‘2s , pe ba : % a ieee. 4 beds An Fer Ate aes b : : : f pytae Waly dade ab: feat Sen - eee : i > : 4! et . atte t A ai 7 : 7 : - r : patie leapehsis oe feae Se : : Juss er ve Tatas aoe el nina My buna ae os bullet ests | Ps, RO ey eamhacry REI pa rrierovayer aed Linen Ot ee cence a Fee paneer TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF ST. LOUIS. VOL. X. JANUARY 1900 TO DECEMBER 1900. PUBLISHED UNDER DIRECTION OF THE COUNCIL. A ST. LOUIS: a NIXON-JONES PRINTING CO, ae d eon CONTENTS. PAGE TABLE OF COMPRINTE oak) dela dosbosbannpnacsrenederesvnnenesiheddnaacdecenenns ili List or MemsBers. Revised to December 31, 1900: L.. PATRONS. ccs ehcdse sees RED SO SO SIRE UG RAN UAE Lvaevicabesnes Vv DM OMTC: DIMMER ores sua sic luliausceianendatcincswscnseeee Vv B. CORRBBPONDING: DIMMBBRS, vee iiss ince seoceUeceedasnecdeserssesncs xii POR CHANGRS ear te iRceaU buys ya yet aeuuehupeba cee sanadsbaeevesauce xix History OF THE ACADEMY (ADStract) 2.2.2... .ccccecccsccevnccceccveces xliii Recorp, January 1 to December 31, 1900.............cccccesceecevees xlvii Papers PusLisHED. January 1 to December 31, 1900: 1. T. J. J. See. — On the temperature of the sun and on the relative ages of the stars and nebulae. — Issued February 5, 1900,...........cccsescsersovedvercdscecccesvevescce 1 2. CHaRLEs Ropertson. — Some Illinois bees. — Issued NO MEEY 2D LEO iis cance swash bvbuengesisisebahivene bee cnsen 47 - 8. Sruarr WELLER. — Kinderhook faunal studies. II. The fauna of the Chonopectus Sandstone at Burlington, Iowa. — Plates I.-IX.—Issued February 24, 1900..... 57 4, A. S. Hircncock. — Studies on subterranean organs. II. Some dicotyledonous herbaceous plants of Man- hattan, Kansas.—Issued April 3, 1900............... sees 131 5. HERMANN VON SCHRENK.—A severe sleet storm.— Plates X.—XI.— Issued April 12, 1900.............ccecccescceeceees 143 6. Francis E. NipHer. — On certain properties of light- struck photographic plates. — Plates XII.-XVII. — ROAM TRV BEL! BO icSispcn tudes oauccscudgecceunanss ceneas veges 151 7. Mary Kiem. — The development of Agaricocrinus.. — Plates X VIII.-X XI. — Issued May 30, 1900............ 167 8. Apotr Aur. — Original contributions concerning the glandular structures appertaining to the human eye and its appendages. — Plates XXII.-LVII.— Issued July Be RIO se ice k ual WavuwecauepwudsdneceumuamavaeeR is tie wvaaneaes 185 9. Francois E. NipHer. —Positive photography, with special reference to eclipse work. — Issued October 24 EGO Joa pbsenes caus vas SUMMRMNa ale ce¥ és bcevandedveaetves 209 10, Francis E. Nipper. — The frictional effect of railway trains upon the air. — Issued November 12, 1900....... 215 11. Trrte-page, prefatory matter and index of Vol. X. Record, January 1 to December 31, 1900. Papers con- tained in first ten volumes. — Plate A. — Issued Janu- ary 31, 1901. Pa IR ATOR G ics SeLe dare ska k eke oe Cee ee eee eee EE 229 GENERAL INDEX........0.0005 acwac coun uw Leuwenbeb sus dabaxvmauanensuees uous 230 AOS Tot 8 Mage OME LE LURE EARS AB aD eng ey ULSI IRE AU SCD RS OE I 232 CORRECTIONS. ch ‘=¢ P. 9.— For ¥ read >: i=1 i=1 P. 15, equation (23). — For (R?,.;— R'), read (Ri — Ri-1). P. 28, equation (53). — For 244, read 2.44. 4 P. 32, last line. — For (=): read (=) j P. 34, line 11. — For compounded, read compound. t=1 : a | Equation (61). — For a read va t= 0 4=0 P. 36, last line but one. — For from, read for. Foot note. — For 458, read 455. P. 70, line 16 from top. — For 6, read 8. P. 77, line 3 from bottom. — For I, read II. P. 128, line 5 from top. — For Posidomya, read Posidonomya. Last line but one. — For Bucanopis, read Bucanopsis. P. 218, line 21 from top. — After evidence, insert improperly admitted. P. 226, line 10 from bottom. — Before locomotive, insert the. MEMBERS. 1. PATRONS. Harrison, Edwin..........00 madsgaes 3747 Westminster pl. 2. ACTIVE MEMBERS. MOINS SAGR Laden ech cevea yi abeaties4 Park and Vandeventer avs. Alleman, Gellert. oo ocsc0crncscesdonsse¢ Washington University. A EY: LEVEN ASSES SAGA TUE USE GUS te 3036 Locust st. Andrews, William Edward........... Taylorville, Il. Bain, Robert Edward Mather....... 900 Locust st. Bailey, Liberty Hyde .............+0 Ithaca, N. Y. TOOMOE CANE Boa i oivcale aeducssenens caulk Normal and High School. POOLE, LIAVIG: Civenccies enon tyes Spiaues hs 27 William st., New York City. PIRSOK, OS2E iivcs de sastauvenss vases scasies 2715 Locust st. Bartlett, George M..........-.scessees 215 Pine st. OMY slo! Weis oi ab hoe shat od ep en sts 2810 Olive st. Baumgarten, Gustav..................09227 Washington av. Becktold, William B.................. 212 Pine st. BIOPHYS Bi Cio ines cud doses Ualdndeka hd 3623 Laclede av. Biebinger, Frederick W............... 1421 S. lithst. BOER) WUAMY: Hig 5.53 bie ees sinned ans 13 Portland pl. POORER) TORT hiss coin hese none iy sees 4034 Delmar boul. Bouton, Charles Leonard.............. 503 Craigie Hall. Cambridge, Mass. Brannon, Melvin A........... pT Aa Grand Forks, N. Dak. Bremer: Dudwit...s 3.6.55 sean escansee 3723 West Pine boul. Brennan, Martin S............ eee 1414 O’Fallon st. Brookings, Robert S........6..s..eeeees 5125 Lindell av. BROW, DAWES. ii wieciesoeve neces panes 2212 DeKalb st. Bryson, John Pe. 66: i0542045. nas 209 N. Garrison av. Budgett, Sidney Payne.............4 1806 Locust st. Burg, William... cscivecnsessese suey os 1756 Missouri av. Barnett, 16,': On oisss ssageasssacdivscesss University Club. Busch, Adolphus..............+ bannenins 1 Busch pl. Bashi, Aug. Aus, oc cieas nad nmsacos atepes Busch pl. Bush, Benjamin Franklin............ Courtney, Mo. vi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Galver’, SIGNBY. cieveicccidechtinseweses State University, Columbia, Mo. Carpenter, George O......sceceeseseee Russell and Compton avs. CerGer, TROWALGscsc es sicesccestesaenss: Webster Groves, Mo. Carver, George W........s.sscccsseees Tuskegee, Ala. Chaplin, Winfield S...............04- 3636 West Pine boul. RTOS Bik WD scancesccacepacsensinccase ose 3325 Morgan st. Chanvenet, Louis........socccceecceses 5501 Chamberlain av. Chouteau, Charles P.......scceeeeeees 918 Security bldg. Chouteau, Pierre.........cseresesseses 912 Security bldg. Chouteau, Mrs. Pierre........ Aeneas 912 Security bldg. PAW en Usivavnscnncsdnoseenssases 4156 Washington boul. Comstock, T. Griswold.............. 3401 Washington av. Conklin, Harry R .......0...eeeeseee Joplin, Mo. OMIGOr: DORN Mss ccsecscnseccen sucess University of Chicago, Chicago, Il. RPPMIOE NSEELOY iii sissiconctscccsbocs ¢/, G. Cramer Dry Plate Co. Crandall, George C..........secseeees 3558 Lindell av. Crunden, Frederick Morgan......... Public Library. rr GiG WAI Boo ececnasessos sinks xc St. Louis Law School. Cushman, Allerton S...........sse00+ Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Dameron, Edward Caswell.......... Clarksville, Mo. PPMTIBS PEs De dipivnciveonseneloeshataces 56 Vandeventer pl. DPATI ORD Do iicccicscihensivcasssssves 421 Olive st. Diehm, Ferdinand...........0..0e00. 1834 Kennett pl. EPO, Che Mihcc cencccuhahe tausacabnkaciece 415 Locust st. Douglas, Archer W .............0+00 9th and Spruce sts. Drake, George 6....... inab sacayiheys 64 Vandeventer pl. DGODGKOL, Fo Wes visciscgsntaseventete 3634 Russell av. Durant, George F..............+.+....9 Benton pl. Eggert, Henry....... ses bieennnvtanale 1001 Collinsville av., East St. Louis, Ill. Eliot, Edward C...........sssssesseees 5468 Maple av. BUNGE, ELGG Wires ta gintecee css scenes ob 2635 Locust st. . Engler, Edmund Arthur............ Washington University. ROTKOL, DOOR Biss bes iciisssscveseeee 608 Olive st. Espenschied, Charles................. 3500 Washington ay. Euston, Alexander..............sesees 3730 Lindell boul. # SOVOLE. ROA WANG ine pccccscasssiveisdens 1861 N. Market st. Ewing, Arthur E..........cescecsseoes 3333 Washington av. Fischel, Washington E.............4. 2647 Washington av. Forbes, Stephen A...............s000. Urbana, Il. Members. vii Fordyce, John R......ssseseee. nedaden 3634 Washington boul. Forster, Marquard ........cccecccesss 2317S. 13th st. Francis, David R............+46 aato 4421 Maryland av. French, George Hazen............++- Carbondale, Ill. Frerichs, Frederick W......... ye 4608S. Broadway. Frick, John Henry..........eseeseeres: Warrenton, Mo. Bruth, Obte. Fi siccvisdeiovcadssivecenas, 3066 Hawthorne boul. Fry, Frank R.......-ccccsssssseseeceees 3133 Pine st. Funkhouser, Robert Monroe........ 3534 Olive st. Gazzam, James Breading............ 514 Security bldg. Gerling, H. J..s.0+.-+0« pads sel vdian a 4320 Cook av. Glasgow, Frank A........se.seeeseeees 3894 Washington boul. Glasgow, William C...........sseeee 2847 Washington ay. ROGERS VISEOEI, di clivscs convey csiiceckass 129 Market st. CEONISLOID RRs Als cant uccsossdecuate 3702 Olive st. Goodman, Charles H.............++. 3329 Washington av. Graham, Benjamin B..............++ 3500 Morgan st. Graves, William W....ccccccccscscors 1943 N. 11th st. ASUS Y; DEOLVEDS Tae ciuas iesssyadaanesen 3756 Lindell boul. Sa TULL Ue. ue caleksuduneocunancauedans 3839 Russell av. CSUMONS TOUTE ison vscdugvasesaescaapevan -2670 Washington av. Gregory, Klisha Ti. iss 0s....cecsnens 2525 Lucas av. Gregory, Elisha H., Jr........./...5. Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass. COINGOD. FOMRD I he ssrscecencaveta scenes 509 N. Theresa av. Grocott, Willis H...... DEERE BaD 1812 Coleman st. CLOPDG YW, SAMMOB Iss is cobs ccsevousedsoesns Tower Grove and Magnolia avs. SPY sy We MADE Bes oon cunssneeeccustsecs 4380 Westminster pl. Haarstick, Henry C........sccccesers Main and Walnut sts. Hambach, Gustav *............scecees Washington University. FESPA wWays) Wie) As viscsisueunsecvheeeus 2922 Locust st. Hartmann, Rudolph..................14 S. 2d st. Herthel, Adolph......... pists sekenmnnns 1739 Waverly pl. ELOre0g,: WIA siccsoscsssesoesm eats 3644 Botanical av. Hirschberg, Francis D............... 3818 Lindell boul. Hitchcock, Albert Spear ............ Manhattan, Kas. Hitchcock, Henry, ci cinssecsisesessee' 709 Wainwright bldg. Proiman, BE. | Bis sci sctevaerseavesas once 3744 Finney av. Holzinger, John Michael............ 207 W. King st., Winona, Minn. * Elected a life-member January 38, 1882. Viii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Hough, Warwick........ccccscses seees 3877 Washington av. Hughes, Charles Hamilton ......... 3857 Olive st. Hugunin, F. U............eseeneeseeees 1025 Pendleton av. Huiskamp, John E.............eeeeees 5554 Cabanne av. Hume, H. Harold........0..sss Iraty — Continued. Torino [Turin]. Accademia Reale delle Scienze. Club Alpino Italiano, — Sezione Torino. Museo di Zoologia e di Anatomia Comparata della R. Universita. Venezia [ Venice]. R. Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere et Arti. LUXEMBURG. Luxemburg. Institut Luxembourgeois,— Section des Sciences Naturelles. NETHERLANDS. Amsterdam. Genootschap ter Bevordering van Natuur- Genees- en Heelkunde. K. Akademie van Wetenschappen. K. Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap. K. Zoologische Genootschap ‘‘ Natura Artis Magistra.”’ ’s Gravenhage [The Hague]. Die Triangulation von Java. Haarlem. Fondation de P. Teyler van der Hulst. Hollandsche Maatschappij van Wetenschappen. Leiden. Nederlandsche Dierkundige Vereeniging. Rijks Observatorium. Middelburg. Zeeuwsch Genootschap van Wetenschappen. Rotterdam. Bataafsch Genootschap der Proefondervindelijke Wijsbegeerte. Utrecht. K. Nederlandsche Meterologisch Instituut. Provinciaal Utrechtsch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen. Zwolle. Overijsselsche Vereeniging tot Ontwikkeling van Pro- vinciaale Welvaart. Norway. Bergen. Bergens Museum. xl Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Norway — Continued. Christiania. K. Norske Frederiks Universitet. Trondhjem. K. Norske Videnskabernes Selskab. Tromso. Tromso Museum. PORTUGAL. Lisbéa [Lisbon]. Academia Real das Sciencias. Sociedade de Geographia. Porto [Oporto]. Academia Polytechnica. RouMANIA. Bukarest. Academia Romana. ‘¢ Buletinul Societath de Sciinte Fizice.’’ Russia. Derpt [Dorpat]. Derptskoie Obshchestvo Iestestvo-Ispytatelei. (Society of Naturalists. ) K. Livlandische Oekonomische Gesellschaft. Naturforscher Gesellschaft. Helsingfors. Sallskap pro Fauna et Flora Fennica. Kazan. Imp. Kazanskii Universitet. Kief. Kiefskoie Obshchestvo Iestestvo-Ispytatelei. (Society of Naturalists.) Moskva [ Moscow ]. Imp. Moskofskoie Obshchestvo Lestestvo-Ispytatelei. (Society of Naturalists.) Meteorological Observatory of the Agricultural Academy. Odessa. Novo-Rossiiskoie Obshchestvo Iestestvo-Ispytatelei. (Society of Naturalists.) Riga. Obshchestvo [estestvo-Ispytatelei. (Society of Naturalists.) Exchanges. xli Russia — Continued. Sankt-Peterburg [St. Petersburg]. Imp. Akademia Nauk. (Academy of Sciences.) Imp. Biblioteka. Imp. Russkoie Geograficheskoie Obshchestvo. (Geographical Society.) Imp. Sankt-Peterburgskii Botanicheskii Sad. (Botanical Garden.) Imp. Sankt-Peterburgskoie Mineralogicheskoie Obsh- chestvo. (Mineralogical Society.) Institut Impérial de Médicine Expérimentale. Tiflis. Magnitnaia i Meteorologicheskaia Observatoria. (Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory.) SPAIN. Barcelona. Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes. Cérdoba. Academia Nacional de Ciencias Exactas. Madrid. Observatorio de Madrid. R. Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Fisicas y Natura- les. Sociedad Espanola de Historia Natural. SWEDEN. Lund. K. Universitet. Stockholm. Biologiska Forening. ‘* Entomologiska Tidsskrift.’’ K. Svenska Vetenskaps Akademie. National Historical Museum. Upsala. K. Vetenskaps Societet. Universitets Mineralogisk-Geologisk Institutionen. SWITZERLAND. Aarau. Aargauische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Mittelschweizerische Geographisch-Commercielle Ge- sellschaft. xlii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. SWITZERLAND — Continued. Basel. Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Bern. Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Chur. Naturforschende Gesellschaft Graubiindens. Frauenfeld. Thurgauische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Fribourg, Société Fribourgeoise des Sciences Naturelles. Genéve. Institut National Genevois. Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle. Lausanne. Bibliothéque Cantonale et Universitaire. Musée d’ Histoire Naturelle. Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles. Neuchatel. Société des Sciences Naturelles. St. Gall. Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft. Zurich. ‘* Concilium Bibliographicum.’’ Kidgenossensche Polytechnische Schule. Naturforschende Geselischaft. Schweizer Alpen-Club. Schweizerischer Forst-Verein. THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF ST. LOUIS. ORGANIZATION. The Academy of Science of St. Louis was organized on the 10th of March, 1856, in the hall of the Board of Public Schools. Dr. George Engelmann was the first president. CHARTER. On the 17th of January following, a charter incorporating the Academy was signed and approved, and this was accepted by vote of the Academy on the 9th of February, 1857. OBJECTS. The act of incorporation declares the object of the Academy to be the advancement of science and the establishment in St. Louis of a museum and library for the illustration and study of its various branches, and provides that the members shall acquire no individual property in the real estate, cabinets, library, or other of its effects, their interest being usufruc- tuary merely. The Constitution, as adopted at the organization meeting and amended at various times subsequently, provides for hold- ing meetings for the consideration and discussion of scientific subjects; taking measures to procure original papers upon such subjects ; the publication of transactions ; the establish- ment and maintenance of a cabinet of objects illustrative of the several departments of science, and a library of works relating to the same; and the establishment of relations with other scientific institutions. To encourage and promote special investigation in any branch of science, the formation of special sections under the charter is provided for. MEMBERSHIP. Members are classified as active members, corresponding members, honorary members, and patrons. Active member- xliv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. ship is limited to persons interested in science, though they need not of necessity be engaged in scientific work, and they alone conduct the affairs of the Academy, under its Constitu- tion. Persons not living in the city or county of St. Louis, who are disposed to further the objects of the Academy by original researches, contributions of specimens, or otherwise, are eligible as corresponding members. Persons not living in the city or county of St. Louis are eligible as honorary mem- bers by virtue of their attainments in science. Any person conveying to the Academy the sum of one thousand dollars or its equivalent becomes eligible as a patron. Under the By-Laws, resident active members pay an initia- tion fee of five dollars and annual dues of six dollars. Non- resident active members pay the same initiation fee, but annual dues of three dollars only. Patrons, and honorary and corresponding members, are exempt from the payment of dues. Patrons and all active members not in arrears are entitled to one copy each of each publication of the Academy issued after their election. Since the organization of the Academy, 904 persons have been elected to membership, of whom, at the present time, 286 are carried on the active list. One patron, Mr. Edwin Harrison, has been elected. The present list of corresponding members includes 205 names. OFFICERS AND MANAGEMENT. The officers, who are chosen from the active members, con- sist of a President, two Vice-Presidents, Recording and Cor- responding Secretaries, Treasurer, Librarian, three Curators, and two Directors. The general business management of the Academy is vested in a Council composed of the President, the two Vice-Presidents, the Recording Secretary, the Treas- urer and the two Directors. The office of President has been filled by the following well- known citizens of St. Louis, nearly all of whom have been eminent in some line of scientific work: George Engelmann, Benjamin F. Shumard, Adolphus Wislizenus, Hiram A. Prout, John B. Johnson, James B. Eads, William T. Harris, Abstract of History. _ xlv Charles V. Riley, Francis E. Nipher, Henry S. Pritchett, John Green, Melvin L. Gray, and Edmund A. Engler. MEETINGS. The regular meetings of the Academy are held at its rooms, 1600 Locust Street, at 8 o’clock, on the first and third Mon- day evenings of each month, a recess being taken between the meeting on the first Monday in June and the meeting on the third Monday in October. These meetings, to which interested persons are always welcome, are devoted in part to the reading of technical papers designed for publication in the Academy’s Transactions, and in part to the presentation of more popular abstracts of recent investigation or progress. From time to time public lectures, calculated to interest a larger audience, are provided for in some suitable hall. LIBRARY. After its organization, the Academy met in Pope’s Medica College, where a creditable beginning had been made toward the formation of a museum and library, until May, 1869, when the building and museum were destroyed by fire, the library being saved. The library now contains 13,624 books and 9,869 pamphlets, and is open during certain hours of the day for consultation by members and persons engaged in scientific work. PUBLICATIONS AND EXCHANGES. Ten thick octavo volumes of Transactions have been pub- lished since the organization of the Academy, and widely distributed. ‘Two quarto publications have also been issued, one from the Archaeological section, being a contribution to the archaeology of Missouri, and the other a report of the observations made by the Washington University Eclipse Party of 1889. The Academy now stands in exchange rela- tions with 560 institutions or organizations of aims similar to its own. xlvi Trans. Acad. Sct. of St. Louis. MUSEUM. Since the loss of its first museum, in 1869, the Academy has lacked adequate room for the arrangement of a public museum, and, although small museum accessions have been received and cared for, its main effort of necessity has been concentrated on the holding of meetings, the formation of a library, the publication of worthy scientific matter, and the maintenance of relations with other scientific bodies, through its active membership, which includes many business and professional men who are interested in the work and objects of the Academy, although not themselves investigators. December 31,1900. RECORD. From January 1, 1900, tro Decemper 31, 1900. JANUARY 8, 1900. President Engler in the chair, nineteen persons present. The nominating committee reported that 122 ballots had been counted, and the following officers for 1900 were de- clared duly elected: — President. ......-e0es ».---Hdmund A. Engler. First Vice-President........D. S. H. Smith. Second Vice-President...... M. H. Post. Recording Secretary..:..... William Trelease. Corresponding Secretary. ...Joseph Grindon. MROASUPOR. Cowes s oh ate w arate Enno Sander. PROMI | is Wine Kae ae ne ele Gustav Hambach. RMCMLOU \\s's'ew a Cacaelan awe Gustav Hambach, Julius Hurter, Hermann von Schrenk. BPPOCCONRL ce wees Oh eas Amand Ravold, H. W. Eliot. The President delivered an address on the condition of the Academy and its work during the year 1899.* The Treasurer submitted his annual report, showing invested funds to the amount of $4,400.00 and a balance of $2,239.13 carried forward to the year 1900, of which $2,000.00, derived from a former investment, awaited reinvestment. The Librarian submitted his annual report. + Part II of a paper by Dr. T. J. J. See, on the temperature of the sun and the relative ages of the stars and nebulae, was read by title and referred to the Council. Mr. A. S. Langsdorf described the methods of determin- ing the rates of vibration of sounding bodies, with special * Transactions 9; xxvii. ¢ Transactions 9 :xxxi. { Transactions 9; xxxi. xl viii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. reference to the calibration of tuning forks, illustrating his remarks by the use of the apparatus employed. Professor E. A. Engler discussed the locus of the inter-_ section of a line through the focus making a constant angle with the tangent to a parabola. Dr. William H. Warren, of St. Louis, was elected to active membership. ure Nine persons were proposed for active membership. JANUARY 22, 1900. President Engler in the chair, fifty-four persons present. The resignations of Messrs. F. F. Gottschalk, G. C. Kins- man and A. T. Terry were reported by the Council, which further reported that Dr. O. Widmann, for some years treated as a corresponding member, had at his request been added to the list of non-resident active members, and that at the request of a committee of the Engineers’ Club of St. Louis the President had appointed a committee of three* for con- ference with said committee and other committees which might be appointed by representative bodies to consider the action necessary to secure the filtration of the water supply of St. Louis. A paper by Mr. Charles Robertson, entitled Some Illinois bees, was presented and read by title, and referred to the Council with a view to its publication. Mr. William D. Denton addressed the Academy on But- terflies and their mimicry, illustrating his remarks by a series of beautifully prepared and mounted specimens. Mr. Gustav Cramer, Dr. E. H. Gregory, Mr. R. J. Hyatt, Dr. Charles F. V. Ludwig, Dr. E. W. Oelfcken, Mr. Herbert F. Roberts and Mr. James Lyall Stuart, of St. Louis, and Professors T. H. Macbride, of Iowa City, Iowa, and Louis Trenchard More, of Lincoln, Nebraska, were elected to active membership. Seven persons were proposed for active membership. * The members of this committee were Mr, I. W. Morton, Dr. Amand Ravold, and Dr. E. H. Keiser. Record. xlix Fresruaky 5, 1900. President Engler in the chair, about two hundred and fifty persons present. A series of microscopic objects showing some of the tech- nical applications of the microscope, was exhibited under the direction of Dr. H. M. Whelpley, with the assistance of Dr. R. J. Terry (anatomy), Dr. Amand Ravold (bacteriology), Dr. Ludwig Bremer (blood examination), Mr. H. F. Roberts (botany), Dr. H. von Schrenk (diseases of forest trees), Mr. O. H. Elbrecht (drug adulterations), Mr. Victor Goetz (flour inspection), Mr. C. F. Baker (insects parasitic on man), Dr. Otto A. Wall, Jr. (living protoplasm), Mr. Robert Benecke (microphotography and photographic dry plate testing), Dr. G. Hambach (mineralogy), Dr. Adolph Alt (photomicro- graphy), Dr. Hartwell N. Lyon (physiology), Mr. F. W. Maas (seed adulterations), Mr. William K. [hardt (spice adul- terations), Mr. Peter J. Weber, Jr. (textile fibers), and Dr. G. C. Crandall (trichina). Through the courtesy of the Historical Society, the rooms of that Society were thrown open to the members of the Academy and their guests, and the Society’s important collections were examined with interest while the special demonstration of the evening was in progress. Mr. George W. Niedringhaus and Professor F. Louis Sol- dan, of St. Louis, were elected to active membership. Frsruary 19, 1900. President Engler in the chair, forty-three persons present. The acceptance of the resignations of Dr. M. A. Bliss and Mr. Alfred Clifford, and the addition of the following institu- tions to the exchange list of the Academy, were reported by the Council: Carnegie Museum; Leland Stanford Junior University; Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Stuttgart; Medicinisch-naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft, Jena; Nord Béhmischer Excursions-Club; Northern Indiana Historical Society; Ohio State University ; Royal Geographi- cal Society of Australia, South Australian Branch; Uni- l Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. versity of Pennsylvania, Free Museum; University of Tennessee Scientific Magazine; Upsala Universitet, Miner- alogisk Geologisk Institutionen. Professor Patrick Geddes, of University College, Dundee, delivered an address on a plan for increasing the educational value of expositions, in which he traced the increasingly com- plex relation of the world to science and the rapidly increas- ing need of co-ordination of the sciences, and then gave a concise account of the purposes which it is hoped to realize and the methods to be adopted by the International Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, Art, and Education, which grew out of the meetings of the British and French Associations for the Advancement of Science last autumn, and which is to hold its first international assembly at the Paris Exposition in the course of the present year, the purpose of the Association, — recognizing the wealth of instructive material brought together by the great transient museums, the world’s fairs, — being the fullest possible utilization of the educational facilities so brought together. Honorable D. R. Francis spoke further on the subject presented by Professor Geddes, especially in its bearing on the World’s Fair which it is proposed to hold in St. Louis, in celebra- tion of the centennial anniversary of the Louisiana purchase. A paper by Dr. G. A. Miller, on the primitive substitution groups of degree ten, was presented by title. Professor J. L. Van Ornum, late of the United States Engineer Corps, spoke on the sanitary cleaning of a city, as exemplified by Cienfuegos, Cuba, explaining the conditions found by the United States Army on taking possession of that city, and the thoroughness with which the streets, court yards and cesspools were cleansed by the Engineer Corps, wich also charged itself with the betterment of the city water supply. A diagram which the speaker had prepared showed that in addition to a very marked lowering of the death rate which attended the supply of an abundance of wholesome food, on the occupation of Cienfuegos, there had been a decrease of considerably over fifty per cent. in the weekly death rate, directly attributable to the sanitary cleansing of the city ; and he further stated that since this work had been done, ee eee, ke a Record. li yellow fever, which before that time had been endemic in Cienfuegos, had been absent from the city. Mr. Arthur I. Jacobs, Mr. Joseph Maserang, Jr., and Mr. George Ward Parker, of St. Louis, Mr. H. R. Conklin, of Joplin, Missouri, and Professor C. W. Marx, of Columbia, Missouri, were elected to active membership. Four persons were proposed for active membership. Marce# 5, 1900. © President Engler in the chair, forty-three persons present. The death of Mr. Hugo Kromrey and the resignations of Mr. George W. Flersheim and Mr. Carl Kinsley were reported by the Council. A paper by Professor A. S. Hitchcock, entitled Studies on subterranean organs. II. Some dicotyledonous herbaceous plants of Manhattan, Kansas, was presented and read in abstract by Mr. J. B. S. Norton, and was illustrated by an abundance of specimens, which were passed about for the inspection of the audience. Mr. J. S. Thurman addressed the Academy on liquid air. Dr. J. K. Bauduy, Dr. E. Grebe, Mr. William E. Guy and Dr. John Zahorsky, of St. Louis, were elected to active membership. Five persons were proposed for active membership. Marcu 19, 1900. President Engler in the chair, fifty-eight persons present. Dr. H. von Schrenk exhibited some burls on the white spruce (Picea Canadensis). The burls, unlike most of those so far known, are almost round, and are covered with smooth bark. They grow of various sizes, and occur on the trunk and branches of a group of spruces limited to a small area. The wood fibers are arranged in annual rings; they differ from normal wood fibers because of their thinner walls and greater internal diameter, giving the wood a spongy character. Long rows of secondary resin passages occur in each ring. lii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. The largest burls, which are from one to three feet in diam- eter, have rows of long holes within each ring. These holes are diamond-shaped in cross-section, the longer diameter extending radially. Between the holes the wood fibers are compressed tangentially. The speaker explained that the holes must have resulted from an excessive radial pressure exerted from without, probably by the bark. No holes were found where the bark pressure had been released, i. e., where the bark had burst. These results were not in harmony with the findings as to bark pressure reached by Krabbe. The speaker described the way in which these burls form by excessive growth, induced by a wound or branch stump. Professor F. E. Nipher exhibited stereopticon slides made from a large number of photographic negatives which had been taken by the electric spark from a Holtz machine. The neg- atives show a complete picture of the object acted upon by the spark, and also show the electrical radiations in the field around the object photographed. The plates were greatly over-exposed to light before they were used. They were allowed to lie fully exposed in a well lighted room for from one to nine days. The best results are obtained by darkening the room when the electrical image is produced. Light is found to counteract the electrical effects when their action is simultaneous and also when it follows the electrical exposure. The pictures are developed in the dark room, by the light of an incandescent lamp. When the negative begins to fog, it is taken nearer to the lamp, and it at once clears up. All of these methods are in total disregard of all ordinary photographic procedure. Cramer’s crown plates were used and the developing solution is that in common use in photography. | The result which is most interesting from a scientific point of view is shown on twelve negatives which reveal ball lightning effects. Ball lightning is to the electrician what the sea serpent is to the zoologist. It has often been seen, but never by those who are most competent to study and describe it, and all efforts to produce ball lightning effects by artificial means have hitherto failed. But these twelve neg- atives show with perfect distinctness discharges of this Record. liii character. They could be seen while they were being photo- graphed. They looked like little spheres of light, which traveled over a non-conducting plate, forming the insulation of a condenser. They traveled very slowly among the sparks of the ordinary disruptive discharge. Their speed was usually at the rate of an inch in three or four minutes. Their tracks showed with the greatest sharpness among the more indistinct flashes of miniature lightning. They sometimes jump for a quarter to a third of an inch, with such quickness that the eye can hardly follow them. Five or six such spheres of light sometimes appear at once, each following its own track. Sometimes one will cross a track previously traced by another, but it never follows the track of another. By proper illumination of the room, the effects of the spark discharge can be nearly obliterated in the negative, but the paths of the ball discharges are not materially affected. One negative thus treated had been exposed for thirty-five minutes, and the ball lightning tracks were most elaborate. The branching network of lines must have been produced by hundreds of these little spheres. The same result can be attained by fixing the negatives without any developing process. Everything then vanishes from the plate but the tracks of the ball discharges. Professor Nipher stated that this phenomenon could not be identified as the same thing as ball lightning, since the latter had not been studied. But it responds to the same de- cription in many ways. As soon as the ball lightning effects appear, the behavior of the machine changes in a very re- markable way. Mr. Koch exhibited an electric fire annunciator. Mr. Victor Goetz and Rev. James W. Lee, of St. Louis, Professor George Lefevre and Mr. Charles Thom, of Co- lumbia, Missouri, and Professor C. S. Oglevee, of Lincoln, Illinois, were elected to active membership. Six persons were proposed for active membership. liv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Aprin 2, 1900. President Engler in the chair, twenty-six persons present. The resignations of Mr. W. P. Eberlein and Dr. Friedrich Meier were reported by the Council. A paper by Dr. H. von Schrenk, entitled A severe sleet- storm, and relating to astudy of the injury to trees and shrubs by an unusually severe recent ice storm, was presented and read by title. Dr. W. H. Warren delivered an address on recent investi- gations with reference to the production of perfumes, giving an outline of the progress in the chemistry of these prod- ucts. For the most part these substances are high boiling oils. Formerly these oils, which are complex mixtures of several compounds, were obtained exclusively from flowers, but recently some of the essential principles have been pro- duced by chemical means, whereas other artificial perfumes are mere imitations. With a few exceptions the essential principles, which give the perfumes their value, belong to a complex class of organic compounds known as the terpenes. The terpenes are the reduction products of cymol. The molecule is characterized by the presence of an atomic linking such as is found in the hydrocarbon ethylene, and the -deter- mination of the exact location of these ethylene linkings con- stitutes a difficulty in studying the terpenes. It is found also that nearly every substance having the properties of a perfume has in its molecule certain atomic groups whose presence exerts a marked influence on the odor. Among the more important of these may be mentioned the aldehyde, ketone, ester, ether and alcohol group. Besides those terpenes, which have the ring-structure in the molecule, there are substances which have long chains of carbon atoms. Apparently such products should be classi- fied with fatty compounds, but so closely do they resemble the terpenes in their properties and chemical behavior that they are placed with them instead. Citral or geranial, an aldehyde found in largest quantity in oil of lemon-grass, is such a substance. Citral is of importance because it is the Record. lv starting point in the synthesis of ionone, the artificial violet perfume. The wonderful progress in our knowledge of the terpenes and of their derivatives is the work of scarcely more than ten or fifteen years. There is great activity still, and among those chemists who have taken a prominent part in the labor should be mentioned Wallach, Baeyer and Tiemann. Dr. Sidney I. Schwab, of St. Louis, Professor S. Calvert, of Columbia, Missouri, Professor George Hazen French, of Carbondale, Illinois, Professor David M. Mottier, of Bloom- ington, Indiana, Professor W. J. Stevens, of Carthage, Mis- souri, and Professor Frank Thilly, of Columbia, Missouri, were elected to active membership. Eight persons were proposed for active membership. Aprit 16, 1900. President Engler in the chair, twenty-three persons present. Mr. Herbert F. Roberts addressed the Academy on the structure and physiology of the cell in the plant organism. The history and development of cytology as a special field in biology was traced, and the origin of the various theories of cell organization was indicated. The development of various theories respecting the centrosome and its role in cell division was discussed, the homologues of the centrosome to be found in ciliated cells and spermatazoa being indicted. After a review of the processes of cell division and their attendant phenomena, the methods of study of mitoses in plants and their proper illustration was considered. A great need exists for more accurate processes of reproduction than is afforded by plates made from camera lucida drawings. The latter are always more or less diagrammatic, and are apt to be modified by the personal bias of the investigator. Unconsciously the personal equation enters in. This is seen in recent work on the existence of the centrosome in higher plants. The diffi- culty referred to can be overcome by the employment of photomicrography. This has been made use of to a limited extent by zoologists in the study of mitoses, but apparently scarcely at all by botanists. The speaker showed forty prints Ivi Trans. Acad. Sct. of St. Louis. from photomicrographic negatives showing mitoses in rhizomes of Hrythronium albidum, and in microspore mother cells and microspores in Lilium Philadelphicum and Pinus laricio, and megaspores in Lilium Canadense. The possi- bility which photomicrography affords, of giving structural details with relative fidelity, was illustrated by these photo- graphs and by lantern slides. Mr. Guido Pantaleoni, of St. Louis, Professor L. H. Bailey, of Ithaca, New York, Professor M. A. Brannon, of Grand Forks, North Dakota, Professor C. M. Jackson, of Columbia, Missouri, Professor S. C. Mason, of Berea, Ken- tucky, Professor Aven Nelson, of Laramie, Wyoming, Mr. Gustavus Pauls, of Eureka, Missouri, and Professor A. G. Smith, of Iowa City, Iowa, were elected to active membership. Four persons were proposed for active membership. May 7, 1900. President Engler in the chair, twenty-three persons present. Mr. Charles Epenschied presented an address on modern flour milling, tracing the history of the preparation of grain for human food, the developments since 1865, when it was discovered that ‘‘ middlings,’’ when properly cleaned, could be reground to the best of flour, and the introduction of chilled steel rolls to replace the older millstones, so that to-day a good mill separates practically all the flour in a grain of wheat in its most perfect form, and is always automatic in opera- tion. It was stated that while larger mills are in operation, the most economical mill in use at the present time is that having a daily capacity of about one thousand barrels of flour. Dr. H. von Schrenk made some remarks concerning the propagation of fruit trees, particularly the apple, illustrating by a large number of specimens the methods of budding and root-grafting which are used for commercial purposes, and discussing at some length the question of the quality of the root system obtained for the new plant by the various modes of propagation. : Professor F. E. Nipher exhibited some photographic nega- Record. lvii tives on glass, and spoke briefly on the relation between negative and positive in photographic plates, showing that there is a certain relation between intensity of actinic light acting on the plate during exposure and during development, as a result of which a greatly overexposed plate may be de- veloped into a positive instead of a negative, by allowing access of a limited quantity of light during development, while a plate which has been very briefly exposed may in the same manner be developed into a positive by a proportionate increase in the light allowed to fall on it during develop- ment,— a neutral or zero point, in which the plate is com- pletely fogged, being passed in each instance. Mr. G. Pauls exhibited a number of beautiful caterpillars, the larvae of Huphydryas phaeion, which does not appear to have been hitherto recorded as occurring in Missouri, although Seudder reports it from adjoining States. The food plant on which these were found was a species of Gerardia. Dr. H. von Schrenk exhibited a burl on the branch of Mississippi scrub pine, caused by a rust fungus, Peridermium cerebrum, which was in excellent fruit. Mr. Pierre Chouteau, Mrs. Pierre Chouteau and Dr. W. B. Outten, of St. Louis, and Professor John H. Frick, of War- renton, Missouri, were elected to active membership. Two persons were proposed for active membership. May 21, 1900. President Engler in the chair, twenty-four persons present. A paper by Dr. Adolph Alt, entitled Original contributions concerning the glandular structures appertaining to the human eye and its appendages, was presented by title and referred to the Council. Dr. M. A. Goldstein read a paper on the physiology of voice production, in which he discussed three essential factors in the production of voice, the motor force, the organ of sound, and the resonators. The essential features presented may be summarized as follows: (1) All elements carefully considered, the best form of breathing applicable to voice production and singing is the rational combination of the Iviit Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. costal with the diaphragmatic type. Reserve force in breath- ing is best attained by deep inspiration, fixation of the dis- tended diaphragm and thorax, and control of these muscles while tone is produced. (2) To facilitate vocalization, the larynx should never be tightly contracted by the muscles of the throat, especially in the production of the registers. (3) On the resonating cavities, their proper conformation and position in relation to the vibrating cords and larynx, depend the quality and timbre of the voice, so that the careful and proper placing of tones is perhaps the most essential factor in voice production. Professor F. E. Nipher read a short communication on the zero photographic plate, to which reference was made at the meeting of May 7 and in his paper published as Volume X, No. 6, of the Academy’s Transactions. The zero plate is one upon which a photographic image has been made, but which will develop no image in a bath placed in light of given candle power, at a distance of one meter from the source. For example, if the developing bath is twenty centimeters from a sixteen-candle lamp, a Cramer isochromatic plate, such as is called **instantaneous,’”’ held for ninety seconds at a distance of one meter from the lamp, will be a zero plate. With an opaque stencil over the plate when placed in a printing frame, during the exposure, there will develop a positive of holes through the stencil if the exposure is longer, and a negative if the exposure is shorter. If a fresh plate is exposed in our camera, with full opening, to a brilliantly lighted street scene for one minute, it will develop as a positive in that same bath. This time can be somewhat reduced, but the least time needed has not yet been determined. It is evident that part of this minute is used in producing a zero plate. Itis furthermore clear that different parts of the plate will arrive at the zero condition at different times. The exposure may be arrested at a time when the strongly lighted white background of a sign-board will develop white as a positive and when the black letters will also show white as a negative. It has been found that when a plate is unifor mly exposed over its whole surface to the extent that nothing would have Record. lix s developed had it been covered by astencil, this plate may then be placed in a camera and exposed in the ordinary way, and a perfect positive will develop in the bath to which it has been adapted. This preliminary spoiling of the plate for develop- ing a negative is a very advantageous preparation for taking a positive. It shortens the time of exposure, and insures that a positive shall be obtained over all parts of the plate. It is not yet known how short the camera exposures may be made, but the present indications are that they will be as . short as those now made in the taking of negative pictures. It is currently believed by photographers that in a positive plate the object has ‘‘ printed its picture’’ upon the plate. This is an entire misconception of the process. It is true that in an exposure of long duration an image shows on the plate before it is placed in the bath. But this image is blackest where the light has acted most. It is a negative. This picture disappears in the developing bath when illu- minated. The plate becomes perfectly clear. The positive picture then develops, exactly as a negative would under ordinary conditions. Mr. J. B. S. Norton presented some notes on the flora of the southwestern United States. Maps were shown indicat- ing the parts of this region and others not well represented in herbaria, as compared with other sections of the country. Among other interesting features of the Southwest was men- tioned the production of many different forms or closely related species in the isolated mountains surrounded by deserts. This was compared with insular conditions and illustrated by the mountain forms of Huphorbia. Specimens of some new species from Southwest Missouri were also shown. Mr. Walter C. G. Kirchner, of St. Louis, and Professor William Edward Andrews, of Taylorville, Illinois, were elected to active membership. Two persons were proposed for active membership. Ix Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. * JUNE 4, 1900. President Engler in the chair, sixteen persons present. Dr. Warren B. Outten addressed the Academy on the true interpretation of sound, presenting what he believed to be a new principle in acoustics, and describing a method of re-enforcing sounds by means of various membranes. Two persons were proposed for active membership. OcroBer 15, 1900. President Engler in the chair, sixteen persons present. The addition of the Department of Zoology of the Univer- sity of Nebraska, and Naturae Novitates, of Berlin, to the exchange list of the Academy was reported by the Council. The Secretary laid before the Academy a portion of a femur [supposed to be that of a bison], presented by Mr. E. A. Hermann, Sewer Commissioner of the city, who reported that it had been found in a four-foot gravel seam under twenty-two feet of clay, in the excavation now being made for the Tower Grove storm sewer, between the Frisco and Missouri Pacific railways, 1,934 feet east of King’s High- way. On motion, the thanks of the Academy were extended to Mr. Hermann for this addition to the Academy’s collec- tions. Mr. William H. Roever discussed the subject of the estab- lishment of the method of least squares, in an exhaustive and masterful manner which does not admit of brief abstract. A paper by Professor F. E. Nipher, entitled Positive pho- tography, with special reference to eclipse work, and a paper by the same author, entitled The frictional effect of railway trains upon the air, were presented and read by title. Mr. C. F. Baker exhibited a collection which he had pre- pared for the National Museum, representing nearly all of the species of fleas thus far known to science. Dr. Hartwell N. Lyon, of St. Louis, Professor John M. Holzinger, of Winona, Minnesota, Mr. Ambrose Mueller, of Webster Groves, Missouri, and Mr. Julien Reverchon, of Dallas, Texas, were elected to active membership. Four persons were proposed for active membership. Record. xi NovemBer 5, 1900. President Engler in the chair, nineteen persons present. It was reported by the Council that in accordance with Articles XII and XIII of the By-Laws the following names had been canceled from the list of members: H. C. Frank- enfield, W. H. Hammon, John M. Holmes, John A. James James, John Pickard, and William J. Seever. Dr. T. Kodis delivered an address on electro-chemical theories of animal electricity, analyzing the theories which in the present state of knowledge seem possible as accounting for the origin of electrical currents in animal nerve tissue, and reaching the conclusion that the only tenable theory is that of chemical differences in the contents of the components of the body. Messrs. Marquard For dia A. Nasse and Herbert F. Rogers, of St. Louis, and Professor T. G. Poats, of Clemson College, South Carolina, were elected to active membership. Three persons were proposed for active membership. NovEeMBER 19, 1900. President Engler in the chair, nineteen persons present. Mr. C. F. Baker exhibited a large amount of living and preserved material, including microscopic preparations, illus- trative of American Isopods and Amphipods, accompanying the demonstration by a short résumé of the work thus far done on Crustacea, particularly on these two groups, and making some interestingly suggestive remarks on the peculiar affinities of a number of the species found in deep wells or hot springs. Dr. Amand Ravold presented an abstract of the results reached in some recent bacteriological examinations of water from the Illinois, Mississippi and Misesus rivers, particularly a series of cultures made under aseptic conditions from the contents of the digestive tract of sixty-eight fish of thirteen species and the soft-shelled turtle, from points in the Missis- sippi and Illinois rivers a short distance above Grafton. In sixty-nine per cent. of the fish examined, the Bacillus coli- communis, which is commonly accepted as an index of the lxii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. presence and amount of sewage contamination in potable waters, was present in the digestive tract in quantity, and cul- tures showed that this Bacillus thrives and multiplies greatly in these contents in cultures kept at the normal body tem- perature of the fish. The fact that this species, which does not multiply freely in river water at similar temperatures, appears to multiply in this way in the intestines of fish and reptiles, was pointed out as introducing into the biological analysis of the water of rivers and lakes a new factor, of un- certain quantity but tending to destroy confidence in the occurrence and abundance of Bacillus coli-communis in water as an indication of the degree to which it has been contamin- ated by the faecal discharges of human beings and domestic animals. Dr. Ravold stated that in each of the examinations made, the Bacillus, when isolated, had been carried through all of the cultures by which coli-communis is differentiated from related species with which, in the absence of these tests, it might easily be confused. Mr. George I. Stocker, of St. Louis, was elected to active membership. One person was proposed, for active membership. DECEMBER 38, 1900. President Engler in the chair, fifteen persons present. The resignation of Mr. Henry Branch and the addition to the exchange list of the Société Scientifique de Chevtchénko, Lemberg, Austria, and the Indiana Department of Geology and Natural Resources, Indianapolis, Indiana, were reported by the Council, which also announced its authorization of the purchase of the paleontological collection of the late Dr. L. P. Yandell, containing many types, and of particular value as complementary to the Shumard collection now the property of Washington University, it being the expectation of the Council that payment for this collection could be made by means of contributions from members, without encroaching on the current or reserve funds of the Academy. Mr. William H. Roever, of Washington University, read a paper on brilliant points and loci of brilliant points. The TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE A, LOCI OF BRILLIANT POINTS. Record. xiii paper gave the analytical conditions which define the brilliant point of a surface, the brilliant point of a space curve, the brilliant point of a plane curve and the brilliant point in space of two dimensions, when the source of light is such that the incident rays are normal to a given surface and the recipient is such that the reflected rays are normal to another given sur- face. Formulae were also given for the important special case in which the source and recipient are points. The paper also contained a general method for finding the equations of the locus of the brilliant points of a moving or variable surface and curve, together with a number of applications. Such loci may often be perceived when an illuminated polished surface is rapidly moved, as when a ‘wheel with a polished spoke is rapidly rotated. Another interesting example in loci of brill- iant points is that of a circular saw which has been polished with emery in a lathe and thus received a great number of concentric circular scratches. The locus of the brilliant points of this family of scratches was shown in this paper to be a curve of the fourth degree. In the special case when the point, source of light, and the eye of the observer (the point recipient) are in a plane through the axis of the saw, the curve degenerates into a circle and two coincident straight lines. Accompanying the abstract is a photogram of the saw curve. In this case the optical center of the camera lens is the point recipient. Other interesting facts and a number of geometrical constructions were also given in this paper. Messrs. Green, Baumgarten and Nipher, were elected a committee for the nomination of officers for the year 1901. Mr. Joseph T. Monell, of Flat River, Missouri, Mr. Elza Edward Tyler, of Columbia, Missouri, and Mr. J. M. West- gate, of Manhattan, Kansas, were elected to active member- ship. One person was proposed for active membership. DECEMBER 17, 1900. President Engler in the chair, forty-six persons present. The nominating committee reported the following list of candidates for 1901: — lxiv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. PHOMGOIG. 4 6 ssn Gea s Shela ween leekwew eb daae Edmund A. Engler. PAPSG V ICR HE TOMUCR i 6b a dea ces cd eN ens ences D. S. H. Smith. Second Vice-President.........e..e sees sees M. H. Post. FeOCOrGine SOcretary. oc os ee ces cccccen cons William Trelease. Corresponding Secretary.......sccsesccceee Hermann von Schrenk. WP OMMUPOE 5 tered va vue kwadd bendus Labs weg Enno Sander. PA RMLUM Seiad es Cee Re kadya babe seen sews tows G. Hambach. COREE Deedliew sear euwriessiieeas ceewneabe G. Hambach, Julius Hurter, Robert J. Terry. SPAPOCUII Sb ine oisin Vis s'es wisn dae wae nin siene's mains H. W. Eliot, Adolph Herthel. A paper by Mr. F. C. Baker, entitled A revision of the Limnaeas of northern Illinois, was presented and read by title. Dr. O. Widmann read an interesting account of the great St. Louis crow-roost, in which were embodied many facts concerning the life-history and habits of the common crow. Professor F. E. Nipher gave an account of some of his recent results in positive photography. He has now found that. hydrochinone baths of normal strength may be used. The formula given in each box of Cramer plates yields good results, if the mixed bath is diluted with water to one-third strength. ‘The potassium bromide may be left out, and one drop of concentrated hypo solution must be added for each ounce of diluted bath. The hypo has a most wonderful effect. With the same bath, plates may be developed as positives, in the dark room or in direct sunlight. He had even started the developing of a plate in a dark room, where it progressed very slowly, but very satisfactorily, continued the operation in diffused daylight in an adjoining room, and finished the operation in direct sunlight. The process was accelerated by the light, but did not appear to be otherwise changed by the change in illumination. The resulting pic- ture could not be distinguished from those produced by ordi- nary methods. This picture was shown by means of the lantern. | A box of Cramer’s ‘‘ Crown,’’ ‘* Banner’”’ or ** Isochro- matic’’ plates may have the plates individually wrapped in black paper, in the dark room or at night, and all the re- maining work may be done in the light. A plate is taken Record. lIxv from its wrapping into the lighted room and placed in the slide holder. After exposure, it is taken out into the light and placed in the developing bath, and the picture is then developed in the light, and may be fixed in the light. Of course during the changes the plate should be shielded from the light as much as is feasible, and the fixing bath may always be covered. But all of the operations may be carried on without any dark-room conveniences that may not be secured even in the open fields. When weak hydrochinone baths are used, the picture, when developed in strong lamp light, or in sunlight, has at first a golden yellow color. When left in the lighted bath for an hour and a half, it slowly darkens to a nearly normal shade, as the details come out more sharply. If the exposure has been correctly made, there will be no trace of fog. With stronger baths, the picture comes out in the normal time, and has the normal shade. If the pictures are too dense, the remedy is to reduce the strength of the sodium carbonate solution, or to increase the amount of hypo in the bath. Very fine results are obtained with the sodium carbonate solution at half the strength given in Cramer’s formula. When the plate has been sufficiently exposed, a negative of the object can usually be seen upon the plate before development. With long exposure this image is very distinct. It fades out in the bath, and the plate becomes clear. ‘The shadows appear strongly but indistinctly at first, and of a pink color, and the high lights still appear white. The solution remains clear. Too much hypo will cause turbidity and a loss of detail. When the plate is exposed in a printing frame under either a negative or a positive, an exposure of half a minute to dif- fuse daylight is ample, with an ordinary negative. The plate may be overexposed by placing it for a long time in direct sunlight, and it will then appear on development some- what like an overexposed negative. This has not yet been tried with hypo in the bath. Professor Nipher showed a preliminary diagram in which exposure and illumination of the developing bath were taken Ixvi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. as co-ordinates. The zero condition was represented by a line, and the conditions for producing direct and reversed pictures were represented by areas. : He also exposed and developed, in a common bath, in the lighted audience room, negatives printed from negatives, and positives printed from positives. The value of radio-active substances acting upon the developing plate in place of or in addition to light was referred to as a most promising field for study. Professor Nipher stated that he had done no work with the plates of other makers, since he found on trial that one such plate did not give good results with the treatment that had succeeded with the Cramer plates. Mr. H. J. Gerling, of St. Louis, was elected to active membership. Three persons were proposed for active membership. REPORTS OF OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1900. SUBMITTED JANUARY 8, 1900. The President addressed the Academy as follows: — Members of the Academy: In rising to accept the honor which you have again conferred upon me in electing me President of the Academy, I would take the opportunity to make a few remarks upon the work which the Acad- emy has attempted to do during the past year. It is needless for me to say that the general policy of the Academy which has been followed for several years past has also been followed during the year which has just closed. No new departures have been attempted, partly because the policy which we had been following was thought to be a good, one, and partly because we were restricted in our facilities and opportuni- ties for attempting new work. All of the meetings of the Academy which have been assigned by the Council at the beginning of the year have been held upon the dates appointed, to the number of sixteen. The record shows that the attendance at the meetings has been better than in any previous year. I think this fact is significant in showing that the Academy is gradually beginning to interest a larger constituency, and it is important that such means should be taken by the Council as to continually enlarge that constituency, because it is from those interested in the Academy’s work that we must expect to derive our sustenance. Record. Ixvii Papers and addresses of scientific interest have been presented at each meeting of the Academy. The value of these papers it is, of course, very difficult to estimate, but the estimation in which they have bcen he‘d is in- dicated to some extent by the comments which have been made upon them in the scientific press throughout the world, and also by the attention which they have attracted not only in St. Louis but elsewhere in this country and in Europe. A number of the papers presented have been thought by the Council worthy of publication in the Transactions, and I am again happy to announce that the Council has been able to follow out the plan inaugura'ed a year or two ago, of publishing a volume during each year. During the past year we have published a volume of the Transactions, numbering ap- proximately three hundred and fifty pages, illustrated with a large number of plates, and containing ten numbers. The present volume, which is the tenth of the Academy’s publication, will contain, besides the usual matter, a classified table of the contents of all the ten volumes which have already been published, which will serve to make the contents of the earlier volumes more easily accessible. We have before us many of the problems which were before us at this time last year. The Librarian has informed you of the increase in the library, which we consider one of our most valuable assets at present. The library now numbers 13,624 volumes and 9,869 pamphlets. It is housed, as you know, in the upper floor of this building: it should not be housed there. The necessity fora fire proof building in which the l'brary can be preserved becomes year by year more imperative. It would be a disgrace to the city of St. Louis if by any accident that library were to be destroyed. Yet we find it at present impossible to make other provision for the storing of the library, because of lack of funds. Any effort, there- fore, which can be made on the partof members of the Academy to enlist public interest in securing a fire-proof home for the Academy and its col- lections should be encouraged. and should be put forth at every opportunity, Another thing which the library is in need of is a catalogue. At present the knowledge of the contents of the library is contained only in the head of the Librarian, so far as I am able to ascertain, and, while the books are reasonably accessible, it is impossible to ascertain what the library contains on any particular subject without going through a con- siderable amount of labor. Now. the making of a catalogue wiil involve considerable labor, and consequently consid: rable expense, and I desire to urge upon the Council the consideration of ways and means by which this can be accomplished, even if we do not find it feasible to move the library to a safer place. We have, as you have heard, made an addition to the collections of the Academy, this year, which is quite exceptional. We have thought it best to purchase the Yandell collection of crinoids, corals, mollusks, crustacea and other fossil specimens. This collection, I may say, was made by Dr. Yandell, of Louisville, Kentucky, who was an associate of Dr. Shumard, whose name the St. Louis Academy always delights to honor as one of its early Presidents and one of its most enthusiastic workers. The collection consists of several thousand specimens, of which perhaps one third are crinoids. It is especially rich in crinoids of the Devonian age and manyrare types contained in the collection are described in Volume I of the Trans- [xviii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. actions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis in an article by Yandell and Shumard, and others in the Contributions to the Geology of Kentucky, pub- lished somewhere about 1847; and I am informed by persons who are capable of judging of the scientific value of the collection that it is prob- ably one of the best of its kind, if not the best, inthis country. It is also an interesting fact, in connection with the acquisition of this collection, that the Shumard collection, to which this is complementary, is in the possession of Washington University, thus making both collections ac- cessible in St. Louis to any student in that line of research, The acquisi- tion of this collection again emphasizes the need of a fire- proof building. I desire to state, for your information the terms on which the collection was secured. It was purchased from the widow of Dr. Yandell, for $1,000. Of this amount, a quarter, that is, $250, was paid as a cash payment, and this $250 has already been subscribed by members and friends of the Academy. Three notes were given, authorized by the Council an‘ signed by the officers, payable respectively in one, two and three years, for $250 each. It is earn- estly hoped that the members of the Academy will interest themselves in securing subscriptions during the year to enable the Academy to pay these notes as they mature, without encroaching on the current funds of the Academy, which are needed for current expenses, of which we have only too many. I have very little more to say with reference to the actual work of the Academy. I do, however, wish to congratulate the Academy upon the quality and the quantity of the work which it has been doing during the past year, under great difficulties and with very limited means. It is very desira'le that themembership of the Academy should be largely and speedily incr: ased. The increase in membership during the past year has been considerable. You have heard from the report of the Treasurer that 59 new members have joined the Academy. The present membership is 286, an increase over the membership at this time last year of 33. I will call your attention again to the remarks which I made at the last annual meeting of the Academy, which you will find published at the end of the last volume of the Academy’s Trans- actions, with reference to the persistence of the members in the Academy’s list. We find by studying the record that, while new members join in con- siderable numbers, on the average they do not remain with the Academy a very long time; consequently, unless we have a continuous flow of new members, the supply is likely to be soon exhausted, and, since we are com- pelled to depend almost wholly upon the dues which members pay in order to meet our current expenses, it is easy to see that, unless effort is made to keep the membership up, it will not be possible to continue very long the work of publication of the Transactions on the scale on which it has been undertaken. On the other hand, I am happy to be able to say that we have more members of The Academy of Science of St. Louis to-day than ever before in its history, and I think that with the same effort that has been made that number will continually grow. I only wish to urge upon you the necessity of earnest and continuous effort in this direction. 4. BAA Record. , lxix The Treasurer reported as follows: — RECEIPTS. Balance from 1899... .cccccccccccesc vcccceccccccccce + $2,239 13 Interest on invested money.......+-ese0. Sawa o eud és ‘ 347 07 Membership dues..... oot e cece cece ecenec sees weeees 1,565 00 Invested capital returmed.......cesce rece vececccvecees 1,400 00 —— $5,551 20 EXPENDITURES. ‘ POE sie eese bee Vite er awuetaa dae AVidawaevewes ae Wauee $337 50 CUIreNt EXPENSES. .eceesccccecesecressesevecesccccces 230 46 Publication of Transactions.........sseeeceseeeceseee 1,053 05 Reinvestment of capital... ..csccesccccevscncccccccee 8,479 G8 Balance to 1901..........- twa weasseuececess coecee 450 26 $5,551 20 INVESTED FUND. Invested on security........... Disaaiaie Wine wie bkisn: woes $6,500 00 The Librarian reported that during 1900 exchanges had been received from 274 societies, of which 17 were new; and three of the institutions formerly carried on the exchange list were reported as extinct. In all, 848 numbers were reported as having been added to the library, an increase of 103 as compared with the preceding year. It was reported that during the year the Transactions of the Academy had been distributed to 552 societies or institutions, chiefly by way of exchange or donation. a 5 deel AY) ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SUN AND ON THE RELATIVE AGES OF THE STARS AND NEBULAE.* T. J. J. SEE. Parr Frrst. ON THE GRAVITATIONAL THEORY OF THE SUN’S HEAT. 1. The Theory of Helmholtz for the Condensation of a Sphere of Uniform Density. On the occasion of the Kant Commemoration at Ké6nigs- berg, Feb. 7, 1854, Helmholtz delivered a popular address on the Interaction of Natural Forces, which contained the first application of the mechanical theory of heat to the radiation of the sun. In such a public discourse obviously nothing but the results of the calculations could be announced, as the mathematical methods involved are much too abstruse for a general audience; and hence in the Populdre Vorirdge there are no indications of the processes by which the com- putations were made. This justly celebrated address was deemed worthy of translation and republication in the Philo- sophical Magazine for 1856, p. 516; and fortunately in this English edition the great physicist was induced to give the rigorous formulae used in deriving the numerical results. The problem is: Jo find the heat developed by the condensa- tion of a homogeneous sphere under the influence of its own gravitation. The potential of a homogeneous sphere upon a unit mass at its surface is vy 4 R* 3 59 R (1) * Presented in abstract to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, March 30, 1899. 2 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. The mass of a spherical shell of density « and thickness dR is Anoh'dh. The potential of the sphere upon the matter of the sur- rounding shell of thickness dR, is therefore 4 dv=3% vo? 4roh*dR (2) Now suppose we regard # as variable, and find the integral of the successive elements of the potential of the sphere upon itself, when the radius changes from 0 to R. This will give the potential of each succeeding sphere upon its surface, or in the limit the potential of the sphere upon itself. 162? r= = (sean (3) 0 As the attraction of a homogeneous spherical shell with re- spect to points within is zero, we may disregard the action of any layer upon the inclosed sphere, and consider merely the action of the successive spheres upon their surfaces; the re- sult will be the potential of the sphere upon itself, and cor- respond to the total energy given up by the particles in condensing from infinity. Accordingly when a is constant, we have Hence the theorem: The potential of a homogeneous sphere upon itself is equal to three-fifths of the square of the mass divided by the radius. If masses are expressed in grammes instead of in astronom- ical units, equation (4) must be multiplied by the gravitation constant J’, the value of which may be determined in terms of any special case of attraction. Thus let g be the accelera- See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 3 tion due to gravitation, or the weight of a gramme, at the earth’s surface, let m and r represent respectively the mass and radius of the earth ; then g = r=. The value of F from this equation in (4) gives wks ND A ad, eG Ne a (5) which is an equation of great importance. Although the figures of the planets of the solar system and doubtless of the stars in general are probably spheroids of revolution, we may here treat them approximately as spheres. If we suppose the particles of the sun or of a planet to be scattered throughout immensity, and to condense gradually into a small globular mass such as we now observe, it is evi- dent that the work of condensation for any particle of the globe will be equal to the potential of the corresponding con- centric sphere upon a particle at its surface. Thus the total work of condensation is equal to the potential of the sphere upon itself. For any planet we have vas 3M” rg ae (7) Comparing (5) and (6) we get ERI Sy ane Se Sat ek (7) Therefore the potentials of two homogeneous spheres upon VGA Hie Ai themselves are to each other as PR ¥e ak Accordingly, in the solar system the potentials of the planets upon them- selves are very small compared to that of the sun upon itself. Thus in the case of the largest planet, Jupiter, 1 Mae M’ = 3047.37 > B = Zp and 1 2 1 | air sielieseloaihsid oF Ra ed ae IE 10 (047-37) "= 7097084 * 4 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. And hence we see that in condensing from a state of infinite expansion the planet Jupiter has developed less than ;gy5aqth part of the heat produced by the condensation of the sun. From this it is obvious that the sum of the potentials of all | the other planets upon themselves is very much smaller than that of Jupiter alone; and as the potential of the sun upon itself is uncertain by at least twice the potential of Jupiter upon itself, we may regard the potential of the sun upon itself as furnishing sensibly all the energy developed by the solar nebula in condensing from a state of infinite expansion. Accordingly, having shown that (5) will give the total work of condensation of the solar nebula, we may now express the resulting energy in heat units. To elevate the temperature of a mass M of specific heat ¢, 6 degrees centigrade, we require an amount of heat Mc. We shall express the mechanical equivalent of the unit of heat by Ag, in which J is the altitude through which a kilo- gramme must fall, and g is the force of gravity. In French measure Ag will be 424 Kilogrammeters. Then the resulting heat developed by the falling mass will correspond to the work, and we shall have W= M6 Ag. (8) We may put Y for W, and then for the condensation of the sun we shall have : 3 DM? rq T= MCG AG == BR > (9) Accordingly, BO ee (10) T 5 R we | To determine # numerically, we make use of the following values : — ; M = 330,000, ms 1, A = 424, (metres ) r = 6,378,190, f RH = 697,235,650, °° ¢ = 1 (water). Then 6 = 27,246,740° C. (11) See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Siars and Nebulae. 5 Hence we conclude that in condensing from infinity to its present dimensions the total heat developed by a homogene- ous sun would raise the temperature of an equal mass of water about 27 million degrees centigrade. As the mean distance of Neptune is equal to about 6570 of the present radii of the sun, we see by formula (10) that in condensing from infinity to the orbit of the outermost planet, only ;3;5th part as much heat was produced as has been developed since. According to the best available authorities the masses of the planets are as indicated in the following table : — Mass in Units Name. of the Sun’s Mass. Authority. Mercury | suatdio Von Asten. Venus sarbaes Leverrier. Earth ssouut Newcomb. Mars s0od-s00 Hall. Jupiter toa Hill and Newcomb. Saturn gs073 Bessel. Uranus sathot Hill. Neptune ries See. If we add all these masses together we shall find the total to be -;+-;th that of the sun. The masses of the comets and asteroids are so small that we might neglect them altogether. For according to a determination recently made by Mr. Rossel of the Johns Hopkins University the combined masses of three hundred or more of the larger asteroids is less than one-eighth that of our moon. Taking therefore the nearest whole number we may assign the sun 746 times the mass of all the other bodies of the planetary system. Thus if we desire to find out the temperature to which a mass equal to the whole solar system would be raised we must multiply the value of @ in (11) by 74%, which will produce only a slight change. If instead of supposing the particles of the sun to condense from infinite expansion we take a large primitive exterior radius £,, the formula for the elevation of temperature becomes 6 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. 7 OS Miaie dt 1 ~ 5m AC (2 vy R,)° where &, and &, are the successive radii to which the mass has shrunk. This may be put into the form 7? = aM. $1 zt (12) PM ae 2 ae For the case of a nebula filling the orbit of Neptune and then shrinking to the present dimensions of the sun, we note that A, = 6570 R; and hence we may conclude that if the primitive nebula extended only to the limits of the planetary system the above value of @ in (11) would have to be dimin- ished by about one six-thousandth part. Therefore we see that nearly all the heat of the sun has been developed since the primitive nebula attained the dimensions of the solar system. The following table shows the amount of heat developed by the solar nebula (assumed to be reribigi wien oe at different stages of its contraction. Temperature @ to y which aqueous | Part of total ene Planetary orbit tO | Radius in unitsof| globe of same developed by which the nebula | the sun’s radius. mass as the sun homogeneous has shrank. would be raised solar nebula. by the heat. Neptune,...+ esses 6570. 4,147. 1 -- 6570 Uranus ...ccsc.vees 4200. 6,487. 1 — 4200 Baturn...ss- cide 2089. 13,043. 1 -+- 2089 PUplters ec ce cece 1139. 23,923. 1 + 1139 COTE. cag biess cine 606. 44,960. 1 -- 606 Mars....... ceeees 334. 81,577. 1 -- 334 MOBY 6 oc so oh 219. 124,410. 1 -- 219 VANS. is iw nine 158, 172,440. 1 -—- 158 Mercury......-.-. 85. 320,550. 1 + 85 50 Radii ene ben asin’ 50. 544,934. 1 ->- 50 HO 40, 681,168. 1 40 BT ed Pe GEG UY 30. 908,224. 1 -— 30 FO Mrs ag 20. 1,362,336. I -- 20 BO co Bee w pan 10. 2,724,672. 1 — 10 Bots ects 5. 5,449,344. 1+—5 BG Vpn cwe se we 2. 13,623,360. 1+ 2 BG oe awa nie 1. 27,246,720. 1+1 The table shows clearly that the principal part of the sun’s heat was developed at a late stage of its contraction. Thus See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 7 the amount of heat developed before the nebula came within the orbit of Mercury is only ;j;th part of the total produced up to the present time. We see by this example an emphatic indication that nebulae radiate very little heat compared to that given out in the stellar stage of evolution; and hence it is easy to infer the production of a vast amount of heat in the last stages of contraction. If in (11) we differentiate 6 with respect to R we shall have @. 8MPl a oe ee Ae dé C a oe) By this formula we see that when # is very small, aT he- dk comes very large; and the production of heat for a given change of R becomes a maximum when # is a minimum. As no physical mass can have a radius infinitely small, it follows that the output of heat for a given change of R can never become infinite. If we apply formula (12) we may determine the amount of heat generated by the sun in contracting one ten-thou- sandth part of its present radius; and we find 6’ = 2725° C. Thus a contraction of ;s-sssth part in the radius of the sun supposed homogeneous, or 69723 metres, would produce an amount of heat sufficient to elevate the temperature of a corresponding mass of water 2725° C. Some sixty years ago Pouillet found by experiments on solar radiation that the amount of heat annually lost by the sun would raise the temperature of such a mass of water 1.25 degrees centigrade. On this basis a shrinkage of one ten-thousandth part of the radius would sustain the present radiation for 2180 years. More recent determinations of solar radiation, especially those made by Langley, increase the amount of heat by one-fourth or one-fifth, and hence it is probable that the above duration should be multiplied by or %. If in like manner we divide 27246740 by 1.5, which seems to be a fair modern estimate of the temperature through 8 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. which an equal mass of water would be elevated by the heat annually lost by the sun, we shall obtain about eighteen mill- ion years as the past duration of the sun’s heat, computed on the hypothesis of homogeneous density and uniform radia- tion. It will of course be understood that the heterogeneity of the actual sun renders this result merely an approximation to ‘the phenomenon of nature. The potential upon itself of a sphere whose density increases towards the center is greater than if the mass be homogeneous by an amount correspond- ing to the potential energy given up by the particles of a homogeneous sphere in falling towards the center to produce the heterogeneous one. ‘Thus the past duration of the sun is really much greater than is indicated by the hypothesis of homogeneity, as will be shown in the next section. Let us now consider the energy of the motions of the planets. The vis viva of motion of revolution about the sun 2 ‘ of any body of mass mm’, is 9 mv, where v is the velocity ; and hence if #, denotes the kinetic energy of a planet we 1 shall have #,= 5 mv’. If #, be the potential energy, and the system be supposed to be a conservative one, as if composed of rigid bodies re- volving in empty space, we shall have a constant C = #, + £,. In the planetary system the orbits are of course somewhat eccentric. It is evident that for any planet #, is a maximum at perihelion and a minimum at aphelion, while the potential energy is just the reverse at the two points. The general formula for the velocity of a planet * is | : 2 i= (1+m') Joh (14) where & is the Gaussian constant, vr’ the radius vector, and a’ the semi-axis major of the orbit. From this formula we see that if 7’ = 2a’, the velocity is zero, and all of the energy of * cf. Watson’s Theoretical Astronomy, p. 49; or any work on Celestial Mechanics. See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 9 the planet becomes potential energy. Thus the velocity at any instant is equivalent to that which would be produced by letting the planet fall to its position from rest at a dis- tance 2a’. Substituting this value of v’, we have eG. Ce ee. BE, = 3m (1 +m’) (F—95) (15) In astronomical units &* expresses the mass of the sun and Km’ the mass of the planet. Using M for # in this formula we may write 2 2 2 2 skate Mm (Fae) + Mm" (= — 39) (16) | Now suppose the planet at perihelion to touch the surface of the sun; then’ = Ff, and Z, will become a maximum. The second term of (16) is very small on account of the factor m'?; and therefore may*be disregarded. In the remaining 1 term the part depending on; is small compared to that de- 1 pending on Fp and thus we have approximately Mn team | i (17) - Comparing this expression with (4) we see that E,:V=5m' : 3M. (18) But L, is the vis viva of a single planet only, and hence we shall have >> a eae . yr 38M a ag = $2 } and thus for the solar system >. Win 6° ty) 10 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. We conclude therefore that if all the planets fell into the sun they could not maintain his heat for a great length of iS time, since > £,,, is small compared to Y. We may observe i=1 that by the previous suppositions #,, has been made to assume © very nearly the value of C’, as the neglected value of £, is very small. But in order to estimate the total kinetic energy we should take account of the rotations of the sun and planets and of the orbital motions of the satellites. The energy of rotation of the satellites and of their orbital motions is relatively insensible, and we may also disregard the rotations of the planets; but an accurate estimate of the en- ergies of the planetary system would require us to consider the energy of the sun’s rotation. The moment of inertia of the sun depends upon the law of density, and unfortunately this can be inferred only approximately from certain hy- potheses resulting from the theory of gases. Accordingly, it does not seem worth while to pursue further the subject of the energy of solar rotation. | We have seen that a contraction of 69723 metres in the sun’s radius, the mass being supposed of homogeneous den- sity, would maintain the observed radiation for 2180 years, or that an annual shrinkage of 35 metres per year would account for the observed output of light and heat.* Such a rate of contraction would affect the diameter of the sun less than a tenth of a second of arc in a thousand years, and would be wholly inappreciable during the period covered by exact observations. The fact that ancient and modern eclipses are sensibly of the same duration, taken in conjunction with * Ritter has computed this annual shrinkage on the supposition that the mass is heterogeneous and in convective equilibrium; and finds a value of about 90 metres. If, therefore, the density follows the laws treated in the next section, the shrinkage in the sun’s diameter would be less than six- tenths of a second of arc since the days of Hipparchus. Were even the most refined measures available for the whole of this period, there would still be no hope of confirming the shrinkage by observations made within historical time. See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 11 the substantial constancy of the moon’s mean distance, assures us that no considerable alteration in the diameter of the sun’s globe has occurred within historical time. The essential con- stancy of solar radiation for the last two thousand years is well established by the observed conformity of the modern distribution of plants and animals with those recorded by Pliny and Theophrastus. It seems reasonable to assume that no cause but gravitational shrinkage as explained by Helmholtz, would be adequate to secure this perfect uniformity of light and heat for so great a period of time; and hence we need not dis- cuss the other hypotheses which have been proposed to account for solar radiation, and which are now generally abandoned by astronomers. 2. An Hxtension of Helmholtz’s Theory to the Case of @ Heterogeneous Sphere made up of Layers of Uniform Density, with Considerations respecting the Age of the Sun. We have seen that when the sun’s globe is taken to have a uniform density, the total available energy supply could not maintain radiation at its present rate for more than some 18 millions of years. Though the actual radiation of the sun has undoubtedly been more or less variable, we shall for the sake of measurement consider it to have gone on uniformly at its present rate, and investigate the past duration of the sun’s heat on the supposition that the density of the mass increases towards the center in accordance with the curves found by our countryman Lane, just thirty years ago, from the hy- pothesis of a gaseous mass in convective equilibrium. As a careful examination of the theory of Lane has disclosed no appreciable defects, it will be permissible to adopt the curves which he has given in the American Journal of Science for July,* 1870. These curves are reproduced in the accom- panying plate. * On the Theoretical Temperature of the Sun on the hypothesis of a gaseous mass maintaining its volume by internal heat, and depending on the laws of gases as known to terrestrial experiment, by J. Homer Lane, of Washington, D.C. Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Apr. 16, 1869. Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Explanation. —ATM., Assumed theoretic upper limit of atmosphere; PHoT., Photosphere; C.T.K. = 1%, Arbitrary Curve of temperature for k= 1%; C.T.K. = 1:4, Arbitrary Curve of temperature for k=1'4; C.D.K.=1 4, “non ag Curve of density for k=1°4; C.D.K. = 1%, Absolute density for k= 1%. See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 15 Lord Kelvin has computed these curves by a process differ- ent from that employed by Lane, and finds the density of the center of the sun about 32 times that of water. This result is based on the supposition that & = 1.4, as in common air, and most terrestrial gases. The rise in temperature near the center of the sun is quite as remarkable as the increase in density. If all the radiation comes from the photosphere, which Lane assumes to have a depth equal to one twenty- third part of the radius, the central temperature would be about 32 times that of the radiating layer ; and if the effective temperature of the photosphere be taken at 8000° C. (as found experimentally by Wilson and Gray, Phil. Trans., 1894), we shall be led to conclude that the central temperature is ap- proximately 256000°C. Though a temperature of a quarter of a million degrees at the center of the sun is not improbable, we find it very difficult to appreciate its physical significance. We shall now investigate the effects of an increase of density towards the center on the potential of the sphere upon itself. The surrounding shell is supposed to have the density », and hence the element of the potential is 3 ay = 5 2 47rd h (20) The density of a gaseous heavenly body which has attained a state of bodily equilibrium undoubtedly increases rapidly towards the center, and in general is a function of the radius. It thus happens that the bodies of gaseous stars and planets are made up of successive layers of uniform density. And since a spherical shell of uniform density exercises no attrac- tion upon the particles within, the determination of the potential upon itself of such a heterogeneous sphere requires us to consider merely the action of each successive sphere upon its surface layer. If therefore we integrate equation (20) we shall find the amount of energy given up by the particles of a heterogeneous sphere in falling together from infinite expansion. fe or are r= -y- | oaRdR (21) 0 14 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louts. In the general case we havea = V(R), XY =¢— (RK), but as the forms of these functions are very complicated it is not easy to evaluate this integral except by some convenient pro- cess of mechanical quadrature. In his paperon the Theoreti- cal Temperature of the Sun, Lane has developed X in a con- verging series which enable us to find its numerical value for any argument with moderate facility. It is evident that at the center of the sun A, = o,, and at the surface A= 0. Now suppose we express the density of the shell in units of the. mean density of the sun, which is about 1.4 that of water, and from a table of A, in which &, is the argument. Then Lane’s work shows that A, will vary from A, = 20.06, at the center, to A, = 0, at the theoretical upper limit of the solar atmosphere. On the same basis o, will vary from 20.06 to 1. The function o,A, is therefore finite and continuous from #k =0, to R= #,, at the surface of the sun. If the sun’s radius be divided into z equal parts, the functions ¢, may be computed by the formula: __ Oydy + Oy HT Oady Hove ee HOD ‘ v Bln where 0,, 0, 0,,--9; are the volumes of the central nucleus, and of the successive shells by which it is surrounded ; ); he- ing their several densities and V; the volumes of the corre- sponding enclosing spheres. In the case of the sun it was deemed sufficient to divide the radius into forty equal parts ; the following table gives the values of these several functions as determined by computation. See— Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 15 ; . 15 Rj 05 Aa | OA | a | log % 4 log (R°—R*_1) Tx 3 0.25} 0.0156|29-96 | 0.3129] 20.06) 2.604562 4.989700 0.4 0.50} 0.1094|19-80 | 9.1661] 19.83) 2.594032 2.481062 11.9 0.75| 0.297 {19-32 | 5.7380] 19.47] 2.575408 1.313981 77.5 1.00} 0.578 |48-52 | 10.7046] 18.92) 2.544399 1.882351 267.1 1.25| 0.953 |17.62 | 16.7917] 18.29] 2.508134 0.312126 661.1 1.50| 1.422 |16.47 | 23.4203] 17.52) 2.460254 0.657245 1310.7 1.75| 1.984 |15.20 | 30.1568] 16.66) 2.403565 0.945437 2238.6 2.00! 2.441 |18.88 | 33.8811] 15.40] 2.329809 1.192760 3330.9 2.25{ 3.390 112.45 | 42.2055] 14.52] 2.257120 1.409247 4639.5 2.50} 4.235 |10.95 | 46.3732] 13.55) 2.171417 1.601961 5934.4 2.75| 5-171 | 9.60 | 49.6416] 12.57] 2.081583 1.775897 7194.2 3.00| 6.204 | 8.40 | 52.1136] 11.61] 1.989160 1.932727 8354.0 3.25| 7.328 | 7.83 | 53.7142| 10.70) 1.894380 2.077695 9377.2 3.50| 8.547 | 6.42 | 54.8717) 9-85) 1.800787 2.211198 10278.6 3.75| 9.859 | 5.56 | 54.8160| 9.05} 1.701418 2.335170 10870.0 4.00] 11.266 | 4.77 | 53.7388| 8.28] 1.597148 2.440903 10915.5 4.25| 12.765 | 4.05 | 51.6982) 7.59) 1.487472 2.559404 11139.8 4.50] 14.360 | 3.40 | 48.8240] 6.93] 1.371986 2.661540 10802.5 4.75| 16.056 | 2.82 | 45.2779] 6.31] 1.250405 2.759991 10195.2 5.00| 17-839 | 2.83 | 41.5649 5.75] 1.126577 2.849372 9461.3 5.25| 19.703 | 1.98 | 37.8298] 5.22] 1.001264 2.936195 8658.6 5.50| 21.672 | 1.56 | 33.8083] 4.75) 0.869472 3.018907 1733.5 5.75| 23.7384 | 1.28 | 30.3795} 4.31] 0.742036 3.097826 6916.1 6.00| 25.891 | 1.04 | 27.9666] 3.92) 0.610973 3.173325 6085.5 6.25| 28.140 | 0.84 | 23.6376) 3.57] 0.476973 3.245701 5280.5 6.50| 30.485 | 0.68 | 20.7298] 3.25) 0.844310 3.315155 4565.3 6.75 | 32.920 | 0.56 | 18.4352; 2.96] 0.219701 3.381978 3996.5 7.00| 35.455 | 0.45 | 15.9548] 2.70! 0.084883 3.446281 3897.5 7.25| 38.078 | 0.35 18-3273 2.47| 9.936220 3.508318 2783.2 7.50| 40.797 | 0.27 | 11.0152] 2.25) 9.784404 3.568199 2252.2 7.75| 44.609 | 0.21 | 9.3679{ 2.06] 9.636795 3.626120 1832.0 8.00] 46.516 | 0.16 | 7.4426] 1.89) 9.480683 3.682123 1454.8 8.25] 49.515 | 0.138 | 6.43870| 1.73] 9.353294 3.736410 1229.4 8.50} 52.610 | 0.10 | 5.2610] 1.59) 9.202794 3.789044 981.4 8.75| 55.796 | 0.08 | 4.4637} 1.47] 9.070091 3.840124 813.3 9.00] 59.079 | 0.06 | 3.5447] 1.35) 8.910009 3.889776 680.6 9.25] 62.453 | 0.046] 2.8728] 1.25) 8.760181 3.937998 499.1 9.50| 65.922 | 0.033) 2.1754] 1.16| 8.582145 3.984956 369.1 9.75| 69.484 | 0.020] 1.3897} 1.07| 8.381424 4.030661 230.2 10.00! 73.141 | 0.008’ 0.5851! 1.00! 7.900754 4.075183 94.6 y = 176868. The potential of the solar sphere upon itself * is given by 16x? (""" 16? >> WT T cs, hi aARAR = a. ! GiN; RdkR () i=0 yr he 1677? 5 5 5 ai 15 oApl, + an, ( hi, —f, ) ag Or, (22, ao fi’) * Cf. Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3586. bid His wtas epcliinga glade (Ys) a BE) (23) 16 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louts. When z= oo this approximate expression becomes rigor- ously exact. In the simple case of homogeneity considered by Helmholtz, namely, R 4 Fe 3 M? Y= pat [fre oF .4rcoR*dR ; Pp 0 we have shown that all the energy developed by the falling together of the particles of the sun would raise the tempers- ture of an aqueous globe of the same mass 27,246,720° C. The above integration for the heterogeneous sun shows that it has given up energy greater than that of a corresponding homogeneous sphere in the ratio of 176,868 to 100,000. As the development of energy found by Helmholtz would main- tain the observed radiation for about eighteen million years, it follows that if we suppose the sphere investigated by him to have afterwards passed into the actual sun by most of the particles falling towards the center, the energy thereby de- veloped would have maintained the observed radiation through an additional period of 13,936,240 years. This considerable augmentation of the sun’s past longevity diminishes corre- spondingly the duration which may be set for his future supply of light and heat. Shrinkage of the sun’s radius to one-half and one-third its present value respectively, would, by the theory of Helmholtz, double and treble the amount of heat produced in condensa- tion. If the actual sun were homogeneous and had already lost but eighteen million years of energy measured by the present standard output, it would follow that when the diam- eter has shrunk to one-half and one-third its present value, the total resulting output would last thirty-six and fifty-four million years respectively. Those who have studied the physics of the sun incline to the belief that contraction can hardly continue unchecked * * Molecular forces may resist compression, yet they do not diminish the total energy given up by the condensation of the mass. If the resisting forces become so strong that the body no longer behaves as a perfect gas, the shrinkage might go on so slowly that cooling would take place. See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 17 by molecular forces after the radius has shrunk to one-half its. present value, which would give an average density of 11.2, and certainly not after the radius has shrunk to one-third of its present value, which would give a mean density of 37.8. From these considerations it seems certain that if the total available supply of energy exceeds the output of thirty-six million years, measured by the present standard, it must necessarily fall short of one extending over fifty-four million years. The calculation of an energy supply furnishing uniform radiation at the present rate for thirty-six million years, seems to the author a just estimate of the total available energy of the sun. If this be adopted, it will follow from the above calculation that eight-ninths of the sun’s available energy has already been expended. ‘This conclusion is based upon the assump- tions — (1.) That the sun’s mass is gaseous and the density follows the curve found by Lane. (2.) That shrinkage will essentially cease when the globe has attained the average density of 11.2. (3.) That the ratio of the specific heat of the solar gas under constant pressure to that of the gas under constant volume is 1.4, as in common air and most terrestrial gases ;. and moreover that the average specific heat of the sun’s mass is. not enormously great, so that the latent heat of cooling would: become a great source of energy after shrinkage has entirely ceased. The justice of all these hypotheses may not be perfectly- obvious, yet it is difficult to see how the first two can be: called into question. The matter composing the body of the sun is much above the critical temperatures of all known substances and thus is necessarily in a gaseous state, though in the nucleus it may be so far condensed under the enormous pressure to which it is subjected as to act like a solid or fluid of great viscosity... On the other hand even though the central density be 28. times that of water, while the photosphere is rarer than the terrestrial atmosphere, it is hardly conceivable that appreci- 18 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. able shrinkage can go on after the average density of the globe has increased to eight times its present value. For the resistances due to molecular repulsive forces must tend to overcome gravitational pressure, and at length render further contraction impossible. If this state be not completely real- ized when the sun’s radius has shrunk to one-half its present value, it must yet be so fully attained in the greater part of the body of the sun that what further shrinkage is possible in the external layers will produce little available energy for maintaining the sun’s heat. As to the specific heat of the sun we can only say that, with one unimportant exception, water has the greatest specific heat of all known terrestrial substances; and it is not probable that the average specific heats of the dense gases comprising the body of the sun can be enormously greater than those of the corresponding gases found upon our earth. Wherefore it is not easy to imagine how our sun can long maintain its radiation after shrinkage has entirely ceased. Hitherto we have assumed that k = 1.4, as in common air and most terrestrial gases. Though this value is based upon the study of many gases under widely-varying conditions, there are theoretical reasons for supposing a larger value to correspond more closely with the state of things existing in the body of the sun, where it is not improb- able that many of the gases, disassociated by great heat, behave as if monatomic. In such monatomic gases where the energy is applied in the form of transla- tional kinetic energy, and none goes to work done upon the internal structure of the molecules themselves it is known from Clausius’ theory of the gases that # attains a maximum value 1.66. In one well-known case this has been experi- mentally confirmed by Professor Kundt, who found for the vapor of Mercury, which on chemical ground is known to be monatomic, the experimental value 1.66. In contrast to this large value of k, some substances of complex molecular structure give experimentally a very small value. Thus in oil-of-turpentine vapor X is only 1.03. But it is not probable that substances of such elaborate structure exist in the body of the sun, where the intense heat necessarily renders com- See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 19 plex molecular structure difficult of formation. of density for k =1.66, has been drawn by Lane, and the corresponding integration for the potential of such a mon- atomic sun upon itself is given in the following table: — The curve 15 Ril % | A | WA) AG | log 7 Ai log (Ri—-RL_,)| 0.25} 0.0156} 5.08} 0.0792) 5.08) 1.411464 4.989700 0.0 0.50) 0.1094; 5.07} 0.5547) 5.07) 1.410119 2.481062 0.8 0.75} 0.297 | 5.06) 1.5028} 5.06) 1.408582 1.313981 5.3 1.00} 0.578 | 5.04) 2.9131) 5.05) 1.405704 1.882351 19.4 1.25} 0.953 | 5.00}; 4.7650) 5.03) 1.400149 0.312126 51.6 1.50) 1.422 | 4.94) 7.0247) 5.00) 1.391782 0.657245 112.0 1.75} 1.984 | 4.85) 9.6224) 4.94) 1.379279 0.945437 211.2 2.00} 2.441 | 4.72) 11.5215) 4.75) 1.350446 1.192760 349.3 2.25) 3.390 | 4.56) 15.4584) 4.69) 1.330322 1.409347 549.1 2.50} 4.285 | 4.37) 18.5070) 4.61) 1.303685 1.601961 804.7 2.75, 5.171 | 4.16) 21.5114) 4.50) 1.271740 1.775397 1114.6 3.00} 6.204 | 3.93) 24.3817) 4.36) 1.234329 1.932727 1469.1 3.25) 7.328 ; 3.69) 27.0403) 4.22; 1.192392 2.077695 1862.5 3.50} 8.547 | 3.46] 29.5726) 4.07) 1.148555 2.211198 2289.6 3.75| 9-859 | 3.25) 32.0418) 3.92) 1.104705 2.335170 2753.4 4.00] 11.266 | 3.05) 34.3613) 3.76) 1.059881 2.440903 3168.0 4.25) 12.765 | 2.86) 36.5079} 3.61) 1.014256 2.559404 3746.8 4.50} 14.860 | 2.67) 38.3412) 3.46) 0.966157 2.661540 4243.2 4.75) 16.056 | 2.49) 39.9794) 3.81) 0.917189 2.757991 4733.5 5.00} 17.839 | 2-31) 41.2081} 38.17) 0.865377 2.849372 5185.0 5.25) 19.703 | 2.14) 42.1644) 3.04) 0.812459 2.936195 5606.0 5.50) 21.672 | 1.98) 42.9106) 2.89) 0.758586 3.018907 5991.0 5.75\ 23.734 | 1-82) 43.1959) 2.76) 0.701364 3.097826 6297.8 6.00; 25.891 1.67| 43.2380} 2.63) 0.642919 3.173325 6550.0 6.25) 28.140 | 1.53) 43.0545) 2.50) 0.583418 3.245701 6747.1 6.50; 30.485 | 1.39) 42.3742, 2.38) 0.519741 3.315155 6837.5 6.75) 32.920 | 1-26) 41.4792) 2.26) 0.454640 3.381978 6864.6 7.00} 35.455 | 1.14) 40.4187) 2.14) 0.388329 3.446281 6833.0 7.25) 38.078 | 1.02) 58.8396) 2.03) 0.316647 3.508318 6682.9 7.50} 40.797 | 0.91) 37.1263) 1.92) 0.243250 3.568199 6478.1 7.75) 44.609 | 0.79) 35.2411) 1.82) 0. - 157573) 3.626120 6077.1 8.00] 46.516 | 0.69) 32.09°0| 1.72) 0.073584 3.682123 5697.8 8.25) 49.515 | 0.58) 28.7187) 1.62) 9.972034 3.736410 6110.8 8.50} 52.610 | 0.47) 24.7267); 1.52) 9.853480 3.789044 4390.6 8.75, 55.796 | 0.37) 20.6445) 1.42) 9.721326 3.840124 3643 .0 9.00} 59.079 | 0.27) 15.9518) 1.33) 9.554993 3.889776 2784.6 9.25) 62.453 | 0.19) 11.8661} 1.24) 9.371971 3.937998 2041.6 9.50) 65.922 | 0.10) 6.5922) 1.15) 9.061381 3.984956 1112.6 9.75) 69.922 | 0.04) 2.7794) 1.07) 8.630818 4.030661 458.6 10.00; 73.141 | 0.01) 0.7314' 1.00) 7.996092 4.075187 117.8 2 = 128990. It will be seen that the density at the center is very much smaller than in the case where = 1.4, and of course the potential of the whole mass upon itself is correspondingly less exhausted. Thus the monatomic sun occupies a mean place 20 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. between the Helmholtz homogeneous sun and the heterogene- ous one already treated, in which k=1.4. It appears that the relative ages of the three suns, or the periods of time during which they would furnish heat at the present rate, are in the ratio of the numbers : — 100000: 128990: 176868, (18,000,000): (23,218,200): (31,836,240). On the supposition that * = 1.66, the sun could have sup- plied light and heat at his present rate for over 23 million years. As this represents a less exhausted condition than that of the heterogeneous sun first treated, it is clear that it has a greater future duration. Thus the futures of the several suns are as follows : — (Homogeneous) (Heterogeneous) ( Heterogeneous ) 18,000,000: k = 1.66 k= 14 12,781,800: 4,163,760. If we imagine that the density follows different laws accord- ing to the temperatures in different parts of the sun, that near the center agreeing approximately with the curve for k= 1.66, that near the surface conforming more nearly to the curve for k = 1.4, we shall be led to conclude that the future duration of the activity of the sun lies between four and twelve million years. In no case can the available energy furnish heat for a period exceeding twelve, while it probably will not fall short of four, million years. It thus appears that the sun may have radiated for thirty- two millions of years; but under no hypothesis of uniform radiation can the age of the sun exceed some fifty millions of years. These conclusions necessarily curtail in a very marked de- gree the periods hitherto assigned by geologists to the forma- tion of the earth. Even if we suppose that the output of solar energy in early ages was enormously less than that now given out, and the period of time required for the expenditure of the total amount correspondingly increased, we shall still See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 21 find it very difficult to imagine such a reduction in the output as will give to the earth a Geological History approximating 500,000,000 years. Indeed it is hardly conceivable that the period in question can surpass one-tenth of this figure, 50,- 000,000 years; and a shorter period for terrestrial Geological History is to be anticipated. Since eight-ninths of the avail- able energy of the sun is probably already exhausted, and our future supply must be based upon the remaining ninth, together with the latent heat of cooling, it seéms fairly cer- tain that the future of the sun’s activity will be limited to a few million years. Thus it is not likely that life such as now exists upon our globe can be maintained by solar radiation after the lapse of three million years. Part SEcOND. ON THE THEORETICAL DISTRIBUTION OF DENSITY AND TEMPERA- TURE FOR A GASEOUS SUN IN CONVECTIVE EQUILIBRIUM AND ON THE FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF TEMPERATURE FOR GASEOUS CELESTIAL BODIES. The great pressure and temperature existing in the body of the Sun naturally suggest to us interesting questions regard- ing the physical condition and behavior of the matter of which it is composed. As all experiments upon the earth are con- ducted under conditions limited by the comparatively small pressure and low temperature at our command, it is not easy to infer from our experimental knowledge, obtained under very restricted conditions, just how any kind of matter would behave under the extreme conditions existing in the Sun. Yet it is found that all bodies, however hard, and whether of homogeneous structure, or made up of heterogeneous granula- tions embedded in a matrix, under great pressure tend to behave like fluids of great viscosity; and that with high temperature all bodies become either liquid or gaseous. It seems probable that the whole mass of the Sun is still gas- eous ; for if any portion be liquid or quasi-solid like the lava which issues from our volcanoes, it can only be that part which is near the Sun’s center. If the central nucleus has 22 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. ceased to be gaseous, it must be on account of the immense pressure to which it is subjected. Its high temperature will tend to preserve the gaseous state, but in the condensation of a mass like the Sun, a time must at length arrive when the influence of pressure will become predominant. Liquids will then begin to form, though they cannot solidify while the temperature is still very high. Accordingly, assuming in line with the best available evi- dence that the body of the Sun is gaseous throughout, we shall now treat of the theory of convective equilibrium, and finally consider a very remarkable law of temperature, which applies to all gaseous celestial bodies, and apparently throws a new light on the processes by which the material universe has reached its present condition. We have elsewhere™* dis- cussed the history of the discovery of this law, and as nothing has since come to light to alter the statements then submitted, we content ourselves with observing that considerable addi- tional credit should be given to Ritter, with the contents of whose researches the author was not acquainted at the time of composing the former paper. Ritter appears to have been the first investigator to arrive at the law treated in the con- cluding part of this paper, but it received so little attention from astronomers and other men of science that when the present writer found the law independently and made it known in the most learned circles, apparently no astronomer in this country was acquainted with Ritter’s work. The importance of his researches will be admitted by all who have read his papers, but as some of his conclusions are contradicted by well-established phenomena of the heavens, it is safe to assume that a very cautious sifting of his results must be effected before the truth can be arrived at. As the law of tempera- ture announced in Asironomische Nachrichten, No. 3585, has an important bearing on astro-physical theories, and yet to some minds presents difficulties which are greater than could have been anticipated, and on that account has been exten- sively discussed by astronomers, some denying the existence of such a physical law, others alleging that it was known * Astronomical Journal, No. 455. See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 23 already, ‘‘ though of course not in the shape of a formula in- troducing the idea and symbol of absolute temperature,”’ it seems proper to offer, at this time, a connected view of the whole question. How far the author had been anticipated in the discovery of this law, and how he became acquainted with Ritter’s work after writing the article in A. N. 3585, has been sufficiently set forth in the Astronomical Journal, No. 455. But it should be added here that at the time of composing that article, the writer was not aware of the existence of Rit- ter’s earlier paper in Wiedemann’s Annalen for 1878, s. 543,* in which he reached a formula and a number of conclusions essentially identical with those recently published. The scien- tific public will be able to judge how far these results of Rit- ter were known among astro-physicists, and what influence, if any, they had already exercised upon astronomical thought. In the present paper, written since May 1, 1899, it is to be understood that the author has availed himself freely of the works of Ritter t as well as of those of Lane ft and Lord Kelvin.{ 3. On the convective equilibrium of a gaseous mass. Gaseous stars are continually losing heat by radiation, and contracting in consequence of the loss of heat, thereby growing denser and hotter. In stars of mature age the radiation is chiefly from the surface layers, and as these ex- posed portions soon cool off, it is evident that the continuity of the energy supply is maintained by the circulation of the mass in a state of convective equilibrium. Accordingly, we must explain the nature of the circulation and adiabatic con- traction which sustains the steady light and heat of the stars. A mass of gas changes adiabatically when it neither gains nor loses heat from contact with its surroundings, but expands and contracts in such a way as to adjust itself to the condi- tions which envelop it. * Professor Nipher first called attention to this paper,in one of the im- portant contributions which he recently submitted to the Academy on this subject, Transactions, Vol. IX, No. 4. ¢ Wiedemann’s Annalen, 1878 to 1882. } American Journal of Science, July, 1870. { Philosophical Magazine, 1887, p. 287. 24 Trans. Acad. Sct. of St. Louis. By the law of Mariotte, the volume and pressure of any mass of gas are defined by the equation, PV=NT | (24) where J is a constant, and 7’ is a fixed absolute temperature. By the law of Gay Lussac, the volume of the same mass of gas under constant pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature, and defined by the equation PV NT (25) We shall assume that these laws, derived from terrestrial experiments on many single and compound gases under varied conditions, hold true also in the body of the Sun. A quantity of heat dQ applied to any element of the Sun’s mass will do external work by expanding the volume (under con- stant pressure) and internal work against resisting molecular forces. Suppose A to be a constant, and let % and ¥ be unknown functions of the volume and internal pressure re- spectively. Then we shall evidently have the differential equation, dQ=A(%dP + vdV) (26) If now we apply the heat to a unit volume of the gas under constant pressure, we shall have dQ= AvdV=¢,dT (27) where ¢, is the specific heat of the gas. Thus, under cov- stant pressure, ML dt a ee By the law of Gay Lussac in (25) we have dv = N? and hence of If now we suppose V constant, and apply the heat dQ to the gas under constant volume, we shall have dQ = AedP =¢,dT (30) where ¢, is the specific heat under constant volume. See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 25 a i Since by (24) o = Ly we have Same oY -4aP AR’ be and thus (26) becomes dQ= 3%) VaP +7 Pav ‘ (32) It is found by experiment that the ratio k = 2 = 1.4, in v common air and most terrestrial gases; but in monatomic gases the value rises to 1.66, and in gases of very complex molecular structure falls to 1.03, as in vapor of oil-of-turpen- tine. Now suppose that the element of solar gas expands or contracts adiabatically, so that no heat is gained or lost by it; then dY = 0, and (32) becomes dP st pth =0 (33) which is the differential equation for the pressure and volume of an element: of the Sun’s mass in convective equilibrium. Integrating this equation for the changes undergone by the element in passing from the states P,, V,, to P, V, we have ee V dP d Lagi tig! E; Equation (34) thus gives log P+ k log ie. log P, + & log V,, or W ig Vi= rv (35) XS g, But since => = ~, we may write, = P=P, Cy (36 ) 26 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Ng a. f 7. With unit mass v7 > v= ion Vv? and we have T=T. Ey" Go) If now the density of the Sun at the point o, be taken as unity, 7’ being the temperature of this point, we shall have the important equation T = To, (37) by which the law of temperature can be determined as soon as the law of density is known. 4. Determination of the law of density. If we denote by m the mass included in the sphere of variable radius 7, and by &M the total mass included in the sphere of radius R, and by a the ratio of acceleration of gravity at the distances r and & from the center respectively, we shall have mR? wren 6 (98) Differentiating this equation with respect to r, we get da F°dm 2mR? dr Mr? dr Mr? Pia Yap: Free hany (39) If now we designate the mean density of eae sphere of radius & by @ we shall have M=-,7R : (40) The element of mass between the two sphere surfaces r and r+dr is given by dm = trordr (41) Then by (40) dm 3Mor dr” Rg (42) See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 27 By means of this equation (39) takes the form da 2a 36a ie r he > -) A well-known theorem in the Kinetic theory of gases states ‘that the internal heat of any element in convective equilibrium is equivalent to the mechanical energy required to raise the ele- ment to the limits of the atmosphere; for the adiabatic com- pression of the element from infinite expansion would develop this amount of heat; or an equivalent work would be done by the particles if the mass were allowed to expand indefinitely, as happens when the element circulates from a depth below the surface to the limits of the atmosphere. Thus if w denote the caloric equivalent of a kilogram- meter, and dr the height of the atmosphere, we shall have the following differential relation between the internal heat and gravitational work upon a kilogramme of air: —¢,d7' = wdr, in which as before ¢, is the specific heat of the gas under con- stant pressure and dT’ is the change of absolute temperature. When the kilogramme of air is elevated above the surface dr, where the force of gravity is g’, we shall have dT = w! dr = wadr (44) g The total amount of heat given up by the element in ascending from the center of the sphere to the surface will be given by -fsar- w fair = = vhf, (45) r =0 where » is a small numerical coefficient, which must be found by successive approximations. If the force of gravity at the surface of the sphere were G = fg we should have ¢,dT = — wadr, (46) R (,l,=—- wp | ade = wih (47) 0 28 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. qT _ ie 48 af PR sone aI FA ( ) at A T, da 49 dr? ee dr - The relation between density and temperature can be deduced from the celebrated equation of Poisson, 2 = (HY 0 which may be put in the form Co T’ \ 2.44 bo AVS OP 51 By (a) Oy ae ae Sava da : ! Substituting in (43) for o, dp ond a their values given by equations (51), (49), and (48), we have vi eT 2k dT | 36, (T\** pe a aa if eee, =e r 8 Putting p= ¢ and 7 =, this equation may be written ) 1 if dn _2dn ae Tia + coe: Sid which is the form given by Ritter. We may determine the three constants of this differential equation, as well as the two constants of integration as follows. By the equation a : moh, the constant ¢ is to be taken as known, when f and M are given, as we here assume; and the value r= R, ¢ = 1, corresponds to a = 1, and by equation (48 ) ang dn 1 eR ee Thus the constant » is equivalent to the negative reciprocal dn value of == ae for§=1. Moreover, 7’ = 0, and 7» =0, for See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 29 €=1. The value r= 0, or §=0, corresponds to the value : aT d : a= 0, and hence by (48) ay 0, or 7 = 0 Finally, T= T,, orn = 1, for = 0. If now we seek to find the law, according to which ¢ and » change, and represent the result by a curve which is corrected by successive approximations till it satisfies the above differ- ential equation in all its points, we shall have the following numerical values, computed by Ritter : — MeO) 0.1 68 OF 04 Os | 0.6 Pe Ue Oe KO OC , n=1 0.95 0.83 0.68 0.52 0.38 0.27 sae 0.18 0.10 0.045 0. Co The constants »y = 2.4, and es = 23. By means of these results and equations (51) and (48) we derive the curves which -, and a represent geometrically. 0 In this way we find the numbers given in the following table: r Ag OG. 0 O28 0.3 0.4 0.5 06 °° 0.7) (O87. 09 1.0 ~=1 0.88 0.64 0.39 0.20 0.10 (B) . 0.040 0.015 0.0038 0.00054 0. Pee (8 85 29 Ra 88 25 9 Le eo In the case of the Sun, where the central density is, on the gaseous theory, 23 times the mean value, we have the density in units of the mean density and of water respectively : — a z= OOO!) OB 0.4 0.5 06 07 0.8 0.9 1.0 == 23 20.24 14.72 8.97 4.60 C 2.30 0.90 0.845 0.0874 0.01242 0. ) Spec. gr.=32.2 28.34 20.61 12.56 6.44 8.22 1.29 0.483 0.12236 0.017388 0. 30 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. It will not be necessary to insert a diagram illustrating these functions, as the resulting curves are similar to those found by Lane, and reproduced in Part I. And since the temperature curves deduced from T = To (54) depends directly on that of the density, they will also be simi- lar to those given by Lane. But it should be pointed out that, while Lane’s density curve depends on the value of k, and in derivation is independent of the law of radiation, Ritter’s curve on the other hand depends on Poisson’s law of radia- tion, and is independent of the value of &. The fact that the curves obtained by two such widely different processses agree so closely, may be taken to show that the whole theory of gaseous bodies despite its difficulty, is in a highly satisfac- tory state. It is easy to see that the density is a function which follows a complex law, varying reciprocally as 7 To inquire into the theoretical nature of this curve, let us express the density in units of the central density o,, as in equation (B), and then we shall have uct d (=) (99) It is not easy to find the rigorous algebraic expression for this function, but we may express it in Fourier’s series as fi follows: We assumeo = 9 & to be finite and continuous between r = 0, and = R#, and then put o=o9(") =46,+ 6, cos e+ Bb, cos 2x + 6, cos 3 G4. Og C08 me + a, sin x + a, sin 2x + a, sin de +... . + @,, sin mx (56) See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 31 where 1 ai om = 5 i! ¢ (A) cos meds Ve (57) + 7 On = = if g (8) sin mpdp —T 7 >2£>—7,¢ (8) denoting any known value of ¢= 9¢(). Then since the researches of Lane and Ritter furnish o numerically for given arguments of the radius, x will not ex- ceed unity, and the multiple angles are, of course, to be taken as multiples of radians, é (57°.3), where p denotes the multi- ple of the angle, and g the number of parts into which the radius is subdivided. Assuming the transformation here indicated, we may inquire into the law of density when the radius has shrunk from the loss of heat. The new density curve will obviously be given by an equa- Ul tion of exactly the same form, o = ¢ ea The internal dis- tribution of temperature in the first case will be defined by T = T,o*—'; in the second case, by 7’ =T;'o'*—*; whence we see that the laws of distribution of density and temperature are the same after shrinkage has taken place as before. Some persons who do not fully understand the problem under consideration, have claimed that the functions which define the internal distribution of density and temperature change with contraction; that these functions depend upon the linear dimensions of the globe rather than upon the prin- ciple of convective equilibrium, and would give a new law of temperature at each stage of the shrinkage. It will perhaps be evident from the preceding differential equations or from the curves which they satisfy, that the density and temperature are independent of the linear dimen- sions of the gaseous globe. 32 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Thus, so long as the mass is a perfect gas the forms of the density and temperature curves are rigorously the same after contraction as before. If, however, the radiation were sud- denly checked, say by surrounding the gaseous globe with a solid shell impermeable to heat, the internal temperature would soon become more equably diffused; the convective currents would be interrupted or replaced by conduction of some kind, and the nature of the temperature and density curves would be rapidly altered. When the shell was removed, however, the original condi- tions would return, and the curves of density and temperature take their usual forms which satisfy the foregoing differ- ential equations. From these considerations we conclude that the distribution of temperature and density remain the same, are represented by functions of the same form, which satisfy the same differential equations so long as the radiating mass is gaseous and condensing under conditions of convective equilibrium. 5. Elementary Derivation of the Law of Temperature. Suppose a gaseous globe of radius /?, and surface temperature T, to be held in equilibrium by the pressure and attraction of its particles. Let P, be the gravitational attraction exerted upon a thin layer of matter covering a unit surface of the globe, which may be regarded as the base of an elemental cone extending to the center. Then suppose the globe to shrink by loss of heat to aradius #. If the original element of mass now covered a unit surface the pressure exerted upon it would R 2 thereby become P= P, (3) - But since the area of the ini- tial sphere surface has shrunk to S = S, (x) the area of the elemental conical base into which the matter is compressed has diminished in the same ratio. As the force of gravity is increased while the area upon which it acts is correspondingly decreased, it follows that in the condensed condition of the globe the gravitational pressure exerted upon a unit area is R P= P, (33) . The forces counterbalancing the increased See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 33 pressure are obviously the resistance due to the increase in the mean density, and a possible change in temperature which might affect the elasticity of the gas. But the surface density R,\3 . . , , 0 of the original mass was o,', and hence we have o’ = o', (53) : By hypothesis the equilibrium of the globe is maintained by the elastic force of the gas under the heat developed by the gravitational shrinkage of the mass. If therefore the globe was in equilibrium when the mass had a temperature 7, to remain in equilibrium in the condensed condition, 7, must R be multiplied by R° As T)f, is a constant, we may write the law of temperature K tan > (58 ) So great is the author’s confidence in the significance of physical causes, that he does not hesitate in the belief that this simple formula expresses one of the most fundamental of all the laws of Nature.* 7 Its application of course is confined to gaseous bodies, but it is safe to assume that millions of stars and nebulae approx- imate this condition closely, and give this law profound import. It is obvious that the equations of pressure and temperature above applied to the external layer of the globe will apply equally well to any concentric layer of which the globe is made up, and thus it is unnecessary to consider anything more than the surface layer. Contemplating now the fundamental law of temperature, K i i =p’ we see that it will obviously hold true for the mean temperature of the condensing mass, whatever be the law of internal density and temperature, so long as the globe is wholly gaseous, and maintained in convective equilibrium by * A distinguished foreign astronomer, writing under date of April 29, 1899, says: ‘‘ 1 am profoundly glad that you have had the courage to gener- alize. The fear is that our outstanding men of science will goon accumnu- lating data till they became crushed under the load of their observations. You call your law a fundamental law. Iam sure it is so.” 34 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. free radiation into surrounding space. For if the globe be made up of 7 isothermal layers of uniform density A,, tempera- ture 7;, and mass m;; then a theorem of the form T,=5 (59) will hold for each layer of the giobe. And for the mean temperature of the whole we shall have (60) When the mass condenses the temperature of each layer rises proportionally, and we have the same law as before. The above reasoning assumes that the globe is composed of one kind of gas throughout, and that its properties are the same under all conditions of temperature and pressure. The Sun and stars appear to be compounded globes of different gases which freely interpenetrate one another. If such in- terpenetrating globes be of unequal dimensions under given conditions of temperature and pressure, as seems probable, on account of the elements rising to heights inversely as the atomic weights, then the relative percentage of the several elements which would appear in « layer of the mixed gas would be a function of the distance of that layer from the center. As the specific heats of the different elements are unequal, we may take each layer of mass m, to have an average specific heat ¢,, the effects of which may be included in the constants A,, and the resulting value written A;. The temperature formula for any layer would thus become K’, 3 T,= R? and the mean temperature of the globe would zt be 1~ Km; Mu we (61) i=0 + f hye 4 The mass of any layer is m,; = 3 7 (R? — f*,_,), and the amount of heat in any such layer is m,°; 7;. See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 35 me, 2 a t=? Hence 7’ = > 5 a andas =m, = C, ras ene i=0 our final equation takes the form r= Sm al 62 aC FP, () In this expression #; is the only secular variable, and hence the fundamental law of temperature retains its original form. If, however, the gases diffused according to a new law when the mass shrunk, it would require us to take account of this slowly modifying cause. For considerable intervals it might be neglected, but for very great periods an error would at length develop and necessitate a new integration. The form would then be 7'= cee, where ¢ is the time and # a small secular coefficient. It thus appears that the law 7’= 7 holds for every layer of the Sun’s mass, and consequently for the mean temperature of that globe. It is not probable that un- known conditions arising in gaseous stars and nebulae are likely to render this law appreciably inexact, and hence we are, I think, justified in regarding it as one of the most fund- amental as it is the most simple of all the laws of Nature. The question will doubtless be asked how far this law is ap- plicable to the evolutionary history of the Solar System. We may observe that as the Sun is still gaseous, it now has a mean density a little greater than one thousand times that of atmospheric air. As the molecules in a vacuum produced by the air pump still roughly follow the laws of gases when the density is reduced to about one-millionth of the ordinary den- sity, we see that gases may undergo a change of density of a billionfold without wholly invalidating their known physical laws. It thus appears that our Sun would probably behave sensibly as a gas when its radius was one thousand times larger than at present; or that the Solar Nebula has been gaseous since it came within the orbit of Jupiter. Even if the above law of temperature hold only within the thousand- 36 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. fold radial limits here pointed out, it will still admit of wide application throughout the heavens. In the present state of our knowledge of the laws of gases, we refrain from any attempt at fixing more definite limits to the Solar Nebula, which would also depend on the temperature of the mass. For if the mass could be kept sufficiently heated it might extend its bounds far beyond the present limits of the Solar system. In concluding these remarks, the following curious illus- tion of a reversible process is thought to be worthy of atten- tion. Imagine a huge pipe made of some material impervious to heat laid from the center of a great hot star like Canopus to the center of the Sun, and suppose the two ends to be closed by non-fusible pistons which freely transmit the heat communicated along the pipe. Heat will flow steadily from the hotter to the cooler source, and as the center of Canopus is assumed to be much hotter than the center of the Sun, the material at the latter point will receive a supply of heat which will tend to elevate the temperature of the Sun’s mass; but as heat cannot be supplied to the gaseous globe without expanding its dimensions, the result will be an increase in its - diameter and a corresponding fall in its temperature. If the flow of heat along the pipe is sufficiently great (it must of course surpass the amount lost by surface radiation), and kept up long enough, the compact mass of the Sun will be expanded into a vast diffuse nebula filling the planetary orbits ; and if the pipe then be intercepted the cold rare mass will again slowly condense and rise in temperature, and the planetary system will be formed anew!: 6. Conclusions based upon the fundamental law of temper- ature. The following conclusions seem to be legitimate inferences from the remarkably simple law of nature treated above. (a.) The diffused nebulae are near the temperature of space. K In the formula 7’ = R: # is different from each body, but always finite, and hence when F is infinite 7’ is zero.* * Cf. Astronomical Journal, No. 458. See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 37 Thus the diffused nebulae are near the temperature of space, or approximately — 273° C. This may also be inferred from other considerations. If such diffused masses were appre- ciably heated, they would soon cool off; and, besides, mole- cules on their outskirts having sensible molecular velocities, would escape into interstellar space. How the light of such masses is maintained is quite unknown, but it seems not improbable that it is due to electric luminescence such as we observe in the tails of comets, which also shine at tempera- - tures approaching the absolute zero. We may therefore sup- pose the diffused and irregular nebulae, as well as the milky nebulosity so abundantly scattered over the sky, to be intensely cold. It is an impressive fact that hydrogen and nebulium are the only elements recognized in the nebulae, and all other elements presumably present are wholly non- luminous. ; | (b.) Stars of the first class are at the maximum temperature and already condensed to the smallest bulk consistent with the laws of gaseous constitution. The high temperature of the Sirian stars is inferred generally from the nature of the light emitted by these bodies, and in the particular case of Sirius, is proved by the enornious radiation of that star compared to that of our Sun. Thus, while the mass of Sirius is only twice that of our Sun, its radiation is shown to be forty or fifty times the greater of the two bodies. It follows, therefore, that the Sirian stars are intensely hot. By the above law of temperature such heat can be developed and such radiation maintained only when the radius of the condensing mass is relatively small. The Sirian stars have therefore already shrunk to small bulk, and the contention recently current among astrophysicists, that the Sirian stars are of great bulk, and resemble nebulae, can no longer be supported. Such tremendous radiation as we observe could not, it appears, be maintained by the gravitational shrinkage of the mass, except when the radius is small, and the force of gray- ity correspondingly enormous. As respects volume therefore as well as temperature the Sirian stars are as far removed from the nebular condition as possible; and any spectral parallel between these two classes of objects should be ex- AXIS OF TEMPERATUSE T 38 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. plained in some other way. The diffuse nebulae are cold, infinitely rare, and almost free from pressure ; the Sirian stars are intensely hot, relatively dense, and subject to enormous gravitational pressure. The Astronomical Journal, No. 455. | st T=*% Law of Temperature for Gaseous Celestial Bodies Condensing under the Law of Gravitation. T. J. J. SEE, May 6, 1898. LLL ON Te Ee AEE OP Sa wn: ee CO OO ks ee eee es em ee a =F Class I Class IZ Class III an Nene Die Was : Sirian Stars Solar Stars Orange Stars Planetary Nebulas Diffused Ne 4215 OF BADIUS R CURVE OF TEMPERATURE FOR GASEOUS STARS AND NEBULAS, A REC- TANGULAR HYPERBOLA REFERRED TO ITS ASYMPTOTES. (c.) Stars of the second class have not yet reached the maxi- mum temperature. Stars of the second class, of which our Sun is an example, are conceded to be at lower temperatures than. those of the first class, and the question arises whether their temperatures are rising or falling. The Sirian stars are surrounded by dense hydrogen atmospheres, which produce the heavy absorption observed in their spectra. As the heights of atmospheres of gases of different molecular weights under any given condition are known to be inversely as the molecular weights, it follows that when a star is so far See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 39 condensed that gravity is intense, the outer atmosphere ought to be of hydrogen, such as we observe in the Sirian stars. The heavier elements in the Sirian stars are pressed down by gravity, and their spectral lines are either faint, or entirely absent. Now if our Sun had already passed through the Sirian stage, and the temperature was falling, the hydrogen atmosphere which had been separated from the other ele- ments by the effects of gravity ought still to surround its globe. As all the elements in the Sun are fairly evenly mixed, such heavy vapors as calcium and iron mixing freely with those of light elements like hydrogen and helium, we infer that our Sun has not yet passed through the Sirian stage of development. The lower temperature of solar stars thus indicates an earlier condition than that met with in the Sirian stars. (d.) Stars of the third class are at a still earlier stage of development. This inference is based upon well known spectral phenomena which connect classes I, II, and III. If the first class stars are related to the second class stars as stated above, the continuity of spectral lines show that the third class stars are still younger, and further from the maximum of their temperature curves. It is a fact of great significance that the Milky Way, presumably the oldest part of the visible creation, is composed almost wholly of Sirian stars. On the other hand, the solar stars and to a greater extent the orange stars, seem to cluster about the poles of the galaxy. The orange stars are in fact rela- tively thickest in those regions of the sky which are poor in stars, like Hydra, Microscopium, ete. This depth of color of the stars remote from the Milky Way frequently attracted the attention of the writer while occupied with the survey of the Southern hemisphere. If the reddish stars have a larger bulk than the older more condensed stars, they would naturally receive more accretions of dark matter from surrounding space, the chance of collision at periastron being thereby in- creased, and one might naturally explain in this way the greater variability of the third class stars. (e.) Present and Past Temperatures of the Sun. If we adopt the effective temperature of the Solar photosphere ex- 40 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. perimentally determined by Wilson and Gray ( Phil. Trans., 1894), which is about 8000° C., we see that when the Sun’s radius was twice as great as at present, the effective tempera- ture, by the above law, was about 4000° C.; and when the radius had eight times its present value, the temperature was only 1000°C., which would not fuse the more refractory metals. The following table shows the effective temperature of the solar nebula when it extended to the several planets : — (Absolute Temperature. ) Present solar surface............0. OS bb eaeus . 8000° C. POENUEY vice cs dee'y Wes bgia we eiee ee che ek Le 92° C. WUE Cy bi os k's bid oh ce ees We oe ee oe le 53° C. PORTED i oo oc sa 6 u's oS alkie ake wb EE UN SS ee 40°C WARIG oe oieeas c's 6oes whee CRU eE eee eae ae 24° C OMILOL Nai cic asc sky RMN le ROB eae mie ie ae (des, OP SARITD b bck os bes Ce Aa RO Oe eG Fae VYMNOE 6s bck ceca ge cae ee hee te ea oe 2°C NOPUUNGs 5 osc eee ae be hae eee es wed eee a 6 The excessively low temperature of the solar surface when it reached the orbits of the several planets can hardly fail to excite our astonishment. The temperature was always much below zero, and the density of the mass necessarily very small. About the only escape from such low temperatures for the planets at their formation is to suppose that the Sun has long passed its maximum temperature, and as now cooled down does not allow us to trace the past history of its temperature; but of course such an hypothesis is embarrassed by many difficulties. Indeed it seems positively contradicted by the existence of life upon our globe which could-hardly have de- deloped as Geology shows it did develop, had the Sun ever been enormously hotter than at present.* The conclusion that the planets were formed at very low temperatures there- fore seems irresistible. : * Some of these conclusions have been anticipated by Ritter, who re- marks how contrary they are to current theories (herschende ansichten), yet it does not appear that he made any very serious effort to overthrow the errors which have been handed down by tradition. See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 41 (f.) Temperatures of the Great Planets. As experiments upon the secular shrinkage of great masses cannot be made in our laboratories, it is fortunate that the solar system offers to our observation large as well as small planets which may be taken to be approximately of the same absolute age. We find the smaller planets such as the Earth, Venus, Mars, and Mercury, already solid, while the great planets Jupiter, Sat- urn, Uranus, and Neptune, are apparently still gaseous, if not actually rising in temperature. A similar comparison holds for the Moon and Jupiter’s satellites which are much more advanced in their development than the planets about which they revolve. The law of temperature shows that if bodies like Jupiter and Saturn are gaseous, they have not been hot in the past, but may become so hereafter. There is some spectral indication of inherent luminosity in Uranus, and hence all the great planets are probably still rising in tem- perature. As the temperatures of these masses were origi- nally near the absolute zero of space, we are not to think of them as cooling, but rather as having slowly heated up ever since their separation from the solar nebula. The inferences of Kant, Zéllner, and Proctor, as well as the original assumption of Laplace, all implying an initial high temperature, it is needless to say, are wholly unauthor- ized. It is possible and perhaps even probable, that some of the great planets, especially Jupiter and Saturn, may eventu-- ally become self-luminous. The problem as to how closely the purely gaseous theory conforms to the actual state of the heavenly bodies is very important, but unfortunately difficult to answer with confi- dence. On the one hand, the purely gaseous theory leads to a height of 27.5 Kilometres for the terrestrial atmosphere; on the other, observations of meteors, which disclose the fact without regard to theory, show that it extends in a rarified state to a height of at least 200 Kilometres. From this well- established deviation of theory from phenomena, it would appear that the purely gaseous atmosphere extends to its proper height, and is then overlaid by another layer in the ultragaseous state. Presumably this upper ultragaseous atmosphere is one in which the molecules have a long free 42 _ Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. path, and are in fact projectiles from the gaseous atmosphere beneath. Moving almost without collision, these molecules may be regarded as free projectiles shot out with velocities which carry many of them to an average height of some 200 Kilometres. Meteors colliding with the upper part of this ultragaseous atmosphere would of course finally be consumed very much as if the mass were denser and obeyed the laws of fluid equilibrium. The Solar Corona is the analogue of the upper terrestrial atmosphere; and similar gaseous appendages doubtless sur- round the planets and other heavenly bodies. But since the limbs of Jupiter and Saturn, which have been studied by means of eclipses and occultations of their satellites, appear teles- copically sharp and almost perfectly opaque, it is not probable that these rare atmospheres in comparatively cold bodies like the great planets, have anything like the relative extent of the Corona, which is kept expanded by the intense heat of the Sun. Yetit may be assumed that all bodies, planets, comets, and stars alike, have the two strata in some proportion. In the case of the stars, which especially concerns us here, we may suppose, on the analogy of the Sun, that their Coronas give very little light and heat, and hence that the laws of gases apply with considerable accuracy to their radiations. It is certain that a Corona does not seriously obstruct the radia- tion, and equally clear that no sensible amount of heat can arise from the condensation of such a rare medium. The laws of gases ought therefore to apply to the condensation of stars which are well advanced, but in the case of diffuse nebulae the extreme tenuity of the medium relieves it of the laws of fluid pressure and renders the radiations practically free in all directions; and the theory of convective equilibrium is not required. (g.) Cause of the darkness of the companions of such stars as Sirius and Procyon. The secular shrinkage of the sun’s radius will cause a steady rise in its temperature, and when the body has reached the stage of Sirius it will shine with an intensely blue light, like that emitted by stars of the first class. The temperature See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 45 will go on rising * till a small radius is attained, and finally when the dense mass, intensely hot, becomes incapable of further shrinkage, from increase of resistance in molecular forces, a cooling and liquefaction will rapidly take place. A condition of darkness thus follows close upon a period of in- tense brilliancy; and hence the darkness of such bodies as the companions of Sirius, Procyon, and Algol. Here the smaller masses, as in the solar system, have de- veloped most rapidly. The theory of the ages of the stars here adopted enables us to explain the colors and relative masses of the double stars. On this point Ritter has gone astray, by concluding that in double stars the companion, usually bluish in color, has a larger mass than the principal star, which is usually of a reddish or orange tinge. This view is positively contradicted by the relations of the masses de- termined from actual measurement in the cases of 7 Cassi- opeiae, Sirius, Procyon and, a Centauri, the only systems in which the relation of the masses has been investigated. As each of these systems is a typical double star, the rule of assigning the fainter star the smaller mass — a mere inference of common sense — will undoubtedly hold good generally. And since the spectra of the companions of double stars are generally of the first class, while those of the principal stars are of the second class, the result also conforms to the theory of the ages of the stars adopted above. Certain obscure companions of double stars recently dis- covered by the writer in the southern hemisphere, as well as the historical examples of Sirius and Procyon, lead him to * Professor Perry, of the Royal College of Science, London, has pointed out in a letter to Sir Norman Lockyer (Nature, July 13th, 1899; reply by the author in Nature of September 28th), some reasons for thinking that our sun has long since passed the period of maximum temperature. He thinks that after the central density exceeded one-tenth that of water, the mass could no longer be considered a perfect gas; but it seems to the author that Professor Perry regards too lightly the effect of the tremendous temperature of the sun, which necessarily increases the “ perfection’ of the gas, and perhaps to an enormous extent. He concurs however in the author’s views that old stars have their radiating layers near their surfaces, and that they radiate more rapidly than young stars. The other interesting points sug- gested by Professor Perry may be reserved for future research. 44 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. believe that the number of such dark bodies is enormous; and a satisfactory explanation of their condition is therefore a desideratum of science. The suggestion here thrown out that the smaller masses condense more quickly, and thus be- come dark while the large bodies are intensely brilliant seems to accord with all known phenomena of nature. (h.) Absorption of Light in Space. If it be conceded that the nebulae are cold and that comparatively very few of them are luminous, we shall be driven to the conclusion that the heavenly spaces are more or less filled with dark or faintly luminous matter. This matter appears telescop- ically as a faint haze on the background of the sky, or as diffuse nebulosity in photographic impressions of the vault of the heavens. In any case such cosmic clouds of dark or semi-opaque matter however rare act like a fog in in- tercepting some portion of the light from distant regions of creation, and thus ultimately limit the depths to which our telescopes can penetrate. On this account it may never be possible to extend our exploration of the universe beyond a certain finite distance. Struve’s celebrated problem of the bounds of creation, in which he discussed the absorption of light arising from the imperfect elasticity of the luminous ether, thus appears more difficult of solution than ever. He showed that if the number of stars be infinite, and they be scattered pro- miscuously throughout space, and no light be absorbed by the ether, then the whole face of the sky would necessarily glow like the points now occupied by the stars. As the sky is very dark even in the regions most crowded by the stars, it follows either that the universe is not infinite or that light is absorbed or interceped by dark masses scattered throughout the immensity of space. Since we now have for the first time satisfactory evidence of the existence of vast clouds of cos- mical dust, which intercept the light of distant stars, we know that the luminiferous ether is not the only cause which extin-* guishes the light of distant regions of creation. Thus even if the universe of stars be infinite we may never be able to dis- cover this fact, since opaque masses limit the depth to which our telescopes can penetrate. The significance attached to any line of research naturally See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 45 varies according to the taste of the investigator, but we believe it is generally allowed that speculative inquiries founded on mechanical laws are essential to the development of Physical Science, and hence have not hesitated to apply the mechanical theory of heat to some of the most interesting phenomena of the heavens. , Issued February 5, 1900. SOME ILLINOIS BEES.* CHARLES ROBERTSON. ANDRENA HIRTICEPS Sm. Andrena hirticeps Smith, Brit. Mus. Cat. Hym. 1:116. ¢. 1853. 9.— Black; pubescence black, except on thorax above, on vertex and -usually about insertion of antennae, where it is ochraceous; clypeus shining, coarsely punctured, except a median raised line; process of labrum semicircular; third joint of antennae about equaling next two joints together, flagellum dull testaceous beneath; wings fusco-hyaline, apical margins clouded; nervures and stigma fusco-ferruginous, second submarginal cell about as long as third to second recur- rent nervure ; abdomen shining, almost impunctate except on bases of segments, no pubescent fasciae. Length 12-13 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 24 9, 27 ¢ specimens, the sexes taken in copula. I have regarded the male as that of A. vicina, and the female as only a variant form. The true A. vicina, I think, does not occur here. The male, which, no doubt, resembles the above, I think will be found to want the black hairs on the head. But for the description of the male, I would say that A. errans is the same as A. hirticeps. “ANDRENA VICINIFORMIS D. sp. Q.— Black; head, thorax and femora clothed with fulvous pubescence which is brightest on scutellum, palest beneath, a few blackish hairs about ocelli and on clypeus, floccus pale, tibiae and tarsi with blackish pubescence, the scopae on hind femora and tibiae, however, pale beneath; clypeus shining, coarsely punctured, a median raised line impunctate; process of labrum semicircular; third joint of antennae about equal- ing next two together; wings fusco-hyaline, nervures fusco- ferruginous, second and third submarginal cells subequal ; * Presented to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, in abstract, January 22, 1900. (47) 48 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. abdomen shining, nearly bare and nearly impunctate, anal fimbria dull fulvous. Length 10-12 mm. g.— Resembles the male of A. hirticeps, but the black hairs on vertex and about eyes are wanting, and the second and third submarginal cells are subequal. Length 9 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 18 9,2 ¢ specimens. This may be the same as A. dunningit. ANDRENA MACOUPINENSIS 0D. Sp. 9. — Black, tips of four anterior tarsi and hind tibiae and tarsi ferruginous; pubescence thin and pale; clypeus convex, finely roughened and closely punctured on the sides, in the middle smooth, shining, coarsely and sparsely punctured ; - process of labrum large, emarginate; front before ocelli finely striate; lateral grooves broad, extending below antennae, filled with pale pubescence; third joint of antennae longer than next two together, fourth joint shorter than fifth, flagel- lum dull testaceous beneath; mesonotum and scutellum sparsely punctured, finely roughened except on the discs which are smooth and shining ; inclosure of metathorax finely and evenly roughened; wings yellowish hyaline, nervures and stigma dull honey yellow, second submarginal narrowed above, receiving recurrent nervure beyond middle, about one-half as long as third; hind tibiae and metatarsi rather broad, tibial scopa short, dense, not very plumose; abdomen somewhat shining, minutely roughened and finely sparsely punctured, clothed with rather long thin pubesence forming thin whitish fasciae on margins of segments, anal fimbria ochraceous. Length 11 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 2 9 specimens. This species closely resembles A. mandibularis, but the clypeus; mesonotum and scutellum are more shining, pubescence thinner and paler, facial grooves longer, broader, with paler pubescence, third joint of antennae longer, hind legs stouter, inclosure of meta- thorax larger, less rugose, etc. ANDRENA SALICACEA 0. sp. °.— Black; clothed with thin pubescence, dirty white above, pale below, showing a little fuscous on the tibiae; clypeus Robertson — Some Illinois Bees. 49 convex, finely roughened, with rather large and sparse punc- tures; process of labrum long, narrow; front below ocelli finely striate; facial grooves narrow, extending below anten- nae, appearing fulvous; antennae black, short, joint three longer than four and five together, these subequal; meso- notum and scutellum finely roughened, rather sparsely punc- tured, not shining; metathorax rugose reticulated, inclosure small, quite rough; wings subhyaline, nervures honey-yellow, stigma darker, second submarginal cell about half as long as third, receiving recurrent nervure just beyond middle; ab- domen smooth, shining, almost impunctate, especially the first segment, with thin pale pubescence, segments 2—4 with narro 7 pale-testaceous margins and thin whitish fasciae, anal fimbria blackish. Length 10 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 2 9 specimens. This species also resembles A. mandibularis. ANDRENA NASONIT Rob. Andrena nasonii Robertson, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. 22:120. 9. 1895. g. — Closely resembles the female ; abdomen more shining, pubescent fasciae almost obsolete; face narrowed below; clypeus finely roughened, with rather coarse, shallow punc- tures, bearded with long, thin, white pubescence; antennae long, joint three about as long as four, shorter than five. Length 6-8 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 15 9, 4 ¢ specimens. ° ANDRENA ROBERTSONI!I D. T. Andrena serotina Robertson, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. 203;148. Q (not 3): 1893. _ g-— Closely resembles the female; abdomen less fasciate with pubescent bands; clypeus yellow; third joint of antennae longer than fifth ; cheeks narrow, without obtuse angle; sixth ventral segment of abdomen with reflexed dentiform angles. Length 7 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 41 9, 7 g specimens. Resembles the male of A. bipunciaia, but may be readily distinguished by its cheeks being more narrow, without obtuse angle, mure rugose inclosure of metathorax and dentiform reflexed angles of sixth ventral segment. 50 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. ANDRENA CORNI 0. sp. 9. —Closely resembles A. prunt 9 in size and color; mid- dle of mandibles rufous ; process of labrum triangular, trun- cate ; clypeus more closely and finely punctured, less shining, more pubescent, median raised line less evident, joint three of antennae longer than next two together, facial foveae broad, not widely separated below from eye margin; inclosure of metathorax more rugose ; abdomen less shining, more closely punctured, legs more ferruginous. Length 11 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 1 9 specimen. ANDRENA ANDRENOIDES Cr. Parandrena andrenoid-s Robertson, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 73 337. 1897. ANDRENA WELLESLEYANA Rob. Parandrena wellesleyana Robertson, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 7: 387. 1897. When this name was proposed it was stated that it was little more than a section of Andrena. It is proposed here to reduce it to that rank. It is certainly a natural group in which the two above species have originated from a common ancestor whose wings had only two submarginal cells. Never- theless, except as an expedient for separating the species having only two submarginal cells, we are hardly justified in giving a special name to this group of Andrena unless we are going to divide the genus into several named sections. The second transverse cubital nervure is the most unstable element in the venation of bees. Its presence is not con- stant in ordinary species of Andrena, as I have found it want- ing in specimens of Andrena platyparia, solidaginis, bipunc- tata, hippotes, robertsonit and claytoniae. Its obliteration seems to be constant, and of quite independent origin, in species referred to Biareolina Dours, Callandrena Ckll. and Parandrena Rob. To establish «» new genus for every one, or every set, of these anomalous Andrenas, now seems to me to be unnecessary. IOMELISSA n. g. This is proposed for the reception of Andrena violae Rob. Scopae, facial foveae and venation as in Andrena, the basal Robertson — Some Illinois Bees. 51 nervure sometimes ending before the transverse median; clypeus produced, third joint of antennae longer than next two together, mouth parts long, maxillary palpi six-jointed ; labial palpi four-jointed, the joints long and subequal; tongue long, filiform, pubescent. This may be the same as Culissa americana Sm. The male sometimes has a small yellow spot on the clypeus, and on each side of the face. COLLETES BREVICORNIS Rob. Colletes brevicornis Robertson, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 7: 315. ¢&. 1897. 9. — Agrees with the male in all respects, except that the pubescence on the thorax above is mixed with blackish. Length 9 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 5 9 specimens. The third joint of antennae is longer than any except the last, and, of course, the scape; second submarginal cell equal to, or a little shorter than, the third, receiving the first re- current nervure a little before the middle; nervures usually darker than indicated in original description. SPHECODES PIMPINELLAE D. sp. Q.— Black, flagellum, labrum, mandibles, tegulae, tibiae, tarsi and abdomen red; mandibles dark at tips, with a denti- form angle; head broader than thorax; face closely and rather finely punctured, the clypeus with more sparse and more coarse punctures; mesonotum with median impressed line, roughened and indistinctly punctured in front, the disc shin- ing, somewhat metallic, punctures more distinct ; metathorax shining, coarsely reticulated, with a semicircular inclosure above; wings subhyaline, nervures and stigma fuscous; sec- ond submarginal cell narrow; first recurrent nervure uniting with second transverse cubital; abdomen shining, almost im- punctate, fifth segment blackish. Length 7 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 1 9 specimen. Haxictus arcuatus Rob. Halictus arcuatus Robertson, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. 20: 145. Q. 1893. g- — Black, a transverse spot on clypeus, labrum, mandibles except base, tegulae in front, knees, edges of anterior tibiae 52 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. and all the tarsi whitish, the spots on tegulae and knees some- times wanting; antennae long, submoniliform, black; head and thorax closely and finely punctured; scutellum subbilobed, with two mammiform eminences, metathorax very coarsely and strongly rugose reticulated ; wings hyaline, nervures testaceous ; abdomen shining and rather sparsely punctured on first seg- ments, margins of segments depressed, narrowly pale testa- ceous, segments two and three with more or less evident, thin, interrupted, basal pubescent fasciae. Length 7-9 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 5 ¢ specimens. HALICTUS sIMILIS Sm. Halictus similis Smith, Brit. Mus. Cat. Hym. 1:69. 9. 1853. g.— Closely resembles the male of H. arcuatus. It is more slender, the abdomen more shining, less closely punc- tured, antennae testaceous beneath, a pale spot on tubercles, tibiae pale at base and apex. Length 8 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 1 g¢ specimen. NOMADA SALICIS n. sp. g.— Mandibles simple; antennae short, fourth joint twice as long as third, joints 7-12 short; head and thorax closely punctured, abdomen shining, scutellum bilobed, basal nervure ending beyond transverse median, apical segment of abdomen bifid. Black, the lower part of face, mandibles except tips, labrum, scape in front, front and lower border of pleura, tubercles, two spots on scutellum, yellow; anterior and middle coxae in front, the knees, anterior and middle tarsi, anterior tibiae in front, middle and posterior tibiae at apex, yellow ; elsewhere the legs are more ferruginous, inclining to blackish behind on middle and posterior pair; wings hyaline, apical border clouded, nervures and tegulae testaceous; abdomen with six yellow bands, the last two interrupted laterally so as to leave a small spot on each extreme side. Length 8 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 1 ¢ specimen. HERIADES Spin. H. carinatus Cr.is a Trypetes. H. philadelphi is a Che- lostoma. Osmia bocconis Say belongs to Ashmeadiella. Robertson — Some I llinots Bees. 53 FLORILEGUS 0. g. This is proposed for the reception of Melissodes condigna Cr. It has the general character of Melissodes, but the max- illary palpi are moniliform, five-jointed, the joints subequal. The abdomen shows a metallic reflection. ANTHEDON DN. g. This is proposed for the reception of Melissodes compta Cr. The male has the antennae black, shorter than in Melissodes, joints 3 and 4 subequal, the last joint is the longest in the flagellum and is curved and produced to a point. In the female the scopae consist of hairs which are quite simple, not plumose as in Melissodes. The fasciae of abdomen are about alike in both sexes. Otherwise as in Melissodes. MELISSODES ATRIPES Cr. Epimelissodes atripes Ashmead, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. 26:63. 1899. Mr. Ashmead makes this the type of a new genus. His description of the venation is correct for only certain indi- viduals, perhaps a majority, but in some specimens the first submarginal cell is fully as long as the third. The maxillary palpi are four-jointed. This species is closely related to M. obliqua Say, which also has the maxillary palpi four- jointed. MELISSODES PETALOSTEMONIS 0. sp. Q. — Related to and closely resembling M. communis Cr., but is somewhat smaller and the mesonotum and scutellum are without black pubescence. Also resembles M. comptoides, but the pubescence is less fulvous above, and not dark on the thorax beneath, the front and middle legs, and the hind meta- tarsi beneath. Length 9-11 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 9 9 specimens. EMPHOR BOMBIFORMIS Cr. ?2Melissodes nigripes Smith, Brit. Mus. Cat. Hym. 23311. 2 (non G')- 1854. Melissod-s b mbiformis Cresson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 18783219 Ag. Emphor bombiformis Patton, Bull. U.S Geol. Surv. 5: 476. GQ. 1879. The male described by Smith belongs to Melissodes de- sponsa. Cresson and I have supposed that the female was 54 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. the dark-legged form of Synhalonia atriventris, but that would hardly be described as having the pubescence of the legs black. One could hardly account for the statement that the pubescence of thorax was paler than that of the head, nor for mistaking it for the 9 of M. desponsa. Mistaking M. desponsa g and M. bombiformis 9 as sexes of the same thing will not seem very strange to any one who will place them side by side. Also, from the statement that the apical margins of the segments were sometimes rufo-testaceous, I suppose that Smith mixed both sexes of the Hmphor. At any rate, I believe that the above synonymy will be verified. SYNHALONIA ATRIVENTRIS Sm. form FUSCIPES n. f. 9. — Differs from the normal form (8. dubitaia Cr. 9) in having the tibiae and metatarsi, especially the scopae of hind legs, fuscous or blackish. SYNHALONIA ROSAE, DN. sp. | 2. — Closely resembles the preceding form, but is smaller, the apical half of the second abdominal segment shining and impunctate, the tibial scopa more nearly surrounding that joint, less limited to the exterior of the joint. Length 12 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; 3 9 specimens. CERATINA CALCARATA N. Sp. (?) 2 Ceratina tejonensis Provancher, Faun. Ent. Can. 812. ¢. 1883. Ceratina tejonensis Robertson, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, 22: 126. ¢. 1895. Differs from C. dupla Say ¢, as far as I can see, only in the hind femora being produced into a triangular tooth. The maxillary palpi are six-jointed. Whether it is the male of a distinct species or a dimorphous male of C. dupla I cannot say, but I think the dimorphism has to be proved. Accord- ing to Mr. Ashmead, C. éejonensis has the maxillary palpi four-jointed. He makes it the type of a new genus, Zaodon- tomerus. The name of the local insect is changed on the presumption that Mr. Ashmead’s statements are corect. NEOPASITES ILLINOENSIS Rob. Phileremus illinoensis Robertson, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. 183: 64. Qo. 1891. Robertson — Some Tilinois Bees. 5d NEOPASITES HELIOPSIS Rob. Ammobates heliopsis Robertson, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 7: 352. qj. 1897. In the two preceding species the males have the antennae _12-jointed, and pulvilli are present. EPEOLUS INTERRUPTUS D. sp. 2. — Black, mandibles except tips, sides of labrum, three basal joints of antennae, tubercles, tegulae, two spots on scutellum, scutellar spines, and legs, except coxae, trochan- ters and base of hind femora, ferruginous; face about the insertion of antennae, a line on prothorax, two lines on mesonotum, pleura above, sides of metathorax above and postscutellum with appressed whitish pubescence; head and thorax densely punctured, pleura below shining, with coarse not very close punctures; scutellum subbilobed, much sur- passing the spines; wings somewhat clouded, especially on apical margins, nervures and stigma black; abdomen with the fasciae of appressed whitish pubescence widely inter- rupted, wider on the disc and narrower towards the sides; the basal portions on first segment are quite clavate; fifth segment with a patch on each side and a narrow apical border; edges of segments 2-4 subtestaceous; the post- scutellum presents a blunt tooth. Length 8 mm. Carlinville, Illinois; one 9 specimen. Issued February 21,1900. ay i Ps TEI Wop ie i aaah ag KINDERHOOK FAUNAL STUDIES. II. THE FAUNA OF THE CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE AT BUR- LINGTON, IOWA.* Stuart WELLER. INTRODUCTION. The stratigraphic succession of the Mississippian beds at Burlington, Iowa, was first indicated by David Dale Owen f in 1852. At that time the Kinderhook stage or its equiva- lent had not been defined, but the lower portion of his general section, that portion which is now included in the Kinderhook, was described as follows: — 5. ** Band of cellular, buff, magnesian limestone.’’ 4. ‘*Qolitic limestone containing Gyroceras Burlington- ensis.”’ 3. ‘* Dark gray, argillaceous limestones (locally hy- draulic? ).’’ 2. ** Buff, fine-grained siliceous rock, containing casts of Chonetes, Posidonomya, Allorisma, Spirifer, Phil- lipsia.’’ 1. ‘* Ash colored, earthy marlites.”’ At that time Owen included all the strata down to the base of his No. 3, in the ** Encrinital Group of Burlington.’ It is not possible to determine, from his section, the exact thickness attributed to each individual stratum recognized, but their aggregate is indicated in his table as about 100 feet, and the lowest member, No. 1, is about 60 feet. In 1858 Hall’s report on the Geology of Iowa was published, eens. * Presented in abstract to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, No- vember 6, 1899. + Rep. on Geol. Wis., Ia.,and Minn. 92, (Philadelphia, 1852.) (57) 58 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. and the following section given of the rocks at Burlington of the Kinderhook stage, at that time referred to the ‘* Che- mung Group.’’* ( 5. Oolitic bed (often absent) its great- eat Thickness. » 04:5. 4556s omens oe 4 feet. 4. Argillaceous sandstone with fossils as below, of Chemung species.... 6 feet. 3. Limestone, irregularly-bedded, con- cretionary and rarely brecciated, with shaly interlaminations; com- pact, brittle, ash-colored, appar- ently siliceous. Higher beds more regular and arenaceous; near the base, a thin band of limestone charged with Chonetes.........+- 10 feet. 2. Fine-grained, siliceous and argillace- ous sandstone, with bands of shale, highly fossiliferous; lower half much softer and more argillaceous than the upper part (often shaly). 25 feet. 1. Soft green shale like that of Portage group, to level of river.......... 82 feet. Chemung Group. ‘ In 1860 C. A. White published a paper entitled ‘* Observa- tions upon the Geology and Paleontology at Burlington, lowa, and its Vicinity ’’ in which the Kinderhook section at Burling- ton was described, and later, in 1870, while he was State geol- ogist, the section was again described in his official report.t In White’s section seven beds were recognized, as follows: — 7. Impure limestone, sometimes magnesian, passing grad- ually into the Lower Burlington limestone. 3 to}4 feet in thickness. * Rep. Geol. Surv. Iowa. 11:90. (1858.) + Jour. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 7: 209-235. + Rep. Geol. Surv. Iowa. 1:192-193. (Des Moines, 1870.) Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 59 Light gray oolitic limestone with uniform lithological characters. 2 to 4 feet in thickness. . Fine grained yellowish sandstone much like parts of No. 1, often crowded with casts of fossil shells. Maximum thickness 7 feet. . Dark gray compact limestone, sometimes slightly arenaceous. It breaks up into small fragments upon exposure, and is very fragmentary even when not exposed to the atmosphere. Maximum thickness 12 feet. 7 . Band of oolitic limestone about 3 inches in thickness. . Band of compact limestone everywhere crowded with Chonetes. 6 inches in thickness. . Fine grained sandy shales, varying from bluish clay shale to fine grained yellow sandstone. The upper portion of the bed quite fossiliferous. Greatest thick- ness actually exposed above river level 82 feet, its total thickness as estimated from well borings 140 to 200. feet. In his report on Des Moines County in 1895, Keyes * gives the following section of the Kinderhook beds at Prospect Hill, a bluff on the river bank just south of the city of Burlington. | Feet. 6. Limestone, buff, soft, sandy locally...... wetnee 5 5. Limestone, white; oolition. so. feeble desu ds 3 4. Sandstone, yellowish, soft, fine-grained, highly charged with casts of fossils................ 6 3. Limestone, argillaceous, fine grained, with often an oolitic band or thin bed of impure limerock RE DAB s ic) eels 2 thie a's Hee Lehane vue oie os 18 2. Sandstone, yellowish, soft, friable, clayey...... 25. 1. Shale, blue, argillaceous, shown by borings to ex- tend 100 feet or more belowriver level(exposed) 60 * Geol. Surv. Iowa. 3:433. (Des Moines, 1895.) 60 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. In March, 1899, the writer spent some time in the field studying the Kinderhook section at Burlington, in order to differentiate the fossil faunas of that age there represented, and the following section, which seems best adapted to bring out the faunal succession, has been adopted as the result of observations made at that time. It differs from Hall’s and from Keyes’ sections only in dividing their No. 3, recognizing as a distinct bed the thin band of impure or oolitic limestone. It differs from White’s section only in joining his Nos. 2 and 3, and in dividing his No. 1, the upper sandy, fossiliferous portion being recognized as a distinct bed. soft, buff, gritty limestone..........ccecseves 3-5 White oolitic limestone. . 6... oc cee See tebe 2-4 Fine grained, yellow sandstone........++eeeee- 6-7 Fine grained, compact, fragmental gray limestone 12-18 Thin band of hard, impure limestone filled with Chonetes, sometimes associated with a thin USPS AMUN Gan bid se bbe ao a eco es ele woh aa ee> 43 2. Soft, friable, argillaceous sandstone, sometimes harder and bluish in color, filled with fossils in the upper portion, the most abundant of which is Chonopectus fischeri (N. & P.)... eee cueeee 25 1. Soft blue argillaceous shale (exposed).......++. 60 oe aN The correllation of the Kinderhook beds at Burlington, as recognized by Owen, Hall, White, Keyes, and the writer, is not a difficult matter, the preceding sections being but different interpretations or different arrangements of the same series of strata. In the following table these five sections are arranged side by side, in such a manner as to correlate the divisions recognized in each, the divisions of the several authors being indicated by numbers only. Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 61 OWEN Hah WHITE KEYES WELLER 1852. 1858. 1870. 1895. 1899, a 7 6 7 ey 5 6 5 6 4 5 4 5 3 3 4 3 4 3 2 £ 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 } 1 iver Leve 62 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. The fossils of the Kinderhook beds at Burlington at one time attracted much attention from paleontologists and local collectors, but of late years they have usually been neglected. The first species described from any of the beds was Gyro- ceras burlingtonensis, described by Owen * in 1852 from the oolite bed No.6 (Weller). A little later (1858), in his pale- ontology of Iowa, Hall t described and illustrated a number of species of brachiopods and a few pelecypods from the ‘¢‘ yellow sandstone ’’ at Burlington. The most important collection of Kinderhook fossils from Burlington that has been brought together was made by Dr. C. A. White when he was a resident of that city. The ‘¢ White collection,’’ which is now the property of the Uni- versity of Michigan, formed the basis for several important papers, devoted to the description of Burlington fossils, by C. A. White,t by C. A. White and R. P. Whitfield,§ and by A. Winchell.|| In these papers many species were described but without illustrations, so that their identification by other observers and from other localities has always been exceed- ingly difficult or impossible. Many of these species have re- mained without illustrations up till the present time, a large number of those recorded in the present paper being now figured for the first time. During the preparation of the descriptions of New York Devonian pelecypods for the Paleontology of New York, Hall J described and illustrated several of the Burlington ‘‘ Yellow Sandstone ’’ species that were related to New York Devonian species, the figures in most cases being drawn from the type specimens. More recently Keyes** has published upon some of the gasteropods from the Kinderhook beds at Burlington, but his identifications of the species were apparently not based * Geol. Surv. Wis., Iowa, and Minn. 581. tab. 5, fig. 10. + Rep. Geol. Surv. Iowa. 1%, t Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 93 8-33. (1862.) § Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 8: 289-306. (1862.) || Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1868 : 2-25. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1865 : 109-133. q Pal. N.Y. 5!, 1884-1885.) ** Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1889: 284. Am. Geol. 5: 193. (1890.) Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 63 on comparisons with the type specimens, and are evidently erroneous in some cases. , In all the work which has been done in the past, on the Kinderhook fossils at Burlington, little or no effort has been made to assign the species to their definite stratigraphic posi- tions in the section. It has usually been deemed sufficient to refer a species to the ‘* Yellow Sandstone, Burlington, lowa,’’ - ignoring the fact that there are two yellow sandstones in the Kinderhook at that place, whose faunas are almost entirely distinct, there being only a small number of species common to the two beds. The fauna of the oolite bed can be more easily recognized from the literature, but even the fossils from this well marked horizon have often been recorded simply as coming from the ‘* Kinderhook beds, Burlington, Iowa.”’ In the White collection most of the specimens are marked with a number indicating the bed from which they came, and a careful study of that collection supplemented by an exam- ination of the faunas in the field and of material kindly loaned by Prof. Calvin, leads to the recognition of at least four dis- tinct faunal zones in the section in which fossils are abundant, and three other zones in which the fossils are less abundant but which still possess their own faunal characteristics. ‘These seven faunal zones correspond with the seven beds recognized by the writer in the section. _The fauna described in the present paper is that of bed No. 2 (Weller). This is the lower one of the two yellow sandstone horizons, and it contains the most prolific fauna in the whole section. It is characterized by multitudes of indi- viduals of Chonopectus fischeri (W. and P.), and for this reason the sandstone will be designated as the Chonopectus sandstone. Usually this bed is a soft, friable, yellow grit or fine sandstone, in which the fossils are always preserved as casts, though in many cases the cavities left after the solution of the shell, have been closed by pressure. At one locality on Flint River, this bed is represented by a highly fossilifer- ous, much harder, blue sandstone, which has weathered along the joints into a soft yellow rock with characters similar to the usual exposures of the bed. From this occurrence it seems possible that the softness and yellow color of the bed 64 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. as usually exposed may be due to a weathered condition, but this could only be determined by extensive excavations. The fossils are most abundant, in fact are almost wholly restricted to the upper five or six feet of the bed, just below the thin band of impure limestone, — bed No. 3 ( Weller). It is usually possible to recognize the fossils from the Chonopectus sandstone, by their lithologic characters alone. They could only be confused with those of bed No. 5 ( Wel- ler), but the Chonopectus sandstone is usually of a deeper yellow color, often reddish, and is softer than bed No.5. In the upper yellow sandstone, No. 5, the cavities remaining from the solution of the shells are usually preserved, the greater density of the rock not allowing them to be closed by pressure. The writer is under the greatest obligation to Prof. I. C. Russell of Ann Arbor, Michigan, for the use of the types and other specimens of Burlington fossils preserved in the ‘s White Collection ’’ in the University of Michigan. These specimens have been loaned for study with the utmost gener- osity, and without the hearty co-operation of Prof. Russell the present paper could never have been prepared. A large pro- portion of the illustrations here published have been drawn from the type specimens in the University of Michigan collection. Prof. Samuel Calvin, state geologist of Iowa, has also loaned a small collection of Kinderhook fossils from Burling- ton. Acknowledgment is also due Dr. H. F. Bain, assist- ant state geologist of Iowa, for the helpful encouragement he has given during the prosecution of the work. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.* ECHINODERMATA. A few detached joints of crinoid stems have been observed in the Chonopectus sandstone, as well as a single form which ¥ * The bibliographic references have been omitted from these descriptions. For these the reader is referred to Bulletin 153, U. S. Geological Survey, ‘‘A Bibliographic Index of North American Carboniferous Invertebrates,’’ by Stuart Weller. Washington, 1898. In the case of species referred to a different genus in the present paper than in Bulletin 153, a reference is given to the Bulletin. Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 65 seems to be the impression of a crinoid arm, and very imper- fect cast of a calyx. None of these fragments can be identi- fied, even generically. VERMES. Indefinite worm burrows are sometimes present in the Chonopectus sandstone, but they are usually not conspicuous. MOLLUSCOIDEA. BRACHIOPODA. LINGULA MEMBRANACEA Win. Pl. I. f. 20. ‘¢ Shell flattened, quadrate-elliptical, nearly as broad near the beak as at the same distance from the anterior margin; length nearly equal to twice the width; lateral margins slightly curved; beak scarcely elevated, near the posterior margin, but with a narrow belt behind it. Shell substance membraneous, marked externally by very delicate, regular concentric lines.’’ Length 12 mm., greatest width 8 mm. Remarks. This species is represented in the University of Michigan collection by the single imperfect type specimen with rather indefinite characters. The above description is a copy of the original one by Winchell. The specimen is im- perfect along the margins, and if it were complete the shell would be wider posteriorly than is represented in the illus- tration. ORBICULOIDEA CAPAX (White). Pl. I. f. 19. ‘* Shell subcircular in outline, dorsal [brachial] valve much convex, apex small, prominent, eccentric, and pointing back- wards. Surface having a rather smooth appearance, but marked by fine lines of growth and these crossed by very faint, somewhat distinct, radiating striae.’’ Remarks. The only specimen of this species which has been observed in the Chonopectus sandstone, is the type pre- served in the University of Michigan collection. The speci- 66 Trans. Acad. Sct. of St. Louis. men is an imperfect, badly crushed example, which when complete must have had a diameter of about 25mm. Any really distinguishing characters by which it may be separated from various other species of the same genus in the Devonian and Carboniferous faunas, are not well preserved. The description of the species given above is a copy of the original one written by White. ORTHOTHETES INAEQUALIS (Hall). Pit 718, Shell subplano-convex or slightly concavo-convex, sub-ellip- tical or subsemicircular in outline, more or less unsymmet- rical; the hinge-line usually equaling the greatest width of the shell, but sometimes a little less. Pedicle valve nearly plane, slightly concave or convex; usually convex near the beak and concave in all directions to the lateral and anterior margins. Brachial valve strongly convex, greatest convexity near the middle. Surface of both valves marked by fine, radiating costae which are somewhat irregular, and often alternate in size. More or less conspicuous concentric lines of growth are often present on one or both valves, though they are usually stronger on the pedicle valve. The dimen- sions of an average specimen are: length, 19 mm., and breadth, 26 mm. ftemarks. A study of a large number of specimens from many localities and horizons, will probably show this species and perhaps others of the same genus in the lower Carbon- iferous faunas, to be not distinct from O. chemungensis which is so common throughout many of the Devonian faunas. Because of their great amount of variation, it is extremely difficult to draw sharp specific lines between the members of this genus, and this can only be done when a large number of specimens from many localities shall be brought together and diligently studied. ScHIZOPHORIA SWALLOVI (Hall). PL EP T18) Shell subcircular or transversely subelliptical in outline; hinge-line shorter than the greatest width of the shell, the Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 67 cardinal extremities rounded. Pedicle valve depressed convex near the beak, flattened on the sides, with a broad, shallow, mesial sinus beginning in the middle of the shell and becom- ing more conspicuous towards the anterior margin; cardinal area of moderate size. Brachial valve somewhat regularly convex or gibbous. Surface marked by fine, closely arranged radiating striae, and by a few indistinct lines of growth. In the internal casts the muscular impressions are well defined. Length 30 mm., breadth 38 mm., convexity of brachial valve 13 mm. | Remarks. For a discussion of the relationship between the later Devonian and the earlier Carboniferous species of the genus Schizophoria, the reader is referred to the first of these Kinderhook Faunal Studies.* The Chonopectus sandstone specimens do not materially differ from the Northview speci- mens, and are more Carboniferous in aspect than Devonian. The small specimen illustrated (Plate I. fig. 13) is the type of Winchell’s species Orihis flava, and is only an immature example of Schizophoria swallovi. CHONETES ILLINOISENSIS Worthen. Pl. I. f. 14. Shell of medium size, varying in outline from subelliptical to semielliptical; the hinge line usually a little shorter than the greatest width of the shell, and the cardinal extremities slightly rounded. Pedicle valve rather strongly convex in the middle, flattened towards the cardinal extremities; the cardinal margin furnished with five or six oblique spines on each side of the beak. Brachial valve slightly concave, the concavity much less than the convexing of the opposite valve. Surface of both valves marked with from 120 to 200 fine, rounded, dichotomizing striae. The dimensions of an average specimen are: length 10 mm. and breadth 13 mm. Remarks. The type specimens of Chonetes multicosta Win., should be in the University of Michigan collection, but they cannot now be found. The species is said to range all through the Kinderhook and into the base of the Burlington limestone at Burlington, Iowa. It most nearly resembles C. illinoisensis, * Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci. 9: 13. 68 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. being distinguished from that species chiefly by reason of its greater number of radiating striae. In all the collections of Chonopectus sandstone fossils which have been studied in connection with the present investigation, three species of Chonetes have been observed, but only one of these resembles in any degree the description of C. multicosta. From a careful study of the best of these, and comparison with many specimens of C. illinoisensis from the Osage fauna, there seems to be no reason for believing them to be distinct from C. illinoisensis. For the present, therefore, it seems best to consider OC. multicosta asa synonym of C. illinoisensis though if the type specimens are found at some future time it may be found to be distinct. In none of the Chonopectus sandstone specimens have the spines been observed, and the specimens themselves are for the most part imperfect. Cuonetes sp. — Cf. C. eentcuLata White. Pl. I. f. 16. Shell more or less subelliptical in outline, with the hinge- line usually a little shorter than the greatest width of the shell. The pedicle valve strongly convex in the middle, slightly flattened near the cardinal extremities ; three or four oblique spines present along the cardinal margin on each side of the beak. The concavity of the brachial valve much less than the convexity of the pedicle valve, in some individuals it being nearly flat throughout. Surface of each valve marked by eighty to one hundred fine radiating striae. Dimensions of an average specimen: length 5 mm., width 7 mm. emarks. C. geniculata, with which this species may be compared, occurs in abundance in the Louisiana limestone at Louisiana, Missouri, and many specimens from that locality have been examined. ‘The Burlington specimens agree closely with those from Louisiana in general form, but their average size is a little greater, and the radiating striae with which they are marked are much finer, there being only about forty-five or fifty in C. geniculata. In the list of localities for C. geniculata, given by White with his original description, Bur- lington, Iowa, is recorded with a query, and it was undoubt- Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 69 edly the little shell here described that he had in mind, be- cause of its abundance at Burlington in the Chonopectus sandstone, and especially in the thin limestone band which lies just above the sandstone. This limestone band which is only a few inches in thickness is usually constituted almost wholly of the shells of this single species. Upon the internal casts of the pedicle valve in the Chonopectus sandstone, such as the one here illustrated, the radiating striae can usually not be recognized, hence their absence from the figure. CHONETES sp. undet. PUES. LE. A few imperfect specimens of a third species of Chonetes, not yet identified with any described form and intermediate in size between the other two, have been found in the Chono- pectus sandstone. It differs from either of its associates in its coarser radiating striae, there being only 40-50 on each valve. The shell is also much more extended along the hinge- line, the cardinal extremities being acutely angular. The species somewhat resembles C.. ornatus from the Louisiana limestone at Louisiana, Missouri, but the striae are finer and the cardinal extremities more acute than in that species. The best specimen observed is an impression of the outside of the brachial valve which is moderately convex in the middle and flattened towards the cardinal extremities. The contour of the pedicle valve is not certainly known. CHONOPECTUS FISCHERI (N. & P.). Pl. I. f. 17. Shell semi-elliptical in outline, the hinge-line equal to or a little less than the width of a shell. Pedicle valve convex, somewhat gibbous in the middle, often nearly flat at the umbo and along the hinge-line, compressed at the cardinal angles; the hinge-line furnished with five to seven nearly straight tub- ular spines on each side of the beak, those nearest the beak usually being at right angles to the hinge-line while the outer ones are slightly oblique. Brachial valve moderately concave, following the curvature of the opposite valve. Surface marked by fine radiating striae, by concentric lines or wrinkles of 70 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. growth which are most prominent near the hinge-line, and by a double set of curved, diagonal lines. The dimensions of an average specimen are: length, 16 mm., breadth, 21 mm., and convexity, 44 mm. Remarks. This species is by far the most abundant in the Chonopectus sandstone. Not a fragment of the rock in the fossiliferous layers can be broken without exposing one or more specimens of this species, and the number of individuals present is many times that of other species in the fauna. As they occur in the sandstone, the surface markings are usually obliterated to a very great extent so that they appear to be nearly smooth, but the concentric lines or wrinkles of growth may usually be observed near the hinge-line, and also the curved diagonal lines. PRODUCTUS SEMIRETICULATUS Martin. Pl. I. f. 6-6. A detailed description of this cosmopolitan species is not necessary. The specimens in the Chonopectus sandstone resemble P. burlingtonensis Hall, of the Burlington limestone, but they are constantly less convex than that species. In size and in general characteristics, aside from the convexity, these — specimens approximate P. burlingtonensis, and it is possible that they should be considered as constituting a variety of that species. It is difficult as yet, if not altogether impossible, to draw sharply defined specific lines in the genus Productus, and therefore it is thought best for the present to refer the Chonopectus sandstone specimens to the more general species P. semireticulatus, which as understood at present includes a great variety of forms. The specimen illustrated in the ac- companying figures 5 and 6 is the one referred to by Winchell* as P. martini, and the one in figures 7 and 8 is one of the types of P. curtirostris Win.t This latter species proves to be nothing more than the external impression of the brachial valve of P. semireticulatus, and the name therefore becomes a synonym. * Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1863: 4. + Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1865 : 114. Welier — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 71 PRODUCTUS COOPERENSIS Swall.? Pl. I. f. 3-4. The specimens in the University of Michigan collection, referred by Winchell to this species, differ from P. semire- ticulatus chiefly in the nearly obsolete radiating plications. The specimens are also more gibbous than those that are more completely plicated. Associated with these specimens there are others which are intermediate in their characters between the two forms, and it is not improbable that both those re- ferred to P. cooperensis and to P. semireticulatus are mem- bers of a single variable species. The original P. cooperensis was described from the Chouteau limestone of Cooper County, Missouri. It has never been illustrated and the identity of these Burlington specimens with it is by no means certain. Propuctus LAEvicostus White. Pu L f.1-2. This species, first described from the Burlington limestone at Burlington, lowa, is a member of the group of species of Productus typified by P. cora. All the species of this group are characterized by their fine, dividing, more or less wavy, radiating costae, and by the conspicuous transverse wrinkles of the shell in the region of the cardinal extremities. P. lae- vicosius is closely related to the typical P. cora as it occurs in the Coal Measure faunas, but the beak is always much more pointed than in the latter species, and it is also more free from spines. PRODUCTELLA NUMMULARIS ( Win.). Pl. I. f. 9-10. Strophalosia nummularis, Bull. U. S. G. S. 158: 613. Shell subcircular in outline, truncated by the hinge-line ; hinge-line shorter than the greatest width of the shell. Pedi- cle valve depressed convex, most prominent at a point a little in front of the beak, decidedly flattened on each side of the beak towards the cardinal extremities; the beak, rather small and pointed, incurved, projecting but slightly beyond the hinge- line. Brachial valve discoid, with a broad, shallow mesial depression which is bounded on the two sides by lines diverg- ing from the beak nearly at right angles to each other; beak 72 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. depressed; the cardinal process, as shown in casts of the inside of the valve, is small, bifid, and lies in the plane of the valve projecting beyond the hinge-line; the internal casts also show a low median ridge extending from near the beak almost to the middle of the shell; there are also two low, widely diverg- ing socket plates whose impressions are preserved in casts of the brachial valve. The surface of the pedicle valve is cov- ered with innumerable fine spines which attain a length of at least 5mm. The brachial valve also is marked by small pits which may represent a covering of spines, though the spines themselves have not been observed. Both valves are marked by more or less conspicuous concentric lines of growth. The dimensions of the best preserved pedicle valve observed, one of the type specimens, are: length, 20 mm., breadth, 22 mm., thickness, 3} mm. The largest specimen preserved is a brachial valve whose length is 22 mm. and breadth, 32 mm. Remarks. This species was referred to the genus Stropha- losia by Winchell in his original description, but it is un- doubtedly a Productella. The fine spines covering the surface are usually destroyed, leaving only a pitted surface, but in a single specimen of a pedicle valve in the University of Chicago collection, their presence is clearly shown. The species resembles in some degree P. pyxidata from the Louisiana Limestone at Louisiana, Missouri, but it is a more nearly circular shell and often attains a much greater size. Pu@nax sTrraTocosTaTa (M. and W.) var.? Pl. II. f. 16-17. Shell much wider than long, broadly subtriangular in out- line, the angle of divergence of the lateral margins from the beak 110° to 113°. Pedicle valve depressed convex with a broad, deep, sharply defined mesial sinus which is greatly produced anteriorly in a lingual extension nearly at right angles to the plane of the valve. Brachial valve extremely gibbous, the mesial fold strongly elevated in front. Surface of the shell marked by simple, strong, subangular plications, of which there are usually four on each side of the mesial sinus in the pedicle valve, and three on each side of the fold of the brachial valve; in the fold and sinus the number of Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 73 plications varies from two to four in the sinus with always one more on the fold. In addition to the plications both valves are marked over their entire surface by fine radiating striae which are often nearly obsolete in the casts. The dimensions of an average specimen are: length, 22 mm., breadth, 30 mm., thickness, 22 mm. Remarks. In 1855 Shumard * described ARhynchonella missouriensis from the Chouteau limestone of Cooper and Boone Counties, Missouri. In 1868 Meek and Worthenf described a shell from Kinderhook, Pike County, Illinois, as the same species, but in their remarks on the species they pointed out that Shumard included what they considered to be two distinct species in &. missourtensis. Their own speci- mens they identified with the larger form of Shumard’s species and suggest the name sériatocosiata for it, retaining the original name missouriensis for Shumard’s smaller form. One of the most conspicuous features of Meek and Worthen’s £. striatocostata are the fine radiating striae which cover the entire surface of both valves in addition to the strong plica- tions. Shumard mentioned no such markings in his descrip- tion of R. missouriensis, but did mention fine, concentric lines of growth, and in some specimens from the Chouteau lime- stone at Sedalia, Missouri, believed to be &. missouriensis, there are no signs of radiating striae but the fine concentric lines of growth are finely shown. From astudy of the speci- mens, therefore, it seems that Meek and Worthen were mis- taken in identifying their shell from Kinderhook, Illinois, with Shumard’s, whether the latter really includes two dis- tinct species or only one. All of these shells were originally described as members of the genus Khynchonella, but they are now referred to Pugnaz. In the Kinderhook formations at Burlington, there are two varieties or perhaps distinct species characterized by the fine radiating striae of P. striatocostata. One of these occurs in the limestone above the Chonopectus sandstone and may be certainly identified with Meek and Worthen’s shell from Kin- *T and II Rep. Geol. Mo. 204. + Geol. Surv. lll. 3: 450. 74 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. derhook, Illinois. The second form occurs in the Chonopec- tus sandstone, and apparently presents constant characters by which it may be separated from the shell in the limestone above. It is always larger and thicker than the typical P. striatocosiata, and as they diverge from the beak the lateral margins form a wider angle than in the limestone specimens. The differences are so great and apparently so constant that it is possible that the Chonopectus sandstone form should be given a specific designation, but for the present it will be con- sidered only asa variety. In volume eight of the New York Paleontology this shell is illustrated on plate 62, figs. 44-45, under the name P. missouriensis, while the typical form of P. striatocostata is illustrated under the same name on plate 60, figs. 33-34. Allied species have been described from the Waverly sandstone in Pennsylvania. RHYNCHONELLA sp. undet. Pl. I. f. 4-8. Several specimens of /?hynchonella have been observed in the fauna of the Chonopectus sandstone, but they are too im- perfect for certain identification. They seem to belong to a single variable species, the two figures given representing the extremes, one with an obtuse and the other with an acute beak. The umbonal region of the pedicle valve is convex, the sinus being present only towards the anterior margin of the shell, and there it is very shallow. ‘The anterior margin of the valve is abruptly incurved so that the margin lies nearly at a right angle to the general plane of the shell. The surface of each valve is marked by about twelve or fourteen simple rounded plications. Most of the specimens observed are pedicle valves, only a few fragments of the brachial valve having been seen. | EUMETRIA ALTIROSTRIS (White). Pl. II. f. 18-19. Shell longitudinally subovate in outline, the valves nearly equally convex. Brachial valve with a prominent, elevated beak slightly incurved at the tip, and perforated by a large circular foramen; mesial sinus shallow, ill-defined. Brachial Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 75 valve without an appreciable mesial fold. Surface of each valve marked by twenty or twenty-two prominent, simple, rounded plications, which gradually increase in size towards the front; the furrows between the ribs much narrower than the ribs themselves; the groove along the median line of the pedicle valve stronger than any of those on either side. Length of an average specimen 19 mm., breadth, 15 mm., and thickness, 10 mm. Remarks. The types of this species in the University of Michigan collection are four in number, all of them more or less imperfect. The specimen here illustrated is a more perfect one in the University of Chicago collection from the same locality as the types. The species resembles E. marcyi (Shum.) from the St. Louis limestone fauna, but it has a more acute and more erect beak, coarser plica- tions, and the slight median sinus with its stronger median furrow. ATHYRIS CORPULENTA ( Win.). Pl. I. f. 12-15. Shell varying from longitudinally subelliptical to subcircular in outline, the valves becoming exceedingly gibbous in the adult individuals. Pedicle valve gibbous in the middle, usually with a shallow, ill-defined mesial sinus in the anterior half of large shells, though this is sometimes practically obsolete; in those specimens with the sinus well developed, the anterior margin of the valve is produced; the beak is small and incurved over that of the brachial valve. Brachial valve nearly as convex as the pedicle valve so that the older and shorter individuals become subglobular in form; the specimens with a sinus developed in the pedicle valve have a corresponding, ill-defined fold in the brachial valve. Surface of both valves marked by strong, concentric lines of growth which are often crowded near the margin. The dimensions of asmall, exceedingly elongate specimen are: length, 15 mm., breadth, 11 mm., and thickness, 10 mm.; those of another larger and very gibbous specimen are: length, 16 mm., breadth, 18 mm., thickness, 20 mm. This latter specimen has apparantly been somewhat distorted so that the convexity 76 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louts. of the pedicle valve is too great and consequently also the thickness of the entire shell. ftemarks. The general aspect of the type specimens of this species is remarkable. The great gibbosity of the larger specimen illustrated, causes the lateral slopes of the two valves to lie in the same general plane, so that the sides of the shell present a regular convexity. The gibbosity of the pedicle valve of this specimen is accentuated by the crushing of the anterior portion of the valve. The smaller specimen illustrated perhaps represents more nearly the normal form of the species, though this one is extremely elongate, the average form of the species being that in which the length and the breadth are nearly equal. It is by no means certain that this species belongs to the genus Athyris, but it was originally described as Spirigera, a synonym of Athyris, and it is therefore allowed to remain here until its generic relations can be accurately determined. SPIRIFER SUBROTUNDATUS Hall. Pl. II. f. 8-10. Shell subcircular in outline, the hinge-line much shorter than the width of the shell. Pedicle valve rather strongly convex, the umbo large and prominent; the beak moderately incurved; the cardinal area rather high, concave, extending to the ends of the hinge-line; the mesial sinus shallow, rounded, not sharply defined. Brachial valve less convex than the opposite one, its greatest convexity posterior to the middle, from which point it curves regularly to the lateral and anterior margins ; the mesial fold not sharply defined and scarcely elevated above the general surface of the valve. Surface of each valve, both the lateral slopes and the fold and sinus, covered with from sixty to seventy-five bifurcating plications, and by more or less conspicuous concentric lines or wrinkles of growth. The dimensions of an average specimen are; length, 32 mm., breadth, 37 mm., andthickness,19mm. The largest specimen observed is 43 mm. long and 48 mm. broad. Remarks. This species is one of the commoner ones in the Chonopectus sandstone. It belongs to a decidedly Carbonifer- ous type of the genus in which the shells are completely Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 77 covered with bifurcating plications. In this respect it is allied to S. grimesit H., of the Osage fauna, and may possibly be considered as a genetic predecessor of that species. It never grows so large as S. grimest, however, and has a shorter hinge-line. It is not known whether the shell is marked by the very fine radiating striae which characterize S. grimesi. SPIRIFER BIPLICATUS Hall. Pl. II. f. 6-7. Shell, exclusive of the cardinal extensions, semicircular or semielliptical in outline; the hinge-line greatly extended in long mucronate points. Pedicle valve with a rather small in- curved beak and a prominent umbo; the cardinal area narrow; the slope to the cardinal margin rather steep, that to the cardinal angles and lateral margins slightly concave; the mesial sinus narrow and shallow, marked in the center by a single, simple plication, the two bounding plications larger than any of those on the lateral slopes. Convexity of the brachial valve about equal to that of the pedicle valve, the mesial fold narrow, not elevated above the general surface of the valve, marked along its median line by a simple, shallow furrow, the bounding furrows deeper than those on the lateral slopes. Surface of each valve marked by about twelve simple plications on each lateral slope which grow smaller as they approach the cardinal angles, and by concentric lines of growth. The dimensions of an average specimen are: length, 9 mm., breadth along the hinge-line, 50 mm., thickness, 8 mm. Remarks. This species is remarkable because of its greatly extended, mucronate cardinal extremities. In this respect it strongly simulates some Devonian species such as S. pennatus Atw., and has no near allies in the succeeding Carboniferous faunas. We have then, associated in this fauna, this strictly Devonian type of the genus Spirifer, and a characteristic Carboniferous type represented by S. subrotundatus. SYRINGOTHYRIS EXTENUATUS (Hall). Pi. 1. f. 1-8. Shell subsemielliptical in outline, greatly extended along the hinge-line. Pedicle valve subpyramidal; the cardinal 78 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. area high, flat or slightly convex or concave, sharply defined along the margin, sloping forward from the hinge-line at an angle of about 30° with the plane of the valve; the mesial sinus broad and deep, not plicated, rounded in the bottom, not sharply defined, produced anteriorly in a lingual exten- sion; the lateral slopes very narrow; in the sandstone casts the syrinx is usually well exhibited. Brachial valve somewhat gibbous in the middle, the lateral slopes concave from the deepest point of the valve to the cardinal extremities, flat- tened towards the cardinal angles; the mesial fold prominent, rounded above, sharply defined, not plicated, deeply emar- ginate in front. Surface of each valve marked with fifteen to twenty simple rounded plications on each lateral slope, grow- ing smaller towards the cardinal extremities ; in addition to the plications each valve is usually marked by several more or less conspicuous lines of growth which in the pedicle valve are continuous across the cardinal area. The dimensions of an average specimen are: length, from beak of brachial valve to the anterior margin of the fold and sinus, 14 mm., length of hinge-line, 41 mm., height of cardinal area, 15 mm. An- other large brachial valve has a length of 17 mm., and a breadth along the hinge-line of 63 mm. Remarks. It has always been found difficult to draw sharply defined specific lines between the species of the genus Syringothyris. From the Kinderhook beds at Burlington two species of the genus have been described, S. exienuatus Hall, and S. halli Winchell. Hall’s species is from the Chonopectus sandstone; it was originally described from the brachial valve alone, butin recent collections from Burlington several specimens preserving both valves have been secured and it is a common species in the fauna. The types of S. halli are not from the Chonopectus sandstone but from the overlying limestone, although specimens of S. extenuatus from the sandstone are present in the University of Michigan collection labeled S. halli var., by Winchell. From a careful study of the types of &. halli and of a good collection of S. extenuatus, it is believed that the two species are not identical as has been sometimes suggested. As they occur at Burlington S. halli is always smaller than S. extenuatus, the largest specimen of Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 79 the former being 36 mm. in extent along the hinge-line, while the largest specimen of the latter is 63mm. The cardinal area of S. extenuatus is usually perfectly flat or slightly convex, in but one specimen is it slightly concave, while in S. halli on the other hand, the area is usually concave at least towards the beak, and in some _ individuals it is strongly concave throughout the entire height. The most important difference between the two species, however, is to be found in the length of the pedicle valve from the beak to the anterior margin. In S. extenuatus this distance is always shorter than the height of the area, while in S. halli it is always Ne Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. Profile views of:—1. Syringothyris extenuatus from the Chonopectus sand- stone. 2. One of the type specimens of S. halli from Burlington. 38. S. han- nibalensis from the Louisiana limestone at Louisiana, Mo. These outlines show the variation in the angle of forward slope of the cardinal area. longer. Perhaps a better manner of expressing this same difference is in the angle of forward slope from the hinge-line of the area of the pedicle valve. In the measurement of this angle the plane of the pedicle valve is assumed to pass through the hinge-line and the lateral margins of the valve, cutting off the anterior extension of the mesial sinus. While these lines do not exactly locate a plane, they do so approximately, and the angle between this plane and the cardinal area may be approximately measured. In nine specimens of S. extenuatus this angle does not vary more than two or three degrees from 30°, while in the two type specimens of S. halli perfectly enough preserved to admit of measurements, this angle varies only two or three degrees from 60°. In five specimens of S. hannibalensis Swallow, from the Louisiana limestone at 80 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Louisiana, Missouri,* varying greatly in other characters, such as length, breadth, thickness, curvature of the area and length of hinge-line, this angle remains approximately the same, being not far from 60°. If the size of this angle may be considered as a specific character of value, then S. exten- uaius is certainly a good species while S. halli may be only a small variety of S. hannibalensis. Schuchert and others have considered S. hannibalensis as identical with S. Carteri Hall, and it is quite possible that this is true, but it is certainly a mistake to consider S. alli as a synonym of S. extenuatus. RETICULARIA COOPERENSIS (Swall.). Pl. I. f. 11. Shell transversely subelliptical in outline, the hinge-line very short, the cardinal angles rounded. Pedicle valve rather strongly convex, the greatest convexity between the middle of the valve and the beak; the beak moderately acute, in- curved; the cardinal area small, a large portion of it occupied by the delthyrium, its margins rounded ; mesial sinus shallow, undefined, sometimes almost obsolete. Brachial valve less convex than the opposite one, its greatest convexity at or a little posterior to the middle; the mesial fold ill- defined, not elevated above the general surface of the valve. Surface marked by more or less conspicuous concentric lines of growth, and also by very fine radiating costae which form little pustules at the margins of the concentric ridges, indi- cating the presence of concentric rows of fine spines upon the surface of the shell. Dimensions of a rather large specimen: length of brachial valve, 18 mm., breadth, 25 mm. Remarks. The types of &. hiria (W. and W.) are from the ‘* Yellow sandstone ’’ at Burlington, but apparently from the upper formation included under this name. Inthe Chono- pectus sandstone the species is not common, the brachial valve illustrated being the only one certainly identified from that formation. R. hirta is generally considered as synony- mous with &. cooperensis (Swall.) from the Chouteau lime- * These specimens were generously loaned for study by Mr. R. R. Rowley of Louisiana. Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 81 stone of Cooper County, Missouri, and as Swallow’s name has priority it is here adopted. It is possible that both these names should be considered as synonymous with A#. lineata (Martin), but this can be certainly determined only when a large number of specimens can be compared. These sand- stone specimens are, of course, all casts and consequently the surface markings of the shells are indistinct, the concentric lines usually being the only ones that can be definitely recognized. BRYOZOA. Impressions of bryozoa belonging to Fenestella or some allied genus are not uncommon in the Chonopectus sandstone, but the state of their preservation is not such as to admit of their identification. MOLLUSCA. PELECYPODA. AVICULOPECTEN TENUICOSTUS Win. Pl. II. f. 3. ‘¢ Shell small, equilateral ; pallial margin circularly rounded between anterior and posterior extremities, which lie midway between the beak and the opposite side. Beak slightly promi- nent ; body of shell bounded by a truncation from beak to each lateral margin; anterior truncation slightly concave. Anterior wing of left valve moderately inflated, as long as anterior side of shell, distinctly rounded at extremity, joining hinge-line by a rounded angle, and separated from body of shell by a broadly V-shaped sinus, rounded at the bottom. Posterior wing only very imperfectly seen. Surface (of left valve) ornamented by fine, rigid, nearly equidistant ribs, 50 or 60 in number, separated by concave intervals; similar but finer ribs or striae marking the anterior ear. Frequently from three to five equidistant costate elevations appear, each of which bears two or three of the ribs. A few inequidistant concentric lines are seen. Right valve unknown.”’ Remarks. The types of this species consist of seven 82 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. specimens, and it is rather singular that in each of these the posterior ear has been destroyed so that its form cannot be determined. The specimen illustrated is the best preserved and largest one of the types, having a height and length of 13 mm. each. The smallest of the type specimens is but 8 mm. in height, while a fragmentary specimen not included among the types is 17 mm. in height. The most characteris- tic features of the species are the fine radiating striae with the variable number of raised ribs, each of which is covered with striae similar to those between. ‘These ribs are variable in number, from three to six or seven. In some specimens they are much more conspicuous than in others, and those near the center of the shell are always most conspicuous. Some- times the ribs are nearly obsolete. AVICULOPECTEN CAROLI Win. Pl. III. f. 4. Shell subcircular, the height and length each 25 mm., nearly equilateral, the greatest convexity 6 mm. at a point a little above the middle. Hinge-line shorter than the shell. Beak central, scarcely elevated above the hinge-line. An- terior ear of the left valve slightly convex, sharply depressed from the body of the shell; its anterior margin nearly straight above and forming approximately a right angle with the hinge- line, rounded below where it forms a shallow angular notch with the margin of the shell below. Posterior ear of the same valve not so sharply separated from the body of the shell; its posterior extremity acutely angular, and the pos- terior margin forming with the margin of the shell below a shallow, rounded notch. The anterior, basal and posterior margins together form something more than a nearly per- fect semicircular curve. Surface of the shell marked by about seventy-five raised costae towards the margin, which vary greatly in size. These costae increase in number by division and by intercalation, so that the number is much less towards the beak. The larger costae are from three to five times the width of the smaller ones. The larger ribs pro- duced into spines on the margin of the shell. The surface is also marked by indefinite concentric lines of growth. The Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 83 surface markings on the anterior ear become nearly obsolete, while on the posterior ear the concentric markings become stronger at the expense of the radiating costae. Remarks. The specimens which are labeled as the types of this species in the University of Michigan collection are four in number, two of them being from the Chonopectus sand- tone, the others from a higher horizon. It is altogether prob- able that all these specimens do not belong to a single species, and it is impossible to determine from his description and measurements which one of these specimens Winchell consid- ered as the type. The two species from the Chonopectus sandstone are of the same species, and one of these is here selected to represent the species and the description has been entirely rewritten. The specimens from the Waverly series in Ohio, identified as A. carolé by Hall and by Herrick, probably do not belong to this species. PreRINoPecTen. — Cf. P. taetus H. Pl. Il. f. 1-2. Shell 274 mm. in height, the length about one-fourth greater than the height. Left valve moderately convex; hinge-line straight, about equal to the greatest length of the shell; pallial margin regularly rounded. Beak scarcely elevated above the hinge-line, located about 2 of the distance from the anterior extremity. The anterior ear of the left valve depressed, slightly convex, separated from the body of the sheli by a shallow and narrow sinus; its anterior margin rounded above and nearly straight below, meeting the hinge- line at approximately a right angle, joining the pallial margin in a broadly rounded notch. The posterior wing broad and flattened toward the margin, but not sharply separated from the body of the shell; its posterior margin sinuate. The surface of the left valve ornamented with 85-90 rounded, radiating costae, a few of which near the center of the basal margin are smaller than the others and do not extend to the beak. ‘The costae on the anterior ear are finer than those on the body of the shell, and in the sinus separating the ear from the body of the shell they are nearly obsolete. The 84 Trans. Acad. Scr. of St. Louis. costae also grow smaller in size posteriorly, the largest ones being near the center of the basal margin. In addition to the costae the shell is marked with fine concentric lines and with a few coarser lines or indistinct wrinkles of growth. Remarks. White and Whitfield’s description of Aviculo- pecten nodocostatus (= Pterinopecten nodocostatus) was based upon two type specimens which are now preserved in the paleontologic collection of the University of Michigan. One of these specimens is a left valve from the Chonopectus sand- stone, and the other is a right valve from the upper horizon of the ‘‘ Yellow sandstone.’’ These two specimens appar- ently belong to distinct species. The original description agrees in the main with the latter one of the two specimens and it will be retained as the type of the species. The speci- men from the Chonopectus bed differs from P. nodocostatus in its greater proportionate height, in having nearly twice the number of radiating costae, and in lacking the conspicuous nodosity of the costae from which the specific name nodocos- tatus wastaken. There are other differences in convexity, etc., due to the fact that the two specimens are opposite valves. Except in size the specimen from the Chonopectus bed agrees quite closely with the illustration of P. laetus Hall * but is proportionately a little shorter. In general form it agrees even more closely with P. dignaius Hall,t but not so closely in its surface markings. Each of these New York species, however, which may in reality be but one, is only about one-half the size of the Burlington specimen. The difference in size, however, can scarcely be taken as a good specific character, and the Burlington specimen is provision- ally referred to P. laetus. This species was first described from the Marcellus shale of the Hamilton series in New York. At a later date a shell from the Waverly series of Ohio was — identified with it by Herrick, but in all respects except size, the Burlington shell agrees more closely with the New York illustration, than does the Ohio specimen illustrated by Her- rick, * Pal. N.Y. &. pl. 1. f. 138. + Loc. cit. pl. J. f. 14. Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 85 PERNOPECTEN ?? sp. Plate III. f. 5. It is by no means certain that this genus occurs in the fauna of the Chonopectus sandstone. The specimen here illustrated resembles it in being a nearly flat, smooth shell, but it differs from Pernopecten in the absence of both the anterior and posterior auriculations. It is of course possible that the ears have been destroyed, but the margin of the shell seems to be uninjured, and if this is the case it cannot be Pernopecten. It is perhaps more probable that this shell should be associated with those called Posidonomya ? am- bigua by Winchell. (See p. 105, pl. LV., f. 18, 19.) LEIOPTERIA SPINALATA (Win.). Pl. III. f. 8-9. Pterinea spinalata. Bull. U. S.G. S. No. 153: 511. ‘¢ Shell rather large, very oblique, becoming distinctly arcuate upwards. Left valve very ventricose, with a tapering incurved beak, closely approximated to its fellow; body of valve regularly arched along the umbonal slope, from which line it describes a rapid convexity to the anterior margin, sloping more gradually to the ventral margin and becoming gradually flattened toward the posterior ventral angle. The upper boundary of the body is an abrupt descent to the plane of the posterior wing, and sharply divides the two; posterior wing sloping to the dorsal and posterior borders of the valve, produced above into a slender spine, nearly as long as the posterior end of the shell, with a deep sinuation below. An- terior ear short, saccate, less distinctly divided from the body of the valve. MHinge-line straight, with a long, posterior cartilage facet. Surface marked by irregular wrinkles of growth which become fine striae on the posterior wing, and sharp plications on the anterior slope and auriculation. Right valye smoother and considerably less ventricose, with the posterior wing-surface divided from the body of the valve only by a slight groove.”’ ftemarks. None of the specimens in the University of Michigan collection are marked as types, but there are five well preserved left valves and four right valves of the species, labeled by Winchell, which agree well with his description and 86 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. which are without doubt good representatives of the species. These specimens exhibit some variation in size and form. The largest one measures 40 mm. from the beak to the farthest posterior extension of the body of the shell, while the same measurement in the smallest shell is scarcely 10 mm. The specimens illustrated are intermediate in size. There is also some variation in the width of the body of the shell, and also in the posterior extension of the wing. In some individ- uals the posterior angle of the wing reaches nearly as far as the most posterior extension of the body of the shell, while in others it is considerably shorter. This species has previously been referred to the genera Avicula and Pterinea, but an examination of authentic speci- mens shows that the species should be placed in the genus Leiopteria. This species differs from the Devonian species of the genus generally, in its greater obliquity and in its narrower shell. LZ. speciosa M. and G. from the Chouteau limestone near Sedalia, Missouri, closely resembles the Burlington species and may be identical with it. AvicuLa sTrigosa (White). Pi, TT, £10. Pterinea strigosa. Bull. U.S. G. S. No. 153: 511. Shell very oblique, length, 30 mm., greatest height, 8 mm. Hinge-line slightly more than one-half the length of the shell. Anterior and posterior extremities sharply rounded; ventral margin convex; dorsal margin, exclusive of the wing, concave with the concavity less than the convexity of the ventral mar- gin. Beak placed near the anterior extremity of the shell. Behind the beak there is a small, narrow, abruptly com- pressed wing whose posterior extremity seems to be pointed. Body of the shell very convex, the slope toward the dorsal margin being much steeper than the ventral slope. The greatest convexity at about one-third the length of the shell from the anterior extremity. The anterior extremity forms a small, inflated ear which is separated from the body of the shell by an oblique depression. Surface marked by a few concentric wrinkles which are more conspicuous anteriorly. Remarks. ‘The form of the posterior wing of this species Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 87 is not distinctly shown in the type specimen, but it is believed to be as shown in the illustration. In the original description this wing is not mentioned, it not having been uncovered in the type specimen at that time. The species was originally described as Gervillia strigosa and it has since been referred to the genus Pterinea, though it is much more oblique than any other species referred to that genus. So far as its characters are preserved, it seems to be cogeneric with the Coal Meas- ure species Avicula longa, and it is therefore placed in the genus Avicula although its hinge characters have not been preserved. PTERONITES WHITEI ( Win.). Pl. Ill. f. 6-7. Avicula whitei. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 106. ‘* Shell large, transverse, exceedingly oblique, with nearly terminal beaks. Hinge-line more than three times the great- est dorso-ventral dimensions. Anterior ear pouched, not dis- tinctly divided from the body of the shell. Left valve ven- tricose ; umbonal ridge somewhat arcuate, or nearly straight, forming an angle of about 20° with the hinge-line; slope thence to the ventral margin very rapid —to the dorsal side rather gradual and symmetrical to the very hinge-line— the posterior wing not being divided from the body of the shell. Ventral margin, in the middle rather straight and nearly par- allel with the dorsal; posterior margin sigmoidal by a deep, or rather shallow sinus, isolating the posterior end of the cartilage plate from the body of the shell ; posterior wing tri- angular, exceeding the shell. External surface marked by numerous fine, irregular striae of growth. Right valve much less ventricose, marked on the body and anterior slope by numerous sharp, regular raised concentric striae which become very faint posteriorly. Cardinal line in each valve with a long, slender, bifid lateral tooth behind the beak.” ‘* Length of dorsal side, 53 mm.; greatest dorso-ventral dimensions, 171 mm.; depth of left valve, 5+ mm.’’ Remarks. The specimens in the University of Michigan collection which are labeled as types of this species are ten in number, but of all these only two left valves approach perfec- 88 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. tion in their condition of preservation. Judging from Win- chell’s measurements it is the larger one of these two which is really the type of the species. Most of the specimens are smaller than this one, some of them having a length no greater than 15 mm. The species approaches more closely to P. profundus Hall, from the Chemung fauna of New York, than any other species of the genus, but the two are quite distinct. P. whitei is a much narrower shell and lacks the pointed anterior ear of P. profundus. MyTILARCA OCCIDENTALIS (W. & W.). Peddie fj. id. Shell elongate, narrowly ovate; length, 52 mm., breadth, 20 mm. Hinge-line short; ventral margin gently curving from just below the beaks to the abruptly rounded posterior margin; dorsal margin gently curving to the posterior ex- tremity of the short hinge-line. Beaks acute, situated at the extreme anterior end of the shell; valves convex in the pos- terior part, becoming gibbous anteriorly, the greatest con- vexity anterior to the middle; the umbonal region narrow and the convexity continued along the median line to the posterior extremity of the shell. Surface marked by fine, more or less irregular concentric striae, and at irregular inter- vals by stronger concentric wrinkles. Remarks. The specimen here illustrated is the type of the species. It is somewhat compressed dorso-ventrally, so that it is proportionately narrower than before this distortion took place, and the convexity along the median line is proportion- ately accentuated. Hall’s* illustration of the species was drawn from the same specimen, but that figure is made to represent the shell as restored to its normal form. Myriiarca Fripristriata (W. & W.). Pl. III. f. 12. Shell elongate, ovate, very oblique; length, 41 mm., breadth, 16 mm. Hinge-line short; ventral margin nearly straight in the central portion, curving gently upward to the * Pal. N.Y. 51, pl. 87. f. 11. Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 89 anterior extremity of the hinge-line in front, and posteriorly eurving into the somewhat abruptly rounded posterior margin ; dorsal margin gently curved to the extremity of the hinge- line. Beaks acute, suberect, situated at the extreme anterior end of the shell. Valves moderately convex in the posterior part, becoming gibbous anteriorly. The line of greatest convexity near the ventral side of the shell, the ventral slope being very steep and the dorsal slope more gentle. Surface marked by fine radiating striae, and by more or less incon- spicuous lines of growth. Remarks. This species differs from the last in the pres- ence of the radiating striae and in the more ventral position of the line of greatest convexity. GONIOPHORA JENNAE ( Win. ). Pl. II. f. 13-14. Isocardia jennae. Bull U.S. G. S. No. 153: 314. The specimens of this species in the University of Michigan collection labled ‘‘ types (in part)’’ are three in number, but the specimen from which Winchell took the measurements given in his original description, is missing, none of those observed being as large as that one. The largest and best of the specimens studied will therefore be selected as the type. Shell very oblique, the beak at or near the anterior extremity. Dimensions, 26 mm. from the beak to the pos- terior basal angle, hinge line 14 mm. in length, greatest width from the posterior extremity of the hinge-line to the middle of the ventral margin 14mm. Hinge-line straight. The posterior margin truncated, meeting the hinge-line in an obtuse angle. The postero-ventral extremity of the shell acutely angular; the ventral margin nearly straight through the greater part of its length, curving upward anteriorly to meet the hinge-line under the beak. The umbonal ridge elevated and sharply angular, slightly sigmoidal from the beak to the posterior basal angle. The postero-dorsal slope from the umbonal ridge concave, becoming more and more steep anteriorly until at or near the beak it faces dorsally, and is overhung by the umbonal ridge; the antero-ventral slope steeper than the opposite one posteriorly, but more gentle 90 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. anteriorly. A shallow sinus extends from the beak obliquely across the antero-ventral slope to near the center of the basal margin. Surface marked by fine lines of growth which are most conspicuous upon the antero-ventral slope. Remarks. The dimensions of this species as given by Winchell are somewhat greater than those recorded above, the length from the beak to the postero-ventral angle being 32 mm., and the hinge-line 20 mm. The length of the hinge- line was therefore proportionately longer than in the specimen here described. ‘The species varies considerably in its pro- portions, the two specimens illustrated being representative. MACRODON COCHLEARIS Win. Pl. UL. f. 15. Shell subrhomboidal in outline, length, 23 mm. and height, 10mm. Hinge-line straight, a little shorter than the total length of the shell; anterior margin meeting the hinge-line at nearly a right angle, curving regularly downward and back- ward into the ventral margin; ventral margin nearly straight or gently curving, except towards the extremities where it curves upward; posterior margin abruptly rounded below, truncate above, meeting the hinge-line in obtuse angle. The valves rather ventricose; beaks flattened, incurved, elevated above the hinge-line, situated at a point about one-fourth the length of the shell from the anterior extremity; the umbonal ridge rather sharply rounded near the beak, becoming more broadly rounded posteriorly, the dorsal slope from the ridge, concave. Surface marked by concentric lines of growth. MACRODON MODESTA ( Win.). Pia. J. 16. Arca modesta. Bull. U.S. G. S. No. 153: 91. Shell small, ventricose, subovate in outline, length, 10 mm. and breadth, 5mm. Hinge-line straight, nearly equaling the greatest length of the shell; anterior abruptly rounded; ven- tral margin broadly rounded; posterior margin broadly rounded from the ventral margin to the hinge-line, which it meets at an acute angle. Beak prominent, obtuse, situated near the anterior extremity of the shell, elevated above the Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 91 hinge-line, but little incurved. Umbonal ridge broadly rounded, ventricose, the postero-dorsal slope concave, forming an alate expansion of the shell. Surface marked by fine, regular, sharp, concentric lines of growth. Remarks. This shell is represented by a single specimen, the type, whose posterior portion is imperfectly preserved, this part being restored in outline in the illustration, as indi- cated by the direction of the lines of growth. As originally described it was referred to the genus Arca, but it should rather be referred, in all probability, to the genus Macrodon. It differs from the species of this latter genus in general, in its broadly rounded ventral margin, and its great breadth posteriorly as compared with the anterior portion of the shell. The true generic relationship of the species can of course be determined only when its hinge-structure can be known. GRAMMYSIA PLENA Hall. PLIV:. f. 22. Shell subovate or subelliptical in outline, length, 36 mm. and height, 22mm. Hinge-line straight, more than half the length of the shell; anterior margin short, abruptly rounded below the lunule which is deep and distinct extending half way or more from the beak to the base of the shell; ventral margin regularly curved from end to end except for a slight constriction at about the anterior third; posterior margin rounded below, obliquely truncate above. Valves regularly convex in the posterior portion, becoming very gibbous in the middle and umbonal region. The beaks prominent, much elevated above the hinge-line, strongly incurved, situated near the anterior extremity ; umbonal slope rounded or sub- angular, the postero-dorsal slope sometimes marked by a dis- stinct fold along the middle; a shallow sinus extends from the beak obliquely backward to the constriction in the ventral margin. Surface marked by fine concentric striae which become fasciculate posteriorly, by fine pustulose striae which can only be seen in exceptionally well preserved specimens, and by strong, subangular or rounded concentric undulations which are strongest anterior to the umbonal ridge, being re- placed posteriorly by the fascicles of fine concentric striae. 92 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Remarks. This species has often been confused with G. hannibalensis, but it differs from that species in its much greater gibbosity, and in its more anterior beaks. The spe- cies exhibits a good deal of variation in its proportions and general outline. In some specimens the truncation of the posterior margin is much more pronounced than in the speci- men illustrated, and the ventral margin may be much more strongly curved. GRAMMYSIA AMYGDALINUS ( Win.). Pee: 16. Glossites amygdalinus (in part). Bull. U. §. G. S. No. 153: 289. Shell moderately convex, 24 mm. long and 11 mm. high. Hinge-line long, arcuate; anterior margin rather abruptly rounded; ventral margin nearly straight in the middle, gently curving upward towards each extremity; posterior margin arcuate, oblique, meeting both the cardinal margin above and the ventral margin below in rounded angles. Beak situated about one-fourth the length of the shell from the anterior extremity, elevated above the hinge-line, somewhat flattened, incurved and pointed forward. An obtusely subangular or rounded umbonal ridge extends from the beak to the postero- ventral angle. Posterior to the beak, just below the dorsal margin and parallel with it, there is a groove-like depression which gives to the cardinal margin an angular, ridge-like appearance, the upper slope of which is sharply inflected. Anterior to the beak on the dorsal margin, there is a deep lunette. Surface marked by strong concentric wrinkles which are more conspicuous towards the ventral and posterior mar- gins. A broad, shallow, ill-defined sinus or mere flattening of the shell runs from the beak to a point in front of the middle of the ventral margin. Remarks. Five specimens in the University of Michigan collection are attached to the card marked ‘‘ Types’’ and bearing the label of this species. Three of these specimens are quite distinct from the other two, and are evidently mem- bers not only of a distinct species but of another genus as well. Winchell’s description and the dimensions given by him, agree with one of the two specimens which are distinct Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 93 from the other three, and this specimen is undoubtedly the type of the species and is here illustrated. Itis apparently to be referred to the genus Grammysia. It resembles G. hannibalensis but is a smaller, longer, and more slender shell. It also differs in the same manner from G. plena H. with which it is associated, but the difference is even more striking. Hall * has identified a shell from the ‘‘ yellow sand- stone’’ at Burlington with this species of Winchell’s, refer- ring it to the genus Glossites. This shell, however, is quite. distinct from Winchell’s type of the species and is probably identical with the species described by him as Hdmondia elliptica which is transferred to the genus Gilossites in the present paper. The generic position of the three specimens associated with the type of the species is somewhat uncertain, but they certainly constitute an undescribed species which possibly should be referred to the genus Gilossites, though they are distinct from the species identified as G. amygdalinus by Hall. EDMONDIA BURLINGTONENSIS W. & W. Pl. IV. f. 1-2. ‘‘ Shell of medium size, broadly subelliptical in outline, with regularly ventricose valves, breadth equal to three-fifths of the length. Beaks situated within the anterior third, strong, prominent and incurved. MHinge-line and basal margin gently and equally curved; anterior and posterior extremites broadly and equally rounded. ** Surface marked by numerous strong, concentric undula- tions, parallel to the margin of the shell. In full-grown in- dividuals there is a shallow, undefined sulcus, commencing near the center of the shell, and reaching the border near the middle of the basal line.”’ Remarks. The type specimens of this species are seven in number, ranging in size from 10 mm. to 35 mm. in length. Two of the best preserved of these are here illustrated. The specimens figured by Hall were not the type specimens, and show some slight variation * Pal. N. Y. 5!: 501. pl. 40. f. 13, 14. 94 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. from the types. The specimen which he separated from EH. burlingtonensis and described under the specific name ellipsis should not be so separated. J. ellipsis therefore be- comes a synonym of #. burlingtonensis. Some of the varia- tions of #. subovata H. from the Chemung in New York and Pennsylvania, approach very close to the Burlington species. In fact, in his earlier publications,* Hall identified this Che- mung species as £. burlingtonensis, it being separated only in the final publication of the New York Paleontology. The Chemung species exhibits a greater variation than the Burling- ton species and for this reason it may perhaps be considered as distinct, but some of its variations f are certainly identical with the shell from Burlington. EDMONDIA QuADRATA (W. & W.). oe A 9 at Microdon quadratus. Bull. U. S.G. S. No. 153: 353. Shell small,subquadrangular in general form, length12mm., height 93 mm., thickness of the two valves 7 mm., greatest convexity of the valve posterior to the beaks along the umbonal ridge. Hinge-line slightly arcuate, gradually slop- ing to the posterior margin; anterior and posterior margins subparallel; ventral margin greatly rounded. Beaks small, slightly incurved; umbonal ridge obscurely angular, gently arcuate. Surface marked by fine concentric lines of growth and by a few coarser concentric wrinkles. Remarks. When this species was originally described it was referred to the genus Cypricardella. More recently it has been shown by Whitfield ft that the genus Cypricardella is not distinct from Microdon and for that reason this species has sometimes been referred to the latter genus. Upon com- parison of the type specimens of the species with authentic specimens of Microdon, however, it is believed that it is more probably an Hdmondia although the essential generic char- acters cannot be seen. * Prelim. Notice Lamell. 2:90 (1870).— Pal. N. Y. 54. Plates and Ex- planations. pl. 64. f. 19-29 (1883.) + Compare Pal. N. Y. 51, pl. 95. f. 12. t Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1 ; 63. Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 95 EDMONDIA AEQUIMARGINALIS Win. Pl. IV. f. 3. Shell subcircular in outline, length, 23 mm., height, 20 mm., greatest convexity of each valve, 6 mm. Beaks central, the anterior and posterior cardinal slopes at right angles with each other. The pallial margin regularly rounded. Surface marked by rather fine concentric striae of growth with an occasional stronger furrow. Remarks. This species was originally described as Car- dinia aequimarginalis Win., from Marshall, Michigan. Ata later date the species was identified by its author from the ‘¢ yellow sandstone’’ at Burlington, and the species trans- ferred to the genus Hdmondia. The specimen here illus- trated and described is the one from which the latter identification was made. It is rather an imperfect specimen which is possibly but a variation of #. nitida. EDMONDIA NITIDA Win. Pl. IV. f. 4. ** Shell small, equivalve, suborbicular, ventricose, slightly oblique, with a subcentral beak. Hinge-line slightly extended posteriorly, obtusely rounded at the extremities ; anterior and posterior sides subparallel; ventral border circularly rounded, but a little produced in the line of the umbonal ridge. Beak elevated above the hinge, obtuse, slightly incurved ; umbonal ridge making an angle of 68° with the hinge-line; behind this ridge the slope is abrupt to the posterior border; middle por- tion of the shell very slightly flattened from the beak along the region anterior to the umbonal ridge. Surface hand- somely marked by rigid, regular, concentric, raised striae, with a few remote, irregularly-distributed concentric furrows. The striation is preserved in all its sharpness to the very hinge-border.’’ Length of shell, 16 mm., height, 15 mm., convexity of each valve, 5 mm. Remarks. This species resembles quite closely some of the illustrations of #. obliqua Hall * from the Chemung fauna in New York, and the two species are certainly closely allied. * Compare Pal. N. Y. 5!. pl. 64. f. 16. 96 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. It is also closely allied to H#. philipt Hall, also from the Chemung. EDMONDIA JEJUNUS ( Win.). Pl. IV.f. 5. Sanguinolites jejunus. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 538. ‘‘ Shell of moderate size, equivalve, transverse; beaks small, barely elevated above the hinge, slightly inflected, one-third the shell-length from the anterior end; height fully half the length; hinge-line extended; dorsal slope erect, marked by an internal ridge; margin slightly inflected, if at all, though some indication exists of a very narrow escutcheon; anterior lunette equally inconspicuous; ventral margin symmetrically arcuate between the extremities, with which it connects by similar gradually increasing curvatures; posterior end truncate for a short space near the termination of the hinge-line, with which it forms an angle of about 130°; anterior end semi- elliptically rounded. Valves somewhat appressed; greatest distension one-fourth the distance from the beak to the center. Surface of cast marked by faint lines of growth. Length 21 mm., height 12 mm.”’ Remarks. This species was originally referred to the genus Sanguinolites, but its characters, so far as they are preserved, seem rather to ally it to the genus Hdmondia. It differs from most of the species of Hdmondia, however, in its greater proportional length. The specimen illustrated is the best preserved one of the types of the species in the University of Michigan collection, and as its dimensions cor- respond with those given by Winchell, it is believed to be the specimen from which he drew up his description. There are two other specimens of the same species, both of which are somewhat smaller than the one illustrated. SPHENOTUS RIGIDUS (W. & W.). PL. IV.f. 9. Shell elongate, subtriangular or elongate subpentagonal in outline; length, 25 mm., breadth,12mm. Hinge-line straight posteriorly, arcuate in front; anterior margin short, regularly rounded, merging into the ventral margin below; ventral margin straight, sometimes slightly emarginate a little in front Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 97 of the middle; posterior margin nearly vertically truncate below, meeting the ventral margin in a rounded right angle, and obliquely truncated above, this upper portion meeting both the hinge-line above and the lower portion of the posterior margin below, in obtuse angles, giving to the pos- terior margin of the shell a very angular outline. Beak elevated above the hinge-line, flattened, incurved, directed forward, situated at a point about one-fifth the length of the shell from the anterior extremity. From the beak to the postero-ventral angle there is a prominent, angular umbonal ridge, with another similar but less conspicuous ridge extending from the beak to the angle in the middle of the posterior margin. An ill-defined, shallow but rather broad sinus, which is sometimes a mere flattening of the shell, extends from the beak obliquely to a point in front of the middle of the ventral margin. The greatest convexity is on the umbonal ridge at about the middle of the shell. Surface marked by rather sharp, irregular, crowded, concentric lines of growth. Remarks. The specimens indicated as the ‘* type,’’ of this species in the University of Michigan collection are two in number, a larger one imperfectly preserving both valves, and a smaller, nearly perfect left valve. Hall’s illustration® of the species was drawn from the larger one of these two specimens, but the figure is to a large extent restored with no indication of the restored portions. The figure here published is based upon the second of the two types above mentioned. The larger specimen is 38 mm. in length and has sharper and more irregular lines of growth. SPHENOTUS BICARINATUS (Win.). Pl. IV. f.10. Edmondia bicarinata. Bull. U. S. G.S. No. 153: 242. Shell small, strongly convex, subelliptical in outline; length 13 mm., breadth, 6 mm. Hinge-line straight posteriorly, bending downward in front; anterior margin short, rather sharply rounded; ventral margin slightly arcuate, subparallel with the dorsal margin; posterior margin rounded. Beaks a. little elevated above the hinge-line, flattened, incurved, directed * Pal. N.Y. 5), pl. 66. f. 14. 98 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. forward, situated at a point about one-fifth the length of the shell from the anterior end. A prominent, subangular um- bonal ridge extends from the beak to the postero-ventral margin, and midway in the dorsal slope there is another sim- ilar but less prominent ridge. The greatest convexity is near the middle of the valve, upon the umbonal ridge. Surface marked by fine, concentric lines of growth. Remarks. This species resembles S. rigidus but is much smaller, is proportionately narrower posteriorly, and lacks the strongly angular posterior margin. It is possible that this species is but a small or immature form of S. rigidus, but the specimen illustrated seems to be an adult shell. The speci- mens indicated as ‘‘ types ’’ of this species in the University of Michigan collection, are four in number, the best preserved of which is here illustrated. SPHENOTUS IOWENSIS ( Win.. ) PRIVi Gia Sanguinolites iowensis. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 538. Shell subelliptical in outline, length, 26 mm., height, 13mm. Hinge-line arcuate, the dorsal margin sharply in- fiected to form a long cartilage groove; anterior margin sharply rounded above to the anterior extremity of the hinge- line under the beak, regularly rounded below; ventral margin gently curved; posterior margin short, truncate, meeting the ventral margin in a sharply rounded angle, and the dorsal margin in an obtuse angle. Beaks elevated above the hinge- line, somewhat flattened, incurved and directed forward over a deep lunette. A prominent, sharply angular or carinate, slightly sigmoid umbonal ridge extends from the beak to the postero-ventral angle, and a still sharper ridge along the dorsal margin of the shell bounding the long cartilage groove; the twisted, flattened triangular space between these two ridges is marked by three faint, depressed lines radiating from the beak. Surface marked by irregular lines of growth which are most conspicuous on the anterior portion and faintest on the postero-dorsal slope. Remarks. The above deseription is based upon the speci- men of the species marked *‘ type’’ in the University of Mich- Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 99 igan collection, and which also agrees with Winchell’s de- scription and dimensions. Associated with this specimen, however, and attached to the same card, are other specimens which seem to be distinct. Winchell recognized this other form and mentioned it in his description, but was not inclined to consider it as specifically distinct from the type. These two shells, however, seem to be entirely distinct, and in the material examined there are no intermediate connecting forms, so that the second form will be described here as a distinct species. SPHENOTUS BICOSTATUS 0. sp. Pl. IV. f. 8. Shell subelliptical in outline, strongly convex, length, 29 mm., width, 14 mm. Hinge-line arcuate; anterior margin curving abruptly inward to the anterior extremity of the hinge-line under the beak, more gently and regularly curved below; ventral margin straight or gently curved through the greater part of its length but more strongly curved upward both anteriorly and posteriorly; posterior margin sharply rounded below, obliquely truncated above. Beak elevated above the hinge-line, flattened, incurved, directed forward, situated about one-fourth the length of the shell from the an- terior end. A prominent, rounded, umbonal ridge extends from the beak to the postero-ventral margin; the postero- dorsal slope is marked by two additional subangular ridges radiating from the beak, one just at the dorsal margin and another midway between the dorsal .margin and the umbonal ridge. The dorsal margin is sharply inflected to form a groove for the attachment of the ligament, and the area be- tween the dorsal marginal ridge and the median one is con- cave. The greatest convexity is near the middle of the valve on or just below the umbonal ridge. A shallow, ill-defined sinus extends from the beak obliquely backward to a point anterior to the middle of the ventral margin. Surface marked by fine concentric lines of growth. Remarks. This shell was included by Winchell in his species S. towensis, the specimen here illustrated being at- tached to the same card with the type specimen of that species. '% 100 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. It seems to be distinct, however, from the specimen specific- ally designated as the type specimen, and furthermore, seems to be the more common form of the two. It differs from S. towensis in the absence of the sharply angular or carinate umbonal ridge, and also in the additional radiating ridge upon the postero-dorsal slope. The lines of growth are also less conspicuous than in S. iowensis. SPATHELLA VENTRICOSA (W. & W.) Pl. IV. f. 12. The types of this species are two in number, the larger one being 45 mm. in length, and 20 mm. in height; the smaller one is 21 mm. long and 10 mm. high. The shell is subcylin- drical, widest behind. MHinge-line straight, about two-thirds the length of the shell; anterior end short, the margin ab- ruptly rounded; ventral margin nearly straight or slightly arcuate throughout the greater part of its length, curving upward into both extremities; posterior margin usually regu- larly rounded, forming a segment of a circle, sometimes more abruptly rounded. Beak anterior, not prominent, small and closely incurved. Valves very convex, gibbous in the middle; umbonal ridge broad and ill-defined, the dorsal slope much more abrupt than the ventral. Surface marked by fine con- centric lines of growth, which are sometimes fasciculate in the posterior portion of the shell. Remarks. Of the two type specimens of this species the smaller one is illustrated, the larger one being imperfect in the anterior portion. Upon the specimens illustrated by Hall, the concentric growth lines were evidently much more irregu- lar and fasciculate than in the original types. CARDIOPSIS MEGAMBONATA Win. Pl. IL. f. 18. Shell subcircular in outline, strongly ventricose, oblique; length from the beak to the postero-basal margin 25 mm., height from ventral to dorsal margin, and length from anterior to posterior margins, each 20 mm., con- vexity of valve, 10 mm. Hinge-line short, pallial margin regularly rounded. Beak prominent, situated anteriorly, a Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 101 elavated above the hinge-line, incurved; umbonal region gibbous, sloping abruptly to the dorsal and anterior margins, and much more gently to the posterior and ventral margins. Surface marked by about 50 simple radiating costae which are crowded posteriorly and anteriorly, being more widely sepa- rated in the middle of the ventral margin where they are at distances of 1 mm. apart. Besides the radiating costae there are a few concentric wrinkles at irregular intervals, which are strongest posteriorly near the hinge-line. Remarks. This species was originally described from Michigan, from specimens very much smaller than the one here illustrated. The type of the species has never been illus- trated, but this specimen from Burlington was studied by Winchell and was identified by him with his Michigan shell. The generic reference is somewhat uncertain because the hinge characters are not known. In its general appearance, how- ever, it resembles the Carboniferous shells usually referred to Cardiopsis. SCHIZODUS IOWENSIS 0. sp. Pl. IV. f. 13-14. Shell subcircular in outline, length, 11 mm. and height, 10mm. Hinge-line short, slightly arcuate; anterior and ven- tral margins regularly rounded, the posterior margin convex, obliquely truncate; the posterior basal extremity angular. Beaks moderately elevated above the hinge-line, slightly incurved, situated about one-third the length of the shell from the anterior extremity, connected with the posterior basal extremity by a slightly arcuate, subangular, umbonal ridge. The posterior slope from the umbonal ridge concave; the remainder of the shell convex, the greatest convexity above the middle. Surface of the shell smooth. ftemarks. In the White collection the two specimens used as the types of this species were attached, with others, to the eard labeled Cardiomorpha trigonalis, the specimens on the card being designated as types. Among Winchell’s types of this species, however, there are evidently two distinct species represented, one species from the Chonopectus sandstone and the other from the upper yellow sandstone horizon. The 102 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. latter species is represented by a single specimen which is much larger than those from the Chonopectus sandstone, with a more triangular form and with a much more angular umbonal ridge. Judging from his description and the meas- urements given, Winchell considered this larger specimen as the principal type of his species, and it is therefore retained as the type of Cardiomorpha or rather Schizodus trigonalis. The smaller species from the Chonopectus sandstone requires anew name, S. zowensis being here proposed. This species may be compared with S. gregarius Hall, from the New York Chemung fauna, but it is shorter than that species. It also resembles S. cuneus Hall, from the Waverly series in Ohio. SCHIZODUS BURLINGTONENSIS 0. sp. Pu.IV. f. 10. Shell subovate in outline, depressed convex, length, 18 mm. and breadth, 11mm. Hinge-line short; anterior margin regu- larly rounded ; ventral margin nearly straight posteriorly, but curving upward in the anterior half; posterior margin sharply rounded below, obliquely truncated above. Beak small, but . little elevated above the hinge-line; umbonal ridge arcuate, extending from the beak to the postero-ventral margin. Sur- face marked by inconspicuous concentric lines of growth. Remarks. This species differs from WS. towensis in its much greater length. It resembles S. gregarius H., from the Chemung group in New York, but is a longer shell. In fact S. gregarius is somewhat intermediate in its characters between this species and S. zowensis. The specimen illus- trated was attached to the same card in the University of Michigan collection, with the types of Hdmondia jejunus, but it is entirely different from that species, not even being generically allied to it. CYPRICARDINIA SULCIFERA ( Win.). Pl, TU 72 17. Shell small, subovate in outline, very oblique; length, 7 mm., breadth,4 mm. Hinge-line straight, shorter than the total length of the shell; anterior margin abruptly rounded ; ven- tral margin nearly straight or sinuate in the middle; pos- Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 103 terior margin abruptly rounded below, truncated above, meeting the hinge-line at an obtuse angle. Beaks nearly ter- minal, prominent, flattened, slightly incurved ; umbonal ridge slightly arcuate, the dorsal slope concave, the ventral slope moderately convex. Greatest convexity of each valve on the umbonal ridge a little back of the beak. Surface marked by six to eight strong imbricating concentric ridges. GLossITES ELLIPTICA (Win. ). ete LV. Ss G. Edmondia elliptica. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 242. ‘«* Shell rather large, appressed, transverse, with an elongate- elliptical outline. Beaks flat, inconspicuous, situated one- fifth the shell-length from the anterior end. Hinge margin elongate, slightly curved, abruptly elevated; a flattened area extending from the beaks backward to the posterior hinge angle. Extremities neatly rounded. Surface marked by numerous distinct unequal lines running parallel with the pallial margin. Length, 34 mm., height, 16 mm.”’ Remarks. This species is represented by a single specimen, the type, which is only an imperfect impression in the sand- stone. The figure is drawn from a wax impression taken from this specimen, the probable outline of the shell being indicated. It was originally described as Hdmondia, but in all the characters preserved it more closely resembles the illustrations of Glossites and is therefore transferred to that genus. It is perhaps more closely allied to G. depressus Hall* from the Chemung in New York, than to any other species of the genus. GLOSSITES? BURLINGTONENSIS 0. sp. PI IV.f. 11: Shell subelliptical in outline, moderately convex, com- pressed toward the posterior extremity; length, 28 mm., height, 13 mm. Hinge-line nearly as long as the shell; anterior margin abruptly rounding into the hinge-line above, regularly curving below into the ventral margin; ventral * Compare Pal. N. Y. 51, pl. 40. f. 17. 104 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. margin regularly curved throughout its entire length; poste- rior extremity situated well towards the dorsal margin, its margin rather abruptly rounded. Beak prominent, incurved, elevated above the hinge-line, situated about two-sevenths of the length of the shell from the anterior extremity. Surface marked by concentric wrinkles which are most conspicuous anteriorly. Remarks. The specimen selected as the type of this species was included among the ‘‘ types’’ of Grammysia amygdalinus (Win.), in the University of Michigan collection. This specimen, however, along with two others associated with it, is entirely different from the real type of the above mentioned species, as determined from Winchell’s original description and the dimensions given by him. These specimens, there- fore, have to be considered as representatives of an unde- scribed species. The genus to which these specimens should be referred is uncertain since the characters of the hinge can- not be seen. The species is provisionally referred to the genus Glossites, for the want of any better place for it, though with the feeling that when the hinge-characters are known, it will have to be removed. It differs from Gram- mysia amy gdalinus in its larger size, in its less convexity, in the absence of any well-defined umbonal ridge, and in the more dorsal position of the posterior extremity of the shell. PROMACRUS CUNEATUS Hall. Pl, IV. f. 20. This species has not been observed but it was described from the ‘+ yellow sandstone ’’ at Burlington * and possibly belongs in the Chonopectus sandstone fauna. The illustra- tion is a copy from the original one published by Hall. A nearly complete specimen from the Vermicular sandstone at Northview, Missouri, has been identified | with this species, but the Burlington shell is much more slender anteriorly than the Northview specimens. * See Pal. N. Y. 513510. pl. 78. f. 28. + Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci. 9: 36. pl. 3. f. 2. Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 105 PosIDONOMYA? AMBIGUA Win. Pl, IV. f. 18-19. ‘¢Shell of medium size, rather ventricose, somewhat oblique. Hinge-line short, straight, not surpassed by the inconspicuous beak, abruptly rounded at the extremities ; sides of shell subparallel, somewhat straight ; ventral margin circularly curved, gaping at the antero-ventral angle. Cast nearly smooth, but bearing the impression of a few small, irregular wrinkles around the margin. Greatest dimension (from beak to ventral margin), 16 mm. ; anterior-posterior dimension, 14 mm. ‘¢Three left valves and one right, of an anomalous fossil are here referred with great uncertainty. One of the speci- mens is larger and relatively longer from beak to venter than the one described, and seems to have been everted around nearly the entire pallial border, producing an extensively gap- ing shell. * * * The three valves could scarcely belong to the same species of any genus, but it would be folly to attempt a further discrimination at present.’’ Remarks. The above is copied from Winchell’s original description of this species. The smaller one of the specimens illustrated is the type of the species, judging from the de- scription and the dimensions given. The larger illustration is of the larger specimen mentioned in the description. The proper disposition of these shells is about as uncertain now as when Winchell wrote his description. The smaller specimen closely resembles the illustration of Paracyclas erecta H.,* from the Chemung group at Warren, Penn., and it may be identical with it. The larger specimen may also be referable to the genus Paracyclas, though it is quite different from any of the recognized species of that genus. A few specimens of a small, nearly flat, smooth, oval shell, having much the form of a Pernopecten (see p. 85, pl. IIT., f.5) with the ears removed should possibly be associated with the shells here described. * Pal. N. Y. 51, pl. 95. f. 22. 106 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. GASTEROPODA. LoxoNEMA SHUMARDANA ( Win.). Pl. VII. f. 5. Murchisonia shumardana. Bull. U. 8. G. S. No. 153: 359. ‘¢ Shell small, conical, consisting of six or seven gradually enlarging whorls, somewhat flattened on the base and outer surface, so as to leave but a shallow suture; body whorl obtusely angulated at the junction of the basal and lateral surfaces; aperture broadly cuneate-ovate, angulated behind, scarcely effuse in front; plane of aperture parallel with vertical axis of shell, surface of cast quite smooth. Height of shell, 14 mm.; height of last whorl, 6 mm.; diameter of base of shell, 7 mm.; length of aperture, 55 mm.; greatest width, 4 mm.; apical angle, 34°.’’ Remarks. The specimen here illustrated is the type of this species, and is the only specimen which has been observed. The generic characters of the shell are uncertain, but it certainly is not Murchisonia, the genus to which it was originally referred. It is here placed in the genus Loxonema but not without some doubt. Itresembles some of the species referred by DeKoninck to the genus Flemingia,* and it is possibly a member of that genus. LOXONEMA OLIGOSPIRA Win. Pl. VII. f. 4. «¢ Shell small; whorls about six, rather rapidly enlarging, convex exteriorly, with traces (on the cast) of vertical ridges, which become more observable in the vicinity of the aperture ; suture deep; body whorl three-fifths the length of the shell, more rapidly enlarging than the spire, gently convex on the outer side, more rapidly curved toward the base — which is somewhat umbilicately indented — rapidly increasing in diameter toward the aperture, which is thus rendered some- what effuse in front. Height of shell, 10 mm.; height of body whorl, 53 mm.; diameter of body whorl, 7 mm.”’ Remarks. This species was founded upon a single speci- * See F. Munsteri DeK., Faun. du Calc. Carb. de la Belg. 3. pl. 7. f. 21-22. Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 107 men which is here illustrated for the first time. Its generic position is by no means certain, so it is retained in the genus Loxonema where it was originally placed. The shell probably posesses no umbilicus as is indicated by the original descrip- tion quoted above, though this cannot be determined with entire satisfaction from the type specimen. The description of the surface markings is also somewhat misleading as the specimen is almost absolutely smooth with the exception of a few faint lines of growth near the aperture. There are not six volutions preserved in the type specimen, though there may have been that number in the perfect shell. LOXONEMA sp. Pl. VII. f. 2. Among the specimens labeled Murchisonia quadricincta in the University of Michigan collection, there are several indi- viduals which have a more elevated spire than the type of that species, with smooth, rounded volutions which are but barely in contact, the lower volutions not overlapping the upper. These shells evidently belong to the smooth shelled division of the genus Loxonema, though they are not sufficiently well preserved to determine their essential characters. MURCHISONIA QUADRICINCTA Win. Pl. VII. f. 3. ‘* Shell of medium size, turrited; whorls convex, regularly enlarging to the last, with an obsoletely bicarinate band run- ning along the middie, below which are four small, rigid, thread.like approximated carinae, leaving the base of the body whorl smooth or faintly lined, and regularly curved into the umbilical cavity; the surface above the band marked only by very delicate lines of growth, which arch backwards to the peripheral band, below which they arch far forwards, entering the umbilical cavity half their length in advance of their place of origin at the suture. Suture deeply impressed. The only specimen showing the external markings has a defective spire, but could not be completed with less than 8 or 9 whorls, giving a length of 27 mm.; an apical angle of 19°, a sutural angle of 66°, while the body whorl is 6 mm, high.’’ 108 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. STROPHOSTYLUS BIVOLVE (W. & W.). Pl. V. f. 4-5. Shell of medium size, composed of about two closely coiled volutions, with the spire scarcely elevated above the outer one. The inner volution small, the outer one more rapidly expanding, becoming ventricose. Cross section of the outer volution ovate, narrowest at the inner margin. Surface marked by fine transverse lines of growth, parallel to the margin of the aperture. Greatest diameter of the shell 19 mm., height of aperture, 11 m., width of aperture, 11 mm. Remarks. This specimen is included among the types of S. bivolve in the University of Michigan collection, the three other specimens being from a higher horizon. The specimen believed to be the actual type from which original description was made, and which has been illustrated by Keyes,* is one of the other specimens. This single specimen observed from the Chonopectus sandstone, differs from all the others in the much greater size of the inner volution of the shell, and con- sequently in the less rapid expansion of the outer volution. It is possible that it should be considered as a distinct species, but it is desirable that additional specimens should first be ex- amined in order to determine the constancy of its characters. SPHAERODOMA PINGUIS ( Win.). Pl. VI. f. 1-2. Shell subglobular, spire short and tapering rapidly, three greatly overlapping volutions recognizable in the type speci- men, suture moderately impressed. The body volution ven- tricose, broadest in the middle ; the aperture ovate, its longer axis forming an angle of 27° with the axis of the shell, acute posteriorly, rounded anteriorly; inner lip flattened. Surface marked by faint, transverse striae of growth. Height of the shell, 47 mm., length of aperture, 37 mm., width of aperture, 25 mm., spiral angle, 85°. NATICOPSIS DEPRESSA Win. Pl. VI. f. 8-4. Shell small, narrowly umbilicate, the type specimen with * * Mo. Geol. Surv. 5. pl. 53, f. 4. Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 109 three volutions; the spire scarcely elevated above the body yolution, the suture very shallow, giving the upper side of the shell a regular, gentle convexity. The last volution rapidly expanding, the aperture oblique, oval, rounded posteriorly and anteriorly, somewhat contracted on the inner side by the rather broad inner lip. Height of shell, 11 mm., greatest dia- meter, 16 mm., length of aperture, 11 mm., width of aperture 9mm. Remarks. The fine, regular, elongate nodes mentioned by Winchell as marking the upper ends of the striae of growth on the outer volution, have not been observed upon either of the two type specimens of the species in the University of Michigan collection. STRAPAROLLUS MACROMPHALUS Win. Pl. VI. f. 17-18. Shell of medium size, depressed, with a slighty elevated spire and a broad umbilicus open to the apex of the spire; volutions gradually enlarging, barely in contact, with a nearly circular cross-section. Surface marked by regular lines of growth. Diameter of shell, 21 mm., height, 9 mm. Remarks. In the type specimen of this species here illus- trated, the spire is imperfectly preserved so that the number of volutions cannot be accurately determined, but there are probably not less than four and perhaps five volutions alto- gether. STRAPAROLLUS AMMON (W. & W.). Pl. VI. f. 22. Shell small, discoid, the spire not elevated above the plane of the outer volution. Volutions three or four, closely coiled, gradually enlarging from the apex, slightly angular on the upper side, rounded below, and on the back. Umbilicus very broad, exposing nearly the whole of the inner volutions. Surface of the shell marked by fine, closely arranged trans- verse striae of growth, which have a gentle backward curva- ture from the suture line to the under side of the volution. Remarks. The actual type specimen of this species was not found in the University of Michigan collection, but an- 110 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. other authentic specimen is there preserved and here illus- trated. In their description the authors of the species give the diameter of the largest specimen as 1534 mm., but the specimen here illustrated is somewhat smaller, being but 11 mm. in maximum diameter. The species may be easily dis- tinguished from its associates by its perfectly flat or even slightly depressed spire. STRAPAROLLUS ANGULARIS N. sp. Pl. VI. f. 13-14. Shell of medium size with four volutions; spire not greatly elevated above the outer volution, the suture located in an angular groove. The top of each volution flat or sloping inward, the outer side rounded, meeting the flattened upper side in an obtuse angle so that the shell is marked with a con- spicuous, angular, revolving ridge, and the successive volu- tions form a series of steps from the outer one to the summit of the spire. The surface of the shell marked by somewhat irregular lines of growth which curve gently forward on the outer side of the last volution. Greatest diameter of the shell, 21 mm. Remarks. The specimen here illustrated is a plaster cast taken from a natural mould in the sandstone. The under side of the shell is not known but it is probably umbilicate. The specimen bears the name S. odtusus in the University of Michigan collection, but it is certainly distinct from that species which has a discoid shell with little or no elevation of the spire above the outer volution. The species is quite dis- tinct from any of its associates and seems to be as yet unde- scribed. It most closely resembles S.luaxus White, described from near the base of the Carboniferous strata in Utah, but it differs from that species in having a somewhat higher spire. It also resembles S. planodorsatus M. and W., from the Kaskaskia beds in Southern Illinois and Missouri. PLATYSCHISMA BARRISI ( Win.). Pl. VI. f. 15-16. Straparollus barrisi. Bull. U.S. G. S. No. 153: 604. Shell of medium size, depressed conical in form, with a medium sized, rather deep umbilicus; volutions four or five Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 111 in number, gradually expanding, the suture rather strongly impressed; cross section of each volution subcircular in out- line. The outer volution with a barely perceptible, de- pressed, rounded, revolving ridge a short distance below the suture, marking the position of a moderately deep rounded notch in the peristome. Greatest diameter, 25 mm., height of shell, 18 mm., approximate diameter of umbilicus, 7 mm. Remarks. The genus Platyschisma is distinguished from Straparollus, where this species has always been placed, by the presence of a notch of greater or less depth in the peri- stome in its outer posterior half. This notch resembles that in the peristome of the Pleurotomaridae, but it does not result in forming a conspicuous revolving band,so that unlesstheactual margin of the aperture is preserved it is impossible to sepa- rate the species from Straparollus. The genus Platyschisma is represented by several species in the Carboniferous faunas of Europe, but it has heretofore been definitely recognized in America only inthe Vermicular sandstone fauna at Northview, Missouri.* In the type specimen of P. darrisi here illus- trated, the peristome is perfectly preserved through a greater part of its length, and the notch is well shown. The summit of the spire is imperfect in the type specimen so that the actual number cf volutions in the shell cannot be determined, but another specimen preserves at least four volutions. PLATYSCHISMA DEPRESSA N. sp. Pl. VI. f.19-21. Associated with P. barrist and attached to the same card marked ‘‘types’’ in the University of Michigan collection, there is a specimen which differs from it in being a much more depressed shell with a much deeper notch in the peri- stome, and in having the notch at the middle of the outer side of the whorl instead of in the dorsal part of the outer * Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 9: 42. pl. 5. f, 1-4. —Im this place the author is made to state, by the omission of the word definitely, that the genus has never before been recognized in America. Two species have in fact been referred by their authors to the genus,— P. dubium Dawson, and P. helicoides M. & W., — but neither of them is certainly or even prob- ably a member of the genus. 112 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. side near the suture. It is believed that this specimen repre- sents a distinct species and the name P. depressa is proposed for it. The type specimen has a diameter of 16 mm. and a height of 9 mm., with an umbilicus whose approximate width is 4 mm. PHANEROTINUS PARADOXUS Win. Fl. Vit. F323 Shell discoid, with three gradually and regularly expanding volutions disjoined throughout their entire extent, the inner ones depressed below the plane of the outer. Cross-section of the volutions subcircular. Surface marked by faint, trans- verse lines of growth. Diameter of shell, 25 mm., width of the outer volution at the aperture, 8 mm. fiemarks. The illustration of this specimen published by Hall* is in error in showing the inner volutions in contact, and also in making the transverse lines of growth too strong. It is possible that this shell should be considered as sinstral rather than dextral. If it is a dextral shell, then the depres- sion of the inner volutions is so great that the under side is more nearly in a plane than the upper, while if it be a sin- stral shell the inner volutions are but slightly depressed below the plane of the outer one, and the under side is broadly umbilicate. The types of this species are wax casts from a natural mould which has not been seen and which is probably lost, and it is not certain that the species is a member of the Cho- nopectus fauna, as it may belong in the upper ‘* yellow sand- stone.’’ BELLEROPHON BILABIATUS W. & W. Pl. VI. f. 9-10. Shell of medium size, subglobose, rartonly umbilicate; the | inner volutions expanding somewhat gradually, the outer volution rather broadly expanded at the aperture. The outer volution with a narrow subangular dorsal band, becoming more prominent and carinate towards the aperture. The outer lip deeply notched, giving the aperture a strongly * Pal. N. Y. 51. pl. 16. f. 16. Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 113 bilobed outline. Surface nearly smooth, but with a few faint undulations parallel with the margin of the aperture, and sometimes with very fine, faint lines of growth. Remarks. The specimen here illustrated is the most per- fect one of the three types in the University of Michigan col- lection. The specimen referred to this species and illustrated by Keyes* is very different from the types, and should possibly be referred to B. panneus although it is a much more perfect specimen than the types of that species. BELLEROPHON VINCULATUS W.& W. PL VI. f, 22-13: Shell of medium size, subglobose, not umbilicate. Volu- tions expanding somewhat gradually to the aperture. Outer lip deeply notched. Dorsal band rather broad, bounded on either side by a narrow raised rib. The sides of the shell marked by transverse striae which originate at the margins of the dorsal band and pass with a gentle forward curve toward the axis of the shell; these striae most conspicuous near the aperture, becoming obsolete on the upper part of the shell. Remarks. No specimen marked as the type of this species was found in the University of Michigan collection, although it should be preserved in that place. The somewhat dis- torted specimen here illustrated, however, is present in that collection and may be the type although not so labeled. In size this species corresponds with JB. dilabiatus, but it may be easily distinguished from that species because of the absence of the expanded aperture and the presence of the conspicuous transverse striae. BELLEROPHON PANNEUS White. ? Pl. VI. f. 7-8. Shell of rather more than medium size, rather broadly um- bilicate, gradually expanded to the aperture, transverse section of the volutions subelliptical in outline. Outer lip broadly notched; dorsal band narrow, subcarinate towards the aper- ture. The lateral surfaces of the shell marked by transverse * Mo, Geol. Surv. 5, pl. 50. f. 3. 114 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. lines of growth which become stronger towards the margin of the aperture. Width of the outer volution at the aperture, 25 mm., distance from the outer lip to the opposite side of the volution, 22 mm., height of the shell above the plane of the aperture, 13 mm. Remarks. This specimen is identified doubtfully with B. panneus. The types of the species are two imperfect and distorted specimens from a horizon somewhat higher than the Chonopectus sandstone. The better preserved of the two is several times larger than the specimen here illustrated, but their general form and proportions are about the same. In the typical B. panneus there are three or four stronger lines of growth near the aperture, but this is not believed to be a very essential difference. The species may be easily distin- guished from B. bilabiatus by its larger size, its larger umbil- icus and the absence of the expansion of the outer volution at the aperture. The specimen illustrated by Keyes* as B. panneus has no resemblance whatever with the type of the species, and is probably an undescribed form. ‘The specimen illustrated by the same author{ as B. bilabiatus, however seems to be a good example of B. panneus. BUCANOPSIS DEFLECTUS 0. sp. Pi VE ys, Shell small, subglobose, umbilicate, the volutions gradually expanding to within one or two mm. from the aperture, where the margin of the shell is abruptly deflected. Cross- section of the volutions subelliptical; aperture subelliptical, the outer lip with a moderately shallow notch. The revolving dorsal band narrow, flat on top, becoming obsolete a short dis- tance from the aperture. The surface of the shell marked by very fine revolving striae which become almost obsolete a short distance from the aperture, and by even more faint lines of growth. In the type specimen, at a short distance from the aperture where the dorsal band and the revolving striae become obsolete, there is a strong, transverse rounded groove * Mo. Geol. Surv. 5. pl. 50. f. 6. t Loc. cit. pl. 50. f. 3. Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 115 which traverses the whole outer side of the shell. Width of the aperture, 9 mm., length, 7 mm., height of shell above the plane of the aperture, 5 mm. Remarks. Waagen * referred all the Bellerophon-like shells with spiral sculpture to the genus Bucania, and he was fol- lowed by DeKoninckt in his work on the Carboniferous fossils of Belgium. It has been shown by Ulrich t however, that a part of these shells in which the revolving striae are parallel with the dorsal band instead of oblique to it, should be separated from Bucania, and he has proposed the generic name Bucanopsis for these species. The species here de- scribed differs from the usual form of the members of this genus, in the less rapid enlargement of the volutions and also in the abrupt deflection of the margin of the shell as it approaches the aperture. Upon the card in the University of Michigan collection marked ‘*Types’’ and labeled as Bellerophon perelegans, there are no less than three distinct species from two distinct horizons. Two of the specimens, from a horizon higher than the Chonopectus sandstone, are apparently the actual types of B. perelegans, but the species should rather be referred to the genus Bucanopsis. The seven other specimens are from the Chonopectus sandstone, six of them being good typical specimens of Bellerophon bilabiatus, the seventh being the specimen here described. It differs markedly from B. perelegans in the more gradual enlargement of the volutions and in the deflected margin. The revolving striae are also somewhat coarser near the aperture, and as it can be identi- fied with no described species it is here described as new. PATELLOSTIUM SCRIPTIFERUS ( White). Pl. VI. f. 6. Bellerophon scriptiferus. Bull. U. S. G. S. 153: 144. Shell ventricose, closely coiled, the umbilicus small; inner volutions subglobose, subelliptical in cross section, the last half of the outer volution abruptly expanding towards the aper- * Pal, Ind. XIII. 13130. + Faun. du Calc. Carb de la Belg. Pt. 4. t Pal. Minn, 23853. 116 Trans. Acad. Sct. of St. Louis. ture into a broad, subcordate disk. The outer lip of the peri- tome with a small, shallow dorsal notch, the inner lip spread- ing over the preceding volution. The dorsum marked by a narrow ridge or carina in the outer half of the last volution, but beyond this the dorsum is flattened. The expanded portion of the outer volution is marked by a few, shallow, inconspicuous wrinkles parallel with the margin; the smaller part of the shell marked by three or four faint revolving ribs on each side, which are entirely obsolete in some specimens. Transverse diameter of the aperture, 42 mm., the longi- tudinal diameter, 33 mm., the height of the shell above the aperture, 12 mm. : Remarks. In general form this species resembles P. patulus from the Hamilton group of New York, but the aper- ture is more transverse, and the concentric wrinkles are not nearly so strong. PORCELLIA CRASSINODA W. & W. Pl. V. f. 1-2. Shell large, discoid, broadly umbilicate, consisting of three or four contiguous or slightly embracing whorls, which rapidly increase in size towards the aperture; the greatest diameter, 83 mm. Volutions subtriangular in transverse section, rapidly increasing in diameter from the ventral to the dorsal side; at the aperture the ventral diameter is 11 mm., and the dorsal, 43 mm., to the tips of the nodes. Lateral surfaces slightly convex; the dorsum gently rounded, marked along the middle by a shallow double groove indicating the position of the slit in the aperture. The dorso-lateral angles ornamented by a single row of distant, strong, obtusely pointed nodes; in the type specimen the nodes on one side are a little in advance of those on the other. Surface marked by fine, revolving and transverse striae which are strongest on the dorsum. On the dorsum the transverse striae slope backward from each side to the central groove where they meet at an angle of about 120°. PORCELLIA OBLIQUINODA White. Pl. V.f. 3. Shell of medium size, discoid, broadly umbilicate, consist- ing of four or perhaps more slightly embracing volutions Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 117 which increase in size somewhat rapidly towards the aperture ; the greatest diameter of the type specimen, which is incom- plete, 30 mm. The inner volutions subcircular in transverse section, the outer one becoming remotely subtriangular, the diameter of the whorl at the largest part of the shell, 18 or 20 mm. The lateral surfaces convex; the dorsum rounded, marked along the middle by a shallow groove. The dorso- lateral angles ornamented by a single row of rather small, moderately elevated, oblique nodes, whose outer ends are directed backward; the nodes increase in size with the growth of the shell, they being nearly obsolete upon the inner whorls. The surface of the type specimen is smooth. Remarks. In its smooth surface this species is unlike most of the species of the genus, but the type specimen is a cast, and it is possible that the external surface of the shell was marked by the usual revolving and transverse striae. PORCELLIA RECTINODA Win. This species was described by Winchell from the ‘ yellow sandstone’’ at Burlington, and although it has not been observed, it is possibly a member of the Chonopectus sand- stone fauna. Judging from the description it resembles P. obliquinoda but is much smaller, the type specimen having a maximum diameter of 15 mm. with the diameter of the outer whorl at the aperture scarcely 5 mm.; it also differs from P, obliquinoda in the more nearly circular section of the whorls and by the transverse, rather than the oblique, direc- tion of the nodes. Specimens from the Vermicular sandstone at Northview, Missouri, have been compared* with this species, though they are considerably larger. SCAPHOPODA. DENTALIUM GRANDAEVUM Win. Pl. VII. f. 6. ‘Shell rather large, perfectly straight and terete, or a little compressed, tapering 1 mm. in 12 mm. near the larger * Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci. 9; 43. pl. 5. f. 7. 118 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. end, less rapidly near the small end; surface marked by faint, irregular lines of growth which run obliquely around the shell, and in flattened specimens are more advanced along one edge. Length of largest specimen, 56 mm.; diameter at larger end 5 mm.; at smaller end about 1 mm.”’ PTEROPODA. CoNULARIA BYBLIS White. Pl. VII. f. 7. Shell large, elongate pyramidal; the lateral surfaces nearly flat, their margins diverging at an angle of about 15°, marked along the mesial line by a slight depression ; transverse costae somewhat variable in their distances apart, there being from 12 to 18 in a distance of 10 mm., each costa forming at the median line of the lateral surface a rounded, obtuse angle of about 120°; the spaces between the costae crenulate. The angles of the shell at the lines of junction between adjacent lateral surfaces are marked by narrow grooves formed by the incurved margins of the sides. The dimensions of the type specimen cannot be accurately determined because of its crushed and distorted condition, its maximum length as pre- served is 76 mm., and its greatest width 54 mm.; if the sides of the shell be projected to a point its length is nearly twice the present length of the specimen. Remarks. The specimen here illustrated is the type. In the figure the transverse costae are made to form too abrupt an angle as they cross the median line of each lateral surface, this angle should be more rounded. One specimen referred to as a variety of this species in the University of Michigan collection, is somewhat larger than the one illustrated although it is much more crushed and distorted. It differs from the type in having the transverse costae somewhat closer together and in having them conspicuously crenulate. There are still other more fragmentary specimens which show various de- grees of crenulation of the costae, and also a considerable variation in the distances separating the costae. It therefore seems, either that this species is a very variable one, or that two or more distinct species of Conularia are present in the Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 119 fauna, although not sufficiently well preserved specimens have yet been found to admit of determining their distinguishing characters. CEPHALOPODA. ORTHOCERAS WHITE! Win. Pl. IX. f. 4-6. Shell annulated, gradually tapering at an angle of about 5°; subelliptical in cross-section ; septa deeply concave, situated at distances of about 4-5 mm. At the largest end of the largest type specimen, the longer diameter of the cross-sec- tion is 32 mm., and the shorter 25 mm. The annulations are sharply angular or rounded, separated by regularly con- cave furrows; ten of them occupy a space of 63mm. In the smaller specimens referred to this species, the annulations and septa are much closer together, and sometimes the annu- lations have a broad, shallow, retral sinuosity. Siphuncle rather large, situated excentrically along the longer diameter. Surface of the casts marked by fine encircling striae which are parallel with the annulations, in some specimens being obsolete. Remarks. This species is not uncommon in the Chonopectus fauna, though it exhibits a considerable range of variation in size. ‘The two specimens illustrated are both included among those labeled as type specimens in the University of Michigan collection. The larger one probably represents about the maximum size of the species. The species belongs to the annulate division of the genus which is represented by several species in the Devonian faunas in America, but which is uncommon in the Carboniferous. ORTHOCERAS HETEROCINCTUM Win. Pl. IX. f. 6. This is an annulated species closely allied to O. whitei, and is possibly no more than a variety of that species. None of the type specimens are as large as the largest O. whitet, and the annulations are much more unequal, in some specimens being nearly obsolete and in others being nearly 120 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. obsolete in parts of the shell. The cross-section of this species is circular rather than elliptical as in O. whitei, although the elliptical cross-section of the latter species may be due to a slight compression of originally cylindrica] shells. It is said by Winchell that this species tapers more rapidly than O. whitet. This may be true in general, but the two species overlap in this characteristic, the type specimens of O. whiiet varying from 5° to 8° and O. heterocinctus from 6° to 10°. The material representing both these species, leaves much to be desired, it being for the most part fragmentary, and the species can be properly defined only when more perfect specimens are procured. ORTHOCERAS INDIANENSE Hall. hg A EE APP Several specimens of a small, smooth species of Orthoceras with the sides tapering at an angle of about 8° with a circular or slightly elliptical cross-section, and with a central or slightly excentric siphuncle, have been observed in the Chonopectus fauna. These were referred to the species O. indianense by Winchell, and they seem to present no characters upon which they can be separated from that species. The specimens are all mere fragments, and more perfect material is needed to certainly determine their essential characters. PHRAGMOCERAS EXPANSUM Win. PL IXY, 2: Shell straight, rapidly expanding at an angle of about 70°, very slightly constricted near the aperture. Transverse sec- tion of the shell broadly elliptical, approaching circular. Septa at distances of about 6 mm. Surface smooth in the cast. The type specimen has a total length preserved of about 35 mm., 21 mm. of which is included in the living chamber; the longer diameter of the aperture is 52 mm. and the shorter 45 mm., at the first septum the longer diameter is 33 mm. and the shorter 27 mm. Remarks. The characters of this species are not very definitely preserved. The specimen illustrated is the type, Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 121 and is the only one which approaches perfection,. even remotely. Several other fragments are preserved in the University of Michigan collection and labeled as this species, but it is by no means certain that they are all the same. CYRTOCERAS UNICORNE Win. Pl. VII. f. 9. Shell arcuate, angle of divergence rapidly increasing with the growth of the shell; transverse section laterally com- pressed, oval in outline, narrowest along the side of least curvature. Living chamber large, expanding towards the margin; septa at distances of about 3} mm., regularly con- cave. Siphuncle apparently marginal along the side of least curvature. Surface smooth except for some irregular lines of growth near the aperture. In the type specimen the sep- tate portion is 29 mm. in length and the living chamber 22 mm.; the greatest diameter of the aperture is 40 mm. and the shorter diameter 34 mm.; at the first septum the longest diameter, 24 mm., and at the seventh septum, the last one perfectly preserved, the longest diameter is 16 mm. Remarks. There are several fragmentary specimens of curved cephalopods in the University of Michigan collection, all of which bear the label C’. unicorne. The type specimen here illustrated, however, is the only one sufficiently well preserved to exhibit any of its essential characters. AGONIATITES OpiMus (W. & W.). FV fC. PL VHS 2 PU IX SK 1 Goniatites opimus. Bull. U.S. G. S. No. 153: 295. Shell large, discoid, gently convex on the sides, rather sharply rounded upon the periphery. Number of volutions not known, the inner ones embraced by the next outer ones to a depth of one-half the diameter of the latter; the umbili- cus rather small, but somewhat variable in size, being rela- tively larger in the larger individuals, its sides rounded. Aperture compressed crescentic in outline, the proportion of height to width about as 7 to 5, the ventral margin sinuate as indicated by the lines of growth. The size of the living 122 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. chamber not known. Septa deeply concave, rather distant ; being about 20 mm. apart in the outer volution of a large individual ; the sutures forming a low saddle upon the umbil- ical angle, then gently curving backward and forming on each lateral face a single broad lobe which occupies the entire width of the volution; the direction of the suture upon the periphery cannot be certainly determined, but there seems to be a Jow saddle on either side, with a shallow ventral lobe between. Position -of the siphuncle unknown. Surface marked by very faint lines of growth which are sinuate on the periphery of the shell. Remarks. Inthe original description of Goniatites opimus, specimens of two entirely different species were apparently used, the general form of the shell being described from one specimen, and the suture from another. The specimen here illustrated on plate VII, figure 8, is the type of the species in the University of Michigan collection, and corresponds with original description of the general form and proportions of the shell. This specimen, however, does not preserve the suture, and the original speci- men from which the suture was described has not been seen. This latter specimen was probably a fragmentary one not preserving the form of the shell, which was _ be- lieved to belong to the same species as the type which has been preserved. In the collection received from Prof. Calvin there is a goniatite much larger than the type of G. opimus but agreeing closely with it in its general form and proportions in all respects save in its relatively larger umbilicus. This specimen is illustrated on plates VIII and IX, and it is believed to be an individual of the same species as the type of G. opimus; but unlike the type speci- men several of the sutures are fairly well preserved, and are entirely different from the sutures of G'. optimus as indicated in the original description. It is therefore probable that the suture originally described as that of G. opimus is really the suture of some shell which is not only specifically, but gen- erically, distinct from G. opimus. The true suture of the species isin all respects that of the genus Agoniatites, and Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 123 therefore the species is placed inthat genus. Heretofore this genus has been recognized only in the Devonian, and in America, at least, at no higher horizon than the Middle Devonian. CORRELATION. Attention should again be called, at this point, to the diverse and local character of the lithologic formations and of the faunas of the Kinderhook epoch. It is not possible,as has been the usual custom, to recognize three constant divisions of the Kinderhook, either lithologic or faunal, well defined through- out the whole area in Iowa, Missouri, and Illinois, occupied by the rocks of this age. The names Louisiana limestone, Han- nibal shale, and Chouteau limestone, cannot be applied to all the Kinderhook formations throughout the area, and as inves- tigations are prosecuted in various localities, other local formation names will have to be introduced. No satisfactory correlation of the Kinderhook beds at Bur- lington with those of Illinois and Missouri, has yet been made. Keyes* has referred nearly the whole of the section at Bur- lington to the Hannibal shales of Northwestern Missouri, but his basis for this correlation seems to have been chiefly the lithologic similarity. It is far more probable that the section at Burlington is equivalent, or more than equivalent, to the whole of the section as known in Missouri. On lithologic grounds alone, bed No. 4 (Weller) at Burlington, might well be considered as a northern extension of the typical Louisiana limestone of Missouri, reduced in thickness. In both locali- ties the rock is a fine-grained, compact, fragmentary lime- stone, though at Burlington its fragmental character is more pronounced and more irregular than at Louisiana. Fossils are not abundant in this bed at Burlington, so that an entirely satisfactory comparison of the faunas cannot be made. However, the species of Syringothyris which occur at the two localities, seem to be identical, although the Burlington * Geol. Surv. Iowa. 1:55. (1893.) 124 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. specimens described by Winchell as 8. Halli are smaller than the Louisiana examples. If it be true that bed No. 4 is the northern extension of the Louisiana limestone, then the Chonopectus sandstone and the underlying shales would be included in the Devonian accord- ing to Keyes’* iaterpretation of the Kinderhook. The basis for his determination of the Devonian age of the Louisiana limestone, however, seems not to be well founded. The fact that in a single vertical section like that at Louisiana, includ- ing several diverse lithologic formations, a line can be drawn, above and below which there are no species of fossils in com- mon, does not necessarily indicate a profound life break. From a broad point of view this is seen possibly to indicate only a change in local conditions such as to cause a shifting in the geographic distribution of life. In almost any geologic section of any considerable thickness, in which there are diverse lithologic formations, no matter to what geologic period it may belong, there may be found just such profound life breaks, but judgment must be used in the interpretation of these faunal changes. It is not the writer’s intention to positively deny the con- temporaneity of a portion, perhaps a large portion, of the Kinderhook beds with some of the beds referred to the uppermost Devonian in other portions of the continent, but if any part of them are Devonian, the evidence of their age will have to be of a more substantial nature than that otfered by Keyes. There are certainly Devonian elements in the fauna of the Louisiana limestone, but there also are con- spicuous elements of Devonian life in some formations of the age of the St. Louis limestone,t and yet no one would insist for a moment on their Devonian age. The Chonopectus sandstone also possesses a strong Devonian element in some particulars, — it is far more strongly Devonian than the fauna of the Louisiana limestone, — but in both faunas there is an- _ other element of perhaps greater significance binding them to the Carboniferous. * Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 7: 357. (1897.) + Am. Jour. Sci. IIL. 49:94. Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 125 The composition of the Chonopectus sandstone fauna is as follows : — CLASS. GENERA. | SPECIES. RIPCDIONORE 6S ie 15 20 MERAY OC ee ee ae 19 32 RPABELODOGS 6 sa 12 21 PRADUODOGR le ee ea ana sd 1 1 PePOVONS) Wh 1 1 POUUALOPOdS 1 ee rs 4 6 OUR Sg iar) BU ee ts 52 81 Of these genera and species, the brachiopods are for the most part strongly Carboniferous in aspect. The abundance of Productus is particularly a Carboniferous characteristic of the fauna, as is also the presence of Syringothyris. Of the two species of Spirifer, one, S. subrotundatus, with its com- pletely plicated shell and with the plications on the lateral slopes bifurcating, is strongly carboniferous in aspect, while S. biplicatus, on the other hand, with its excessively elongate hinge-line, has just as strong a Devonian aspect. The shell identified as Schizophoria swallovi is far more like the Car- boniferous than the Devonian representatives of the genus. The presence of Productella may be considered as a Devonian element, and also Orthothetes inaequalis, which is so nearly like O. chemungensis. The pelecypods have quite a different story to tell, and from a study of this portion of the fauna alone, one would perhaps be justified in identifying it as of Devonian age. All of the nineteen genera, with the exception of two, Pro- macrus and Avicula, have numerous representatives in the Devonian faunas of Eastern North America, particularly in the Chemung faunas of New York and Pennsylvania, and several of the genera have no representation later than Kinderhook, Promacrus is a genus which is represented in America only in faunas of Kinderhook age, and in Europe it has been noted 126 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. only in Belgium from near the base of the Carboniferous. Avicula is in general a later genus. Not only are most of the genera of pelecypods abundantly represented in the Devo- nian, but in several instances the species in the Chonopectus sandstone are so nearly like species in the Chemung of New York, that it is largely a matter of personal opinion as to whether they are really distinct or not. These specific simi- larities have been pointed out in connection with the descrip- tions of the species. The gastropods and cephalopods are also, for the most part, of Devonian types, with no strikingly Carboniferous characteristics. The genus Agoniatites has not previously been recognized outside the Devonian, and Orthoceras whitet is a very ancient type, being related to the Silurian O. annu- latum. Taken as a whole, a larger number of the total 81 species recognized in the fauna, have Devonian and not Carbonifer- ous relationships, but this is not sufficient evidence upon which to establish the Devonian age of the fauna. In general, in paleontologic interpretation, the initiation of a new inverte- brate faunal element is of greater importance than the hold- ing over of a much larger element from an older fauna, and on this principle the strongly Carboniferous element among the brachiopods of the Chonopectus sandstone is to be consid- ered as weightier evidence than the holdover pelecypods and cephalopods. In the interior of the North American continent, the divid- ing line between the Devonian and Carboniferous periods is not sharply defined like that between the Ordovician and Silu- rian, for instance, but judging from the association of genera and species alone, the fauna under consideration, and indeed all the Kinderhook faunas, should be placed in the Carbonif- erous. However, if it can in any way be demonstrated that the strong Carboniferous element in the fauna had its point of origin right here in the Mississippi valley, and that these types of life existed here earlier than in any other part of the world, their presence in other regions being due to migrations of life from this region, then there may be some foundation for con- sidering a part or the whole of the Kinderhook as being the Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 127 very youngest Devonian. It yet remains to be demonstrated, however, whether or not the Kinderhook holds such a rela- tionship to the Carboniferous of other parts of the world. EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Puates I,-IX. (ALL OF THE FIGURES ARE OF NATURAL SIZE.) Plate I.—1-2, Productus laevicostus White. Pedicle and lateral views of an average specimen. U.ofC. Coll., No. 5924.— 3-4, Productus cooper- ensis Swall.? Anterior and lateral views of a specimen identified as this species by A. Winchell. U. of M. Coll., No. 2000.— 5-6, Productus semi- reticulatus Martin. Lateral and anterior views of an average specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1336. —7-8, Productus semireticulatus Martin. One of the type specimens of P. curtirostris Win., which proves to be the brachial valve of P. semireticulatus. U. of M. Coll., No. 1337.— 9-10, Productella nummularis (Win.). A pedicle and a brachial valve, two of the type speci- mens. U.of M.Coll., No. 1340.— 11-13, Schizophoria swallovi (Hall). The two larger specimens are a brachial and a pedicle valve. The smaller speci- men is a pedicle valve which was used by Winchell as the type of Orthis Jlava. U. of M. Coll., Nos. 1851 and 2007.—14, Chonetes illinoisensis Worthen. A somewhat distorted specimen. U. of C. Coll., No. 5925.— 15, Chonetes sp. undet. An imperfect impression of the brachial valve. U. of C. Coll., No. 5926.— 16, Chonetes sp. Cf. C. geniculata White. An internal cast of the pedicle valve. U. of C. Coll., No. 5927. —17, Chonopectus fischeri (N. & P.). Illustration of an average pedicle valve. After Hall.— 18, Orthothetes inaequalis (Hall). A cast of a pedicle valve taken from a natural mould. U. of C. Coll., No. 5928.—19, Orbiculoidea capax (White). The type specimen. U.of M. Coll., No. 1331. — 20, Lingula membranacea Win. The type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1330. Plate Il. — 1-3, Syringothyris extenuatus (Hall). Anterior and posterior views of an average specimen. U. of C. Coll., No. 5929. A very large brachial valve. U. of M. Coll., No. 1365.—4-5, Rhynchonella sp. undet. Two specimens showing the variation inform. U.of C. Coll., No. 5930.— 6-7. Spirifer biplicatus Hall. Views of a pedicle and a brachial valve, the pedicle valve preserving the mucronate extension of the hinge-line on one side. U. of C. Coll., No. 5931.— 8-10, Spirifer subrotundatus Hall. Pedi- cle, brachial and anterior views of an average specimen. U. of C. Coll., No. 5932.—11, Retiewlaria cooperensis (Swall.). View of a brachial valve. U. of C. Coli., No. 5933. —12-15, Athyris corpulenta (Win.). Views of two of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1859. — 16-17, Pugnaz striato- costata (M. & W.) var.? Pedicle and anterior views of an average speci- men from the Chonopectus sandstone. U, of M. Coll., No. 1375. — 18-19, Eumetria altirostris (White). Brachia and pedicle views of a nearly perfect specimen. U. of C. Coll., No. 5934. Plate III.— 1-2, Pterinopecten Cf. P. laetus H. A large, flat, right valve, and asmaller left valve. The left valve here illustrated was one of the 128 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. types of P. nodocostatus (W. & W.). U. of M. Coll., No. 1390 and U. of C. Coll., No. 5935. — 8, Aviculopecten tenuicostus Win. One of the type speci- mens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1392.—4, Aviculopecten caroli Win. One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1393.—5, Pernopecten ? sp. This specimen may belong to Posidomya ? ambigua Win. U. of C. Coll., No. 5936. — 6-7, Pteronites whitei (Win.). Two of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1884. —8-9, Leiopteria spinulata (Win.). A left and a right valve, two of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1382-1383. —10, Avi- cula strigosa (White). One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1387. —11, Mytilarca occidentalis (W.& W.) Left view of the type speci- men. U. of M. Coll., No. 1400—12, Mytilarca fibristriata (W. & W.). Left view of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1899. — 18-14, Gonio- phora jennae (Win.). Two of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1428. — 15, Macrodon cochiearis Win. One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1422.16, Macrodon modesta (Win.). The type specimen U. of M. Coll., No. 1420.—17, Cypricardinia sulcifera (Win.). One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1415.—18, Cardiopsis megambonata Win. View of a left valve, not the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1429. Plate 1V.— 1-2, Edmondia burlingtonensis W.& W. Two of the type specimens. U.of M. Coll. No. 1405.—3, Edmondia aequimarginalis Win. View of a left valve, not the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1408. —4, Edmondia nitida Win. The type specimen. U. of M.Coll., No. 1406. —5, Edmondia jejunus (Win.). One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1416 (in part). — 6, Glossites elliptica (Win.). The type specimen. U.ofM. Coll., No. 1411. — 7, Sphenotus iowensis (Win.). The type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1414 (in part).—8, Sphenotus bicostatus n. sp. The type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1414 (in part).—9, Sphenotus rigidus (W. & W.). One of the type specimens. U.of M. Coll., No. 1417.— 10, Spheno- tus bicarinatus (Win.). One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coli., No. 1410. —11, Glossites ? burlingtonensis n.sp. The type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1412 (in part). — 12, Spathella ventricosa(W. & W.). One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1402. — 13-14, Schizodus iowensis n. sp. The type specimens, a right and a left valve. U. of M. Coll., No. 1419 (in part). — 15, Schizodus burlingtonensis n. sp. The typespecimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1416 (in part).—16, Grammysia amygdalinus (Win.). The type specimen. U.of M. Coll., No. 1412.—17, Edmondia quadraia (W. &W.). One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., 1480.— 18-19, Posidonomya ? ambigua Win. Two of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1430.— 20, Promacrus cuneatus H. View of the type specimen (after Hall).— 21, Gram- mysia plena H. View of a left vaive (after Hall). | Plate V. — 1-2, Porceliia crassinoda W.& W. Lateral and dorsal views of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1441.—3, Porcellia obliquinoda White. Lateral view of the type specimen. U.of M. Coll., No. 1442. — 4-5, Strophostylus bivolve (W. & W.). — Two views of one of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1444. Plate VI.— 1-2, Sphaerodoma pinguis (Win.) Two views of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1461.— 3-4, Naticopsis depressa Win. Two views of one of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No, 1464.—5, Bucan- opis deflectus n. sp. A dorsal view of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1487 (in part). —6, Patellostium scriptiferus (White). Dorsalview of the Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 129 type specimen. U.of M. Coll., No. 1436. — 7-8, Bellerophon panneus White.? Two views of a specimen provisionally referred to this species. U. of C. Coli., No. 6937.— 9-10, Bellerophon bilabiatus W. & W. Two views of one of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1488.— 11-12, Bellerophon vinculatus W.& W. Two views of an authentic specimen which may be thetype. U. of M.Coll., No. 1440.— 13-14, Straparollus angularis n. sp. Two views of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1454.— 15-16, Platyschisma barrisi (Win.). Twoviews of the type specimen U. of M. Coll., No. 1456 (in part).— 17-18, Straparollus macromphalus Win. ‘Two views of the type speci- men. U. of M. Coll., No. 1457.— 19-21, Platyschisma depressan. sp. Three views of the type specimen. U.of M. Coll., No 1456 (in part). — 22, Straparollus ammon (W.& W.). View of a specimen supposed to be one of the types. U. of M. Coll., No. 1455. Plate VII. —1, Phanerotinus paradoxus Win. View of the type speci- men. U. of M. Coll., No. 1458.—2, Loxonema sp. U. of M. Coll., No. 1451. — 3, Murchisonia quadricincta Win. View of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1450.—4, Loxonema oligospira Win. View of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1462.—5, Loxonema shumardana (Win.). View of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1453. —6, Dentalium gran- daevum Win. View of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1447.— 7, Conularia byblis White. View of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1432. — 8, Agoniatites opimus. (W. & W.). Lateral view of the type specimen of this species. U.of M. Coll., No. 1470. —9, Cyrtoceras unicorne Win. Lateral view of the type specimen. U.of M. Coll., No. 1469. Plate VIII. —1, Agoniatites opimus (W. & W.). Lateral view of a very large specimen showing the sutures. Univ. of Ia. Coll. Plate IX.— 1, Agoniatites opimus (W.& W.). Outline view of the speci- men figured on Plate VIII, fig. 1, somewhat restored. —2, Phragmoceras expansum Win. Lateral view of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1468. — 3, Orthoceras indianense H. Lateral view of a fragmentary speci- men. U. of M. Coll., No. 1465.— 4-5, Orthoceras whitet Win. Views of two of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1466. — 6, Orthoceras heterocinctum Win. View of one of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No, 1467. Issued February 24,1900. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. ‘PLATE J. Stuarl Weller dLel. CHONOPECTUS SANDSTO) TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE II. Stuarl Weller deol CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE FAUNA, PLATE III. Sct. OF ST. Louis, VOL. X s. ACAD TRAN Stuart Weller del SANDSTONE FAUNA. CHONOPECTUS TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE IV. Stuart Weller del CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE FAUNA. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOuIS, VOL. X. PLATE V. Stuart Weller del CHONOPECTUS 5 TONE FAUNA. Sen! oH ban Seek LATE V1. S oe s. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. TRANS Stuart Weller ded FAUNA. CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE PLATE VII. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. spinosa Vp aOR 7 * “i i 4 4, Ki RAS Us Stuart Weller Lol US SANDSTONE FAUNA. HONOPEC Cc TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE VIII. Stuart Weller del CHONOPECTUS SANI STONE FAUNA. ee eee oe TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOuIS, VOL. X. PLATE Stuart Weller del CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE FAUN: STUDIES ON SUBTERRANEAN ORGANS. II. SOME DICOTYLEDONOUS HERBACEOUS PLANTS OF MANHATTAN, KANSAS.* A. S. Hrrcucock. In the present article are discussed the underground parts of a number of perennial dicotyledonous, herbaceous, and several shrubby plants of the vicinity of Manhattan. Some have already been mentioned, and figured in Bulletin 76 of the Experiment Station. The plants are divided as in Article I,f into those forming crowns, those forming rhizomes or stolons, and those propa- gating by adventitious buds upon creeping roots. Crown Formers. I have designated as a crown the per- sistent base of vegetative stems. The new stems hence arise _as lateral shoots upon the base of a stem, the upper part of which died to the ground, or even below the surface. I have designated as a caudex a vertical rhizome. In this case the main axis is not a vegetative shoot but produces a terminal bud which continues the growth. A caudex advances slowly and is usually pulled down into the ground by contraction of the lateral roots about as fast as it grows upward, hence does not extend above the surface. The crown may be formed upon a fleshy or thickened root, in which case the chief portion of the underground part is root, or it may be supported by fibrous or small woody roots in which case the chief portion of the underground part is stem. In the first series the root may be very large as in Oxybaphus nyctagineus, Phytolacca decandra, and Cucurbita foetidissima. In more numerous cases the root is smaller but distinctly fleshy, as Callirrhoe involucrata, and Asclepiodora viridis. In Psoralea esculenta * Presented in abstract, with illustrative specimens, to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, March 5, 1900. + Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, 931. (131) 132 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. it is spherical with a slender prolongation below and a slender crown above. Asclepias stenophylla, Polytaenia Nuttallit and others have aslender fleshy root. The first has a rhizome- like crown and the other is surmounted by a caudex. Some- times the crown branches and there are several small crowns tracing back to the same root. In several cases, Lithosper- mum hirtum, Astragalus caryocarpus, and Petalostemon, the root is thick and woody rather than fleshy, while the top forms a compact crown. In the second series, the simplest case is that of a small tap-root extending upward into a single vegetative stem the first year. The second season vegetative shoots arise from buds at the base of this stem. If the plant is long lived the crown thus formed becomes thicker and thicker from year to year. Verbena and Nepeta Cataria are examples. If a mass of fibrous roots is produced instead of a tap-root a crown of a different nature is produced. In most cases the older portion below dies off and the crown is thus relatively small. Examples are Jtuellia ciliosa and Asclepias incarnata. The base of the vegetative stem may be oblique or decumbent, in which case the new stems often appear as offsets along the base and become independent at an early date, as Pentstemon Cobaea. In Penthorum sedoides autumn rosettes are pro- duced which elongate the following spring. There is a transition from such oblique offsets to short rhizomes. Propagation by Stolons. Here are included those species which propagate by means of stems above ground rooting and thus forming independent plants. Symphovicarpos vulgaris forms prostrate leafy branches for this purpose while Fragaria Virginiana forms the familiar runners and Rubus occidentalis roots at the tips of the recurved branches. Propagation by Ethizomes. There are all gradations from the oblique branches from a crown to the extensive rhizomes of Rumex venosus and Laportea Canadensis. The upright rhizome or caudex has been mentioned as occurring at the summit of a fleshy root. Often it is the chief underground portion, bearing lateral fibrous roots. There is a transition from the vertical caudex through the oblique caudex to the slowly creeping horizontal rhizome such as Thalietrum pur- Hitchcock — Studies on Subterranean Organs. 183 purascens, and Agrimonia mollis. The familiar Polygonatum giganteum is the typical form of this. The upper part of the oblique caudex is drawn down into a horizontal position each successive year by the contraction of the lateral roots. At first the oblique crown and the oblique caudex may seem to resemble each other. The oblique crown is surmounted by the dead base of a vegetative stem or else, where offsets are produced which soon become independent, the old stem dis- appears. But the oblique or slowly creeping horizontal rhizome ends in a terminal bud which continues the growth. The vegetative stems are thus axillary from the rhizome. The creeping rhizome may show peculiarities, as in Teu- crium Canadense, where it is dorsiventrally flattened and con- stricted at the nodes. In Scutellaria parvula the internodes, or some of them, swell up into so-called tubers, forming a more or less interrupted chain, ‘‘ subterranean stolons moniliform- tuberiferous,’’ Gray. In Apios tuberosa genuine tubers are formed though they are not usually terminal on a rhizome as is the common potato, but there may be several on one rhizome. These tubers may send out new rhizomes or may become a crown and send up successive vegetative shoots. Glycyrrhiza lepidota produces deep root-like rhizomes which may grow several or many feet before producing a new plant. Each new plant becomes a strong crown. One would scarcely suspect the presence of rhizomes in this case. Comandra pallida propagates in a similar manner but the crowns are closer together. Astragalus Plattensis is also similar but the new plant forms a small fleshy root below and sends a stem to the surface which becomes a small or slender crown. Ipomoea leptophylla, a very peculiar case, was described in the Botanical Gazette, 25:52. This plant forms a very large fleshy root, the summit of which is sunken several inches below the surface. A crown is formed but in addition it propagates by slender roots about the size of a fence wire which have their origin along the lower half of the root and rise obliquely to near the surface when the new plant is formed several feet from the parent. In some plants the creeping decumbent bases of the vegetative shoots branch and root abundantly, forming a tangled mass of stems which per- 134 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. sist through the winter and send out new branches in the spring; such are Lycopus sinuatus, Lippia lanceolata and Dianthera Americana. Propagation by Adventitious Buds upon Creeping Roots. Creeping roots of the typical form are produced by Rhus glabra, Ambrosia psilostachya, Cnicus undulatus, Apocynum cannabinum, Enslenia albida, Convolvulus arvensis, and Rumex Acetoselia, some of which are, on this account, bad weeds. — pe ca a < = a = ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. OF SCI. TRANS. ACAD. ANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE >} TRANS. ACAD. Scr. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XVI FIG.: 9. FIG. 10. ¢ XVII. PLATE x. TOL. \ St. LOUIS, . OF AD. SCI RANS. AC i i THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICOCRINUS.* Mary Kiem. In recent works on the Crinoideae of North America, we find the writers relying upon the variations in the proportions of the interbrachial plates, and upon the form and size of the costals and distichals as the best distinctive characters for specific separation. The number and distribution of the arms, the form of the anal area, and the condition of the oral plates, are also important features. I have examined a large and excellent collection of Agari- cocrini, numbering over one hundred well preserved specimens, gathered at Moore’s Mill on the Fox River, in Clark County, Missouri, from the Keokuk formation. The diversity of their general form and-the various stages of the development of the plates, comprising the calyx, would tend to support the above statements ; but, on closer investigation, I became fully convinced that the specimens before me belong to but one species. The fact that these fossils were found within the small radius of one-eighth of a mile strengthens the stand I take on this question. I consider the prevailing differences in the plates the result of abnormal development, otherwise I would have one hundred species of the same genus from one locality, which is an utter impossibility. On the ventral side of any one of these specimens, there are invariably six prominent plates, each of which is sur- rounded by a more or less perfect ring of smaller pieces. In all the specimens that have come under my observation, and in the drawings I have examined, I have found these essential points. This fact led me to the following conclusions con- cerning the development of this genus. According to my conception of their development, the first plates to be formed were the orals, six in number. These * Presented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, May 7, 1900. Presented to the Faculty of Washington University as a thesis for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts, June, 1900. (167) 168 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. plates are always large and prominent in this genus; the posterior one being usually larger than the other five and central. They divide the ventral side into five spaces occupied by smaller plates. Four of these areas are about the same size, while the one on the anal side is much larger. (See figure.) The condition of the orals varies considerably ; sometimes they are tuberculose as in A. excavatus, nodose as in A. bullatus, spinous as in A. stellatus, or conical as in A. Coreyi. UT te? My Se a Hl nt Th ch My: maluige ‘ r | ie ‘ail wile en BF nil esa ZZ ya a8 fl Gian Rast DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICOCRINUS AMERICANUS.* The next step in the development was the formation of a series of smaller pieces around each oral. This ring can be traced more or less distinctly in every instance, but in no two cases is it composed of the same number of pieces, or of pieces of the same size. The variations in the size, shape and number of these plates, in all probability, depended upon the quality and the quantity of food, the amount of light and the nature of the surroundings. If the animal was healthy, well-fed, and the environments were favorable for rapid growth, it seems plausible to suppose that it developed large plates, but few of them; if the nutrition was poor and the conditions were adverse, then a large number of much smaller plates formed. Very often we find a number of small plates inserted between * The six plates shaded heavily were the first plates to be deposited. The series of smaller plates around each, which are shaded lightly, were the second step in the development. The intervening pieces, which are not shaded, were formed at a later period as the necessary material could be produced. Kiem — The Development of Agaricocrinus. 169 the orals and some of the plates composing the ring, as shown in Figs. 5, 18, 22 and 25. These may have been formed while the animal was sick or in a poor locality. Upon a return to more favorable conditions, the ring of larger plates was deposited. The isolation of the orals by these supplementary pieces cannot very well be regarded as of specific importance, as there is no regularity in their occur- rence. ! Because of the great variety in the shape, size, and number of the pieces, I think the intervening spaces were filled out as the necessary material could be produced. The sole pur- pose of these plates seems to be to fill out space, no one know- ing any functions which they might have had. Since their only object is to connect the different parts, it is very reason- able to suppose that they made their appearance at a later period than the orals and the basals, which appeared simul- taneously. Here, again, it is impossible to find any two specimens in which the spaces have been filled out in the same manner. An examination of the drawings accompanying this paper will show every possible combination, resulting from the factors with which the animal had to contend. The number of drawings could have been multiplied many times, but I think those submitted are sufficient to show the chief features in the development, and the departure in each case from the regular pentamerous arrangement. This process of development necessarily affected the gen- eral shape of the calyx, making it hemispherical as in A. Americanus, pyramidal as in A. excavatus, conical as in A. conicus, or inflated as in A. inflatus. In many cases the sym- metry of the body was destroyed by the addition or the removal of arms or plates. The size of the calyx is of little value for classification, as it depends entirely upon the size and number of the component plates. Examining the dorsal cup, I found a great similarity in the general arrangement of the plates, but differences in the number and in the size of the plates were as prevalent as on the ventral side. The many variations in the structure have been mistaken for specific differences, giving rise to useless synonyms. 170 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. The first radials vary much in size, being the largest plates of the dorsal cup in some, and quite small in others. In many they are irregular in size, the posterior ones being generally longer than the others. Often the sides are spread- ing, the lower ends thickened to form a circular ridge around the depression for the column. The second and third radials are among the most variable plates in the disk. The second radials are usually quadrangular with convex sides, but frequently one or both upper angles are trun- cated by the second interbrachials. In some three are hexangular, and the two posterior ones pentangular; or all are quadrangular, except the one on the anal side which has one of the upper angles truncated, making a fifth angle. There is considerable range in size; in some specimens they are larger than the first radials; in some they are the largest plates in the disk, and in others they are very short, more than twice as wide aslong. The third radials are regularly five-sided, but pieces with six, seven and eight sides are of common occurrence. Sometimes they are irregular in out- line, or all pentangular, except the posterior ones which are hexangular. In some they are triangular and so small that the first piece of the brachials rests in part on the second radial as well as on the third. As the first and second radials, so these may be the largest plates in the disk. Often they are tumid and project beyond the surface of the first and second radials. The distichals and brachials are quite variable in form and size, as well as in number among the rays. In many the first distichal of the three anterior rays is followed by a cuneate second plate, while the posterior rays have one distichal, followed by two palmars, or only one distichal with one palmar. The second distichal may be quite small and cuneate, the outer ends being occupied by arm plates which meet it from opposite sides. Usually there are two series of alternating brachial pieces which form the base of two arms. Additional arms are produced by the intercalation of brachial pieces between the others. The first anal is usually longer than the radials and fol- lowed by a second anal and an interbrachial on each side, Klem — The Development of Agaricocrinus. 171 which extend to the arm bases and beyond the second anal. This is not constant, however, the anal being smaller than the radials and of various shapes in many specimens. The next row generally consists of two short plates, succeeded by numerous small, irregular pieces, forming the anal area. This row frequently comprises three, four or five plates, which may be as wide as long, as largeas the radials, or almost twice as large. Upon examination the interbrachials will be found to be as variable in size as the radials and distichals. In some the first plate rises almost to a level with the arm bases, in others it barely reaches the middle of the second radial. ‘As a re- sult the second brachial plates come much lower, which makes them more prominent in the structure. They are brought in contact with the second radials, cutting off their upper lateral angles, making these plates hexagonal instead of regularly quadrangular. ‘The two of the second row are, as a rule, twice as long as the first and very narrow, while the plates of the third range are quite variable in form and size and often partly interambulacral. The interambulacral areas are filled out with from five to nine small convex pieces. The variations in the proportions of the interbrachial plates can- not be of specific importance because, if the first inter- brachials are small, the second ones are necessarily forced lower down in the cup and become more prominent, while, if the first interbrachials are long, there is no need for the second ones to be large and they remain narrow and do not truncate the second radials on the upper lateral edges as in the former case. In their normal state the Agaricocrini of the Chouteau and Burlington Groups have ten arms and those of the Keokuk Group twelve arms, three upon each of the posterior rays and two upon each of the others. The number of arms is not constant however; additional arms frequently appearing as the result of abnormal development, or one or more arms remaining undeveloped. When a series of specimens, such as I have figured, is carefully examined, the most striking feature is seen to be the irregularity in the number and size of the arms. The normal forms in the Keokuk Group 172. Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. have the following arm formula*: 3+8+4+2+24+2. Of the twenty-six specimens figured, ten have twelve arms, the formula in Figs. 4, 7, 14, 16, 20, 21 and 24 being 8+3+2+2+2; in Fig. 25, 3+38+114+2+2; in Fig. 22, 1114+34+11+11+2; and in Fig. 2, 83+4+2+1+2. One, No. 12, has thirteen arms of this formula: 3+3+2+3+2; No. 10 has seventeen arms arranged thus: 4+4+3+38+3. Six have eleven arms, the formula in Figs. 13, 15, 17 and 26 being 2+34+24+2+2; in Fig. 6, 2+38+2+11+2; and in Fig. 8, 8+2+24+2+2. Of the rest six have ten arms and two nine -arms. In Figs. 5,9, 11 and 18 the formula is 2+2+2+2-+2 ; in Fig. 8, 2+114+11+11+2; in Fig. 1, 3+2+2+2+1. For Fig. 19 the formula is 3+2+2+1+1, and for mis 23 it is 2+3+2+2. A lack of proper regard for this occurrence has led many writers to create new species, instead of considering their specimens abnormal developments of existing species. From the drawings it will be seen of how little value the number and distribution of the arms can be for specific separation. Many of Miller’s species rest entirely upon the number of arms. His A. Jndianensis and A. Gorbyi agree in every essential point with the description of A. splendens, the only distinction being that A. Gorbyi has thirteen arms, while the other two have each twelve arms.t A. Blairi is described as a distinct species because it has nine instead of ten arms, which is caused by one of the arms of the anterior ray remain- ing undeveloped.t The only claim A. profundus has to recog- nition as distinct species is the fact that it has fourteen arms, which the author thinks of specific importance. A. tugurium is considered new because it has twelve arms; and A. arcula with ten arms,§ A. Jowensis with fifteen arms and A. Heokukensis || with sixteen arms are classed as new species for that reason * In counting the arms I begin at the left posterior ray (ventral side up) and count toward the right. Smaller figures denote smaller arms. + Rep. Geol. Surv. Ind. 163 340. pl. IV. f. 1, 2. — Rep. Geol. Surv. Ind. 17: 663. pl. VIII. f. 5; 664. pl. VIII. f. 9. t Rep. Geol. Surv. Ind. 18:3 275. pl. III. f. 12-14. § Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 6: 26. pl. III. f. 1-3; 28. pl. III. f. 4-6; 30. pl. III. f. 7-8. || Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 12: 5. pl. I. f. 1-3; 7. pl. I. f. 4-6. Klem — The Development of Agaricocrinus. 173 only. If we examine the way in which extra arms arise, the folly of considering the number of arms important becomes still more apparent. In rays having regularly three arms, the third arises from a tertiary radial which cuts off the upper angles of the secondary radials. If this plate should divide vertically, forming two tertiary radials, then an arm would spring from each of these two tertiary radials, and there would be four arms to that ray. Increase in the number of arms seems to be due solely to the dividing and cutting off of the sides of the plates. Injury to some of the plates where arms were to form would prevent the further growth of the arm and leave it undeveloped. Such a case I have shown at Fig. 2, where the middle anterior ray started to produce a second arm. The size of the arms and the number of joints are worth- less as features of classification, as they are preserved in comparatively few specimens and represent only the age of the animal. The only way in which the number of joints could be of value is, if there were a certain definite number of joints to the inch for each species. The pentamerous arrangement of the parts is the rule throughout the sub-kingdom of the Echinodermata, but we cannot find another division in the whole animal kingdom so subject to abnormal development. In addition to the above examples of abnormity, I will mention a few striking instances of its occurrence in other families, as examples of deviation from the regular pentamerous type are not uncommon. In Bulletin 3 of the Illinois State Museum of Natural History, on page 19, in a comparison between Batocrinus facetus and B. Lyonanus, we find the following statement: ‘In Bato- crinus facetus the three-armed series is on the right of the azygous side, in this it is on the left. In that species, there are four regular interradials and eleven azygous plates, in this apecine there are three regular interradials and six azygous plates.’’ In the same Bulletin the following remarks are found in the description of Zeacrinus bellulus: ‘* This species bears some resemblance to Cyathocrinus maniformis of Yan- dell and Shumard which has generally been referred to Zea- crinus. In that species the subradials are long and abruptly bend into the columnar cavity and upward so as to form a 174 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. convex rim for the base of the calyx and show the upper part of the plates in a lateral view; in this species the columnar depression is much smaller and the subradials are compara- tively shorter and only slightly convex so as to form a some- what truncated base to the calyx and to show only the superior angles of the plates in a lateral view. The first radials are comparatively shorter and the second radials comparatively longer, and the plates more convex in this species than they are in Z. maniformis. The arms in this species are more fusiform than in Z. maniformis. In that species there are only nine arms.’’ On page 37, in describing Z. nitidus, Miller says, ‘* Z. maniformis has proportionally a longer and more globose calyx and much longer arms than our species. The second radials in our species are much more constricted on the sides than they arein Z. maniformis, and we are led to infer, from the figure, that it had ten arms while our species has only nine.’’ In a description of Zeacrinus cylindricus this statement is made: ‘‘ This species has been confounded with Z. maniformis by some collectors, but in that species the basal plates are hidden by the column, the body is shorter, and there are only nine arms, as the radial series opposite the azygous area bears only a single arm.’’ The distinguish- ing features of Batocrinus prodigialis are given as follows: ‘¢This species is distinguished from B. Yandelli, which it most resembles, by having twenty-five instead of twenty-one or twenty-two arm openings to the vault, and by having one more regular interradial in each area and one or two more azygous plates.’’ It seems very arbitrary to make a new species because a specimen has nine instead of ten arms, or has three arms on the right of the azygous side instead of the left, or four regular interradials and eleven azygous plates instead of three regular interradials and six azygous plates, or because the basals are hidden by the column, or because the basals instead of being five, which isthe typical number, have become three or two by concrescence. With regard to the description of Batocrinus prodigialis I will say that it agrees in every essential point with Shumard’s Actinocrinus Yandelli.* I * Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis. 13 76. pl. I. f. 4, a,b. Kiem — The Development of Agaricocrinus. 175 have examined the specimen from which Shumard made his description and am at a loss to see any difference. The specimen, which is now in the collection of the Washington University, was found at Button Mould Knob in Kentucky, the same locality which Miller mentions for his specimen. Because of the possession of one more arm Zeacrinus bellulus is separated from Zeacrinus maniformis, which was described by Hall in 1858* as having nine arms which he distinctly states is probably accidental. Besides the foregoing reasons for reducing the existing number of species, the following characteristics will help to prove my assertions : — (a) Concavity of the base. — Messrs. Wachsmuth and Springert state that «* the Keokuk species without exception are deeply concave, in the basal regions,’’ but I have found all possible gradations from an almost flat basal region to a deeply concave disk. A. Whitfieldi is so deeply concave, that when the body is placed upon a level surface, it rests upon the first brachials. In A. tuberosus and A. Americanus the concavity involves the entire radial series of the plates; in A. splendens it extends to the top, and in A. nodulosus to the middle of the first distichals; in A. Worthent, to the sec- ond costals; in A. nodosus and A. conicus, to the first cos- tals, and in A. crassus it is almost flat. The difference in the concavity is such a gradual variation, that it is impossible to state the extent of concavity permissiblefor a certain species. (b) Horizon and locality. — A great many of the species recently described were collected at the same place and from the same geological formation. From Charlestown, Indiana, Miller alone described thirty-five new species of Dolatocrinus * Geol. Rep. Iowa. 1? 3 682. pl. 25.f. 8. + For further examples of abnormal development see Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 3:19, 35, 36, 37, 46; 5:39, 53; 6:16; 7:6, 8, 19, 21, 22, 25, 28, 29, 31, 40, 63, 67; 8:6, 8, 9, 10.— Trans. and Proc. New Zealand Insti- tute. 1894. 27 3194-208. pl. X, XJ, XII, and XZIJ (in part). — Quarterly Journal Geological Society. 451. No. 177: 149-171. pl. VI. (1889); 38. (1882). —G. Boehm. Zeitschrift der Deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft 43°. Uber eine Anomalie im Kelche von Millericrinus mespeliformis. — Quenstedt. Petrefactenkunde Deutschlands. 4: 328.—P.de Loriol. Mém- oires de la Société Paléontologique Suisse. 4, t Revision Palaeocrinoidea. Part II. 109. 176 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. as occurring in the Hamilton Group. . From Sedalia, Mo., he described twenty-six Batocrini from the Burlington Group, thirteen Platycrini from the Chouteau limestone and twenty- two Platycrini from the Burlington; from Burlington, Iowa, nineteen species of Batocrinus from the Burlington limestone; and from Boonville, Mo., twenty-one species of Batocrinus from the Keokuk formation. Following is a list of the species described by Miller from the different localities. CHARLESTOWN, IND. —- HAMILTON GROUP. Dolatocrinus aureatus. Dolatocrinus bulbaceus. Dolatocrinus lineolatus. Dolatocrinus ornatus, var. as- peratus. Dolatocrinus spinosus. Dolatocrinus stellifer. Dolatocrinus venustus.* Dolatocrinus amplus.t Dolatocrinus bellulus. Dolatacrinus corporosus. Dolatocrinus exornatus. Dolatocrinus Hammelli. Dolatocrinus pulchellus. Dolatocrinus vasculum.t Dolatocrinus nodosus. Dolatocrinus sacculus. _Dolatocrinus salebrosus.§ Dolatocrinus aplatus. Dolatocrinus argutus. Dolatocrinus bellamgosus. Dolatocrinus caelatus. Dolatocrinus Charlestown- ensis. Dolatocrinus Indianensis. || Dolatocrinus arrosus. Dolatocrinus asper. Dolatocrinus aspratilis. Dolatocrinus basilicus. Dolatocrinus cistula. Dolatocrinus dispar. Dolatocrinus dissimularis. Dolatocrinus laguncula. Dolatocrinus Lyoni. Dolatocrinus peculiaris. Dolatocrinus preciosus.] Dolatocrinus neglectus.** SEDALIA, MO. — BURLINGTON GROUP. Batocrinus aequalis. Batocrinus aspratilis. Batocrinus laetus. Batocrinus scyphus.t t Batocrinus formaceus. Batocrinus imparilis. * Bull. Ul. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 4. || Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 8. + Bull. U1. State Mus. Nat. Hist.5. J Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 9. t Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 6. ** Bull. Ul. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 12. § Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 7. ++ Bull. Il. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 3. Kiem — The Development of Agaricocrinus. Batocrinus incultus. Batocrinus insperatus. Batocrinus planus.* Batocrinus argutus. Batocrinus asper. Batocrinus basilicus. Batocrinus folliculus. Batocrinus germanus. Batocrinus Jessieae. Batocrinus nanus. Batocrinus proximus.t Batocrinus Pettisensis. Batocrinus regalis.t Batocrinus repertus. Batocrinus Sedaliensis. Batocrinus subaequatus. Batocrinus subcitulus.§ Batocrinus Blairi. Batocrinus Brittsi. Batocrinus comparilis. || Platycrinus modestus. Platycrinus semifusus. Platycrinus sulciferus. Platycrinus tugurium.] Platycrinus concinnulus. 177 Plaiycrinus formosus, var. ap- proximatus. Platycrinus subscitulus.** Platycrinus acclivus. Platycrinus amabilis. Platycrinus batiola. Platycrinus Blairi. Platycrinus Broadheadi. Platycrinus carchesium. Platycrinus concinnus. Platycrinus Gorbyi. Platycrinus lautus. Platycrinus occidentalis. Platycrinus pulcellus. Platycrinus rotundus. Platycrinus Sampsoni. Ptatycrinus sulcatus. t SEDALIA, MO. — CHOUTEAU GROUP. Platycrinus cortina.tt Platycrinus casula. Platycrinus clinatus. — Platycrinus formosus. Platycrinus germanus. Platycrinus Missouriensis. Platycrinus Pettisensis.§§ * Bull, lll. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 7. + Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 8. tT Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 9. § Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 10. || Rep. Geol. Sury. Ind. 18, { Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 7. Platycrinus absentivus. Platycrinus aequiternus. Platycrinus allophylus. Platycrinus annosus. Platycrinus ollicula. \\ || Platycrinus Chouteauensis. Platycrinus Colletti.19 ** Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 9. tt Bull. Geol. Surv. Mo. 4. Tt Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 5. §$ Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 7. || Bull. Geol. Surv. Mo. 4. {J Rep. Geol. Surv. Ind. 18. 178 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. BURLINGTON, IOWA. — BURLINGTON GROUP. Batocrinus nitens. Batocrinus levigatus. Batocrinus spurius.* Batocrinus levis. Batocrinus Albersi. Batocrinus politus. Batocrinus approximatus. Batocrinus remotus. Batocrinus cognatus. Batocrinus repositus. Batocrinus complanatus. Batocrinus saccellus. Batocrinus consanguineus. Batocrinus speciosus. Batocrinus enodis. Batocrinus subovatus. Batocrinus glaber. Batocrinus subrotundus. Batocrinus insolens. Two abnormal species.f BOONVILLE, MO. — KEOKUK GROUP. Batocrinus Broadheadi. Batocrinus veterator. Batocrinus heteroclitus. Batocrinus vetustus. Batocrinus ignotus. Batocrinus vicinus.t Batocrinus inconsuetus. Batocrinus delicatulus. Batocrinus inopinatus. Batocrinus parilis. Batocrinus insuetus. Batocrinus stelliformis. Batocrinus modestus. Batocrinus strenuus.§ Batocrinus nitidulus. Batocrinus Boonvillensis. Batocrinus peculiaris. Batocrinus Gorbyi. Batocrinus polydactylus. Batocrinus Gurleyt. Batocrinus procerus. Batocrinus mediocris. Batocrinus Sampson. Batocrinus pulchellus. Batocrinus serratus. Batocrinus venustus. || Batocrinus. venustulus. Batocrinus divalis.] The impossibility of such a large number of new species being found in a comparatively small space becomes an over- whelming fact, when we consider the distribution of plants and animals. Nature has never been known to confine such an incredible number of species at one spot. Nothing like it © is found in the distribution of plants and animals of the pres- * Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist.9. § Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 9. + Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 10. || Bull. Geol. Surv. Mo. 4. t Bull. Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 7. J Rep. Geol. Surv. Ind. 18. Klem — The Development of Agaricocrinus. 179 ent time, and we may safely assume that the same rules of distribution which exist to-day existed during the geological ages. From Florissant, Colorado, a place famous for the - great abundance of fossil plants and insects found there, 213 species of fossil plants have been enumerated.* Of these the Family Myricaceae contains the largest number, thirteen in all. More than one hundred and seventy species of Formi- cidae have been described from different localities, the largest number, thirty-seven, from Radoboj. (c) Possible influence of light. — The aérial parts of plants are directed largely under the influence of light, the stem and petioles curving toward the light and the blades standing at right angles to the rays of light. Gorgonza shows the same tendency to develop more on the side toward the light, and in a number of Blastoids the whole body leans considerably to one side, suggesting more rapid development toward the light. In a number of Crinoids the same asymmetry of the calyx “may be seen, which may be due to heliotropism. As to the extent of this influence it is impossible to come to any definite conclusions at the present time, but a thorough study of more material may lead to more tangible results. (d) Effects of injury. — In describing Batocrinus insuetust Miller gives as one of the distinctive characters the balloon- shaped bulb terminating the proboscis. This is as far as I know the only one found having this feature, which alone should have made the author very cautious about describing it as a new species. In all probability the proboscis was injured early in its growth, and asa result developed a balloon- shaped growth. There is no more reason for making a new species based on this character, than there would be for creating a new species of oak, because the tree had a part of its trunk expanded into a big tuber-like growth. Very many Crinoid stems show the marks of injury and an increase in size at those points. The mistake of considering the variations in the different parts as of specific importance has led to the creation of many * Trans. The Academy of Science of St. Louis. 8 : 161-188. + Bull. Il. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 7: 14. pl. I. f. 8, 9. 180 Trans. Acad. Sct. of St. Louis. synonyms. Forty-two species have been described which can easily be reduced to ten. The following is a list of the species with their synonyms and geological formations. i 1892. Agaricocrinus Chouteauensis, Miller. Chouteau. 1892. Agaricocrinus Blairi. Chouteau. 1892. Agaricocrinus germanus. Chouteau. 1892. Agaricocrinus Sampsoni. Chouteau. il. 1858. Agaricocrinus brevis, Hall. L. Burlington. 1858. Agaricocrinus pyramidatus. L. Burlington. 1858. Agaricocrinus stellatus. L. Burlington. 1860. Agaricocrinus corniculus. L. Burlington. 1860. Agaricocrinus geometricus. L. Burlington. 1861. Agaricocrinus jfiscellus. L. Burlington. 1861. Agaricocrinus corrugatus. L. Burlington. Il. 1896. Agaricocrinus Adamsensis, Miller and ‘Gurley. Burlington. 1896. Agaricocrinus Hodgsont. Burlington. IV. 1896. Agaricocrinus Illinotsensis, Miller and Gurley, Burlington. V. 1861. Agaricocrinus inflatus, Hall. } Burlington. 1861. Agaricocrinus planoconvexus. Burlington. 1891. Agaricocrinus decornis. : Burlington. 1897. Agaricocrinus convexus. Burlington. VI. 1861. Agaricocrinus ornotrema, Hall. U. Burlington. 1897. Agaricocrinus bellatrema. U. Burlington. 1897. Agaricocrinus bellatrema, var. major. U. Burlington. 1861. 1860. 1882. 1858. 1858. 1897. 1855. 1858. 1858. 1860. 1861. 1869. 1881. 1881. 1890. 1890. 1890. 1891. 1891. 1891. 1895. 1895. 1895. 1897. 1897. 1897? 1897. Klem — The Development of Agaricocrinus. VII. 181 Agaricocrinus gracilis, Meek and Worthen. VIII. U. Burlington. Agaricocrinus Coreyi, Lyon and Casseday, Agaricocrinus Springert. IX. Agaricocrinus Wortheni, Hall. Agaricocrinus Whitfieldt. Agaricocrinus conicus. >. © Agaricocrinus Americanus, Roemer. Agaricocrinus tuberosus. Agaricocrinus bullatus. Agaricocrinus pentagonus. Agaricocrinus excavatus. Agaricocrinus nodosus. Agaricocrinus crassus (?) Agaricocrinus elegans. Agaricocrinus Macadamsi. Agaricocrinus nodulosus. Agaricocrinus splendens. Agaricocrinus dissimilis. Agaricocrinus Gorbyt. Agaricocrinus Indianensis Agaricocrinus arcula. Agaricocrinus profundus. Agaricocrinus tugurium. Keokuk. Keokuk. Keokuk. Keokuk. Keokuk. Keokuk. Keokuk. U. Burlington. U. Burlington. U. Burlington. U. Burlington. ‘Keokuk. Keokuk. Keokuk. Keokuk. Keokuk, Keokuk. Keokuk. Keokuk. Keokuk. Keokuk. Keokuk. Agaricocrinus Americanus, var. tuberosus. Agaricocrinus Lowensis. Agaricocrinus Keokukensis. Keokuk. Keokuk. Keokuk. Agaricocrinus nodulosus, var. Macadamsi. Keokuk. In conclusion I will offer a few suggestions as to the fea- tures which seem proper for specific separation. In the pre- 182 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. ceding pages I have pointed out the great deviations from the pentamerous arrangement in the number and size of the in- terbrachials, costals, and distichals, and in the number and distribution of the arms. A natural classification rests upon those prevailing characters which are most constant. This fact points out at once the fallacy of adopting the interbrach- ial plates, costals, distichals or arms as distinctive features. The best characters for specific separation are (a) the general aspect of the plates, (b) the external ornamentation of the plates, and (c) the anal area. The geological formation is also of value, as we may assume with perfect safety that fos- sils found in the Chouteau Group belong to different species from those found in the Burlington or Keokuk. Specimens from the Burlington in general appearance look very different from those of the Keokuk. Chouteau and Burlington speci- mens have ten arms, a deviation from the number being rare. In the Keokuk we see a tendency toward abnormal develop- ment appearing in the number of arms. The regular Keokuk species has twelve arms, which in itself is a departure from the pentamerous arrangement. Deviations from that number and in the distribution among the rays are very frequent as I have pointed out before. Finding the pentamerous rule tol- erably well preserved in the Chouteau and the Lower Burling- ton Groups, with an increase in the amount of deviation from it throughout the Upper Burlington and the Keokuk, proves conclusively that the tendency was toward abnormal develop- ment. DIAGNOSES OF SPECIES. AGARICOCRINUS CHOUTEAUENSIS, Miller. Dorsal side flat or very little concave in the region of the basal plates. Ventral side low, covered with small slightly convex plates. Surface of the plates granular, rarely smooth. Anal orifice small. — Geological formation. Chouteau. _ AGARICOCRINUS BREVIS, Hall. Orals distinctly convex, the interambulacrals almost flat. Posterior oral sharply conical. Plates of the dorsal cup be- low the arm regions thickened, rising above the suture lines Klem — The Development of Agaricocrinus. 183 in nodose or tuberculose extensions with short ridges extend- ing to the sides of the plates, where they meet with the ridges from adjoining plates. Surface granulose. Anal area formed of numerous rows of small plates with a distinct groove at each side. — Geological formation. Burlington, especially Lower Burlington. Agaricocrinus ApamsEnsIs, Miller and Gurley. Plates thick, part of them subspinous. The first primary radials are sculptured so as to be pyramidal or subspinous. Ventral side moderately convex, covered with large plates and a very large posterior oral which may be formed into a con- ical spine. The anal area is elliptical with no indications of an orifice or only a very small opening on top partly sur- rounded by small plates.— Geological formation. Burlington. AGARICOCRINUS ILLINOISENSIS, Miller and Gurley. Ventral disk low, most convex toward the middle. One large convex central oral, otherwise the plates are small and very little convex. Plates thick, smooth or granular. Anal area not elevated or a tumid swelling, but composed of small flat plates. — Geological formation. Burlington. AGARICOCRINUS INFLATUS, Hall. Plates of the dorsal cup flat, radials and first interbrachials sometimes a little concave. Ventral disk highly elevated, plates all flat, except the posterior oral which is more or less nodose. Ventral disk strongly inflated at the anal area which is composed of almost flat pieces, with a shallow groove at each side in some.— Geological formation. Burlington. AGARICOCRINUS ORNOTREMA, Hall. Plates of the dorsal cup flat. Radial dome plates highly convex. Posterior side of the ventral disk inflated and pro- truding. The middle portion of the inflation consists of an ovoid flattened area, covered by small plates which are sur- rounded by moderately large, strongly nodose or subclavate pieces.— Geological formation. Upper Burlington. AGARICOCRINUS GRACILIS, Meek and Worthen. First costals, first interbrachials and second anal plates 184 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. abruptly bent upward and swollen to form a circle of nodes at the lower margin of the calyx. Surface of the calyx finely granulose and convex enough to bring out the suture lines. Anal area almost flat. — Geological formation. Upper Bur- lington. AGarRIcocrinus Coreyi, Lyon and Casseday. All plates of the body tumid with abruptly raised trans- verse ridges on each plate. Surface smooth. Anal area an elongate distinctly rounded area, composed of small, smooth, irregular pieces. — Geological formation. Keokuk. AGARICOCRINUS WoRTHENI, Hall. Plates within the concavity perfectly flat, others. slightly convex. Orals and radial dome plates large with rounded nodes. Intervening pieces small and only slightly convex. Surface finely granulo-striate. Anal area perfectly flat. There is no anal ridge, the plates of the posterior area grow- ing smaller as they approach the anus. — Geological forma- tion. Keokuk. AGARICOCRINUS (AMPHORACRINUS ) AMERICANUS, Roemer. Plates within the concavity flat or slightly convex, while the others are more or less convex and sometimes covered with indistinct transverse angularities. Plates of the ventral side highly convex, except the interambulacral pieces which are much smaller and almost flat. Orals and radial dome plates large and tuberculose. Surface granular or granulose striate toward the margin of the plates. Anal area abruptly protruding, formed into a large anal process with a broad de- pression on either side. — Geological formation. Upper Burlington and Keokuk. | EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES XVITI-XXI. All the figures are drawings, by the author, of the ventral side of Agari- cocrinus Americanus, and show the great variations in the number and dis- tribution of the arms, and in the plates of the tegmen. All the drawings are about natural size and drawn as if the arm bases had been flattened out, regardless of perspective. Issued May 30,1900. AGARICOCRINUS AMERICANUS. Q AGARICOCRINUS AMERICANUS. ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTIONS CONCERNING THE GLANDULAR STRUCTURES APPERTAINING TO THE HUMAN EYE AND ITS APPENDAGES.* Avour ALT, M. D. PREFACE. . The studies and investigations which are the subject of this paper are the outcome of a desire to have as clear as possible an understanding of the glandular structures appertaining to the human eye and its appendages from personal knowledge. It took a number of years to accumulate the very numerous specimens, the careful study of which furnished the basis for the descriptions here given. While part of the many eyelids which I have examined were obtained from suit- able cases in my own practice, a large number came from the dissecting rooms of the Beaumont Hospital Medical College of this city through the kindness of Dr. R. W. Baker, the demonstrator of anatomy in this institution. Of necessity a great part of this anatomical material was of a pathological character, and it has, therefore, served for other studies as well. As it seemed to me that the text-books which I know of, with but few exceptions, deal in a very insufficient manner with this interesting subject, I have thought it might be of some interest to place the results of my own investigations in this direction before the ophthalmic public. This may, perhaps, prove the more interesting, since by the efforts of numerous foreign ophthalmic surgeons, and in this country notably of Dr. C. R. Holmes of Cincinnati t the old operation of the removal of the lacrymal glands for incurable lacryma- * Presented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, May 21, 1900. + Archives of Ophthalmology. 2831. (185) 186 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. tion has of late been reintroduced and has become a legiti- mate surgical procedure. ) The investigations herein recorded may claim to be original in so far as they were made, in a sense, as if I had known nothing of the literature on the subject. This was in reality the case with some of the more recent monographs which I did: not and had no chance to consult until my researches, at least as far as my material would allow me, were finished. The illustrations, except the three last ones, which are more or less schematie drawings, are made from photographs I took of my own specimens. THE ORBITAL, PALPEBRAL AND CONJUNCTIVAL LACRYMAL GLANDS. The lacrymal gland is usually spoken of as consisting of two separate parts, one the so-called orbital lacrymal gland and the other termed the inferior, palpebral, conjunctival or accessory lacrymal gland. The orbital lacrymal gland, as its name denotes, is situated, at least to its greatest extent, within the orbital cavity. There it is located in the fovea lacrymalis which lies right behind the outer upper bony orbital margin in the processus zygomaticus of the frontal bone. Its anterior end usually slightly protrudes beyond the bony margin. The gland is held in this position by a connective tissue capsule which is united with the orbital periosteum by means of loosely interwoven trabeculae. This capsule is generally somewhat firmer on the nasal side of the gland. When this gland is in toto removed from the fovea lacry- malis, its shape is seen to resemble to some extent that of an almond (Fig. 1). It is convex at the orbital surface, and more or less concave at its ocular (lower) side. Its posterior portion is usually thick and rounded, its anterior one thinner and sharper. The posterior part of the gland may, when itis well developed, reach back into the orbit about as far as the anterior third of its depth. The nasal edge usually reaches to the temporal margin of the superior rectus muscle. However, the actual measurements of this gland, like those of other glands, are subject to great variations. As an inter- Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 187 esting fact, I may say, that in the Negro I have found this gland to be as arule larger than in the Caucasian. I have seen it often to be twice as large or even more (Figs. 2, 3). The orbital lacrymal gland forms a more or less compact glandular body. It consists of a large number of lobules united closely with each other by loose connective tissue in which its ducts and numerous blood vessels lie. These con- nective tissue trabeculae are united to its capsule. The gland is of the acinous type and its structure has been correctly likened to that of the serous or salivary glands. The round or oval final acini are situated around and connected with small efferent ducts which, by their union in the direction towards the conjunctiva, form larger and larger excretory ducts. These acini consist of a membrana propria and a lining of cylindrical, or rather, conical secretory epithe- lial cells, with a large round or oval nucleus near their broader base which are arranged in a circle around a central lumen. The secretion of this gland is carried to the conjunctival sac by means of a varying number of these excretory ducts which are lined with a cylindrical epithelium. The statement is made by numerous authors, that there are from 6 to 12 such excretory ducts. It does not seem to me that there are so many. I often found one of them, which also seemed to be the longest, to be considerably wider than the others. These excretory ducts reach the conjunctiva of the fornix by a somewhat bent and wavy course; their external orifices lie in the temporal part of the conjunctival sac near the edge of the tarsal tissue. Below the orbital lacrymal gland and separated from it by its capsule, the levator palpebrae superioris muscle and Mueller’s non-striated muscle, and embedded in the loose connective tissue of the eyelid on the temporal side of the tarsus, lies the inferior or palpebral lacrymal gland ( Figs. 1 to 5). This gland consists of a varying number of smaller and larger lobules which are very much more loosely held together by the intervening connective tissue than those of the orbital gland, and therefore do not form as compact a body. While this gland is usually thought to lie in the upper eye- 188 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. jid alone, I have in normal lids almost invariably found its lobules to reach downwards through and beyond the outer canthus into the lower eyelid (Figs. 6, 7). The gland- ular lobules here lie grouped around the temporal and some- times even the lower edge of the tarsus. Similar lobules of glandular tissue, only still more loosely connected with and further apart from each other, are found in most eyelids to extend from the more compact temporal body of this palpebral glandular system towards the nasal side of the upper eyelid. These more isolated lobules may reach to the middle line of the eyelid and even somewhat beyond it (Figs. 8, 9). They lie in the loose tissue of the fornix of the conjunctiva or a little below it on the palpebral side. The farther away from the outer canthus, the smaller these glandular lobules usually are. Those found in the temporal side of the lower eyelid seem to be of a more uniform size. Yet, there is no absolute rule about this. It seems that when speaking of the palpebral or inferior lacrymal gland, we have to include all of these separate and so widely dispersed glandular lobules. Their number in the aggregate may well reach up to 40 or more. The structure of the glandular lobules is exactly the same as that of the orbital lacrymal gland. They differ in no— particular. Their numerous efferent ducts, lined with cylin- drical epithelium, lead their secretion to the conjunctival sac (Fig. 10). The statement has often been made and repeated, that the ducts of these glands are taken up by those of the orbital lacrymal gland around which, in part, they are grouped, before reaching the conjunctival surface. Whether this happens often, I cannot tell definitely in spite of my numerous specimens; but it may occasionally be the case. I find, that most frequently several of these lobules have an excretory duct in common, which runs separately from the excretory ducts of the orbital lacrymal gland to the con- junctiva. Such a duct has generally a wavy course and does not reach the conjunctiva by the shortest route ( Figs.10 to 16). The more widely separated and the totally isolated glandular lobules in the lower eyelid and those glands which extend in the upper eyelid towards its middle line, must of necessity Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 189 have their ducts apart from those of the orbital lacrymal gland, as they lie so far removed from them. ‘The external orifices of these ducts lie in the upper conjunctival fornix and usually form a row, being arranged side by side. I may state here, that these excretory ducts pierce the conjunctival sur- face generally at a more or less acute angle in a downward direction, so that the upper lip overhangs the orifice (Figs. 11,14). Even in what appear to be perfectly normal conjunctivae, the orfiices of the duets are frequently surrounded by a dense lymphoid infiltration in the adjoining tissue. This infiltration is frequently so dense that on surface specimens it may hide the openings. This condition may, perhaps, be the explana- tion for the repeated statements that in the normal conjunc- tiva of man lymph-follicles could be found. I here repeat the statement which I have made on other occasions, that, like Waldeyer, I have never found a true lymph-follicle in the human conjunctiva. From the foregoing description it is apparent that a very large, though varying, amount of glandular tissue, of identi- cally the same structure and most probably the same function as the orbital lacrymal gland, is situated in the temporal half of the eyelids above, respectively below, the fornix conjunc- tivae. The secretion of all of these glands, combined with that of the orbital lacrymal gland, is discharged into the con- junctival sac and, flowing over the surface of the eyeball, keeps it and the inner surfaces of the eyelids moist. Yet, even a careful removal of all of this glandular tissue does not render the surface of the eyeball dry. There must, therefore, be still other glandular structures, which supply such a moistening liquid, and, in reality, a number of such glands do exist. Almost without exception I find one such gland, consisting of 2 or 3, seldom 4 lobules, near the inner canthus in the nasal part of the upper eyelid, or a little higher up in the con- junctiva near the fornix (Figs. 17 to 20); another one, con- sisting usually of 2 lobules, I find in the nasal conjunctiva of the lower eyelid, below the lacrymal caruncle (Figs. 21, 22), and frequently one in the temporal side of the lower eyelid 190 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. somewhat nasally rem ved from the palpebral lacrymal gland. When studying horizontal sections through the eyelids such little glands are sometimes found, also, to lie close to the temporal and nasal edges of the tarsus of the upper as well as the lower lid, and partly in the ocular conjunctiva. They are formed of one or two minute glandular lobules. All of these glands are of exactly the same histological structure as those generally recognized as lacrymal glands. Their ex- cretory ducts, from their situation, are rather short. They, also, are lined with cylindrical epithelium. Their external orifice lies usually in the palpebral, sometimes in the ocular conjunctiva (Figs. 23 to 25). There is no reason, as far as I can see, why these small isolated acinous glands should not also be looked upon as lacrymal glands, as they differ in no way histologically from them. The difference in size is the only one I can recognize. The presence of these glands alone, then, could explain why, after the operative removal or the destruction of the orbital and the larger palpebral lacrymal glands in the tem- poral half of the eyelids, the surfaces of the eyeball and eye- lids do not become dry. It is, furthermore, clear that when a chronic inflammation, involving the whole of the conjunctiva, gradually leads to its shrinkage and to the consequent oblitera- tion of the excretory ducts and secondarily to atrophy of all these glands (and of some to be described presently ), as for instance trachoma, xerophthalmus must result. GLANDS SITUATED IN THE TARSAL TISSUE OF THE EYELIDS. The tarsal tissue proper of the eyelids contains two forms of glands, namely, the so-called Meibomian glands and the acino-tubular ( Waldeyer) glands. The Meibomian glands are found in the upper lid to be about 80 in number, while in the lower lid they are only about 20. There are, however, individual variations as to these numbers. They are long, slender glandular struc- tures, somewhat resembling the pancreatic glands, consisting each one of a central duct to which are attached numerous round, vesicle-like acini (Fig. 26). These central ducts Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 191 never quite reach the upper (in the lower eyelids the lower) edge of the tarsus. The acini begin somewhat removed from the external orifice of this central duct and sit upon it very much like grapes on the central stem. They form usually four rows around it, one on the posterior and one on its anterior surface, one on its nasal and one on its temporal side (Figs. 27, 28). The external orifices of the excretory ducts lie side by side at the free edge of the lid behind the lashes. The dermal epithelium reaches inwards into these ducts for some distance, as is particularly well shown in the eyelids of the Negro (Fig. 26). The acini of these glands as well as their ducts are lined with several layers of flat polygonal epithelial cells. These continually undergo a fatty degeneration and thus form a sebaceous secretion which renders the lidmargins fatty and thus helps to retain the tear-fluid within the conjunctival sac. In their structure these glands differ in no way from the sebaceous glands of the skin; they differ only in size. The length of the individual Meibomian glands varies ac- cording to the height of the tarsal tissue. Thus, the longest ones lie in the middle line of the eyelid, and from there they srow gradually shorter towards both canthi. The most nasally or temporally situated ones often consist only of the central duct and two or three acini. I can find only one layer of Meibomian glands, and all statements, referring to two or even more layers, are un- doubtedly due to oblique sections. In a general way these glands run parallel to each other and at right angles to the lidmargin. Yet, deviations from this rule are not uncommon (Fig. 28). The second kind of glands, the acino-tubular ones ( Wald- eyer), are usually drawn and described as lying solely in the temporal part of the tarsus above (in the lower lid below) the Meibomian glands (Fig. 29 to 31). This seems to be their most frequent location, or at least, they seem to be generally best developed in this portion of the tarsus. They are how- ever, at least in the upper eyelid, quite frequently found to be located, also, near and in the middle line ( Figs. 23 to 25), 192 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis . and sometimes, but rarely so, near the nasal edge of the tarsus (Fig. 32). While, as a rule, they are situated between the apex of the Meibomian glands and the upper (in the lower eyelid the lower) edge of the tarsus, they are not at all in- frequently found to reach in between the Meibomian glands and as far down (or up) almost as the orifices of these glands at the lidmargin (Figs. 32 to 35). The histological structure of these glands is also of the acinous type, and they do not essentially differ from the lacrymal glands, although their appearance and general ar- | rangement are slightly modified by the dense tissue in which they lie embedded (Figs. 36, 37). Their lobules are formed of numerous round and oval acini which consist of a basal membrane lined with cylindrical (conical) cells arranged around a central lumen, with a round or oval nucleus near their base. The small excretory ducts coming from the acini unite into a larger one which is sometimes quite long and to which smaller acini are attached throughout its length, the small ducts of which empty directly into this large duct formed by the union of the ducts coming from the most dis- tant acini. It is probably this arrangement which has led to their being named ‘ acino-tubular’’ glands. Sometimes, however, and especially when these glands are situated be- tween the Meibomian glands, this excretory duct is but very short. The excretory ducts of the acino-tubular glands are, also, lined with cylindrical epithelium, like those of the lacrymal glands. ‘Their external orifice lies in the palpebral conjunctiva (Figs. 35, 38). These acino-tubular glands are generally spoken of as muci- parous glands. For what reason, I have been unable to deter- mine, and it is not possible to examine their secretion chemi- cally. Their structureas stated, with the slight modification due to density of the tissue in which they lie embedded, corresponds in every respect with the lacrymal glands. The microscopi- cal staining reagents which seem to have a special affinity to mucous substances, as haematoxylin, Bismark-brown, and others, do not stain any part of these glands in particular. Now and then I have found a concretion in the excretory duct of such a gland, but this cannot be taken as proof of their Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 193 muciparous character, as just such concretions are also found in the ducts of the lacrymal glands (Fig. 39). GLANDS SITUATED IN THE TISSUE OF THE LIDMARGIN. In the dense tissue of the lidmargin, in front of the excre- tory ducts of the Meibomian glands, the cilia or eyelashes are implanted. These short curved hairs form three or four rather irregular rows and emerge from the skin of the anterior part of the lidmargin (Fig. 40). They are more numerous in the upper eyelid than in the lower one, numbering in the former from 100 to 150, in the latter from 50 to 70. These numbers are, of course, only approximately correct. The longest eyelashes lie in the middle line of the lids and from here they grow smaller and smaller in the direction towards the canthi. They are shortlived and drop out when about from 50 to 100 days old. The curvature of the eyelashes of the upper lid is concave upwards and convex downwards, while that of the eyelashes of the lower lid is just the reverse. } Each eyelash is accompanied by sebaceous glands, usually two, not infrequently three and four to one hair. These glands do not differ in any particular from other sebaceous glands of the hair of the skin and, therefore, it is not neces- sary to give here a special description. There is, however, another kind of glands situated in the intermarginal tissue of the eyelids, more especially, between the roots of the eyelashes, which is of a somewhat peculiar structure. These glands have been called modified sweat- glands, although, as far as I can find, nothing is known con- cerning the character of their secretion (Figs. 41, 42). In vertical (sagittal) sections through the whole thickness of the eyelids one or two such glands are usually seen to lie between the roots of two neighboring eyelashes or a little nearer to the lidmargin, sometimes farther inwards between the eyelashes and the tarsal tissue. In horizontal sections (Fig. 43) and sections which are made parallel to the surface of the eyelid, these glands are often found to be very numer- ous. (I have never succeeded in getting such sections par- allel to the surface which would go through the whole width 194 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. of the eyelid on account of its curvature, but they often com- prise about half or a little more of an eyelid. For the same reason, that is, the curvature of the eyelid, these sections can only in an approximate way be said to run parallel to the surface of the eyelid. ) | Near the canthi where the eyelashes cease, I find, as a rule, a larger body of these glandular structures lying outside of the last eyelash, temporally as well as nasally. These peculiar glands usually appear to consist of one or two rows of round or oval vesicle-like acini, which are some- times quite large, and which probably communicate with each other (Figs. 44, 45). Half a dozen or so of such acini seem to constitute the gland. These usually terminate in one larger, more conically shaped acinus, a collecting chamber, from which the efferent duct of the gland takes its origin. While this arrangement is the one I have almost always found, I have now and then seen a gland which appeared to be alto- gether tubular, the tube being wound upon itself exactly as is the case with the sweat-glands of the skin (Figs. 42, 46). As this usually occurred in thicker sections it may, perhaps, be that the appearance I have above described, is due to the manner in which the section has cut through the windings of the tube, and that in reality we have to deal altogether with tubular glands. I have been unable to come to a definite conclusion as regards this point. The efferent duct of these glands usually has a slightly arched course on its way to the lidmargin (Figs. 41, 42). There its orifice lies frequently within the duct of one of the sebaceous glands belonging to an eyelash. ‘There are, how- ever, many exceptions to this general rule, and I have found in almost every eyelid a number of external orifices of effer- ent ducts of modified sweat-glands which lie separately in the skin of the lidmargin. The acini of these peculiar glands are lined with a short, almost cuboid cylindrical epithelium ; the epithelial cells lining the efferent ducts appear more flattened. I have frequently seen a fatty, grumous substance contained in the lumen of the acini of these glands which appeared exactly like the contents found in the acini of the Meibomian Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 195 glands. Like these it did not take up any stain and it was dissolved and totally disappeared, as soon as the specimen was cleared in oil of cloves. Of course, it is not permissible to conclude from this fact alone that these glands must be looked upon rather as modified sebaceous than as modified sudoriferous glands. Still, I think this point is worth men- tioning. Neither does it seem very apparent, what role a watery secretion should play, when mixed with the fatty secre- tion of the sebaceous glands of the eyelashes. Furthermore, a watery secretion in this region would very likely lead to the overflow of the tears at the lidmargin, which is evidently not the case. THE CARUNCULA LACRYMALIS AND THE GLANDS SITUATED IN ITS TISSUE. The little rounded body of tissue lying at the nasal can- thus between and slightly backwards from the folds coming from the upper and lower eyelids, which is called the lacry- mal caruncle, consists to a large extent of glandular tissue and bears some small hairs on its surface. In vertical, as well as in horizontal sections through this body, I find usually three larger sebaceous glands which, except in their smallness, differ in no particular from the Meibomian glands of the eyelids. They have the same cen- tral duct and the same acini, only in a more compact arrange- ment (Fig. 47). Now and then one or two of the so-called modified sweat- glands are found between them, lying usually in the center of the body of the caruncle. They differ from those found in the tissue of the lidmargin only by being smaller and shorter. With much more regularity, indeed, almost as a rule, I find one, and quite often two, small glandular bodies of the acinous type situated in the lacrymal caruncle (Figs. 47 to 50). One of these usually lies near the upper and the other nearer the lower edge of the caruncle. They differ in their struc- ture in no way from the acinous glands found in the con- junctiva and eyelids, and are, therefore, probably little lacry- mal glands like these. At least they do not react differently 196 Trans. Acad. Sct. of St. Louis. against staining reagents and more especially they do not show any staining affinity which would prove that they are of a muciparous character. Their short excretory ducts are lined with cylindrical epi- thelium, and their external orifice lies either on the surface of the lacrymal caruncle or in the plica semilunaris. Aside from these glandular structures, usually some fat- tissue is inclosed in the connective tissue which forms the body of the caruncle. In one case, and in one only, I found a small amount of hyaline cartilage tissue embedded in the loose connective tissue near the lower margin of the lacrymal caruncle and between it and the plica semilunaris (Figs. 51, 52). THE LACRYMAL DRAINAGE APPARATUS. The tear fluid which has neither been evaporated nor used up in moistening the surfaces of the eyeball and the eyelids, is drained off into the nose at the nasal angle of the palpebral fissure by means of a special system of draining tubes. This draining apparatus begins with the lacrymal puncta, two small oval openings which are situated at the apex of the lacrymal papillae. These papillae are little cone-shaped ele- vations which lie in the lidmargins in line with, and to the nasal side of, the orifices of the Meibomian glands in the tarsal part of the eye-lids. The lower papilla lies, as a rule, a little farther removed temporally from the inner canthus, than the upper one. From the puncta the lacrymal canaliculi start by which the tear-fluid is carried to the lacrymal sac. Each canaliculus may be divided into two parts, namely, a more or less vertical (Fig. 53) and a more or less horizontal one (Fig. 54). The first part, which is by far the shorter, runs from the lacrymal punctum upwards (in the lower eyelids downwards), and in- wards, nearly at a right angle to the lidmargin. It is from 1.5 to2mm. long. The second, the so-called horizontal, part, runs in the direction towards the nose until it reaches the lacrymal sac. Just inwards from its orifice at the lacrymal punctum the vertical part is generally very narrow (Fig. 55), and then Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 197 widens out more gradually. Where it makes the sudden bend to form the horizontal part, it usually has a diverticle (Fig. 56), which bulges out from its temporal side into the tissue of the eyelid. This diverticle is formed just at the end of the vertical part, and runs in a horizontal direction and is sometimes comparatively large. Quite frequently there is another diverticle in the horizontal part just at its beginning which runs in a more vertical direction. The horizontal part of the upper canaliculus is about 7 mm. long and that of the lower canaliculus is a little longer. As stated above, the course of this portion of the canaliculi is not in reality horizontal, as the two gradually bend toward each other. Moreover this part of the canaliculi does not run in a straight line, so to speak, but is quite wavy, sometimes even tortuous (Fig. 57). Just before reaching the temporal wall of the lacrymal sac the two canaliculi may, and as a rule do, join together and form one larger collective tube (Fig.58). The length of this tube varies materially in different individuals, and it may be so short that it can hardly be recognized as a separate part. In other cases the two canaliculi reach and enter the lacrymal sac separately and ununited. From their beginning at the lacrymal puncta to their en- trance into the lacrymal sac the canaliculi are formed by a membrana propria, the connective tissue of which is largely intermingled with elastic elements. This membrana propria is lined with lamellated polygonal pavement epithelium (Fig. 59) which often forms a dozen or even more layers, seldom fewer than ten. By means of these canaliculi, as stated, the tear-fluid is drained from the conjunctival sac into the larger receptacle, the lacrymal sac, and again from this into the nose by means of the nasal Jacrymal duct. The lacrymal sac (Fig. 60), lies in the fossa lacrymalis formed by the lacrymal bone and the frontal process of the supramaxillary bone, and between the branches of the internal palpebral ligament. It forms a comparatively narrow, almost slit-like, cavity, which has a great many diverticles and folds. Its epithelium consists of a basal layer of more cuboid cells 198 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. and of an inner layer of cylindrical cells. I have never seen ciliated cells (Figs. 59, 61). The material of lacrymal sacs which I have been able to obtain for microscopical study has been rather limited and I have seldom had an entire lacrymal sac for examination. Usually it was only the upper and temporal part. I there- fore cannot give from my own knowledge a more detailed description of its structure and will refer only to one point of interest, which, more especially, belongs to this paper, deal- ing, as it is, with the glandular organs belonging to the eye- ball and its appendages. It has been, and still is, a moot question, whether or not true glandular tissue is found in the walls of the lacrymal sac. From my specimens I cannot see how the existence of such glandular tissue can be doubted. As tothe character of © the glands and their secretion we can only speculate by com- parison with other glands. I find usually two forms of glands and both of these often in considerable numbers, especially in the wall opposite the entrance of the collecting tube of the canaliculi. The one kind is of the acinous type and corresponds in its structure exactly with the acinous glands found in the eye- lids, conjunctiva and caruncle (Figs. 62 to 66). The struc- ture of the other kind is more that of tubular glands, like the sudoriferous glands (Figs. 67, 68.) I have never had an occasion to examine the structure of the nasal lacrymal duct. REMARKS ON THE LITERATURE CONCERNING THE SUBJECTS OF THIS PAPER. In how far, what [ have found and described in the forego- ing pages corresponds with or disagrees with what other investigators on this subject have found and laid down in literature, may be judged from the following brief survey of the more important works on the subject from the literature at my disposal. I started out more particularly on this investigation, because I could get no satisfactory explanation as to what glands were referred to by the different authors, when speaking of Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 199 the ‘‘ glands of Krause.’’ As I could not procure Krause’s own original description * I had to rely on what the text-books could give me, and this is what I found. H. Freyf states that ‘‘in man we find small acinous glands, so-called mucous glands (according to Henle ‘ acces- sory lacrymal glands’). They lie in the fornix of the con- junctiva between the tarsal tissue and the eyeball, and there are in the upper eyelid as many as 42 of them, in the lower eyelid from 2 to 6.”’ What Frey here refers to, are probably the lacrymal glands forming the palpebral or inferior lacrymal gland and the adjoining separate lobules which I have described, and which together may number about 40. Why, however, he calls them mucous glands, Frey does not explain. W. Waldeyert says: ‘* The actno-tubular glands in man lie in certain distinct localities, at the edge of the tarsus near- est the fornix, and with preference in its nasal part. There they are found, partially along the edge of the tarsus, and partially within the tissue of the tarsus itself. They are more numerous in the upper eyelid than in the lower one; ac- cording to Arause and his pupil Kleinschmidt there are about 42 of them in the upper and from 6 to 8 in the lower eyelid. Their excretory ducts open into the conjunctiva of the fornix. The glandular body belonging to an excretory duct is rela- tively large and consists of short tubular glandular chambers to which round acini are attached in large numbers.’’ Yet, in the text to his beautiful illustration, he calls the acinous glands lying buried wholly within the tarsal tissue itself, the acino-tubular glands. Surely it is utterly impossible from these two apparently authoritative descriptions to arrive at a clear and distinct idea of what is meant by the term ‘‘ Krause’s glands.’’ Frey calls them mucous glands or, with Henle, accessory lacrymal glands, and Waldeyer states that they lie with preference in * Zeitschrift fur rationelle Medicin. 4; 337. (1854). + Handbuch der Histologie and Histochemie des Menschen. 673. Leipzig. 1874, t Handbuch der gesammten Augenheilkunde, von A. Graefe u. Th. Saemisch. 1132388. Leipzig. 1874. 200 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. the nasal side of the eyelid and calls them acino-tubular glands. Yet, both of these authors agree in stating that they found 42 such glands in the upper eyelid, and but slightly differ as to the minimum number in the lower eyelid, while they again agree as regards their maximum number. In my description I have, therefore, refrained from using this term for any of the glands which I have found. I may, however, state that the idea of most authors seems to be that the glands which are found in the conjunctiva of the nasal part of the upper eyelid are ‘‘ Krause’s glands.’’ That the number of these glands is very small and never comes near being 42, has been seen from my description. That number can only refer to the palpebral lacrymal glands. EK. Fuchs* says: ‘* Upon the fornix, especially in its nasal half, lie the acinous glands of Krause, while in the temporal half of the tarsus are found lobules similar in character but more densely packed, representing the inferior lacrymal gland.’’ This may, perhaps, sound differently in the origi- nal. Certain it is, that the inferior or palpebral lacrymal gland does not lie in the tarsus. On page 560 of the same text-book, Fuchs makes the state- ment (translation) that the inferior lacrymal gland consists of only one or two lobules, for which reason it is also known as the accessory lacrymal gland. It does not seem possible that by these two statements he refers to one and the same glandular structure. A good description, both of the orbital and of the inferior lacrymal gland, is given by E. Bock in a monograph on the lacrymal gland in health and disease.f The best, most extensive and most careful researches and descriptions, and those which most nearly correspond with what I have found, were made by A. Terson, whose excellent monograph ¢ has come to my knowledge and into my posses- * Text-book of Ophthalmology. Translated by A. Duane. 2d American edition. New York. 1899. In the text beneath Fig. 164 (p. 561). + Zur Kenntniss der gesunden und kranken Thraenendruese. Wien. 1896. t Les glandes lacrymales conjonctivales et orbito-palpébrales. L’ab- lation des glandes lacrymales palpébrales. Paris. 1892. Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 201 sion only when my investigations on this subject were, so to speak, closed. For macroscopic inspection Terson clears the whole eye- lids up, by means of tartaric or acetic acid. He says: ‘In the outer third of the specimen the palpebral lacrymal gland with zis own excretory ducts and those of the orbital lacrymal glandis plainly seen.’’ Further on: ‘‘It is not difficult to recog- nize a long line of very much smaller glands, forming, as Mr. Panas has so happily expressed it, a sort of ‘ milky way’ in the upper conjunctival cul-de-sac. Of these glands there is a continuous ya and they grow -oeeleat larger towards the inner angle.’’ Further on, he says: ‘* In the lower cul-de-sac I find a few glands very similar to those in the upper one, but they do not reach the inner angle and are situated in that half of the lower eyelid which lies close to the palpebral lacrymal gland.”’ In these Gecieuines Terson’s description varies but little from my own. His description of the acino-tubular glands in the tarsal tissue, also, agrees very well with mine. His experience has, also, been that these glands are found most frequently in the temporal half of the tarsal tissue, but often, too, in the nasal or other parts. Contrary to my experience, he finds their excretory ducts to be very long and very tortuous. He also has found, that their duct may pass down, in between the Meibomian glands. He further states that the epithelium of these glands as well as that of their excretory ducts ap- pears identical with that of the acinous glands of the fornix, and that the external orifices of the excretory ducts of the acino-tubular glands lie in the conjunctiva of the upper cul- de-sac or at other points of the tarsus and often even very near the lidmargin. From this it would appear, that he never found such acino- tubular glands in the lower eyelid. With regard to the glands found in the walls of the lacry- mal sac, a very exhaustive paper by K. Joerss has appeared as No. 35 of Deutschmann’s Beitraege zur Augenheilkunde, Leipzig, October 29th, 1898. (Beitraege zur normalen and 202 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. pathologischen Histologie des Thraenenschlauches). Joerss made his studies on excised lacrymal sacs, and one of his ob- jects was to see, whether true glands could be found in the lacrymal sac, or not. In consequence, he devotes consider- able space to this question and his conclusion is that, contrary to the statements of other investigators, true glands are really sometimes found lying in the normal mucous membrane of the lacrymal sac; but, according to his investigation, they are serous glands, of the type of Hrause’s glands of the conjunc- tiva. Mucous glands, according to him, have, thus far, been found with certainty only at the orifice of the nasal lacrymal duct in the nose, and it is still a moot question, whether these mucous glands belong in reality to the nasal lacrymal duct or to the mucous membrane of the nose. This investigator has, therefore, seen only one form of glandular tissue lying in the walls of the lacrymal sac, namely the acinous form, which seems to be the most frequent one of the two forms which I have found and described. It is a strange fact, that aside from Waldeyer’s article in Graefe & Saemisch’s Cyclopaedia, mentioned above, and its translation into French in De Wecker’s Traité complet d’ophtalmologie, and of the parts referring to the eyelids and lacrymal apparatus in Fuchs’ text-book, the text-books on ophthalmology in general deal but very insufficiently with the glandular structures which are the subject of these investiga- tions. Especially, in the first volume of the large, very recent, and generally admirable system of diseases of the eye, published by Norris & Oliver, Philadelphia, 1897, in the able article on the anatomy of the orbit and the appendages of the eye by T. Dwight, these points, it seems to me, are passed over too lightly. The lacrymal caruncle, for instance, though not a very important organ, might have received a little — more attention than is expressed in the following words: ‘* A raised pinkish little body, the lacrymal caruncle (Vol. I, p. 80).’’ The largest amount of the literature on the subjects here considered, is dispersed in journals and magazines which are not, as a rule, even ophthalmological ones, and it is, therefore, not easily obtained. With regard to the small portion of hyaline cartilage Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 203 tissue which in one instance I found just below the lacrymal caruncle, I have detected only one statement in literature of a somewhat similar occurrence. In the text-book of A. Boehm and M. von Davidoff * the following statement is made (p. 349): ‘* The third eyelid, the plica semilunaris, when well developed, contains a small spicule of hyaline cartilage.”’ In illustrating the details of their descriptions of the eye- lids, most text-books give a longitudinal (sagittal) section through the thickness of the upper lid near the temporal canthus. From the descriptions here given, it is clear that one such drawing (not even excluding Waldeyer’s often copied and classical one) cannot be sufficient, as the details of the tissues of the eyelids differ so very materially in their different portions (Figs. 69 to 71). EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES XXII-LVII. Plate XXII.—1, Vertical (sagittal) section through the orbital lacrymal gland (A) and the more compact portion of the inferior or palpebral lacry- mal gland (B), from a negro. —2, Vertical (sagittal) section through the temporal outer third of the upper eyelid and the eyeball, from a white indi- vidual, showing the orbital and part of the palpebral lacrymal gland. —3, Section the same as in Fig. 2, from anegro. The magnifying power under which the last two photographs were taken being the same, the great differ- ence in size of the two orbital lacrymal glands is evident. Plate XXIII.—4, From a negro. Section the sme as in Figs. 2 and 3, but still further toward the temporal canthus, showing a large number of lobules belonging to the palpebral lacrymal gland. Plate XXIV.—5, Part of the palpebral lacrymal gland of Fig. 2 under a higher magnifying power. Above, part of the orbital lacrymal gland; to the left, the orbicularis muscle; to the right, the conjunctiva, sclerotic and choroid. The palpebral gland is seen to be separated from the orbital one by the tendon of the levator palpebrae superioris and the nonstriated muscle of Mueller. —6, Vertical (sagittal) section through both eyelids at the temporal canthus, showing lobules of the palpebral lacrymal gland in the lower eyelid as well as in the upper one, from a negro. Plate XXV.—7, Vertical (sagittal) section through the lower eyelid near the temporal canthus (white), showing a Meibomian gland (A), below it acino-tubular glands (B), and below these, three lobules of the lower * Lehrbuch der Histologie des Menschen, einschliesslich der mikros- kopischen Technik. Wiesbaden. 1898. 204 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. palpebral lacrymal gland with an excretory duct between them. To the left the orbicularis muscle.— 8, Vertical (sagittal) section through the upper eyelid and eyeball (white), just through the middle line. The small round dark body in the subconjunctival tissue above the tarsus (~) is an iso- lated small lacrymal gland. Plate XX VI.— 9, The same lacrymal glands as in Fig. 8, under a high magnifying power.—10, Three lobules of the palpebral lacrymal gland in the upper eyelid, and an excretory duct. Plate XX VII. —11, The distal end and external orifice of one of the ex- cretory ducts of the orbital lacrymal gland (vertical section). — 12, Several lobules of the palpebral lacrymal gland of the upper eyelid; upwards an excretory duct from the orbital lacrymal gland. The epithelium of the conjunctiva has fallen off. Plate XXVIII. — 138, Vertical section through two lobules of the palpe- bral gland, one with its excretory duct, upper eyelid. — 14, A large lobule of the palpebral lacrymal gland with its excretory duct, upper eyelid. Plate XXIX.—15, A large lobule of the palpebral lacrymal gland with its excretory duct. To the right of it a transverse section of an excretory duct from the orbital lacrymal gland. The conjunctival epithelium has fallen off.—16, The external orifice of the excretory duct of a small iso- lated lacrymal gland in the conjunctiva. Lymphatic infiltration around and near it. To the left the bulbar conjunctiva. The epithelium has fallen off. Plate XXX.—17, Small acinous gland in the upper eyelid close to the nasal canthus (~). Vertical section through upper eyelid and eyeball. The lacrymal caruncle is seen below. —18, The same gland under a higher magnifying power. Plate XXXI.—19, 20, Acinous glands from the conjunctiva near the lacrymal caruncle, upper eyelid. Plate XXXII. —21, Horizontal section through the lower eyelid a little below the caruncle. An acinous gland imbedded in the loose connective tissue. Upwards to the left side the conjunctival sac.—22, A part of the same gland and its duct under a higher magnifying power. Plate XX XIII. — 23, Horizontal section through the eyelids showing the tarsal tissue, including some Meibomian glands, some acino-tubular glands in the middle line, and small acinous glands in the conjunctiva at both the temporal and nasal edges of the tarsus (A, B).— 24, The same. The skin and orbicular muscle torn off. Plate XXXIV.— 25, Similar section to Figs. 23 and 24. — The Gark lines in the conjunctiva represent the lymphatic infiltration. — 26, Somewhat ob- lique vertical section through the upper eyelid, showing the lower part of a Meibomian gland and its excretory duct. To the right of it appears to be a second layer of glandular tissue; this is, however, only apparent and due to the obliqueness of the section. To the right of the excretory duct lies the muscle of Riolan and the dark root of an eyelash (negro). Plate XXXV.— 27, Vertical section through the tarsal tissue and Mei- bomian glands parallel to the surface, from the lower eyelid, close to the conjunctival surface. — 29, Section parallel to the surface through the tem- poral third of the upper eyelid, showing Meibomian glands with dilated central ducts, and above them the acino-tubular gland as dark patches. Plate XXXVI. — 28, Similar section to that shown in Fig. 27. Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 205 Plate XXXVII. — 30, The same section as shown in Fig. 29, from the lower eyelid. Near the lidmargin in both of these figures a number of di- lated modified sweat-glands appear as small white spots. — 31, Horizontal section from near the upper edge of the tarsus of the upper eyelid, showing the acino-tubular glands in the temporal side; also, a small acinous gland in the conjunctiva. Below is seen the bulbar conjunctiva. Plate XXXVIII. — 32, Horizontal section through the tarsus of the upper eyelid just above the nasal canthus. There are a number of transverse sec- tions of Meibomian glands and a large compact body of acino-tubular glands in the nasal part of the tarsus (A). — 33, Horizontal section through the central part of the upper eyelid. In the middle line acino-tubular glands are seen lying between the Meibomian glands at A. Plate XX XIX. — 34, Section the same as in Fig. 33, but nearer the lid- margin. In the middle line, at A, a small piece of an acino-tubular gland with its excretory duct is seen; also, its external orifice in the palpebral conjunctiva. — 35, A similar section under a higher magnifying power. To the right and left side of the acino-tubular gland a Meibomian gland is seen. Plate XL. — 36, Vertical section through the lower eyelid, near the tem- poral canthus. Downwards, the very much dilated central duct of a Mei- bomian gland; above it a number of acino-tubular glands, undergoing atrophy. The conjunctiva to the right shows changes due to chronic blennorrhoea. — 37, Acino-tubular gland from the upper eyelid under a high magnifying power. A great many acini are atrophied. Plate XLI. — 38, Vertical section of the upper eyelid; high magnifying power. In the left lower corner the dilated apex of a Meibomian gland; above it lobules of an acino-tubular gland torn apart in mounting; also an excretory duct with its external orifice in the palpebral conjunctiva. The con- junctival epithelium has fallen off. — 39, A concretion in the excretory duct of an acino-tubular gland close to its external orifice in the palpebral conjunc- tiva, the epithelium of which has fallen off. This concretion was semi-soft and took up those stains with preference for which mucous substances have a special affinity. Plate XLII. — 40, Two horizontal sections through the lidmargin. The upper one, from the upper eyelid, goes through the shafts of the eyelashes; the lower one, from the lower eyelid, goes through the bulbs of the eye- lashes. Both sections show numerous transverse sections through Meibo- mian and modified sweat-glands, as light spots.— 41, Vertical (sagittal) section through the margin of the upper eyelid: A, Meibomian gland and its duct; B and E, eyelashes and their sebaceous glands; C, modified sweat- gland; at D, the collecting chamber and excretory duct which does not enter the sebaceous gland of an eyelash, but has a separate orifice at the lidmargin; at F, a part of another modified sweat-gland is seen. Plate XLIII, — 42, Vertical (sagittal) section through the margin of the lower eyelid of a negro. To the left, the conjunctiva, tarsus and a Meibo- mian gland with its excretory duct below; to the right, the skin of the eyelid; downwards, an eyelash, and just above it a modified sweat- gland with its secretory duct, the external orifice of which lies in the duct of a sebaceous gland; above this the root of an eyelash and the orbicularis muscle. Between the lower end of the Meibomian gland and the sebaceous 206 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. gland lies Riolan’s muscle. — 43, Horizontal section through the lidmargin at the level of the roots of the eyelashes, showing numerous transverse sections of hair-bulbs and between them modified sweat-glands. Down- wards the transverse sections of three Meibomian glands near their lower end. The fibres seen running parallel to the conjunctival surface above the Meibomian glands and those between the modified sweat-glands and the hair- bulbs are the fibres of Riolan’s muscle. — Plate XLIV.— 44, 45, Vertical sections, parallel to the surface, through the lid margins of the upper and lower eyelid, showing the modified sweat- gland and (abnormally dilated), between, the roots and shafts of the eye- lashes, under a high magnifying power. Plate XLV. — 46, Section the same as in Figs. 44 and 45, showing at A, B and C modified sweat-glands under a high power, having an altogether tubular appearance; above them are some acini of a Meibomian gland. — 47, Horizontal section through the lacrymal caruncle of a negro, showing sebaceous glands, the transverse section of a hair (upwards) and an acinous gland at A. Plate XLVI. — 48, Vertical section through a lacrymal caruncle having two acinous glands (A and B). The epithelium has fallen off. — 49, Hori- zontal section through the lacrymal caruncle. Acinous glands at A. Plate XLVII. — 50, Similar section to that shown in Fig. 49.— 51, Small body of hyaline cartilage lying in the loose tissue (in one lid only) of the lower eyelid, just below the caruncle. Horizontal section. The conjunc- tival epithelium has fallen off. Plate XLVIII. — 52, This cartilage under a high magnifying power. — 53, Vertical (sagittal) section through both eyelids passing through the vertical portion of the lacrymal canaliculus of the upper eyelid and its orifice in the lacrymal papilla. The oblique section through the horizontal portion of the canaliculus is seen in the lower eyelid. The canaliculus is filled with desquamated epithelium. Plate XLIX.— 54, Horizontal section through the upper eyelid showing - the horizontal portion of the lacrymal canaliculus. Below is the lacrymal caruncle. — 55, Section through the axis of the lacrymal papilla and the vertical portion of the lacrymal canaliculus, showing its narrowest part just inside of the lacrymal punctum, from where it widens out gradually to where it bends to form the horizontal portion. Plate L. — 56, Section like the one in Fig. 55. To the left the horizontal diverticle of the lacrymal canaliculus projects into the tissue of the eyelid (temporally), to the right (nasally) the beginning of the horizontal portion. This section does not pass exactly through the axis of the vertical portion of the canaliculus. —57, Horizontal section showing a tortuous lacrymal canaliculus. Plate LI.—58, Section through both eyelids and nasal canthus almost parallel to their surface. To the left and downwards, nasal part of the upper, to the right and upwards, nasal part of the lower eyelid; between these the lacrymal caruncle. At the right the horizontal portions of the two can- aliculi are seen to join at a sharp angle. —59, The entrance of the lacrymal canaliculus into the lacrymal sac. The canaliculus lies to the right and is seen to be lined with a thick pavement epithelium; the lacrymal sac to the left is lined with cylindrical epithelium. Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 207 Plate LII. — 60, Horizontal section through the right lower eyelid (A) and the tissue at the side of the nose. The lacrymal sac at B. Plate LIII.— 61, the walls of the lacrymal sac, showing the cylindrical epithelium and lymphatic infiltration, under a high magnifying power. — 62, Acinous glands in the wall of the lacrymal sac at A. Plate LIV. — 63, Similar section to Fig. 62.64, Acinous gland of the lacrymal sac. The sac begins to the right downwards; the gland seems to lie some distance from it. Plate LV. —65, Another such acinous gland, with an oblique section through its excretory duct. — 66, Several acini of such a gland from the wall of a lacrymal sac, under a high magnifying power. Plate LVI. — 67, 68, Glands in the wall of a lacrymal sac which have a more tubular structure. Plate LVII. — 69, Schematic section through both eyelids and eyeball near the nasal canthus. — 70, Schematic section through the middle line of both eyelids and eyeball. —71, Schematic section through both eyelids and eye- ball near the temporal canthus. Issued July 12, 1900. PLATE XXII. ] | j 1 ‘TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE: XXIII. 7 | - > ial ry cg =. a 4 a : i : 4 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XXIV. GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XXV.. GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XXVI. LO GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. PLATE XXVII. 11 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XXVIII. 14 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XNIX, 16 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUM: EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XXX. 13 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PEATE XA EL; 20 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. ScI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PEATE XA SLE 29 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. xX, PLATE XXXIII. 24 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XXXIV. 26 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XXXYV. 29 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X PLATE XXXVI. GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XXXVII. 31 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XXXVIII. 33 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XXXIX. ST -4 vo GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF VOL: Xx. PLATE GL. GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. ScI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XLI- GLANDS APPERTAIJINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. Scr. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XLII. 41 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO_.HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XLITI. GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XLIV. GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. St. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XLV. GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XLVI. GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. ae rene z vite ¥ ‘TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF. ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XLVII. GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. ‘TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XLVIII. 53 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE XLIX. = o GLANDS AVPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. ScI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE L. 56 57 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. ao oe TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE LI. GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. ates ae TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. 60 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. PLATE LII. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE LIII. 61 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. Scr. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE LIV. GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE LV. 66 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE. TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE LVI. 68 GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE, TRANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. X. PLATE LVILI. hl GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE, POSITIVE PHOTOGRAPHY, WITH SPECIAL REFER- ENCE TO ECLIPSE WORK.* Francis EK. NIpHer. During the last year the writer has been making an attempt to adapt the process of positive photography to service in the two solor eclipses which occur during the next two years.t The unusual duration of the period of totality in both, makes them peculiarly favorable to the use of such a process. And while this will also be to some extent an advantage in securing negatives, still an over exposure is then always pos- sible. When such over exposure is corrected by the use of a restrainer, the effect is to dissolve away the very details which the long exposure was intended to secure. By great over exposure in the old sense of the word, and development in the light instead of in the dark room, no over exposure for positives is possible. The only limitation then is an under exposure, which causes the positive picture to fog. The object of the present paper is, to give the present condition of the process, and to request any who may be able to do so, to aid in so improving it, that the best results may be secured in these eclipses. There will be no other oppor- tunity so favorable in the next generation. Let the stop of the camera be set at No. 8 of the universal system. The ratio of focal length divided by diameter is then a 4y/n= 4/8 = 11.3. * Presented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, October 15, 1900. + These Transactions, Vol. 10, No. 6.— Nature, 1900. July 12, p. 246; Aug. 9, p. 342; Aug. 23, p. 396. — Am. Journ. of Science, July, 1900, p. 78. (209) 210 Trans. Acad. Sct. of St. Louis. If the object to be photographed is a landscape, consisting mainly of mid-summer foliage, and the plate be a fast plate, like the crown plate of Cramer, the exposure may be made two to four minutes in length. For the first attempt the latter interval is to be preferred. The exposure may be made as much longer as may be desired. It has been successfully tried with exposures of six and eight hours. The plate is taken to the dark room and is best developed by the light of a strong lamp. If the exposure has been not over two minutes, the best result will be obtained by plac- ing the bath between two strong lamps. Two Argand or Rochester burners with porcelainshades in contact or nearly so, with the bath in a position of strongest illumination between and below the shades, is an admirable arrangement. The bath should be cool at the start, and it should be in ice-cold water during the development. The bath being rather weak, the development will go on very slowly. Various developers have been tried. Pyro has given very poor results, although the same bath would yield brilliant negativesin the darkroom. By far the best results have been reached by the use of Cramer’s hydrochinon developer, the formula for which may be found in every box of Cramer plates. This formula is :— SOLUTION NO. l. Ounces. Grammes. WALT « cele ke cst sers gh ew lve kdb hemeatic eek ate 25 1000 Sulphite Of SOd&.... cece cece sees secccesees 3 126 Hydrochinon ....s0scccceccesscccesestsess 4 21 SOLUTION NO. 2. Ounces. Grammes. WAGOE 6 oda wk Ss tae kale oko ae hae wen eae oad oe 25 1000 Carbonate of soda....-«- sed bbe! Bea 6 252 The two solutions are to be mixed in equal parts, when used, and are to be diluted to from one-third to one-fifth strength. A few drops of ten per cent. solution of bromide will give brilliancy to the plate, but will not improve definition of details. The bromide may be left out. In transferring the plate from the holder to the developing bath, it would seem to be somewhat better to turn the lamps Nipher — Positive Photography: Eclipse Work. * 211 down until the liquid covers the plate, but the light should then be turned on at once. When lamp-light is used this precaution is not very important. In fact the writer is inclined to say that such precaution is not then necessary. If the exposure has been too small, either from insufficient light on the object, or from insufficient time, such an exposure in the light-room is a decided advantage. It carries the plate farther from the zero condition, and materially improves the picture. The same result may be secured by turning the camera upon the sky after the usual exposure to the object has been made, and before the shutter has been closed. This sky-exposure may be for half a minute with a No. 8 stop, but should not exceed this. The following ex- periment seems to indicate that this sky exposure should be after rather than before the exposure to the object. A white paper was pasted on a somewhat larger card of dead black. It was placed against a brick wall in sunlight, and with a cloudless sky. After a minute of exposure to the plate in the camera, the black card was quickly shifted laterally by a distance slightly greater than its width. This was repeated ten times in an exposure of ten minutes. On developing, the first of the ten exposures was somewhat more distinct than those which fol- lowed, but between the others no difference could be detected. The last minute of the ten was as effective as the second. But when the experiment is terminated at the end of the first minute, the image is very indistinct. It is evident that the subsequent exposure during the nine minutes served to make more distinct the image of the card made during the first minute. And since the plate seems to be somewhat more sensitive at first than it is later in the exposure, it is better to utilize this part of the exposure in securing details of the ob- ject, rather than in fogging the plate beyond the zero condi- tion. This difference of sensitiveness isnot very marked. It is difficult to see any difference in the first three and the last three minutes of a six-minute exposure. This may be shown in an interesting way by the following experiment. The ex- perimenter should preferably be dressed in light-colored cloth- ing, and should train the camera on a grass-covered hill, 212 Trans. Acad. Sct. of St. Louis. which will serve as a background. Any other dark back- ground will of course answer the purpose. After snapping open the shutter, walk to a point about 100 feet distant, the camera having been focused for that dis- tance, and stand motionless for two or three minutes. Then step sidewise four or five feet and stand for an equal time. Then walk back and close the shutter. The two figures will seem practically alike if the sunlight has not changed, and the darker background willnot appreciably showthrough them. The plate will show no trace of the motions, and the figures will be as clear and distinct as in a good negative. Of course the same thing can be done in the ordinary negative process by so arranging the conditions that the time of exposure is sufficiently lengthened. In order to make the positive photography as useful as possible, it is necessary to find a developer which will bring out a clear positive with as small an exposure as possible. It seems certain that it must differ from any developer used in ordinary photography. The method of restraining an over- exposed negative is known, in order that it may be developed as a negative. If we consider this plate as an under-exposed positive, how shall it be pushed along over the zero condi- tion, and developed as a positive? That answer may be given in part. It must be developed in the light. A poor negative may be developed in a lighted room, and a poor positive may be developed in a darkroom. These are not the conditions which yield the best results. The writer had great expectations of the developer used by Waterhouse for producing positives in the dark room with ordinary exposures. The formula for this developer, as given in various works on photography is: — Parts. A. HikoOn0gen. ccoccccccccccccscsccccnccesccsscsenceses 5 Sulphite Of SOB... .csccscccsiscccenveseseceucseves 10 VERUBT ESS S oC e debe ce Rake HERA MOne RP ealee POlCRMsDe eso 100 Bi Carbonate Of OR isis a tis Oo ak ic bs 6 ee 4 WGI b 5 0200545 ace wid ised ole wea Se bade wenibllee ae deere 100 C. Phenyl-theocarbamide ......cccscccccccccescersesecs 1 At) PATE PR DERE POEM EG LANCIA ri GE PWS S ree UR ISp hy 2000 For developing take of A 1, of B 2, of C 1 and of a 10 per Nipher — Positive Photography: Eclipse Work. 213 cent. solution of potassium bromide 1. If the contrasts are too strong, a few drops of ammonia may be added. This developer was said to produce a positive in the dark room, with ordinary exposure. It was hoped that this urea salt either in the Waterhouse developer, or in some other, and with development in the light, might shorten the camera time very greatly. When the exposure is normal for a negative, and the plate is developed in the dark room with this developer, it is found that a yellow to orange coloration appears in the shadows. If there are contrasts on the object, the high-lights look as they do in an ordinary negative. The roof of a building and the sides lighted by direct sunlight appear as in an ordinary negative. Light and dark strips of slate will appear reversed. The sky is dark. The sides in shadow are of a yellow or orange color, sometimes almost red, and appear as positives. If the exposure is increased somewhat either by an increase in time, by stronger illumination of the object, or by using a larger stop opening, the coloration disappears, and the whole picture is seen to be a negative. A still greater exposure being made, the picture approaches, and finally becomes a zero result. Nothing develops on the plate. With a still longer exposure the picture is reversed, and a real positive develops. This picture can be developed in the light. This is not the case with the Waterhouse pictures. They look like positives, as any negative may be made to look like a positive, but they should be called pseudo-positives. They are not due to a real reversal. They are moreover somewhat disappointing in appearance. It is only too evident that this Waterhouse process does not seem to be a very promising field for application to eclipse photography, although it presents some very interesting illustrations of different forms of silver. The most promising field for investigation at present con- sists in the application of some transforming process to the film, after it comes from the camera, and before the picture is developed. Various oxidizing agents have been tried with different degrees of success. The most satisfactory of these oxidizing solutions is a mixture of nitric acid and potassium bichromate in rather dilute solution. Thereis no trouble in 214 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. getting very satisfactory results with four minutes of expo- sure and a No. 8 stop. It seems very probable that by vary- ing the proportions of this transforming solution, and perhaps varying the oxidizing agents themselves, such exposures as are now given in the negative process, may yield good positives. The field open for experimentation along these lines is very wide. The degree of illumination while in the transforming solution, and the time interval for the transforming process, are involved. The desirability of perfecting these processes at the earliest possible moment, leads the writer to urge those who have had wider experience in photography to lend a hand in this work. If fine details can be secured in a posi- tive with a camera exposuie such as is now required fora negative, then certainly there is great reason to hope that by exposing a plate during the whole time of totality in the long eclipses which will shortly take place, we may hope to secure better results than the present methods can give. In posi- tive photography there can be no over exposure. In nega- tive photography, over exposure is an approach to a zero condition. In positive photography the zero condition has been passed. Issued October 24, 1900. THE FRICTIONAL EFFECT OF RAILWAY TRAINS UPON THE AIR.* Francis E. NIPHER. The effect of any medium in retarding a body moving through it, has been very carefully studied in connection with moving ships and trains of railway cars, and in various other ways. In train resistance it is well known that the effect of the air is made up of end effects, and of side effects. The end effects are the result of the compression at the head end and the rarefaction at the rear end. These retarding effects are independent of the length of the train. The side effects are due to the viscovcity of the air. They are inthe nature of a shear. The resistance to the train due to this cause, is directly proportional to the length of the train. That the air in contact with the sides of atrain has an appreciable effect in resisting its motion, carries with it as a necessary consequence, the dragging of air along with the sides of the train. This phenomenon is well known. It has long been known as a source of danger in connection with fast trains. At least eighteen years ago the writer witnessed with some surprise the frantic efforts of a station agent of the New York Central Railroad to drive everybody from the platform to the interior of the station building. The fast train from New York was due, and it soon passed at full speed. I declined to leave the platform, and discovered the reason for his behavior when the train passed. The draught of air which accompanied the train was sufficient to cause serious alarm. The agent afterwards explained to me that serious results might follow such imprudence as [ had shown. * Presented, and read by title, at the meeting of The Academy of Science of St. Louis, of October 15th, 1900. (215) 216 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Some years later I arranged a device with which to test the conditions in this air-draught. It was built after the plan of the rotating anemometer used by the Weather Bureau, except- ing that the four hemispherical cups were replaced by thin flat metal plates. The rotating system was very delicately mounted, but in an ordinary wind, there was rotation only as a result of eddy motions in the air. In the long run, the slow rotations in opposite directions canceled each other. A top view of the rotating part is shown in the adjoining figure. The four cross arms, having the flat plates at their outer ends, were of No. 6 brass wire, and they were braced by a steel wire which connected their outer ends. The distance from center to center of oppo- | | site plates was one foot, and the plates were four inches square. When this differential anemometer is brought near a building against which the wind blows obliquely, it begins to revolve. This revolution is due to the fact that the velocity of the air sheet sweeping over the surface, is less, the nearer the face of the building is approached. When held out of the window of a moving train, the system is Pye in rapid rotation. The plate nearest the car is shown to be in wind of less velocity, than those further out. This shows that air is being dragged along by the train, and that the concentric layers of air around the train are shearing on each other. On one occasion the apparatus was carried into the country three or four miles west of Iowa City, and planted on the ground near the track of theC., R.I1.&P.R. R. It was so placed that the fast train from Chicago, passed at a distance of four inches from the vane nearest the track. The plane of the vanes was about a foot above the bottom of the car. The observer lay down near the track in order that there might be no doubt about the question of actual collision of the train with the apparatus. The distances were as had been planned. The effect of the blow from the air when the train passed was to break the small steel brace-wire, and to Fia. 1. Nipher — Frictional Effect of Railway Trains upon the Air. 217 bend the arm carrying the nearer plate until it nearly touched the arm 90° distant. The opposite arm was also somewhat bent in an opposite rotational direction. A number of cases of chickens being entangled in the air draught of a train have come to my attention, but some doubt naturally arises in such cases. It is possible that misdirected efforts on their part may have contributed to the result. A better illustration is found in an incident related to me by an eye-witness, Mr. T. J. Foster, of Hannibal, Mo., who in 1896 was conductor on train No. 81 of the St. L., K. & N. W. R.R. Sometime near the year 1890 he was on a train passing withont stop through Paris, Mo. A number of excelsior bed mattresses six inches in thickness were each tied in a’ roll and were standing on end on the station platform, about twelve feet from the track. They were tumbled over by the air draught of the train and rolled under the train. The train- men made the greatest efforts to bring the train to a stop in order to prevent derailment. It is evident that these objects were toppled over by the blow of the air current, and that they were given a rotation in falling, by being struck a little harder on the side nearest the train. After they had fallen over, they were kept in rotation because they were still in the current of air. The moment of the force producing the rolling motion was in this case relatively large, because of the large diameter of the masses. Smaller masses on the ground would be less affected _because of the smaller leverage, and because the air current near the ground is less rapid than at some distance above the surface. The effect of the earth’s surface in retarding winds has been well known for many years. Nevertheless, I have seen pieces of coal an inch in diameter rolled along over the surface of the ground by train draught. This subject was called to my special attention by the death of a little boy, James Graney, under circumstances which made it seem probable that his death had been brought about by the action of the air-draught of a rapidly moving train. The evidence showed that he was about to cross a railroad track at a public crossing in St. Louis, and that he was on the plank approach to the track. The surface of the ap- 218 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. proach was flush with the tops of the rails, and sloped gently towards the track. An approaching train giving no warning signals was hidden from view by cars on a switch track. Under the ordinances, the speed of the train was limited to six miles per hour, and it was admitted by the trainmen, none of whom knew anything of the accident when it occurred, that the speed of the train exceeded this limit. Other evi- dence of those who saw the accident, showed that the speed was very great. It was shown that the boy was not hit by the train. The fact that the upper part of his body was without injury, was corroborative of this evidence. He fell over after part of the train had passed, falling in the general direction of the train, and rolled under the wheels. In the first trial the writer gave it as his opinion that the blow from the air current would be sufficient to topple him over, and give him a sufficient tendency in rotation to roll him towards and under the wheels; and further, that this action would not have been appreciable if the train had been running at a speed of six miles per hour. The jury and the Supreme Court accepted this explanation,* but the case was sent back for retrial on account of other evidence. A report of the evidence obtained wide circulation, and as a result, the writer received a marked copy of a Paris paper, giving an account of the evidence, and stating that a French soldier had recently been killed in a precisely similar way. With several companions he had been surprised by a high- speed train while in a cut having masonry walls. All but one made their escape from the cut. He backed against the wall and out of reach of the train. He was, however, swept along and under the wheels. In the second trial Professor Woodward testified in corrob- oration of my testimony. No contesting evidence upon the points covered in our testimony was offered by the railroad company in either trial, but the Supreme Court on the second appeal,t reversed the action which it had taken on the first appeal. * Graney v. St. L., I. M.& S. R. R., 140 Mo. 89. + No 9320. Graney et al., Resps. v. St. L., I. M. & S. Ry. Co., Apults.. 5T S. W. Reporter, 276. Nipher — Frictional Effect of Railway Trains upon the Air. 219 The matter having now ceased to be a subject of judicial consideration, it will not be indelicate to publish the results of experiments upon which the evidence was based, and which could have little meaning to a jury. ‘This seems now to be doubly important as a matter of public safety by reason of the opinion of the court, that the danger here pointed out does not exist. It may first be explained, that, although probably more common than is supposed, such accidents are not very com- mon. No person of mature years, and unfamiliar with train effects, would voluntarily place himself as near a moving train at high speed, as is necessary to result in danger. The danger comes when one not familiar with trains is taken by surprise, and becomes terrified. Trainmen think nothing of standing on the ground between a stationary train and one passing at full speed. They know exactly what to expect and they even unconsciously prepare for it. They habitually take risks as great as those of war. But one who is surprised in such a position, and who fears for the result, is in serious danger. He should lie down or get upon his hands and knees, in which position he will be safest. All four-footed animals, particularly if they are small, are also on a stable base, and are therefore in comparative safety. The differential anemometer before described is not easily calibrated for precise measurements on account of the element of friction. It was therefore determined to make a direct measurement of pressure due to the velocity of the train, at various distances from the train. For this purpose a hollow cylinder of brass served to collect the pressure. The open end of this tube collector was directed to- wards the head of the train, and the wind pressure in the collector was carried through a small hole in the bottom by means of a rubber tube, to a water gauge in the car. This gauge consisted of a closed cistern of water, having an in- elined glass tube leading out from the bottom. The air pressure 220 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. was transmitted from the collector to the air chamber above the water in the cistern, and an increase of pressure was shown by the rise in the level of the water in the inclined tube. The whole apparatus was carried on a carpenter’s clamp of wood, which could be clamped to the window sill of the car. The cistern and inclined tube were pivotally mounted on a standard attached to the clamp, and furnished with a level and with a duplicate tube and cistern which served also as a level. By this means the frame carrying the cisterns and tubes could be kept in level while readings of pressure were being made. The collector was mounted on a light wooden channel-bar, sliding in guides attached to the clamp. The rubber tube was laid in the channel of this bar. The bar could be thrust out to various distances, so that the col- lector could be set to a known distance from the side of the car. This distance could be varied from 0 to 30 inches. At the former distance the axis of the collector was at the gen- eral surface of the car. The wooden channel-bar was ocva- sionally broken by collision with bridges, and a supply of such bars was always carried. The measurements were made on passenger trains and on freight trains on various roads. Many trips were made from St. Louis to Burlington, on the St. L., K. and N. W. R. R. and from St. Louis to Chicago and Cairo on the Illinois Cential. Some work was also done on the St. Louis and San Francisco and on the Wabash railroads, where advantage was taken of journeys on other business. The officials of all these roads afforded every assistance in the prosecution of this work. The Illinois Central R. R. finally fitted up a special car which was delivered to us at East St. Louis, and it was placed in any part of any train we might select upon this road. 3 The greater part of one summer was devoted to the study of various wind pressure problems by means of this car, which was in motion during most of the daylight hours of every day.* ; During most of this work, the open end of the pressure * Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, No. 1, Vol. VIII. Nipher — Frictional Effect of Railway Trains upon the Air. 221 gauge, communicated with the air in the car. The car win- dows and doors were open, and the measurements were usually made at the middle of the car. In the special car, the open end of the manometer was connected with a tank of standard pressure, in communication with an Abbe collector abovethe top of the car. There was no substantial difference in the results obtained by these various methods. It is evident that if the air around the car were being carried along with it at the same velocity as the car itself, the gauge should show no pressure. A person standing on the ground near the car would then feel a gust of wind, blowing with the velocity of the car. If the air near the train is being carried along by the car, but lags somewhat, the pressure measured from the car will correspond to this lag, or slip of the air upon the car. If the observation could be made from the ground, the mouth of the collector being turned in an oppo- site direction, the pressure collected would be due to motion of the air, dragged along by the train. Let P = the pressure corresponding to the velocity of the ear. This would be the pressure shown by the gauge, if the collector were thrust far out from the car into the undis- turbed air. This distance to which the collector must be thrust in order to collect the pressure P, is really infinite, but at a comparatively short distance this pressure is nearly attained. It is not uncommon to see hats blown from the heads of people standing 25 feet from the track, by the air-draught ore of a fast express train. 7 ° If the collector be thrust |2 re Heese out to a distance d from the |& ap side of the car, the pres- |3 z P sure will be some pressure E a, ‘p! p, smaller than P. In the diagram, O p, re- | g_5 Inches froth Car O . 10 20 30 d Fig. 3, presents the side of the car, and is taken as the axis of pressure. Od, is the axis of distance from the side of the train. The pressure at the car surface, as shown by the 222 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. gauge within the car, is represented by the line O py’. The rise in the curve passing through p’ shows how the pressure rises, as the collector carried on the car is thrust further out. As the distance d increases the pressure approaches the limit- ing value P, corresponding to the speed of the train. This is represented in the figure by the horizontal line at the top of Fig. 3. The curve approaches this line of limiting pres- sure, as d increases. The distance from this line of limiting pressure, down to the curve at any distance d, represents the pressure against an object standing on the ground. The way in which this curve drops from this horizontal line as the vertical axis is approached, shows how the train-draught increases as one approaches the train. Measured from the ground, the pres- sure on the windward side of an object due to train-draught at the distance d from the train is P — p, while measured from the train the pressure in the opposite direction is p. This curve as determined by the observations satisfies the equation of an hyperbola. The vertical asymptote is within the car a distance d’. The equation of this hyperbola is evidently (P—p) (d'+d) =e. (1) In this equation P. d’ and c are constants to be determined from the observations. The value of P is of special impor- tance, Its relation to the velocity of the train is represented by the well-known equation of Newton P=; | (2) where 6 is the density of the air. When » is expressed in centimeters per second and P in dynes per square centimeter, the value of i at ordinary temperature and pressure is 0.0006. When vis in miles per hour and FP is in pounds per squure foot the equation becomes P = 0.0025 v’. (3) i gf ral bath as. Se THE SUCTION CASE. From the St. Louis MrrRROR, November 29th, 1900. There has been published as No. 10 of Vol. X. of the ‘‘Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis,’’ a pamphlet upon ‘‘The Frictional Effect of Railway Trains upon the Air,’’ by Francis E. Nipher, of Washington Uni- versity. The brochure is remarkable, as it is practically a scientific reply to a decision of the Supreme Court of Mis- souri in what is known as ‘‘the suction case.’’ In that case the matter at issue was whether a boy ground to pieces by atrain had been drawn under the wheels by being sucked into the vacuum created by the rapidly moving cars. The Court decided that rapidly moving trains of cars do not act upon the air around them in such a way as to en- danger the lives of those about them. Professor Nipher was an expert witness inthe case. He and ProfessorC. M. Woodward testified against the defendant railroad, that rapidly moving trains did create a suction that might draw a person too near the track under the wheels. The Court made sport of Professors Nipher and Woodward in its opin- ion. The language of the opinion, even charitably con- strued, implied that the court believed the distinguished ex- perts to be very disreputable men, willing to testify to things of which they were ignorant. The Court, astonish- ingly enough, put upon record, in its opinion, a similarity which it clained to have discovered between the conduct of Professors Nipher and Woodward and that of a fallen woman. The Court appears to have agreed that the suc- tion performance was an invention of the experts for the plaintiff, that the theory and fact of this train action was unheard of, although the record of the case does not show that the defendant railroad put forward, during the trial, a single witness to contest the expert evidence. The Court held that even if this alleged train action on air did exist, it was unknown, and the railroad should not be held re- sponsible. The contention of the plaintiffs and the ex- perts was, that the suction necessary to draw a boy under the wheels could only be created by a train running at a rate of speed vastly greater than that authorized by law within the limits of the city. The evidence of the train-crew established the fact that the train was running at an unlawful speed, when the boy was seen to topple over, without being struck by the train, and roll under the wheels. The Court said that the testimony did not disclose any way by which the railroad company might have ‘‘pro- vided against’’ the accident, if due to air currents. The evidence was, however, that the railroad company might have made this accident impossible, by the simple expedi- ent of obeying the law. The lawful limit of speed was six miles per hour. The Court, ona first hearing of the case on appeal, reversed the trial court, because of other evidence —not that of the experts—improperly admitted. In all the trial no railroad man controverted the experts’ declaration, although the company might have summoned many of its own oldest employes to testify on that point. Yet, when the case was tried a second time and again resulted in a verdict against the company, the Supreme Court attacked the experts it had approved in the first reversal and threw out their uncontested evidence. The record of reversal stands, an attack upon the charac- ter of two worthy gentlemen and honest, scientific investi- gators, against which they have no redress, for they can- not even attempt a defence in the record in which they have been wronged. Professor Nipher’s paper, just pub- lished by the Academy of Science, contains the over- whelming scientific demonstration, beyond all doubt, that every word to which he and Professor Woodward testified was true. Train suction is a fact and train suction is sometimes, at certain speeds, strong enough to draw a boy or even a grown man, under the wheels. The thing is as well demonstrated as that two and two make four. But the Supreme Court of Missouri—wonderful Missouri, where they must be ‘‘shown’’ and even then they deny the truth—says that there ‘‘aint no sich thing!’’ Talk about Rev. Jasper’s ‘‘the sun do move!’’ Talk about the mythi- cal Papal bull against the comet! The Missouri Supreme Court decides that the physical laws of the universe don’t exist, sofar as that august assemblage is concerned. It is apt to decide against the solar spectrum, against the law of gravitation, against the sphericity of the earth, or against the multiplication table, any old day. But, great though the Missouri Supreme Justices may be, superior though they be to the facts of science, it is fortunate that experimental determinations of wind pressure are not likely to be affected by legal opinions—themselves, often, fearful and wonderful examples of wind pressure—that such pressures do not exist. The profound jurists of the Missouri Supreme Court are reminded that there is nothing in history to indicate that any proposition in mechanics was ever either established or reversed by legal opinions, by offensive personalities or by a combination of both. Professor Nipher’s brochure is Galileo’s EF pur si muove over again. And it had to happen in Missouri. Nipher — Frictional Effect of Railway Trains upon the Air. 223 These equations were tested by making observations on fast passenger trains which made long runs at fairly uniform speed. The bar carrying the pressure collector was continually varied in position through the limit from ® to 30 inches as is shown in the following table. In this table the values of the pressure corresponding to the various positions d, are each the means of 87 separate determina- tions. The number of measurements represented in this table is therefore 11 X 87 = 957. Pilati Lbs. per Sq. Ft. av d. iff. p obs. p cale. 0 0 95 1.02 —0.07 1 1.16 1.16 0.00 2 1.30 1.31 —0 01 3 1.44 1.43 +0.01 4 1.59 1.53 +0 06 5 1.67 1.61 +0.06 10 1.96 1 98 —0.02 15 2:17 2 22 —0.05 20 2 36 2.38 —0.02 25 2 49 2.52 —0.03 30 2.66 2 62 +0 04 CO ROE Y seestalaatad ey A Eee ree The values of P, and d’ in equation (1) were computed by the method of least squares, since the form of the equation did not easily lend itself to graphical solution. The equation may be put in the form pd=a+Pd—d'p wherea = Pd’ —c. The normal equations for a, P and d’ are respectively, = pd — na—Xd.P+ zp. d' = 0. =p? — 2d.a— i? P+ ZU pd.d’'=0. 2 p*d —Zp.a— =z pd. P+ zp?.d' = 0. From these equations ’ and P were found by elimination. The value of ¢ was then computed from the observations by substituting these values in equation (1). 224 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. The average value of ¢ and the values of P and d’ being substituted in (1) the value of p for each value of d is com- puted. These values are given in the third column of the table. | The vertical asymptote of the curve is inside of the car surface a distance d’ = 15.1 inches, and the limiting pressure which would be observed if the collector were thrust far out into the undistubed air is P = 3.42 lbs. per square foot. The measurements of the last table were made in the rear of the fourth car from the locomotive. They covered the distance from St. Louis to Burlington and return. The actual distance covered while the measurements were being made was 316 miles, during 7.88 hours, not including stops. The aver- age velocity of the train was 40.1 miles per hour. The aver- age weighted v? was 1746. The square root of this value, the virtual velocity, is 41.7. The constant in equation (3) is by this determination P 3,42 wy = 1746 — 0-0020—. The velocity of the train was determined by timing its pass- age through all stations which could be identified, and by timing its arrival in and departure from all stations where stops were made. During this trip the wind was very light from the East while going from St. Louis to Burlington. On the return trip the wind was from the N. W., with a velocity of from 6 to 12 miles per hour. This would make the effective velocity somewhat less than that of the train on the return trip. A decrease of 4.7 miles per hour in the j/ mean square velocity produced by a following wind, would account for the FP reduction of the value of 5 from 0.0025 to 0.0020. The effect of a wind blowing transversely across the train, in an open country, is to largely obliterate the phenomenon of train draught. The air drifis away from the train too quickly to be set into motion by the successive action of all the cars in the train. The effect then appears and disappears Nipher — Frictional Effect of Railway Trains upon the Air. 225 as calms and gusts of wind alternate with each other. In a timbered region, or along the banks of the Mississippi river, where the bluffs and timber check the air current, the phe- nomenon is always present. The locality where James Graney was killed was eminently favorable to the production of train draught, even with a transverse wind. V I ee ee pe sl ies e ie III IV 3, vik Lo a 3 / oe MES oe. Ect Inches from the Car O 10 20 30 Fig. 4. The effect of a wind blowing against any object, is the re- sult of the compression on the windward side and the rare- faction on the leeward side. The cup-shaped collector used in these measurements, gives only the compression. The effective pressures acting on any object like a pressure board, are about thirty-three per cent. greater than those computed by Newton’s formula.* * These Transactions, Vol. VIII, No. 1, p. 19. 226 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. The work done on a number of other trips has been sim- ilarly reduced. All give very satisfactory results. A few in which the effect of wind was least, have been used to check the constant of Newton’s equation. The results of the observations are shown in Fig. 4, which is the same in char- acter as Fig.3. The different curves are indicated by Roman numerals, which correspond to the number of car-lengths from the locomotive tender to the point of observation. For example, curve I represents observations made one car-length from the tender of the locomotive. ‘The horizontal line rep- resenting the limiting pressure is also marked I. Similar explanations apply to the other curves of Fig 4. The curve of Fig. 3 is reproduced in Fig 4, where it is indicated by the numeral. 1V. Additional data concerning these curves are given in the adjoining table. No. d. PP; K = fh Remarks. rve. Vv. Cu obs. gy? I. | 46.0 ; 21 | 10.5 | 4.90 | 0.0023 | No wind. III. | 38.3 | 86 | 20.4 | 3.42 | 0.0023 | No wind. IV. | 41.7 | 87 | 15.1 | 3.42 | 0 0020 | Light following wind. V. | 44.7 | 18 5.4 | 6.01 | 0.0030 | Light head wind. VI. | 42.5 | 10 8.5 | 4.11 | 0.0023 | No wind. The column headed curve gives the number of the curve in Fig. 4, and also the number of car-lengths from locomotive to the point of observation. The next column gives the V mean square velocity of the train. The third column gives the number of observations of p, to obtain a mean p, for each of the eleven positions of the collector. In the final column the remarks: No wind, means a very light wind, variable as regards velocity and direction. It was thought at the time of making the observations that it was not appreci- able as a factor. A very large amount of work which has been done has not Nipher — Frictional Effect of Railway Trains upon the Air. 227 been included in these reductions. In some cases the wind was so strong as to greatly disturb the measurements. It was found to be impossible to eliminate this effect. The wind velocity could not be determined at stations where the train came to rest, under the conditions which hold along the track between cities. Only such work is included in the pres- ent paper, as might be expected to lead to a fair approxima- tion to the constant in Newton’s equation. The investigation of this subject was made possible by the co-operation of Mr. W. W. Baldwin, president of the St. L., K. and N. W. R. R. and of Mr. A. W. Sullivan, General Superintendent of the Illinois Central Railroad. Assistance in muking the measurements was also given by my colleague, Profes-or Engler. Issued November 12, 1900. List of Authors. 229 LIST OF AUTHORS Alt, A. lvii, 185 Baker, C. F. Ix, lxi Baker, F. C. lxiv Engler, E. A. xlviii Espenschied, C. lvi Geddes, P. 1 Goldstein, M. lvii Hermann, E. A. lx Hitchcock, A. S. li, 131 Klem, M. 167 Kodis, T. lxi Langsdorf, A. S. xlvii Miller, G. A. 1 Nipher, F. E. lii, lvi, lviii, Ix, lxiv, 151, 209, 215 Norton, J. B. S. lix Outten, W. B. lx Pauls, G. lvii Ravold, A. lxi Roberts, H. F. lv Robertson, C. xlviii, 47 Roever, W. H. 1x, lxii von Schrenk, H. li, liv, lvi, lvii, 143 See, T. J. J. xlvii, 1 Van Ornum, J. L. 1 Warren, W. H. liv Weller, S. 57 Widmann, O. lxiv 230 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. GENERAL INDEX. Absorption of light in space 44 Acino-tubular glands 192, 203-205. pl. 25, 33, 35, 36,38, 39-41 Acinous glands 204, 206, 207. pl. 30-33, 46, 53-55 Age of earth 21 —— Stars and nebulae 1 — sun ll Air friction of trains lx, 215 Amphipods lxi Anemometer 216 Animal electricity lxi Bacteria lxi Ball-discharge photographs lii, 155 Bees of Illinois xlviii, 47 Bison, fossil lx Brilliant points lxiii. pl. A Buds on roots 134 Burlington sandstone 57 . Burls li, lvii Butterflies xlviii Caruncular glands 195 Cell, plant lv Chonopectus sandstone 57 Conjunctival glands 186 Coronas, photographic 160 Crowns of plants 131 Crustacea lxi Dark stars 42 Development of photographs in light lii, lvii, 161, 166 Earth’s age 21 Eclipse photography 209 Electric spark photographs lii, 151 Electricity, animal Ixi Electrographs 151, 166. pl. 72-16 Encrinital group 57 Energy of sun 17 Expositions 1 Eye glands Ivii, 185. pl. 22-57 Fish and bacteria lxi Fleas ix Friction of trains on air Ix, 215 Gaseors celestial bodies 21 Glands of eye Ivii, 185. pl. 22-57 Ice storm 148. pl. 70, 11 Illinois bees 47 Isopods Ixi Kinderhook fauna 57. pl. 1-9 Krause’s glands 199 Lacrymal drainage 196 —— glands 186, 195, 206. pl. 46- 57 Law of temperature 32 Least squares lx Librarian lxix Life term on earth 21 Light absorbed in space 44 —— VS. crinoids 179 vs. photographic ment lii, lvii, 161, 166 Light-struck plates 151 develop- Meibomian glands 190, 203-206. pl. 25, 33-36, 38-43, 45 Microscope, uses xlix Milling lvi Muciparous glands 192 Nebulae, ages 1 —— temperature 36 Officers lxiv, Ixvi Orbital glands 186, 203, 204. pl. 22, 27,29 Palpebral glands 186, 203, 204. pi. 23, 24, 26, 28, 29 Parabola xlviii Perennial plants li, 131 Perfumes liv General Index. Photographic development in light lii, lvii, 161, 166 Photography lii, lv, lvi, lx, 151, 209 pl. 12-17 Planets, temperature 41 Plates, light-struck 151 —— zero lvii, 164 Points, brilliant Ixiii. pl. A Positive photography lii, !vi, lx, 162, 209 President lxvi Pressure collectors 219 Propagation of trees lvi Railway trains vs. air 215 Reptiles and bacteria Ixi Rhizomes 132 Root buds 134 —— contraction 133 Sandstone, Chonopectus 57 Sanitation 1 Sebaceous glands 193, 205, 206. pil. 42, 45 Shadows in positive photography 162 Shumard collection Ixii Sleet-storm 143. pl. 10, 11 Sound xlvii, lx Southwestern flora lix Stars, ages 1 —— dark 42 —— temperature 37 231 Stolons 132 Substitution groups 1 Subterranean plant organs li, 131 - Sudoriferous glands 193, 195, 205 206. pl. 37, 42-45 Sun, age 11 —— temperature xivii, 1, 39 Sweat glands 193, 195, 205, 206. pl. 37, 42-45 Tarsal tissue glands 190, 204. pl. 33 Tear glands 186, 195, 206. pl. 46- 57 Temperature, law xlvii, 32 —— solar 1, 39 Terpenes liv Trains, friction on air Ix, 215 Treasurer lxix Tree propagation lvi Voice lvii Water bacteria lxi —— filtration xlviii Weight of sleet 145 Wind vs. plants 149 —— vs. train friction 224 X-ray photographs 161, 165 Yandell collection !xii Zero photographic plate lvii, 164 232 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. INDEX TO GENERA. Acer 146, 150. pl. 77 Chelostoma 52 Actinocrinus 174 Chonetes 57-60, 67-9, 127. pl. 7 Agaricocrinus 167, 180-4. pl. Z8-2I Chonopectus 60, 63, 69, 127. pl. Z Agoniatites 121, 126, 129. pl. 7-9 Cicuta 138 Agrimonia 133, 137 Circaea 138 Allorisma 57 Clematis 134 Ambrosia 134 Cnicus 134 Ammobates 55 Colletes 51 Amorpha 136 Comandra 133-4, 141 Andrena 47-50 Conularia 118, 129. pl. 7 Anemone 134 Convolvulus 134, 139 Anthedon 53 Cornus 138 Apios 133, 137 Cucurbita 131 Apocynum 134, 138 Cyathocrinus 173 Arca 90 Cypricardella 94 Asclepias 182, 134, 139 Cypricardinia 102, 128. pl. 3 Asclepiodora 131, 138 Cystoceras 121, 129. pl. 7 Ashmeadiella 52 Astragalus 182, 133, 136 Delphinium 135 Athyris 75, 127. pl. 2 Dentalium 117, 129. pl. 7 Avicula 86-7, 125-6, 128. pl. 3 Desmanthus 137 Aviculopecten 81-2, 84, 128. pl. 3 Desmodium 136 Dianthera 134, 140 Bacillus lxi Dolactocrinus 175-6 Baptisia 135 Batocrinus 174, 176-8 Edmondia 93-7, 103, 128. pl. 4 Bellerophon 112, 113, 115, 129. pl. 6 Emphor 53 Betula 150. pl. 17 Enslenia 134, 139 Biareolina 50 Epeolus 55 Boehmeria 142 Epimelissodes 53 Brunella 141 Erythronium lvi Bucania 115 Eumetria 74, 127. pl. 2 Bucanopsis 114, 128. pl. 6 Euphorbia 142 ee he Euphydryas lvii Callandrena 50 Fenestella 81 Callirrhoe 131, 135 Florilegus 53 Cardinia 95 Fragaria 132 Cardiomorpha 101 ; Cardiopsis 100, 128. pl. 3 Galium 138 Carpinus 145,150. pl. 10 Gerardia lvii Cassia 137 Geum 137 Ceanothus 135 Ginkgo 148 Ceratina 54 Glossites 92, 103, 128. pl. 4 Index to Genera. 233 Glycyrrhiza 133, 136 Goniatites 121 Goniophora 89, 128. pl. 3 Gorgonia 179 Grammysia 91-2, 104, 128. pl. 4 Gyroceras 57, 62 Halictus 51-2 Helianthemum 135 Heriades 52 Hieracium 142 Hamulus 142 Hymenopappus 142 Iomelissa 50 Ipomoea 133 Isocardia 89 Laportea 132, 142 Lathyrus 137 Lechea 135 Leiopteria 85-6, 128. pl. 3 Leonurus 141 Lespedeza 136 Lilium lvi Lingula 65, 127. pl. Z Lippia 134, 140 Lithospermum 132, 139 Lophanthus 140 Loxonema 106-7, 129. pl. 7 Ludwigia 137 Lycopus 134, 140 Lythrum 137 Macrodon 90, 128. pl. 3 Malva 146 *Melissodes 53 Microdon 94 Monarda 140 Murchisonia 106-7, 129. pl. 7 Mytilarca 88, 128. pl. 3 Naticopsis 108, 128. pl. 6 Neopasites 54-5 Nepeta 132, 141 Nomada 52 Oenothera 137 Onosmodium 139 Opuntia 138 Orbiculoidea 65, 127. pl. Z Orthis 67, 127 Orthoceras 119, 120, 126, 129. pl. 9 Orthothetes 66, 125, 127. pl. 7 Osmia 52 Oxalis 135 Oxybaphus 131, 141 Parandrena 50 Patellostium 115, 128. pl. 6 Penthorum 132, 137 Pentstemon 132, 140 Peridermium lvii Pernopecten 85, 128. pl. 3 Petalostemon 132, 136 Peucedanum 138 Phanerotinus 112, 129. pl. 7 Phileremus 54 Phillipsia 57 Phragmoceras 120, 129. pl. 9 Physalis 134, 139 Phytolacca 131, 141 Picea li Pinus lvi, lvii, 146 Piantago 141 Piatanus 146 Platycrinus 177 Platyschisma 110, 111, 129. pl. 6 Polygonatum 133 Polygonum 141 Polytaenia 132, 138 Porcellia 116, 117, 128. pl. 5 Posidonomya 57, 105, 128. pl. 4 Productella 71, 125, 127. pl. 1 Productus 70, 71, 125, 127. pl. Z Promacrus 104, 125, 128. pl. 4 Prunus 137, 146 Psoralea 131, 135-6 Pterinea 85-6 Pterinopecten 83, 127. pl. 3 Pteronites 87, 128. pl. 3 Pugnax 72, 127. pl. 2 Pycnanthemum 140 Reticularia 80, 127. pl. 2 Rhus 134-5 Rhyuchonella 73-4, 127. pl. 2 Rosa 137 Rubus 132 Ruellia 132, 140 Rumex 132, 134, 141 234 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Salvia 140 Symphoricarpos 132, 138 Sambucus 138 Synhalonia 54 Sanguinolites 98 Syringothyris 77, 123, 125, 127. pl. Z Sanicula 138 Schizodus 101, 102, 128. pl. 4 Taxodium 148 Schizophboria 66, 125, 127, pl. Z Teucrium 133, 140 Schrankia 137 Thalictrum 132, 134 Scutellaria 133, 141 Thuja 146-7 Senecio 142 Triosteum 138 Silene 135 Trypetes 52 Solanum 134, 139 Tsuga 146 Spathella 100, 128. pl. 4 Sphaerodoma 108, 128. pl. 6 Ulmus 146 Sphecodes 51 Urtica 142 Sphenotus 96-9, 128. pl. 4 Spirigera 76 Verbena 132, 140 Spirifer 57, 76, 125, 127. pl. 2 Viburnum 146 Stenosiphon 1388 Vicia 137 Straparollus 109, 110, 129. pl. 6 Viola 135 Strophalosia 71 Strophostylus 108, 128. pl. 5 Zeacrinus 173-5 Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 235 CLASSIFIED LIST OF PAPERS AND NOTES CONTAINED IN VOLUMES I-X. Addresses of Presidents. Eads, J. B. 83 lv, xciii, cxix Engelmann, G. 23 171, 194, 239, 257, 550, 569, 581. 8; xxxvii. 4: xxxii, xlvi, Ix, lxix, Ixxxii Engler, E. A. 8: xxvi. 9: xxvii. 103 Ixvi Gray, M. L. 73 lxi, Ixxvii Harris, W. T. 3¢ clvii Leete, J. M. 43 civ Nipher, F. E. 43 cxxix. 5¢ vii, xxii, xl, xlviii. 6 ¢ xiii Prout, H. A. 23 145 Riley, C. V. 33 ccxxxviii. 43 i Shumard, B. F. 1: 107.8:x Wislizenus, A. 1 ; 325, 690. 3: xxv Anatomy. — See Biology. Archaeology, ethnology. Allen, G. W. [Pottery and skulls from mounds of southeastern Mis- souri]. 8: cxcix Broadhead, G. C. [Ancient mounds of Saline County, Mo.]. 33 lxxxvi —— [Ancient walled graves, in Pike County, Mo.]. 23 223 Conant, A. J. Archaeology of Missouri. 3 : 353-366 —— [Skull from New Madrid mound]. 83 ccv, ccvi Croswell, C. Mound explorations in southeastern Missouri. 33 531-8 Dacus, J. A. [Ruins at Xayi, Mexico]. 4: xi Engelmann, G. J. [Sandstone statuette from Tennessee]. 83 cclvii —— [Skulls of mound-builders]. 33 ccexxviii —— [Teeth of mound-builder]. 3:3 ccix Gage, J. R. [Ancient stone wall in Mississippi]. 3: clxxxiv —— Results of investigations of Indian mounds. 8 ; 226-234 Gillespie, T. P. [Pottery from Peruvian burial grounds]. 3 ¢: ccviii Gillman, H. [Perforations of mound skulls]. : cl Harris, W. T. [Antiquity of man]. 8:c Hilder [Mound pottery]. 3: celxiv Holmes, N. [American antiquities]. 3 : cciii —— [Antiquity of man]. 3:3 ci —— [Fossil man of the Mentone cave]. 8: xcvi —— [Indian pottery from Big mound of St. Louis]. 1 700-701 —— [Man and the elephant in Nebraska]. 8 : ccxiii -—— [Shell ornaments from Big mound, etc.]. 83 cxxxiv —— [Skull-flattening]. 1 3 32 —— [Stone mounds]. 1:98 Nipher, F. E. [Skulls of mound-builders]. 3 : ccexxviii Potter, W. B. [Archeological work in S. E. Mo.]. 83 celxiv —— [New Madrid mounds]. 8: ccv, ccvii 236 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. ARCHAEOLOGY, ETC., continued. Richardson [ Skull and pottery from St. Louis mound]. 8 : excviii Sawyer, A. [Indian mound relics]. 3 : ccexviii Shumard, B. F. [Ancient stone wall in Pulaski County, Mo.]. 1: 97-8 —— [Human skull from an ancient Indian mound near Little Rock, Ark.]. 2 3 585-6 —— [Skull from Arkansas mound]. 13 31-2 Sidney-Hamilton, F. W. [Southeastern Africa]. $3: cclv Smith, S. [Height of the Big mound of St. Louis]. 3: xv Swallow, G. C. [Indian mounds in New Madrid county]. 1: 36-7 Todd, A. [Skull and ornaments from the Big mound]. 33 cxxxiii Wislizenus, A. Indian stone graves in Illinois. 1; 66-70 —— Was man contemporaneous with the Mastodon? 1 ; 168-171 Astronomy. Pritchett, H. S. [Barnard and Fabry comets]. 5:i —— Ephemeris of the satellites of Mars for the opposition of 1881. 4: 353-7 —— [History of the sun-spots, magnetic storms, and aurorae, of Feb- ruary, 1892]. 63 xvii —— Observations on the transit of Mercury, May 9, 1891. 5: 609-614 —— [Periodic doubling of stars]. 6:3 xv —— [Physical observation of Mars during the iain of 1892]. 63 xxii Morrison Observatory. 7 : lx, 299-313 —— [Rotation period of Jupiter]. 5:1v —— [Satellite system of Saturn]. 7: xlvii See, T. J. J. On the temperature of the sun and on the relative ages of the stars and nebulae. 9: xix. 10: 1-45 Seyffarth, G. An astronomical inscription concerning the year 1722 B.C. 1: 356-86. pl. 10 Corrections of the present theory of the moon’s motions, according to the classic eclipses. 3: 401-530 —— [Lunar tables]. 4: xxv —— The original Egyptian names of the planets, according to a Turin papyrus, and some new planetary configurations. 4 ; 411-39 —— Planetary configurations on Cyprian antiquities. 4: 3895-407 (with a folding plate). Updegraff, M. Determinations of the latitude, longitude and height above sea level of the Laws observatory of the University of the State of Missouri, containing a description of the building and principal instruments. 6: 481-517 (with plate). ——— Flexure of telescopes. 7 : 248-72 Biographic notices. Agassiz, L. 83 cxvii Baumgarten, F. E. 33 xxv Breckinridge, S. M. 5: liii Curtman, C. O. 7: lvii Eads, J. B. 5¢ xiii Eliot, W. G. 5: ix Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 237 BIOGRAPHIC NOTICES, continued. Engelmann, G. 43 xc —— Memorial volume, by Enno Sander. 4. Supplement, pp. 18, with portrait. Evans, J. 23 162-4 Gray, A. 53 xxiv Gray, M. L. 83 xviii Henry, J. 43 xix Hilgard, T. C. 3; clxxvi Leete, J. M. 73 lxxii Lucas, J. H. $3 cxii Pallen, M. M. 33 ccxxii Prout, H. A. 23 178-9 Riley, C. V. 73 xIvi Sander, E. 73 lxix ' Shaw, H. 5:xl Shumard, B. F. 33 xvii Silliman, B. Jr. 43 cviii Smith, C. 8. 5: xvi Smith, S. 3: xxxi Todd, A. 4: cxvii Whittlesey, C. C. 3; clxxv Wislizenus, A. 5; xxxvii, 464-8 Biology. Engelmann, G. [Migration of insects and weeds]. 33 ccxxvii Hilgard, T. C. Phyllotaxis—its numeric and divergential law expli- cable under a simple organological idea. 1: 48-61. pl. 3 Kodis, T. [Overcooling animal and vegetable tissues]. 8 :xxv Riley, C. V. [Geographical range of species]. $3 ccxxx —— [Introduced weeds and insects]. $3 xlii Botany. Ball, C. R. Notes on some western willows. 9: 69-90 Bay, J. C. Materials for a monograph on inuline. 6: 151-9 Bernays, A. C. [Karyokinesis in Fritillaria]. 7: lii Combs, R. Plants collected in the District of Cienfuegos, Province of Santa Clara, Cuba, in 1895-1896. 7; 393-491. pl. 30-39 (with map). Curtman, C. O. [Fungi on apple-rind]. 4: cxiv Eliot, W. G. Jr. Measurements of the trimorphic flowers of Oxalis . Suksdorfii. 5: 278-85 * Engelmann, G. About the oaks of the United States. 3: 372-400, 689-48 —— The acorns and their germination. 4: 190-2 — Additions to the cactus-flora of the territory of the United States. 2: 197-204 —— [Age and diameter of trees]. 43 xii —— [Age of Sequoias]. 3: clxxxix —— The American junipers of the section Sabina. 83 cclxx, 583-92 —— [Arceuthobium minutum]. 33 Ixxxiii —— [Bernhardi herbarium]. 13316 238 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. BIoLoGy, BOTANY, continued. Engelmann, G., continued. —— [Catalpa speciosa]. 431 —— [Cinchona cultivation]. 4:3 1v —— [Dimorphism of Draba brachycarpa]. 2+ 154-5 —— The flowering of Agave Shawii. 33 cclv, 579-82. pl. 4 —— [Fruit and seed of Viburnum]. 2+ 269-271 —— [Fungi and fermentation]. 3¢ xli —— The genus Jsoétes in North America. 43 358-90 —— [Geographical distribution of North American flora]. $3 :cclxx — [Grape rot]. 4:3 xxxix —— [Hybrids of Verbena]. 1:675-6 —— [Mildew and black-rot of grape]. 23 165-6 —— [Nelumbium luteum]. 2: 185, 126-9 —— New species of Gentiana, from the alpine regions of the Rocky mountains. 2: 214-8. pl. 7-11 —— Notes on Agave. 3: 291-322 —— Addition to article on Agave. 33 370-1. pl. 2, 3 —- Notes on the genus Yucca. 8 : 17-54 —— Notes on the genus Yucca. No. 2. 3: 210-214 —— Addition to the article on Yucca. 3 3 371-2 —— [Notes on the grape-vines of Missouri]. 13 660-2 —— [Oak and{grape fungi]. 8:ccxv —— The oaks of the United States. 33 ccvi, 539-43 —— On Pinus aristata, a new species of pine, discovered by Dr. C. C. Parry in the alpine regions of Colorado Territory, and on some other pines of the Rocky mountains. 2 205-214. pl. 5-6 —— [Oxytropis Lamberti]. 33 clxxvi —— [Phenological notes]. 8: xIvi, cclvii. 4 xiii, lv —— [Physiological and anatomical characters of the dui sperms]. $3 ccxxix —— [Pollen showers]. 3:3 xliv —— [Polypodium incanum]. $3 Ixxxiv —— [Pulp of cactus fruit]. 2: 166-7 —— [Pulp of Cereus for calking]. 4:3 lxxvii —— Revision of the genus Pinus, and description of Pinus Elliottii. $3 xxvii. 43 161-190. pl. 7-3 —— A revision of the North American species of the genus Juncus, with a description of new or dees senansnid known species. 23 424-98 —— Further additions to the revision of the genus Juncus. 2: 590 ——. [Selaginella lepidophylla]. 1: 687 —— [Sequoias]. 33 xlviii —— [Structure of the fruit and seed of Ribes]. 2s 180-1 —— A synopsis of the American firs (Abies Link). 8: 593-602 . —— Systematic arrangement of the species of the genus Cuscuta, with critical remarks on old species and descriptions of new ones. 1 3 339, 453-523 —— Two new dioecious grasses of the United States. 1; 324, 431-42, pl. 12-14 Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 239 BIoLoGy, BOTANY, continued. Engelmann, G., continued. —— [Ulmus Americana]. 13% 332 —— [Vegetation along the lakes]. 4: xx —— [Vernation of American oaks]. 33 ccxiv —— [Vitis]. 3: clxxvii —— [Wild grapes]. 43 xliv —— [Xenia phenomenaincorn]. 83 xliii Espenschied, C. [Sisal and palm fiber]. 73li Glasgow, W. Jr. [ Ulva thermarum from Hot Springs, Ark.]. 13 388 Glatfelter, N. M. Relations of Salix Missouriensis, Bebb, to 8. cor- data, Muhl. 7: 137-144. pl. 1-3 —— A study of the relations of Salix nigra and Salix amygdaloides, together with the hybrids arising from them as these species ex- hibit themselves in the vicinity of St. Louis. 6: 427-31. pl. 7 Hager [Green-stained oak wood]. $3 1xxxi Hambach, G. [Fruiting Cycas revoluta]. 5:iv —— [Petrified seeds of Celtis]. 53xxxiii Hilgard, T. C. [Exposition of a natural series of immediate catholic affinities in the vegetable kingdom]. 1: 103-4, 125-156. pl. 6-7 —— [Variability of foliage of a single tree]. 1312-314 Hitchcock, A. §. A catalogue of the Anthophyta and Pteridophyta of Ames, Iowa. 5 : 477-532 —— Ecological plant geography of Kansas. 8 3 55-69. —— The opening of the buds of some woody plants. 6: 133-141 (with 4 plates). —— Studies of subterranean organs. I. Compositae of the vicinity of Manhattan, Kansas. 931-8. pl. 7 —— Studies of subterranean organs. II. Some dicotyledonous herba- ceous plants of Manhattan, Kansas. 10:131-142 Letterman, G. W. [Loco weed]. 43cvi —— [Planera and Gleditschia]. 4:3 lxxvi —— [Woods from Arkansas]. 43 ]xvii Mallinckrodt [Green-stained oak wood]. $31xxxiv Norton, J. B.S. [Effects on trees of tornado of May, 1896]. 7 :Ixxiii —— [Flora of Southwestern United States]. 10: lix ——A study of the Kansas Ustilagineae, especially with regard to their germination. 7 ; 229-41. pl. 25-9 —— [Supposed Crataegus hybrids]. 93 xxii Pammel, L. H. Anatomical characters of the seeds of Leguminosae, chiefly genera of Gray’s Manual. 9: 91-273. pl. 7-35 —— [Ecological notes on Colorado plants]. 7:3 Ixvi-ii —— The histology of the caryopsis and endosperm of some grasses, 8 : 199-220. pl. 17-19 On the pollination of Phlomis tuberosa, L., and the perforation of flowers. 53 xviii, 241-277. pl. 6-7 —— On the seed-coats of the genus Huphorbia. 6: 543-68. pl. 72-14 — Sclerotinia Libertiana, Fuckel, with a bibliography of fungus root diseases. 6: 191-232. pl. 1-2 Pope, C. A. [Aecidium deformation of elder]. 13 676 240 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. BIOLOGY, BOTANY, continued. Riley, C. V. [New use for the American Agave]. 33 cxcv —— [Peronospora viticola]. 83 ccxvi —— [Physianthus an insect trap]. 83 cix —— [Viifa following locust devastation]. 3: clxxxvili Roberts, H. F. [Structure and physiology of plant cell]. 103 lv Robertson, C. Flowers and insects. Contributions to an account of the ecological relations of the entomophilous flora and the anthophilous insect fauna of the neighborhood of Carlinville, Illinois. 7 3 151-79 —— Flowers and insects — Asclepiadaceae to Scrophulariaceae. 53 569-98 —— Flowers and insects — Labiatae. 63 101-131 —— Flowers and insects — Rosaceae and Compositae. 6: 435-80 —— Fiowers and insects — Umbelliferae. 5 3 449-60 Rush, W. H. [Intramolecular respiration of plants]. 7:3 lxviii von Schrenk, H. [Arceuthobium pusillum]. 9¢ xxiii —— [Burl caused by Peridermium]. 10:3 lvii —— [Burls on the white spruce]. 103 li —— On the mode of dissemination of Usnea barbata. 83 189-198. pl. 16 . —— [Parasitism of lichens]. 73 lxi —— [Propagation of fruit trees]. 103 lvi —— [Root-oedema of Salix nigra]. 7: |xviii-ix —— [Sclerotium disease of beech roots]. 9¢ xvii —— A severe sieet-storm, 10: 143-50. pl. 10, 11 —— The trees of St. Louis as influenced by the tornado of 1896. 8: 25-41. pl. 3-9 Smith, E. [Dionaea muscipula]. 53 iii Spiegelhalter, J. [Loco weed]. 4¢ ci Swallow, G. C. Grape culture in Missouri. 1: 156-168. pl. 8 Thom, C. The process of fertilization in Aspidiwm and Adiantum. 93 285-314. pl. 36-8 Thompson, C. H. [Endogenous flowers]. 93 xviii Trelease, W. [Cactus monstrosities]. 93 xx —— [Catasetum Gnomus]. 78 lvii —— Description of Lycoperdon Missouriense. 53 240. pl. 8 —— [Dionaea muscipula]. 63 iii —— [Fruit of Salisburia]. 4:3 cxxv —— [Fruiting Cycas revoluta]. 5:3 iv —— North American Rhamnaceae. 53 358-69 —— Observations suggested by the preceding paper [Eliot on Oxalis]. 53 286-91 —— Revision of North American Ilicineae and Celastraceae. 5: 343-57 —— A revision of North American Linaceae. 5 3 7-20. pl. 3-4 —— [Synthesis of starch]. 63 ii — [Trapa and Nephelium fruits and ‘‘cinnamon beans’’]. 43 cxxvi —— An unusual phyto-bezoar. 7 : 493-7. pl. 40 —— [Wood of Leitneria]. 6% xxviii Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 241 BIOLOGY, BOTANY, continued. Webber, H. J. Appendix to the Catalogue of the flora of Nebraska. 63 1-47 Whittlesey, C. C. [Pollenshowers]. 3%: xliv Wislizenus, A. [Fasciation in corn-cob]. $$ lii Zoology. Baird, S. F. [Snake imbedded in sandstone]. 1: 686 Baker, C. F. [American Isopods and Amphipods]. 103 1xi Baker, F. C. Critical notes on the Muricidae. 7 ; 371-91 —— The molluscan fauna of Western New York. 8371-94. pl. 10 Briggs, C. C. [Prairie dog]. $3: cxxxix Call, R. E. A study of the Unionidae of Arkansas, with incidental reference to their distribution in the Mississippi valley. 7 : 1-65. pl. 1-21 Engelmann, G. [Black fox squirrel]. 1: 329 —— [Menobranchus]. 33 1xxxi —— [Taenia]. 13334 Hambach, G. [Rattles of snake]. 5:xxvi Holmes, N. The geological and geographical distribution of the human race. 4 31-35 Hurter, J. Catalogue of reptiles and batrachians found in the vicinity of St. Louis, Mo. 6: 251-261 —— A contribution to the herpetology of Missouri. 7; 499-503 Lugger, O. [Storing of acorns and cutting of pine cones by squirrels]. 8 3 clxviii McLellan, G. B. [Squirrels in winter]. $ Cxxxviii Nipher, F. E. The evolution of the American trotting-horse. 43 509-516 Pope, C. A. [Tarantula from Missouri]. 23135 Riley, C. V. [Crustacea from Dallas, Tex.]. $3 clxxiii —— Descriptions of two new subterranean mites. 3 3 215-6 —— [Heterodon platyrhinos]. 8:cx —— [Menobranchus: lateralis]. 3% cxv —— [Mite transformations]. 8:3 cclxvii —— [Mygale Herizii]. 3: cclxix —— [Nephila plumipes]. 33 cix —— [The rattlesnake]. 3: 1lxxxix —— [Scenopinus in human lung]. 8:xc —— [Toad fish]. $3 clxxxii Sawyer, A. [The method adopted by squirrels for securing their winter’s food]. 3:3 cxxxvii Shimer, H. [An Icéerus related to J. spurius]. 23 260-1 Entomology. Brendel, E. Synopsis of the family of Pselaphidae. 5 : 298-302 Broadhead, G.C. The Rocky mountain locust and the season of 1875. 3: 345-9 Duffey, J. C. Transformations of a Carabid (Plochionus timidus), and observations on a Coccinellid enemy of the red spider. 5: 538-42. pl. 10-11 Engelmann, G. [Jumping seeds]. 4¢ lxxix, Ixxxi Grant, R. D. [Ravages of Termes]. 3:3 cclxix 242 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. BIOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, ENTOMOLOGY, continued. Murtfeldt, M. E. [Immigrant insects, especially the European cabbage-worm]. 43 li —— [Seed-feeding insects]. 73 xliv Pauls, G. [Huphydryas phaeton]. 103 lvii Riley, C. V. [Centennialinsects]. 3: ccxx —— [Colorado potato beetle]. 33 clxx —— Descriptions and natural history of two insects which brave the dangers of Sarracenia variolaris. 33 cci, 235-240 —— Descriptions of some new Tortricidae (leaf-rollers). 43 316-24 —— Descriptions of two new moths. 3 : 240-2 —— [Entomological notes]. 3: ccxvii —— Hackberry butterflies. 3; 193-208 —— [Jumping seeds and galls]. 3:3 cxc —— [Locust experience]. $3 cclxvii —— [Locust flights east of the Mississippi]. $3: ccxxvi —— [Locust plague]. 8¢ clxxi, clxxx, clxxxv, ccxxxvi ——[Mimicry]. 38: xliv —— [Myrmecocystus]. 33 cix —— A new oak-gall on acorn cups. 3 : 577-8. 43 i —— Notes on North American Microgasters, with descriptions of new species. 4: 296-315 —— Notes on the natural history of the grape Phylloxera (Phyl- loxera vastatriz, Planchon). 8:3 li, cxlvii, 281-7 —— Notes on the Yucca borer, Megathymus Yuccae (Walk.). 33 323-44 —— Additional notes on Megathymus Yuccae. 3 : 566-8 —— On a new genus in the Lepidopterous family Tineidae, with remarks ou the fertilization of Yucca. 8 : 55-64 —— On the oviposition of the Yucca moth. 3: 208-210 —— Supplementary notes on Pronuba Yuccasella. 3 : 178-180 —— Further remarks on Pronuba Yuccasella and on the pollina- tion of Yucca. 3: 568-73 —— [Yucca anditsinsects]. 8: cxxxix —— On aremarkable new genus in Meloidae infesting Mason- bee cells in the United States. 3: ccxii, 563-5 . —— [On migratory butterflies]. 3: cclxxiii —— On the larval characters and habits of the blister-beetles belonging to the genera Macrobasis, Lec. and Epicauta, Fabr.; with remarks on other species of the family Meloidae. 32 544-62. pl. 5 — On the differences between Anisopteryx pometaria, Harr. and Anisopteryx aescularia, W.-V., with remarks on the genus Paleacrita. 33 573-7 —— [On the oviposition of Saperda bivittata Say]. 8: cclxix —— [Oviposition of Leucania unipuncta]. 8% cecxi —— [Parasites on eggs of Caloptenus spretus]. 8% ccxxvi —— [Paris green and insects]. 83 cxciii —— Remarks on canker-worms and description of a new genus of Phalaenidae. 3 ; 273-80 Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 248 BIOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, ENTOMOLOGY, continued. Riley, C. V., continued. —— [Transportation of silk-worm eggs]. 3:3 ccxxxvi Robertson, C. New or little known North American bees. 8 3 43-54 North American bees — descriptions and synonyms. 7 3 315- 56 —— Some Illinois bees. 10 3 47-55 Treiease, W. [‘*Jumping beans’’]. 43 cxxv Walsh, B. D. Descriptions of North American Hymenoptera. 3: Ixxvii, 65-166 Wislizenus, A. [The so-called ‘‘army worm’’]. 23159-160 Anatomy, morphology. Alt, A. Original contributions concerning the glandular struc- tures appertaining to the human eye and its appendages. 10; 185-207. pl. 22-57 Engelmann, G. [Genital parts of female opossum]. 23224 Hilgard, T. C. [Comparative anatomy of the skull]. 1335-7 —— [Comparative organotaxy of fishes]. 1: 678-82 —— Notes on comparative organotaxis. 1 ; 416-30 —— [Skull of Vertebrates]. 1: 98-9 Stevens, C. W. [Monstrosity in head of lamb]. 1:3: 697-8 Terry, R.J [Cervical rib in man]. 8¢xx Todd, C. A. [Anomalous skull]. 53 xxxii —— [Arm-muscle of negro]. 5:3i *s Reversion of type’’ in the digastric muscle of the human being. 43 351-2 . —— [Subcutaneous pocket in front of ear of man and elephant]. 4 3 lxxxvii Physiology. Goldstein, M. [Physiology of voice production]. 10:3 lvii Harrison, E. [Iron-ore bezoars of ox]. $3 cli Kodis, T. [Electro-chemical theories of animal electricity]. 103 Ixi Porter, W. T. [Apparatus for adminstering anaesthetics during artificial respiration]. 5:3 liv —— The growth of St. Louis children. 6; 263-380. pl. 1-46 —— The physical basis of precocity and dullness. 6: 161-181. pl. 1-2 —— The relation between the growth of children and their deviation from the physical type of their sex and age. 6: 233-250. pl. Z Riley, C. V. [Sex causation]. 33 cviii Runge, E. C. Merycism regarded in the light of atavic ten- dency. — Report of a new case, with results of an investiga- tion of its digestive chemism. 6:3 519-36 Sawyer, A. [Water required for domestic animals]. $3; clxxxvi Todd, C. A. [Soaring of buzzards]. 53 iv Trelease, W. An unusual phyto- bezoar. 7 ; 493-7. pl. 40 244 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Botany. — See Biology. Chemistry. Bandelier, A. F. Observations on ozone, made in Highland, Madison Co., Ills. 23 417-8 ; Bremer, L. [Aniline dye tests for glucose]. 93 xxv Curtman, C. O. [Detection and analysis of blood]. 6: xxvi —— [Test for aniline colors]. 5: Vv Cushman, A. S. The post-mortem detection and estimation of strych- nine. 6: 537-44 Hunicke, H. A. [Boiling point of hydro-carbons]. 9: xxv Jewett, E. C. [Specific gravity determination of alloys]. 4% cxxxi Keiser, E. H. [Some derivatives of acetylene]. 9: xxiv Litton, A. [Aluminum]. 1: 33 Luedeking, C. Anomalous densities of fused bismuth. 6: 292-7 —— Contribution to the chemistry of combustion. 5: 370-4 —— The hydration of colloids. 5 : 375-82 —— [Ironin atmosphere]. 5: xi —— The long-continued action of the electric discharge on iodine. 53 445-8 — On the analysis of the barium group. 53 471-6 —— On the specific heats, specific gravities, and the heats of hydration of the acids of the fatty series, and their mixtures with water. 43 625-43 (with plate). —— The post-mortem detection of chloroform. 5 ; 28-32 —— — See H. A. Wheeler. Potter, W. B. [Analysis of Geyserite]. 43 lxvi —— [Analysis of Peruvian lignite]. 83 ccxxiii —— [Analysis of Spiegeleisen]. 4¢ viii Reed, C. J. The graphical representation of the relation between valence and atomic weight. 4: 649-675 (with triple chart). Sander, E. [Analyses of condensed milk]. 43 cxxvi Schiel, J. [Bisulphuret of carbon]. 1:3 29 —— [Observations on glycerine]. 13 28, 45-8 Seddon, J. A. [Specific gravity determination of alloys]. 4: cxxxiii Warren, W. H. [Production of perfumes]. 10: liv Wheeler, H. C. and C. Luedeking. Iodine in blowpiping. 4: cxxviii, 676-80. pl. 11-13 Wislizenus, A. [Ozone]. 13 329 Earthquakes. — See Meteorology. Education, sociology. Geddes, P. [Plan for increasing the educational value of expositions]. 1031 Wood, O. M. [Sociology of the negro]. 83 xxvi Woodward, ‘C. M. At what age do pupils withdraw from the public schools? 7: 185-200 —— [Formulae of Herbart]. 73 lv Engineering, machinery, manufactures. Adams, W. [Telephone for deaf persons]. 43 lxxxix Eads, J. B. [River jetties]. : cxiii Espenschied, C. [Flour milling]. 103 lvi Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 245 ENGINEERING, ETC., continued, Johnson, J. B. [Portland cement]. 8: xxi Kinealy, J. H. [Volume of air passing a register]. 73 xliii Kinsley, C. Discussion of series dynamo-electric machines. 8 3 107-136 Nipher, F. E. [Electric lights]. 3: ccxxxiii. 4: xlvii —— Kapp’s method of prediction for dynamos]. 53:v —— [Mechanical influence of design]. 4:xvii —— [On applying muscular work]. 8: ccxxxiv -——— On the output of the non-condensing steam engine, as a function of speed and pressure. 5 ; 434-444 Schmidt, A. Iron manufacture in Missouri. 3 3 261-272 Scott, C. M. On the improvement of the western rivers. 4343-54 (with plate). Woodward, C. M. The efficiency of gearing under friction. 8: 95-105 Entomology. — See Biology. Ethnology. — See Archaeology. Folk-lore. — See Language. Geology, palaeontology. Broadhead, G. C. Age of our porphyries. 3 3; ccxix, 366-70 —— [Bones of large mammals in drift, etc.]. 3¢ xxii —— Carboniferous rocks of eastern Kansas. 4 3 481-92 —— Coal measures in Missouri. 2 : 311-333 —— [Fossil horse in Missouri]. $:xx —— Missouri geological surveys, historical memoir. 43 611-624 —— On the well at the Insane Asylum, St. Louis County. 3 : 216-223. pl. 1 Emmons, E. [Geology of North Carolina]. 1: 101-2 Engelmann, G. [Geological and botanical notes on the Rocky mountains. ] 3 3cxlv [Hot springs of Colorado]. 43 Ixxi —— [Labeling specimens]. 1:3 318 —— [Petrified wood from near Pike’s Peak]. $3 Ixxxvii — [Sigiliaria marks on Illinois coal]. 383 cxliii Engelmann, H. [Lower Carboniferous in southern Illinois]. 2¢ 188-190 Evans, J., and B. F. Shumard. On some new species of fossils from the Cretaceous formation of Nebraska Territory. 1 ; 38-42 Hambach, G. Contribution to the anatomy of the genus Pentremites, with description of new species. 43 145-160. pl. A, B —— Description of new Palaeozoic Echinodermata, 43 548-54. pl. C, D —— Notes about the structure and classification of the Pentremites. 43 537-47 —— [Pionocrinus found at St. Charles, Mo.]. 43 cxix Harrison, E. Age of the Porphyry hills of South-east Missouri. 2 3 504 Hawn, F. The Trias of Kansas. 1; 171-2 —— — See G. C. Swallow. Heilprin, A. [Glacial phenomena in Greenland]. 73 xlili Hermann, E. A. [Fossil bison femur]. 10:3 Ix Holmes, N. [Loess and Drift, in connection with the Big mound at St, Louis]. 2:3 565-9 —— [Mastodon and man]. 1 3117-8 246 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. GEOLOGY, ETC., continued. Keyes, C. R. Relations of the Devonian and Carboniferous in the upper Mississippi valley. 7 : 357-69 Kirchner, W. C. G. Contribution to the fossil flora of Florissant, Colo- rado. 8: 161-188. pl. 71-15 Klem, M. The development of Agaricocrinus. 10: 167-84. pl. 18-21 Koch, A. C. [Bones of mastodon]. 13 116-7 —— [Explorations in Mississippi and Arkansas]. 1: 17-19 —— Mastodon remains, in the State of Missouri, together with evi- dences of the existence of man contemporaneously with the mastodon. 13; 61-4 Lapham, I. A. [Devonian in Wisconsin]. 13684 Linton, M. L. [Impressions in sandstone]. 13 23 Litton, A. Belcher & Brother’s Artesian Well. 1: 80-86. pl. 5 Lyon, 8.8. Descriptions of four new species of Blastoidea, from the Subcarboniferous rocks of Kentucky. 1: 628-34. pl. 20 —— Remarks on the stratigraphical arrangement of the rocks of Ken- tucky, from the Catenipora escharoides horizon of the upper Silurian period, in Jefferson county, to the base of the productive coal meas- ures in the eastern edge of Hancock county. I; 612-21 Marcou, J. [Age of geological formations]. 13 325 —— Notes onthe geology of Kansas and Nebraska. 13; 610-611 —— [On the Dryas in Nebraska]. 23 562-4 —— On the Terebratula Mormonii. 3 : 252-5 McAdams, W. [Drift fossils at Jerseyville, Ill.]. 3: cx —— [Drift fossils from Illinois]. 43 lxxix McGee, W. J. Notes on the geology of Macon county, Missouri. 5 3 305- 36. pl. 9 Norwood, J. G. [Rocks of Illinois]. 13115-6 Potter, W. B. [Geological relations of the ore deposits of Missouri]. 43 cxviii Prout, H. A. Description of a new species of Productus, from the Car- boniferous limestone of St. Louis. 1 ; 43-5. pl. 2 —— Description of new species of Bryozoa from Texas and New Mexico, collected by Dr. George G. Shumard, geologist of the U. S. expedition for boring Artesian wells along the 32d Parallel, under the direction of Capt. John Pope, U. S. Corps Top. Eng. 1 : 228-235 —— Descriptions of new species of Bryozoa. 2: 410-413 —— First of a series of descriptions of Carboniferous Bryozoa. 13 235-7 —— Second series of descriptions of Bryozoa from the Palaeozoic rocks of the western States and Territories. 1 ; 266-73 —— Third series of descriptions of Bryozoa from the Palaeozoic rocks of the western States and Territories. 1 3 443-52. pl. 15-18 —— Fourth series of descriptions of Bryozoa from the Palaeozoic rocks of the western States and Territories. 1; 571-81 —— [Fossil tooth from Abingdon, Va.]. 1: 699-700 —— [New Bryozoa, mostly from the Falls of the Ohio]. 1: 308 Schmidt, A. On the form and origin of the lead and zinc deposits of Southwest Missouri. 3: 246-252 Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 247 GEOLOGY, ETC., continued. Shumard, B. F. [Base of Cretaceous in northern Texas]. 1: 695 — A catalogue of Palaeozoic fossils of North America. 2: 334-407 —— [Coal measures in northern Texas]. 13 686-7 —— [Cretaceous formation of Texas]. 23152. —— Description of a new fossil Crinoidea from the Palaeozoic rocks of the western and southern portions of the United States. 1: 71-80. pl. 1 —— Descriptions of five new species of Gasteropoda from the Coal measures, and a Brachiopod from the Potsdam sandstone of Texas. 1 : 624-7 Descriptions of new Cretaceous fossils from Texas. 1 : 590-610 —— Descriptions of new fossils from the Tertiary formation of Oregon and Washington territories and the Cretaceous of Vancouver’s island, collected by Dr. Jno. Evans, U. S. Geologist, under instructions from the Department of the Interior. 1 ; 120-5 —— Descriptions of new Palaeozoic fossils. 2: 108-113 —— Descriptions of new species of Blastoidea from the Palaeozoic rocks of the western States, with some observations on the structure of the summit of the genus Pentremites. 1: 238-48. pl. 9 —— [Discovery in Texas of dicotyledonous leaves in Cretaceous strata, and the existence of an extensive Miocene formation]. 2:140-1 —— [Fossils from the white limestone of the Guadalupe mountains, N.M.]. 13113-4 —— [Geological map of Texas]. 23153 —— [Lower Silurian in Texas]. 1: 672-3 — Notice of fossils from the Permian strata of Texas and New Mexico, obtained by the United States expedition under Capt. John Pope for boring Artesian wells along the 32d Paral., with descriptions of new species from these strata and the Coal measures of that region. 1 : 387-403. pl. I7 —— Notice of new fossils from the Permian strata of New Mexico and Texas, collected by Dr. George G. Shumard, Geologist of the United States Government expedition for obtaining water by means of Artesian wells along the 32d Parallel, under the direction of Capt. John Pope, U. S. Corps Top. Eng. 1: 290-7 —— Notice of some new and imperfectly known fossils from the Primor- dial zone (Potsdam sandstone and Calciferous sand group) of Wis- consin and Missouri. 2 ; 101-7 —— Observations on the geology of the county of Ste. Geneviéve, being an extract from a report made to the Missouri Geological Survey, in 1859. 1 ; 404-415 —— Observations upon the Cretaceous strata of Texas. 1 : 582-90 —— [Tertiary in Texas]. 1:678 —— [Verticai section of the Silurian strata of Cape Girardeau county, Mo.]. 23 155-6 —=— — See J. Evans. —— andG. C. Swallow. Descriptions of new fossils from the Coa] meas- ures of Missouri and Kansas. 1 : 198-227 Shumard, G. G. [Coal measures]. 1393 248 Trans. Acad. Sct. of Si. Louis. GEOLOGY, ETC., continued. Shumard, G. G., continued. —— Geological structure of the ‘‘ Jornada cel Muerto’’, New Mexico. 1: 341-55 —— Observations on the geological formations of the country between the Rio Pecos and the Rio Grande, in New Mexico, near the line of the 32d Parallel. 1: 275-89 Spencer, J. W. Niagara fossils. 43 555-610. pl. 1-9 Swallow, G. C. Descriptions of new fossils from the Carboniferous and Devonian rocks of Missouri. 1 : 635-60 —— Descriptions of some new fossils from the Carboniferous and De- vonian rocks of Missouri. 2: 81-100 —— [Fossils from Kansas]. 13 111-112 —— Mr. Meek’s notes on my preliminary report of the geology of Kansas, as edited by Dr. Hayden. 2: 507-526 —— Notice of remains of the horse in the altered Drift of Kansas. 23418 —— Some new varieties of Spirifer lineatus, Martin; Spirifer cameratus, Morton; Spirifer Kentuckensis, Shumard; Spirifer Leidyi, Norwood and Pratten; Spirifer increbescens, Hall; and Spirifer Keokuk, Hall. 2: 408-410 — See B. F. Shumard. —, and F. Hawn. The rocks of Kansas. 1 ; 173-197 Todd, C. A. [Artesian wells at Jacksonville, Fla.]. 53 iii Vodges, A. W. Notes on Palaeozoic Crustaceae, No. 1. On some new Sedalia Trilobites. 5: 615-8. pl. 75 Weller, S. Kinderhook faunal studies. I. The fauna of the Vermicular sandstone at Northview, Webster county, Missouri. 939-51. pl. 2-6 —— Kinderhook faunal studies. II. The fauna of the Chonopectus sandstone at Burlington, Iowa. 10: 57-129. pl. 1-9 Wheeler, H. A. Note on the glacial drift in St. Louis. 7 : 121-2 —— [Some notes on the glacial drift]. 6% xvii —— [Temperature of deep mines]. 4% cxiv—-v Worthen, A. H. Notice of a new species of Platycrinus and other fossils, from the Mountain limestone of Illinois and Iowa. 1 ; 569-71 —— [Review of some points in Dr. B. F. Shumard’s report on the geology of Ste. Geneviéve county, Mo.]. 1: 696-7 Language, folk-lore, etc. de Coruna y Colludo, A. Zoque — the language spoken at Santa Maria di Chimalapa, and at San Miguel and Tierra Blanca, in the State of Chiapas, Mexico. 43 36-42 Dacus, J. A-— Translater.— See A. de Coruna y Colludo Gatschet, A. S. Tchekilli’s Kasi’hia legend in the Creek and Hitchiti languages, with a critical commentary and full glossaries to both texts. 5: 33-239 Holmes, N. [Sanscrit and Nahuatl]. 43 xxii Inscriptions. McMasters, S. Y. [Coin from Alton, Il.]. 1 320-1 Mitchell, O. M. [Inscription on Leeds mummy-coffin]. 13 684-5 Seyffarth, G. [An ancient Assyrian brick]. 1332 — Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 249 LANGUAGE, INSCRIPTIONS, continued. Seyffarth, G., continued. Egyptian theology, according to a Paris mummy-coffin. 4 ; 55- 80. pl. 1-2. —— The hieroglyphic tablet of Pompeium grammatically translated and commented on. 4: 193-295 (with 32 lithographed pages of symbol and commentary). Notice of a burnt brick from the ruins of Nineveh. 1364-6. pl. & —— A remarkable Papyrus-scroll, written in the Hieratic character about 1050 B. C. 1: 527-69 (with 16 lithographed pages of inscrip- tion and annotation). —— A remarkable seal in Dr. Abbott’s museum at New York. 1: 249-66 Stone, G. A. [Scarabaeus tablet and Papyrus scoll]. 13689: Machinery. — See Engineering. Manufactures. — See Engineering. Mathematics. Engler, E. A. Geometrical constructions for cutting from a cone of revo- lution plane sections (a) of given eccentricity, (b) of given latus rec- tum. 6: 183-190 —— A geometrical construction for finding the foci of the sections of a cone of revolution. 6 3 49-55 —— The normal to the conic section.. 8 ; 137-159 Kinealy, J. H. A spiral on a torus. 531-6. pl. 1-2 Nipher, F. E. [Device for the projection of pendulum figures]. 43 xxxvii —— The evolution of the American trotting-horse. 43 509-516 * —— Isodynamic surfaces of the compound pendulum. 4: 644-8 —— On a property of the isentropic curve for a perfect gas as drawn upon the thermodynamic surface of pressure, volume, and tempera- ture. 43 407-410 On certain properties of a fleld of force due to a single mass. 5 3 619-23 —— [On the distribution of errors in numbers written from memory]. 33 ccx —— On temperatures in gaseous nebulae. 93 275-84 —— [Thermodynamic surface of steam]. 43 lxxxiv Pritchett, H. 8. A formula for predicting the population of the United States. 5 : 599-608 © Roever, W. H. [Brilliant points and loci of brilliant points]. 103 ixii. pl. A —— Geometrical constructions of the lines of force proceeding from (a) two parallel electrified lines, (b) two electrified points. 7 ; 201-228 —— Geometricai properties of the lines of force proceeding from (a) a system consisting of an electrified plane and an electrified line par- allel to the plane, (b) a system consisting of an electrified plane and an electrified point. 7 : 273-98 Seddon, J. A. [Hydraulic flow equation]. 5:3 xxvii —— [Resistance to flow in hydraulics]. 8: xxiv 250 Trans. Acad. Sct. of St. Louis MATHEMATICS, continued. Woodward, C. M. [Formulae of Herbart]. 7: lv —— The relatiozs of internal pressure, volume, and temperature of an isolated mass of perfect gas of uniform temperature and in equilib- rium under the action of its own forces. 9: 53-60 Medicine, sanitation. Holman, M. L. [Purification of St. Louis water]. 8¢ xxiii Leete, J. M. [Some facts concerning past visitations ofcholera]. 43 cxx Potter, W. B. [Sewage and river water]. 43cxi Ravold, A. [Bacillus coli-communis in fish and reptiles]. 103 1xi —— [Diphtheria antitoxine]. 73lvi —— [Hiss test for typhoid Bacillus]. 83 xx [On the typhoid Bacillus found in the Mississippi river water]. 63 xxxvi —— [Placental infection in meningitis]. 9: xxi-xxii —— [Tuberculosis]. 8¢ xxiii —— [Widal’s typhoid test]. 7:3lxiv Van Ornum, J. L. [The cleansing of Cienfuegos]. 10:31 Meteorites. —See Mineralogy. Meteorology. Bigelow, J. M. [Waves of atmospheric pressure and their progress from West to East along the great northern lakes]. 2% 185-7 Case, F. M. [Meteorological observations at Denver]. 23 226-7 Duenckel, F. W. [Meteorology of city and suburbs]. 7:3 liii Engelmann, G. Difference of temperature and of relative humidity in city and country. 2370-74 Fall of rain (including melted snow) in St. Louis from 1839 to 1861. 2: 75-9 The mean and extreme daily temperatures in St. Louis during forty-seven years, as calculated from daily observations. 4 ; 496-508 (with three charts). —— [Meteorological notes]. 1% 332, 670, 704-5, 707, 710. 23 145, 162, 164-5, 174, 185, 222, 232-3, 238, 242, 246, 249-250, 264, 266, 549. $¢ xlvi, xlix, liv, Ixxx, xc, xcix, ciii, cvi, cxxxii, cxliv, clii, clvii, clxiv, clxvi, clxxiii, cxcvi, cc-—cci, eciii, ceviii, ccxviii, cclix, cclxiii, eclxviii, cclxxii. 43 vii, viii, xii, xviii, xxxviii, xxxix, xlix, 1, liv, lvi, Ixv, Ixx, Ixxiv, Ixxxii, Ixxxiii, Ixxxvi, lxxxviii —— [Meteorological observations at St. Louis for the year 1859]. 1: 692-4 —— Meteorological table for 1859, St. Louis, Mo. 1: 668 —— Meteorological table for 1860, St. Louis, Mo. 23 68 —— Meteorological table for 1861, St. Louis, Mo. 2: 69 —— Meteorological table for 1862, St. Louis, Mo. 23 119 —— Meteorological table for 1863, St. Louis, Mo. 2 297 —— Meteorological table for 1864, St. Louis, Mo. 2; 298 —— Meteorological table for 1865, St. Louis, Mo. 23 419 —— Meteorological table for 1866, St. Louis, Mo. 2: 505 —— Meteorological table for 1867, St. Louis, Mo. 23 506 —— [Prevalence of tornadoes]. 43 xxxviii —— [Rains in St. Louis from 1838-1865]. 2: 266-7 Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 251 METEOROLOGY, continued. Engelmann, G., continued. —— [Singular series of thunder-storms]. 23 153 —— [Snowstorm of Oct. 25, 1862]. 2: 187-8 —— [Unusually violent storm]. 2: 157 Engelmann, G., and A. Wislizenus. Meteorological observations for 1856, made in St. Louis. 1: 87, 301 Engler, E. A. Auroral phenomena on the evening of Sept. 12, 1881. 43391-4 Frankenfield, H. C. [Hot and cold waves]. 7 :xIviii Hayes, R. [Hail storm of May 19, 1873]. 38s cvii —— [Tornado of March 30, 1872]. 3s Ixxix McLellan. [Lightning and trees]. 33 cxli McPheeters, W. M. [Lightning effect on tree]. 3:xlv Nipher, F. E. [Differences in anemometer readings]. $8 ¢cclxxii —— [The establishment of a Missouri weather service]. 33 cclxvi —— [Meteorological notes]. 4¢lviii, lix. 5:xxxiv, xxxv, xlii —— Report on magnetic observations in Missouri, summer of 1878. 43;81-101 —— Report on magnetic determinations in Missouri, summer of 1879. 43121-144 Magnetic determinations in Missouri during the summer of 1880. 4 3333-50 —— Magnetic survey of Missouri. Fourth annual report. 4 : 453-80 —— Magnetic survey of Missouri. Fifth annual report. 43 516-34 —— [Rain-gauges and wind]. 53 vi —— Report on Missouri rainfall, with averages for ten years ending December, 1887. 5 : 383-432 (with 9 plates). —— [Storm of February 19th and 20th, 1882]. 43 1xxiii —— Surface integrals in meteorology. 5 3 469-70 —— [Thunderstorms]. 43 xxxvii —— [Topography and magnetic variation]. 43 1xii —— [Velocity of rain fall]. 4:xv —— Winter temperatures. 5; 461-3 — See J. L. R. Wadsworth. Norton, J. B. S. [Effects on trees of tornado of May, 1896]. 73 1xxiii Parry, C. C. On the character of the persistent snow-accumulations in the Rocky mountains, Lat. 40°-41° North, and certain features pertaining to the alpine flora. 2 ; 532-543 Sawyer, A. Onclimatic change in Illinois — its cause. $3 255-260 von Schrenk, H. A severe sleet-storm. 10: 148-50. pl. 10, 71 —— The trees of St. Louis as influenced by the tornado of 1896. 8; 25- 7 41, pl. 3-9 Smith, S. An hypothesis concerning the formation of hail. 1: 297- 300 Wadsworth, J. L. R., and F. E. Nipher. The tornado of April 14, 1879. 43 102-120 (with 3 charts). Wislizenus, A. Atmospheric electricity. 2: 3-16. pl. 7, 3. 115-118, 287- 296. pl. 12,13. 414-416. 8 ¢ 167-172 —— [Lightning and trees]. 33 cxl 252 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. METEOROLOGY, continued. Wislizenus, A., continued. —— [Meteorological notes]. 8:ii, iv, v, vi, vii, viii, x, xv, xvii, xxii, Xxiv, xxxiv, xlvi, xlviii, lxxviii —— Meteorological observations for 1857 made in St. Louis. 1 : 302 —— Meteorological observations made in 1861, in St. Louis, Mo. 2: 16-67. pl. 2 —— Prevailing winds in St. Louis, Mo. 1: 303 —— Yearly report of atmospheric electricity, temperature, and humid- ity, from observations made at St. Louis, Mo. 2 : 526-532 —— Yearly report of atmospheric electricity, temperature, and humid- ity, from observations made at St. Louis, Mo. 3 3; xxxv ——,and G. Engelmann. Meteorological table for 1858, made from observations in St. Louis. 1 3 524-5 — See G. Engelmann. Earthquakes. Hayes, R. Catalogue of earthquakes for 1871. 3: 173-7 — Catalogue of earthquakes for the years 1872-3.8 : 243-5 Nipher, F. E. [Earthquake of November 18, 1878]. 4:xxxv Mineralogy. Broadhead, G. C. [Mineralogy of Cole county, Mo.]. 33 xxxiii —— Occurrence of bitumen in Missouri. 3 ; 224-6 Engelmann, H. Topaz in Utah. 23 114 Gage, J. R. On the occurrence of iron ores in Missouri. 3 : 181-192 Hilgard, E. W. [The existence of gold in the conglomerate of Madison county, Mo.]. 23161 Leonhard, A. V. Notes on the mineralogy of Missouri. 43 440-52 —— On the occurrence of Millerite in Missouri. 4 3 493-5 (with 2 plates). —— [Pseudomorphs]. 4: Ixiii _ Owen, R. [Rock salt, near New Iberia, La.]. 2: 250-252 Sander, E. [Gold at Golden City, Ark.]. 53:v —— [Rock salt from Vermilion bay, La.]. 2: 557 Sharswood, W. [East Bradford Allanite]. 1: 685-6 Shumard, B. F. [Oil springs in Ray and Carroll counties, Mo.]. 2: 263-4 Wheeler, H. A. [Bituminous coal from Lower Silurian]. 4% cxix —— [New locality for Pickeringite]. 4: cxxiv —— Note on an occurrence of blende in lignite. 7 3 123-5 —— Recent additions to the mineralogy of Missouri. 73 126-131 — Meteorites. Broadhead, G. C. [Meteor of December 9, 1875). 33 cciii —— The meteor of December 27, 1875. 8: 349-52 —— [Meteor of January 3, 1877]. 3 scclviii Clark, M. L. [Meteorite near mouth of Osage river]. 12708 Hinrichs, G. [Meteor and meteorites of Forest City, Ia.]. 5:xlv Holmes, N. [Abstract of Haidinger on meteorites]. 2% 176-7 —— [Meteoric iron found in Nebraska]. 13 711-712. pi. 27 Prout, H. A. [Nebraska meteorite]. 2: 150 Shumard, B. F. Notice of meteoric iron from Texas. 1: 622-4 —— [St. Louis meteorite]. 2: 183 Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 258 Morphology. — See Biology. Obituaries. — See Biographic notices. Palaeontology. — See Geology. Philosophy. Wislizenus, A. Thoughts on matter and force. 2: 299-310 Photography. Nipher, F. E. [Electricity and photographic plates]. 7+ lii-liii. 103 lil —— On certain properties of light-struck photographic plates. 103 151- 66. pl. 12-17 —— [Positive photography]. 10: lvii, lxiv —— Positive photography, with special reference to eclipse work. 10: 209-214 [Zero photographic plate]. 10:3 Iviii Physics. Curtman, C. O. [Lightin vacuo]. 3: Ixxv Kads, J. B. [Explanation of rotoscope]. 1: 24-6 Kinealy, J. H. The pressure of the wind on roofs and inclined surfaces. 5 + 837-42 Nipher, F. E. [Air vortices]. 43 xxi ——[A cheap recording instrument for Robinson’s anemometer and the anemonescope]. 33 cclxvi ——— [Determination of Johle’s equivalent]. 6: xxix —— [Determination of latent heat of vaporization]. 6:xvi —— [Determination of the constant for a galvanometer]. 4: lxxvi ——— [Experiments in binocular vision]. 8:3 ccxxiv ——— [Experiments with colored glass]. $3 clxxxvii - —— [Fire-alarm apparatus]. 3: cclx ——— [Formation of vortex in water]. 43 lvii ——The frictional effect of railway trains upon the air. 7: Ixiv. 10: 215-28 ——|[Kapp’s method of prediction for dynamos]. 5: v —— The law of minimum deviation of light by a prism. 7: 133-6 —— A method of measuring the pressure at any point on a structure, due to wind blowing against that structure. 8: 1-24. pl. 1-2. 9 3 xxv. —— On a new form of lecture galvanometer. 3: 287-290 —— On a rotational motion of the cathode disc in the Crookes tube, 7: 181-3 —— On certain problems in refraction. 4 3325-32 —— On gravitation in gaseous nebulae. 93 61-8 —— On the electrical capacity of bodies and the energy of an electrical charge. 7: 109-119 —— On the expression of electrical resistance in terms of a velocity. 43 535-6 On the scale value of the Dellman electrometer used by Dr. A. Wislizenus. 5 3 303-4 | —— [Phenomena of four-phase currents]. 6:3 xxi —— [Reis telephone]. 4: cxxvii —— [Resistance-bridge for air currents]. 7: Ixxii —— [Rifle balls in water]. 5s xix, xx, xxi —— Seddon, J. A. [Intensity of light]. 5: xxxi 254 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Physiography. Engelmann, G. Altitude of Pike’s peak and other points in Colorado Territory. 23 126-133 —— Appendix [to Dr. Parry’s Notice of some additional observations on the physiography of the Rocky mountains]. 2: 282-6 —— Elevation of St. Louis above the Gulf of Mexico. 1 : 663-7 Marbut, C. F.— See A. Winslow. Nipher, F. E. [Map of New Madrid county, Mo]. 43 lxxxv Parry, C. C. Account of the passage through the Great cafion of the Colorado of the West, from above the mouth of Green river to the head of steamboat navigation at Collville, in the months of August and September, 1867, by James White... 2: 499-503 —— Ascent of Pike’s peak, July Ist, 1862. 2; 120-125 —— Notice of some additional observations on the physiography of the Rocky mountains, made during the summer of 1864. 2: 272-282 Sawyer, A. [On the origin of ravines in the prairie]. 3: cxlix Wheeler, O. B. The secondary base in geodetic surveys. 53 21-27. pl. d Winslow, A.,andC. F. Marbut. The mapping of Missouri. 6: 57-99 (with map). Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Engelmann, G. Stage of the Mississippi river at St Louis in 1861. 2: 79-80. pl. 4 — The variations in the stage of the Mississippi river at St. Louis. 2:3420-423 Fay, T. [Stage of Mississippi at Market street]. $8: cixxxvii Holmes, N. [Delta of the Mississippi]. 3:3 cxiv Pratt, G. C. [Stage of the Missouri river]. 4: xvii Scott, C. M. [The formation of the banks of the lower Mississippi]. 43xl ‘ Warren, G. K. [Mississippi river]. 2: 144 Physiology. — See Biology. Sanitation. — See Medicine. Sociology. — See Education. Zoology. — See Biology. oe Ce Po a ae 13 wee ae Fe, - Le ; a eae 1 ty “sat ae ne eo Ss ire. ait oad De le ee te ; Avg he A 5 Dean Gee Ce ee wr ee ee VE ew owe ’ Q Academy of Science of St. Louis Sid § Transactions A3 v.10 Physical & Applied Sci. 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