OF THE U N I VERS ITY . OF ILLINOIS 506 IL v.30-3 1 OAK ST HDSF The person charging this material is re¬ sponsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from the University. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN c> m a m &PR2 0 197*1 SEP 2 9 1980 APR 2 2 1981 m o im BUllDIW i USE ONLY JUL 2 < Lftiff JUL24 v ■■■ . ‘'4\ L161 — 0-1096 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from BHL-SIL-FEDLINK https://archive.org/details/transactions3031illi STATE OF ILLINOIS HENRY HORNER, Governor TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Volume 30 September, 1937 Number 1 Papers Presented in General Session at the Thirtieth Annual Meeting Memoirs Index of Volume 29 Edited by Grace Needham Oliver Department of Registration and Education State Museum Division, Centennial Building SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois PUBLISHED QUARTERLY Entered as second-class matter December 6, 1930, at the post office at Springfield, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, 1912. STATE OF ILLINOIS Henry Horner, Governor Council: DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION John J. Hallihan, Director STATE MUSEUM DIVISION Gilbert Wright, Acting Chief ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Affiliated Division of the State Museum Officers for 1936-37 President , Harold R. Wanless, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois First Vice-President, George D. Fuller, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Second Vice-President, Otis B. Young, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale, Illinois Secretary, Wilbur M. Luce, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Treasurer, Paul D. Voth, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Librarian, Gilbert Wright, State Museum Division, Springfield, Illinois The Junior Academy Representative, Harry L. Adams, Bloomington High School, Bloomington, Illinois Editor, Grace Needham Oliver, State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois The President, First and Second Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Libra¬ rian, last two retiring presidents, and the retiring secretary. Printed November, 1937 (41512) 5 c5\o TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Volume 30 September, 1937 Number 1 CONTENTS PAGE Clarence Lee Furrow, Evolution of Sex in the Mollusca — (Address of the Retiring President) . 5 Don Carroll, The 1937 Flood in Southern Illinois . 13 Memoirs Edwin Oakes Jordan . 21 Edith Muriel Poggi . 23 Fred R. Jelliff . 25 Index to Volume 29 . 27 1 09606 i I I Y1I> LIST OF SPEAKERS A committee designated by the Council of the Academy has prepared a list of speakers who are willing to present talks on various phases of science before interested groups. Unless otherwise indicated, these speakers are willing to give their services for expenses only. In some cases a small honorarium is expected. A copy of this list of speakers may be obtained gratis by sending a request to: W. M. Luce, Secretary , 347 Natural History Bldg., Urbana, Illinois. Evolution of Sex in the Mollusca* Clarence Lee Furrow, Ph. D. Knox College, Galesburg, Illinois IT IS the purpose of this paper to present some of the trends in the more general problem of evolution of sex in certain of the molluscan groups. The author is especially interested in the problems which arise by the interactions which occur when the male and female germ cells take origin and reach their maturity in the same gland, the hermaphro¬ dite gland, or ovotestis, as it is sometimes called. While most of my work has been centered on the gastropods, especially the fresh-water snails where most unusual variations in structure and behavior have been observed, other groups offer many unusual conditions of sexuality. These variations take such trends as deviation in development, structural differences in arrangement of male and female germirfel tissues, alter¬ nation of male phase with female phase in sexual cycles, the presence of the capacity for self-fertilization in some forms, the absence of this function in others, the production of abortive eggs, parthenogenesis and the occurrence of spermic dimorphism. The existence of animals producing both male and female germ cells in a single gland has been known since the early Greeks. These hermaphrodite snails attracted the attention of Aristotle when he observed that members of the group, Testacea, which included the gastropod molluscs, reproduced like plants. In accordance with other Aristotelian explanations it is to be concluded that the young gastro¬ pods spring from the mud and slime of the ponds, lakes and rivers. This concept appears to have existed unchallenged until late in the sixteenth century when Androvandi1 stated that snails reproduce by sexual methods (Baudelot, 1863). The renowned French naturalist, Cuvier (1846), working in the early nineteenth century failed to recog¬ nize the dual nature of the ovotestis and concluded that both Planorbis and Lymnaea, common pond snails, have separate sexes. Both of these forms are hermaphroditic, i.e., they are monoecious or unisexual. ♦Abstract of address of the Retiring President. Presented before the General Session at the Thirtieth Annual meeting of the Illinois Academy of Science, May 7, 1937. Contributed from the Biological Laboratory of Knox College and the Zoologi¬ cal Laboratories of the University of Iowa, aided by a grant from the National Research Council, through the Committee for Research in Problems of Sex; grant administered by Dr. Emil Witschi. [5j 6 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science A study which has held the attention of many workers in biology is that of Carl von Siebold (1837) published a century ago in which the existence of spermic dimorphism was established. Basing his con¬ clusions on observations on the history of the germ cells of Paludina vivipara (Vivipara vivipara) von Siebold showed that two very differ¬ ent kinds of sperm cells are produced in the gonad of this snail. This observer did not suggest the probable significance of these most unusual conditions, and after one hundred years their function is still a matter of uncertain speculation. This early work on the snail Paludina, has led to many classical studies in the fields of embryology and cytology of the gastropods. The functional significance of these aberrant germ cells is a contro¬ versial subject of long standing. While some authors (Brock 1881; Lams 1909; Kuschakewitch 1911; and Gatenby 1917) consider them as abnormalities of development or products of degeneration. Others (R. Hertwig 1905; Reinke 1914; Hyman 1925; Furrow 1935) are impressed with their persistent character and complicated courses of development of some types and conclude that they must have some, at present un¬ known, physiological significance.1 Studies on the development of. the fresh-water snails has offered much of interest to the student of morphology and experimental em¬ bryology. Growing out of this interest have come many concepts bear¬ ing on anatomy, taxonomic relations and physiology. In the field of anatomy the relation of the snail having unisexual characteristics or hermaphroditism, to those possessing bisexual or separate sexes continues to offer a fertile field for study. It is clear from the results of investigations already at hand that in the hermaphrodite snails the male and female genital elements have a common origin, a condition of monoecism is set up which we may designate as unisexual. In such cases of unisexual monoecism a female or (male) animal develops at certain times spermatozoa in the ovary (or eggs in the testis). In consequence of this relationship of germinal elements one or the other sex becomes superfluous and more or less disappears. Special biological conditions accompany these phe¬ nomena. Under the classification of unisexual monoecism two general¬ ized genital patterns exist in these hermaphrodite snails. Using the structural relations of the male and female germinal elements as a basis of separation one may define one of these genital patterns as unsegregated. In this type the sex cells are not anatomically or histologically separated or restricted to a male zone or female zone in the ovotestis. The second pattern may be called segregated, because of the strict separation of the male germ cells from the female germ cells in the hermaphrodite gland. The ovotestis of the unsegregated type is composed of a series of compartments or cysts which give the gonad the appearance of a com¬ pound acinus gland. The cysts containing both the male and female Furrow — Sex in the Mollusca 7 cells join a common outlet, the hermaphrodite duct which serves as both a sperma duct and an oviduct. This condition of sexuality exists in Helix , Physa, Lymnaea, Planorbis, and Polygyra. While these forms are true hermaphrodites their reproductive cycles appear to be quite definitely divided functionally into a male phase during which the animal discharges spermatozoa, and later, into a female phase during which eggs are deposited. Referring to the structure of the ovotestis of these forms, while the male and female tissues are not anatomically segregated, the developmental processes of the male germ cells are separated from the female germ cells by a functional factor, a time interval. The duration of this time interval appears to vary con¬ siderably, and at times under certain experimental conditions, it may be shortened almost to the extent of complete elimination. Some evidence has been obtained to show the probable significance of this fluctuation in the extent of this time interval which' occurs between the.male phase and the female phase. If individuals of Planorbis are reared in mass cultures reproduction occurs regularly by cross fertil¬ ization. If however, individuals are segregated at the time of hatching and permitted to live in strict isolation the snails in such cultures will upon reaching sexual maturity reproduce by using the method of self- fertilization. In the latter case the time factor (or interval) which separated the normal functional phases has become reduced to such an extent as to allow the eggs to reach maturity about the same time that the sperm cells complete their course of development. In another pond snail, Lymnaea , similar conditions exist. Colton (1921) preventing cross breeding by isolation for forty-seven generations found that only temporary alteration in the sexual cycle occurs. The nature and cause of these changes in sexual cycles in Planorbis and Lymnaea are not defi¬ nitely known. In a marine gastropod, Crepidula plana , an unusual condition of sexuality exists. Crepidula is hermaphroditic, but completely protan- dric, i.e., the male and female phases are completely separated in time. The male phase develops first. This phase is then normally followed by a period of transition in which the animal exhibits characteristics of both sexes, a condition of hermaphroditism. Toward the close of the life-span the animal becomes completely transformed into a female. Under experimental conditions if the male is removed from the vicinity of the larger individual the male genital organs degenerate, and after a brief period of sexual activity the animal becomes female. The nature of the stimulus exerted by the larger individual has not been ascertained. The fresh-water prosobranchiate gastropod, Valvata tricarinata (fig. 1), illustrates the second or segregated type of sex differentiation. Here a sex condition exists in which the animal is definitely a Protandric Hermaphrodite. The snail is first male in function and after a brief transformation period or sex reversal the animal takes on the function of a female. 8 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Fig. 1 ■ — A young Yalvata at the beginning of the first sexual cycle. Age 135 days. (X 17). Fig. 2. — Photomicrograph of a longitudinal section of the ovotestis of a young individual. The segregation of the male and female zones is shown. Fur now — Sex in the Mollusca 9 Unlike Crepidula the development of the female phase is in a manner contingent upon the influence of older individuals. The young Yalvatas develop normally whether they are reared m mass cultures or in strict isolation. In Yalvata, as in Planorbis, the male and female germ cells differentiate early in development of the animals and follow independent courses. In Yalvata, however, the male tissues are com¬ pletely separated, anatomically, from the female elements (fig. 2), rep¬ resenting a condition of gonad structure which does not exist in the other forms already mentioned. This separation of germinal elements is accomplished early m embryonic development by the segregation of the germ cells into the female zone which occupies the cortex of the gonad, and by a similar segregation of the male germ cells into the acini which compose the medullary or central region of the ovotestis. This arrangement of em¬ bryonic male and female tissues which has been reported recently m two classes of mollusca, certain snails, and the eastern oyster, is also found in certain vertebrates, particularly some amphibians. The latter forms include an indifferent or hermaphrodite stage in their gonadal differentiation. . . This phenomena of segregation of reproductive tissues m snails is of further interest because of the relation of the structural condition to the functional behavior of these male and female tissues. In some forms, the protandric hermaphrodites, this relationship determines the order of sexuality, i.e., the animal is first male because of the position of the male germ cells with respect to the hermaphrodite duct. Follow¬ ing the discharge of the spermatozoa, a brief transition period follows during which complete reversal occurs, and the snail assumes female characteristics. The female germ cells (fig. 3) migrate from the corti¬ cal region through the medullary zone to reach the hermaphrodite duct. Since both sex cells utilize the hermaphrodite duct the question of self- fertilization arises. The functional stability of the separation of these two tissues in Yalvata has been tested repeatedly by attempts at self-fertilization. Over sixty animals have been reared in strict isolation by segregating the young as they emerge from the egg-capsules. These segregated snails did not reproduce. This fact is construed as further evidence Fig. 3.— A photomicrograph of a cross-section of the ovotestis at the beginning of the male phase. LEGEND Cz — cortical zone (female) Mz — medullary zone (male) Hd — hermaphrodite duct Fgc — female germ cells Mgc — male germ cells Mo — mature egg cell Oc — young ovocyte Ac — acinus containing mature sper¬ matozoa and developing sper¬ matocytes 10 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science supporting the idea of stability of separation of the germinal elements in this form, a condition which is in harmony with the independence of the transition phase (time factor). The alternation of the sexual phases (fig. 4) continues throughout the life span of Valvata tricarinata. While these male and female elements are separated, their activity in the hermaphrodite gland is productive of other complications which alter the course of development of some of the germ cells,. both male and female. These’ deviations take the forms of abnormal development in the maturation of the male germ cells, a course which ends in the pro¬ duction of atypical spermatozoa. These cells vary in development, cytological structure, and behavior from the typical or normal male germ cells. In studies on two European species of fresh-water snails, Valvata piscinalis, and Valvata cristata , another complication to the problem has been added. Valvata 'piscinalis, the Bavarian species, has a perfectly normal spermatogenesis and consequently does not produce abnormal spermatozoa. The Italian form, Valvata cristata , on the other hand, shows a strong tendency toward abnormality and produces regu¬ larly both normal and atypical spermatozoa. The American species, Valvata tricarinata, shows even stronger tendencies toward increasing abnormality by producing four types, one normal type and three atypical sperm forms. On the basis of origin the atypical cells may be classified as variations of one general type, thus maintaining strict spermic di¬ morphism. A fourth species, Valvata japonica, has been examined and the existence of atypical spermatogenesis noted, but information neces¬ sary to complete the classification of this form is at present lacking. These fresh-water snails present an interesting series with respect to the degree of development of this increasing abnormality and may be placed in order on the basis of the degree of deviation from the normal condition. Valvata piscinalis would be placed first, Valvata cristata, second, and Valvata tricarinata third. The position of the Japanese species in this series is at present undetermined. These complications in the germ cell cycle of these animals have been made even more significant by the recent discovery of the existence of a case (Artom 1933) of abortive ovogenesis or atypical development of the female germ cells in Valvata piscinalis. Here cells which appear in the male germinal epithelium assume the characteristics of the female germ cells. Continued growth and differentiation of these cells results in the production of egg-like cells which may be designated as pseudo¬ ova. There is further interest in this phase of 'the problem because of the apparent, at least in this case, parallel evolution of this abnormal tendency in both the male and female lines of germ plasm in this group. While this problem takes the form of almost uncompromising con¬ troversy some particularly definite trends should be pointed out. ( 1 ) From both physiological and morphological evidence some investigations show that atypical spermatozoa are rudimentary eggs. Sexual Cycle of Valvata tricanna+a Furrow — Sex in the Mollusca 11 Fig. 4. — A diagram to illustrate the phase history of the hermaphrodite gland during the male and female stages of the sexual cycle of Valvata tricarinata. 12 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2) A possibility of the atypical spermatozoa possessing the ca¬ pacity for fertilization has been suggested. In this light such conditions would represent a stage intermediate between parthenogenesis and true fertilization. (3) The more recent investigations suggest that these atypical germ cells are entirely without function, and that this abnormal con¬ dition arises as a result of the interaction between these two widely differing germinal tissues. The studies on Valvata tricarinata show that the fate of these abnormal germ cells is complete degeneration. (4) Finally, it is clear that in certain hermaphrodite snails where the male and female elements appear functionally separated, the sexual cycle may be altered by forced changes in sexual behavior. And, it has been shown that in certain hermaphrodite snails, where the male and female tissues are separated not only in function, but also in structural arrangement, the functional cycle is in no manner altered by forced changes in sexual behavior. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1For reviews of the literature and bibliography the reader is referred to the following recent publications on this problem: Ankel, W. E., 1930 — Die stypische Spermatogenese von Janthina (Prosobranchia, Ptenoglossa) . Zeit. f. Zellforsch. 11. Tuzet, O., 1930 — Recherches sur la spermatogenese des Proso- branches. Arch, de Zoologie Experimentale. 70. Furrow, C. L., 1935 — Development of the hermaphrodite genital organs of Valvata tricarinata. Zeit. f. Zellforsch. 22. The 1937 Flood in Southern Illinois Don L. Carroll Illinois State Geological Survey, JJrloana, Illinois The great flood which swept down the Ohio Valley during late January and early February, 1937, brought home to the entire nation a realization of the value of engineering data applicable to the situa¬ tion. This paper stresses in particular the demonstrated usefulness of topographic maps which were available, covering the entire area of southern Illinois that was involved in the disaster. The need for a detailed map of the Illinois flood area was apparent as soon as it became evident that the water would reach an unprecedented height. It was likewise apparent that such a map could be prepared most quickly and accurately by the use of standard quadrangle topographic maps as a base for plotting the extent of the inundation throughout the region. Fortunately, all the necessary maps were at hand, having been prepared over a period of some thirty years as a cooperative project of the Illi¬ nois State Geological Survey and the U. S. Geological Survey. Repre¬ senting three-dimensional portrayal of land relief and the works of man, these maps supplied, on a scale of one inch to the mile, a perfect base on which to plot the flood coverage. Measurements and observa¬ tions made at selected points, together with logical interpolations of the situation at other points, gave the data needed for superimposing on the topographic base an almost photographic reproduction of the flooded region. The composite map totalled eight by six feet in size. Data shown on the map.- — The map shows not only the extent of the flood in southern Illinois, but also the depths of the water throughout the flooded areas. Furthermore, it shows the mileages of flooded roads and railroads, the location and configuration of high points isolated by the flood, and most of the houses and other buildings invaded by the water. Reference to the map shows that at least 1200 square miles of land in Illinois alone were covered by the flood waters. This land represents, for the most part, the most fertile farming areas of that part of the State. The losses in stock, equipment, buildings and furnishings can hardly be calculated. In addition, at least 43 cities and towns were directly involved in the disaster in the same area. More than 125 miles of railroad right-of-way was also under water before the crest of the flood was reached. 14 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Several mines in the famous Harrisburg coal mining region were flooded, either through the shafts or by percolation through their roofs. Flooding of any coal mine is a serious matter, often necessitating its abandonment; and it is feared that some of these mines may never be reopened. The locations of most of these mines are shown on the map. The full size map is on display in the offices of the State Geological Survey in Urbana, and is available for examination by any one in¬ terested in securing data that may be shown on it. Procedure. — The original map of the flood was made for reference use at Illinois National Guard Flood Headquarters at Eldorado. It was plotted from data secured at various points along and within the margins of the flooded area, observation trips being made by automobile, boat and airplane. So far as possible, the mapping was done by noting the relation of the flood to points of known elevation. In other cases the water line was sketched with reference to topographic features, houses, known mileage of flooded roads, et cetera. It was also neces¬ sary, in order to prepare a working map as soon as possible, to inter¬ polate the elevation of the flood stage between points of known eleva¬ tion. In spite of the necessity for haste, in quickly preparing a map for emergency use, later checking of the map proved the soundness of the methods employed in its preparation. Following the completion of the field map for headquarters use, similar maps were made in the offices of the State Geological Survey, at Urbana, for use in the offices of Governor Horner, at Springfield, and for permanent reference use in the Geological Survey technical files. With more time and better facilities available for the prepara¬ tion of these latter copies, more care was taken in their drafting. Causes of the flood. — Examination of the flood map reveals many surprising facts — facts that at first glance may appear to be founded on faulty observations. With this situation in mind it seems advisable to include in this report a summary presentation of the factors involved in causing the flood, as it was expressed in the lowland areas of southern Illinois. With these factors outlined in proper relation to each other, seemingly unbelievable situations in regard to the flood become under¬ standable. Abnormal rainfall. — Over a large area drained by the lower reaches of the Ohio a moderately heavy snowfall took place during the period immediately preceding that of the flood. Followed by warmer weather with rain and thawing, great quantities of water were dumped into numerous tributary streams which normally disgorge into the Ohio without difficulty, but which on this occasion found their outlets blocked by high water in the major valley. For the most part, however, the flood in the Ohio Valley proper resulted from the unchecked runoff of a record rainfall over a much greater area, including all or considerable portions of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee. In these Carroll — Illinois Flood of 1937 15 states the ground was already well saturated with water as a result of the unseasonable and frequent rains of December. When, during the last three weeks of- January, the entire region was again sub¬ jected to still heavier rainfall, the situation became serious. The already saturated soil could not retain this new supply of water. Furthermore, prevailing temperatures, far above the freezing point, allowed the run¬ off to take place unchecked. Figures secured from the U. S. Weather Bureau show that throughout the region in question from two up to more than sixteen inches of rainfall were recorded in the period from January 6 to January 26. More significant still is the fact that the heaviest precipitation was recorded in the areas immediately adjacent to the Ohio River, on both sides of the valley. The total rainfall for the three-weeks period was equal to more than a third of the annual average, over an area of many thousands of square miles. Examination of the weather maps for the month of January, 1937, reveals the explanation for this long spell of rainy weather. The maps show that throughout most of the month high pressure areas persisted over the lower Atlantic coast and over the north central states. Between these two highs a low pressure trough stretched from Texas to Pennsyl¬ vania, thus allowing warm, moisture-laden air from the Gulf of Mexico to spred northeastward, where it came in contact with the colder high pressure atmosphere, thus causing the almost continuous precipitation. The twenty-day storm is estimated to have been fifty per cent greater than that of March, 1913, which resulted in the disastrous flood of that year. Backwater flooding. — The flood map of southern Illinois shows an extensive area under water in Saline, Gallatin and White counties, covering the alluvial flats in the lower valleys of the Wabash, Saline and Little Wabash drainage systems. Inasmuch as the water flooded this region at elevations up to twenty feet higher than in the nearby Ohio Valley it must be immediately evident that this particular area was not inundated by water overflowing from the main river. The only possible explanation for this apparently anomalous situation is that the minor streams named above, having their outlets blocked by the flood in the Ohio, impounded their waters in their own valleys. These smaller streams, already swollen by excessive runoff, rapidly flooded the large areas of bottom land through which they normally flowed, while still maintaining a flow gradient of from two to six inches per mile. This situation was undoubtedly responsible for the plight of Harrisburg, Equality, Omaha, Texas City, and a number of other smaller towns, none of which would have been flooded directly by overflow from the Ohio. Measurements made on January 27, in the vicinity of Harris¬ burg, showed the water to be rising at the rate of % of an inch per hour, indicating how quickly these ponded waters were accumulated. Reoccupation of ancient Ohio Valley. — One of the most striking features of the flood in southern Illinois was the reoccupation of a 16 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science stretch of the Ohio Valley which has been abandoned for many thousands of years. This ancient valley was cut through the hills of Pope, Massac, Pulaski and Alexander counties, extending from a point about four and a half miles downstream from the present town of Golconda, in a westerly direction, to where it joined the Mississippi about eight miles northwest of Cairo. This old valley, generally referred to as “the Cache River Basin,” is some fifty miles in length, and is from two to five miles in width, broadening to the westward in the direc¬ tion of flow. It exhibits a slope of approximately five inches per mile along its floor, which throughout its extent maintains an elevation some forty feet higher than the normal water level elevation in the present valley of the Ohio, a few miles to the south. Between the old and new valleys lies an isolated ridge of the Illi¬ nois Ozark Uplands, rising nearly three hundred feet above the low¬ lands that surround it, and varying in width from two to twelve miles. Although it is commonly known that the Cache River Basin was once a part of the main Ohio Valley, the details of its history are more or less obscure, inasmuch as no careful investigation has yet been made of the sequence of events involved in that history. The main facts are more or less evident, however, and can be supported by logic. It is probable that the Ohio flowed through the old valley until some time near the close of the Great Ice Age (Pleistocene Time). With the melting of the ice sheets that had covered the Great Lakes region, tremendous quantities of water poured into the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, bringing about annual floods of amazing volume and duration, often filling the valleys entirely. With the waters overflowing the valley walls themselves, changes in stream configurations were inevitable. Study of the topographic maps of southern Illinois suggests a plausible explanation of the situation which led to the abandonment of the old valley there. To begin with, we may assume that super-floods were probably coincident in both the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, near the close of the Great Ice Age. A Mississippi flood equal to or greater than one in the Ohio Valley would have caused a damming of the latter, with overflow into adjacent areas through low points in the valley walls, provided that a sufficiently high flood stage was attained. At the point near Golconda, where the old and new valleys branch apart, a narrow divide formerly existed between a right angle curve of the Ohio and what was probably a northward-trending valley tributary to the Cumberland River. During one of the glacial super-floods the Ohio waters undoubtedly overflowed at that locality, and in time lowered the divide below the elevation of the main valley at the curve. The Ohio thus took over the lower valleys of the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers, abandoning its former outlet to the Mississippi. Since that time numerous floods have probably caused overflow waters from either the Mississippi or Ohio, or both, to reoccupy the old Carroll — Illinois Flood of 1937 17 valley trench; each flood depositing a layer of silt and silty clay on the old valley floor, gradually building up a considerable fill. In the meantime, erosion has deepened the present main valley to some ex¬ tent, so that now there is a considerable difference in elevation between the two. The floor of the old valley, for instance, has an elevation of approximately 340 feet above sea level, at its upstream end. The present river flows past this point at an elevation of about 295 feet, making a difference of 45 feet. The recent flood, which attained a stage of a few inches less than sixty feet, thus caused the inundation of the old valley to depths up to fifteen feet, and even more, where erosion by the small streams now draining the old valley has lowered the general level of the flat. The accompanying map shows clearly how the ancient stream bed was reoccupied by the flood waters of 1937. A number of towns are located within the old valley trench, namely : Tansill, Brownfield, Reevesville, McNoel, Mermet, Belknap, Karnak, Perks, Ullin, Pulaski, Tamms, Sandusky, Unity, and Olive Branch. All of these towns were flooded, either wholly or to a considerable ex¬ tent, in addition to the many farms located along the Cache River Basin. The resulting distress constituted a real disaster; but if the flood waters had not been allowed to occupy this basin (that is, if levees had been built to close off the valley entrance) the flood crest 18 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Scienee would certainly have been considerably higher in the present valley, and in the towns and cities situated on its banks. Metropolis, Paducah and ' Smithland, for instance, would have been in a much more serious plight and it is probable that the city of Cairo would have been completely wiped out. This is a point to be considered in planning future flood control measures for the region under discussion. It is evident that the plan of the flood control project begun in 1928, and virtually completed at the time of the 1937 flood, will need to be revamped to some extent. The project was carried through on the as¬ sumption that no flood would exceed a theoretical “super flood” having a flow of 2,400,000 second feet at the confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, at Cairo. It is estimated that approximately that amount of water was discharged from the Ohio alone during the recent flood. If the Mississippi had likewise been in a flooded condition, the theoreti¬ cal “super flood” would have been greatly exceeded in actuality. Memoirs 19 Memoirs 20 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Edwin Oakes Jordan Memoirs 21 EDWIN OAKES JORDAN 1866-1936 Edwin Oakes Jordan, whose death on September 2, 1936 removed a dis¬ tinguished member of the early generation of American bacteriologists, was born in Thomaston, Maine, on July 28, 1866, the son of J. L. and E. D. (Bugbee) Jordan. On June 16, 1893 he married Elsie Fay Pratt, who sur¬ vives him with their three children, Henry Donaldson, Edwin Pratt and Lucia Elisabeth Dunham. Dr. Jordan took his bachelor’s degree at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1888. His teacher there, William T. Sedgwick, had a pro¬ found influence upon the direction of his career and interests toward public health work. After working with Sedgwick from 1888 to 1890 on the staff of the Massachusetts State Board of Health during the period of Sedgwick’s famous work on sanitary bacteriology, Dr. Jordan worked as a fellow under Charles O. Whitman at Clark University, where he was given the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1892. The honorary degree of Doctor of Science was given him at Cincinnati in 1920. In 1892 Dr. Jordan joined the faculty of the newly formed University of Chicago as Associate in Anatomy, becoming Instructor the following year. In 1895 he became Assistant Professor of Bacteriology, and later Associate Professor, Professor and Chairman of the Department of Bacterio¬ logy. He continued in this capacity until 1933 when he retired from administrative work of the department with the title of Andrew MacLeish Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus of Bacteriology. Dr. Jordan had that unusual vision which is the mark of the distin¬ guished scientist, the ability to correlate his scientific discoveries with a perception of their trend and significance and their possibilities of practical application. This explains much of the breadth of interest of his publica¬ tions. From water purification, sewage disposal, pasteurization of milk and the bacteriology of typhoid fever, all the outcome of his association with Sedgwick, he proceeded to work on influenza, intestinal bacteria, para¬ typhoid bacilli and food poisoning and bacterial variation. To the last his mind was continually busy with future experiments and papers which he was planning. His knowledge of the literature was an important factor in the value of his work as he was able to give almost exact references without consulting files and had on occasion gone directly to an insignificant but decisive article to clear up a point for a colleague in that colleague’s particular field. His writings were extensive, numbering 176 separate publications, among them his books on Epidemic Influenza, Food Poisoning and Food- Borne Infection, and his General Bacteriology, which is in its eleventh edition. Aside from its scientific value his writing merits high rating for its precision of expression, as he took the utmost pains in revision to in¬ sure clarity, exactness and style. He was joint editor of the Journal of Infectious Diseases, editor of the Journal of Preventive Medicine during its existence and then editor of the epidemiological section of the American Journal of Hygiene. A great deal of Dr. Jordan’s time and strength was given to activities and administration of scientific organizations. He was interested in local public health problems and presented valuable testimony for the Sanitary District of Chicago during the controversy over the pollution of the Illinois River by the Chicago drainage canal. He served as trustee of the John 22 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science McCormick Institute for Infectious Diseases, president of the Chicago Pathological Society in 1906 and of the Institute of Medicine of Chicago in 1932, He was a life member of the Illinois State Academy of Science and was a member of the Chicago Board of Health up to within a year of his death. He was one of the founders of the Society of American Bacterio¬ logists and the Epidemiological Society. He was a member of the American Public Health Association, which awarded him the Sedgwick Memorial Medal, an honor which he particularly appreciated because of his associa¬ tion with Sedgwick. The Medical Fellowship Board of the National Re¬ search Council, the International Health Board of the Rockefeller Founda¬ tion and the Board of Scientific Directors of the International Health Division, and the Council on Foods of the American Medical Association, on which he was specialist on food poisoning, are among the many or¬ ganizations to which he gave valuable service. The final honor of Dr. Jordan's career was his election to the National Academy of Sciences, which came just before his last illness and was a source of cheer to him during that time. With his death science has lost a distinguished thinker and his associates have lost a friend who, unknown to them for the most part, was constantly trying to open to them better opportunities. S. A. Koser Memoirs 23 EDITH MURIEL POGGI 1886-1937 Edith Muriel Poggi was born in Liverpool, England, in October, 1886 of English-Italian parentage. Her father was a friend of the famous Italian liberator. Garibaldi. Much of her education, as well as her early teaching experience was obtained in English schools. She graduated from The Teacher’s Training College, Liverpool in 1905, and received the University of London Academic Diploma in Geography in 1921, with mark of Distinction for Thesis pre¬ sented. This was followed by two years of graduate work at the London School of Economics; University College, London University, and at the University of Oxford. Busy as these years were she found time for extended study in Switzer¬ land, Italy, Belgium and France. Here her knowledge of history, art and geography, as well as familiarity with the languages, enabled her to supple¬ ment her college training with an intimate first hand understanding of western European peoples and their problems. During the World War she was associated with the British War Office as cartographer, doing detailed mapping of the Verdun Sector. For ten years, 1914-1924, she was in charge of the Geography Depart¬ ment of the Camden School, London, coming to California in September of the latter year. Here at Pasadena, she taught part time, in the West- ridge Preparatory School, gave public lectures and travelled extensively in both the United States and Canada. 24 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Coming to Illinois as part-time assistant in Geography in 1926, she took her M.A. there in 1928; her Ph.D. in 1930. She was an active member of The National Council of Geography Teachers, the Royal Geographical Society, Sigma Xi, and the Illinois State Academy of Science. The number and variety of her contributions attests her interests. Some of them are listed below: “The Red Land of Gwent in Eastern Monmouthshire.” Economic Geography. Vol. 4. No. 1. January 1928. “Coal Mining Methods in Illinois.” Geography. Yol. 14. Summer No. 1928. “The Mineral Deposits of Upper Silesia.” American Geographical Review. Yol. 18. No. 2. April 1928. “A Brief Outline of the British Woolen Industry.” Journal of Home Economics. Vol. 20. No. 11. November 1928. “The German Sugar Beet Industry.” Economic Geography. Vol. 6. No. 1. January 1930. “The Forest of Dean Coalfield in Gloucestershire.” Economic Geo¬ graphy. Vol. 6. No. 3. July 1930. “Devonshire: A Study in Rural Geography.” Bulletin of the Phil¬ adelphia Geographical Society. Vol. 28. No. 23. July 1930. “Mineral Raw Materials,” published by U.S.D.C. A Review. Ameri¬ can Geographical Review. Vol. 20. No. 2. April 1930. “The Geographic Regions of Illinois.” University of Illinois Bulletin. Vol. 28! No. 16. December 1930. High School Conference Issue. “Settlement and Development of the Prairie Province of Illinois.” 1931. “Prairie Province of Illinois. A Study of Human Adjustment of the Natural Environment.” 1933. “Decatur, Illinois. Study in Urban Geography.” 1934. Always a tireless worker, she contributed all too generously of her time and strength to her teaching and research. Her body, always frail, began to show signs of giving way under the strain and her later years were marred by long periods of hospitalization. Few knew of her intense suffer¬ ings for she always maintained a cheerful optimism. Death brought relief to her suffering April 13, 1937, at a Sanitarium in New Jersey where she had spent much of the last year. A born teacher, she loved her work, and her energy and enthusiasm were contagious. She possessed to an extraordinary degree the rare gift of making and keeping friends. A better example of the triumph of the spirit over the flesh would be difficult to find. Her best monument is in being remembered vividly by a host of friends who were privileged to enjoy her comradeship. W. O. Blanchard Memoirs 25 FRED R. JELLIFF President of the Illinois State Academy of Science, 1931 1854-1936 Frederick Reuben Jelliff, one of the best known newspaper editors of the middle-west, died in his home city after a brief illness September 17, 1936. He was born in Whitesboro, New York, September 25, 1854. He is survived by his wife, Lillie C. Bassler Jelliff. Mr. Jelliff was of sterling Christian character, a gentleman and a loyal citizen of his city, state and country. He was endowed with many talents all of which were developed and used effectively in the program of his life service. Fred Jelliff as a young man left the state of New York and The Whites¬ boro community which had been the home site of the original founders of the Galesburg colony and came to live in the stimulating atmosphere of those sturdy pioneers. In that new prairie community he attended school and college. Mr. Jelliff was the Valedictorian of the class of 1878 of Knox College. After graduation he became a teacher in the Galesburg High School for three years and then he entered the field of journalism. Although journalism claimed fifty-five years of his life Mr. Jelliff never ceased being an excellent teacher, exemplary, as well as an active leader. In 1881 he joined the staff of the Galesburg Republican-Register serving first as reporter, then as city editor, and later as editor, a position which 26 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science he held at the time of his death. His able editorship, sincerity of purpose and clear thinking combined with abundant service stand as a lasting tribute to his life. Mr. Jelliff loved to write. His pen contributed to many departments of his paper. He wrote on many subjects dealing with exploration, geology, industry, stream pollution, botany, conservation, history, and comments on the topics of the day. He was an authority on certain phases of economic geology. All through life he was a lover and student of Nature. His vacation periods, the week-ends, were not merely rest periods; on the contrary these intermissions served as opportunities to broaden his experience and to ex¬ pand his knowledge of Nature. Week-ends in fair weather found Mr. Jelliff in the “strip pits” or in the region of the mines searching for specimens of significant geologic interest. He made occasional trips to observe the latest improvement in public water supply or to learn of the most recent method of sewage treatment. He frequently spoke of these afternoon trips as “geologizing expeditions”. He was familiar with all of the coal-bearing strata of the Illinois coal fields. Mr. Jelliff not only energetically pursued geology as a hobby, but for a time served as special lecturer in Geology at Knox College. His specimens have supplemented many museum collections, and the Hurd Museum of Knox College has been enlarged through numerous gifts of his fossil and other geologic material. Mr. Jelliff was a charter member of the Illinois State Academy of Science and from its beginning was a loyal and energetic supporter of its objectives. He served as its president in 1931; he was active in the work of many of its committees; he read many papers before its sessions; he contributed many articles to its journal. In addition to his work in the State Academy of Science Mr. Jelliff found time for activity in many local organizations. He was one of the founders of the Knox County Academy of Science. Mr. Jelliff was also an honorary member of the Peoria Academy of Science His service reached beyond his home community. For many years Mr. Jelliff was a member of the board of trustees of the Western Illinois State Teachers College. His energies found expression in many civic and humani¬ tarian enterprises over the state. Mr. Jelliff had no time for the trivialities or unworthy pleasures, he had no expensive habits. He lived a simple life. He was a liberal giver, not only in the material things, but in the spiritual as well. His true worth was shown in his wide tolerance for the opinions and beliefs of others. His charming personality, gentle voice, kindly smile, and friendly greeting can not be recorded in the printed word. Clarence Lee Furrow STATE OF ILLINOIS HENRY HORNER, Governor TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Volume 30 December, 1937 Number 2 Papers Presented in the Thirtieth Annual Meeting, Rockford, Illinois, May 7 and 8, 1937 Edited by Grace Needham Oliver Department of Registration and Education State Museum Division, Centennial Building SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois PUBLISHED QUARTERLY Entered as second-class matter December 6, 1930, at the post office at Springfield, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, 1912. STATE OF ILLINOIS Henry Horner, Governor Council: DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION John J. Hallihan, Director STATE MUSEUM DIVISION Thorne Deuel, Chief ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Affiliated Division of the State Museum Officers for 1937-38 President, Harold R. Wanless, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois First Vice-President, George D. Fuller, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Second Vice-President, Otis B. Young, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale, Illinois Secretary, Wilbur M. Luce, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Treasurer, Paul D. Voth, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Librarian, Thorne Deuel, State Museum Division, Springfield, Illinois The Junior Academy Representative, Harry L. Adams, Bloomington High School, Bloomington, Illinois Editor, Grace Needham Oliver, State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois The President, First and Second Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Libra¬ rian, last two retiring presidents, and the retiring secretary. Printed March, 1938 (50958) TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Volume 30 December, 1937 Number 2 CONTENTS PAPERS IN AGRICULTURE PAGE Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman . 41 Arndt, Paul, Evening Schools for Adult Farmers . 43 Davenport, Eugene, The Art and the Science of Agriculture . . . 45 Douglass, T. J., Comparative Productiveness of Some Twelve Varieties of Tomatoes on Fertile Prairie Soils . 48 Dowell, W. H., Tazewell County Industries as a Market for Farm Products . 51 Dungan, G. H., The Rise of Hybrid Corn . 54 Hastings, L., Experimental Test with Vegetable Soybeans . 56 Hudelson, C. W., Pasture Demonstration Studies . 58 Lamoureux, R. E., The Part Time School and the Community . . 61 Lindstrom, D. E., Natural Increase in the Population, Rural and Urban, in Illinois, 1930 . Oathout, C. H., Agriculture for All Rural Schools . 65 Slothower, L. V., Some Proposed Curriculum Changes in Vocational Agriculture . 67 Snider, H. J., The Influence of the Chemical Composition of Soils Upon the Maintenance of the Turf on Lawns and Golf Courses . 69 Weiss, J. N., Adult Education in Agriculture . 71 PAPERS IN ANTHROPOLOGY From the Report of the Section Chairman . 75 Barloga, F. L., Artifacts Typical to Winnebago County . 77 Hudelson, C. W., Stone Artifacts of North American Indians . 79 Wray, Donald E., A Red Ochre Mound in Fulton County . 82 King, B. B., Recent Excavations at King Mounds, Wickliffe, Kentucky . . 83 Knight, Kenneth L., An Archaeological Reconnaissance in Southern Kentucky . 91 Knoblock, Byron W., Ornamental Uses of the So-called Banner Stones. . 93 Simpson, A. M., Various Types of Kingston Site Burials . 95 Stone, Claude U., Monolithic Axes . 97 PAPERS IN BOTANY From the Report of the Section Chairman . 101 Boewe, G. H., Tiny Toadstools on Crop Plants in Illinois . 103 Brian, C. E. and Stover, E. L., Regions of Growth in Hypocotyls . 105 Carlson, Margery, Elementary Botany at Northwestern University . 107 Edgecombe, A. E., A Comparative Study of Certain Fungi . 108 Easter, Sister Claretta, Botany in a Small High School with Access to the Country . HI Fuller, H. J. and Hanley, J. H., Effects of Heat and Cold on Enzymic Activity in Bulbs and Corms . 113 Fuller, H. J., Elementary Botany at the University of Illinois . 115 [37] 38 Contents PAGE Hague, Stella M., Illinois Liverworts . 118 Job, Thesle T., Medical Students’ Background in Biology . 125 Lamkey, E. M. R., A New Method for the Quantitative Measurement of Gases . 127 Leedy, J. W., Botany in the Program for a Summer Camp . 129 Marks, Ica, Germination of Pollen Grains for Class Use . 131 Mauntel, Harry, Forest Conservation in the Ohio Valley . 133 Montgomery, C. E., Testing for Organizing Ability in Biology . 136 Voss, John, Forests of the Yarmouth and Sangamon Interglacial Periods 138 Schopf, James M., Two New Lycopod Seeds From the Illinois Pennsyl¬ vanian . 139 Tehon, Leo, Preservation of Fungi in Ancient Wood . 147 Willoughby, Mildred, Chromosome Numbers of Amaranthaceae . 150 Thut, H. F., Humidity Variations Affecting Transpiration . 153 Therese, Sister Mary, Teaching of General Botany in Liberal Arts Col¬ leges for Women . 155 Voth, Paul D., Spore Germination and Thallus Development in Porella. 158 White, Elizabeth, Nature Education in Parks . 160 PAPERS IN CHEMISTRY From the Report of the Section Chairman . 163 • Bradley, W. F., The Place of X-Ray Diffraction in Clay Mineralogy.... 165 Cheronis, N. D., Pyrethrum Growth in Illinois . 167 Elmslie, W. P., and Bunting, W. R., An Albino Rat Demonstration of Mineral and Vitamin Deficiencies in a Common Human Diet . 177 Finger, G. C., and Reed, F. H., Synthetic Cryolite . 180 Grotts, Paul, Properties of Heated Coal . 183 Keyes, D. B., Fractional Distillation . 185 Klein, O. C., and Copley, M. J., A New Method for Starting Thermite Reactions . 189 McVicker, L. D., Methods for Determining Fluorine . 190 Thiessen, G. W., Demonstrations of Electrolysis by Optical Projection. . 192 Tooley, F. V., Silicate and Related Systems Involving Chemical Com¬ ponents of Illinois Sedimentary Rocks . 194 Ward, Lyle K., and Bennett, C. W., Chemiluminescence-Oxidation of Pyrogallic Acid . 198 PAPERS IN GEOGRAPHY From the Report of the Section Chairman . 199 Barton, Thomas F., Reforestation in Southern Illinois . 201 Bonnell, Clarence, An Inland Inundation . 206 Crist, Raymond E., Land Tenure in the Llanos of Venezuela . 208 Haas, W. H., Major Elements in the Geography of Puerto Rico . 209 Odell, C. B., Colfax — A Corn Belt Village Trading Center . 213 Paterson, J. E., The Geography of Strathallan, Scotland . 215 PAPERS IN GEOLOGY From the Report of the Section Chairman . 217 Ball, J. R., Physiography and Surficial Geology of the Carlinville Quad¬ rangle . 219 Contents 39 PAGE Caldwell, L. T„ Stratigraphy and Pre-glacial Topography of the DeKalb and Sycamore Quadrangles . Cohee, George V., The Recent Impetus to Oil Prospecting in Illinois - Ekblaw, George E., Engineering Aspects of the Geology of the Vienna City Reservoir . Fisher, D. Jerome, An Exhumed Ordovician Hill Near Joliet . •• Jahns, Richard H., Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Central Colorado: Their Correlation by Means of Heavy Mineral Analyses . Noe, A. C., and Janssen, R. E., Identification Key for Illinois Plant Fossils • •••••••••••••••••••••••• ************************ Payne, J. Norman, The Geology and Groundwater Resources of Bedrock at Rockford . Todd, Jean P., Preliminary Study of Lake Michigan Sediments at Evans¬ ton, Illinois . Workman, L. E., The Pre-glacial Rock River Valley as a Source of Groundwater for Rockford . 224 226 229 232 235 236 238 242 245 PAPERS IN PHYSICS From the Report of the Section Chairman . 249 Knipp, Charles T., and Madole, Jas. F., A Study of Crookes Dark Space 250 Knipp, C. T., A List of Demonstration Experiments in Physics Suitable for Lecture Table Use . . . 25 J Kunz, Jakob, Applications of the Photo-Electric Cell in Astronomy . 255 Smith, L. S., Physics and Human Welfare . 258 Warner, Glen W., An Experiment in Ultrasonics . 261 Sammis, J. H., Some Focal Plane Shutter Distortions . 264 Verwiebe, Frank L., A Demonstration of Color Fatigue of the Eye . 265 Paton, R. F., Physics — A Service Course . 267 Rassweiler, Merrill, Molecular Spectra of the Alkali Hydrides . 269 Way, H. E., DeVries, John, and Furrow, C. L., Micro-Photographs of Single Crystals of Dilute Solid Solutions in Zinc . 271 PAPERS IN PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION From the Report of the Section Chairman . 275 Ellwood, R. S., Teaching of Community Civics Through Areas of Interest . 277 Reinhardt, Emma, The High School as Viewed by Some of Its Recent Graduates . 279 Reymert, Martin L., and Koiin, Harold A., Suggestive Data Concerning the Etiology of Behavior Problems . 281 Malmberg, C. F., Personnel Methods and the High School Student . 284 McAvoy, Blanche, The Use of Supervised Study in High School Biology 287 PAPERS IN ZOOLOGY From the Report of the Section Chairman . Angus, H. L., The Migration and Distribution of the Great Blue Heron in Illinois . Eifrig, C. W. G., The Changing Status of Birds as Regards Their Abundance . Evers, Robert A., A Scientific Experiment to Increase the Bluebird Pop¬ ulation . 291 293 295 298 40 Contents PAGE Goodnight, Clarence J., A Key to the Adult Salamanders of Illinois _ 300 Hoff, C. Clayton, Studies on the Lymnaeid Snail: Fossaria Parva (Lea), Part II . 303 Hudelson, C. W., Lapland Longspurs in Illinois . 307 Luce, Wilbur M., Hybrid Crosses in Sunfishes . 309 Mizelle, John D., Notes on Ectoprastic Trematodes of Fishes . 311 Reilly, Sister Mary Fabian, A Suggested Change in High School Laboratory Time . 313 Spooner, C. S., Derbid Field-Days . 315 Steagall, Mary M., Another Occurrence of a Fresh Water Medusa . 317 Papers In agriculture Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman The program of the Agriculture Section carried twenty-six papers, eleven of which are here represented. The others are: Differences in Corn Indicated by Preferences Exhibited by Ani¬ mals, by E. Roberts, University of Illinois, Urbana. Farm Tenancy in Minonk Community ; Its Effect on Future Farmer Ownership, by Harold Wright, Vocational Agriculture Instructor, Minonk Community High School, Minonk. The Program for Controlling Bang's Disease ( infectious abortion ) with Consequent Reduction of the Undulant Fever Hazard, by Harold M. Cavins, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston. Temperature and Moisture Effects on Grasshoppers, by Robert J. Maurer, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. The Production of Hybrid Corn in DeKalb County, by Linden H. Botkin, Vocational Agriculture Instructor, Waterman Community High School, Waterman. The Onion Set Industry in Cook County, by E. H. Howell, Vocational Agriculture Instructor, Palatine Township High School, Palatine. Profitable Swine Production as Demonstrated by Boys' Project Work, by Clyde Fry, Vocational Agriculture Instructor, Polo Community High School, Polo. Agriculture for All Rural Schools, by Charles H. Oathout, Western Illinois State Teachers College, Macomb. A Practical Approach to the Study of Heredity in a High School Curriculum, by C. L. Kutil, Vocational Agriculture Instructor, Antioch Township High School, Antioch. Hybrid Corn Experiment — Sterling, by J. A. Twardock, Vocational Agriculture Instructor, Sterling Township High School, Sterling. Some Proposed Curriculum Changes in Vocational Agriculture, by L. V. Slothower, Vocational Agriculture Instructor, Ashton High School, Ashton. Farm Tenancy Legislation, by Earl G. Reeves, University of Illinois, Urbana. Agricultural Land Utilization in the Chicago Metropolitan Area, by Marshall G. Clark, Soil Analyst, Dundee. Agriculture and Our Farm Youth, by Alfred Herstrum, Vocational Agriculture Instructor, Durand High School, Durand. Soil Conservation of Carroll County, Illinois, by Milton Dunk, Vocational Agriculture Instructor, Milledgeville High School, Milledgeville. Average attendance was forty-five. Dr. Elmer E. Roberts, Animal Genetics Laboratory, University of Illi¬ nois, Urbana, Illinois, was elected chairman of the Agriculture Section of the 1938 meeting. (Signed) C. W. Hudelson, Chairman [41] ■ ' Agriculture — 1937 Meeting 43 Evening Schools for Adult Farmers Paul Arndt Marengo Community High School, Marengo, Illinois Organized instruction for adult farmers in evening schools is a definite requirement of Vocational Agricultural Education according to the interpre¬ tation of the Smith Hughes Law. After teaching vocational agriculture in high school for nearly twenty years, I have concluded that the successful teacher needs this personal contact with adult farmers in his community to sense the demand for changing practices in various farm enterprises as they arise. Adult classes for farmers increase the interest in the local agricultural department and thereby create demands for service. They have a tendency to encourage larger enrollment of agriculture students. Tax payers feel that they are getting value received in extra service from their school taxes. Good will toward the school is created. The leading farmers become pivot men in their respective neighborhoods by encouraging better methods and practices. During the past five years we have had some degree of success in our campaign for lime, legumes, and better pastures. The time of the year for the evening school must be determined by the local community. Under our conditions, we have held meetings during November, December, January, and February. All meetings are held at the high school on Friday evenings, 8-9:30. There are many ways to promote interest and publicity for these meet¬ ings. The best results are accomplished when the agriculture teacher makes calls on the farmers discussing the possible value of such a series. Newspaper stories should appear before the first meeting and a summary of the discussion should follow each meeting. A small classified ad will bring it to the attention of many farmers. Post cards should be sent weekly to all members of the class. By being a member of the local service club, which is composed of professional and businessmen, it is possible to sell them on the idea of the school. They, in turn, will encourage their rural patrons to enroll in the classes. Following is a suggested procedure for organizing subject matter for an evening school: 1. Consult the key men or advisory council of farmers as to the nature of the course desired. 2. Ask the boys and their dads, about their problems. 3. Determine what enterprise should be covered in the course. 4. Make a survey of the farms in your district to determine the various practices in your locality. 5. Enumerate the jobs which should be studied under the enterprise. 6. Compare the local practices with those recommended by suc¬ cessful farmers and Experiment Stations. 7. Set up objectives for each group of practices. 8. Collect and organize available data and work out a definite teaching program for each unit of approved practices. 44 Illinois State Acadeyny of Science Transactions 9. Follow up with work in the field during the summer. I should suggest the following lesson plan for teaching: 1. Situation. 2. Problems within the situation. 3. Objectives for discussion. 4. Devices — different cases of farm practices and experiences. 5. Poor practices. 6. Good practices. Following are the topics discussed during our Sixth Annual Short course: 1. Causes for Variation in Butte rf at Tests. 2. Causes and Control of Mastitis in Dairy Cows. 3. How to Cut Milk Production Costs. 4. Legume Hays and Pastures for Dairy Cows. 5. Providing Dairy Rations in Drought Years. 6. The Merits of Hybrid Corn for Local Dairy Farmers. 7. Soil Management and Fertilizers for Corn and Small Grain. 8. Farm Outlook for 1937. 9. Summary of Financial Reports of 60 Dairy Farms in Southern Wisconsin: Factors that Caused Profits and Losses. 10. Poultry as a Side Line on a Dairy Farm. In our evening schools, I have used outside instructors mainly, many of whom came from the Extension Departments of the University of Illinois and of Wisconsin. A great deal of interest was shown by the farmers for the up to date information that is gained from the specialists who came from the Agriculture Experiment Stations. Some outstanding practical farmers and Farm Advisors were invited to lead discussions on certain evenings. Editors of Hoards Dairymen have offered splendid material which was presented in a practical way. One must be careful not to select in¬ structors in whom the farmers have no confidence. All of the meetings have been of the discussion type and the members are given every oppor- unity to ask questions and give their experiences. By calling upon the mem¬ bers of the class during the summer, the teacher determines the extent to which the new material has been put into practice. It also gives him a chance to discuss further any questions that may have developed after the course. Agriculture — 1937 Meeting 45 The Art and the Science of Agriculture Eugene Davenport University of Illinois, Url)ana, Illinois Agriculture is a strange mixture of art, biological science and economics. It began with the hunt and the end is not yet. Simple as it was in the beginning, it is growing day by day more complicated and almost every new discovery adds to its complexities and to its interest as well. It has all come about in a perfectly natural way, no doubt, and while most of its history is buried in the past of many races, yet its broader outlines can be inferred with a fair degree of accuracy. That the earliest man was a hunter, like his animal associates, is a fair assumption, though he was doubtless by far the most ingenious and heartless of the lot. For after having subdued the earth and turned to his advantage what he has not destroyed he seems now to have entered upon an era of self-destruction, even as his savage ancestors fought for hunting grounds. But this is not agriculture and need not concern us here. Nature seems to have provided at least two distinctly different oppor¬ tunities whereby this early man might make a living and he divided himself into groups accordingly, though why some chose this and others that is a secret of the long lost past. Anyhow, one group chose to live by the seaside, obtaining its living from the waters, the simplest, and perhaps the surest, means of support but the least stimulating to progress. Apparently much the larger group chose to live mainly by the hunt with some help from the lakes and rivers, and with them existence became a game of matching wits against their animal neighbors. It is among these that we shall look for the beginnings not only of agriculture but of science. Now the timbered sections of river valleys were the favorite hunting grounds because here were the hiding places of the hunted. Even a half developed man thing must have noticed the hunting habits of the wolf, and what was more natural than that he should tame a young pup now and then and finally acquire a pack to help him trail and corner the game. So the dog, almost certainly, was the first domesticated animal. But the hunt is not always successful, and it must have been that not infrequently hunter and dogs returned with nothing to show for the day’s work but empty stomachs, gnawing hunger and possibly a fair stock of ill nature. But the women had been hunting, too, among plants that could not run away and hide. They had discovered, here and there, certain fruits, nuts, even roots with a good taste and with qualities that could stave off hunger. It was then that woman discovered that the road to a man’s heart is through his stomach and that it is good policy to “feed the brute.” Nothing was more natural than to clear away competing vegetation from the neighborhood of these valuable food plants, and so it was that agriculture was born and women became the first farmers. It was not long under these conditions until man discovered that these trees, shrubs and other valuable plants come from seeds, and following close 46 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions upon that discovery was an attempt to enlarge nature’s beneficence by plant¬ ing some of these seeds on the sand bars down by the river or in other vacant spaces — a second step in the development of agriculture. Now this could not long go on without noticing that the seeds from the better plants were able to produce a superior crop and such seeds were in demand. Here was “breeding from the best,” the first step in what we now call genetics and the first service of science to agriculture if not to the race. No doubt the hunter had noticed a vast difference in his dogs and soon learned also to breed from the best. In the meantime another thing was happening. Some of the larger animals, feeding upon the taller grasses, naturally sought the open country and, being fleet of foot, were able to venture farther from shelter than the weaker and more timid woods folks. These were the cattle kind and noble hunting did they make. But to secure these animals the man must have another helper and one that not only could outrun the cattle but was also able to carry a rider. And so the horse came into the picture, without much doubt the second domesticated animal. Here, too, difference in individuals must have been apparent and breeding from the best vastly increased not only the speed but the power and endurance of the greatest of all domesticated animals. This meant a perambulating life, as the tribe followed the herds in their wanderings for fresh pasturage. To care for these herds the help of many men was required, and gradually, as the herds multiplied, they came into the virtual possession of masterful men with many followers. Such was Abraham of old, rich herdsmen, who often battled each other for pos¬ session of favorite pasture lands, one of the beginnings of warfare. In the meantime something was happening back in the valleys where crops were being cultivated. Nothing could so injure that tribe as to raid their growing crops and their storehouses by enemy tribes; and here was born, on the heels of agriculture, the first organized warfare, in which per¬ sonal combat became mass conflict. The only protection of a tribe thus becoming tied to a settled habitation was to organize a war party to clean up the surrounding country much as we stop a prairie fire by backfiring. That is what the Six Nations were doing just before America was discov¬ ered, when they chased their enemies up into Canada, down into- the Caro- linas and, to make assurance doubly sure, came out into what we now call Illinois. So this brings us down pretty nearly to our own time except for one fact long before well known. And that was that certain materials applied to the ground would vastly increase the yield. It was probably accidental in the first place, for it was inevitable that some one would notice that where a fire had been or near the dumping place vegetation grew ranker than elsewhere. So there grew up in Roman times a considerable knowledge of fertilizing materials. But it was crude and empirical, for as late as a hundred years ago useless, even harmful, materials were often applied, just as the phases of the moon were consulted in almost every agricultural operation. But alchemy was turning into chemistry. What though chemistry meant then only analysis — it was a start. What though the first scientific assump¬ tion was that everything found in the crop by analysis should, in theory, be applied as a fertilizer — it was a step in the right direction. Exactly one hundred years ago a great thing happened. One Sir John Lawes came into possession of the family estate at Rothamsted, in Herts. In the university he had become interested in the possibilities of applying scientific methods to agriculture, for those were the days when agriculture was the chief concern of English gentlemen. Agriculture— 1937 Meeting 47 Securing the services of one Henry Gilbert, afterwards Sir Henry, the two together in 1837 laid out Broadbalk field into small plots and proceeded to raise every important crop under every conceivable form of treatment. As would be expected, they found some materials injurious, others useless and a few highly beneficial. English farmers had already learned by experi¬ ence that “lime enriches the father but impoverishes the son”. Lawes and Gilbert learned why. They early learned that while most crops could be grown year after year on the same ground it was impossible with legumes, a mystery not yet fully solved. The great outstanding lesson they learned was that most crops respond to the application of combined nitrogen as to no other fertilizer. And then arose the “nitrogen mystery,” a mystery because there was no known way by which such combinations were effected in nature. As late as 1890 I read a letter from Sir John Lawes to Dr. Manly Miles, the first professor of agriculture in this country, in which Sir John said in substance, that unless we could speedily solve this nitrogen mystery the 'world would positively go hungry. The only known source of combined nitrogen was the guano of a few Pacific islands which fleets of ships had by that time nearly exhausted. . . . And the mystery was solved, as we now know. But here is an interest¬ ing incident in that connection. On the way up from South America in 1892, I came by way of England in order to visit Rothamsted. Arriving in England, I asked the privilege of a visit and a time was set. On the appointed day and hour Mrs. Davenport and I presented our¬ selves at the laboratory, expecting to be shown at once over the fields. What was our surprise to be greeted by Sir Henry Gilbert himself and to see the walls of his laboratory covered with charts. But our amazement was com¬ plete when he proceeded to repeat for us, taking a full hour of his time, the lecture he had given in Halle a few days before, showing how they had solved the nitrogen mystery. And we saw the very clover plants that were used in the experiment. . , This brings us down to the present when the contributions of science to agriculture are much better known to others than to me and when the eco¬ nomics of farming is the chief concern. Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Comparative Productiveness of Some Twelve Varieties of Tomatoes on Fertile Prairie Soils T. J. Douglass Illinois State Normal University , Normal, Illinois Due to the increased interest in vegetable growing in Illinois in the last few years, the class in Vegetable Gardening at the Illinois State Normal University decided it would be a worthwhile undertaking to run tests on a number of varieties of tomatoes. The seeds were planted in flats and the young plants were shifted only once in the greenhouse. On April 30th the plants were set in the field. The planting distances were five feet between the plants within the rows which were spaced six feet apart. The rows ran north and south. Each row had twenty-seven plants. All missing plants were replaced within a period of ten days. In choosing the varieties it was decided to select some of the older varieties which are commonly grown in the home gardens of central Illinois, and also to include some that are not generally grown, but which may be more desirable varieties to grow. Twelve varieties were selected and were to be tested for earliness of yield, total yields, productiveness of graded or select tomatoes, and resist¬ ance to Fusarium wilt. The Fusarium wilt was later excluded from the tests because no varieties showed any indications of the infection, even though eight of the twelve varieties were known to be susceptible. If Fusarium wilt had been present no doubt greater differences in yield would have been recorded. The susceptible varieties were Bonny Best, Golden Queen, Great Baltimore, John Baer, New Globe, New Stone, Oxheart and Ponderosa. Of the available resistance varieties, the Illinois Pride, Marglobe, Marhio and Pritchard were chosen. The Illinois Pride was the most recent development of resistant varieties and had been given out for tests, but was not offered for sale until this year. It was an Illinois selection from the Century variety and recommended more especially for less fertile soils than found in central Illinois. The Marglobe was developed by the United States Department of Agriculture. The Marhio was developed by the Ohio Experiment Station. The Pritchard was originated by the late Dr. F. J. Pritchard of the United States Department of Agriculture in 1931. The first tomatoes were harvested from the Greater Baltimore and John Baer on July 15th, or exactly seventy-six days after planting in the field. By July 23rd all varieties, except the Oxheart, had produced tomatoes. The Oxheart produced only one tomato by July 31st. On July 31st the ranking of the tomatoes according to the total yields were as follows: Greater Balti¬ more, 33 lbs.; Bonny Best, 26.25 lbs.; New Globe, 20.5 lbs.; Marhio, 16.75 lbs.; John Baer, 13.37 lbs.; New Stone, 12.25 lbs.; Pritchard, 11.75 lbs.; Illinois Pride, 10 lbs.; Marglobe, 7.37 lbs.; Ponderosa, 5.25 lbs.; Golden Queen, 4.75 lbs., and Oxheart, 0.25 lb. Agriculture— 1987 Meeting 49 No attempt was made to grade the tomatoes at this time because the prices at the local market were favorable on the ungraded tomatoes. Giving a rating of 100 to the Greater Baltimore on the earliness of yield up to July 31st, the ratings of the other varieties were found to be as follow B0nny Best, 79.5; New Globe, 62.1; Marhio, 50.8; John Baer, 40.5; New Stone, 37.1; Pritchard, 35.6; Illinois Pride, 30.3; Marglobe, 22.3; Ponderosa, 15.9; Golden Queen, 14.4, and Oxheart, 0.76. In the test the Greater Baltimore was superior to all other varieties for early tomatoes. Bonny Best and New Globe were the next two best varieties to plant for early tomatoes. By August 18th the Greater Baltimore was still leading all of the varie¬ ties with a total production of 102.5 lbs. Bonny Best was still maintaining second place with a total of 88 lbs. New Stone moved from sixth to third place with a total of 77 lbs. New Globe remained in fourth position with a total of 74.5 lbs. and Illinois Pride moved from the eighth place to the fifth with 70 25 lbs yield. The other varieties were distributed according to their yields in the following order: Pritchard, 66.75 lbs.; Marhio, 64.25 lbs.; Golden Queen, 62.25 lbs.; Marglobe, 50.87 lbs.; John Baer, 45.87 lbs.; Ox- heart, 22.75 lbs.; Ponderosa, 13.25 lbs. After August 15th the Golden Queen was no longer harvested. Being yellow tomatoes, there was no market for them throughout the season and nearly all of them were cracked badly. No select tomatoes were harvested from the Golden Queen at any time. On October 2nd the last pickings were made and the following totals were recorded : Greater Baltimore, 178.5 lbs.; New Stone, 175.5 lbs.; Illinois Pride, 157.5 lbs.; Bonny Best, 151 lbs.; Pritchard, 140 lbs.; New Globe, 133.5 lbs.; Marglobe, 125.87 lbs.; Marhio, 125.25 lbs.; John Baer, 122.87 lbs.; Oxheart, 80.75 lbs., and Ponderosa, 73.25 lbs. If the tomatoes were ranked on the basis of total production and the highest producer were given a rating of 100 it would be found that the fol¬ lowing ratings may be accorded to the varieties: Greater Baltimore, 100, New Stone, 98.3; Illinois Pride, 88.2; Bonny Best, 84.6; Pritchard, 78.4; New Globe, 74.8; Marglobe, 70.5; Marhio, 70.3; John Baer, 68.8; Oxheart, 45.2, and Ponderosa, 41.0. If one were to choose varieties on yield alone it would probably be well for him to choose the tomatoes on the above rating scale, but this basis may lead to disappointment, for not all of the above yields were select toma¬ toes. From August 14th through August 29th, the tomatoes were graded into select and culls because the price paid for select tomatoes warranted the grading. It was found that wide differences in the percentage of good select tomatoes occurred between varieties. During the time of grading the following percentages of first select tomatoes were found: Illinois Pride, 62.4%; Pritchard, 51.6%; Bonny Best, 51.3%; New Stone, 42.7%; Greater Baltimore, 33.9%; Marglobe, 31.9%; Ponderosa, 31.6%; Marhio, 30.3%; John Baer, 23.5%; New Globe, 14.5%; Oxheart, 12%, and Golden Queen, 0.0%. Using the above percentages and assuming that the same percentages prevailed throughout the season, an attempt was made to rank the varieties according to the amount of select tomatoes which would have been produced. The total yields of first grade tomatoes were found to be for the varieties as follows: Illinois Pride, 98.28 lbs.; Bonny Best, 77.4 lbs.; New Stone, 74.94 lbs.; Pritchard, 72.2 lbs.; Greater Baltimore, 60.5 lbs.; Marglobe, 40.19 lbs.; Marhio, 37.95 lbs.; John Baer, 28.85 lbs.; Ponderosa, 23.15 lbs.; New Globe, 18.3 lbs.; Oxheart, 9.69 lbs., and Golden Queen, 0.0 lbs. 50 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions If we allot 100 as a basic figure for the best producer of select tomatoes we have the following ratings: Illinois Pride, 100; Bonny Best, 78.8; New Stone, 76.3; Pritchard, 73.5; Greater Baltimore, 61.6; Marglobe, 40.9; Marhio, 38.6; John Baer, 29.3; Ponderosa, 23.6; New Globe, 18.6; Oxheart, 9.9, and Golden Queen, 0.0. During a season such as occurred in 1936 when earliness of yield is not considered, Illinois Pride should be found as an excellent variety to plant in central Illinois. Bonny Best, New Stone and Pritchard are also good yielders in central Illinois. In conclusion, it may be advisable to set out a few plants of Greater Baltimore in the home garden, if no Fusarium wilt is present and early tomatoes are wanted. Bonny Best is a good early producer as well as a high yielder, but is susceptible to wilt. Marhio and John Baer are best resistant varieties to plant for early tomatoes. For best production of graded tomatoes, Illinois Pride, a wilt resistant variety, is a favorable variety to plant in central Illinois during a dry season such as occurred in 1936. Pritchard, another resistant variety, is a good variety for fertile prairie soils. If wilt is not present Bonny Best, New Stone and Greater Baltimore have merits in central Illinois. Agriculture — 1937 Meeting 51 Tazewell County Industries as a Market for Farm Products W. H. Dowell Pekin Community High School, Pekin, Illinois Located in Tazewell County are a number of large industries which should offer a good market, either directly or indirectly, for farm products. The facts that Tazewell County is in the heart of the corn belt and is located near the Illinois River brought most of these industries to this locality. Several of these located in Pekin because of the almost unlimited supply of pure water which needs no chemical treatment before it can be used. Being located right on the Illinois River and having nine railroads, this town affords both cheap and rapid transportation of products. A study was made to determine if these industries use local raw products to any great advantage to the Tazewell County farmers. A questionnaire was sent to all the larger industries to find the kind and total amount of farm products used in 1936 and the kind and amount used from Tazewell County and consumption of raw products per average working day. These questionnaires were given to the Corn Products Company, American Distill¬ ing Company, Fleischmann’s Yeast of Standards Brands, Inc., Grain Ele¬ vators, Sommer Seed Company, poultry and egg markets, dairies, and bakeries. Other livestock product markets, such as packing plants in particular, do not operate in the county. However, Peoria, being only nine miles distant from Pekin, offers a very close market for livestock, including hogs, cattle and sheep. This is also true of the truck and small fruit industry, the products of which may be marketed at the large wholesale houses just across the Illinois River. In addition, Pekin open air markets and groceries offer a nearer market for truck crop and small fruit growers. The farm products used by the companies receiving the questionnaire are yellow and white corn, cornmeal, wheat, oats, rye, soybeans, chickens, eggs, butter, barley, malt, lard, cane and beet molasses, clover seeds, milk and butter. Tables I, II, and III show the results. Table I, showing the record for 1936 of the total kind and amount of products used by the companies, may be compared or contrasted with Table II, which shows the amounts and kinds of farm products used from Tazewell County. Some of the largest users, as the Corn Products Company and Distilling Company, were unable to give the exact amounts purchased from this county. This is explained by the fact that corn is not purchased directly, but is obtained through the Peoria Board of Trade channels. However, in¬ vestigation at the local elevators proves that most of the corn handled by them finds its way to the local industries as directed by the Peoria pur¬ chasing firms. That Pekin is somewhat of a grain center is brought out by the fact that many nearby counties bring their corn here to market. In years when the corn crop is below average many bushels are purchased by out-of-state users. Some days find as many as six trucks from out-of-state waiting their turn to load. 52 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactio7is Table I. — Record of the Kind and Amount of Farm Products Used in 1936 Product Products Co. Standard Brands, Inc. Dairies Bakeries American Distilling Company Markets, Poultry and Eggs Grain Elevators and Sommer Seed Co. Total Corn _ 10,123,073 227,323 33,898 2,500,000 1,625,809 (3,000) 370,538 93,335 (2,000) 9,891 51,923 (4,000) (1,250) 36 1,000 14,479,000 bu. 473,538 bu. 95,735 bu. 9,891 bu. 55,923 bu. 457,013 lbs. 15,497 cr. 540,260 bu. 12,600 lbs. 29,992,800 lbs. 216,000 lbs. 236,640 lbs. 10,000 lbs. 6,000 W Vl AQ t 455,763 15,461 Eggs - - Barley (malt) . X O 539,260 12,600 Cane Molasses 29,992,800 216,000 (10,000) Mil lr 236,640 10,000 Table II — Record of the Kind and Amount of Farm Products Used From Tazewell in 1936 Product Poultry and Eggs Sommer Bros. Co. 1 Elevators Dairies Standard Brands Total Poultry . Corn . Oats - Soybeans . 15,000 1,250 3,000 2,000 4,000 16,250 lbs. 1,029,566 bu. 55,735 bu. 35,923 bu. 5,891 bu. 50,428 bu. 699,243 53,735 31,923 5,891 16,539 227,323 33,898 Milk 236,640 10,000 10,000 lbs. Table III. — Consumption of Raw Products Per Average Working Day (Some Industries Did Not Report Their Daily Consumption) Product Dairies Bakeries Corn Products Standard Brands Total Milk _ _ - . — 748 7 10 1 755 gal. 10 doz. 1 bbl. 1,500 bu. 40,955 bu. 135 bu. 27,235 lbs. 927,481 lbs. 40 lbs. Eggs - XT'! /-V1 1 1 ,500 900 135 27,235 927,481 55 40,000 T 40 1 Agriculture — 1937 Meeting 53 One industry alone, the Corn Products Company, uses on the average ten million bushels of corn a year, or approximately 40,000 bushels per average working day. This is more than twice the annual corn production of Taze¬ well County as shown in Crop Statistics Report published by the Illinois State Department of Agriculture and United States Department of Agricul¬ ture, which was 4,777,130 bushels for the average for the three years 1930-1932. Another large user is the American Distilling Company, using annually approximately 2,500,000. Along with Fleischmann’s Yeast and other processers, these plants help to make Pekin one of the best corn markets in the world. While the industries could only make an estimate in most cases of the products coming directly from Tazewell County, the findings of this study point to the following results: 1. That the consumption of corn alone is more than the county can supply in an average year. 2. That the three larger processers of corn buy indirectly from our producers. 3. Some direct buying is shown, however, as in the case of the dairies, seed and poultry and egg markets. 4. Raw materials being near-by, natural resources, good transportation facilities and location are the factors attracting industries to this county. 5. This combination of favorable factors makes for the increase in markets of dairy, bakery and other producers. 54 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The Rise of Hybrid Corn George H. Dungan University of Illinois, Url>ana, Illinois The rapid rise of hybrid corn into prominence in Illinois is clearly shown by the records of the Corn Performance Tests carried on in different parts of the State. During the last ten years the number of entries of hybrid corn ranged from 6 in 1927 to 48 in 1936 in central Illinois, and from 1 to 41 for these same years in northern Illinois. In 1927 only 2 per cent of the corn entries in the tests in northern Illinois were hybrid and in 1936, 89 per cent of them belonged to the hybrid class. Hybrid corn entered the test plots at Urbana earlier than at DeKalb, and in 1927, 24 per cent of the entries were of hybrid breeding. In 1936, a little over 90 per cent of the entries in the central Illinois tests were hybrid. 1 AVERAGE TOTAL YIELD OF THE FIVE BEST AND THE FIVE POOREST A more striking picture of advancement made by hybrid corn can be had from a study of the yield data. As shown in Table I and in Figure 1, the average yields of the five best hybrids grown in northern Illinois were lower than those of the five best open-pollinated varieties during the seasons 1927, 1928, 1929, and 1930. In 1931 the five best hybrids exceeded the five best open-pollinated varieties by 9.5 per cent. In every subsequent year the five best hybrids excelled the five best open-pollinated varieties. In 1934 the per cent superiority was 42.1, in 1935 it was 22.2, and in 1936 it was 36.3. Hybrid corn has been so improved by the use of better inbreds, new com¬ binations of inbreds, and by the elimination of low yielding hybrids until in 1934 and in 1936 the five poorest yielding hybrids produced more gram than the five best open-pollinated varieties. In central Illinois the average yield of the five best hybrids has been greater than the five best open-pollinated varieties every season but one since 1928, reaching a high of 49.2 per cent in 1936, as shown in Table II and Figure 2. The five lowest yielding hybrids produced less grain than the five highest yielding open-pollinated varieties from 1927 to 1934, inclu¬ sive. During 1935 and 1936 the average yield of the five poorest hybrids ex¬ ceeded that of the five best varieties. Agriculture — 1937 Meeting 55 table I — Percentage by Which the Average Yield of the Five Best Hybrids and the Five Poorest Hybrids Exceeded or Fell Below the Average Yield of the Five Best Open-Pollinated Varieties in Northern Illinois, 1927-1936 Group 1927* 1928* 1929 1930* 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 Five best hybrids - —11.7 —14.2 —9.4 —14.1 +9.5 +6.7 +15.8 +42.1 +22.2 +36.3 Five poorest hybrids - —11.7 —14.2 —23.6 —14.1 —7.0 —20.1 —29.6 +1.3 —6.1 +5.7 * Fewer than five hybrids were in the tests (Data for the seasons 1927-1933, inclusive, were obtained from the field; 1934, from the Stockton and Rochelle fields; 1935, from the Stockton, and Plainfield fields; and 1936, from the Stockton, Kings, and Plainfield fi Rochelle, elds.) I Si SO AO 30 10 10 0 -10 -10 -30 AVERAGE TOTAL YIELD OF THE FIVE BEST AND THE FIVE POOREST HYBRIDS EXPRESSED AS A PERCENT ABOVE OR BELOW THAT OF THE FIVE BEST OPEN* POLLINATED VARIETIES, GROWN IN CENTRAL ILLINOIS, I9Z7-I93G 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 Fig. 2. Table II. — Percentage by Which the Average Yield of the Five Best Hybrids and the Five Poorest Hybrids Exceeded or Fell Below the Average Yield of the Five Best Open-Pollinated Varieties in Central Illinois, 1927-1936 Group 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 Five best hybrids . —7.9 +11.0 +3.4 +21.2 —.3 +16.2 +21.5 +24.1 +25.9 +49.2 Five poorest hybrids - —12.1 —6.2 —17.1 —29.0 —26.9 —20.5 —30.5 j +3.2 +4.6 (Data for the seasons 1927-1933, inclusive, were obtained from the Urbana field; 1934, from the Minier field; 1935, from the Adair, Bellflower, and Armstrong fields; and 1936, from the Adair, Stanford, and Armstrong fields.) Assuming that the trends presented in this ten-year record are indica¬ tive of the direction of developments in the future, the outlook for more and better hybrids is bright. The data show that the hybrids included in the tests during recent years were improvements over those formerly grown. Should this improvement continue, it will not be many years until all commercial hybrids will be superior to the standard open-pollinated varieties. 56 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Experimental Test With Vegetable Soybean Varieties Lawrence Hastings Illinois State Normal University, Normal Illinois The soybean is fast becoming one of the major cash crops in the corn belt. Although grown for centuries in the Orient, it has only recently sprung into such prominence in the Corn Belt of the United States. Food experts and chemists have found a wide variety of uses for the soybean in the human diet, and they are constantly adding new uses to this list. In a pamphlet published by the Home Economics Department of the Uni¬ versity of Illinois, they list a number of recipes for cooking soybeans for the human diet. However, because of the oily nature of the common strains of the soy¬ bean grown commercially, the food products consist in the main of items manufactured from processed beans, from which the oil has been extracted. As a result, the American people still rely upon the navy, or soup bean, for the more common culinary uses. Is it possible to develop strains of vegetable soybeans adapted to our growing conditions, which will yield beans for human consumption, more palatable and nutritious than the navy bean now so widely used? Might not the quality of the soybean products already in use be improved by such varieties? Will these varieties perhaps prove more resistant to insect and disease damage, and adverse weather conditions than the navy bean or the commercial strains of soybeans now in wide use? In seeking the answers to these and other such questions about vege¬ table soybean varieties, plant breeders are growing and studying many strains and varieties. From one such plant breeder, Dr. Earl Sieveking of Funk Bros. Seed Co. the Agriculture Department of I. S. N. U. secured seed samples of 18 varieties of soybeans. These particular varieties have been selected from many because of greater adaptablility to growing conditions in this section. As all of them are still in the experimental stage, the varieties are spoken of by number instead of variety name (with one ex¬ ception). In the large gardens at the State Normal Experimental Farm, Mr. Douglas’ vegetable crops class planted and tended a small plot of each of the 18 strains available. The soil upon which the beans were grown was plowed out of clover sod, early in the spring, and was well worked down prior to the planting of the beans in the early part of May. In spite of very adverse weather conditions, most of the varieties grew off quite well, and yielded a good crop of soybeans. The varieties were studied throughout the growing season, and at harvest time, the results of these tests were carefully tabulated. Among the characteristics observed in this study were the following: height of mature plant, lodging resistance, earliness of maturity, degree of shatter¬ ing, number of pods per plant, number of beans per pod, the yield per plant, the color of the beans, the moisture content, and the test weight per bushel. Agriculture — 1937 Meeting 57 This data for each variety was obtained and carefully recorded in tabular form. The beans were harvested and hulled by hand, so that more accurate results could be obtained. Among the varieties grown wide variations were found in some of the more important characteristics from the standpoint of the soybean pro¬ ducer. For example, in one variety, it was estimated that 20 per cent of the beans had shattered out of the pods prior to harvesting, while in some of the better strains, little or no shattering had taken place. When the characteristic of lodging was considered, one variety had 44 per cent of its stalks lodged, while in some of the varieties more resistant to lodging, every plant was standing erect and straight at time of harvest. A wide difference in the rate of yield was another important fact brought out in the experiment. Obviously, those high-yielding varieties, providing quality and other characteristics do not vary too much, are more desirable from the standpoint of the producer. The most prolific of the strains averaged 77 pods per plant, while the poorest in this respect had but 29 pods per plant. Color is an important characteristic in beans which are to be used for cook¬ ing. The color of the experimental varieties varied from light cream to brown and black. For most culinary uses the lighter colored beans would be preferable. Undoubtedly a study of the cooking qualities of the various varieties would have added much to the value of the tests, had we been able to carry it on. Such items as flavor, texture when cooked, speed of cooking, appearance when cooked, and taste could be tested and recorded in this part of the study. In working out a basis for comparison of the varieties, considering the data obtained, we worked out a performance rating based upon what we considered three of the most important characteristics. These were yield per plant, resistance to lodging, and resistance to shattering. The total yield was given three times the stress that the other two factors were given. The average rating was approximately 100, with a high of 127, and a low of 71. The best three varieties based upon this rating are as follows: No. 1—84939. A medium maturing variety, with rather tall plants, bear¬ ing on the average 76 pods per plant. It had very little shattering, but some lodging. Beans a light yellow in color. No. 2—84916. Medium early maturity, plants rather medium in height, no shattering, and very little lodging. Beans a greyish green color, with black eyes. No. 3 — Higan-Mami. Medium in maturity, plants of medium height, bearing 77 pods per plant, the most prolific of the varieties. No shattering, and a slight amount of lodging. Beans a light yellow in color. During the coming season, it is the plan of the Agriculture Depart¬ ment at Normal to enlarge and continue this experiment by planting larger plots of these varieties, and others which may be obtained. Careful study will be made, and if a sufficient quantity of each variety is produced, culinary tests will be added. It is hoped that from this test and similar tests carried on elsewhere that a worthwhile contribution will be made to the plants which produce nutritious and palatable food for human con¬ sumption. 58 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Pasture Demonstration Studies C. W. Hudelson Illinois State normal University, Normal, Illinois Through the cooperation of Mr. F. A. Fisher, Illinois State Director of the Soil Erosion Service of the United States Department of the Interior, whose office is in Urbana, Illinois, the Division of Agricultural Education of Illinois State Normal University was able to conduct a series of demon¬ stration plots involving seventeen different grasses and legumes on the University Farm in 1935 and 1936. The Soil Erosion Service furnished the seed which was planted April 16, 1935 immediately north of the farm entrance gate along Route 51 in plots 100 feet long by 20 feet wide. You may recall that we experienced drouthy conditions in the spring of 1935 although not as severe as those in the spring of 1936. Consequently these seeds grew slowly and the stand seemed quite uneven. The weeds made a much better showing than the pasture seeds did. The prospects of a good showing on the plots were discouraging. However, the seedings were al¬ lowed to continue with little attention being given them except that the tallest growth, mainly weeds, was clipped once during the summer of 1935 with the mowing machine, the sickle bar being elevated as high as pos¬ sible during the operation. While inspecting these plots early in the spring of 1936 it was again decided that for the most part there was no advantage to be gained in allowing these plots to stand and then in addition to that viewpoint a small tract of land was needed in a convenient location for the vegetable crops class. The first ten plots on the south end of the series were plowed under and fenced in for a garden. All of the legumes and timothy and redtop were in this group of ten plots. The seven remaining plots are grasses, six of them being somewhat unusual. These grasses stand from south to north immediately north of the vegetable garden as follows: Kentucky Blue Grass Fowled Meadow Grass Harding Grass Reed Canary Grass Red Fescue Brome Grass Orchard Grass The season of 1936 furnished us with about the most extreme condi¬ tions of drouth and heat that central Illinois has ever known. These condi¬ tions certainly furnished an acid test for any and all pasture crops and mixtures. In addition to the extreme weather conditions just mentioned there were eighty pigs and their mothers which were allowed to forage or pasture over these plots at will beginning early in the spring and con¬ tinuing until late summer. Adjacent to these plots on the north and west was what I called a practically perfect stand of red clover with a little sweet clover mixed in. I do not need to remind you that most excellent stands of red clover were quite common during the spring and early sum¬ mer of 1936. These pigs had the privilege of foraging over all of that fine clover in addition to these several kinds of somewhat unusual grasses. Ill Harding Grass ; b. Fowled Meadow Grass ; c. Red Fescue ; d. Reed Canary Grass ; e. Orchard Grass ; f. Brorae Grass ; g. Red Clover. 60 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Two of these grasses, namely Brome grass and Reed Canary grass, came through these tests with flying colors. While all the other grasses were quite brown and dry and appeared practically dead, Brome and Reed Canary grasses were strikingly green and they were eaten low to the ground showing that the pigs preferred them to the others. It seemed to me that this demonstration was an excellent one showing the relative palatability of these grasses. One of the plots — that having had Harding grass sown on it — shows that it must have been quite palatable but unable to stand close pasturing or drouth or both in combination since this plot was quite barren of any vegetation. The remaining grasses show a relatively small amount of pasturing having been done on them, which evidently means that the pigs preferred something else. Brome grass and Reed Canary grass are characterized by having vigorous underground stem-like roots which no doubt in part explained the striking green color. The Reed Canary grass had a very close, thick mat¬ like covering over the ground. I am informed that a number of experiences with these two grasses similar to those which I have mentioned have been reported in recent months, including those from the University of Illinois. I should like to know how these two grasses along with perhaps a legume or two perform together in a pasture mixture. In fact we have sown a few pasture mixtures including these two grasses in order to observe their performances in certain pasture mixtures. In summarizing the observations made on these plots during the season of 1936 I wish to repeat that without question these plots have been sub¬ jected to an unusual set of tests all in one season which ordinarily would have taken several years to have experienced. Agriculture — 1937 Meeting 61 The Part Time School and the Community R. E. Lamoreux Savanna Township High School, Savanna, Illinois The three major groups of people served by the vocational agriculture department are: 1. The all day students. 2. The adult farmers. 3. The part time group. The part time group, which is the object of this study, consists largely of the out of school youth between the ages of 18 and 27 years. Since they are primarily concerned with actual farm work, yet attend school part of the time, they are called the part time group. The need for an adequate part time program is demonstrated bj*a comparison of the potential part time students with those actually so enrolled. In United States it is estimated that the possible part time students number about 1,200,000. However, in 1929 there were only 337 part time schools with a total enrollment of but 5,128 students. Dr. Harl R. Douglass, in discussing the problem, “Our American Youth: Their Plight and Program,” recommends that in order to provide for this group of out of school youth we raise our compulsory school attendance age to 18 years or completion of high school, with concomitant work and school experience between the ages of 16 and 20 years. Granting the need for instruction of our out of school youth, what advantages are likely to accrue to the community which accepts this respon¬ sibility and conducts such a program? Schmidt and Ross list the following community advantages of a part time school: (1) Part time teaching tends to equalize educational opportunity. (2) It helps to cut the per capita cost of education. (3) It assists in creating a more favorable attitude toward all education. (4) It turns economic waste into an economic asset. The application of the principles of the part time school will now be made with reference to a specific part time school; namely, that conducted during the past year in the Savanna Township High School. To determine the need for such a school, a brief survey was made of the graduating classes of the high school for the ten-year period 1927 to 1937. It was found that of 248 boys graduating in this period only 37, or 14.9%, enrolled in a college or university offering a regular four-year course. With the excep¬ tion of a few who entered business or trade schools, the majority of the remainder of this group of boys still resided in the community. The next step was to check over this list of boys and pick out all those who might be potential students in an agricultural part time school. It was found that, whereas there were only 23 boys enrolled in the all day classes in agriculture, the potential part time boys numbered 64. Cards were then mailed to all prospective students relative to the proposed school, articles were written describing tentative plans and personal interviews were held with as many prospective students as possible. 62 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The first meeting of the part time school was then called and the general plan of the course was developed by the students themselves. By referring to “Types of Farming in Illinois, Area 2”, it was found that in Carroll County (1) 37% of the total land area was pasture land; (2) that 48.3% of the county was subject to serious erosion, and (3) that 84.3% of all farm income was from livestock or livestock products. In line with these findings, the group then voted Animal Husbandry as the topic for their ten weeks’ study. They next elected to start their meetings at 7:30 p. m., hold them for one hour, go to the gym for the second hour and adjourn at 9:30 p. m. Material for class discussion was mimeographed, handed out at each meeting, collected at the close of the meeting and finally bound in booklet form for the permanent reference of the student. Recreation consisted chiefly of basketball games, two of which A Part Time School were played with the neighboring part-time class from DeWitt, Iowa. The scheduling of several games added interest to the sport and gave incentive for practice periods prior to the games. At the completion of the course an agriculture banquet was held, with the F.F.A., 4-H Club and part time school all co-operating. The completed lesson booklets were also distributed at this meeting. Completion results of the school showed that of our 64 potential students, 36 actually enrolled and attended one or more meetings of the course, the average attendance for the ten meetings was 27.3. and 21 the average age of all students enrolled. From the standpoint of the community, the following factors may be attributed directly or indirectly to the work of the part time school: (1) A greater interest in education, particularly vocational education, among the business and professional men in the community. (2) The creation of a more favorable attitude on the part of farmers toward the schools and the services which they are rendering in the community. (3) A new sense of value as to the worthwhileness of farming as a vocation. (4) It definitely encourages the process of continuous learning. Agriculture — 1937 Meeting 63 Natural Increase in the Population, Rural and Urban, in Illinois, 1930 D. E. Lindstrom University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois The urban communities in the State of Illinois did not maintain their population on the basis of natural increase in 1930, according to the 1930 census. Approximately 360 children under 5 years of age per 1,000 women 15 to 44 years of age, which is the child-bearing age, are required to main¬ tain population stationary, with the 1930 expectation of life in the United States as 61 years, according to Dr. O. E. Baker, Division of Farm Population and Rural Life, United States Department of Agriculture.1 According to the 1930 census, there were 294 children under 5 years of age per 1,000 women 15 to 44 years of age in urban communities of the State of Illinois, compared with 380 in 1920 and 383 in 1910, showing a gradual decrease. (See Table 1.) The growth of the cities in Illinois like Chicago, Rockford, Peoria, Kewanee, Elgin, Kankakee, Galesburg, Dixon, Lincoln, Jacksonville, Moline, Rock Island, East St. Louis, Springfield, and Freeport has come from immigration rather than from natural increase. In recent years that immigration has been primarily from rural communities and particularly from farms in the areas contiguous to the cities, since immigra¬ tion laws have cut down the number of people coming from foreign countries to an almost negligible amount. The census figures for 1930, 1920, and 1910 show also that the population of rural areas in the State of Illinois is suffering a decreasing rate of natural increase. The rate for 1910 was 529 children under 5 per 1,000 women 15 to 44 years of age in rural communities; that of 1920 was 504; whereas that for 1930 was only 435. This is a decrease of 25 in the decade 1910 to 1920, and 69 in the decade 1920 to 1930, or almost three times in the second decade over the first. Were the rate of increase to slow up as much as it has in the first two decades, it would seem in the decade 1930 to 1940 the rate of natural increase would drop to less than the 360 children under 5 years of age per 1,000 women 14 to 44 years of age, which is the number necessary to maintain population stationary (See Table 1). Evidence that considerable numbers of the immigrants to the towns and cities are coming from farms of the state is shown by a comparison of the farm’s with the non-farm’s rate of increase. The rate of natural increase for the population of Illinois living on farms was 466 children under 5 per 1000 women 15 to 44 years of age compared with 411 in the non-farm popu¬ lation in 1930. Further evidence of this is shown by comparison of rates of natural increase by county in which we find the following counties with a rate of natural increase in 1930 insufficient to maintain population with¬ out immigration: Adams, Alexander, Boone, Cook, Henry, Kane, Kankakee, Knox, Lake, Lee, Logan, Morgan, Peoria, Rock Island, St. Clair, Sangamon, 1 See Baker, O. E., “Rural and Urban Distribution of the Population in the United States.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 188:264-279, November, 1936. 64 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Stephenson, and Winnebago Counties. Champaign and Will Counties had a rate of 360 children under 5 per 1000 women 15 to 44 years of age. On examination of these counties, we find that there is a relatively large city located in each one. Indeed, *the rate of natural increase in 1930 was lowest for the two counties in which the largest cities are located — Chicago, in Cook County, and Peoria in Peoria County. On the other hand, the four counties in the state having the highest natural increase, each having over 500 children per 1000 women 15 to 44 years of age in 1930, are Calhoun, Clinton, Hardin, and Johnson Counties. The largest town in Calhoun County, Hardin village, had only 733 popula¬ tion in 1930. Carlyle in Clinton County had a population of 2,078 in 1930, and was the largest town in the county. The largest in Hardin County was Rosiclare, with a total of 1794 people in 1930. In Johnston County, the largest is Vienna city, with a population of 874 in 1930. Table 1 — Ratio op Children Under 5 to Women 15 to 44 in 1910, 1920, and 1930 for Urban, Rural Farm and Rural Non-Farm in the State of Illinois* Group and year Children under 5 years of age Women between the ages of 15 and 44 Children under 5 per 1,000 women 15 to 44 State- wide, 1930 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 615,826 655,073 597,989 436,492 430,985 348,445 1,897,051 1,568,403 1,381,171 1,485,223 1,123,373 909,330 325 State- wide, 1920 _ _ 418 State- wide, 1910 _ _ _ _ _ _ 433 Urban, 1930 . . . . . . 294 Urban, 1920 . . . 380 Urban, 1910 _ _ _ 383 Rural _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 179,334 92,822 411,828 201,555 435 Rural farm, 1930 _ _ _ _ 466 Rural non-farm, 1930 _ _ _ _ 86,512 210,273 411 Rural, 1920 _ _ _ _ _ 224,088 249,544 445,030 504 Rural, 1910. . . . . _ _ _ 472,041 529 * From the United States Census of 1930. A further study of population movement, including rates of natural in¬ creases, types of migration, and composition of the population would reveal many other significant ways in which the town and country are interdepend¬ ent. If the farms of the state, and of other states, are to be the proving ground for the future population of the towns and cities of the state, then the urban people should be very much interested in the types of institutions which rural people have to educate their children, protect the health of these children and develop them into normal productive and influential citizens. If the institutions of the rural communities are to produce the kind of citi¬ zens needed for the best interests of all our communities, then the urban communities have a responsibility to the rural communities in helping sup¬ port these institutions and in making them just as effective as are the insti¬ tutions in the city for educational purposes, for the protection of health, and for the training of future wage earners. Moreover, the type of culture which is developed among rural people has a great deal to do with the level of culture which will be found in the cities, and since America is beginning to grow up it is increasingly important that its people give attention to the conservation of human and cultural resources as well as physical resources. Agriculture— 1937 Meeting 65 Agriculture for All Rural Schools Charles H. Oathout Western Illinois State Teachers’ College, Macoml), Illinois As good a statement of the aim of education as I have ever heard is the following: — “The aim of education is to help the child to meet life success¬ fully, and fully, and happily.” Two centuries ago an educated person was one whose mind was filled with Latin, Greek, philosophy, etc., all of which made him appear very wise and superior to the so-called uneducated, but none of which was of the slightest value as an aid to solving the great problem of life, that of making a living. But in more recent years educators as well as other people have been leaning more and more toward the idea that an education that lends no assistance in this all important problem is falling far short of fulfilling its greatest function. Several years ago J. D. Eggleston of Virginia Polytechnic Institute said, “Ninety-seven out of every one hundred of our children go out into life unable to apply their so-called education to the immediate problem of mak¬ ing a living, a problem that immediately confronts that number . The child should get at the school and through the school, everything he needs for his normal growth as a citizen. The value of an education is in its application.” Elliott R. Downing of the School of Education of the University of Ohio said, “The chief need in science instruction today is a more efficient organi¬ zation of the course of study with a view to socialization and practical application.” Dean Emeritus Eugene Davenport of the Illinois College of Agriculture once made the following statement, “The true measure of success in teaching agriculture is found in the performance of those who actually go to the farm and live there and succeed. The living force in agricultural materials lies in two facts: first, that agriculture is a part of nature; and second, that by these agricultural materials we make use of the natural facts and forces for the definite end of sustaining life.” The old idea that a subject must have either a practical value or an entirely unconnected cultural value has for some time been giving way to the idea that it may have both. In an article published in the Illinois Teacher, Miss Etta Larson of the DeKalb Township High School said in de¬ fense of bookkeeping, that skill subjects are not necessarily “narrow in their scope, that work and culture are not incompatible.” Former President Kinley of the University of Illinois brought out the same point very strongly in the Illinois Alumni News. He went farther and said that no subject can be taught, regardess of what it is or how practical it may be, that does not have a cultural value. Many others have the same view. Certainly we can agree that no one is properly educated who does not profit by it both practically and culturally. All this leads to the point that agriculture fulfils both of these aims as fully and completely as it is possible for any subject to do. The study of 66 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions the germination of a grain of corn or wheat is very practical. Yet no other study can stimulate greater interest in the wonders of nature and reverence for nature’s God. As the poet puts it, “Whoever plants a seed beneath the sod. And waits to see it push away the clod, He trusts in God.” In the State of Illinois 430,000 men and women do the farming. The sons and daughters of these men and women are to be the future farmers and their wives. If we take into consideration all the possibilities for higher education for these young people we must conclude that less than one in ten of them ever receives any other education than is offered in the rural schools. By this I mean not only the schools provided by communities of 2,500 or less, but a very large percent go no farther than the one room country schools. If ninety percent or more of our future farmers receive only such education as is provided by these schools, here is their only chance of receiving any scientific agricultural training whatever. To point out the desirability of an agricultural education for those who are to operate our farms is not the object of this paper. That is taken for granted. But the object is to point out that such education should begin in the common schools, in the grades where most of the future farmers get their education. It is here that our educational system is most lacking. We still force these children to attend school for a certain period each year where they are crammed with fads and fancies which they know full well will never be of any value to them, either practical or cultural. There are now in Illinois more than 28,000 young people, mainly of rural districts, who are members of 4-H clubs, and in the United States as a whole there are approximately a million. Why do they go into these clubs? No one forces them to do so. We have no law which says that a child must belong to a 4-H club. In fact I have known young people to join these clubs in spite of the opposition of their parents. Is it because of perversity? Not by any means. It is because of the fact that, with wisdom and judgment sometimes superior to that of their elders, they can see that here is some¬ thing of vital interest, something that is going to be of use in making a living in the future. The shameful thing about all this is that leaders of 4-H clubs get no pay for that valuable work, while we do pay the teachers for teaching things the children do not want to know, and in too many cases, things of no use to them now or in the future. All such work as is done by 4-H clubs should be done in the schools where teachers are paid for their work. Nor should it wait for the high school, but beginning very early in the child’s school experience, probably at the very start, his school work should be permeated and coordinated thoroughly with the scientific facts of agriculture, just as at present his life experience from the earliest is interwoven with the mechanical acts of farming. Agriculture— 1937 Meeting 67 Some Proposed Curriculum Changes in Vocational Agriculture L. V. Slothower Ashton High School , Ashton, Illinois After having taught vocational agriculture in practically the same identical manner for the past eight years, I have come to the very definite conclusion that a change is in order. If teaching may be compared with industry, with invention, or with any of the other phases of this modern world, I’m certain that an eight-year-old “model” is out of step and that it should be replaced. I cannot understand how we may expect progress in education through faithful repetition of the same courses in the same way from year to year. Drastic curriculum and procedure changes have been made in our elementary schools during the past few years, but I am afraid our high schools have lagged behind in this important work. As vocational agriculture is now taught in the majority of departments in Illinois, we offer soils and crops to freshman classes, animal husbandry to sophomores and so on through the four year course. Each year is divided from the preceding one in a nicely classified, unrelated, compartmentalized manner! The fact that the courses are not related is easily proved when we admit that a boy may enroll in any one of the four courses irrespective of his previous work in agriculture. As a matter of fact we alternate courses in most small communities because we do not have a large enough enroll¬ ment to teach all four courses each year. As a consequence we teach soils and crops one year and alternate it with animal husbandry or farm man¬ agement and marketing. This is a most convenient situation but one which I seriously doubt as having any other merit. I have the firm conviction that each year of agriculture should con¬ tribute towards the next — that the elementary phases of the work should be offered the beginning classes, and that the time for specialization and techni¬ cal work should come in the junior and senior years. I have learned from experience that time spent with freshman boys on a detailed study of soil classes, soil bacteria, plant diseases and other rather technical subjects is time wasted. I am positive that the average freshman is not mature enough mentally to grasp the meaning of such work, and that it might have greater effect and usefulness if taught in the junior and senior year. The fact that I have many former students coming to me for help upon subjects which they had studied as freshmen leads me to believe that something is wrong with the method of presenting the agriculture course in my community. This past winter we offered an evening school in dairying and a great many former students came in for the various sessions. I asked them why they should need to attend an evening school in dairying when they had had a com¬ plete course in it while students. They very politely told me that at the time they studied dairying they thought they wouldn’t need a great deal of the information, and that they never did quite understand the meaning of proteins, carbohydrates and other technical terms. In other words, they studied dairying in a concentrated, cram-style form as sophomores, and —2 68 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions promptly proceeded to forget it after passing the final examination. If the work in dairying had been presented over a four-year period, with each year’s work contributing to the next, I believe that a great deal more information would have been retained. In order to revise my curriculum, I shall have to divide the different enterprises now taught in the regular courses. These enterprises will be spread over a four-year period in a graduated, progressive manner. For example, shall we teach anything about soils to freshmen? If so, what are freshmen capable of understanding from a soils standpoint and just how far should we go? In my preliminary outline for my soils course, I find that I more than likely will not give them any work on soils until the second semester of the sophomore year! I am positive that I am not going to attempt the teaching of “Feeds & Feeding” until the junior year. Proteins, carbohydrates, amino acids, maltase, etc., just simply do not mean much to the average sophomore. I am firmly convinced that their mental makeup does not grasp the full meaning of a great deal of the work we expose them to as freshman and sophomore students. The mental makeup of a Junior is vastly different from the mental status of a freshman — as different as the other rapid adolescent changes during this stage of their life. Starting next year with my freshman class, I intend to give some work in dairying, some in poultry, some in farm mechanics, some work in all of the major enterprises now offered in our regular three year course. The various units of animal husbandry yvill more than likely be discussed from a project standpoint in the first year, while they will be taken up from a farmer’s viewpoint on a herd basis in the following years. If we find with certain freshman classes that no one is interested in dairying from a proj¬ ect standpoint, I see no reason for forcing that particular group to spend a week on dairying when that time more than likely could be used to greater advantage in discussing projects which were desired and which were being put into practise. The initiative of the instructor will determine whether or not certain subjects should be discussed — this, combined with the interests and needs of each group will map the course for the first year. The second year in dairying will find us taking up such units as dairy breeds, starting the purebred herd, feeding for milk production and other topics. The third year we shall take up feeding for milk production again, but from the ad¬ vanced aspect of the chemical composition of feeds and the calculation of rations. In the senior year we shall consider dairying from the standpoint of latest experimental findings, pedigree analysis, and special problems which are particularly suited to our community. I realize that a great deal of work must be done in order that this plan may operate properly. I realize also that it means keeping a complete record for each group for each year in order that the instructor may know just how far each class has gone. My main objection to the plan at this writing is the fact that it will take four years to make the change. Some fellow teachers have objected to it because it does not consider the transfer student. I agree that it will make it difficult for students transferring from schools that have the present system, but I feel certain that here again the initiative of the instructor will aid materially in removing this objection. My attitude is somewhat similar to that of the pioneer — nothing ventured, nothing gained. I am going to try something new — I can always go back to teaching vocational agriculture as I do now in case the plan will not work properly. Agriculture — 1937 Meeting 69 Influence of the Chemical Composition of Soils Upon the Maintenance of the Turf on Lawns and Golf Courses H. J. Snider University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois ABSTRACT A smooth, dense and uniformly green turf is desired by all who are interested in attractive lawns. If such a type of lawn is to be created and maintained, a great deal of careful planning and good management must be put into the enterprise. In a great many cases the condition of the soil may be far from ideal and the turf may suffer from malnutrition and lose many of its desirable qualities. None of the species of lawn grasses commonly used will produce a satisfactory turf on soils which are either too acid or too alkaline and which have any considerable deficiency of the essential plant food elements, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The construction of a lawn is often faulty, and a lack of uniformity in the soil, more especially the surface soil, is frequently the cause of unsatisfactory turf. A lawn soil profile should have at least a depth of four inches of surface loam made up of uniformly rich black soil, and all stones, gravel and other compact or solid material should be at least 20 inches below the surface. Golf course fairways have not usually been disturbed by building operations and are as a rule more uniform from the soils standpoint than are lawn soils. Some research work was conducted on soils taken from the University of Illinois campus lawn and the University golf course fairways. The object of this work was to determine if there were differences in chemical composition between soils which were growing a desirable turf as compared with those which were growing an undesirable turf. The desirable turf might be described as one which is smooth, uniformly dense, relatively free of weeds and of a deep green color. The undesirable turf is almost the opposite of this. The soil samples were collected to a depth of approximately six inches from areas of lawn upon which the turf was apparently desirable and in like manner from areas where the turf was undesirable. In addition to this, a number of areas of lawn were studied by taking soil samples from the surface two-inch depth (0-2) and a second set of samples from the same areas at the two- to four-inches depth (2-4). Chemical analysis con¬ sisting of the determination of the hydrogen ion concentration, total nitrogen, soluble phosphorus and replaceable potassium were made on the air-dry samples of soil and the quantitative results reported in pounds per two million pounds of soil. 70 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions DISCUSSION There was found a distinct difference in the average chemical com¬ position of the soils from areas having a desirable turf as compared to the areas having an undesirable turf. The undesirable condition of the turf in the majority of cases (75 per cent) was apparently due to improper reaction of the soil or a deficiency of some one of the essential elements, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, or an improper balance among these factors. The undesirable condition of the turf on the soils studied may have been due, in a number of cases, to causes other than those discern- able by chemical analysis of the soil. This is illustrated by the fact that six of the 24 comparisons (25 per cent) gave little relative evidence of a relationship between the composition of the soil and the undesirable condition of the turf. The analytical results indicate that the addition of lime to these soils, especially the undesirable areas, is of far less importance than the addi¬ tion of some forms of nitrogen and available phosphorus in order to main¬ tain a desirable turf. The desirable range for bluegrass is given as pH 5.6 to 7.4. The reaction of the soils from the areas of desirable turf averaged pH 6.4 and 6.5, and the undesirable areas averaged pH 6.0 and 6.5 indicating that the reaction of most of the soils come within the desirable range. Approximately 60 per cent of the areas of undesirable turf were low in available phosphorus, approximately 20 per cent were low in nitrogen, and about 12 per cent were low in available potassium. The undesirable turf areas on the golf course fairway soils, are in need of moderate amounts of lime (pH 4.9 to 5.3) and show a need of additional nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The soils of the desirable turf areas on the fairways are apparently well supplied with these fertility elements. There was an accumulation of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the surface two-inch layer of soil on both the lawns and fairways. In the fairway soils this was probably due largely to the decomposition of grass clippings which accumulated during the many years of care given the fairways. This indicates that the grass clippings are of considerable value in maintaining the fertility of the soils on lawns and golf courses. Agriculture — 1937 Meeting 71 Adult Education in Agriculture J. N. Weiss Dixon High School, Dixon, Illinois Throughout my sixteen years of teaching in Dixon I have offered eleven years of instruction to adult farmers of the community, during the winter months. In that period several different methods were used with varied results. The objective during the first three years was to get as many farmers in the community to attend the meetings as possible. Current agricul¬ tural problems were presented in a formal lecture by an outstanding authority from an agricultural college, or the State Department of agri¬ culture. These meetings were successful from the standpoint of satis¬ factory attendance, and the valuable information presented, but in check¬ ing the value of the meetings from the standpoint of the improved farm practices adopted, which were recommended at the meetings, very little could be found. During the next two years the general policy was changed so as to include a series of two or three lectures by successful farmers or farm managers on different farm enterprises such as beef cattle, dairy cattle, alfalfa production, soil fertility, etc. Motion pictures and stereoptican slides were used to make the meetings more attractive and to secure a large attendance. This type of instruction was entertaining and quite practical, but still very little improvement was noted in actual practice by the farmers who attended the meetings. Upon inquiry from individual members it was found that many of the methods, which they would like to adopt, were not explained in sufficient detail to make the adoption possible or, in other cases, the cost was thought to be prohibitive, and would not be profitable on their farm. This condition may have been prompted by the fact that most of the speakers were farm managers of large estates or farmers with sources of income other than that from the farm. In 1931-32 it was decided to confine the course of instruction to one topic, “Profitable Dairying”, because Dixon is primarily a dairy community and approximately fifty per cent of the annual farm income is from dairy products. An advisory committee of seven successful dairy farmers was selected to outline the topics which they thought would be of most in¬ terest to the members. Each committeeman secured the enrollment of four or five men in his respective community, who were primarily dairy farmers. It was decided that the meetings should be round table discussions with the vocational agriculture teacher serving as chairman and leader. The committee decided to meet each Monday night, for a period of twelve weeks, from 7:30 to 9:00 P. M. The course was started with an enrollment of twenty-five members, and because of their enthusiasm the Farmers Evening School became the topic of conversation where farmers were gathered to shell corn, shred fodder or hold auction sales. The result was that attendance increased at each meeting until a total of seventy-six farmers were enrolled, with an average attendance of forty-one, for the 72 Illinois Slate Academy of Science Transactions entire course. The dairy course proved to be so popular in the community that it was continued each winter for the next three years with about the same degree of interest. As was planned the Conference method of procedure was used in the development of the subject matter and proved wholly satisfactory. The objectives for the whole course were determined after a local survey of the community was made, which revealed situations in which there were serious needs for improvement. To prevent rambling and unorganized thinking throughout the discussion period the specific objective for the meeting was always written on the blackboard before the group, in order to keep the group on the topic for consideration. As leader of the discus¬ sion, I have very definite sub-headings under that which I wish discussed in order to bring out the required conclusion, and using experiment station data to support the experiences of the group. The opinions and sugges¬ tions of five or six individual members of the group are listed on the blackboard. These are evaluated: by ranking in order of importance, pro and con analysis, or by listing advantages and disadvantages of methods mentioned. Results obtained from agricultural experiment stations per¬ taining to the discussion are then presented. We then have before us enough material from which to get some decision from the group as to the best method or practice. Plans are then suggested by different mem¬ bers as to how to combine or eliminate in order to bring about the greatest efficiency. The following week each member is given a mimeographed summary of the previous meeting which he may file for future use. A few of the specific results of the dairy course may be enumerated as follows: 1. A dairy herd improvement association was organized. 2. Unprofitable cows were eliminated from the herds. 3. Alfalfa acreage was increased. 4. Limestone was applied where needed. 5. Eight bull pens were built. 6. Bulls were selected by use of production records. 7. Balanced rations were fed in proportion to the milk and butter fat produced. 8. Housing quarters were improved, principally by increased sunlight and ventilation. Some of the more important general results are: 1. Stimulates constructive thinking and a desire to evaluate all farm methods. 2. Develops an increased interest in the other fellow’s problems, which naturally leads to a closer cooperation. 3. Makes them more alert to recent publications or broadcasts which pertain to the farm business. 4. Develops a much broader outlook on agricultural problems. 5. Establishes better relations between the school and the community. Adult education in agriculture is comparatively new in the United States, but as early as 1850 in England and Scotland there were 112,500 adults enrolled in Evening Schools1. It was not until 1920-21 that the first adult evening schools were established for farmers in the United States under the Smith-Hughes vocational education act. Since that time there has been a steady growth in the number of schools, which offer this type of education. For the purpose of this paper we are more interested to know that in Illinois last year, of the 288 schools which offered voca¬ tional agriculture only 60 offered any adult evening courses which is a ratio of about one out of five.2 1 Sadler, M. E., Continuation Schools in England and elsewhere, Manchester Press, England, 1908, Page 27. „ 2 Illinois Board for Vocational Education, Bui. No. 66, Page 19. Agriculture — 1937 Meeting 73 The vocational agriculture teacher is the logical person to organize and conduct adult education in agriculture for the following reasons: 1. He is employed by the citizens of the local community. , . _ 2 He is trained in technical agriculture as well as in methods of teaching. 3 He is employed in the community for twelve months of the year. 4'. He understands the needs and problems of the local community. 5. His efforts are concentrated in a comparatively small area and therefore can give more supervision to the work. . . 6 He has the cooperation of the Agricultural Experiment Station and the department of Vocational Agricultural Education at the University of Illinois in furnishing data and literature. _ . 7 The State Board for Vocational Education and the Federal government assist the local community in financing this type of education to the extent of fifty per cent of the teacher’s salary. Why are there not more adult evening schools in Illinois? A few reasons may be: 1 The Vocational Agriculture teacher may have to teach so many non- vocational subjects in addition to the regular agriculture course that this extra work is physically impossible. _ 2. An unusually large day enrollment may make it prohibitive (because of 3. Far merlin1 these communities may be very indifferent toward adult edu- 4. TTre°agricmhireUteacher may be giving too much time to the Farm Advisers 4-H club program in the community. . . , 5 Possibly the local boards of education have not been convinced ot the value of this type of education. But all of these objections can be overcome if the vocational agricul¬ ture teacher is thoroughly convinced in his own mind that adult edu¬ cation is vital to his community. The communities’ interests and needs vary greatly over the state; therefore, the type of adult instruction for one locality cannot be uni¬ versally adopted, but in every community farmers have perplexing problems, which will afford an opportunity for profitable instruction, if properly recognized by a study and use of a survey of local conditions. From a personal point of view, I have had no greater satisfaction than that obtained during my eleven years working with adult farmers in the evening school program. I can see no reason why an evening school pro¬ gram should not succeed if the school is organized to meet a real need. I am satisfied that the Conference method of procedure is by far the best system to use with most groups of adult farmers. PAPERS IN ANTHROPOLOGY Extract From the Report of the Section" Chairman The program of the Anthropology Section carried eleven papers, eight of which are here presented. The others are: The Future of Archaeology in Illinois, by Dr. J. B. Ruyle, Cham¬ paign. Address — Fay-Cooper Cole, Department of Anthropology, Univer¬ sity of Chicago, Chicago. The Kincaid Site, Its Relatives and Neighbors, by Thorne Deuel, University of Chicago, Chicago. Attendance at the meetings averaged fifty. The present chairman, Dr. J. B. Ruyle, 9 Main Street, Champaign, Illinois, was re-elected chairman of the Anthropology Section for the 1938 meeting. (Signed) J. B. Ruyle, Chairman. Anthropology — 19311 Meeting 77 Artifacts Typical to Winnebago County Floyd L. Barloga Peoria High School, Peoria, Illinois The Winnebago Indians belonged to the Dacota or Sioux nation. During the period of authentic history they wandered into southern Wis¬ consin and northern Illinois and Iowa. In 1812 the Winnebagos of Illinois occupied a section, of which this county of Winnebago formed a part. To the south were the Illinois tribes, and the disputed territory between the two shifted north and south as the fortunes of war favored the one or the other. In time the Winnebagos were driven well back within the present limits of Wisconsin and were subsequently regarded as a tribe of that state.1 Mural of “The Winnebago,” Logan Museum, Beloit College, Beloit, Wisconsin. The Winnebagos have given a name to a lake, a fort, a village; and a county in Wisconsin and to a village, a township, and a county in Illinois. Among the most interesting features of the area occupied by the Winne¬ bagos are the large number of earth mounds found. That these mounds were made by the Sioux there seems to be little doubt. The effigy mounds seem to have been the work of the Winnebagos exclusively. The three classes of mounds found in Winnebago County are conical, linear and effigy. Effigy mounds are peculiar to a portion of Wisconsin, and are bounded by geographic limits, outside of which they are seldom found. In Mound Park in Rockford is one of the most interesting effigies in Illinois. It is note¬ worthy on account of its great size and fine proportion and more *so be¬ cause it is the only one of its kind on lower Rock River. It is generally known as “Turtle Mound” but the resemblance to a headless alligator is more striking. The dimensions are: length 150 feet, width, between front legs 50 feet, width between hind legs 39 feet, length of tail 102 feet, height at highest point 6 feet.2 The effigy mounds were not burial mounds. 1 “Historical Encyclopedia of Illinois and History of Winnebago County,” Vol. 2, p. 631. 2 “Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1877,” p. 245. 78 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions It was customary for the Winnebagos to erect near the habitation of each clan an effigy of their clan animal.3 In other words these effigy mounds were, to all intents and purposes, property marks. The conical mounds were used for burial in most cases though some may have been the bases of lodges or lacrosse stations. Mr. F. J. Osborn of the village of Winnebago has opened five mounds in which there were skeletal remains. In two of the burials they had been buried in a sitting position. Two other burials were bundle burials. The fifth was a full length burial and with the skeleton were found a stone pipe, copper bracelets, powdered hematite and a small piece of worked flint. Some of the more important artifacts found on old Winnebago sites in Wisconsin are: implements and utensils made of stone, clay, shell, bone, wood, antler, turtle shell, and the claws of animals and birds. Few objects were made of stone. The most important of these was the stone axes. Unfortunately we have no way of determining, even approximately, the age of artifacts of a pre-Columbian nature. The following survey of artifacts actually found in Winnebago County will represent some specimens of the Winnebago Indians as well as Sioux, Sacs and Foxes, Pottowatomies, Algonquian and perhaps other tribes of which we know little or nothing. The author is indebted to Mr. F. J. Osborn and Mr. C. G. Scott of Winnebago and Mr. R. B. Gill of Rockford for their valuable information in regard to the surface and burial artifacts collected and recorded from Winnebago County and vicinity from as early as 1895 to the present time. About 90 per cent of all artifacts found are arrow heads, 75 per cent of which are of the notched base type. The balance are stemmed or triangular. The workmanship ranges from very crude to very fine. Chipped flint spears are rarely over 6 inches in length. The polished and pecked stone implements are about 95 per cent celts. They are of all sizes and shapes ranging from a few ounces to several pounds in weight. The other 5 per cent are the grooved axes, hammer stones, net sinkers, grooved mauls, gouges or chisels. Only one fluted ax has been found in this region and that in the next county south. Pipes are not numerous but have been found of the following materials: quartsite, sandstone, slate, catlinite and clay. They range in size from very small to large. One bone spear has been found and is now in a museum in Massachu¬ setts. Bone tubes and awls have also been found. A few hematite plummets as well as a few stone discoidals have been found. Of the ornaments the pendant is the most common. Banner stones of slate and water worn pebbles are sometimes found. A few highly polished small truncated cones have been found. The following foreign materials have been used in artifacts found in Winnebago County; copper, slate, brown calcedony, obsidian, hematite, agatized wood, Flint Ridge, Ohio flint, quartsite, catlinite and soapstone. One slate celt has been found in Rockford. A unique two headed bird stone of light colored mottled stone has been recently found as well as a frog effigy of the same material and from the same locality. With the Indian Highways formed in Winnebago County by the Rock, the Pecatonica and Kishwaukee Rivers it has made a rather interesting country from an archeological viewpoint. 3 “37th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology,” 1915-1916, p. 79. Anthropology — 1937 Meeting 79 Stone Artifacts of North American Indians C. W. Hudelson Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois There are scattered throughout the United States, Canada and Mexico many strange ornamental and problematical forms of artifacts in stone, made and used by our aborigines. Those who have studied North American Indian culture have been unable to understand all the uses to which these objects were put and therefore such objects have been the subject of con¬ siderable speculation. In many cases these ornaments, charms and problem¬ atical forms were made from more or less brightly colored or banded stones or from those capable of taking high polish. From this standpoint the contrast is quite marked, between the ornamental class and the utility or service tools of everyday life, the latter being much more somber and plain. Although there is a wide distribution of this class of stone arti¬ facts and further recognizing that many brief articles have been written there is great opportunity for much research and study for classification and description of all forms of stone artifacts. A study of stone artifacts not only reveals to us a little of the home culture of early tribes but is also important for the study of the wanderings and movements of tribes whose culture intermingled and modified each other. A careful study of the evolution of special artifacts will often help to decide how far the evolution was due to the improvement of a settled race, and how far due to outside influences. In the beginning, no doubt, many artifacts were made of wood or some other easily fashioned but perish¬ able material; such tools have not survived, and it is only artifacts which were made of harder material that have lasted until the present. What we have found can only be a fractional portion of former manufacture. When we learn that an invading race brings with them a more varied or a less varied series of tools, all that we can properly say is, that the new people had superior or inferior manufacture in the particular material used. Since the ornamental and problematical class of artifacts is found in considerable numbers with burials, in graves and mounds, and as they are freqently found unassociated with the more ordinary forms of Indian tools, they are generally regarded as representing the higher level of stone age art. Stone age men in the United States and Canada did not possess metals, although they used native copper and hematite (iron) and treated them as malleable stones. The neolithic culture belongs to an age of human culture following the paleolithic and is characterized by an advance in civilization denoted by more and better implements of stone, by beginnings in agriculture, the use of pottery and the presence of domesticated animals. The most typical stone artifacts of this period are ground and polished rather than chipped, and for this reason it is sometimes called the polished-stone age. The neolithic era includes the latter half of the stone age. The kitchen middens (dwelling house refuse) of Denmark, the Lake dwellings of Switzerland, and the stockaded island, or “crannogs,” (huts built upon pile) of the 80 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions British Isles, belong to this era. The stone age can be divided into two periods, the newer stone age, called Neolithic, and the Older Stone Age, called Paleolithic. Even though a number of archaeologists refer to the Neolithic age as the polished stone age, Quennell states that “Neolithic implements are not necessarily of polished stone, as some people seem to think.” Flint was still chipped and ground or polished in parts; sometimes completely so. Neolithic implements are found on the surface of the ground or just under it, and are not dug out of gravel as those of the Old Stone Age are. I have obtained a few photographs of the more representative stone artifacts which show something of their nature and form. Stone Artifacts of North American Indians 1. Celt 13. Mortar 22. Gouge 2. Chisel 14. Discoidal 23. Notched Hoe 3. Axe 15. Grooved Hammer 24. Chisel 4. Spud Stone 25. Spade 5. Hematite Axe 16. Sinker 26. Celt 6. Hematite Celt 17. Boat Stone 27. Plain Pipe 7. Grooved Maul 18. Grooved Hammer 28. Effigy Pipe 8. Grooved Axe Stone 29. Tube Pipe 9. Pestle 19. Spherical Hammer 30. Plummets 10. Discoidal Stone 31. Banner Stone 11. Pestle 20. Celts 32. Garget 12. Mortar and Pestle 21. Chisel 33. Pendant Anthropology— 1937 Meeting 81 The Maul with rounded head and blunt point was probably used for pounding and driving stakes, chisels, etc. A badly worn axe may have served for the same purposes. Celts were used to dress skins of animals and as chopping implements. They ranged in length from one to eighteen inches. Many were not designed for handles but were held in the hand while others were hafted or mounted on handles. Chisels may have been used to gouge out wood of logs in making canoes, etc. This implement is narrower than most celts and highly polished and sharpened at the point. Axes were a most useful implement. They are classed as grooveless (also called celt) and grooved. The grooved axes were hafted and occasion¬ ally one had a longitudinal groove in the back for insertion of a wedge in order to tighten the handle. They were a trusted weapon in warfare and were used to cut trees and for some pounding. They range in weight from one ounce to thirty pounds, but the average weight is from three to five pounds. Hematite implements are rare and not so well shaped and polished as are those of stone. Mortars and pestles played an important part in domestic seivice especially grinding corn, nuts and meat. Small’ pestles were probably used by tribal doctors to compound herbs. Some larger mortars were used for cooking purposes. The pestles range from about four to eighteen inches in length. It was a slow and tedious process to make mortars. Discoidals are problematical as to use but it has been suggested that they were used for mixing war paints and medicines also possibly in play¬ ing a game in which the stone was rolled along on its edge. Sinkers may have been used as a weight or anchor in holding down fishing tackle. Hammer stones were used either in the hand or were hafted and served as a hammer in pounding, breaking and chipping off pieces of flint in making various kinds of flint tools. The boat stone is problematical but is thought to have been used as an ornament and probably was a tribal totem. It resembles a boat. The Notched hoe was hafted at right angles to the handle and used in cultivation. The spades were hafted in the split end of a handle and parallel to it. They also were used in cultivation. The long flint celts were used in a similar manner to that of the stone celts made of glacial stones. Extremely long sharp celts were used as knives. The most artistic aboriginal work in stone was lavished on tobacco pipes which, like all hand-work, were never twice alike and offer among them a great range of effort from a simple bowl with a stem continuing in the same direction, to an elaborate effigy attached to a stem placed at right angles to the main axis of the figure. The tube pipe served about the same purpose as the cigaret or cigar holder used today. The banner stone was used as an ornament and probably worn on a staff in ceremonial or dress parade activities. Plummets were used as ornaments, no doubt, but belong to the prob¬ lematical group. They may also have been used as sinkers in connection with fishing. Pendants were used as ornaments or charms and have a single hole near the end for suspension. It is not thought that they were of prac¬ tical use. The gargets are classed as one kind of a pierced tablet and are made of thin oblong pieces of slate usually, having two tapering holes near the center in line of the longer axis. They were also used as a charm or ornament. 82 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions A Red Ochre Mound in Fulton County Donald E. Wray Peoria, Illinois This mound is located in Fulton County on a bluff overlooking the vil¬ lage of Banner. It is on a point formed by the valleys of the Illinois River and Copperas Creek. The mound is roughly oval in shape, 42 feet long, 32 feet wide and from two to three and one-half feet high at present. It rests on a large natural deposit of soil which may possibly have been artificially shaped, since it is roughly square and flat on top. This forms a rectangular platform 70 feet long and 50 feet wide. It is on this platform that the mound proper is located. The top of the mound is now flat, but that it was formerly somewhat higher is indicated by some leg bones which lay just below the sod in a position which would place the body above them. We may assume from this that the mound was originally at least a foot higher than at present. The decrease in height is probably due in part to erosion because of the prominence of the mound, but the frequent activities of “pot hunters” have no doubt hastened the process. The burials in the mound were mainly on the base line, that is about three feet below the surface. Another layer of burials probably existed about 2V2 feet above the base line. Only one undisturbed burial was found in this level, but evidence of other burials was present in the heaps of broken bones which former excavators had left. The peculiar features of the burials as a whole were that they were covered with red ochre and placed in a flexed position with the hands under the head. The skeletons did not seem to be placed with any special relation¬ ship to direction or to each other. Fifteen burials were found, four of which were infants and children. Two skulls from the base level have cephalic indices of 64 and 73, and one skull from the upper level is 66. The figures are only approximately true for all three skulls show signs of distortion from the pressure of the earth, nevertheless they indicate a long-headed type of skull. The only objects found in the upper level are a six inch knife of dark flint and a small notched arrow point. The base level burials contained a number of interesting artifacts; a necklac,e of 27 rolled copper beads, 4 cylindrical shell beads, 4 spear heads with turkey tail bases made of dark flint, a sherd of grit tempered pottery with squared rim and cord markings on both surfaces, a pink stone knife 9" long, a shell spoon and a piece of galena. Anthropology — 1937 Meeting 83 Recent Excavations at the King Mounds, Wickliffe, Kentucky Blanche Busey King Wickliffe, Kentucky Mound D, the fourth mound to be excavated of the nine mounds which comprise the group of the King Mounds, otherwise known as the “Ancient Buried City,” Wickliffe, Kentucky, has been completed only a few weeks. These mounds are beautifully located high above the confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, and command a magnificent view of the rivers for miles distant. This mound is rectangular in shape and measures one hundred and five feet by fifty-five feet. Its greatest height is six feet. It presents a very vivid picture of the living conditions of an ancient people. The mound itself is built over many building sites, as indicated by different outlines all large and rectangular in shape, with the exception of one circular structure twenty-two feet in diameter. This structure no doubt had some significance in their religion — and was perhaps the sacred precinct of the shaman, as nothing was found inside — no evidence of fire, etc. It was purposely kept clean. One learns from literature pertaining to the prehistoric people that ceremonialism was developed to an unusual degree, and the medicine man or shaman occupies an important place. At the base of the mound the outlines of six small buildings with post molds at regular intervals were found. Split cane was woven between the posts like a wicker chair and clay mixed with water and grass forming a clay wattle plastered the building. They were subjected to fire, both inside and out, as the walls show evidence of violent heat. They may have been pottery kilns or used for sweat houses, like our modern Turkish baths — since this was a center for living. As we have previously excavated the Temple Mound, the Council House Mound and Adult Burial Mound, perhaps Anthropology — 1937 Meeting 85 it was used as a spa, like Hot Springs or various watering places in this country and abroad. In the middle of one of the structural outlines, three feet from the base of the mound, two adult extended burials were found completely cov¬ ered with cypress and other wood bark. We also found a burial pit, the bottom covered by stones and six bundle burials. One altar was found with a path of post molds on either side leading to it. No ashes were found, so it could have been a place where offerings of flowers were made; or again, it might have been a work table; all is conjecture until the entire story of prehistoric man is completed. Five fire pits were found. One raised and concave, two feet in diameter, shows evidence of great heat, as it has a layer of fire-hardened clay baked almost to a brick. Near this fire pit is the remains of a feast; a charred heap of chinkapin nuts, hickory nuts, pecans, beechnuts, pignuts, maize kernels, beans similar to lima beans, squash seeds, bones of turkey, squirrel, bear, deer, beaver, wolf, opossum, raccoon and other species of animals, fowl and fish, bearing concrete evidence of prehistoric dining. The great accumulation of kitchen midden proves convincingly that this mound was built in a slow and gradual manner and that a large number of people lived here at one time. In the kitchen debris literally thousands of broken sherds, discarded bone implements and other miscellaneous material have been found. So much kitchen midden caused the soil to be very black from decomposition. Among the bones we found discarded mortars and pestles which we know played an important part in their domestic life. Some of the pestles are highly polished on the ends from grinding and pounding, so they must have pounded, the nuts, meat and corn and had hoe cake or bread of some kind. Some of the long pestles are like our modern rolling pins; however, they were quite heavy and made of stone. We also found many pipes, so they probably were inveterate smokers, or used them in ceremonials. Many hundreds of spoons carved out of the iridescent mussel shells are quite lovely, and not long ago I noticed in a magazine that it is quite “de rigueur” to serve caviar in mother-of-pearl dishes, so we are imitating the prehistoric people even today. 86 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Anthropology — 1937 Meeting 87 Some of the miscellaneous pieces found in flint are drills, knives, scrapers, spear, bird and war points, etc. In bone, fish hooks of various sizes, ornaments, awls, a bone dagger eleven inches long, two beautifully- polished hair pins ten inches in length, celts and needles; ear bobs and rings of cannel coal, plumb bobs of sandstone, galena, beaten copper ornaments, gorgets made from the carapace of turtles, ornaments from the canine teeth of bear, wolf and beaver, shell beads, spoons, gorgets and pendants made from flat discs cut from mussel shells. A turkey bone caller with an antler tip was found. Perhaps this was a musical instrument, as all races have * had music of some kind. A number of pottery trowels were also excavated. Two unusual and large pendants were found, one of white fluorspar, rec¬ tangular in shape, with rounded corners showing evidence of having been surrounded by copper. Because of the fragility of this material, the artist showed great skill in his carving. The other pendant is a hand with fingers extended, carved out of shell, on the palm of which is carved a Maltese cross surrounded by two circles. This pendant must have been very beautiful when first made, as it still shows the lovely iridescent colors of the shell. A cache of bone implements of various sizes, all beautifully polished, was uncovered in a burial — the favorite implements, no doubt, of an artisan of some type — perhaps he was the leather worker. Three ceremonial fire pits were found with only the ceremonial ashes remaining. Another small ceremonial fire pit, surrounded by five skulls, is placed near a group of adult burials. We also found a skull which had eighteen teeth, instead of sixteen, two premolars or bicuspids in the mandible inside the regular line of teeth. In the right maxilla of another skull was a large bone growth near the molars which were almost twice their usual size. Dozens of antler tips and other pieces made from deer antlers and used perhaps as “sizers” or mesh gauges in their fishing nets were found. The potsherds tell an impressive story of prehistoric textiles, pieces of which must have been pressed into the clay while soft, leaving indentures of many different designs. Mussel shells were ground and mixed with the clay as a tempering agent, and red and yellow ochre used to color it. The potsherds also help to define this Indian culture — every sherd, bead, burial- outline helps towards completing the entire story. 88 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Many effigy pieces were found among the sherds. The most unique are the heads of a dog and an owl which rattle when shaken. The existence in the mounds of so many articles foreign to the region is proof of some established trade route, and we know extensive inter¬ tribal traffic in articles existed from remote ages. Mica from the Carolinas used for mirrors and jewelry, cannel coal, copper from the borders of Lake Superior, sea shells from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic coast, hematite and quartz from distant mines were found. Extensive trading operations brought these people in contact with Mexico and its distant races, as some of the pottery and copper ornaments are distinctly Mexican in design. A handsome plumed eagle bowl shows Central America influence.1 It is diffi¬ cult to realize the extent of their commerce. The burials and pottery are distinctly of the Middle Mississippi culture, with the exception of the plumed eagle and the human effigy caricature of a crouching woman. This effigy type is seen so often that one is led to believe she represents some malevolent goddess whose rage had to be averted in every household. These show distinctly Central American influ¬ ence. From the several burned buildings one wonders if the old Mexican custom of the fifty-two-year cycle was used by these people. They were an ingenious people. They utilized the human figure in many attitudes, and every kind of bird and beast in the prehistoric forest is represented in their zoomorphic effigy pottery, pipes, bird stones and ceremonials. Some of the artifacts are very crude and their use problematical, others are admirably wrought and polished and the magnificently chipped flints show beautiful workmanship. Very few weapons were found with the burials which would indicate that here was a peaceful people. The sun and serpent must have been symbols in their mythology, as they were used so extensively on their artifacts. Without doubt they have some special significance in their religion. One wonders if they were sun worshippers. 1 Eagle bowl here shown was photographed by Russell Trail Neville, Kewanee, Illinois. Anthropology — 1937 Meeting 89 Obviously, this last mound is the children’s mound, for at the base of the mound sixty-three infants were found. They are left in situ. There was no set method in their burials, as some are on their backs, others on their sides, with their feet crossed. Some face each other, perhaps in a twin burial, and others have their little knees to their chins in a flexed or prenatal burial. One infant had a string of shell beads around its neck and near the hand of another lay a beautifully carved white bone doll, three inches in length; another had a miniature clay doll, another a tiny clay bear; others were surrounded by petite three-legged bowls — one with a snake head for a handle, the other in the shape of a small hand; and others in the shape of fish and animals; all telling a simple, poignant story of paternal love and devotion. So that is one thing apparently that has never changed all through the ages — a parent’s love. The Infant Mound, or Mound D, is a miniature of the adult burial mound, for the children lie surrounded by their chosen possessions. 90 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions It is fascinating to excavate, for we never know what we are going to find — some days nothing, other days perhaps a cache of bone implements or fine flint or a bead, or the actual remains of a people who lived in a thriving city hundreds of years ago. When I look at these people I am reminded of a line in a couplet which inspired the famous sculptor, Lorado Taft, in one of his celebrated works: “Time goes, you say? — ah, no! “Alas, Time stays — we go.” Note: Since giving- the paper at the Rockford meeting in May, 1937, we have found, in Mound E, two caches of prehistoric maize — twenty-eight thousand, one hundred and sixty-two kernels, cobs and other botanical material. Due to the charcoal of the burned building, which neutralized the acids of the earth, part of the split cane container is preserved. On March 5, 1938, an unusual fabric container was excavated from a new por¬ tion of Mound D. Due to carbonization, the type of weave and material can be determined. The bag or container was filled with charred prehistoric corn and cobs. Anthropology — 1937 Meeting 91 An Archaeological Reconnaissance in Southern Kentucky Kenneth L. Knight Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois During the first week of April, 1936, I had the opportunity of taking a trip into southern Kentucky with a party of three for the purpose of gather¬ ing archaeological materials of that region. Being in an unofficial capacity, we limited our work to the gathering of surface material; but naturally we ran on to much of interest in the line of burials and camp grounds. The area which we covered lies near Scotsville, Kentucky, about one hundred miles northeast of Nashville, Tennessee. Shetrone, in his work on the mound-builders,1 designates this region as the Tennessee-Cumberland area. Culturally considered, the area shows close affinities with the Lower Missis¬ sippi division, merging with that area all along its western edge. The artistic accomplishments of the Tennessee-Cumberland division approximate those of the noted Hopewell Culture farther north except in geometrical earthworks. The Tennessee-Cumberland area can be divided into two geo¬ graphical subareas that are also justified by the difference of cultural devel¬ opment. One area comprises the region of the lower Wabash, dividing the states of Illinois and Indiana and running southward across Kentucky into central Tennessee. The other area corresponds to eastern Tennessee and the nearby portions of Georgia and the Carolinas. Each of these areas pos¬ sesses a definite nucleus of culture represented in the eastern region by the famous Etowah Group of Georgia and designated in the western subarea by the stone-grave mounds and cemeteries typically represented about Nashville. The most prominent characteristic of the area in which we were explor¬ ing was the prevalency of the stone-box graves. On first thought one would believe that this type of burial designated a very definite culture, but Jones casts some doubts upon this by stating that “the mode of burial employed by the inhabitants of Tennessee was only practicable in a region of country abounding in flat rocks”.2 Whether or not this characteristic does denote a distinct culture, the fact remains that the stone-graves are the marking char¬ acteristic of the area. Jones also holds that this remarkable type of burial must have been received from the Europeans, and goes on in an attempt to prove this statement by presenting an array of apparently convincing evidence. I believe that today, however, little trust is placed in this belief.3 With the aid of the local people, we found a considerable number of the stone graves so typical of the area. They were found in large ceme¬ teries, singly, and less often in small, conical tumuli. The locations in which the mounds were found were typically on bluffs along the rivers of the region. The stone graves were seldom more than a foot below the surface. Apparently a shallow grave was excavated and the sides were lined with 1 The Mound- Builders, pp. 409-412. 2 Explorations of the Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee. Smithsonian Contribu¬ tions to Knowledge. Vol. 22, p. 15. 1880. •Ibid., p. 35. 92 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions thin plates of limestone. After the body was placed in the grave, flat rocks were laid across the top and the shallow hole filled in. Many of these graves have become apparent to the passer-by because the earth has sunk into the grave, exposing the upright edges of the sidewalls. Others, not so exposed, have to be located by probing with an iron rod. These graves were generally located singly along the high bluffs overlooking the rivers. However, on two occasions we found areas where large cemeteries must have existed. The fields had been under cultivation for a number of years and the great slabs of limestone literally covered the surface of the area. The only materials that could be found around these destroyed cemeteries were many imperfect arrowheads, scrapers, drills, and knives. In one such field that had been plowed only the year previous the slabs of limestone still lay scattered about the sunken area of a single grave and just a few feet away we found a large celt that had been tossed from the hollow by the plow. Another type of burial which is less commonly found in the area is the conical tumulus built' over a few stone graves. Whereas the other types of burials already described exhibited no raised area, these mounds stand up noticeably above the ground. We discovered one mound of this type which had been opened only recently and despoiled of its contents. To one possessing mental curiosity it is naturally a matter of interest to consider the source of the people typified by the stone graves. Jones has worked at some length in an effort to discover the ancestry of the stone- grave race.4 By a process of measuring a great series of crania from the stone-graves and a process of comparison he has determined that the people of this race very likely belonged to the Toltecan division of the American nations. The Tennessee-Kentucky race of primitive man which we studied is characterized along with the Toltecs of Mexico and the Inca Peruvians by skulls of a quadrangular shape that are remarkable for their want of symmetry. Jones concludes this hypothesis by stating that probably the stone-grave race is a northern offshoot of the Toltecan division. The main emphasis which I wish this paper to give is the prevailing condition of archaeological remains in the section of Kentucky that we explored. Each year sees the cultivation of new tracts of hill land and each year the plowshare rips through the stone vault of some grave that heretofore had remained hidden in the underbrush. The bones quickly crumble to dust in the hot sun and the articles interred with the body are hopelessly scattered and shattered. These graves are so shallow as to make it impossible not to reach them with the plow. The mounds which show themselves by a raised area are probed into by curious natives, who dis¬ gustedly cast away the handful of crumbling bones and the few arrowheads or other relics that the grave may contain. Along with these deplorable conditions many commercial collectors from the larger cities tour the area, purchasing any materials that the farmers may have and paying the inhab¬ itants for information to hitherto unexplored mounds and cemeteries. Such conditions are rapidly obliterating any story that the antiquities of the region have to tell to the inquiring archaeologist; and unless a systematic archaeological survey is soon made of the area, we may never learn the full story of the stone-grave race. BIBLIOGRAPHY Shetrone, H. C. The Mound-Builders. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1931. 508 p. ^ ^ Jones, Joseph. Explorations of the Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 22 : 1-171, 1880. Jones, Joseph, op. cit., pp. 146-147. Anthropology — 1937 Meeting 93 Ornamental Uses of the So-called Banner Stones* Byron W. Knoblock LaGrange, Illinois Over a period of years numerous theories have been advanced as to the uses to which the Indians put the banner stones, their supposed importance, and how certain shapes originated as copies of the European holed axes, other frivolous concepts such as effigies of the tail of the whale, have been associated to other shapes. In many of the older publications that refer to these artifacts the writers had dwelt on the subject but vaguely. In fact, at one time it was thought that banner stones did not occur any farther west than the state of Ohio. But since these early books were written much has been learned about them. A great number of the specimens that have since been discovered consist of shapes and types that the writers at that time did not know existed. Therefore many of the old theories concerning these artifacts can be disregarded. It seems that at this time there is but one theory pertaining to their purpose or uses that has survived, the theory that they were tribal symbols, ceremonially used; at least this seems to be the general belief. There is the question whether or not some of these stones were regarded as symbols of a sacred nature. It is very possible that a belief of this nature existed. While it is very apparent that the custom was to place these symbols on the ends of staffs to be used ceremonially, it is believed that they were also adjuncts to ceremonial headdresses. Yet I believe that we can consider the possibility that the greater part of them were used ornamentally in other ways without detracting from their ceremonial significance. A favorite theory is that banner stones were insignias of rank to denote official authority of the chiefs, medicine men, shamans and priests. In con¬ nection with this same theory it may be supposed that certain shaped forms represented a chief’s rank, other shapes the medicine men, shamans and priests. Possibly certain shapes were issued to braves that had performed some important feat, much in the same manner that we issue medals to heroes today. This theory leaves one with the impression that these artifacts were but individual possessions. Personally I disregard this theory for that reason, and also because of the fact that if these stones were but individual possessions they would occur more frequently in mounds. A more plausible theory, that seems at this time to be the most popularly adopted one, is that banner-stones were tribal symbols, that were used ceremonially and were only in the possession of those of authority. While this theory may seem directly associated to the previous theory mentioned, at least to the extent of possessorship, it is entirely different, for it places these artifacts on a higher plane. We may surmise that these symbols were highly prized and protected and were regarded with reverence by the whole community. Judging from the fact that certain areas furnish different shaped banner-stones, it is but natural to assume that the widely scattered villages and tribes were makers of different shaped tribal symbols. The fact that they so seldom occur in mounds * The article is taken from the manuscript of the author’s forthcoming 500- page volume, “Banner-Stones of the North American Indian,” which is expected to go to press in the fall of 1938. 94 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions is another reason to believe that they were tribally owned and were with¬ held from burials and were handed down from one person of authority to another. Although many theories have been advanced, the subject is still open for further discussion, and at this time I shall take the liberty to express my opinion on the subject as follows: First, it seems that the evolution of banner-stones is a very important point to consider in arriving at conclusions. Many of the early perforated pebble forms are but one and one-half to two inches in size. Their in- signifance may lead one to believe that they probably served as beads, pendants, or ornaments that were used in some other fashion. It may be possible that some of the larger specimens were put on the ends of staffs, but, because of their crudeness and simplicity of lines, we may believe they were only individual possessions and were not tribal symbols. Second, when the early primary forms developed to their higher plane of more decorative designs of beauty, they were adopted as tribal symbols. The reason for this decision is because of the one fact that we can not side-step; the great number of primary forms that are broken out at the ends of the holes, presumably by the inserting of staffs, indicates that they were carried as ceremonial symbols. We must not forget to realize that considerable time was involved before the early primary forms developed to this stage of perfection and were adopted for ceremonial purposes. Third, after studying great numbers of primary and blending forms from the southern areas I have found that the holes in them will average much larger in size than the higher developed and type specimens, that occur farther north. It seems very apparent that the early banner-stones that were used as symbols were placed mainly on the ends of staffs. Fourth, judging from the great number of higher developed and type specimens that I have examined, I find that the perforations in them not only average smaller in size than those of the primary and blending forms from the southern areas, but the perforations in a great percentage of them are so small that it is very obvious that they were never made with the intention of placing them on staffs. This fact can be noted especially by studying the bipinnate banded slate specimens, and one will find that many of them have perforations of but % of an inch in diameter. There are also many that have been drilled from each end with a solid stick or a flint drill that left a conical hole from each end, meeting in the middle with but a very small opening. Therefore we may be confident that the great number of the specimens that have the small perforations were never placed on the ends of staffs, and furthermore it is very obvious that it would have been impossible to do so. Fifth, while it seems very apparent that we can form the conclusion that all banner-stones that have exceptionally small perforations were worn, I believe that we can also apply this same conclusion on all the higher developed specimens in general, including those that have the larger perforations, and which we do know were placed on staffs and carried in the tribal ceremonies. I arrive at this decision because I realize how inconvenient it would be for an individual to carry around with him at all times a banner-stone on the end of a stick, waiting for a designated time for the next ceremony to take place. Naturally, it would be more convenient for them to remove the banner-stones from the staffs after the ceremonies and either cache them away or place them in the possession of the chiefs, medicine men, shamans and priests. However, it may also seem very logical that they were fashioned on head-dresses or worn on necklaces or used in other methods of adornment, mainly for safekeeping and thus serving them ornamentally. Anthropology — 1937 Meeting 95 Various Types of Kingston Site Burials Anson M. Simpson Peoria. Academy of Science, Peoria, Illinois Of the five types of burials at Kingston Site some indicated careless¬ ness while others showed great care in preparation to honor the dead. Carelessness was clearly manifested by fragments of human bones, skulls and mandibles scattered about on the village floor and many old storage pits containing fragments of skeletons, also shallow pockets in the village floor holding parts of human remains. Type Number One: This was a platform form burial. It consisted of a rectangular dirt platform, seven feet long, two feet four inches wide and fourteen inches high, encircled by a layer of three-inch stone slabs on which rested two rows of stone slabs set on edge, forming a continuous wall around the dirt platform flush with the floor. On this platform rested the skeleton of an adult with head to the west and body not flexed. A large spawl scraper lay near the pelvic bone. Nothing remained of the skeleton but a few fragments of bone, bone dust and the enamel caps of the teeth. Type Number Two: A bark lined pit burial. The pit was seven feet by five feet and eight inches deep, lined with bark. On the bark rested three skeletons, side by side, with heads to the west and not flexed. The skulls of two were missing. The third was the skeleton of a youth about fourteen years old, whose skull appeared to have been scalped. Beneath the scapula of the youth were two small triangular chert points. Between the youth and the second skeleton, near the shoulder was a copper jacketed wooden ear ornament. A small pile of crappie scales (identified by Donald F. Hanson, Zoologist, Urbana, Illinois) was between the second and third skeletons. At the head of the grave in the right hand corner was a large diseoidal and near the wall in the pit at the left side of the grave were three hammer stones. The burial goods and skeletons were covered with a heavy layer of bark. The moisture held by the bark floor had almost destroyed the bones. Type Number Three: The grave had passed through the black loam and a lense of clay twelve inches thick to the gravel below, on which rested two skeletons, side by side, extended, and with heads to the south. The arms of one were flexed across the abdomen. The bones were very soft. This grave contained considerable burial goods. On the right arm of the first skeleton was a sleevelet made of 694 clamshell disk beads, against which rested a twelve inch flint blade with the point toward the shoulder. Near the elbow of the left arm was a one inch crystal bead. Just below the feet was a cache of twenty-four triangular, notched, chert points. At the head between the skeletons were four copper cups, one- half inch in diameter. Three of the cups were crushed. The cups were on what appeared to be the remains of a woven mat or perhaps a medicine bag. At the head of the second skeleton was an eight inch bowl and a grooved sandstone sharpener. At the feet were two more bowls. All the bowls were crushed but have now been restored. 96 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Type Number Four: This grave was a shallow circular pit and con¬ tained a much flexed skeleton in a sitting posture with head turned to the left, facing the west. The bones were in poor condition. This burial con¬ tained no artifacts, but was, nevertheless, an intrusive burial. Type Number Five: This burial, also intrusive, was in a shallow grave eighteen inches deep. The skeleton rested on the right side with the lower legs flexed back. The skull was missing. The bones were very soft. There were no artifacts. The grave was partly over a five foot, old storage pit and in the over burden of the village site. I might add also that five inches below this skeleton, on the village floor, were two sixteen inch, shell tempered crushed plates and in the storage pit were fragments of eighty-four pots and many broken tools of bone and shell. Anthropology — 1937 Meeting 97 Monolithic Axes Claude U. Stone Peoria Academy of Science, Peoria, Illinois It is customary at the outset of a discussion to define the topic. Such a course is perhaps advisable in the present instance, as there might be some who will conclude that due to my long political experience I have chosen to speak about political axes — the kind that politicians are always grinding. I will admit an exhaustive knowledge of that subject, but monolithic axes are something different. A monolithic ax is an ax — or hatchet-shaped implement — comprising both blade and handle, all cut from a single piece of stone. The blade of a monolithic ax resembles many of the stone celts or wedge-shaped or ungrooved axes at one time in common use, especially among the southern Indians. The monolithic ax may be regarded as per¬ petuating the manner in which axes of this class were frequently hafted and carried by the prehistoric people of America for domestic and perhaps war¬ like purposes. The handle or hafting of the monolithic ax is of stone and of one piece with the blade, whereas the celt or ungrooved ax had to be hafted with a wooden handle. The literature on the subject of monolithic axes is very scanty. Very few monolithic axes have been found within the United States. Warren King Moorehead, writing his Etowah Papers in 1932, said: “Ten or twelve monolithic axes have been found in the central southern portion of the United States.” Jones, in “Antiquities of the Southern Indians,” published in 1873, writes as follows about one monolithic ax: (Condensed quotation) “Professor Joseph Jones discovered in a sepulchral mound on the bank of the Cumber¬ land river, opposite the city of Nashville, Tennessee, an ax of this class. The entire implement was cut out of a solid piece of greenstone. The handle is thirteen inches and a half in length, an inch and a half wide, and about an inch thick. At the lower end is a hole for the suspension and convenient transportation of the weapon when not in actual use. The ax is about six inches long, two inches and a quarter wide at the cutting edge, and an inch and a half broad at the other end. It is three-quarters of an inch thick.” The author, Mr. Jones, further says: “An implement precisely similar in material and construction was taken from a grave mound in York District, South Carolina, about ten years ago.” Warren King Moorehead, in “Stone Age in North America,” on page 328 writes (condensed quotation) : “Some years ago a colored man ploughing near one of the larger mounds at Moundsville, Alabama, found a superb hatchet and handle carved from a solid mass, probably amphibolite, and highly polished. This hatchet was procured by Mr. C. S. Prince, from whom it was obtained by the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia. The hatchet is 11.6 inches in length, with a neatly made ring at the end of the handle and there is a graceful, backward curve of the part of the handle above the blade.” Warren King Moorehead in his Etowah Papers, in discussing the exhu¬ mation of skeleton No. 50 in the Etowah Mound in Georgia, writes: “A beau¬ tifully worked monolithic ax something over a foot in length lay at the side of the burial. It was wrought from blue limestone and highly polished.” 98 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Writing further in the same volume, Mr. Moorehead says: “Another, but not so beautifully made, was found many years ago in Mississippi County, Arkansas, and is now in the collection of Mr. Morris of that county.” Some of these five specimens are mentioned in other publications, such as Thruston’s “Antiquities of Tennessee,” but no additional information is given. A canvass of the museums and private collections would have to be made to learn the histories of all the ten or twelve monolithic axes that Mr. Moorehead says were in existence in 1932. The locality where some of these specimens were found has not been recorded and the description of them has not been given in any publication that is now available. The particular specimens which I am scheduled to discuss today are not included among the ten or twelve mentioned by Mr. Moorehead. They were found September 28, 1935, in Big Temple Mound, near Spiro, in LeFlores County, Oklahoma. Four were found together, and according to style of construction were in pairs. Big Temple Mound is one of a group of twelve mounds extending along a distance of about one mile on the Oklahoma side of the Arkansas river, about sixteen miles below Fort Smith. At the outset it was excavated unscientifically and for purely commercial purposes by several young men of the community. Local amateur archeologists manifested an early interest and watched the progress of the excavation and took many snapshots of material discovered. It is to be regretted that professional archeologists continued to be skeptical for such a long period about the remarkable dis¬ coveries made. In the meantime the several young farmers who had leased the mound were taking out truck loads of the finest prehistoric Indian arti¬ facts ever found within the borders of the United States. The monolithic axes, about which I am speaking today, were among the many things unearthed. Finally, although belatedly, professional archeologists became excited and prevailed upon the State of Oklahoma to enact a law prohibiting all except certified archeologists from exploring mounds. The University of Oklahoma now has charge of the further exploration of Big Temple Mound. It is sincerely hoped that ultimately a comprehensive and scientific publication about this mound will be issued. When the farmer boys had control of the digging, from four to seven men were busy with spades and shovels. Now, under the direction of the University of Oklahoma, eighty-five W.P.A. workers are employed with spades and shovels. Much new material has been found and soon it will all be securely boxed up in the basement of one of the university buildings at Norman, Oklahoma. The inquiry generally is made with reference to any archeological speci¬ men as to the culture classification, but the little that I shall say on that subject will be uttered with the greatest hesitation. That is a field of specu¬ lation, confusion and controversy that I am reluctant to invade. Perhaps I should protect myself by stating as the professional archeologist invariably does that it will require further exploration and study to reach a positive conclusion. Anyhow, some one might produce a tiny potsherd and then all other evidence would be knocked into a cocked hat and the culture would be fixed as woodland, middle Mississippi, Cumberland-Tennessee, et cetera as the case might be according to potsherd rules. I shall with caution merely suggest that the presence of monolithic axes in a mound might indicate southern Mexican or Central American — perhaps even Mayan influence. If one examines the picture of the Elephant Headed God Chac, as shown in the Dresden Codex, it will be observed that this Mayan God has what appears to be a monolithic ax in one hand. Again, Anthropology — 1937 Meeting 99 maces, scepters, disks, decorated shells and other Mayan artifacts have been found in the several mounds where monolitic axes have been found. Such artifacts were found in great numbers in Big Temple Mound. However, I shall leave the question of particular culture for others to determine. I am content for the present to think of them as belonging to that one general culture as shown by unity of physical traits, unity of ideology, etc. of the people that held sway over America before its discovery by Columbus. There is one attribute suggested by these monolithic axes that is not comprehended in the “Cultural patterns, phases, aspects, foci and com¬ ponents” of the professional archeologist, that is the attribute of beauty or art. Fortunately, that is, according to my way of thinking, there are some archeologists and collectors who have not been carried away by the present craze or style for scratching through rubbish and garbage heaps for frag¬ ments of pottery to the exclusion of all other remains and artifacts of primitive Americans. Persons under the spell of this craze for potsherds laugh in scorn at anyone as a person of perverted and monstrous tastes and mentality who seeks beauty in a prehistoric “relic” as they disparagingly term any artifact that shows skillful workmanship. Too often the profes¬ sional archeologist in studying scraps from refuse piles in his attempts to establish cultures, loses the artistic appreciation that certainly was one of the fine characteristics of the prehistoric American Indian. Such so called archeologists fail to see the woods because the trees are constantly in the way. They are like the technical botanist who loses the beauty of the plants and flowers in tearing them to pieces in his efforts to classify them. Perhaps I should admit it shamefacedly, but these monolithic axes are undoubtedly able to pass as pretty pieces. Undoubtedly the Indian who once possessed them thought likewise and valued them because of that fact. Some Indians were artists even if some archeologists are not. They could find in their back yard a rock or piece of stone which would serve to make an ax, a pipe, or other necessary tool. But they were not content with any piece of stone or the quality of workmanship that would merely serve the purposes of utility. They would travel hundreds of miles to find a rock that was pretty and would take a high polish and they would fashion that rock with all the skill of a modern lapidary into a thing of beauty. Doubtless they were thrilled and filled with joy as they viewed a masterpiece turned out by their own hands. We can gain a higher estimate of the character and the civilization of prehistoric Americans if we study what were their prized possessions instead of what they sent to the dump. The civilization of any people can best be judged by their parlors rather than by their alleys — or at least we should be fair and consider both and judge from both. I admit that I like pretty pieces — pieces that show skill and a sense of symmetry and beauty in their construction. I like them because I believe the Indians liked them. Many people who have visited Greece and Italy have felt elevated and inspired as they viewed the ancient sculptures, paintings and buildings of those two historic countries, although they did not know the names of the artists or the particular five foot square upon which they did their work or where some fine example of it was found after the passage of centuries and in leaving those countries they have exclaimed with the poet about “The glory that was Greece and the grandeur that was Rome.” If we should contemplate with a proper sense of appreciation the genius and skill and artistic conception of the prehistoric American Indian we would be compelled to exclaim about the glory and the grandeur of the first Americans. —3 PAPERS IN BOTANY Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman The Botany program carried twenty-five papers, of which twenty-three are here represented. The others are: Botany in a Large City High School, by Ruth Williston, Oak Park and River Forest Township High School. Testing for Organization Ability in Biology, by C. E. Montgomery, Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb. Average attendance at the meeting was seventy. Paul Houdek, 710 North Cross Street, Robinson, Illinois, was elected chairman for the 1938 meeting of the Botany Section. (Signed) Neil E. Stevens, Chairman \ non Botany — 1937 Meeting 103 Tiny Toadstools on Crop Plants in Illinois G. H. Boewe Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana, Illinois Records of the occurrence and distribution of tiny toadstools on small grains and fruits in Illinois are rare, and have been made only in recent years. The first collection of a toadstool parasitic on wheat was made 15 years ago in Madison County by Dr. P. A. Young who described it as Marasmius tritici.1 It has been collected on other small grains in the north¬ ern half of the state, once on oats and rye and twice on barley. Affected wheat plants have been found in 8 other widely separated counties, ranging from Knox on the north to Alexander in the south and Edgar and Wabash along the east side of the state. Marasmius tritici is not limited to small grains but has been collected on two grass hosts, Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. and an unidentified species. The second kind, a species of Naucoria shown in figure 1, was collected by the author in the summer of 1935 on wheat, rye, and barley. The first collection was made from wheat May 16 in Massac County. Later in the same year, collections were made on barley in Randolph County and on rye in two widely separated counties, Vermilion and Carroll. In 1936, the fungus was found on wheat in the same field as in the previous year, but it was less abundant, probably due to the dry weather. While fruit trees are known to be attacked by the wood-rotting fungi which produce large sporophores, there are only three records of the occur¬ rence of tiny toadstools on apple and pear in the state. The first collection, made in 1930 in Adams County, was a Marasmius found growing on one of the larger limbs of a Grimes Golden apple tree. In all probability this plant was saprophytic, since it was growing on the outer dead bark of the limb. The second record is from Clay County, where Marasmius pyrinus Ellis was collected August 20, 1934, on one living pear leaf. The fungus was growing on a portion of the leaf killed by a leaf miner. The original descrip¬ tion of this fungus was made from toadstools growing on old fallen leaves. The third collection of tiny toadstools on fruit trees was made August 14, 1935, from old apple trees in an orchard in Marion County. There were approximately 150 trees of the Wealthy variety in the planting and every tree examined showed signs of infection. This fungus, shown in figure 2 and provisionally called Marasmius pyrinus Ellis, has sporophores as large as the smallest in Ellis’ North American Fungi, No. 401. The stipe of the fungus on living apple twigs is filiform and about 3 mm. long, and the pilei are very small, membraneous, and lighter in color on the under surface. The most noticeable characteristic of trees attacked by this fungus is the peculiar cankers produced by the splitting and rolling of the outer bark of the smaller twigs, which is shown in figure 3. The splitting of the bark is due to pressure exerted by the formation in the inner bark of a stromatic cushion from which the sporophore arises. Usually only one sporophore occurs on a stroma but occasionally two grow very close together. 1 Young, P. A. 1925. A Marasmius parasitic on small grains in Illinois. Phytopath. 15(2) :115-118. 5 figs., bibliog., Feb. 104 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions EXPLANATION OF FIGURES Fig. 1. — Sporophore of Naucoria species on dead tillers of barley (left) and wheat (2 plants at right). Note the shredded condition of remains of tiller in center plant. ( % natural size.) Fig. 2. — Showing tiny sporophore of fungus on living apple twigs. Note raised portion in center of spot, stromatic cushion to which sporophore is attached. (4/5 nat. size.) Fig. 3. — Apple twigs showing typical cankers with rolled edges of split bark, thus exposing stromatic pad. (4/5 nat. size.) (Photographs by Ray Hamm, University of Illinois Photographic Laboratory.) Botany— 1937 Meeting 105 Regions of Growth in Hypocotyls Charles E. Brian and E. L. Stover Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Illinois This work was first begun in connection with a study by Mr. Stover of cell differentiation in hypocotyls, particularly that of the origin and de¬ velopment of the secondary thickenings of the walls of the xylem elements. In order to do this we first wanted to determine the region or regions of growth of which this paper is the result. Only one other study of the growth of hypocotyls could be found, and in this there were no recorded measure¬ ments of the growth regions.1 An extensive study has been made of the regions of growth in hypocotyls of lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus, L.), watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris, Schd.), and castor-bean (Ricinus communis, L.). All seeds were germinated and grown between damp paper hand-towels in white porcelain pans placed in dark drawers. The seeds were disinfected by washing in a solution of 5% formaldehyde, and then rinsed in distilled water. Only distilled water was used in keeping the plants moist. The lima beans and watermelon seeds were grown at room temperature (22 C.); the castor-beans were kept in a warmer room of about 32 C. The castorbean seeds, when kept at room temperature, grew very slowly, and usually were soon destroyed by a brown endosperm rot. The hypocotyls of the different seeds in their early growth were divided into four equal segments, the first segment being immediately below the cotyledons, and the second, third, and fourth in the order named toward the root. The markings were made on the young hypocotyls in black carbon ink with fine glass capillary tubes which held a supply of ink. By using these tubes instead of pens, which were too large and blunt, or needles, which did not hold a supply of ink, a fine round stippling point was obtained. In the case of watermelon the segments were only one millimeter in length. The location of the junction of hypocotyl and root in the very early stages of growth cannot always be determined with exactness. In the later growth the two can be distinguished by the smooth shiny surface of the hypocotyl and the dull white appearance of the root. When the plants were held up to a strong direct light, the hypocotyledonary plate, which is located at the junction of hypocotyl and root, showed up as a comparatively small dark region. If in the later measurements, it was found that the hypocotyl and hypocotyl markings did not coincide, that specimen was discarded. Measurements were made every 24 hours with needle-like adjustable dividers, transferred to a millimeter scale, the length recorded, and the in¬ crease in length determined. Only the increase in length was used in mak¬ ing the charts and graphs. Several sets of a large number of seeds of each type were germinated, and the hypocotyls measured for several days. The lima bean was studied through nine days, the watermelon ten days, and the castor bean only four. 1 Halsted, Byron D., New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 245 (1912). 106 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions It was necessary to begin with approximately 60 seeds in each set in order to end the experiment with 15 to 25 seeds, so that an average could be taken. Some were lost because they failed to germinate, others were destroyed by various fungus growths (in spite of treatment), in others the hypocotyls and hypocotyl markings failed to coincide, and in some the root tips were broken in handling. Lima Bean — Twenty-five seeds were studied for nine days. The begin¬ ning segment lengths were 3.78 millimeters. The first four days the second segment increased in length the most but from the fifth day on, the first seg¬ ment increased by far the greatest. The third and fourth segments increased very little, the fourth segment increasing the least. At the end of nine days, the first segment (which in the beginning was equal to the others) was 45.4% of the total length of the hypocotyl. The second was 31.5%, the third 13.5%, and the fourth only 9.6%. Watermelon — When the watermelon seeds were first germinating, a part of the seed coat was broken off in order to expose all the hypocotyl and to permit it to grow straighter, because the peculiar heel did not develop quite so prominently. Fourteen seeds were studied for 10 days. The beginning segment lengths were 4.0 millimeters. The first segment grew the most throughout the 10 days, at the end of which it was 59.4% of the total length of the hypocotyl. The second was 22.5%, the third 12.9%, and the fourth 5.2%. Castor- Bean — Soon after the castor-beans were germinated, they were operated upon to expose the full length of the hypocotyl for measurement. A portion of the endosperm was simply cut away. A peculiar situation was met in the study of the castor-bean. At about the second day the endosperm began to split away from the cotyledons; on the third day it was far enough removed that the young plants starved. This shows clearly the necessity of close contact between cotyledons and endosperm to insure absorption of digested food from the endosperm. At the end of two days growth the first segment had increased 3.84 millimeters, the second segment 2.53 millimeters, the third segment .72 millimeters, and the fourth .30 millimeters. SUMMARY It was observed that the growth of the hypocotyls was decreased by daily exposure, handling, and changing of position. It has been shown that the region of growth in the hypocotyls of these plants is not limited to any one segment, but by far the greatest growth occurs in that portion immediately below the cotyledons, the amount of elongation decreasing uniformly from the top of the hypocotyl to its base. Botany — 1937 Meeting 107 Elementary Botany at Northwestern University Margery C. Carlson Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois Several colleges and universities have been experimenting with the first year course in botany in answer to a need for a course which will attempt to serve the large percentage of students who do not specialize in botany, which will orient the student to his life and give him scientific habits of thought. We have changed our procedure in the laboratory and expect to make a change in content of the course next year. Since we have taught the same subject matter by the old and the new methods it is possible to make certain comparisons. Formerly there were two two-hour laboratory periods per week. The student followed directions in a printed laboratory manual, studied the material, made drawings and answered questions in a notebook which was handed in at the end of the period. The instructor and assistants helped and supposedly questioned the student on the topic for study. Notebooks furnished the basis for the laboratory grade. Textbook assignments were made but their study was not guided. We now have two one-hour laboratory periods per week. The class is guided in the study of the material by oral directions and questions. The topic is discussed in the presence of the material. The student may take notes or make sketches as he pleases. Assigned work, which consists of organizing, summarizing, relating the day’s work to previous work, and drawing of conclusions, is prepared after the period, handed in at the next period and corrected, but not graded. Laboratory grades are based on the students’ observations and understanding. By the new method it is possible to lead the student to draw conclusions based on facts which he collects and organizes; he reviews his work with the use of lecture notes and textbook soon after its presentation; his note¬ book is his own; he is graded on his responses during the discussions. We have found it possible to increase the amount of subject matter, even with half the class time. Although no exact comparative study of results has been made, the grades of students seem to be about the same as with the old method which probably shows that they are learning the facts equally well. The chief advantages of the new method seem to lie in the necessity for independent observation, the training in how to gather, organize and evaluate facts, and how to express thoughts precisely and accurately. 108 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions A Comparative Study of Certain Fungi Cultivated on Carbohydrate Media A. E. Edgecombe Northwestern University , Evanston, Illinois This study was undertaken in the hope that some further light may be thrown on the reaction of fungi to certain carbohydrates when they are grown in a carbohydrate medium. Many years ago Knudson, 1917, working in the laboratories at Cornell University, discovered that the roots of green plants become discolored and partially disintegrate when they are grown on an agar medium containing galactose as a component, but on the other hand no deleterious effects were observed when other sugars such as sucrose and glucose were used as an agar ingredient. Because of the nature of their cell wall, fungi often react somewhat dif¬ ferently from the ordinary green plant in their behaviour toward certain ingredients found in their immediate culture media. For that reason six species of fungi from as many genera were selected for this study. To provide as great a variety over as wide a range as pos¬ sible the fungi were chosen to represent the Phycomycetes, the Ascomycetes and the Fungi Imperfecti. Phytophthora cactorum and Saprolegnia ferox were selected to typify the Phycomycetes in this study, Sclerotinia cinerea and Physalospora cydoniae represented the Ascomycetes, while Alternaria and Rolfsii covered the Fungi Imperfecti. The three basic media chosen for the experiment were those of Czapek, Waksman, and Sabouraud. The principal ingredients in these media are: GzapeTc 2 NaNOs 1 KH2PO4 .5 MgS04.7H20 .01 FeSCh 15 Agar 10 Sugar Litre Water Waksman 5 Peptone 1 KILPCh .5 MgS04.7H20 15 Agar 10 Sugar Litre Water Sat) our and 10 Peptone 15 Agar 10 Sugar Litre Water The four carbohydrates, selected as ingredients in each of the basic media chosen, were glucose, sucrose, galactose and starch. Galactose being the supposedly toxic carbohydrate was chosen in contrast to the simple non¬ toxic carbohydrates, namely glucose, sucrose and starch. The rate of growth of the fungi and the abundance of mycelium pro¬ duced on the galactose media were compared with the rate of growth and abundance of mycelium when the fungi were grown on a non-galactose but carbohydrate media. In the beginning the main difficulty was to establish a method to grow the fungi under uniform conditions of temperature and moisture and to record the data at approximately uniform intervals. Botany — 1937 Meeting 109 The fungi were developed in medium sized petri dishes. Sets of six cul¬ tures were prepared for every different test made. Readings were taken daily and graphs were made from the average of readings from every set of six similar cultures. The cultures were grown in the dark in an incubator at a constant temperature of 25°C. On recording the data as to rate of growth in equivalent increments of time it was found, that unlike the results obtained when green plants were grown on galactose media, and their roots, according to Knudson and others, showed evidence of toxic effects, the fungi here tested showed no discolora¬ tion of mycelium nor any indication of disintegration of hyphae. In most cases tested the abundance of mycelium produced was slightly less when the fungi were grown on a galactose agar media than the quantity of growth that resulted when the fungi were grown on glucose, sucrose or even starch agar media. The rate of growth was also slightly less in most cases and there was some indication of irregularities in the mycelial hyphae as was evidenced by swellings that appeared in various cells of the fungous filaments when the fungi were grown on galactose agar media. The size of the colony and the width of the hyphal threads were less in all cases in growths made on galactose agar cultures. Horr (1936), working at the University of Kansas, and investigating Aspergillus niger and Penicillium glaucum, found that the mycelium was produced more abundantly and more quickly when the fungi were grown on glucose agar than when the fungi were cultivated on a galactose agar media. He ascribed the reduction in the quantity of growth and the pres¬ ence of abnormal structures in the hyphal threads to the toxic effect of the galactose in the agar media. However, Horr limited his work to the study of two species of fungi and furthermore made his experiments by growing the fungi in liquid media. He then collected the mycelium, dried the hyphal mass and estimated the gain or loss on a percentage basis. Under those conditions Horr found that the galactose media always proved to be a toxic or at least a slightly in¬ hibitory culture media. The results of the present study, obtained by using a greater number and variety of fungi, parallel in many respects the fungous changes observed by Horr in his studies on Aspergillus niger and Penicillium glaucum, but in addition the results also seem to indicate that galactose as an ingredient of an agar media does not exert the same definitely deleterious effect on the mycelium of fungi as it does on the roots of green plants, such as the garden pea. The difference in behavior toward galactose between green plants and fungi may be due in part to the nature of the fungous wall, to the manner of feeding by the fungus or to the ability by the fungus to more readily utilize the galactose. In all cases observed there was some slight retardation in the rate of fungous growth, a slight depreciation in the abundance of mycelium formed, a slightly narrower hyphal thread, some reduction in the size of colony formation, and an increase in the abnormal structures formed. The fungi are slightly retarded in their growth responses in the pres¬ ence of galactose in the media, but there is no prolonged retardation of growth, either in rate, or in abundance of mycelium, and there is never any evidence of discoloration or disintegration of the mycelium. This may be due to resistance on the part of the fungus or to its manner of securing and synthesizing food materials. 110 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Several suggestions have been made to explain the deleterious effect of galactose on the growth and development of plants in artificial culture. Knudson suggests in his studies on pea that the toxicity might be due to the oxidation products of galactose. Maximov on the other hand believes that the retardation in growth is due to the slower utilization of galactose by plants due to the peculiar structural configuration of galactose. Horr working with Aspergillus niger and Penicillium glaucum, thinks that the retardation in growth and the development of abnormal structures are due to the fact that galactose is a poor source of carbon. REFERENCES 1. Knudson, L. — Toxicity of galactose for certain of the higher plants. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 2: 659-666, 1915. 2. Young, H. C., and Bennett, C. W. — Growth of some parasitic fungi in syn¬ thetic culture media. Amer. Jour. Bot. 9: 459-469, 1922. 3. Knudson, L. — Toxicity of galactose and mannose for green plants and the antagonistic action of other sugars. Amer. Jour. Bot. 4 : 430-437, 1917. 4. Horr, W. H. — Utilization of galactose by Aspergillus niger and Penicillium glaucum. Plant Physiology 11 : 81-100, 1936. Botany — 1937 Meeting 111 Botany in a Small High School With Access to the Country Sister Claretta Easter Aquin High School, Freeport, Illinois Aquin High School has an enrollment of about one hundred seventy-five students. Biology is offered as an elective to the sophomore class — twenty- four of the thirty-four elect it. A carefully planted campus, the “laboratory” work of the biology students from year to year furnishes a good proving ground for botanical effort. Others are Krape’s Park, the Forest Preserves in Winnebago County and Apple River Canyon, Jo Daviess County. Textbook teaching ignores the first tenets of scientific procedure in that it fails to produce the object under discussion. The basic text as such is a ball and chain for most of our teachers. Accordingly I abolished the text for a year as an experiment. The results were gratifying. Thus the field, a boundless laboratory, becomes the logical alternative in which to observe and live life, hence there is no monotonous routine. Modern science owes its progress to the fact that it has sought truth by direct observation. Therefore, a biology course should open up to the student the fascinating field of general biological speculation and investiga¬ tion. We remember poorly the printed text, but best our actual experiences. There is nothing that can take the place of the actual specimen. The best way to acomplish this end is to build up a teaching museum. An ap¬ propriation for such material is difficult to obtain but a period of years plus a well thought out plan may turn the trick. The life-history method of teaching biology seems a satisfactory one. By such a method we attain the primary end of elementary biology teaching — namely, to introduce students to their animal and plant neighbors and make them familiar with their home life. The division of my course is a seasonal one. Fall offers opportunity to study the preparation of plants for the long winter, the falling of leaves, autumn coloration, fruit coverings, and seed dispersal. Part of this is done right on the campus. Students are counseled to proceed under their own initiative. Quizzing is done in the field; not formally in the class room. Trips to the Pecatonica and to a florist greenhouse are part of the fall work. It is in October or November that subjects for the convention are submitted by the students, each choosing one field in which by his research work he will become an “authority.” Each student becomes a delegate to the convention representing the state which would most likely furnish, in abundance, specimens for his project. For example, conifers Maine, cacti Mexico and so forth. All extra time is devoted to this unit of study. Winter — the first snowfall finds us again in the woods studying insect galls, trees in their winter dress, wild seeds and fruits, lichens, mosses and woody fungi. Cakes of ice from ponds containing algae are brought into the laboratory and the production of zoospores is observed. 112 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions During the very cold weeks of January and February considerable micro¬ scope work is done. Collections of previous months are mounted. Terraria of the desert and woodland type are assembled. A study of plant propaga¬ tion is made at this time, too. Work on our garden show is begun in March. These are in miniature, either formal or informal. Rock gardens with running streams, game pre¬ serves, truck gardens, city front yards and New York tenement gardens are some of the usual entries. These are displayed at the public library. The garden show idea varies. One year we prepared displays of correct arrangement of flowers for various occasions. Another an outside garden show in which we planted trees and shrubs. The arrival of spring arouses a desire to make an early call to the old hunting grounds. We note what trees leaf and blossom first, the wild flowers, the medicinal herbs. Preparations for the scientific convention reach completion in May — an annual affair the procedure for which is exactly that of the A. A. A. S. A noted scientist is invited to speak on the program, lectures are given by the students, round table discussions are scheduled and explanatory tours of the exhibits are made. Thus the convention serves as a complete review for the biology students, a revelation for many outsiders and an incentive for those lower classmen who are doubtful of their electives for the coming year. Botany — 1937 Meeting 113 Effects of Heat and Cold Treatment Upon Enzyme Activity in Bulbs and Corms Harry J. Fuller and John H. Hanley University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Among the commonly used methods of breaking the dormancy of plant organs is their treatment with various stimulating gases such as ethylene chlorhydrin, and their exposure for varying periods of time to temperatures considerably above or below normal temperatures prevailing during the rest period. In the present work, the storage stems of hyacinth Marconi, gladi¬ olus Picardy, and Ornithogalum umbellatum were exposed (in the mid¬ portion of their dormant period) to temperatures of 50 °C and 40 °C for 24 hours; controls were those kept at 20 °C throughout their dormant period. The experimental groups were placed in damp sphagnum and kept for the 24-hour period in constant-temperature cases in the greenhouse. At the end of this period, the bulbs and corms were prepared from enzyme tests in the following manner: The outer coverings were removed and 20-gram portions were cut from the bulbs. These were run through the nut-chopper of a kitchen grinder. To the ground pulp 10 cc. of distilled water were added. In the case of catalase, 2 grams of powdered calcium carbonate were added to the tissue as it passed through the grinder. The ground pulp and juice were then centrifuged, except in the case of catalase which is partially inactivated by centrifuging. For the determination of oxidase and peroxidase, the alpha- naphthol paraphenylenediamine hydrochloride method of Guthrie (1931) was used. One cc. portions of the centrifuged juice were added to the buffered substratum and the reaction was allowed to proceed for 15 minutes, at the end of which the color was extracted by toluol and differences in color in¬ tensity determined colorimetrically. Catalase was determined by the method of Waksman and Davison (1926) in which at the end of two hours’ reaction of the juice with hydrogen peroxide, the remaining peroxide is oxidized by N/5 potassium permanganate. Peptase was determined by the method of Sorensen (1908) which uses thymolphthalein as indicator. Invertase was determined by the Fehling method, the cuprous oxide measured by dissolv¬ ing the oxide in Bertrand’s solution and titrating the reduced iron with N/20 potassium permanganate. Diastase activity was measured by the Fehling method, the cuprous oxide being determined as in the case of invertase. The results of the enzyme tests are presented in the following table. The controls are represented by the value 100, the others by relative numbers for individual enzymes. 114 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Gladiolus Hyacinth Ornithogalum 5° to o o 40° 5° 20° 40° 5° 20° 40° Catalase . . 178 1 100 106 127 100 25 130 100 58 Oxidase _ _ _ _ 152 100 124 141 100 58 121 100 50 Peroxidase _ _ _ 129 100 110 128 100 69 133 100 78 Diastase _ 114 100 101 104 100 61 106 100 62 Invertase . . 110 100 102 101 100 78 110 100 109 Peptase.. .. .. .. _ 101 100 89 98 100 81 102 100 92 The table shows clearly the following: 1. Catalase, oxidase, and peroxidase show definitely accelerated activity in the 5° bulbs for all three species. These results coincide with those ob¬ tained by Denny, Miller, and Guthrie (1930) from experiments on bulbs and tubers treated with stimulating gases. 2. In the 40° bulbs, a slight acceleration in gladiolus and definite de¬ crease in activity of these enzymes in hyacinth and ornithogalum are ap¬ parent. In the two latter species, injury to the outer parts of the bulbs re¬ sulted from the 40° treatment. The outer scales were soft and mucilaginous as though they had been partially broken down by the high temperature. 3. The activity of diastase, invertase, and peptase were relatively little different in the various sets, except that in hyacinth and ornithogalum there was some depression of activity in the 40° bulbs, due undoubtedly to heat injury of the tissues. The 5° bulbs showed slightly greater degree of activity in these enzymes as compared with the controls, but whether these differ¬ ences are much beyond experimental error is problematical. One may con¬ clude that the oxidizing enzymes are those especially affected by the heat treatment. The 5° treatment was most effective in shortening the dormant period and in promoting growth. This effect coincides with the increased activity of the oxidizing enzymes. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. DENNY, F. E., L. P. MILLER AND J. O. GUTHRIE, Enzyme activities of juices from potatoes treated with chemicals that break the rest period. Contrib. Boyce Thompson Inst. 2:1930, 417-443. 2. GUTHRIE, J. D., A method for the determination of peroxidase activity. Am. Chem. Soc. Jour. 53 :1 93 1, 242-244. 3. SORENSEN, S. P., Enzymstudien. I. Uber die quantitation Messung pro- teolytischer Spaltungen. Biochem. Zeitschr. 7 :1908, 45-101. WAKSMAN, S. A., AND W. DAVISON, Enzymes. 1926. Catalase: pp. 252-255. 4. Botany — 1937 Meeting 115 Elementary Botany at the University of Illinois Harry J. Fuller University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois The elementary course in general botany at the University of Illinois has recently been altered to conform more appropriately with two newer viewpoints in plant science teaching — the integration of elementary botany into the cultural scheme of the liberal arts curriculum rather than instruc¬ tion for the training of professional botanists, and the establishment of a course in plant study without laboratory available to upper-classmen who, limited by advanced-course requirements in the pursuit of majors, are often unable to round out a broad cultural training in science because of the rela¬ tively large numbers of hours required by the usual elementary science course. In the adjustment of our course to meet the first of these view¬ points, we have completely eliminated or appreciably curtailed certain topics customarily included in the general botany course. Among such subjects are detailed food chemistry, the minutiae of stem anatomy and of life histories, the fern allies, genetics problems, and the tracing out of heterospory in plants. For them we have substituted or lifted into greater prominence the more imminent and often more vital studies of root growth and its relation to soil erosion, forest distribution in the United States, forest utilization, wood structure and properties in relation to uses, the cause, migration, and control of plant diseases, the interrelations of plants and animals, mechan¬ isms of pollination, the influence of specific crops upon human history, vege¬ tation types in Illinois, annual rings and climatic cycles, etc. These latter subjects by virtue of their contemporaneous significance, their part in the vast cycles of synthesis and analysis in nature, their emphasis upon the essential unity of living matter, or their pragmatic implications, focus and intensify attention and interest which often evaporate so easily under the continued impact of unrelated technical terms, difficult concepts, and unend¬ ing microscopic view of objects usually unplaced and unoriented in the student’s past or present experience with plants. The elementary botany course at the University of Illinois is a one- semester course, really made up of two courses, Botany la, with two lectures and one discussion group per week, and Botany lb, a laboratory course with 4 hours of laboratory work per week. The lectures in Botany la are given by five members of the full-time staff, each lecturing on subjects in, or related to, his special field of work. The laboratory teaching is the work of half¬ time graduate assistants under the supervision of a full-time staff member. There are two types of discussion groups. In those for students taking only the lecture course, the work of the discussion group is mainly demonstration and illustration by the instructor; in those groups for students registered in both lecture and laboratory courses, the work is largely devoted to review and recitation. All of the discussion groups are in charge of the men who lecture in the Botany la course. Insofar as possible, the lectures are supple¬ mented by motion pictures, some of them made by members of the staff, others obtained through the Visual Aids Service of the University. 116 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions In the laboratory course, microscopic examination of prepared slides has been reduced to a minimum. Whenever microscopic work is indicated, students are urged to make their own slides from fresh material. Field trips to University Woods, to the floriculture greenhouses, and on the campus to study native and cultivated trees, shrubs, and weeds are frequent. Drawing has been materially reduced and the traditional notebook is no longer a shibboleth in the presence of which the student who has little skill with pencil must tremble. Notebooks are collected at stated intervals by the instructors and are marked merely satisfactory or unsatisfactory. In the latter case the student must repair his work and submit it again for ap¬ proval. No grades are given these notebooks. The laboratory grade is based upon the student’s observational ability, upon the grades which he makes upon short weekly quizzes, and upon the midsemester and final examina¬ tions. Before the alterations in the course were made, six hours were spent Table I — Annual Enrollment Botany 1 (before separation) 1932-33 _ _ _ 222 266 1933-34 . . . . Botany la Botany lb 1934-35 _ _ _ 478* 345 1935-36 --- - _ _ 479 358 1936-37 . . - - 508 340 * A small portion of this increased enrollment is attributable to an increase of 7% in the total university enrollment over the enrollment of 1933-34. each week in laboratory. In the new course, two two-hour periods are spent in laboratory study. This reduction may be regarded as a wise move, for students, not beset by the fatiguing load of six hours of laboratory, work more briskly and accomplish virtually the same amount of work in the four- hour period. Further, many advanced students unable because of required courses to devote six hours weekly to laboratory study, are able to fit four hours into their programs. Statistics collected over a period of three years show interesting results of this cleavage of the elementary course. First, a marked increase in regis¬ tration followed the separation; this increase is to be attributed to two fac¬ tors: the reduction in laboratory hours, and the availability of a plant science course without laboratory work to groups of upperclassmen majoring in other fields. Table I presents enrollment figures for elementary botany be¬ fore and after the reorganization. Another result, one of great significance as a weapon against those who would replace the laboratory method by lecture-demonstrations, shows that laboratory study exerts a marked effect upon the mastery of textbook and lecture material. Table II presents grade distributions for two years for students registered in both lecture and laboratory courses and for students registered in only the lecture course. Botany — 1937 Meeting 117 Table II 1935-1936 1936-1937 Students taking both lecture and laboratory Students taking lecture only Students taking both lecture and laboratory Students taking lecture only A’s _ _ _ 20% 14% 15% 8% B’s _ 28% 19% 32% 27% C’s _ 37% 42% 35.5% 41% D’s _ 8% 14% 9% 14.5% E’s _ 7% 11% 8.5% 9.5% Before revision of the course two staff members presented most of the lectures. Since the reorganization of the course, five facultymen have given the lectures. Occasional complaint from students that “we can’t get adjusted to five styles of lecturing” led to a questionnaire upon their preferences in the matter of one lecturer or several lecturers. Table III shows the results of the questionnaire, correlated with the grades of the students polled. Table III Several lecturers preferred One lecturer preferred A students . . _ . . 27 3 B students _ _ _ 48 13 C students _ . _ 20 78 D students . . . . . . 4 26 E students . . . . . . . . . . 6 12 Total _ 105 132 The figures show clearly that the A and B students are inclined to include in their diets the spice of life, variable and uncertain though it may be, whereas the average and inferior students prefer to munch more regular, more readily digestible, perhaps more monotonous fare. The changed emphasis upon the material presented, the reduction in laboratory hours, and the abolition of the notebook fetish have contributed to a more satisfactory coordination with the liberal arts program and have increased markedly the interest shown by elementary students in plant study. The separation of the course has had one disadvantage — a large per¬ centage of the students registered for lecture only are low-quality students who are too lazy to register for five hours of science in one semester. This group distinctly retards the work of the lecture-only students. However, the fact that many able upperclassmen, who would not otherwise take botany, register for the lecture course is a desirable end which in our opinion out¬ weighs the just-mentioned disadvantage. 118 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Illinois Liverworts Stella Mary Hague University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois In recent years the Liverworts have been an almost forgotten group of plants. In 1878 Wolf and Hall listed 44 species, mostly from Fulton and Menard counties. In 1887 Brendel reported 25 species in his Flora Peoriana. During the past 50 years the collections of E. J. Hill around the southern part of Lake Michigan have been almost the only additions. This paper has been prepared to bring the record up to date and to point out an excellent field for amateur collectors and the opportunity to add to the knowledge of the flora of Illinois. Marchantiales Conocephalum conicum Wigg. Conocephalus conicus Bum. Fegatella conica Cor da Cook: Lemont (Hill Herb.) Champaign: Mahomet (U of I) Fulton, Menard, Union: (Wolf, Hall List) Kankakee: Kankakee (Hill Herb.) LaSalle: Starved Rock (Field Herb.) Menard: Athens (Field Herb.) Peoria: (U of I; Brendel List) St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) Asterella tenella (L.) Beauv. Fimbriaria tenella Nees. Cook: Sag Bridge (Field Herb.) Fulton, Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) Menard: Athens (Field Herb.) Knox: (Hill Herb.) Peoria: (Brendel List) Fimbriaria elegans Spreng. Union: Cobden (U of I) Duvalia, See Grimaldia Grimaldia fragrans (Balb.) Corda Duvalia barbifrons Bisch. Carrol: Sevanna (Hill Herb.) Cook: Lemont (Hill Herb., Field Herb.) Fulton, Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) Ogle: Oregon (Hill Herb., Field Herb.) Peoria: (Brendel List) Rock Island: Port Byron (Field Herb.) St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) Will: Joliet (Hill Herb.) Illinois (Underwood List) Grimaldia rupestris Lind. Cook: Lemont (Hill Herb., Field Herb.) Botany — 1937 Meeting 119 Lunularia cruciata Dum. Lunularia vulgaris, Mich. Cook: Greenhouses (Chicago) Champaign: Greenhouse (U of I Campus) Will: Joliet (Hill Herb.) Illinois: (Underwood List) Marchantia polymorpha L Champaign: Urbana (U of I) Cook: Lake Forest, Calumet (Hill Herb.) DuPage: Glen Ellen (U of I) (Field Herb.) Fulton, Menard (Wolf, Hall List) Henderson: (Field Herb.) Jo Daviess: (U of I) Kankakee: Kankakee (U of I) (Field Herb.) Lake: Lake Villa, Zion City (U of I) (Field Herb.) Macon: Decatur (U of I) Ogle: Oregon (Hill Herb.) Peoria: (Brendel List) Rock Island: Port Byron (Field Herb.) Wabash: (U of I) Preissia quadrata (Scop.) Nees. Preissia commutata Lindb. Cook: Lake Forest (Hill Herb., Field Herb.) LaSalle: Starved Rock (Hill Herb.) Reboulia hemispherica L. Asterella hemispherica Beauv. Carrol: Savannah (Hill Herb.) Cook: Lemont, Stony Island (Hill Herb., Field Herb.) Fulton: Canton (Field Herb.) Fulton, Menard, Union: (Wolf, Hall List) Ogle: Oregon (Hill Herb.) Peoria: (Brendel List) Rock Island: Port Byron (Field Herb.) Will: Lockport (Hill Herb.) Riccia Beyrichiana Hampe Riccia lescuriana Aust. Fulton, Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) Peoria: (Brendel List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Riccia bifurcata Hoffm. St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) Riccia crystallina L. Riccia velutina Hook. Cook: Thornton, River Forest, Morgan Park, Thatcher’s Park (Hill Herb., Field Herb.) Lake: Lake Zurich (Hill Herb., Field Herb.) Peoria: (U of I) (Brendel List) Stark: Wady Petra (U of I) Illinois: (Underwood List) Riccia fluitans L Ricciella fluitans Baum. Cook: Forest Hill, Thornton, S. Chicago, Chicago, Stony Island, Blue Island (Hill Herb., Field Herb., U of I) Lake: (U of I) (Field Herb.) Fulton: Canton (Field Herb., Wolf, Hall List) Peoria: (U of I) (Brendel List) Wabash: Mt. Carmel (U of I) 120 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions var. canaliculata Hoffm. Cook: Blue Island (Hill Herb.) Fulton: (Wolf, Hall List) var. Sullivanti Aust. Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) Riccia lutescens Schwein. Champaign: Urbana (Hill Herb.) Fulton, Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) Menard: Athens (Field Herb.) Peoria: (Brendel List) (U of I) St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) (Welsh Herb.) Wabash: Mt. Carmel (U of I) Riccia Frostii Aust. (?) Fulton: (Wolf, Hall List) Peoria: (Brendel List) Tazewell: (Field Herb.) Illinois: (Underwood List) Riccia glauca L. (?) St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) Riccia sorocarpa Bisch. Fulton, Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Ricciocarpus natans (L.) Corda Riccia natans L. Cook: Chicago (Field Herb.) Lake: Cuba, Lake Zurich (Hill Herb., Field Herb.) Fulton, Menard: (Wolf, Hall List, Field Herb.) Menard: Athens (Field Herb.) Peoria: (Brendel List) St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) Wabash: Mt. Carmel (U of I) Illinois: (Underwood List) JUNGERMANNIALES (Anacrogyne) Aneura pinguis (L.) Dum. Fulton: (Wolf, Hall List) Aneura sessilis Spreng. Fulton, Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) Aneura multifida (L.) Dum. Fulton: (Wolf, Hall List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Aneura latifolia Lindb. Aneura latifrons Lindb. Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) Aneura palmata Nees. Menard: Athens (Field Herb.) Blasia pulsilla L. Cook: Wildwood (Hill Herb.) Pallavicinia Lyellii (Hook.) Gray LaSalle: Starved Rock (Hill Herb.) Pellia epiphylla (Dill.) Gottsch LaSalle: Starved Rock (Hill Herb.) Botany — 1937 Meeting 121 JUNGERMANNIALES (Acrogyne) Blepharostoma trichophylla L. Fulton: (Wolf, Hall List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Blepharozia, See Ptilidium Calypogea Trichomanis (L.) Corda Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Cephalozia albescens Dum. Illinois: (Underwood List) Cephalozia bicuspidata (L.) Dum. Fulton: (U of I) (Wolf, Hall List) Peoria: (Brendel List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Cephalozia connivens (Dicks.) Lindb. Cephalozia multifida Lindb. Illinois: (Underwood List) Cephalozia curvifolia (Dicks.) Dum. Fulton, Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) Peoria: (Brendel List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Cephalozia divaricata Dum. Jungermannia divaricata Engl. Bot. Cook: Glencoe (Hill Herb.) Fulton: (Wolf, Hall List) (U of I) Menard: Athens (Field Herb.) Peoria: (Brendel List) (U of I) Illinois: (Underwood List) Cephalozia Sullivanti Aust. Johnson: (Wolf, Hall List) Menard: Athens (U of I) (Field Herb.) Cephaloziella divaricata (Smith) Schiff. Cook: Glencoe (Hill Herb.) Chiloscyphus ascendens Corda Fulton, Menard (Wolf, Hall List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Chiloscyphus polyanthus (L.) Corda Cook: Lemont (Hill Herb.) Lake: Schields (Hill Herb., Field Herb.) Menard: Athens (Field Herb.) Eucalyx hyalina (Lyell) Bridel Jungermannia hyalina Lyell Fulton: (Wolf, Hall List) Frullania aelotis Nees. Frullania riparia Hampe Cook: Sag Bridge (Hill Herb.) (U of I) Fulton, Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) Peoria: (Brendel List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Frullania eboracensis Gottsche Cook: Lansing (U of I) Fulton, Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) LaSalle: Deer Park (Hill Herb.) (U of I) Menard: Athens (Field Herb.) 122 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions (Welsch Herb.) (Welsch Herb.) (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) (Wolf, Hall List) Peoria: (Brendel List) St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) Illinois: (Underwood List) Frullania Grayana Mont. Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) Frullania squarrosa Nees. S. Illinois: (Wolf, Hall List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Frullania virginica Gottsche Fulton: (U of I) Fulton, Menard (Wolf, Hall List) Lasalle: Deer Park (Hill Herb.) Menard: Athens (Field Herb.) Peoria: (Brendel List) St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) Illinois: (Underwood List) Geocalyx graveolus (Schred.) Nees Will: Deer Creek (U of I) Harpanthus scutatus (Webb & Mohr) Spruce Johnson, Union: (Wolf, Hall List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Jamsoniella autumnalis (D. C.) Steph. Jungermannia Schraderi Mart. Cook: Glencoe (Hill Herb.) Fulton, Menard, Union, Johnson Menard: Athens (Field Herb.) Illinois: (Underwood List) Leptoscyphus Taylori (Hook.) Mitt. Coleochila Taylori Dum. Fulton: (Wolf, Hall List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Lophocolea bidentata (L.) Dum. Fulton: (U of I) (Wolf, Hall List) Peoria: (Brendel List) (U of I) St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) Illinois: (Underwood List) Lophocolea Hallii Aust. Lake: Deer Park (Hill Herb.) Lophocolea heterophylla (Schrad.) Dum. Cook: Glencoe, Thornton, Glenwood, Lemont (Hill Herb.) of I) (Field Herb.) Fulton: (Wolf, Hall List) Menard: (Field Herb.) Peoria: (Brendel List) (U of I) Illinois: (Underwood List) Lophocolea Macouni Aust. Fulton, Johnson (Wolf, Hall List) (U of I) Illinois: (Underwood List) Lophocolea minor Nees. Fulton, Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Plagiochila Ludoviana Sulli. St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) (U Botany — 1937 Meeting 123 Plagiochila interrupta Dum. Plagiochila macrostoma Sulli. St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) Porella pinnata Lindb. Madotheca porella Nees. DuPage: Barrington, Elmhurst (Hill Herb.) Fulton, Menard: (Wolf, Hall List) Menard: Athens (Field Herb.) St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) Wabash: Mt. Carmel (U of I) Illinois: (Underwood List) Porella platyphylla Lindb. Madotheca platyphylla (L.) Dum. DuPage: Barrington, Elmhurst (Hill Herb.) Marion: (Field Herb.) Menard: (Field Herb.) Peoria: (U of I) (Brendel List) St. Clair: (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) Will: Lockport, Crete (Hill Herb.) (U of I) Porella thuja Dum. Madotheca thuja (Dicks.) Dum. Fulton, Menard (Wolf, Hall List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Ptilidium ciliare (L.) Hampe Blepharozia ciliaris Dum. Fulton, Menard (Wolf, Hall List) Peoria: (Brendel List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Radula complanata (L.) Dum. Menard: Athens (Field Herb., Wolf, Hall List) Peoria: (Brendel List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Scapania nemorosa (L.) Dum. Johnson: (Wolf, Hall List) Illinois: (Underwood List) Scapania undulata (L.) Dum. LaSalle: Starved Rock (Hill Herb.) (U of I) Trocholea tomentella (Ehr.) Dum. Cook: Glenwood (Hill Herb.) (U of I) DeKalb: Elgin (Field Herb.) Peoria: (Brendel List) Tazewell: (U of I) ANTHOCEROTALES Anthoceros laevis L. Cook: Glenwood (Hill Herb.) Fulton, Menard, Union (Wolf, Hall List) LaSalle: Starved Rock, Utica (Hill Herb.) Peoria: (Brendel List) St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) Stark: (Hill Herb.) var. major Aust. Fulton: (Wolf, Hall List) Anthoceros laciniatus Schwein. St. Clair: Mascoutah (U of I) (Welsch Herb.) 124 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Anthoceros punctatus L. Fulton: (Wolf, Hall List) Menard: Athens (Field Herb.) Peoria: Princeville (Hill Herb., Field Herb.) Will: Mokena (Hill Herb., Field Herb.) Illinois: (Underwood List) Notothylas orbicularis Sulliv. Notothylas valvata Sulliv. Fulton: Canton (Field Herb., Wolf, Hall List) Peoria: (Brendel List) Stark: (Hill Herb.) SOURCES University of Illinois Herbarium : Hill, Welsch and the general collection John Woffeiand Emn^HalVf A6 List;1 of* Mosses, Liverworts and Lichens of Illinois. Lucifn’ VmuSto^?d : of North American Hepaticae. North of Mexico. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist. Vol. II. 1883 Frederick Brendel : Flora Peoriana. 1887 Botany — 1937 Meeting 125 The Medical Students’ Background in Biology Thesle T. Job Loyola University School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois For nineteen years I have served on the Committee on Admissions at Loyola University School of Medicine. This committee has examined the academic record of some 700 or 800 students a year. Each year certain convictions grow stronger. It is not the number of hours in science that makes a good medical student; it is not any one particular science, but rather the quality and the thoroughness of the work that has been done. In trying to evaluate the courses taken, biology is hardest to determine correctly. Courses in physics are fairly well standardized. One at least can be sure it is a mathematical course. Is there not some special signifi¬ cance in the fact that books by Sir James Jeans, and others of the same type, are so extensively read by the adult population? Such persons passed their course in physics but apparently failed to get an explanation of the physical phenomena about them. The courses in chemistry are given in a satisfactory sequence, but much more extensively than needed, so much so that in some colleges and universi¬ ties it is impossible for premedical students to major in any other depart¬ ment. This is unfortunate indeed. It is in biology, however, that the examiner of credentials is almost compelled to close his eyes and just hope. A course in biology may be anything remotely concerned with life. There isn’t another science course in the curriculum which presents such variability in content and emphasis. Even comparative anatomy, so fundamental to medical students, is presented by two types, the smallest possible number for comparison. Biology and English are the outstanding handicaps of the first-year medical student. About one-fourth of all first-year medical students fail. It is with the hope of stimulating your interest in our common problem that I write at this time. I say common problem because, with the reduction of hours in the medical curriculum and the extension of time in the under¬ graduate years, more responsibility must be thrust upon the departments of arts and science. The student must comprehend more quickly, organize and assimilate data more readily, be able to correlate, place emphasis, demon¬ strate initiative and above all be able to read and express his ideas acceptably. Nowadays we properly oppose strict standardization of any educational process. Individualization in these matters offers the greatest opportunities for advancement, individually and collectively. However, we eventually face the fact that in order for a student to follow intelligently the subject matter of any given professional course, certain fundamental knowledge is necessary. As far as biology is concerned, I believe most medical faculties would agree that the following fundamental knowledge is necessary for the best end results: 126 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The anatomy and general physiology of the animal cell. (The plant cell can be profitably added) The fact that the cell is the unit structure of our bodies, emphasizes the importance of knowing the anatomy of a typical cell, the importance and function of each part; the influence of environment and heredity, the sex chromosome theory, cell division, growth, modifications of part or all of a cell; specialization to form tissues; how the functions of the various systems of a complex organism are carried out in the protozoa or a single cell; the fundamental requirements of living matter. This will require a careful study of living amoebae and paramecia as well as fixed cells. The genesis and phylogeny of the germ layers. Through a study of protozoa, volvox, hydra and earthworm, it is possible to trace the beginnings of germ layers (ectoderm and mesoderm) together with their contributions to the various structures of complex forms higher in the phylogenetic scale. Thus a broad background is laid for human anatomy and embryology. The morphology and phylogeny of the various anatomical systems with their general physiology. A study of the changing form, structure and general function of the various anatomical systems (skin and its appendages, skeleton, muscular, nervous, vascular, digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive, endocrine) through a variety of different animal forms gives the premedical student an understanding and orientation for his work in human anatomy and phy¬ siology that is indispensable. The significance of environment, heredity, eugenics and evolution with a general understanding of the criteria for animal classification. A physician must be able to advise and guide intelligently his patients, when they seek his ministration, on heredity, eugenics and evolution. These subjects are not taught in medical school, but are taken for granted. Too often students fail to grasp points because they have no such background. Separate courses in bacteriology and general physiology are very un¬ satisfactory as premedical courses, because they are necessarily superficial courses and spoil the approach for this work in medicine. The premedical preparation should be background, foundation material, and not “prepara¬ tory” in the sense of being introductory to anatomy, physiology and bacteriology. A course in histology which has as its aims, actual acquain¬ tance with simple histological technics and an introductory study of simple tissues, is valuable. Likewise, a course in embryology which deals with each of the early stages of development (fertilization to germ-layers) in invertebrates or lower vertebrates, or both, and a comparative study of placentation and gestation, is very valuable. Work in advance of that in¬ dicated under histology and embryology is definitely contraindicated for premedical students. Many “interest provoking and sustaining” laboratory demonstrations and some “student project work” can be and should be introduced, e. g., the circulation of blood in the web of a living frog’s foot; the early development of the chick (primitive streak to 72 hrs.); frog sperm and eggs, fertiliza¬ tion, cleavage; growth and resorption in the tadpole’s tail (by transillumina¬ tion) ; changing the chemical, electrical and temperature environment of living amoebae and paramecia; and so on until the student really knows what work is and is prepared to meet the grind of medical school. Finally, may I suggest that you who are charged wTith advising pre¬ medical students, can render superior service to them if you require the last courses in chemistry and biology in the year just preceding entrance to medical school. Botany — 1937 Meeting 127 A New Method for the Quantitative Measurement of Gases Ernest M. R. Lamkey Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois The reversible respiratory-photosynthetic equation CeHiaOc + 602 ±=> 6C02 + 6H2O + 647 cal. is probably the basis of more discussion in general courses in botany and plant physiology than any other fundamental process; yet, in spite of its recognized importance, less individual laboratory work is based upon it than upon most any other basic activity. This is due chiefly to the fact that the apparatus necessary to demonstrate quantitative measure¬ ments is not adaptable to individual student use in large classes, and consequently, the process remains very much of an abstraction in spite of a possible lecture table demonstration. To show the possibilities in the equation it may be well to take it up after the manner in which we have used it at Illinois State Normal Uni¬ versity in large freshman sections, it being understood, of course, that no originality is claimed for anything except the method of measuring the interchange of gases. Barley, or any other desirable seed, is germinated until a well developed plumule is formed. This germination demonstrates the necessity of oxygen, water, imbibition, osmosis, and proper temperature. It is then shown that digestion of stored carbohydrates has taken place through enzyme action by means of the well known iodine and Fehlings’ Solution tests. The use of the digested products, dextrose, and oxygen according to the respiratory equation is then demonstrated quantitatively by means of an exceedingly simple respirometer as follows: a dozen seed¬ lings are placed in the upper closed end of a fermentation tube where they are readily held by their spider-like roots. The seedlings are separated from the outside air by pouring enough water into the bulb end of the fermentation tube to form a trap. The seedlings are thus enclosed in an atmospheric “universe” of their own and results are measured the following day or after any other desired interval. Before the measurements are made, the seedlings are shaken down into the water trap and removed with an ordinary curved forceps. After the height of the air column in the closed end of the tube has been measured, the bulb is filled to overflowing with a 20 per cent sodium hydroxide solu¬ tion. The thumb is placed over the mouth of the fermentation tube and the air of the closed arm and the solution of the bulb are thoroughly shaken together for a few minutes to absorb the C02 present. The tube is then tilted to run all the solution back into the bulb leaving all the air in the closed arm. The thumb is then carefully slipped from the mouth of the fermentation tube and the subsequent decrease in the length of the air column is measured. The difference between this and the first reading gives the amount of C02 given off as measured by the amount of C02 absorbed by the sodium hydroxide solution. This amount is then calculated on a percentage basis. The amount of O2 left is then determined in the closed arm. This is done by removing with a medicine dropper about 128 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions half of the sodium hydroxide solution from the bulb of the fermentation tube and replacing it with an equal quantity of a 7 per cent pyrogallol solution. The thumb is again placed over the mouth of the fermentation tube and the operation repeated as in the determination of C02. The thumb is removed, the height of the air column measured and this reading (the third) subtracted from the second reading gives the amount of 02 left in the tube as measured by the amount of 02 absorbed by the sodium- pyrogallol solution. This difference, calculated upon reading number one, gives the percentage of 02 left by the seedlings. In the use of the above data it is to be remembered that air contains approximately 20.8 per cent of oxygen. If the test as run showed approxi¬ mately 20.8 per cent C02 and no oxygen, then it may be seen that the amount of C02 formed is the equal of the 02 consumed as demanded by the equation. If the test showed 10 per cent C02, then the amount of 02 left should have been 10.8 per cent as required by the equation (i. e. the C02 formed should equal the 02 consumed). Such results will be obtained by starchy seeds, for seeds rich in oil and protein give a different respiratory quotient and hence the amount of C02 used will not be the equal of the amount of 02 consumed. Likewise, if an experiment is run too long, anaerobic respiration may upset expected results. „ The calories liberated in the equation may be demonstrated by the well known method of inserting a thermometer into a plugged Thermos Bottle filled with germinating seedlings. That respiration is a chemical oxidation dependent upon an oxidizing catalyst or enzyme may be shown by testing cut seedlings for peroxidase with an alcoholic solution of gum guaiac con¬ taining some hydrogen peroxide. . . . In the extension of the equation to photosynthesis, barberry twigs aie forced up into the closed arm of each of two fermentation tubes with the cut ends resting in the water traps. The tubes are set up at any time during the day. One tube is kept in the dark until the following morning while the other tube is placed in a window in order to get the direct rays of the sun early in the morning. At nine o’clock in the morning, or later, the twigs are carefully removed with a forceps. Each tube is then tested ac¬ cording to the method previously outlined. It will be found that the C02 found in the closed arm of the tube in the dark exactly equals the 02 that was originally in the air, while the amount of 02 found in the tube in the light equals 20.8 per cent thus proving that all the C02 formed over night (20.8 per cent) has been replaced by 02 as demanded by the photosyn¬ thetic equation. . , If the experiment is not run long enough, partial results are obtained which may be explained as in the case of the barley seedlings. Botany — 1937 Meeting 129 Botany as a Part of the Program of a Summer School Camp John W. Leedy Wheaton College , Wheaton, Illinois Under the direction of the Wheaton College Summer School a field station was established in the Black Hills of South Dakota in 1935 for the study of Botany and Geology. The exact location is thirteen miles west of Rapid City, in Rapid Creek Canyon at an elevation of about 4,000 feet. The term requires four full weeks in camp in addition to the time required in transit. It covers the last four weeks of the Summer Session in Wheaton College and extends from about the middle of July to the middle of August. Full college credit is given for the work done. We have preferred to travel by private cars as they furnish an economi¬ cal means of taking short side trips for observation and collection of material with small groups while in camp. We have been successful in securing cars from students who were willing to carry passengers who share the expense for gas, oil and incidentals such as tire repairs, etc. The Director of the expedition collects a transportation deposit fee and pays the bills for all the cars. Of course the cars must be in good condition at the start. A mimeograph sheet of the itinerary is given out and the cars are supposed to keep together as nearly as possible and all must meet at certain points indicated as observation points. The college furnishes a light truck for excess baggage and the equipment for study, such as microscopes, plant presses, reference books and other necessary material. The nature of the courses that can be successfully given is, of course, limited. Elementary courses in Taxonomy and Ecology have proved suc¬ cessful and special problems or advanced field courses for upper classmen. The Black Hills region is well adapted for studies in Forestry also. The work begins as soon as we leave Wheaton. Each student is given a mimeo¬ graphed sheet of instructions and suggestions for study in the courses he has selected and is expected to keep accurate notes on the studies made. It is possible that a better understanding of the function of the expedi¬ tion may be had by first considering briefly the purpose back of laboratory and field work. There is, regrettably, too often a wide gap between the acquisition of knowledge in the form of facts presented in the text-book and the application of these facts as they occur in nature. In an endeavor to bridge this gap courses in Biological sciences are divided into periods for laboratory study and periods for lectures. The mate¬ rials used in the laboratory during the school year proper are, of necessity, only sample specimens that have been brought in from the field for the student’s convenience. It is not contended that laboratory work does not benefit the student by helping to fix in his mind the facts of the subject, but the practical value received by actual contact with the materials, in situ, is of first importance. This greater purpose is most completely achieved when the student can be placed in direct association with the materials of study as they exist in their individual habitats. When this is possible the aforementioned “gap” between the theoretical and the practical no longer 130 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions exists — the two being united in the field in an effective working knowledge of the subject in question. A most excellent opportunity for reconnaissance study in Ecology is offered in the journey from Wheaton to our Camp in the Black Hills. On leaving Wheaton we pass through the deciduous forest area of Northern Illinois and North Central Iowa climbing gradually to the level of the rolling lands of Northwestern Iowa, now a region of beautiful farms but formerly “high grass” prairie that extended as far west as the Missouri River. West of the Missouri River the “short grass” region of the western plains is found. This region extends to the Black Hills where the student is brought in contact with the conifer forests and flora peculiar to that region. As the Botany and Geology departments are associated together in the expedition the intimacy and cooperation of the two departments in the field make it possible for the student to correlate the available facts to an extent not otherwise possible. The first stop for observation is made at the White Pine Forest State Park, of Illinois. Here is being conserved one of the southernmost stands of virgin White Pine that suggests many questions of interest and importance. The Park also offers abundant flora to stimulate interest in taxonomy. We reach Palisade State Park about lunch time and after a short survey, proceed westward across Iowa and eastern South Dakota, observing the changes in vegetation that were spoken of above. The Missouri River is crossed at Chamberlain where the expedition spends the last night out on the trip. The next observation stop is the Bad Lands of South Dakota. While there the taxonomy students collect as many specimens as possible for later identification. The ecologist and geologist find much of interest also. It takes the better part of three days to complete the trip. On arriving at camp we find that the Commissary has preceded us and after depositing our suit cases in our rooms, and taking a plunge in the clear, cool pool formed by Rapid Creek which runs through the camp grounds, dinner is served. We are comfortably housed in suitable buildings on the grounds. The schedule of classes and the program for the stay in camp has already been made out and class work begins immediately. Aside from short side-trips by class groups one day each week is set aside for the entire camp to visit such places of interest as the State School of Mines at Rapid City; the Homestake Gold Mine at Lead City; Crystal Cave and the Historic City of Deadwood; the famous Rushmore Mountain; Rushmore Cave and Harney Peak. Aside from the regular work done in the elementary courses of Tax¬ onomy and Ecology advanced students have made critical studies of the plants of certain regions in the Hills. One student made a key for the identification of the families based upon the vegetative characteristics of the plants of Rapid Canyon. An ecological study from the standpoint of floristics was worked out for a given area; photographs of species in their natural habitats supplementing all the work. The Expedition is very fortunate in having quite a complete photo¬ graphic equipment. Two Retinas using 35 mm. film are kept loaded one with black and white and the other with Kodachrome. The positives are made up into slides for classroom use. For other types of “stills” the Graflex or Recomar-33 is used. The moving picture equipment consists of a Bell & Howell Filmo 70-D, 16 mm., with its seven film speed, critical finder and 4 and 6 in. telephoto lenses and an Eastman, 16 mm. Magazine Pack. Adding to the Department Herbarium is an important feature of the work and we are working toward a complete collection of the flora of that region. We have been very kindly received by the city of Rapid City and the State School of Mines renders us every service possible. Botany — 1937 Meeting 131 Germination of Pollen Grains for Class Use lea Marks Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Illinois The germination of pollen grains in 10 per cent sucrose has been used for some time as class demonstration. Last year a series of investigations carried on by Margaret Baker, one of my high school students, showed that the pollen of many of our common plants germinate readily in distilled water and in 1 per cent, 3 per cent sugar solutions. The granulated sugar used was found not to be 100 per cent sucrose. The solutions of 1 per cent, 3 per cent, 6 per cent, 10 per cent sugar and distilled water were put in watch glasses. Then pollen was placed in each solution. The time of beginning of tube development was recorded. In most cases studied, a tube was well formed in less than one hour and some in only a few minutes. The estimate of germination was made by taking a drop at random from each culture and mounting it on a microscopic slide. Ten such slides were made and germination estimated on basis of the ten random samples. If approximately 50 per cent of grains were forming tubes, the germination was considered very good. If approximately 25 per cent were germinated, it was considered good; 5 per cent to 10 per cent, fair; and below that, poor. I have considered the flowers studied in three groups, those flowering in winter in greenhouse or in house, those flowering in spring, and those flowering in summer. The results of our investigations are shown in the following tables. Table I— Plants Flowering in Winter Name of plant Water 1% sugar 3% sugar 6% sugar 10% sugar Amaryllis _ Very good Very good Good Fair Poor Begonia . Good Very good Good Fair Poor Hyacinth . . Poor Fair Fair Good Good Narcissus _ Good Good Good Fair Fair Table II — Plants Flowering in Spring Name of plant Water 1% sugar 3% sugar 6% sugar 10% sugar Buttercup . . Very good Very good Very good Fair Poor Pussy willow . . Very good Very good Very good Poor Poor Bluebell _ Very good Very good Fair Poor Poor Crocus _ Good Good Fair Poor Poor Spring beauty Fair Fair Poor Poor Poor Tulip . . Fair Fair Poor Poor Poor —4 132 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Table III — Plants Flowering in Summer Name of plant Water 1% sugar 3% sugar 6% sugar 10% sugar Marigold- . . Good Fair Fair Poor Poor Evening primrose.. . Poor Poor Poor Fair Fair Gaillardia... - Poor Poor Poor Fair Fair Hollyhock. - Poo* Poor Poor Fair Fair Poppy - Poor Poor Poor Fair Fair Petunia _ _ ... Good Good Good Fair Poor Sweet pea . . Fair Fair Fair Poor Poor In general, the pollen of summer flowers germinate better in 10 per cent sugar solutions than in lower percentages, except in case of marigold and petunia. Hyacinth shows better germination in 6 per cent and 10 per cent solutions, but the best germination obtained for hyacinth was not more than about 25 per cent of pollen-grains. Pussy willow, swamp buttercup, and amaryllis germinated the most readily of those studied, all having well- formed tubes in less than 30 minutes. Botany — 1V37 Meeting 133 Forest Conservation in the Ohio Valley Harry W. Mauntel Mendota Township High School, Mendota, Illinois With the 1937 floods of the Ohio and its tributaries still fresh in our minds, we turn to methods of flood control. It is true that in the past the Ohio and Mississippi valley have had periodic spring floods, but during the past few years these floods have occurred more frequently and with greater severity. Constructing of storage reservoirs along the head waters of the Ohio river and its tributaries along with a very intensive and extensive reforestation program will in time curb these destructive floods.1 * This is very well expressed by Mr. Wade 0. Martin, Chairman of the Louisiana Flood Control Commission, who states; “We must return to ‘God’s plan of checking floods’. We must back-track now, restore the timber and grass, the lakes and swamps which were nature’s method of flood control”. In Indiana and Illinois as is the case in many of the other states in the Ohio valley, the Civilian Conservation Corps under the direction of the Federal and State governments have done a marvelous piece of work in the way of clearing out much dead, diseased and undesirable growth. They have constructed fire barriers, surveyed, studied and reforested many acres of old worn out hillsides and sub-marginal land. Along with this reforesta¬ tion program the National and State governments have a well planned system of flood-control reservoirs which are to be constructed or are now under construction in practically every State and National park and forest. Some few states have pioneered in reforestation in that they have endeavored to interest individuals to set aside private areas as forest preserves and classified forest regions. Indiana has gone forward in this movement by setting aside by law, certain forest areas called classified forests. The individual owners must meet certain conditions relative to forest protection and reforestation. The state in turn releases this land from the regular tax rate and places this woodland under a specific low tax rate. By this method private owners of primeval forests are given encourage¬ ment to preserve for future generations these forest tracts and at the same time are encouraged to experiment, survey and add sub-marginal timberland to their woodlands.3 It is desired in this report to point out to other states and individuals what can be accomplished if proper steps are taken by state legislatures, in enacting laws to preserve the few scattered forest regions in the Ohio 1 ,■ Recently there has been announced through the newspapers that the State of Illinois is considering a plan for the construction of between 7,000 and 10,000 small dams for water conservation. It has been pointed out by State Senator Charles F. Baumrucker that “The level of Illinois underground water reservoir has dropped 10 to 30 feet in the last fifteen years.” He further states: “Deforestation and farming have destroyed the sponge surface of the land, so that rain runs off instead of soaking in. Dams in ravines andl gullies would catch this runoff, drought ” floo<^s’ arrest so*l erosion, restore the ground water level and prevent • i f lassified forest lands have increased from 4,192 acres classified by 75 owners in 1923 to 91,530 acres classified by 1,496 owners in 1936. 134 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions valley. Herein is described and explained one experiment which illustrates what can be accomplished relative to reforestation, especially where nature has taken a hand, this being a very common occurrence on many acres of sub-marginal land throughout the Ohio valley. In Dubois County, Indiana, there is at present an experiment underway whereby one can observe nature’s plans and methods of reforestation over a long period of time. Man can really gain much valuable information from a careful survey of forest associations, distribution of types of trees and secondary plant succession. From a report made by J. E. Potzger and Ray C. Friesner for Butler University, there are several conclusions to be drawn regarding forests in this section of the Ohio valley. This forest area is characteristic of upland and hill territory of the valley. It is known as the Mauntel Forest and is located about two and one-half miles southwest of Holland, Indiana. This forest of about 60 acres may be divided into four distinct parts which have had different histories of treatment. With one exception the area has been disturbed very little by cultural influences. Livestock did not roam this area. Therefore, the undergrowth and small trees have not been molested. Fifteen acres on the north (Section A) is virgin timber. Only such timber was cut which appeared matured or dis¬ eased. Twelve acres on the south and southwest (Section B) was partly cut over for the marketable timber fifty-five years ago; about thirteen acres of the southwest corner of the mature forest (Section C) was com¬ pletely cleared seventy years ago.3 This strip of woods has been permitted to reforest itself according to the natural law of plant succession. As a result the forest has afforded an excellent opportunity to make a com¬ parative study of undisturbed virgin forest and several stages of secondary succession (black oak, white oak and hickory) Quercus velutina , Quercus alia, and Carya ovata. Another area has been added to this forest for further study of secondary succession. This consists of twenty acres and extends west of the main forest (Section D). The area was taken out of cultivation fifteen years ago. Here can be observed the first plant and tree communities as they develop by natural reseeding. From careful observation and study one notices wild blackberry Rulus villosus, dewberry Ruins canadensis, and various field weeds pre¬ dominating in the ground cover. Birch, maple, ash ( Betula-Acai - Fraxinus ) was the climax in this section with a small percentage of black oak Quercus velutina, hickory Carya ovata, white elm Ulmus americana, and cedar Juniperus virginiana scattered throughout section D. By comparison of the four sections of this representative forest we have four different stages of plant development in the succession. In the virgin section A we have the typical oak-hickory Quercus-Carya climax with an abundance of large trees widely spaced. These large trees furnish a very dense canopy which excludes much sunlight from the floor of the forest. As a result, the ground cover of herbaceous plants is sparse and scattered. Poison-ivy ( Rhus toxicodendron ) was the most im¬ portant element of the ground cover. There is a deep layer of humus and decaying leaves, which acts as a sponge during wet weather to absorb the excess moisture and tends to hold this moisture during long periods of drought. The partly cut-over region (Section B) resembles the oak-hickory climax Quercus-Carya with the exception that the trees were not as large and in some cases there are dense patches of undergrowth. The only second-layer tree of any importance is the dogwood Cornus florida. There is practically 3 As classified by J. E. Potzger and Ray C. Friesner, Butler University Botanical Studies, Vol. Ill, paper 3, page 85. Botany — 1937 Meeting 135 an absence of the common early successional species which are found growing on cut-over areas. Example: the sassafras Sassafras officinale, per¬ simmon Diospyros virginiana, Dwarf Sumach Rhns copallina and sweet gum Liquidambar. Section C represents an area of various peculiarities unlike that of sections A and B. Here the trees are much smaller with dense stands in some places, while in other places there are open grass tracts and copses which are very frequent. The oak-hickory-ash Quercus-Carya-Fraxinus climax prevails. In certain open places there are large patches of lichens and xerophytic mosses. Some trees have reached twelve inches in diameter. The stand is very thick and consists of various scrub species of oak, some hickory and ash. These scrub species of oak are absent in sections A and B, which suggests that in seventy years, oak-hickory Quercus-Garya has regained dominance by crowding out the scrub species. These four sections give one a picture illustrating the rapidly advancing succession from the open field, through thicket and bramble stage, to climax forest in the period of from fifty to seventy years. 136 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Testing for Organizing Ability in Biology C. E. Montgomery Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb, Illinois One of the important aims in teaching biology in the public schools is to develop the ability of students to organize their materials into some reasonable form. Many teachers apparently assume that pupils automati¬ cally do this. Only a casual observation of the results of much of our school work will be necessary to convince one that such is not the case. The now popular objective test gives the teacher information concerning the ability of students to memorize but suggests little about their ability to organize. Organization consists of three important factors, the gathering of data or facts, putting them together in a logical relationship and emphasizing the items that need special attention. Most teaching work stops with the first step. If there is anything done about the other two, the teacher carries through in his own mind, but not many of the pupils follow. Merely memorizing a few facts is a convenient place to stop. Besides encouraging pupils to organize their materials by means of assignments, recitations, etc., the instructor should set up a definite plan to test the organization work of the class and let it be understood just what the program is to be. The old essay type of examination, which is almost a relic at the present time, can be used here to a very good advantage. In order to make a worth while project of the plan, it is necessary that the teacher work the questions out carefully and in detail. Questions should cover work that has been gone over in class, but not in just the same way. They should be long enough to permit of a reasonable organization, but not so long that there will be too great a body of facts involved. Questions requiring from ten to fifteen facts for a complete answer are very convenient. These facts should be clearly laid out in the teacher’s mind before giving the test to the student. The questions should also admit of more than one type of organization. This makes the task heavier for the teacher but gives the pupils opportunity for self-expression and removes some chances of their memorizing the organization along with the facts. This study was made with a class of twenty college freshmen in a course of general biology. The range in ability was from just passing up to the A grade. Five different tests were given during the term, one was wholly essay, the others, combinations of essay and objective. In each case only one essay question was considered. The pupils knew beforehand the type of test to be given and that the essay questions were given to see what they were doing with organization. The answers were graded on both the number of correct facts and the type of organization. There are many weak points in this procedure, but at the same time it is much more reliable and suggestive than the old way of doing the work or than relying upon the objective test only for grading. There may be some objections to the use of the essay test for organization, but it will not be necessary to go through many examinations to discover that the students will try to use some logic in their putting facts together when they know that they are being checked on that phase. Botany — 1937 Meeting 137 The results of these tests showed very clearly that students will try to organize their work when there is a definite emphasis being placed upon that factor. No two organizations are likely to be alike, and a few pupils will not seem to have any. Incorrect statements appear and must be con¬ sidered as weak points in the organization or against the grade on facts. The teacher must be careful not to, base the grade entirely on the number and correctness of facts. If these features are to be the purpose of the test, the objective type is much superior to the essay. This study leads to the following suggestions: 1. That there needs to be a definite effort on the part of biology teachers to encourage students to use their organizing abilities. 2. That the ordinary classroom activities do not go far enough to help students in this type of work. 3. That there should be a definite program for testing organizing ability. The objective test as it stands at present does not do this, but the essay type can be manipulated so as to be very useful. 4. There must be a differentiation by the teacher between memorizing individual facts and groups of facts by students and the actual organizing processes that reflect the work of the person himself. 5. That further work along this line needs to be done to develop better means for both training and testing organizing ability. 138 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Forests of the Yarmouth and Sangamon Interglacial Periods John Voss Manual Training High School, Peoria, Illinois Pollen analysis of peat from an exposure in the valley of Mill Creek near Quincy, Illinois, which is Yarmouth in age, reveals trees which suggest a cooler climate than the present for that period. In general, that is also the conclusion drawn by Baker from his study of the terrestrial mollusca of Illinois associated with the Yarmouth interval. Pollen analysis of peat from two exposures of Sangamon age, one near Canton, Illinois, and the other at Laura, Illinois, shows a dominance of northern conifer forms. Some deciduous pollen is found in some of the strata of the Canton peat. Botany — 1937 Meeting 339 Two New Lycopod Seeds From the Illinois Pennsylvanian* James M. Schopf State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois INTRODUCTION Two new representatives of the Lepidocarpaceae are the basis for the following paper. Lepidocarpon has previously been reported3.5 as abundant in coal balls of the Illinois coal basin, but has not been recognized from the more common impression fossils. The author has been inclined to question this anomaly in reported distribution. Recent collections obtained for the most part during the past year at the famous Mazon horizon in northern Illinois have tended to confirm the idea that Lepidocarpon is fairly common in occurrence in this area, although previously not recognized. Over 40 speci¬ mens of it were collected in the course of a few brief visits to the area previously stripped for coal in Grundy and Will counties. It is hoped that the information presented here will lead toward further knowledge of Lepidocarpon and other lycopod seeds in their different forms of preservation. Many of the plant fossils preserved in the Mazon ironstone nodules exhibit little evidence of compression and are preserved essentially as casts. To account for this it must be assumed that the enclosing ironstone was cemented very quickly after deposition. Dorsal and ventral cast fea¬ tures in the nodules are often easily distinguishable. Some secondary min¬ eral filling of iron and calcium carbonates or of iron pyrite may fill the internal cavities, but as a rule these minerals do not preserve the original plant structures. The plant tissues were apparently subject to a period of disintegration after the formation of the external cast without much im¬ pregnation by minerals. It may be that some of the minerals now present within the casts were precipitated in connection with the decomposition of the original tissues. The subsequent identification and description of Lepidocarpon mazonensis n. sp. is based chiefly on faithful preservation of the external outline of the seed structure by the fine-grained ironstone matrix of these casts. Another lycopod seed similar to Lepidocarpon in many general features but different in significant details has been found in calcareous coal balls obtained at Nashville, Washington County, Illinois,2 from No. 6 coal. About 20 different specimens have been located, but an adequate suite of sections is available from only three. These seeds show additional modification of the lycopod seed habit beyond that known in Lepidocarpon and for this reason have been assigned to a new genus. The description presented here is preliminary to a more detailed study which will require some time to complete. * Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. 140 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Lepidocarpon mazonensis sp. nov. Plate I, figs. 4, 5a, b, c; Plate II, figs. 6, 7, 8a, b, 10, 14. Description: Large, isolated, seed-bearing sporophylls probably orig¬ inally borne on a strobilus. Lamina long (7-10 cm), lanceolate, slightly acuminate at the tip; 10 to 15 mm broad at the base above the sporangial structures and increasing slightly to the greatest width below the middle. On the dorsal (lower) side the midrib is impressed as an obscure central ridge (an indentation in the lamina itself); two lateral ridges (grooves in the lamina) parallel the median ridge at about a millimeter’s distance. Plate I. Fig. (Figs. 1, 2 and 3 drawn at same magnification, scale given.) 1. Illiniocarpon cadyi, longitudinal slightly oblique section. Stippling indi¬ cates various tissue configurations. Nashville coal ball 1B2, Sect. (B2). 2, 3. Illiniocarpon cadyi, transverse sections of lamina. Nashville coal Dan 8 OX, from same specimen shown in figs. 12 and 13. 4. Lepidocarpon mazonensis reconstruction ; ca. 2/3 natural size. 5. Lepidocarpon mazonensis ; Profile sketches of iron carbonate mold ob¬ tained out of a seed cavity. Fibrous edges of the seed megaspore are visible at a few places in the original. Toward the tip the median ridge dies out first and the lateral ridges come closer together and nearly meet when last discernible. On the ventral (upper) surface the midrib is slightly different on the basal third of the lamina where it forms a single distinct rounded depression in the cast about 2 mm broad with little or no median striation. Distally the lateral ridges become more evident and a slight central striation is present. Fig. 14, a cast of the upper surface, shows these features. The lamina on either side of the midrib is covered with a fine microscopic longitudinal striation, no doubt impressed by the cuticle which is not preserved. Margins are entire. The lamina adjoins the sporangial structures in an arc almost semi-circular in some specimens. Sometimes the surface in this area shows Botany — 193 7 Meeting 141 rugosity or minor plications radiating from the base. In Figure 14 the arcuate juncture of the lamina with the seed is minimized by foreshorten¬ ing. The blade inclines upward from the axis of the seed at an angle approximating 45° (see figs. 7, 8a, b), although this varies with the attitude in which the organ was deposited. The larger size and less pronounced upward deflection of the lamina clearly distinguish this form from other species of Lepidocarpon. The blade probably functioned as a dispersal mechanism. The seed structure is apparently similar to that reported by Scott7 for Lepidocarpon lomaxi. In a vertical plane the form is somewhat quadrate, about twice as long as high (See figs. 7, 8a, b). Leafy integuments typical of the genus enclose the sporangial (“nucellar”) cavity and almost meet above. Their margins continue upward for 3 mm or more toward the highest point and gradually decline toward the proximal upper corner of the seed where they join. Anteriorly the integument margins descend to close above the lamina and flare laterally on either side to connect with the reentrant laminal margins. They project more or less directly over the upper surface of the blade for a short distance as shown in figures 7, 8a, b. The slit between the integuments is well shown by a thin ironstone lamella which was introduced between them down to the sporangium proper at the time of burial. This slit filling is seen on part of the micropylar ridge in figure 8a, but is shown more clearly in figure 10 as it appears in a seed broken transversely. The free upper margins of the integuments along the slit were quite membranous, or at least very thin, as shown by the cavities repre¬ senting them in the casts. The lower surface of the seed is keeled with a slight hump at the lower distal corner of the seed proper. At the lower proximal corner the keel is prolonged into a short stipate process which was probably adjoined to the original cone axis. Attachment was limited to this lower corner. Iron carbonate, sometimes in association with calcite, often fills the interior of these seeds more or less completely. The internal form of the seed cavity is shown by profile drawings of such a mold in figures 5a, b, c. The sporangial wall inside the integuments is not preserved structur¬ ally. It must have existed originally, however, because the ironstone mud was prevented from entering. The presence of a seed megaspore may be demonstrated in many specimens although only exceptionally is one found such as shown in figure 6. The megaspore membrane is very fibrous in texture and similar to the spores isolated from Illinois coal residues which have been compared with Triletes giganteus Zerndt.6 The reconstruction of Lepidocarpon mazonensis has been sketched in figure 4 to summarize the external morphology. Such a three dimensional concept of the fructification would have been more difficult to attain if it had not been for the somewhat unique character of the Mazon casts. Lepidocarpon mazonensis was probably the form Lesquereux referred to as Lepidophyllum majus in the “Coal Flora” (p. 449) although he figured no specimens nor to the author’s knowledge have specimens of this species been figured by anyone else. David White6 illustrates some sporopylls from Henry County, Missouri as Lepidophyllum missouriense that appear very similar but on the other hand additional specimens which he figures show a more lanceolate lamina considerably more constricted above the sporangial struc¬ tures. He further states that numerous large megaspores have been ob¬ served in the sporangia of some specimens. It may be that two rather dis¬ tinct forms are confused as L. missouriense on account of their similar blades; as they are now known, Mr. White’s specimens seem to have been free sporing and hence distinct from Lepidocarpon. Lepidocarpon mazonensis agrees in many ways with Lepidostrobus major as recently described by 142 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Plate II. Botany — 1937 Meeting 143 Bochenski.1 Bochenski has isolated seed megaspores from his specimens which are similar to these found in L. mazonensis. He has not observed integuments around the sporangium however and this is perhaps the chief objection to assigning his specimens to Lepidocarpon. His material was all coalified and considerably compressed in shale. Under such conditions the integumentary structures might be quite difficult to demonstrate. However Bochenski illustrates in his figures 27 and 28 what he identifies as prothallial tissue liberated out of the coaly compression by maceration methods. A cuticular layer illustrated in his figure 26 is described as derived from the sporangium wall. It is hard to believe that any remnant of the prothallus could withstand coalification and subsequent maceration. It seems more likely to the author that some of the cell patterns observed by Bochenski are derived from an unrecognized integumentary layer. A point of dis¬ tinction between Bochenski’s material and L. mazonensis is that the laminae of his specimens are minutely serrate on the margins while the Mazon ma¬ terial lacks any marginal irregularity. In addition to the forms mentioned above, specimens of Lepidophyllum auriculatum Lesq. (Holotype, U. of Illinois Geol. Dept. Specimen No. X356, formerly in the Illinois State Museum at Springfield), Lepidophyllum acum¬ inatum Lesq. (Plesiotype, Univ. of Chicago Walker Museum Specimen No. 6633) and two others probably referable to Lepidophyllum mansfieldi Lesq. have been compared with the Mazon material. None of these showed the sporangial structures sufficiently well to be conclusive. The likelihood is however, that they will eventually need be referred to Lepidocarpon when the true structure is known. The presence or absence of a seed megaspore will not be difficult to ascertain from fresh, reasonably well-preserved material. Plate II (Figs. 7, 8a, and 8b at same magnification, scale given; Figs. 11, 12, 13, and 15 at same magnification, scale given.) Fig. 6. Lepidocarpon mazonensis, exposed seed megaspore from seed split verti¬ cally. This seed is one of the few which was compressed to some degree. The spore apex is hidden by and embedded in iron carbonate at the distal end of the seed (turned up in the photograph). At higher magnifi¬ cation the fibrous texture of the spore coat is clearly visible. 7. Lepidocarpon mazonensis, broken vertically parallel to but not exposing the “micropylar” flaps. At the lower left (proximal extremity) the point of attachment is shown. 8 a, b. Lepidocarpon mazonensis, broken vertically through the center show¬ ing the extent and form of the upturned integumentary margins. Fig. 8a shows the slit filling adhering to one side of the cast. The distal promi¬ nence of the dorsal keel is present but imperfectly shown. 9. Illiniocarpon cadyi, enlargement of the ligule. Taken from same section as fig. 11. 10. Lepidocarpon mazonensis, seed broken transversely to show view of “micropylar” slit from within. The cast filling of the slit is evident. 11. Illiniocarpon cadyi, longitudinal section of seed, passing through the ligule and paralleling the ventral slit. The lamina of this specimen con¬ tinues slightly more than 5 cm beyond the seed, gradually decreasing in thickness. Nashville coal ball 62D2B, Sect. (Bll). 12. Illiniocarpon cadyi, transverse section of seed posterior to the funicular swelling. The ventral slit with the sporangial wall intruding part way is at the top ; below is a keel which probably contained a vascular strand. From Nashville coal ball 8 OX, Sect. (T30). 13. Illiniocarpon cadyi, longitudinal section through anterior portion of the same seed as in fig. 12. Nashville coal ball 8 OX. 14. Lepidocarpon mazonensis, surface features of a ventral cast. 15. Illiniocarpon cadyi, oblique section across seed intersecting the ventral slit near its posterior extremity and also at the anterior of the seed. 144 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions llliniocarpon cadyi gen. et sp. nov. Plate I, figures 1-3. Plate II, figures 9, 11-13, 15. Description: Lycopod fructification related to and homologous with isolated sporophylls of Lepidocarpon. Attachment by a peduncle on the lower side of the seed in the manner of a half-anatroupous ovule. The seed proper is borne on a funicular outgrowth of the peduncle. Sporophyll lamina not reflexed around distal end of seed but straight, relatively long (ca. 5 cm) distally quite thin and broad. It apparently served as a dispersal mechanism. Seed body elliptical, l-XVz cm long, enclosed by two leafy in¬ teguments which adjoin along the top and front of the seed to provide a “micropylar slit” similar to that in Lepidocarpon. Ligule present at the base of sinus between anterior sporangum wall and sporophyll lamina; not sit¬ uated in a pit. Sporangium contains one large fertile megaspore, nearly filling the cavity, and three abortive megaspores. It is not known how the seed-bearing axis differed from that of a lycopod strobilus such as possessed by Lepidocarpon but it seems likely that if the cone were still recognizable it would be very loose and open in its construction. The peduncle is short in all the specimens studied so far. It presents a frayed irregular termination as if no abscision layer were formed. When cross-sections of the seed are cut back of the funicular swelling an appearance similar to some diagrammatic representations of Lepidocarpon is obtained. Such a section is seen in figure 12. This same specimen was later sectioned through the middle and the resulting longitudinal section is shown in figure 13. Figure 11 shows a similar cut of a complete seed pass¬ ing through the ligule, and figure 1 shows a drawing of a similar seed cut more obliquely. The integumentary investment is considerably elaborated beyond that of Lepidocarpon. A flap of the integument even extends around in front of the sporangium which otherwise would be left exposed since in these seeds the lamina is not reflexed upward. Figures 1 and 11 show the seed as if it were entirely enclosed ventrally by the integuments, since these sections essentially parallel the ventral slit. However, more oblique sections, such as figure 15, give the appearance of a “double micropyle.” The slit in this case is intersected both anteriorly and near its posterior limit. The sporangium (or “nucellus”) of this seed is also elaborated. The lower an¬ terior wall, least protected by integuments, although a cushion of sporophyll tissue fits close against it, is thickened considerably in contrast to the parts altogether sheltered within the seed. The outer layer of sporangial cells is generally well preserved but tapetal cells within are more fragmentary. The sporangium is collapsed irregularly in these specimens but nearly al¬ ways extends into the micropylar slit, as shown in figure 12. At the front of the seed it often bulges beyond the integuments producing the character¬ istic two pronged appearance shown in figures 1, 11, and 13. The termini of these two plications are split and it seems in all probability that fertilizing elements had access to the mature gametophyte through these openings. One large fertile seed megaspore takes up most of the space inside the sporangium but three abortive megaspores are found near the anterior plications. No well preserved gametophytes have been found as yet although several seeds show a thin zone of gametophytic tissue in a few areas im¬ mediately inside the membrane of the megaspore. It may be that prothal- lial tissue had formed only around the periphery at the stage represented here, but it seems more likely that central gametophytic tissue was present originally and had become disintegrated prior to mineralization. An enlarged photograph of the ligule is shown in figure 9. Aside from its unmistakable presence, further proving the relationship of llliniocarpon Botany — 1937 Meeting 145 with Lepidocarpon and the ligulate lycopods, there is little about it which seems to merit special attention. The lamina is thickest in the basal part where it is attached just below the ligule. The lower surface is quite smooth and slightly keeled in the middle, the upper surface has a broad midrib and a lateral groove on either side in the basal portion. The slightly oblique cross-section outline shown in figure 2 was taken adjacent to the distal extremity shown in figure 13. The space presumably occupied by the vascular strand is indicated by the dotted outline ( vb ) in the center. On either side is another poorly pre¬ served area (p); these probably are connected with the parichnos. Ob¬ viously the rigidity of the lamina was chiefly governed by hypodermal sclerotic tissue. Figure 3 is another cross-section outline from the same specimen taken about 12 mm beyond figure 2. The black outlines slightly exaggerate the extent of sclerotic tissue. Vascular tissues are notable for their poor preservation in the specimens which have been studied. The supply after leaving the peduncle seems to divide, one strand proceeding to the seed and one to the blade. This species has been named in honor of Dr. G. H. Cady, Senior Geologist and Head of the Coal Division of the Illinois State Geological Survey, not only because he was instrumental in obtaining the present excellent col¬ lection of Nashville coal balls, but because, as Dr. A. C. Noe records in an as yet unpublished manuscript, the first coal ball recognized as such from this country was collected in the Harrisburg region by Dr. Cady. All specimens illustrated are in the Illinois State Geological Survey Col¬ lections, Urbana, Illinois. DISCUSSION Fredda Reed5 has recently discussed the seed habit with reference to Lepidocarpon and her remarks apply equally well to both forms described here. Not only do these fructifications “retain” their functional megaspores but it seems that the lamina was modified into an organ for seed dispersal. Thus it forms an adaptation quite analagous with the wings of pine seeds or those of certain angiosperm fruits. As pointed out by Miss Reed, retention of the megaspore may sometimes occur in heterosporous cryptogams, e. g., Selaginella, but for true attainment of the seed habit, sport retention should imply marked nutritional advantage to the gametophyte. It has become more apparent that the megaspore coats of Lepidocarpon and related forms were particularly adapted for growth at the expense of sporophyte. The protective value of the spore coat was largely if not entirely lost and this function was assumed by the elaborated sporophyll. Consequently these fructifications had progressed much further along the road to the seed habit than is necessary to assume by mere retention of the spores. The fact that embryos have not been preserved in Paleozoic seeds found so far seems be¬ side the point since they could have been formed only within the enclosed gametophyte. The bond between gametophyte and sporophyte had become so well established in the fossils just described that it seems necessary to conclude that lycopod fructifications such as these had become true seeds inasmuch as they possessed all the essentials of the seed habit. SUMMARY Two lycopod fructifications have been described. One is referable to Lepidocarpon Scott and is described as a new species. It seems that Lepido- carpon is more widely distributed than has been previously recognized and that several large bladed lycopod fructifications now known only from im¬ pressions may possibly be transferred to this genus when more completely 146 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions known. The other fructification described, while clearly comparable with Lepidocarpon in many respects, is assigned to a new genus Illiniocarpon. It shows more extreme modification of the lycopod seed habit especially in its pedunculate mode of attachment. Both Lepidocarpon and Illiniocarpon are considered to possess all the essential features of seeds although they evolved independently from “spermatophyte” lines of descent. REFERENCES 1. Bochenski, T., Uber Sporophyllstande (Bltiten) einiger Lepidophyten aus dem produktiven karbon Polen : Annales de la Soc. Geol. de Pologne, vol. 12 pp. 193-240, 1936. 2. Cady, G. H., The occurrence of coal balls in No. 6 coal bed at Nashville, Illinois: Trans. Illinois State Acad. Sci., vol. 29, pp. 157-8, 1936. 3. Krick, H. V., Structure of seedlike fructifications found in coal balls from Harrisburg, Illinois: Bot. Gaz., vol. 93, pp. 151-172, 1932. 4. Lesquereux, Leo, Description of the coal flora of the carboniferous forma¬ tion in Pennsylvania and throughout the United States: Second Geol Survey Pennsylvania, Rept. Prog., P., vol. 1, Text, Harrisburg, 1880. 5. Reed, Fredda D., Lepidocarpon sporangia from the Upper Carboniferous of Illinois: Bot. Gaz., vol. 98, pp. 307-316, 1937. 6. Schopf, J. M., The paleobotanical significance of plant structure in coal : Trans. Illinois State Acad. Sci., vol. 28, p. 107, 1935. - , Spores characteristic of Illinois coal No. 6 : Trans. Illinois State Acad. Sci., vol. 28, p. 175, 1935. 7. Scott, D. H., On the structure and affinities of fossil plants from the Paleozoic rocks ; IV, The seed-like fructification of Lepidocarpon, a genus of Lycopodiaceous cones from the carboniferous formation : Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., London, B, vol. 194, pp. 291-333, 1901. 8. White David, Fossil flora of the Lower Coal Measures of Missouri: U. S. Geol. Survey, Mon. 37, 1899. Botany — 1937 Meeting 147 Preservation of Fungi in Ancient Wood Leo R. Tehon State Natural History Survey, Urbana, Illinois About two years ago a specimen of ancient wood found in Manito Bog, which is a grass- and sedge-covered peat bed located in the northern part of Mason County, Illinois, was submitted to the writer for identification. This wood was so well preserved that with care very acceptable microtome sec¬ tions could be made of it. In examining such sections filaments of a very fine and delicate fungus were encountered, with indications in the wood that this fungus had been present in the living tree as a parasite. Since then a number of other samples have been secured and sectioned, and the sections have been searched for fungi with the success reported in this paper. By microscopic characters, the wood might be either larch or spruce. Arthur Koehler, of the U. S. Forest Products Laboratory, who has examined large pieces of it, believes it is the latter because of certain growth-ring ratios considered to be distinctive of spruce. The age of the wood is not capable of exact determination. Manito Bog, which lies eight to nine miles beyond the terminal morain of the Early Wisconsin glacier, was apparently a portion of the drainage channel for waters of the Wisconsin glaciers. It probably came into existence following their retreat. The retreat of the Early Wisconsin glacier has been placed at 40 to 150 thousand years ago, that of the Late Wisconsin at 20 to 60 thousand years ago. The minimum age of the wood specimens may be considered, then, as being very nearly 20,000 years. The preservation of fungi as fossils through very long periods of geological time has, of course, been demonstrated. Hirmer1 has given a recapitulation of such reports, showing preservation of very primitive fungi in Silurian, of Pythiaceae in Neocene, and of Pucciniaceae in Carboniferous times. The accompanying figures 1 and 2, which are of original photo¬ micrographs of fossil fungi of Devonian times (from silicified peat beds in Old Red Sandstone at Rhynie, Aberdeen, Scotland) show how perfect pres¬ ervation in fossil form may be. But preservation of real fungous filaments in their natural state over long periods of time has not been reported before, so far as the writer is aware. In sections made from the Manito Bog specimens the following four types of fungi have been found. 1. Fungous filaments, shown in figure 6, exhibiting evidence of having been parasitic in the wood at the time the tree was alive. These filaments are very fine and delicate and stain only faintly with stains differential for fungi in woody tissues. They run longitudinally through and laterally across tracheae on both sides of the annual ring boundaries. In passing from cell to cell they frequently make use of the bordered pits, but evidence of their parasitism is presented in part by the fact that they also were able to bore directly through cell walls and in part by the fact that, where this occurred, callosities are still visible on cell walls at many points of pene- BerlinHi1927f’p^aii2-128ndbUCh ^ Palaeobotanik- R- Oldenburg, Muenchen und 148 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Plate 1. — Preservation of Fungi in Ancient Wood. Botany — 1937 Meeting 149 tration. Further evidence of parasitism is seen also in the shrinkage and collapse of secondary and tertiary cell-wall thickenings in heavy-walled fall wood. 2. Fungous filaments, shown in figure 5, that suggest a purely saprophytic relationship with the wood in which they occur. These filaments are coarse and retain differential stains quite strongly. They run lengthwise and crosswise of tracheae and in passing from cell to cell make use only of bordered pits. No instance of direct cell-wall penetration was observed. 3. Fungous hyphae, shown in figure 4, bearing enlarged, dark, chlamy- dosporic cells. These filaments are of moderate size and are perfectly pre¬ served, even to the cross walls in the hyphae. They still react moderately to differential stains. This form is very similar to fungi now economically important as causes of wood stains in timber. 4. Minute, isolated cell aggregates, shown in figure 3, which are obviously sclerotic resting bodies. These are muriform in structure, brown, and translucent. They do not react to differential stains. Where they were found, no hyphae were observable in any tissues except the rays; and there was no apparent connection between these hyphae and the sclerotia. The question might be raised whether these fungi are coeval with the wood in which they occur. In the first instance evidence of parasitism is so positive as to permit no doubt that the fungus was associated with the death of the tree. With respect to the other three, circumstances are almost equally convincing. At the present day this preserved wood lies beneath three to four feet of peat. According to available records, the bog has been drained and probably farmed since before 1901. Since drainage and cultivation greatly speed up peat decay, the present three- to four-foot coverage does not represent the total amount of peat deposited following tree growth. The wood specimens had not been uncovered before being taken, and it seems hardly possible that the fungi could have invaded the wood within recent years. The material discussed in this paper has had two points of special interest to the ‘writer. The first, of course, is the clear evidence of preserva¬ tion through a very considerable period of time of the very minute and fragile threads of which fungus bodies are made. The second is the indi¬ cation that diseases of trees, human knowledge of which is but little more than half a century old, were in existence and played important parts both in the death of trees and in the subsequent disintegration of tree tissues as much as 20,000 years ago. Explanation of Plate Fythium-like fossil fungus from Devonian times. Fig. 2. — A Puccinia- Isnln tpHS1crfwU+- 0rV the epi^e™lls ?f Rhynia major from Devonian times. Fig. 3. — sclerotic fungus bodies in crushed woody tissue of ancient spruce A hypl\a 9an be seen in the cross section of the wood ray. Fig. 4. — htn eftnrfi -and cJlamydosphores similar to present wood-staining fungi in a shrinkage ofs^condary^U^wails^in^falf wooc[US fl’ame"tS ‘n ^ Laboratho°ry.TiCrOE:raPhS by Ray R Hamm’ ' University of Illinois Photographic 150 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Chromosome Numbers of Amaranthaceae Mildred H. Willoughby Rockford Senior High School, Rockford, Illinois Recent literature reports a number of chromosome counts made on species of the Amaranthaceae. Both Gaiser1 and Tischler2 record only one, Celosia argentea L. var. cristata Kuntze (Celosia cristata L.), reported by T. Morinaga et al.3 It had a haploid number of 18. A count has been re¬ ported on Achyranthes bidentata Bl. by T. Sugiura.4 The diploid number was 42. F. Takagi5 records chromosome numbers for six more. Amaranthus tricolor L., A. Blitum L., and A. spinosus L. have a haploid number of 17 and a diploid number of 34. Amaranthus paniculatus L., A. mangostanus L., and A. caudatus L. have a haploid number of 16 and a diploid number of 32. Botany — 1937 Meeting 151 In preparing the material the method of killing and fixing which proved most successful was to pick the buds at approximately the time that the pollen mother cells were dividing, about 1:30 P. M. on a sunny day, and to put them at once into a mixture of one part glacial acetic acid to two parts absolute alcohol. The pollen mother cells could then be examined in aceto- carmine at any time within the next forty-eight hours. Camera lucida drawings were made with a Zeiss microscope with 2 mm. homogeneous immersion objective 1.3 N. A. and 160 mm. tube length using a compensating ocular No. 18. This arrangement with camera lucida pro¬ duced drawings magnified 4000 times. These are reduced to x 1600 in the accompanying figures. A count was made on three varieties of Celosia argentea L.: var. Childsii, var. chrysanthiflora, and var. Thompsonii. All three had a haploid number of 18. According to Schinz6 Celosia belongs to the tribe Celosieae in the sub¬ family Amaranthoideae. Achyranthes and Amaranthus belong to the same subfamily but to different subtribes of the tribe Amarantheae. Chromosome counts were made on Amaranthus hybridus L. and A. hybridus L. forma hypochondriacus (L.) Robinson, and a recount on A. caudatus L. In all three the haploid number was 16. Pollen mother cells of three species of the subfamily Gomphrenoideae were examined. All three belong to the same tribe, Gomphreneae. Froelichia floridana Moq. and Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. belong to the same subtribe, Froelichiinae. Both have a haploid chromosome number of 12. The chromosomes of Froelichia floridana (fig. 9) were the largest of any of those counted at this time. The pollen mother cells were also the largest and were very few in number. Gomphrena globosa L. var. carnea belongs to the subtribe Gomphreninae. Its haploid number was also 12. The chromosome counts so far made on the Amaranthaceae show more variation in number among the Amaranthoideae than among the Gomphre¬ noideae. The numbers as far as they are known at present are tabulated in the following list: Species n Celosia argentea L. var. Childsii . 18 var. chrysanthiflora . 18 var. cristata Kuntze . 18 var. Thompsonii . 18 Amaranthus Blitum L . 17 A. caudatus L . 16 A. caudatus L . 16 A. hybridus L . 16 A. hybridus L. var. hypochondriacus (L.) Robinson . 16 A. mangostanus L . . A. paniculatus L . 16 A. spinosus L . 17 A. tricolor L . 17 Achyranthes bidentata B1 . ,. . Froelichia floridana Moq . 12 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br . 12 Gomphrena globosa L. var. carnea . 12 2n Reported by . Present paper . Present paper . Morinaga et al, 1929 . . . Present paper 34 . Takagi, F. 1933 32 . Takagi, F. 1933 . Present paper . Present paper . Present paper . Takagi, F. 1933 32 . Takagi, F. 1933 34 . Takagi, F. 1933 34 . Takagi, F. 1933 42 . Sugiura, T. 1931 - . Present paper . . . . . Present paper . . Present paper 152 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions I am indebted to Dr. C. S. Gager, Director of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, for furnishing seeds of the species mentioned except Amaranthus hybridus L. and A. hybridus L. forma hypochondriacus (L.) Robinson. I am indebted also to Dr. John T. Buchholz of the Department of Botany at the University of Illinois for suggestions and criticism. This investigation was carried out while the writer was holding the Rockford College Scholarship to the Graduate School of the University of Illinois. LITERATURE CITED 1. Gaiser, L. O. : Chromosome numbers in angiosperms. Bibliographia Genetica 6:171-466. 1930. 2. Tischler, G. : Pflanzliche Chromosomen-Zahlen. Tabulae Biologtcae Periodicae 1 :109-226. 1931. 3. Morinaga, T., Fukushima, E., Kano, T., Maruyama, Y., and Y. Yamasaki : Chromosome numbers of cultivated plants. II. Bot. Mag. Tokyo. 43:589-594.1929. 4. Sugiura, T. : A list of chromosome numbers in angiospermous plants. Bot. Mag. Tokyo. 45:353-355. 1931. 5. Takagi, Fumi : Uber die Chromosomenzahlen bei einigen Amarantus- Arten. Bot. Mag. Tokyo. 47 :556-557. 1933. . 6. Schinz, H. : Amaranthaceae. In Engler and Prantl : Die Naturltchen Pflanzenfamilien. Band 16c:7-85. 1934. Botany — 1937 Meeting 153 Humidity Variations Affecting Transpiration H. F. Thut Eastern Illinois State Teachers College , Charleston, Illinois Few data are available on the influence of humidity and its effect on transpiration. General botany texts usually state something to the effect that if other things are equal, the drier the air the more rapid transpira¬ tion. No mention is made of the extent or degree of the influence of humidity. The statement is only a general one. It was hoped in this work to find some relationships between the per cent of humidity and the amount of transpiration. The method employed was a local one on the lower surface of the leaves tested. Bottles were constructed which had an exposure area, to the leaf of .71 sq. cm. This area represented 1/25 of that of the inside area of the bottles. The humidity within the bottles was controlled by concentrations Upper curve — Absorption of water from humid air in a 4 hour period. Second curve — Water loss or gain by red coleus during an 8 hour period. of sulphuric acid. Most of the experiments were performed by using 0, 20, 35, 50, 65, and 100 per cent sulphuric acid. These concentrations give a good humidity curve from near 0 to 100 per cent. The low bottles were filled so that the sulphuric acid was 2 cm. from the opening of the bottles. The bottles were weighed and then exposed for an 8 hour period to the water loss from the lower epidermis of the plant leaves. The exposure was made by pressing the leaf against the opening of the bottle and holding it in place by a glass slide weight. After exposure, the bottles were again stoppered and weighed and the differences noted. The results obtained were compared to the absorption by the same bottles from humid air. Exposure of the bottles to humid air gave the characteristic absorption curve predictable for these concentrations of sul¬ phuric acid. 154 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Results were obtained for red and yellow coleus, varieties of Coleus Blumei, cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis and Lantana camara. The graph illustrates the type of data obtained. A comparison is made between the water absorbed by the bottles from the air in a moist chamber and from red coleus plants. The two curves are quite similar. The greatest divergence in the two curves occurs at the highest concentration of sulphuric acid or in the region of the driest air. The leaf tissues probably not only reach the limit of their water-supply¬ ing power but also there is a marked tendency for the stomata to close. Some of the other plants, especially cotton, showed a more marked drop in the curve. In the dry atmospheres there is a tendency for leaves to reach a limit in their water loss, beyond which transpiration is not increased with decreased humidity. In the high humidity bottles, i. e., in the bottles having the low con¬ centrations of sulphuric acid, the bottles lost water to the leaves. As these leaves were exposed to the dry air of the laboratory, they no doubt had a saturation deficit and that part of the leaf exposed to the humid air of the bottles absorbed moisture. Leaves can absorb moisture from the air. Botany — 1937 Meeting 155 The Teaching of General Botany in Liberal Arts Colleges for Women Sister Mary Therese, B.V.M. Mundelein College, Chicago, Illinois It has frequently been declared that the poorest teaching is to be found in colleges and that college teachers as a group have little sympathy for the science of education and no time for considering methods of scientific procedure in teaching. Confident that these charges are unwarranted, members of the botany department of Mundelein College recently undertook a survey of “The Teach¬ ing of General Botany in Liberal Arts Colleges for Women”. Unusual in¬ terest was manifested in a questionnaire which was sent to 132 colleges located in 32 States. These institutions were chosen because they were listed as fully accredited colleges in the 1936 directory of American Universities and Colleges. Of this number 107, or 81%, responded. In not a few cases letters accompanied the returned questionnaires from department heads soliciting a copy of the survey when published. These facts, of themselves, may be taken to indicate professional interest. The purpose of this survey was to secure scientific data concerning the present status of general botany as it is taught in liberal arts colleges for women. Information bearing on this problem was not readily available and therefore, a questionnaire was resorted to. In order to avoid undue length the questionnaire was limited to salient points. However, much supple¬ mentary information was offered by many of the colleges. With 32 States represented in the returns, it was considered of interest to arrange the colleges territorially and to observe whether or not the teach¬ ing of botany varies in the colleges according to location in the New England group, the South Atlantic, the South Central, the North Central, the West¬ ern, or the Pacific States. A summary of the results follows: With many college administrators it is frequently debatable whether a year course in General Botany can, without undue loss to the students, be shortened to that of a semester, or a semester course be profitably extended to that of a year. Many factors such as the teaching load, class registration and laboratory equipment, to mention only a few, must necessarily be con¬ sidered. Of those offering general botany, 61% of the colleges have chosen the year course, and 36% the semester course. According to territorial rating the distribution is general. Regarding the choice of method of conducting lecture and laboratory work 13% of the institutions use the combined lecture-laboratory method, and 87% employ separate lecture periods and laboratory periods. In the former group the average time is from six to eight hours per week; in the latter, two lecture periods. Not infrequently the question is raised: “Should students be required to make their own laboratory drawings or should they be allowed to label pre¬ pared drawings?”. Ninety per cent of the colleges are in favor of having each student make her own drawings. 156 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Regularly established quizzes to systematically follow up laboratory work are used in 93% of the colleges. Tests of various types are employed including written and oral, objective and standardized forms here listed in the order of their popularity with instructors. The remaining 7% of the institutions have not established the custom of laboratory testing. Contrary to common opinions, instructors in botany enrich their courses with the aids to visual education, guest lectures and radio programs. These, along with the usual laboratory variety of equipment of charts and models, are in frequent use in 92% of the colleges. The students’ interest is further stimulated and allowed expression through the medium of projects which are carried on outside of regular class periods in 51% of the institutions. The list of topics compiled from examples offered by colleges exceeded fifty in number and could be conveniently grouped into suitable seasonal studies. Without any doubt field trips are considered an essential supplement to theory, and are included in the general botany courses of 86% of the col¬ leges, the average number of trips being 2 or 3 during the semester. To¬ gether with this approach to a comprehensive course may be mentioned the use made of college greenhouses where students have the opportunity of cultivating plants and of watching them grow. Of all the questions proposed for consideration the one that evoked the greatest diversity of opinion was that concerning the time evaluation placed upon the study of Plant Physiology and the four main divisions of the plant kingdom, regardless of the order or method of development followed in the course. For example, quoting the lowest and highest rating for each division we have: Thallophytes from 0 to 40% of the course time; Bryophytes 0 to 22%; Pteridophytes 0.9 to 40%; Spermatophytes 3.6 to 83.3%; Plant Physi¬ ology 0 to 91%. The average evaluations are: Thallophytes 19% of the course time; Bryophytes 10%; Pteridophytes 11%; Spermatophytes 37%, and Plant Physiology 23%. The North Central States approach nearest the average in all five estimates. One might hastily conclude that this diversity in time allotments reflects the opinions of authors whose textbooks are employed. However, we meet considerable uniformity in textbook selection which indicates that responsi¬ bility for the evaluation of these divisions is assumed not by the author but by the individual instructor. Here the geographical locations of the colleges and hence their natural resources also play a part. Concerning textbook selection it is reported that 40% of the colleges employ the same text. Contending for second place are two other textbooks each receiving a patronage of 10%. The remaining 40% of the colleges place their selection with one of 16 others serving the same field. Among laboratory manuals mimeographed sheets prepared by the department or the instructor are almost unanimously preferred. That courses are scientifically as well as systematically planned and executed may be deduced from the personnel responsible for such planning. For example, in 70% of the institutions the head of the department together with his associates outlines the courses of study with the approval of the administration. Other practises vest authority in the instructors of the courses or in a Committee on Studies. Direct correlation with other depart¬ ments is sought by the botany departments of 74% of the colleges. Home Economics, Chemistry, Social Service, Physical Education, Physics and Edu¬ cation head the list of 25 correlated departments. Student guidance, so popularly advocated today, receives staunch sup¬ port from botany professors in 88% of the institutions. Many instructors require students to come for conferences regularly but the majority prefer extending such assistance only to students doing work below par or to stu¬ dents who voluntarily seek assistance. Botany — 1937 Meeting 157 Usually the demand for a subject can conveniently be used as a criterion of success. Judging courses in general botany from this evidence, 72% of the colleges answering this question reported an increased demand among their students, and 26% reported a decline. Others had no estimate or re¬ ported no apparent change. In conclusion, based upon the results of this survey, a typical course in General Botany in a Liberal Arts College for Women, (1) is a year in length, (2) is conducted in separate lecture and separate laboratory periods, (3) requires students to make their own laboratory drawings, (4) includes laboratory quizzes, (5) requires student projects and field trips, (6) is sup¬ plemented with various aids to teaching, (7) is outlined by the head of the department with his associates, (8) correlates with other departments and (9) allows instructors time for student conferences. 158 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Spore Germination and Thallus Development in Porella Paul D. Voth University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois AN ABSTRACT Since no extensive account of spore germination in the leafy liverworts exists this study was undertaken as preliminary to a comprehensive publi¬ cation on the life history of Porella. Living plants of this genus were secured from the vicinity of Corvallis, Oregon, at regular intervals during the winter and spring of 1937. Judging from the large spores which may attain a diameter of nearly 90 microns, the species under consideration is Porella navicularis (Lehm. et Lindenb.) Lindb. When planted, the green, echinulate spores sink to the bottom of the modified Beyennck s nutrient solution which serves as the growing medium. Even if submerged in sevei al millimeters of nutrient solution, the spores germinate readily when the con¬ taining culture dish was placed in diffuse light in a moderately heated room. Tips of Porella plants with adhering or imprisoned germinating spores weie embedded in paraffin and sectioned at five to seven microns. According to Herzog,4 Porella (Madotheca), Pellia, Conocephalus (Fega- tella) , Androcryphia, and Dendroceros have multicellular spores at the time they are shed from the sporangium. Goebel3 discusses spore germination m all of these genera briefly and mentions that Porella and Frullania germinate much like Pellia, but states specifically that the spore of Porella undergoes cell division after its dispersal. This is true of Porella navicularis since a one-celled spore v^as found in a dehisced capsule. Whether the spore was a product of the capsule in which it was found or whether it originated m another capsule, could not be ascertained. In either case, the fact remains that this ungerminated spore was found in a capsule which had shed most of its spores. In this investigation all closed capsules have been found to contain uninucleate spores. The manner of spore germination can be illustrated by a spore which was accidentally caught in an archegonial involucre surrounding the base of a mature sporophyte. Serial paraffin sections revealed that this spore had germinated to form approximately 16 cells, all within the spore wall. Judg¬ ing from its location and prominence, the first wall divided the one-celled spore into a two-celled gametophyte. Subsequent walls usually form at right angles to the preceding one. In some instances, however, walls form which are radial with respect to the whole thallus. Such cells appeal triangular in section and resemble to some extent the pyramidal apical cell of an adult plant. However, these triangular cells are not visibly different from the other cells of the thallus. As early as 1862, Hofmeister* described spore germination m Radula complanata. The sequence of wall formation closely resembles that of Porella except that the young thallus appears to be a plate of cells and not a sphere. Botany — 1937 Meeting 159 During early thallus development, the spore wall has retained its outward appearance. Although the cells of the gametophyte have increased in num¬ ber, they occupy a space essentially that of a mature spore. Median sections of a spore or of a young gametophyte show a wall of two layers. The third layer of the spore wall as described by Goebel3 was not distinguishable in the mature spore. Continued cell development of the thallus finally exerts enough pressure to rupture the spore coats. Parts of the thallus, which commonly are the apical end and the primary rhizoid, protrude from the spore wall. The number of rhizoids in Porella sporelings varies from none to two, when young rhizoids contain numerous plastids which disappear with age. When a thallus consists of approximately 50 cells, a definite apical region with a distinct apical cell has been differentiated. In those thalli with a single rhizoid the apical cell may be diametrically opposite the rhizoid or inclined at an angle of 90 degrees from the rhizoid. This apical region is the source of all “leaves” and branches. Differentiation of a ventral leaf or amphigastrium was observed to take place before the lateral (dorsal) leaves made their appearance. When apparent, the lateral leaves are not yet differentiated into lower and upper lobes. This differentiation occurs later. Goebel2 has figured a young thallus of Porella which is older and already has several sets of leaves. No other illustrations of Porella in the process of spore germination have been found in the literature. Once the apical cell has given rise to additional cells which in turn differentiate into axis, leaves, and branches, the pattern of the plant is established. It can perpetuate itself by means of apical growth indefinitely. It is noteworthy that in Porella navicularis as well as in most of the leafy liverworts in which germination studies have been made by Goebel3 (Lejeunea, Polyotus, Frullania, etc.), no filament is formed in spore germination. Campbell1 also points out that in Porella the formation of a filament in early thallus development is completely suppressed. The de¬ velopment of a spherical thallus may be to the advantage of such plants as Porella since, as Goebel3 suggests, a compact group of cells probably can withstand alternate wetting and drying better than a filament of cells. LITERATURE CITED 1. Campbell, D. H., The structure and development of Mosses and Ferns. New York. 1930. 2. Goebel, K., Ueber die Jugendzustande der Pflanzen. Flora 72: 1-45. 1889. 3. Goebel, K., Organographie der Pflanzen. Vol. 2. Jena. 1930. 4. Herzog, Th., Anatomie der Lebermoose. In : Linsbauer, K., Handbuch der Pflanzenanatomie. II Abt. 2 Teil. 7(1) : 1-112. 1925. 5. Hofmeister, W , The higher Cryptogamia. Ray Society, 1862. 160 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Nature Education in Parks Elizabeth White Blue Island Community High School, Blue Island, Illinois Nature Education in parks is a response which has developed in recent years to a need for a type of recreation which would satisfy the mental and aesthetic demands as well as the physical. This movement is a timely one dovetailing into many of today’s social problems such as (1) leisure time, (2) enrichment of life, (3) adult education, and (4) conservation. Because of the greater amount of leisure time, the character as well as the number of people attending parks has changed. A few years ago people sought the out-of-doors on days of leisure because there they could find rest physically and mentally. That is no longer true; today the trend is toward activity. With the vastly increasing numbers using our parks it is neces¬ sary that they learn the reasons for conservation. This is a problem of the nation concerning which all citizens should be informed. In 1920 a few people sensed the need and a foundation was laid when Harold C. Bryant and Loy Holmes Miller conducted field trips in Yosemite National Park. Naturalist work in the national parks increased very rapidly and is now well organized .as the Branch of Research and Education in Washington, D. C. under the National Park Service. A study of nature education being carried on in state parks shows that very little is being done under the auspices of the states. A small amount has been done in some Iowa parks by the Iowa State College at Ames through the cooperation of the State Board of Conservation. It was my privilege to do some of this work in the summer of 1935. Guided trips and nature trails are the principal methods being used in state, municipal and other small parks. My work dealt principally with the nature trail. This method was first successfully employed by W. P. Alex¬ ander of the Buffalo Society of Natural History in the Allegany State Park in New York, and later crystallized by Dr. Lutz, Curator of Insect Life of the American Museum of Natural Science. Several projects have received their inspiration from Bear Mountain, New York, where the trails and trailside museum now represents the most extensive nature guide service outside the national parks. In the work done in the Iowa State Parks we attempted to find if the people visiting the parks were interested in a labeled nature trail and what types of labels were educational. Temporary trails were laid out using commercial markers requiring 4x6 and 8 V2 x 11 placards and varying from 18 to 40 inches in height. A number of objects of interest were selected and suitable placards prepared. These placards were made to vary as much as possible, but in order to evaluate the interest shown by the people and the educational value they were considered to be of four types. 1. Those contrasting or comparing two plants, as “Virginia Creeper. This plant is often mistaken for poison ivy. It always has five leaflets while poison ivy always has three. Look for poison ivy farther along this trail” (A drawing of a leaf of each followed.) Botany — 193 7 Meeting 161 2. Those naming and describing the plant and giving its botanical relationship, as “Horse Mint. The flowers of this plant are very striking along roadsides. Like other mints this plant has a distinctive odor and a square stem.” 3. Those telling the use of a plant, as “Basswood or Linden. This is a tree whose wood is quite valuable. It is soft, light, tough, and long fibered though not durable. It is highly prized for paper pulp, woodenware and excelsior.” 4. Those /containing a picture, as “Do you know that most of our grasses have beautiful flowers? This is a picture of our common Kentucky Blue Grass magnified fifty times.” (This was placed where Kentucky Blue Grass was growing.) By counting the number of people who passed over the trail and the number who read the markers it was found that over sixty per cent of the people read all of the labels and an additional twenty per cent read the majority of them. Considering the amount of time a visitor spent as a criterion, people were most interested in a marker containing a picture. Next in interest and ranking near the first were those contrasting or comparing two plants. Some labels which might not appeal to one person might have a great appeal to another, and a nature trail should have some appeal to every person who might be found on its path. On a very mossy bank the marker was placed containing the question, “How many kinds of moss can you find here?”. Of the three hundred and seventy people who read the marker only about thirty made an attempt to answer it. Five people were observed to sit down and remain for over ten minutes to study the mosses. Was it worthwhile to place this marker here for those five people? Some of the conclusions of this study are: 1. At least eighty per cent of all the people who go on the trails in Iowa parks are interested in the nature trail. 2. A label containing a picture or contrasting two objects holds the interest for the longest period of time. 3. A label or series of labels consuming more than a minute are valu¬ able to one-third of the visitors. 4. Labels giving new facts concerning some familiar object or bringing some new object to people’s attention have the greatest instruc¬ tional value. 5. Scientific names, or technical terms should not be used. In this time of mental stress, we who know the inspirational and aesthetic value of the out-of-doors should encourage the development of nature education in our state and municipal parks, for there are those who will never see the national parks Arno B. Cammerer, Director of the Na¬ tional Park Service, says: “He who has drunk deeply of the cup of pleasure the park has to offer, has found it an exalted spiritual adventure, the mem¬ ory of which will enrich all his days. To such a one new fields of thought have been opened. . . . So he goes home to study more about the par¬ ticular subject which has appealed to him. The libraries yield books on the subject, museums offer supplementary material, and a new avocation is born. We need no longer worry about the worthwhile use of that person’s spare time.” * Papers in chemistry Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman The program of the Chemistry Section carried fourteen papers, of which twelve are here represented. The others are: Experiments in Training Chemists for Industry, by Mabel Spencer, Granite City High School, Granite City. Modern Motor Fuels, by Gustav Egloff, Universal Oil Products Com¬ pany, Chicago. Attendance at the meetings averaged forty-five. Dr. G. W. Thiessen, Monmouth College, Monmouth, Illinois, was elected chairman of the Chemistry Section for 1938. (Signed) W. F. Bailey, Chairman ri62] Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 165 The Place of X-Ray Diffraction in Clay Mineralogy* W. F. Bradley State Geological Survey, Urhana, Illinois Studies in the mineralogy of clays have been unique in that the clay minerals are the only rather large group, mineralogically, in which optical and chemical data did not precede crystal structure data by one or more decades. Various arbitrary definitions of clays have suggested that the term be reserved for materials made up of particles below 5 or 2 or ly. These mag¬ nitudes are of no significance in the present paper, but they readily explain why petrographers were forced to await twentieth century developments on the microscope before seriously attacking clay problems. Almost contemporaneously with the optical characterization and naming of a number of apparently distinct clay mineral species, X-ray powder dif¬ fraction diagrams were registered for them, and these diffraction diagrams were used in a cataloguing sense as a criterion of identity additional to the optical data and chemical analyses. By 1930 six or eight rather common minerals and a somewhat greater number of rarer ones had been recognised. Since then additional work has resulted in the dropping of a few names as duplications, and in one or two additions. In 1930, Linus Pauling presented before the National Academy of Sci¬ ences a series of papers outlining the general features of the crystal struc¬ tures of several clay minerals and of the micas, chlorites, and talc. The minerals included in the scope of his work were all those common silicates exhibiting pronounced basal cleavage, and the series of layer structures pro¬ posed were consistent with this property. These papers, offered somewhat as predictions, virtually did predict all the work done in this field up to the present. Each structure is based upon hexagonally packed layers of oxygen atoms, adjacent layers being so displaced as to permit the presence at the interstices either of silicon atoms tetrahedrally surrounded, or aluminum atoms octahedrally surrounded. Various minor modifications are made to fit specific cases. For example, in the muscovite micas one-fourth of the tetrahedral positions are occupied by aluminum, and the resultant deficiency of positive charges is compensated for by an alkali ion in the nearest open space. The resultant feature of the close family resemblance of this broad group of minerals is that many of the X-ray diffraction lines are common to the entire group. Only lines related to the respective stackings of layers or the distance between adjacent layers, are criteria of the identity of a species. Relatively pure minerals are not easily miscalled but among mixtures greater care must be exercised. Differences in particle size of two samples of the same mineral exhibit more superficial differences than do distinct species of equal particle size in the lower size group. Since many clays contain as much as one-fourth by weight of particles below .ly, identifications in this range cannot be avoided. * Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. 166 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Another feature of X-ray diffraction work which assumes prominence in patterns obtained from mixtures of clay minerals is absorption edges. These result from the fact that crystals diffract the general radiation of shorter wave lengths as well as the characteristic radiation being employed, and mark the limiting energies beyond which bromine and silver, respectively, in the sensitive plate or film do not absorb radiation. These edges are most commonly observed in powder diffractions in the same region where the diagnostic features of characteristic diffraction are observed. For example, the bromine absorption edge corresponding to the 4.45A line common to all clays falls almost coincident with the 7.1 line characteristic of kaolinite. Most of these uncertainties can be obviated by a recently developed modi¬ fication of the powder diffraction method. A clay suspension is permitted to dry in a flat surface, resulting in an aggregate of particles having their basal planes more or less parallel to the plane of the surface. Diffraction from such a specimen takes the form of a “fibre diagram” familiar in textile researches. Lines related to the diagnostic basal distances are arranged in one simple series and all others are reflected to the sides. In answer to the question, “How valid is an identification made on the basis of this single series of reflections?”, flakes made up of 0.05/* particles have been mounted on an oscillating spectrograph permitting the registra¬ tion of high orders of the basal plane reflections. Satisfactory agreement be¬ tween observed and theoretical, (or one might say micro and macro crystal), relative intensities were observed through 16 orders for kaolinite and through 22 orders for illite, a muscovite mica. The evidence is therefore conclusive that even the finest grained clays exist as the same species which are ob¬ served optically among the coarser grained. Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 167 Pyrethrum Growth in Illinois* The Pyrethrin Content of Illinois Grown Pyrethrum Nicholas D. Cheronis Chicago, Illinois The growth of pyrethrum in this country is receiving increased attention, due to its gradually augmented use as insecticide. At the close of the war the imports of pyrethrum in this country were about 2,000,000 pounds. By 1930 they had increased to 10,000,000, and now exceed 15,000,000 pounds per year. About 90% of this comes from Japan, and the balance from Europe and recently some from British East Africa. The species of pyrethrum which is commercially important is the chrys¬ anthemum (Pyrethrum) cinerariaefolium (Trev.) Bocc. It is a glaucous perennial, slender, 12 to 24 inches high, stems unbranched with a few short scattered hairs below the flower. The leaves are long and petioled, silky be¬ neath with distant segments; involucral scales scarious and whitish at the apex.* 1 The commercial product consists of the air-dried flowers which range from 6 to 24 mm. in width, and from 0.070 to 0.300 grams in weight.2 The flowers are either powdered, and in admixtures with other ingredients form the active part of the so-called insect powders, or extracted, and the ex¬ tracts used in sprays. Too great a volume of literature on pyrethrum has accumulated to war¬ rant any introduction in this paper. An excellent account, as well as an exhaustive bibliography, will be found in C. B. Gnadinger’s book Pyrethrum Flowers, Second Edition, McLaughlin Gormley and King Company, Minne¬ apolis, Minn., 1936. The work here reported was begun in the spring of 1932. Its objectives were to determine whether pyrethrum could be grown under the conditions of soil and climate prevailing in northern Illinois, and also to study the influence of various fertilizers and plant catalysts on the pyrethrin content of the flowers. At the time we began our work, there were few references to the growth of pyrethrum in this country. Since then, a number of reports of attempts to grow it have been published from many states. To my knowl¬ edge, this was the first experiment in Illinois. In 1934, another experiment was started at the Tribune Experimental Farm at Wheaton, Ill. The seed from which the plants were started was imported from France, and was labeled Dalmatian Pyrethrum. The germination was extremely poor, the average being about 2%. No attempt was made to prove the truth of the * Joint contribution from the Synthetical Laboratories, and the Department of Physical Science at Wright Junior College, Chicago. 1 United States Department of Agriculture, Departmental Bulletin No. 824, P. 1-2, (1931). 2 C. B. Gnadinger; Pyrethrum Flowers, p. 1 (1936). 168 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions statement that the seed is heated before it is sold so as to destroy its germ¬ inating power. From further comparative trials with seed collected from our own plants, it seems safe to state that the imported seed was of very poor quality. The seed was sown in May, 1932, and the seedlings transplanted in September of the same year. Nine hundred plants were transplanted in one of the experimental fields of the department of Agronomy of the University of Illinois under the supervision and care of Dr. C. Alexopoulos of the Department of Botany (present address Kent State University, Kent, Ohio). This was a test to determine the growth under field crop conditions. The plot was half an acre of brown silt loam located in the south campus and adjoining the agronomy soil bins. Of these nine hundred plants, 855 sur¬ vived the transplanting operations. No particular care was given the plants during the next three years; according to the report of Dr. Alexopoulos, at the time of the harvest the weeds were two feet high, and on the whole, there was very little cultivation, so that they were grown under the worst possible conditions. The second group of plants, one hundred in number, was transplanted in a plot 30 x 25 ft., at the back of the author’s home, 5558 Ardmore Avenue, Chicago. The field was an empty lot with clay loam over compact light clay subsoil. It had never been cultivated. It was divided into five sections and the plants distributed as follows: Table I — Distribution and Treatment of Plants Plot Number of Plants surviving, Treatment in Spring, 1933 Number Plants Spring, 1933 1 20 18 None — Control 2 20 18 Complete fertilizer. 4/N — I2/P2O5 — 4/K2O 3 21 21 Complete fertilizer plus Uranium Nitrate 4 19 18 Uranium Nitrate alone 5 20 19 Barnyard manure Plot 2. Fertilizer at the rate of 20 g. per plant, also 0.5 g. MnSO,, per plant Plot 3. Fertilizer at the rate of 20 g. per plant; uranium nitrate, 0.1 g. per plant. Plot 4. Uranium nitrate, 2 g. per plant. Plot 5. Manure, 400 g. per plant. . „ . The rows were 15 inches apart and the plants spaced at intervals of 8 inches. In these experiments, no attempt was made to study each plant as a unit, but rather each plot was considered as a unit. Inasmuch as the plots were not separated by concrete, this way of regarding them must be taken with some reservation, although the results were quite constant. For the control, that is, plants which were not treated with any fertilizers, etc., the plot selected was at a higher level than the others at the extreme end of the section. Otherwise, the plots were divided by a small ditch of 8 inches depth, and one foot wide, with drainage. Table I shows the distribution of plants and the treatment of each plot. The treating of the plants with fertilizers, uranium salt and manure, was done during the middle of May, 1933. A similar treatment was given in May, 1934, and after that, no further treatment. In each case, the ma¬ terial was placed in a small circular furrow around the plant and six inches from the roots, then covered with soil. Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 169 The first harvesting in 1933 was very small, both in the Urbana and Chicago plots. This is usually the procedure. The flowers in the field crop were collected at half-closed stage, those at Chicago at the fully opened stage. As the amounts from the different experimental plots were too small (i. e., 5.8 to 6.7 g.) for a detailed chemical determination of pyrethrins, they were mixed to form one sample after being dried and weighed. Table II — Harvest of 1933 Plot Number of plants Number of flowers Fresh weight g- Air-dry weight g. Loss per cent Average weight of flowers g. Remarks Field crop, Urbana _ 855 350 closed showing petals 1,050 304 71 0.086 I . . . 18 49 5.8 76.5 0.119 Fully open II _ 20 52 6.0 76.4 0.115 Fully open III _ _ 21 50 6.1 77.0 0.122 Fully open IV _ _ 19 51 5.9 78.2 0.116 Fully open v 20 51 5.8 74.9 0.114 Fully open Table III — Harvest of 1934 Plot Number of plants Fresh weight g. Air-dry weight g- Loss per cent Average weight of flowers g. Yield per plant g. I . . . . 18 897 228 74.6 0.141 12.1 II . . . 20 966 242 75.2 0.151 12.1 Ill . . . . 21 1,040 298 76.4 0.153 14.1 IV . . . . 19 1,001 248 75.3 0.160 13.0 V . 20 796 201 74.8 0.140 10.05 The harvesting in 1934 was done between June 14th and 16th, and June 21st and 27th, while a third small collection was made on July 8th. The flowers were weighed after each collection and placed on racks and allowed to dry indoors. They were weighed again when dried, and then placed in bottles and placed on a shelf where they were kept until analyzed. The field crop of 1934 was not collected, but allowed to form seed. The harvesting in 1935 both in the experimental and field plots was done between June 15th and July 10th. The flowers from the field crop, after drying, were placed in a large carton where they were kept until they were analyzed. Tables II, III, IV and V show the results of the collections of the three years. 170 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Table IV — Harvest op 1935 Plot Number of plants Fresh weight g. Air-dry weight g- Loss per cent Average weight of flowers g- Average flowers per plant Yield per plant g. I _ 18 2,140 479 77.6 0.148 132 26.5 II . . . - . 20 2,224 489 78.1 0.160 152 27.2 Ill — 21 3,005 698 78.6 0.165 182 32.2 IV _ _ 19 1,940 450 76.8 0.163 145 25.0 V . . . 20 1,575 360 77.2 0.147 122 19.0 Field crop, Urbana, Illinois.. 855 Not weighed fresh 12,400 0.188* 14.5 * Weight per flower determined by taking the mean of the weights of five lots picked at random. Each lot consisted of 100 flowers. The flowers consisted of about 75% fully opened and 25% partially opened flowers. The fully opened flowers averaged 20.8 g. per 100, or 0.208 g. per flower. The extra large flowers of this lot were as high as 0.270 g. per flower, and averaged 0.241 g. per flower. The partially opened averaged 13.1 g. per 100 flowers, or 0.131 g. per flower. Table V — Comparison Plot Weight of flowers per plant Average weight of flowers 1933 1st year g- 1934 2nd year g. 1935 3rd year g. 1933 1st year g. 1934 2nd year g- 1935 3rd year g. I 0.32 12.1 26.5 0.119 0.147 0.148 II... 0.30 12.1 27.2 0.115 0.151 0.160 III _ _ 0.29 14.1 30.2 0.122 0.153 0.165 IV . . . - 0.31 13.0 25.0 0.116 0.160 0.163 V _ _ 0.29 10.5 19.0 0.114 0.140 0.161 Field cmp 0.35 14.5 0.086 0.188 (closed) The results as summarized in Table V indicate: 1. The already known facts that the plants give almost no flowers dur¬ ing the first year, and begin to yield a good harvest the second year. 2. That the yield per plant is not materially increased by the appli¬ cation of fertilizer, but that there is a definite increase in the plants which received small amounts of uranium salts in addition to the fertilizer. 3. The increased yield is due to the more vigorous growth of the plants receiving stimulation. There was more evidence of luxuriant growth in the plants of Plot III, which received fertilizer and uranium salts. 4. The weight per flower is maximum in the field crop, which received very little care or cultivation. This, however, gave also fewer flowers per plant. Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 171 The poorest yield per plant occurred in Plot V which received manure. It must be noted, however, that this plot was at a lower level, and received more water during rains due to imperfect drainage. This is in accord with all previous observations that pyrethrum does not thrive in very humid soil. The most exhaustive recent work on the effect of environmental condi¬ tions is the work of Tattersfield and his co-workers, published in 1931- 1934.3 Their results, so far as the weight of flowers per plant is concerned, point out that rich or fertilized soil does not particularly affect the yield of flowers. The same results also are indicated in their experimental growth of pyrethrum in Colorado by Gnadinger, Evans and Corl.4 Rippert5 on the other hand, claims that fertilizers increase the yield of flowers per acre in good years, while they maintain a satisfactory yield in poor years. High nitrogenous fertilizers are not recommended, either by Rippert or by Drain.6 It must be noted here that a part of our program was to try the effect of a number of organic plant catalysts, and a beginning was made with a few potted plants in 1935, but the plan was temporarily abandoned; recently we have resumed these experiments. The Pyrethrin Content of the Flowers At the outset of this work, the method of estimating the activity of the flowers was considered. The insecticidal activity of pyrethrum was proved by the work of Staudinger and Ruzicka7 to be due to two com¬ pounds, called Pyrethrin I and Pyrethrin II. These are esters of a keto- alcohol-derivative of cyclopentane and two acids named chrysanthemum mono-carboxylic and dicarboxylic acids. Both are cyclopropane-carboxylic acids. Their structure is represented by the following formulae: H HCH I HC - CHCHa. CH = C = CHCH3 \=0 / Pyrethrolon© H, C - CH HCH i HC- Ha C CHCHa CH = C= CHCHr \ / ■CH C = 0 C — 0 Chrysanthemum ' *< ■■■■ Mono Di CH Carboxylic acids CHj-C^l - CHCH = C (CH3 )z CH, CH3_C i ch3 I CHCH = C — COOCH ■ CH, Pyrethrin I. Pyrethrin II. Biol vkiT^™™FI«n? ? n -£lo™ers and Their Development , Ann. Applied of FnSL™’ Sp; 602~Jf. (1931>- F- Tattersfield and J. P. Martin: The Effect 01 -kpvironmental conditions upon pyrethrum, ibid., Vol. 21, 670-90. ingerPN^)II280-30:2VANS and CoRL; Pyrethrum flowers, 2nd editions; C. B. Gnad- * Rippert; J., Finn. fals. Vol. 25, 395-409 (1932). G936)RAIN’ B' D'; Pyrethrum in Tennessee, Tenn. Agr. Exp. Sta. ; Corl 59, 1-4 (1924)TAUDINGER’ H-’ and PuzICKA. Helv. Chim. Acta; Vol. 7, pp. 177-259 172 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Most of the methods of estimation of Pyrethrin I and II that have appeared in the literature may be classified as follows: 1. Methods based upon the semicarbazone derivatives of the carbonyl group of the pyrethrins. The methods of Staudinger and Harder8 and Tattersfield, Hobson and Gimingham are based on this principle. 2. Methods based upon the hydrolysis of pyrethrins and separation of the carboxylic acids which are then estimated by titration. The methods of Staudinger and Harder, Tattersfield and Martin9, Seil10, and Rippert11 are based upon this principle. 3. Methods based upon the reducing properties of the keto-alcohol pyrethrolone. The methods of Gnadinger and Corr, Martin and Tattersfield13 are based upon this principle. Table VI — Determination of Pyrethrins On The Same Sample of Pyrethrum By Various Methods _ Sample No. 10 (a) Seil Method Gnadinger & Corl Total Rippert Wilcoxon I Moisture per cent (b) I II Total I II Total 0.631 0.540 1.221 0.885 0.595 0.614 1.209 0.620 9.51 0.620 0.540 1.110 0.890 0.588 0.620 1.208 0.620 9.51 0.578 0.599 1.170 0.901 9.51 0.614 0.594 1.208 0.870 9.51 — 0.625 0.580 1.205 0.860 9.51 0.627 0.584 1.211 0.880 9.51 0.621 0.591 1.212 0.889 9.51 Mean _ 0.616 0.515 1.191 0.882 0.591 0.617 1.208 0.620 (a) Harvest of 1935. Field crop from Urbana, Ill. Age of sample when analyzed 23 months. . , . , . . , (b) Values of Pyrethrins are on air-dried material. 4 Methods which are based upon a characteristic reaction of each of the pyrethrins which permit their independent determination. Haller and Acree14 determine pyrethrin II from the amount of methyl iodide produced when treated with hydriodic acid. Wil- coxon15 determines pyrethrin I by its reducing action on mercuric ion (Denige’s reagent). The mercurous chloride produced is then determined by titration with standard iodate solution. At the beginning of our work the Gnadinger-Corl Method alone was used Later, the Seil method was tried on the samples in addition to the above-mentioned method. However, the results of the two seldom checked. Seil’s method gave consistently 30-35 per cent higher total pyrethrins than the Gnadinger-Corl procedure. Consequently publication was withheld to per¬ mit a re-examination of all the available samples by both methods side by side In addition, the Rippert method and also the Wilcoxon, were tried on one sample which had been exhaustively checked by the two others. Table VI shows a comparison of the various methods. 8 Staudinger, H. and Harder, H.; Estimation .of the Pyrethrin Content of Insect Powder, Ann. Acad. Fenntcae, A29, No. 1.8, pp. 1-14 {19/0. 433.37 9 Tattersfield and co-workers, Journal Agr. Set. Vol. 19, 2bb-9b ana *6* (192^1 -i To. no:3!, ER, a B./and Com.. C. 1P;!^aL ChLsoc. Vol SI. pp. 3054-64 i4 waller H L and Acree, F., Indust. Eng. Ghent., Ansi. Ed. I. UWJJ. ^WiiSxoN.' F., Contribution of Boyce Thompson Institute, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 175-81 (1936). Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 173 The Gnadinger method is simple, but in order to obtain consistent results, it is necessary to observe all the precautions outlined in the method. The Seil method was slightly modified in that in the steam distillation to remove the monocarboxylic acid, 350 cc. of distillate was collected instead of 250 cc. in order to insure the removal of all the monocarboxylic acid. Therefore the solution containing the dicarboxylic acid had to be evaporated. This was done after rendering the solution alkaline with sodium bicarbonate. Rippert’s claim that on aging the pyrethrins are rendered insoluble and therefore have to be extracted by chloroform instead of petroleum ether, were not substantiated in this work. The total pyrethrins with either Seil’s or Rippert’s method (in the latter, chloroform was used) are substantially the same, (Table VI.) When, however, the chloroform extraction was applied to the Gnadinger-Corl method the total pyrethrins for sample No. 10 rose from 0.880 per cent to 1.35 per cent, which indi¬ cates that chloroform extracts other copper-reducing substances. All extractions were carried through with the type of Soxhlet apparatus made by Rascher and Betzold of Chicago, in which corks are not used, but mercury seals. The petroleum ether was of reagent quality, b.p. range 20 — 40 °C. The data in Table VI show that there is a constant deviation between the copper reduction method and the Seil hydrolysis and subsequent separa¬ tion of acids. The Gnadinger-Corl method assumes that the rate of reduction by pure pyrethrins at 78 °C. is the same as by pyrethrins in presence of other substances which are extracted by petroleum ether, and not precipi¬ tated by barium ion. The deviation between the Gnadinger-Corl and Seil methods becomes as high as 40-50 per cent when closed buds are examined. However, the results by both indicate that the pyrethrins are not fully formed in the closed flowers. The Seil method for Pyrethrin I is considered accurate, as¬ suming, of course, that all the monocarboxylic acid comes over with steam. As shown in Table VI, the results of Pyrethrin I by Seil’s method check well with the results obtained by Wilcoxon’s method. Further, a sample of Japanese pyrethrum purchased from an importer16, and according to its label containing 0.43 per cent pyrethrin I, was checked by both Seil’s and Wilcoxon’s methods, the results checking within 4 parts per hundred. The Seil method for pyrethrin II is open to an error that tends to give high results. Seil directs that, after the residue from steam dis¬ tillation is filtered, rendered slightly alkaline, extracted with chloroform, it should be acidified strongly with hydrochloric acid and extracted with ether (total volume 150 cc. in four portions). The amount of acid is not stated. The ether is washed with two 10-cc portions of water, and after removal of ether by distillation the flask is placed in the oven at 100 °C. for 10 minutes. The above procedure may well leave some hydrochloric acid in the flask. Both hydrochloric acid and water are soluble in ether. It is assumed that the two washings in water and ten minutes heating when ether has been evaporated will remove all the hydrochloric acid, but it would be better to carry a blank. Ten cc of concentrated hydrochloric acid in 30 cc of water extracted with ether and then washed with two 10-cc portions of water left sufficient residual acidity in the separated ether to require 2.5 cc of 0.02 N sodium hydroxide which in results of the magnitude of our analyses would correspond to an error of 15 to 20 per cent. This of course does not indicate that errors of this magnitude creep in, but merely that the method is not entirely satisfactory. flowers, 0LotP9°59?n &nd Company> 114 E* 32nd St’ N- Y- City, Japanese pyrethrum 174 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The results of the determination of pyrethrins in the flowers from the harvest of 1933 are given in Table VII. Table VII — Determination of Pyrethrins in Flowers From Crop of 1933 Flowers Treatment Age when analyzed (months) Pyrethrins Seil’s Method Gnadinger- Corl Method Moisture per cent I II Total Field crop, Urbana, closed flowers None 9* 0.62 8.55 40 0.409 0.569 0.978 0.58 8.55 40 0.393 0.535 0.928 0.55 8.55 Plots 1-5 mixed flowers fully open 4 plots fertilized a month before harvest 9* 0.82 8.84 * Extracted with Petroleum Ether for five hours. Values of Pyrethrin content are given on air-dried material. The pyrethrin content of the closed flowers varies to the extent of about 40 per cent, according to the two methods. The flowers from the experimental plots were sufficient for one determination, and this was made before we tried the Seil method. The results, however, in agree¬ ment with the findings of a number of investigators, show the pyrethrin content of the flowers to increase as they mature. Table VIII shows the pyrethrin content of flowers from the 1934 harvest. Table VIII — Determination of Pyrethrins in Flowers From Crop of 1934 Flowers Treatment Age when analyzed (months) Pyrethrins Seil’s Method Gnadinger- Corl Moisture per cent I II Total Method Plot I _ _ None 10 0.75 0.550 1.30 1.21 8.85 30 1.05 Plot II Complete fertilizer 10 1.01 8.50 Plot TTT Complete fertilizer 10 1.22 8.85 0.781 0.730 0.580 0.560 1 .371 1.290 1.05 oU QA and uranium salt oU Plot IV Uranium salt 10 1.20 9.08 Plot v Manure 10 0.96 8.30 Values of Pyrethrin content are given on air-dried material. It is to be noted that there is no difference in the pyrethrin content of Plot I which received no treatment, and Plot III which received fer¬ tilizer and small amounts of uranium salts, resulting in a higher yield of flowers for this plot. The results are similar and more complete in the data for the harvest of 1935 given in Table IX. Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 175 Table IX — Determination of Ptrethrins in Flowers From Crop of 1935 Flowers Treatment Age when analyzed (months) Pyrethrins Seil’s Method Gnadinger- Corl Moisture per cent I II Total Method Field crop, Urbana, Ill _ None (a) 12 (b) 21 0.605 0.616 0.585 0.575 1.190 1.190 0.890 0.880 9.51 Plot I . . 12 0.548 0.546 1.09 1.06 8.80 13 0.540 0.530 1.07 1.10 Plot II . 12 0.96 8.65 13 1.05 Plot III _ _ 12 0.702 0.630 1.32 1.21 8.65 13 0.685 0.610 1.29 1.15 Plot IV _ 12 0.648 0.541 1.18 0.93 8.70 13 0.655 0.490 1.14 0.98 Plot V____ . . 12 0.522 0.490 1.01 0.91 8.85 13 0.550 0.501 1.06 0.94 (a) Average of 4 analyses. (b) Average of 7 analyses. Values of Pyrethrin content are given on air-dried material. It is to be noted that there is a very constant deviation between the two methods of analysis, but either method gives results which indicate that the pyrethrin content is not appreciably changed, either by stimula¬ tion with fertilizers or photochemical catalysts, such as uranium. A sum¬ mary of the analysis and yield per plant of all crops is given in Table X. Table X — Summary of Pyrethrin Content for All Samples Calculated on Moisture Free Basis Flowers Average weight of flowers 2 year g. Yield per plant 2 year g. Pyrethrin content — moisture free basis 1933 Total pyrethrin 1934 1935 G-C (a) S G-C (a) S G-C (a) S Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Field crop, Urbana, Illinois _ 0.188 (b) 14.5 (b) 0.638 1.250 0.978 1.31 Plot I _ 0.147 19.3 0.899 (c) 1.23 1.42 1.14 1.18 Plot II.... . 0.155 19.65 1.10 1.10 Plot III _ 0.159 22.15 1.24 1.45 1.29 1.43 Plot IV _ _ 0.161 19.25 1.32 1.04 1.27 Plot V . . 0.150 14.25 1.04 1.01 1.13 (a) G-C designates the results by the method of Gnadinger and Corl, and S the method of Seil. (b) These results are on the basis of one year. (c) This analysis represents all the harvest of the five plots mixed: The amount collected from each was too small to permit analysis. 176 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions According to these results stimulation with fertilizer and photochemical catalysts increases the yield per plant, but the pyrethrin content is not ap¬ preciably changed. The maximum pyrethrin content of the flowers from Plot III is not appreciably different from the flowers of Plot I which was not treated. This would indicate that the production of pyrethrins depends on genetic factors, which has been pointed out by Tattersfield. The content of pyrethrins is not diminished in the plants which by stimulation produced more flowers. The effect of other plant stimulants is being further investigated. SUMMARY 1. The growth of pyrethrum as a field crop in northern Illinois was in¬ vestigated for three successive years. According to Dr. Alexopoulos under whose care the field crop at Urbana was grown, pyrethrum can be grown successfully in Illinois with no more care than is needed by the ordinary field crop. 2. The growth of pyrethrum in experimental plots at Chicago was in¬ vestigated for three successive years. 3. Fertilizers do not seem to change appreciably either the yield per plant or the content of pyrethrin. Photochemical catalysts such as uranium salts increase the yield per plant, but not the pyrethrin content. 4. The various methods for the determination of pyrethrins were ex¬ amined. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr. Alexopoulos of Kent University for his help in supervising the growth of the field crop at Urbana and his advice throughout this work; to the department of agronomy, University of Illinois for the ground on which to grow the field crop; and to Mr. Dalibor Bubenicek for his assistance in the determination of pyrethrins. Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 177 An Albino Rat Demonstration of Mineral and Vitamin Deficiencies in a Common Human Diet W. P. Elmslie and W. R. Bunting Moorman Manufacturing Company, Quincy, Illinois This demonstration with albino rates was designed to show the failure of a common, poorly selected diet of human foods to produce proper growth and well-being in young growing animals; but that supplemented with milk and green vegetables as sources of the essential minerals and vitamins, it resulted in very much improved growth and condition. Demonstration — Four rats of albino and mixed ancestry from the same litter and of very nearly the same weight were separated into two lots, a male and female in each lot, and started on the demonstration rations at the age of 26 days. Lot 1 received a basal ration composed of a mixture of the following human foods: lean meat 20%, peeled boiled potatoes 20%, white bread (made without milk) 20%, canned corn 15%, sugar 15%, corn starch 9%, and salt 1%. Lot 2 received a ration consisting of 75% of the basal, 22% of dried skim milk and 3% of butter. Green vegetables, such as lettuce, spinach or carrot tops, were fed three times a week. 178 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions T3 Cm *6 3 Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 179 In order to simplify the feeding and insure uniform and reproduceable results the meat, potatoes, bread and canned corn, were dried before being weighed out and incorporated in the rations. The cages used for the demonstration consisted of common glass battery jars with half-inch mesh screen for floors and covers. Results — The results in growth are shown in Chart 1. In the seven weeks on the demonstration ration, Lot 1 gained an average of 12 grams, whereas in the same period Lot 2 gained an average of 110 grams. The lack of minerals in the basal ration is shown by the poor skeletal develop¬ ment and squatty posture. In previous demonstrations with these rations, which were carried on for longer periods of time, a failure of reproduction, an ophthalmia due to a lack of vitamin A, and defective nervous control have been observed. A lack of color in the eyes indicative of anemia is common. On the other hand, the rats in Lot 2 show normal growth exceeding Donald¬ son’s standards for rats, excellent bone development, normal reproduction and good physical condition. The deficiency in the basal ration is multiple in nature, both minerals and vitamins being involved. The protein content of the basal ration, 15.7 per cent is adequate for normal growth, and the additional protein supplied by the dried skim milk could be responsible for only a small part of the benefits produced. Both rations were fed ad libitum; therefore there could have been no lack of carbohydrates to supply energy. Apparently the principal deficiency is that of minerals, since in previous demonstrations of this nature the addition to the ration of green vegetables and butterfat failed to overcome more than a small part of the deficiencies. Conclusions — This demonstration, because of its simplicity, the ease with which it can be reproduced, the very marked and conclusive differences between lots and the practical nature of the diets used, teaches a lesson in nutrition easily comprehended by children and adults alike, and offers a chance for community service by the chemistry teacher or industrial chemist. 180 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Synthetic Cryolite* G. C. Finger and Frank H. Reed State Geological Survey, XJrbana, Illinois The mineral cryolite, chemically called sodium aluminum fluoride (AlFs.3NaF), is found in commercial quantities only at Ivigtut, on the south¬ west coast of Greenland. In 1865, mining operations began in the form of a 75-year concession from the Danish government to two distributing com¬ panies, namely the Pennsylvania Salt Company of Philadelphia which has the exclusive selling rights in North America, and the Oresund Company of Copenhagen with selling rights for the rest of the world. This monopoly is of serious concern to the countries possessing a domestic aluminum industry during economic and political crises. For example, several years ago as a result of an advancement in the price of cryolite, graphite electrodes, and power, the Japanese Electrochemical A-G was forced to operate at a loss. The factors of a price monopoly, the widely distributed sources of fluorine such as fluorspar and fluorapatite, and the trend towards economic inde¬ pendence obviously led to the search for a synthetic product. To obtain a clearer picture of the entire situation, a brief analysis of the distribution and uses of natural cryolite will be discussed. Gibbs1 in his article, “Cryolite as a Chemical Raw Material,” gave an excellent review of this topic. During 1925-1934,2 the annual production of cryolite varied from 10,000 to 35,000 tons with approximately one-third of it going to the Penn¬ sylvania Salt Company. The chief outlet for cryolite is in the electrolytic reduction of alum¬ inum of which Germany, United States, France, Canada, Norway, U. S. S. R., Italy and Great Britain produce approximately 90 per cent of the world supply. The entire world production of aluminum for 1934 was 170,000 metric tons.3 In the production of aluminum, cryolite is used as a solvent for alumina; the molten bath contains only about two to five per cent of alumina.4 In other metallurgical processes, also, cryolite finds use as a flux. The ceramic industry is a large user particularly in the manufacture of enamels, glass, and glazes. In the case of enamels, it has a double value, namely, as a flux and as a secondary opacifying agent. Here the quantity of cryolite used varies from four to sixteen per cent. The glass industry uses it chiefly as an opacifying agent although its fluxing action is im¬ portant also. The degree of opacity is determined by the amount of cryolite and period of heating. With glazes, cryolite is essentially a solvent although it also is an opacifier. It is used also as a binder for abrasive materials, and as a promoter of particular types of crystal growth in ceramic bodies. A very recent development in the utilization of cryolite is in the in¬ secticide industry. It has been known for a long time that cryolite dust was effective in destroying the potato bug. More recently it has been foun to be an effective stomach poison for chewing insects. In order to be effec¬ tive, the particle size must be five microns or less (approximately 1/5000 inch). Not until fairly recently was it possible to grind natural cryolite to this fineness. * Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 181 The appearance of synthetic cryolite on the market is not surprising, because of the importance of the mineral in our industrial age. The fact that the natural material is also under the control of a monopoly enhanced the entree of the synthetic product. The sources of fluorine for the manu¬ facture of this product are widely distributed and readily available to the major aluminum producing nations. Fluorapatite (CaFCa^POOs) occur¬ ring in immense deposits and fluorspar in more localized areas are the two main mineral sources of fluorine. In the case of fluorapatite, if it is used in the manufacture of superphosphate fertilizer, the fluorine is evolved as silicon tetrafluoride and is almost a valueless by-product. Fluoroapatite contains about 3.7 per cent fluorine.5 Reynolds and Jacobs state that in a normal year 20,000 tons of fluorine can be obtained as a by-product from superphosphate manufacture in the United States. This amount of fluorine is equivalent to more cryolite than has ever been mined at Ivigtut in a single year, and more than three times the annual requirement for the United States. The other fluorine mineral, fluorspar, is the chief source the world over of hydrofluoric acid and its derivatives. The industrial technology of hydro¬ fluoric acid is very well understood and can be obtained in unlimited quan¬ tities. The price of fluorspar is from one-fourth to one-half of that of the natural cryolite. In short, these fluorine-containing minerals are the answer to the national economic independence of this valuable industrial product. Berzelius6 in 1824 probably prepared the first synthetic cryolite in the laboratory by the reaction of a NaHF2 solution with Al(OH)3. 3NaHF, + Al(OH)3 -> AlF33NaF + 3H20 However, the initial commercial production of synthetic cryolite is obscure but it appears that Germany and France were the first in the field and their product has been on the American market for some time. France7 is capable of supplying its own domestic needs. Italy8 is importing synthetic cryolite and projecting plants9 of her own. Japan10 is already producing about one- half of its cryolite needs. Russia11 projected a production of 25,000 metric tons annually beginning with 1936. The Aluminum Company of America and the Grasselli Chemical Company hold the American patents. Statistics are not available for the United States although it is known that a domestic synthetic product is available for insecticidal purposes. The Aluminum Com¬ pany12 has a plant for the production of “its own cryolite using fluorspar” at East St. Louis, Illinois. Industrially, synthetic cryolite is prepared by two methods depending upon the available raw material. Briefly, they may be called (1) the silicofluoride method, and (2) the hydrofluoric acid method. The silicofluoride method is essentially the reaction of a silicofluoride with alumina in the presence of an additional sodium salt. The silica is removed by appropriate means, and the process can be represented as follows: 2Na2SiF6 + Al203.xH20 + Na2C03 -» Al2F6.6NaF + C02 + Si02 The hydrofluoric acid method involves the treatment of alumina or an alum¬ inum salt in the presence of sodium ions with hydrofluoric acid: Al+++ + 3Na+ + 6HF -> AlF3.3NaF + 6H+ 182 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions the hydrofluoric acid having been obtained from fluorspar or silicon tetra- fluoride as follows: CaF2 + H2S04 -> CaSCh + 2HF 2SiF4 + 2H20 -> 2HF + H2SiF6 + Si02 Japan appears to be the only country using the silicofluoride by-product of the phosphate industry, whereas the other countries most likely use fluorspar. The future for synthetic cryolite is very promising. The raw materials are readily available, it is being successfully manufactured, it is competing with the natural product on the open market, and a great deal of industrial research is in progress to lower its cost still more. BIBLIOGRAPHY i gouli AG.E A?hThe Industry Turi^ 1935. vol. 44. p. 643, ““STiuS&Sr p. 430, U S. Bureau of Mines 4. MANTELL, C. L., Industrial Electrochemistry, pp. 310-325, McGraw--H.ui C°'’ j^^JACOB, (K.3 D.‘, and REYNOLDS, D. S., J. Assoc. Official Agr. Chem. 11, 237-50 (1928). „ 00 6. BERZELIUS, Pogg. Ann. 1, .23 (1824) 7. Anon, Die Chemische Industrie 55, 793 (1933). o “ “ “ 58, 540 (1935). q - “ “ “ 59, 433 (1936). n “ “ “ “ 59, 679 (1936). ’LU* << << “ « 322 (1934). 12 MILLER R. M., A Survey of the Aluminum Industry and Its Metallu^ gical Processes Bull. D.. P- 12, State College of Washington, School of Mines & Geology (1935). Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 183 Properties of Heated Coal* Paul E. Grotts. Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois The outstanding properties of heated coal are those associated with (1) the destructive distillation of coal, that is, the behavior of coal at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere, and (2) the combustion of coal. During the destructive distillation the physical condition of a com¬ pressed sample of powdered bituminous coking coal passes through charac¬ teristic softening, expanding, plastic and agglutinating stages. The tempera¬ ture at which these changes or conditions exist are related with each other and with the carbonizing behavior of coal. Proceeding from ordinary atmospheric temperature toward high tem¬ peratures, a point is reached near 350° C. at which the coal starts to soften due to melting of constituents in the coal. The softening occurs throughout a brief range in temperature and in the case of the compressed sample of powdered coal the mass starts to contract or deform under an applied stress. With continued rise in temperature the softening continues and is accom¬ panied by relatively rapid contraction or deformation. During the softening of the coal the particles fuse and stick together, and the mass becomes plastic. The rapid contraction of the test specimen is terminated at the active decomposition temperature at which the evolution of gas in the softened, fused coal causes swelling or frothing. With continued rise in temperature the expanding plastic coal reaches the solidification point at which sufficient carbon has been deposited in the agglomerating band to cement the particles of heated coal together. Expan¬ sion ceases and the plasticity of the coal disappears. After passing the solidification point the specimen retains its firm porous structure, but due to continued devolatilization it contracts or shrinks slightly. The physical changes of the heated coal are interrelated with the decomposition of the coal substance, inasmuch as the plastic properties and solidification of the plastic coal are dependent in certain aspects on the decomposition which yields volatile gases, and a carbon residue. Thus the physical changes which occur in the coal are illuminated by a consideration of the destructive distillation of coal, the products obtained, and the governing influences. The organic constituents of coal decompose and distil at elevated tem¬ peratures yielding gaseous liquid and solid products. The final volatile products obtained are not present as such in the coal and the composition and volume of the gas are governed by the constitution of the coal and by the time, temperature, pressure and cracking conditions of the distillation. When the coal is heated to coking temperatures the first gases appear before the softening point is reached. These gases, water vapor and carbon dioxide, result in minor amounts from the mild oxidation of the coal due to the presence of inherent or absorbed oxygen. Traces of volatile hydro¬ carbons and other occluded gases are evolved also. * Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. 184 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions At the softening point, decomposition of the coal becomes marked as shown by the loss in weight of the coal, and subsequently a large proportion of the volatile matter is driven off before the solidification point is reached. As the temperature continues to rise, further devolatilization is accom¬ plished and at 900 °c the solid residue contains only a small proportion of volatile matter which is chiefly hydrogen. Due to the complexity of the chemical constitution of a coal and as a variety oX compounds and reactions are involved, there is no apparent temperature at which the evolution of volatile matter begins sharply and proceeds rapidly as would be the case in the distillation of a pure chemical compound. However, to determine whether a compound or class of com¬ pounds could be isolated which would exhibit definite physical characteristics such as boiling point, coals have been extracted with various organic and inorganic solvents. In the case of an Illinois coal extracted with phenol subsequent tests showed that the rates of evolution of volatile matter from the extract, residue and original coal were practically the same. In a similar experiment upon an eastern coal the extract decomposed moie rapidly and at lower temperatures than did the residue or original coal. In both instances the extracts lost weight appreciably at temperatures slightly above 100° C. . . In addition to the evidence obtained in the solvent analysis of coal, in¬ cluding solvents other than phenol, the variation in rank influences the products of the destructive distillation. It is demonstrated by the available data that the amounts of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide contained in the gases from the distillation greatly increases in the younger coals and there is a corresponding decrease in the hydrogen and saturated hydro¬ carbons. The unsaturated hydrocarbons remain approximately the same in the series of coals studied. It is also characteristic of coal that the volatile products are subject to marked modification when exposed to the conditions which induce sec¬ ondary or cracking reactions in the superheated gases. Catalytic influences are also present. Thus, in any distillation the gases and distillate obtained are not exactly the same as the constituents originally evolved from the coal substance. If the distillation is carried out in vacuo or at low final temperatures the secondary decomposition reactions are minimized. The factors of temperature, time and pressure combined influence the cracking processes. Time is involved largely because the thermal conduc¬ tivities of coal and coke are low, hence large heat gradients are set up in the coal being carbonized. The heat effects involved in the volatilization and decomposition of the coal are additional causes for the difficulty in obtaining uniform distillation. In the outer zones of the charge of coal being carbonized the distillate and gases are exposed to cracking surfaces while in the plastic zone the primary reactions are just beginning. When coal is heated in an oxidizing atmosphere the distillation pro¬ cesses are obscured and modified by the combustion of the products In active efficient burning, coal apparently does not yield the volatile distilla¬ tion products, since they are burned as rapidly as they are formed. How¬ ever, coking does occur in the combustion. At moderate temperatures the lower rank coals absorb oxygen to the extent that weathering and spontaneous ignition are serious problems in the coal industry. In the case of Illinois coals the losses due to disintegration and to spontaneous ignition, arising from exposure to the atmosphere, are of greater importance than are the changes in weight and heating value. The temperature at which the spontaneous ignition occurs has been reported as 350° C or higher, depending on the condition and variety of the coa. In most cases the ultimate limit to the attainable combustion rate is set by the reactivity and thermal conductivity of the fuel in its coked foim. Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 185 Fractional Distillation D. B. Keyes University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Fractional distillation of liquid mixtures has become an important chemical engineering unit operation, especially in the petroleum industry. It was thought wise, therefore, to develop an adequate description or explanation of this operation that could be easily understood, not only by students, but by technical men who were unfamiliar with the subject. A group of graduate students and the author discussed this question at con¬ siderable length and the following explanation is the result of these conferences. It is a well known fact that if we have two liquids, a and b mixed together, a being more volatile than b, and if these liquids are boiled in a simple still, as indicated in Figure 1, the vapors coming from the boiling liquid will contain a greater proportion of a than did the liquid. It is natural to suppose that if there is a series of redistillations, there would eventually be obtained practically pure a, but a considerable proportion of a would be left behind in the various liquid residues. Fractional distillation is a method invented many years ago in which these separate distillations and condensations are combined in one unit so that the final result is a more or less complete separation of a and b. A common type of fractionating column used for continuous fractional distillation of binary mixtures is indicated in Figure 2. This column is loosely filled with a solid material and affords a surface on which the liquid which passes down the column can come in contact with the vapors passing up the column. In an ideal apparatus, all heat extracted from the column is removed at the top, and all heat added enters at the bottom. No heat transfer is permitted through the sides of the column. The feed, at its boiling temperature, enters somewhere in the middle of the column at a point where the composition of the boiling liquid inside of the column is approximately the same as the composition of the feed. It can be stated that this apparatus is nothing more nor less than a counter-current scrubber or extractor in which there is a liquid, passing down the column, constantly growing richer in the less volatile component b, at the expense of the more volatile component a ; while at the same time a vapor, passing up from the bottom of the column, is constantly increasing in its concentration of the more volatile component a at the expense of the less volatile component b. It should not be implied that this “scrubbing” action depends on solubility. The column is, strictly speaking, a condensing and distilling apparatus. The extraction by the liquid of the less volatile component b from the vapor depends on condensation, and the removal by the vapor of the more volatile component a from the liquid depends on distillation. The result of this counter-current distillation and condensation is a product at the top of the column consisting of a vapor which is largely a, the more volatile component, while at the bottom of the column the liquid withdrawn is largely b, the less volatile component. 186 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The efficiency of this process of separation depends, first of all, upon the intimacy of contact between the vapor and the liquid, and this, in turn, depends to a certain extent upon the ratio of liquid coming down to vapor going up. Of course there is a limit to this ratio, as it would be impractical to condense all of the vapors at the top of the column and return them as a condensate or reflux. The capacity of the column under these conditions SIMPLE STILL FILLED COLUMN gJBBL^CAP FIG. I FIG. 2 FIG.3 would be zero. In other words, there would be no product from the top of the column, and therefore no separation. The amount of condensate formed at the top of the column, or the proportion of the vapor which is condensed at that point, is determined by the degree of fractionation desired. This, in turn, affects the capacity of the column. Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 187 The height of the column determines, to a certain extent, the time of contact between the vapors and liquid, and this affects the efficiency of fractionation. Therefore, the greater the height, the more efficient the fractionation. Maintaining the same degree of fractionation and increasing the height of the column will increase capacity, because less reflux is required at the top of the column. The capacity of the column is also affected by its cross section or diameter, as this factor affects the time of contact between the vapor and the liquid. If a greater amount of product is desired, or a greater amount of feed required to be handled, naturally there should be greater cross- section within the column for this counter-current extraction. The modern fractionating column has a much more complicated interior construction than the one described in Figure 2. The filled column previ¬ ously described is not particularly efficient from the standpoint of furnishing adequate contact between liquid and vapors because there is a tendency for the liquid coming down the column to segregate near or on the walls, whereas the vapors going up the column have a tendency to pass up through the center, and therefore the two never meet. From a practical standpoint it is necessary to redistribute the liquid and vapor at various points in the column in order to obtain adequate contact. The modern fractionating column makes use of specially designed distributing plates, one above the other, whose function is to redistribute both the liquid and the vapor so that there is far more intimate contact between them. Such a column is indicated in Figure 3. It follows that a column of tliis type can produce a greater contact between vapor and liquid within a given space or height. Such a column will effect the same degree of separation, and at the same time will not have the height of the less efficient column previously described. The capacity of a column of given height can be increased by utilizing this modern design. The use of this more efficient design permits the return of less reflux condensate to the top of the column, while maintaining the same degree of separation. In other words, any modification of the column or its operation, giving a longer time of contact or a more intimate contact between the liquid going down and the vapor coming up, increases the effi¬ ciency of the column, but it is possible to increase the capacity and maintain the same efficiency under these new conditions by decreasing the amount of liquid condensed and returned to the top. The above discussion has been based on a binary mixture. The same reasoning can be applied to a mixture containing more than two com¬ ponents. The fractional distillation of a complex mixture presents some interesting factors not involved in binary mixtures. It is customary to take off at the top of the fractionating column, operating on a complex mixture, a “cut” composed of the more volatile constituents. If a simple distillation is made of the “cut,” the last few drops will come over at a certain definite temperature. This temperature is commonly called the “end point” of the “cut.” This specification does not indicate the degree of fractionation obtained in the specific column under the particular operating conditions. The “end point” shows that there is no higher boiling material present in this particular fraction, but it does not indicate how much of the more volatile material has been separated the„ original mixture. Furthermore, if the material remaining after the “cut” has been taken off, were separately distilled, the initial boiling point might be considerably below the “end point” of the “cut.” 188 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Any skilled operator can adjust a very inefficient fractionating column so that the “overhead cut” has a specified and definite “end point.” In order to determine the degree of fractionation that has been realized in a column handling a complex mixture, it is necessary to determine the boiling point of the remaining liquid after various definite fractions for example, 10%, 20%, etc. — have been taken off in a simple distillation of the “cut,” or to determine the percentage that comes over in a simple distillation of the “cut” between various definite temperatures. Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 189 A New Method for Starting Thermite Reactions 0. C. Klein and M. J. Copley University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Combustible mixtures are used frequently in lecture demonstrations in High School and Elementary College Chemistry. The ignition of such mix¬ tures often involves considerable danger to the operator. This is particularly true in the case of thermite reductions and such mixtures as potassium chlorate and sugar. The usual procedure for setting-off a thermite reaction is to place the ignition powder, consisting of an intimate mixture of powdered aluminum and barium peroxide, on top of the charge and to ignite by burning a strip of magnesium ribbon embedded in the ignition powder. At best, this method does not give the operator much time to retreat to a safe distance; how¬ ever, its most serious disadvantage lies in the fact that when the magnesium ribbon is being ignited, a glowing piece of it may melt off at the top, fall on the ignition powder, and set it off while the operator's hands are directly over the crucible. Many serious burns have been caused in this manner. This hazard may be eliminated by substituting for the magnesium ribbon a potassium permanganate-glycerine mixture. About 0.25 gr. of dry potas¬ sium permanganate is finely powdered in a porcelain mortar. This powder is placed in a heap on top of the ignition mixture. A small crater is made in it and into this is added one drop of glycerine from the end of a glass rod or a piece of small bore tubing. After a short time a vigorous oxida¬ tion of the glycerine by the permanganate occurs, which soon ignites the mixture of powdered aluminum and barium peroxide. The period of time which elapses before the ignition powder is set off is governed roughly by the thickness of the permanganate layer at the bottom of the crater. A thickness of 1 mm. requires about 10 sec. for ignition to take place. The permanganate-glycerine mixture may be used with the customary one to ten barium peroxide and aluminum ignition powder. The above method of ignition has been tried out successfully in the preparation of chromium, manganese, silicon, iron, boron, columbium and tantalum by aluminum reduction. We believe that the use of the perman¬ ganate-glycerine mixture will prevent many accidents, particularly if it is necessary to carry out the reductions in the open air, where the presence of a breeze makes it difficult to ignite a magnesium ribbon. The ignition of many other combustible mixtures such as the one men¬ tioned above (potassium chlorate-sugar) may be carried out in the same manner. 190 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Methods for Determining Fluorine* L. D. McVicker State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois Fluorine ranks nineteenth in the order of abundance of the elements in the earth’s crust, being three times as abundant as copper and fifteen times as abundant as lead. But in spite of its abundance, the chemistry of fluorine and its compounds is the least understood of the common elements. The reason is due in part to the extreme reactivity, the toxicity, and to the large number of anomalies occurring in fluorine and its compounds. Fluorides are met with in (1) drinking water where “fluorosis” or mottled teeth may be produced, (2) the removal of fluorine from phosphate fertilizer made from fluorapatite, (3) the increasing use of fluorides as fungicides and insecticides, (4) organic fluorides used in electrical refrigera¬ tion, the dyeing of fabrics, electrical transformer oils, and various solvents. To analyze a fluoride it is first necessary to convert it to a soluble fluoride, most always sodium fluoride. With inorganic fluorides decompo¬ sition can be effected by sintering with calcium oxide in a closed nickel tube or by ignition with sodium peroxide, sugar and potassium chlorate in a Pair bomb. By far the most applicable method is fusion with sodium and potas¬ sium carbondates with a tenfold excess of silica flour. This converts the fluorine to soluble alkali fluoride and all cations to insoluble silicates, thus effecting an easy separation of most interfering substances. Organic fluorides must first be decomposed and converted into inor¬ ganic. A convenient means of effecting decomposition is by ignition with oxygen in a silica tube, packed with crushed silica and maintained at a tem¬ perature of 900° C. To utilize this method, the organic fluoride must be capable of being brought to the vapor state. Decomposition is rapid and complete, the fluorine being volatilized as silicon tetrafluoride which is ab¬ sorbed in a solution of sodium hydroxide. This appears to be the best method available for gaseous fluorides. Another method applicable to oiganic fluorides, except for gaseous fluorides, is decomposition with metallic sodium in liquid ammonia. The organic fluoride is dissolved in liquid ammonia, with the aid of a suitable solvent inert to sodium such as ether, tributylamine, etc. Small pieces of sodium are slowly introduced until an excess is indicated y the blue color of ionized sodium. The excess sodium is then destroyed with ammonium nitrate or by the cautious addition of water. The fluoi ine of t e organic fluoride is then in solution as sodium fluoride. Organic fluorides can also be decomposed by ignition with calcium oxide or in a Parr bomb with sodium peroxide and potassium chlorate. The last two methods canno always be relied upon for quantitative decomposition. When the fluoride being analyzed has been converted to soluble sodium fluoride all interfering substances must be removed. The old Berzelius method involving the precipitation of the cations gives low lesults due to adsorption. The best method to date is the distillation method of Willard and Winters. An ordinary 250 cc. distillation flask equipped with a special spray trap and connected to an ordinary Liebig condenser is used. A piece of glass tubing extends to the bottom of the flask through which steam can “ ’ * Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 191 be blown. A thermometer also extends to the bottom of the flask. To distil, the impure fluoride is introduced into the flask together with 20 cc. of concentrated sulfuric or perchloric acid. The liquid in the flask is main¬ tained at a temperature of 135° C. and steam distilled so that the distillate comes over at a rate not exceeding 90 cc. per hour. Ordinarily 150 cc. of distillate is sufficient to contain all of the fluorine. In all gravimetric methods the silica must be removed by evaporation to near dryness with ammonium hydroxide and the silica filtered off. Such a procedure always leaves an appreciable quantity of silica which must be taken out with ammoniacal zinc oxide. After the removal of silica, the fluoride ion can be precipitated in acetic acid solution with calcium or lan¬ thanum nitrate thus precipitating calcium or lanthanum fluoride which is filtered, washed, ignited, and weighed. Fluoride ion can also be precipitated with lead chloride as the lead chlorofluoride salt. The chief difficulties of the latter three methods are the slimy nature and appreciable solubility of the precipitates, A relatively new procedure uses triphenyl tin chloride as the precipitating agent which precipitates the fluorine as the extremely in¬ soluble and crystalline triphenyl tin fluoride. Due to the low solubility of the precipitating agent not more than forty milligrams of fluorine can be conveniently handled. The fluoride ion can be accurately determined colorimetrically if close attention is given to all details such as volume, temperature, acidity, etc. The Steiger-Merwin method depends upon the fact that the fluoride ion bleaches the yellow color produced on treating titanium salt with hydrogen peroxide. Standards are made up with known amounts of fluoride ion and compared with the unknown in ordinary Nessler tubes. This method fails with over two per cent of fluorine. The De Boer method depends upon the fact that fluoride ion bleaches the pink color of a solution of zirconium nitrate and sodium alizarin sul¬ fonate and is carried out in the same manner as the Steiger-Merwin method. The conductometric methods are the least satisfactory of all due to the unstable and widely varying end points. The volumetric methods, in general, give the most reliable results in determining the fluoride ion. Titration with ferric chloride using ammonium thiocyanate as indicator is useful when the concentration of fluoride is large. The titration is carried to the appearance of the pink color of ferric thiocyan¬ ate, ferric fluoride being un-ionized fails to react with ammonium thiocyanate. An indirect method for the determination of fluorine involves the pre¬ cipitation of the fluoride ion as cerous fluoride with excess cerous nitrate. The excess cerous nitrate is determined by titration with potassium per¬ manganate, which furnishes its own indicator. Due to the hydrolysis of ceric nitrate to form nitric acid, the titration must be done in the presence of an excess of zinc oxide. Probably the most accurate volumetric method is by titration with thorium nitrate using a buffer, proposed by Ferris and Hoskins of tri¬ chloroacetic acid, with a zirconyl chloride-sodium alizarin sulfonate indicator. The amount of fluorine must be small, not over twenty milligrams and the thorium nitrate solution should not be stronger than 0.017 N. 192 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Demonstrations of Electrolyses by Optical Projection G. W. Thiessen Monmouth College, Monmouth, Illinois This paper contains nothing new. It is a reminder of the usefulness of the projection lantern in lecture demonstration of the processes occurring when the electric current traverses aqueous solutions with the intervention of electrodes. This subject has already been thoroughly discussed in a manual of lecture experimentation,1 but the author feels that perhaps it is not as widely used as appears warranted, and hence calls attention of the Academy to it by this paper. The apparatus may be varied according to what is at hand. The essen¬ tial items are: (a) a projection lantern, (b) an electrolytic cell with elec¬ trodes, solutions, etc., (c) source of electrolytic current, with any regulating and measuring devices desired in conjunction with it, and (d) a screen, which for this purpose is somewhat different in its best form from the con¬ ventional type. We will briefly consider acceptable forms of each of these. The author prefers a “bench” type lantern with illumination furnished by an electric arc lamp drawing about 15 amperes of current. A suitable instrument was formerly produced by the McIntosh company, but appears to have been withdrawn from the market. For this use, it is necessary to cut out the top of the slide holder so that access may be gained to the elec¬ trolytic cell from the top. With the bench lantern, an extra slide holder for use with the usual slide carrier may be readily substituted for the mutilated one when desired. The power of the arc light makes darkening the room unnecessary. Lacking this particular equipment, almost any modern stere- opticon using an incandescent bulb may be adapted by cutting out the top of the slide holder; and usually a metal cover with bolts may be provided to replace this sawed-out portion when the regular slide carrier is in place. The objective of the lantern should be of short focus, so that the lantern may be set up on the lecture table in front of the class and the image projected on a screen hung on the wall in front and to one side of the observing class. This arrangement is almost necessary for facile operation of the outfit by the lecturer alone. Electrolytic cells are commercially available from several standard supply houses. They replace the slide carrier of the lantern. They are made of three plates of glass cemented together, the central one being cut out to provide a U-shaped cavity with plane sides. Platinum foil electrodes suitably mounted come with the cell. We have preferred, however, to pro¬ vide our own electrodes. They were made by fusing No. 28 platinum wires to balls about V2 mm in diameter, and sealing the wire-ends attached to the balls in 1mm glass tubing of suitable length. Mercury and copper leads provided conventional contacts, and a holder for the electrodes has been 1 Newth, Chemical Lecture Experiments, pp. 311 ff. (Longmans, 1928.) Chemistry — 19 SI Meeting 193 arranged of two wooden spring clothespins secured by small screws to a bakelite strip. This is set upon the top of the slide holder and the electrodes are fastened in the clothespins at the proper depth. The wires are con¬ veniently fused both at once by making them the terminals of a high-tension arc. We use a Thordarson transformer rated at 8000 volts and 75 K.Y.A. for this job. The screen should be adapted to receiving writing. As has been pointed out by Taft2 an ordinary wall blackboard will serve; but a white chalkboard, prepared as suggested by Taft in this same article, works better. It may be written upon with colored chalk. The author has found it possible to purchase from a local printing establishment large squares of glazed card¬ board, which he uses upon both sides and then discards. Dry cells are convenient and cleanly sources of current. Two or three of standard size serve for solutions which conduct well. For systems which conduct poorly (e.g. hydrosols) a 22 14 volt radio C battery is better. Stand¬ ard voltmeters and variable resistances may be used to control the output fraction applied to the electrodes. Spring clips of the smallest available size are most convenient for applying the delivered voltage to the cell. The setup is used at Monmouth College ordinarily for the demonstra¬ tions of the electrolyses of (a) 1 N. hydrobromic acid, (b) .1 N. potassium bromide, (c) .1 N. lead salt — acetate or nitrate, (d) ferric hydroxide sol and (e) arsenious sulfide sol. The explanation accompanying the demonstration may be divided into three parts: one each to serve for each electrode-solution interface, and one for the “midcell,” i.e. the solution intervening between the electrodes. Thus, to explain for the electrolysis of potassium iodide the observed evolution of (hydrogen) gas at the cathode and iodine at the anode, there is lettered upon the screen between the electrode images, the symbols H30+, K+, OH-, I ; arrows are drawn to show the direction of motion of each species; and the ionic equations 2e + 2H30+ -> 2H20 + H2j\* and 21" -> I2 + 2e are written near the cathode and anode respectively to represent occurrences there. The class, reciting, should contribute much of the information here pictured. It has been found possible to rig up a fairly satisfactory projector for electrolysis using an automobile headlamp bulb and toy transformer for the illumination, and cheap single or double convex lenses of one or two inch diameter as condensers and objective. A flat-sided bottle filled with water contains a small vial or test-tube provided with electrodes. Economy of reagents is very great with this device, but the room must be dark, and the projected pictures are not so clear. 2 Taft, J., Chem. Educ. 6, 1643 (1929). 194 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Recent Work on Silicate and Related Systems Involving Chemical Components of Illinois Sedimentary Rocks* F. V. Tooley Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois INTRODUCTION The taking from the earth of various materials and the utilization of them, either directly or indirectly, in the production of socially useful objects, is as old as man himself. As milestones in this development might be mentioned the construction of caves and mud shelters for habitation. Later, with the discovery of fire, came the burning of crude clay wares both for structural and artistic purposes, and the production of crude glass. Out of these humble beginnings studies of the relationships between chemical composition of materials taken from the earth, temperature, and properties of the finished product have been slowly developing through their empirical stage and are in the present gaining a truly scientific foothold in the accu¬ mulated experience of civilization. Today we have better cements, glass, refractories, bricks, insulation materials, steel, and better building materials in general chiefly because we understand these relationships more thoroughly. In the present paper it is desired to present in necessarily brief form, con¬ sidering the immensity of the subject, a glimpse of the state of high-tempera¬ ture research on silicate and related systems. The Basis of Recent Advances Advances in high temperature silicate chemistry are the result of a combination of developments both on the theoretical and practical side. Of great significance on the theoretical side has been the phase rule of Willard Gibbs, the theorem of Le Chatelier and its quantitative expression in the form of the Clausius Clapeyron equation. Practically, recent ad¬ vances in the fields of high temperature furnaces, thermoelectric pyrometry, microscopy, and the development of the quenching method and other techniques by the Geophysical Laboratory in Washington have been of major importance. The general impetus given work in the field of high temperature silicate chemistry by this latter institution both in the develop¬ ment of new techniques and apparatus, and in performing a tremendous amount of experimental research is deserving of the highest praise. Experimentally, data for the construction of diagrams illustrating phase relationships at equilibrium are obtained by holding intimate mixtures, of definite composition, expressible in terms of the components of the system investigated, at a definite temperature, allowing the system to come to equilibrium and determining the relative amounts and the nature of the phases present under these conditions. * Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 195 The Body of Experimental Data Upon examination of the average composition of the lithosphere1 it is of little wonder that the greater part of researches on silicate and re¬ lated systems have dealt with those systems the composition of which can be expressed by some combination of the oxides, Si02, A1203, CaO, MgO, FeO, Fe203, Na20 and K20 in varying proportions. On the calcined, or C02 and H20 free basis, roughly 98 per cent of both igneous and sedimentary rocks is represented by these oxides. Consider further the position of these materials in industry. Ordinary Portland cement, cements containing granulated blast furnace slag, pozzolanas and pozzolanic cement, and aluminous cement can all be represented in systems of components chosen chiefly from the above oxides. Likewise is this true of ordinary glass, silica, dolomite and fireclay refactories, bricks, tile, whiteware, porcelain, rock, slag and glass wool. Were we to imagine our present civilization minus cement, steel and glass, as we now know them, the importance of scientific information on systems composed of these oxides becomes strik¬ ingly apparent. Although a detailed analysis of any of the individual systems studied cannot be given, the type of information procured in the field of research on silicate and related systems has to do, in the majority of cases, with the relationship of composition and temperature to the formation of com¬ pounds, eutectics, solid solutions, immiscible liquids, fields of stable phases, the distribution of phases, and to the physical properties of certain products derived from the systems. Tables I, II and III illustrate silicate and related systems on which work of this nature has in some degree been performed. One of the most pleasing phases of this work is the wide applicability of results to any problems involving the components of the particular system studied, i.e., its fundamental character. Thus the Ca0-Al203-Si02 system has been helpful in problems not only in the cement industry, but in problems of the metallurgical and ceramic fields as well. Indeed, much of the work on phase equilibria performed by the Geophysical Laboratory in Washing¬ ton, primarily concerned with geological application, has contributed equally as much in the industrial field. This body of information is related fundamentally to the utilization of Illinois sedimentary rocks: In the first place the compositions of Illinois rocks can be expressed almost solely in terms of the oxides previously shown to be the major components in systems including the majority of products in the cement and ceramic industries, and the major components in metallurgical slags; as a matter of fact, a considerable Illinois production is utilized by these industries. Secondly, the complete phase equilibrium data of, and the properties of the various materials occurring within systems formed from the components in the sedimentary rocks are not fully known. These facts have been instrumental in developing the view¬ point on the part of the Illinois State Geological Survey that certain carefully selected avenues of research might contribute valuable informa¬ tion in the field of non-fuels technology in the State, both in the creation of new products and the improvement of old. The third point looks into the future a considerable distance, perhaps. A mixture of silicates in the molten state when allowed to cool delivers crystalline materials from solution, not haphazardly, but in an ordered manner predictable from phase equilibrium data. This suggests the possibility of extracting, by fractional crystallization from a cooling melt, pure minerals* to be used, after cooling and grinding, as such, or in combination with other materials for the synthesis of new products. Likewise can be visualized a “silicate alloy” industry, preparing silicate glasses of desired composition and grain size to be utilized as the glassy bonding materials in ceramic wares. —6 196 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Silicate Systems Completely or partially studied by various investigators from a standpoint of phase equilibrium relationships and other properties. These studies were made at relatively high temperatures in all but a few cases. Table I Binary Ternary AI2O3 CaO MgO FeO Fe203 Na20 K20.Si02 MnO PbO CaO . Si02 Na20.Si02 K2CO3 NasAlFe SrO BaO Li20 CaS Pb304 ZnO B2O3 SnO Zr02 Ti02 BeO Cr203 MnS MnO — Na20 Fe203 MgO K2Si03 K2Si205 Zr02 B2O3 CO2 H2O NaF Na20.Si02 K2O FeO K20.Si02 CaO . Si02 Fe203 PbO" MgO CO2 H2O MgO Fe203 SnO MnO Fe203|Zn0 Mn0|Ti02 Pb304|K2C03 CUOIV2O5 A1|S Fe|S Quaternary -CaO AI2O3 — MgO Fe203 — Na20 Na20 Fe203 FeO -MgO MnO Fe203 Na20 Ti02 K2O -FeO Fe203 — Na20|BaO— CO2 AI2O3- AI2O3- AI2O3- B2O3- FeO— I MgO- Ti02- Ti02- -AI2O3 FeO— I K2O- CaO— CaO— Na20- K2O— Systems of more than four components: Si02— CaO— AI2O3— MgO— Na20 Si02— CaO— AI2O3— MgO— K2O Si02— CaO— AI2O3— MgO— N a2 O— F e2 O3 — F eO Si02— Si— MnO— Mn— FeO— F e Table II Systems Without SiO 2 CaO MgO AI2O3 Fe203 B2O3 Zr02 NaF AIF3 KF CaF2 PbF2 CdF2 AIF3 KF LiF MgF2 LiF CaF2 KF|BaF2 B2O3 Li20 Na20 CdO MnO PbO Al203 MgO CaF2 ZnO Cr203 Ti02 CaO AI2O3— K2O AI2O3— Na20 AI2O3 — MgO AI2O3 — Fe203 NaF|CaF2 — AIF3 Zr02|Th02 MgO|FeO — Fe203 PbO PbF2 Bi2Os AS2O5 V2O5 M0O3 CrOs WO3 Fe203|Fe304 — O2 Na20 K2O— B2O3 K2O— AS2O5 K20— CrOs K20— WOs K2O— MoOs M0O3 — WO3 FeO MgO AI2O3 PbO Cr03 — SO3 M0O3 — WO3 Na20 Ti02 M0O3 — Bi203 AS2O5 WOs— Bi203 M0O3 PbF2 — As205 WO3 PbF2— V2O5 K2O AS2O5 AI2O3 NaF— AlFs M0O3 NaF— AlFs— CaF2 WO3 Ti02|Th02 Chemistry — 1937 Meeting 197 MgO NiO CoO AI2O3 Cr2C>3 Fe3C>4 Mn3C>4 Si02 Ti02 Zr02 Cu20 CaO BaO SrO BeO Ce02 La203 Si02|K20 Rb20 ICs20 Table III Melting Diagrams Ab03 CaO Zr02 CaO BaO SrO SrO BaO MgO BeO NiO MgO CoO ZnO Ti02 NiO Si02 CoO BeO AI2O3 Cu20 Cr203 Zr02 Fe203 Th02 M113O4 Ce02 La203 Mnfo, Ca° M113O4 C112O Fe304 Ti02 Ga203 CoO Cr203 NiO Ce02 CaO TI1O2 Cr203 Cr2Os Fe304 Mn304 Zr02 Zr02 Ce02 — Ce203 BeO— CaO BeO — Ce02 Th02— CaO Th02— MgO BeO CaO Ce02 CoO Cr203 CU2O Fe304 La203 M113O4 NiO Th02 Ti02 Cone Deformation Diagrams AI2O3 .2Si02— CaO AI2O3 .2Si02 — MgO AI2O3 .2Si02 — FeO AI2O3 . 2Si02 — K2O. Al2 Os . 6Si02 Microcline — steatite Microcline — albite Orthoclase— CaO Orthoclase — MgO Albite — CaO Albite— MgO Feldspar— Flint— Kaoli n BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. The Data of Geochemistry: F. W. Clarke U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 770, p. 34. 2. A Compilation of Phase-Rule Diagrams of Interest to the Ceramist and Silicate Technologist: F. P. Hall and Herbert Insley. Journal of the American Ceramic Society 16, 455-567 (1933). 3. Supplement to A Compilation of Phase-Rule Diagrams of Interest to the Cer¬ amist and Silicate Technologist: F. P. Hall and Herbert Insley. Journal of the American Ceramic Society 21, 113-157 (1938). Note : Due to lack of space it is impossible to include in the bibliography refer¬ ences to all the systems in the Tables. Systems not referred to in reference 2 above will be gladly furnished by the author. Since this paper was presented, a good deal of phase equilibrium data has appeared in the literature. The tables have been revised in this paper therefore to include these new systems, most of which are taken from Reference 3. 198 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Chemiluminescence-Oxidation of Pyrogallic Acid Lyle K. Ward and C. W. Bennett Western Illinois State Teachers College , Macomb , Illinois The subject of chemiluminescence has attracted much attention during the last few years. Our interest in this matter was started by the paper given by Dr. Audrieth1 a year ago on the oxidation of 3-amino phthalyl hydrazide.2 This material yields a brilliant bluish green light upon oxidation with H2()2 and K3Fe(CN)6, but no appreciable heat. In a photochemical process such as photosynthesis light is used to cause a certain chemical reaction, or the process may be said to absorb light. If there are processes in which light is absorbed there should be those where light is evolved. Many of these yield both light and heat as in ordinary combustion. Those yielding light without heat are not so common. This process of yielding cold light is called chemiluminescence. This phenomenon is related to, but different from, fluorescence or phosphorescence. In fluorescence light of a certain wave length, usually ultra.-violet, is absorbed by the activated material and emits light, usually visible, of a different wave length. Phos¬ phorescence seems to differ only in that it persists after the source of light is removed. Chemiluminescence is the emission of light directly from a chemical reaction without any outside source of radiation. A review of the literature in Taylor’s Physical Chemistry3 and a recent number of the Journal of Chemical Education4 shows that several substances when oxidized give varying degrees of light of different wave lengths. These include the oxidation of siloxene, an unsaturated silicon hydroxide, the oxidation of safranin by means of ozone, oxidation of phosphorus (the besl known example), and the one we are going to attempt to show, the oxida¬ tion of pyrogallic acid5, or 1, 2, 3, benzene-triol, (C6H3(OH)3). A mixture of 50 cc. of a 10% aqueous solution of pyrogallic acid, 35 cc. of 40% formaldehyde and 50 cc. of 40% KOH is placed in a separatory funnel and concentrated hydrogen peroxide in another funnel. These are allowed to drip very slowly into a spiral condenser. In a darkened room the brilliant red glow is very striking. We have found that by using equal parts of saturated K3Fe(CN)6 with the peroxide the action seems to be increased. It is noteworthy that this oxidation must be carried out in alkaline solution. This seems to be the general rule. The mechanism of chemi¬ luminescence is not understood nor is it known, so far as we can determine, what products are formed in most cases. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Sveda and Audrieth, Trans. Ill. St. Acad. Sci. 29, 106 (1936). 2. Huntress, Stanley, and Parker, J., Chem. Education 11, 142 (1934). 3. Taylor, Treatise on Physical Chemistry, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., New York, 2nd Ed. (1932), p. 1511. 4. Abstract, J. Chem. Education IS, 497 (1936). Ayres, Sch. Sci. Rev. 17, 615 (1936). 5. Loc. cit. papers In Geography Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman The program of the Geography Section carried nine papers, of which six are here represented. The others are: The Distribution of the Apple Orchards in Calhoun County, by Alfred W. Kasel, Moline High School, Moline. The Soybean Industry of Illinois , Mabel Crompton, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. Illinois Council of Geography Teachers, by Clare Symonds, Quincy High School, Quincy. Average attendance at the meetings was twenty-five. R. E. Crist, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, was elected chairman of the 1938 meeting. (Signed) H. O. Lathrop, Chairman. [199] ’ . Geography — 1937 Meeting 201 Reforestation in Southern Illinois: The Shawnee National Forest Purchase Units Thomas F. Barton Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale, Illinois After approximately one hundred years of forest, wildlife, soil, water and mineral exploitation, so nearly exhausted are the natural resources in the eleven counties of southern Illinois that the area is now in a desperate economic condition. A brief discussion of this area’s present economic con¬ dition, some of the geographic factors contributing to its economic decline, and a plan for restoring part of its wealth as well as establishing a permanent economy in the area, is the object of this paper. A report of the restora¬ tion of renewable resources in the Shawnee National Forest purchase units in the hardwood area of Illinois, will illustrate how, in many ways, the national government through the forest service is reestablishing natural resources and thereby making investments in our future national wealth. Other central hardwood reforestation projects of which the Shawnee National Forest Purchase units is representative are being developed in Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas. A General Landscape Picture — The landscape in the three southern most tiers of counties in Illinois is one of decadency. Here and there the scattered patches of forest, cut over and now occupied by less valuable species of trees, have been gutted by fires and reduced to a poor quality of coppice. In recent years, especially since the development of concrete highways, these hitherto isolated forests have been drawn upon for mine timbers, ties and saw logs until virtually every specie of commercial size has been utilized. Most of the wildlife that once inhabited this region is now gone. The well stocked fur and fish streams have been miserably thinned out by mine impurities, earth materials from soil erosion, sewage, and also by the too frequent and greedy “catches” of man. In this area are found abandoned mines and disintegrating mining towns. The once fertile and cultivated slope lands are now deeply scarred by gully erosion, and over large areas the top soil is gone. Deserted fields produce only persimmons, sassafras and blackberry thickets. Because of slope wash and floods, the formerly tilled bottomlands are weed infested. Numerous abandoned pastures are now weedy plots of ground. And, as a natural sequence to such a picture, a gradual but steady exodus of rural population, leaving behind abandoned farmsteads, has been going on for the past quarter century and continues today. The Problem — A quantitative analysis of (1) terrain, (2) forest removal, (3) extent of erosion, (4) population exodus, and (5) farm values may help to clarify the landscape picture. (1) Terrain. The terrain of southern Illinois is of a hilly nature generally rough and broken with many precipitous rocky slopes and having a maximum difference in elevation of approximately 600 feet. According to E. A. Norton, “About 75 per cent of the area lies in slopes steeper than 15 per cent . . . Ten per cent of the area is bottom land . . and the remaining 15 per cent lies on slopes varying from 3 to 15 per cent.”1 1 E. A. Morton is Assistant Chief in Soil Survey Mapping in Illinois. Quota¬ tions taken from a reprint by L. E. Sawyer, “National Forest Movement in Illinois”, Transactions of the Illinois Academy of Science, Y ol. 23, No. 2, 1932, p. 2. 202 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions (2) Forest removal. When white man first came here he found over this rough terrain an “oak-hickory” forest on the slopes and uplands, and “river bottom hardwoods and Cypress” on the major flood plains. But by 1932, the timber in the principal counties in which the Shawnee National Forest purchase units are located had been cleared for farms or so indis¬ criminately cut that about only one-third of the original timber area remains, and most of this is cut-over forest land. According to M. E. Ensminger, just thirty years ago the unglaciated part of southern Illinois was still covered with timber and the “income from this natural resource was about $2,000,000 per year. Since 1905, this has been going down until today it is less than $100,000 per year, and there is less than one per cent of the original timber which has not been cut over.1 (3) Extent of erosion. Once the forest cover was removed and the ground plowed, soil erosion became inevitable. A map of Illinois prepared by the Illinois Soil Survey Divsion showing the percentages of county areas affected by erosion of a “serious” and “destructive” nature reveals the start¬ ling extent of erosion in the area under consideration.2 3 In six of the eleven counties more than 75 per cent of the land has been affected by “serious” and “destructive” erosion, and three of the remaining five show from 51 to 75 per cent of the land so affected. This erosion has taken place primarily on the slopes steeper than 15 per cent where erosion is destructive even under a grass cover. Erosion has also been harmful on the 3 to 15 per cent slopes where, at one time or another, most of the land has been under cultivation. Today, due to soil depletion through erosion, long periods of leaching and continuous cropping, about two-thirds of this slope land has been abandoned.8 This is now waste land chiefly occupied by weeds and brush. (4) Population exodus. Although the drift of people from this area has not been spectacular, it is none the less real. A map prepared by the University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station comparing the 1930 with the 1910 population by civil divisions furnishes conclusive evidence of this existing condition. Many townships have lost as much as one-third to one-half of their rural population.4 (5) Farm values. The economic status of the remaining farmers is indicative of the land utilization problem.5 In 1930, in Hardin, Pope, and Johnson counties, with the exception of two civil divisions, the value of farm land and buildings was less than 30 dollars per acre, with some large areas valued under ten dollars. In the same year, when only the valuation of farm land per acre was considered, over nine-tenths of the land now in¬ cluded in the Shawnee National Forest purchase units was valued from 0-30 dollars per acre, with much of it valued at less than ten dollars an acre. Cereals Versus Tree Utilization — From the standpoint of national planning, the question confronting one is, in what way can the land in the eleven counties of southern Illinois best be utilized? Undoubtedly, the best and in some places the only use that can be made of a large per cent of the land is to plant it to trees rather than cereal crops. This is especially true of seven of the eleven counties in the Shawnee National Forest purchase 1 M. E. Ensminger ; from an unpublished manuscript entitled, “Ah Wilderness”. (Mr. Ensminger is manager of the Dixon Springs Pasture and Erosion Control Demonstration Project.) 2 Map, p. 123, A National Plan for American Forestry, op. cit. 3 L. W. Sawyer, op. cit., p. 2. 4 Unpublished statistics compiled by the writer. 6 Maps and charts from the Illinois State Planning Commission. Geography — 1937 Meeting 203 units. These seven counties contain an area of 2131 square miles of which 53 per cent of the total area is so rough that under the present economic system it will not prove profitable. Furthermore, 11 per cent of this total area contains flat land with an impervious subsoil, thus excluding it from land suited to cultivation.1 Admitting that 65 per cent of the land in these seven counties can be used for cultivation, the question arising is: should the abandoned land be reforested, or should it be fertilized and returned to crop production? More¬ over, with a soil that is impoverished, is it not possible in this scientific age to restore its fertility with fertilizers and reduce slope wash with contour plowing, strip farming and terracing? In order to find a scientific answer to these two questions, the University of Illinos located two experiment fields in the area. The conclusion following this investigation was that the submarginal land could not, under ordinary grain cropping systems of farming, be made profitable. It is not surprising, consequently, that in this area tax-deliquency has grown with accelerated tempo. Of the 2131 square miles in seven counties in which reforestation is to be developed, by February, 1931, 25,320 acres had been forfeited for the non-payment of taxes.2 Alexander County alone by the end of 1931, contained over 25,000 acres of land that had been for¬ feited for this reason, representing in that county an increase in one year of 15,269 acres, and a total as great as the combined seven counties for the previous year. Alexander County is not a unique example. It is typical of land forfeiture in the region. After examining the statistical evidence as to the extent of erosion, amount of land abandonment, and percentages of land suited for agricul¬ ture, it becomes evident that reforestation here is the feasible solution to efficient land utilization. Acting upon this conclusion, the public leaders of Illinois prevailed upon National Government agencies to start a reforestation project in southern Illinois. Location and Pattern — The Shawnee National Forest project is located in the three southernmost tiers of counties in Illinois. Its pattern is roughly H-shaped. The two vertical bars of the H are represented by the tier of counties paralleling the east side of the Mississippi River, namely, Jackson, Union, and Alexander counties, and the tier paralleling the west side of the Ohio, namely, Gallatin, Hardin, Pope, and Massac. These two vertical bars of the H are almost connected by two horizontal projections which extend from the east and west and almost join near the center of the state where they occupy parts of Hardin, Pope, Johnson, and Union counties. The irregular exterior boundaries of the project enclose 785,000 acres— 60 per cent of which will be purchased for reforestation. The irregular boundaries are due primarily to the adjustment of the boundary to land- form and soil conditions. The government is attempting to exclude good agricultural land and at the same time to include as much as possible of the region that should be reforested. Objectives — The five primary objectives of the Shawnee National Forest purchasing units are: (1) erosion control, (2) restore and manage wildlife, (3) develop and provide recreational facilities, (4) develop sustained yield of timber and game and, (5) sustain forest communities. (1) Control Erosion. Although the ultimate goal of the project is to hold in place the soil as produced by nature, the immediate objective is to 1 Statistics furnished by the Illinois Soil Survey. 2 County tax figures. 204 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions check soil destruction. Already, a large part of the time and money has gone toward protecting soil from fire and erosion. According to C. S. Horton, of the four principal factors in local erosion, namely, steepness of slope, the thundershower type of rainfall, lack of a long cold period, and the characteristics of the loess soil, the latter is the crux of erosion tempo. From the standpoint of erosion, this soil has all the poor qualities of sand and clay soils and none of the good. Clay soil puddles and thus protects itself in part from erosion; sandy soil permits rapid percolation thus protecting itself by decreasing the run-off; but when water falls on loess the soil melts away like sugar;1 consequently, a forest litter plays an important role in controlling erosion in this area. (2) Restore and manage wildlife. In this project many factors will contribute to the restoration of wildlife. A cutting cycle and plan for dis¬ tributing cuttings will be adopted thus permitting cuttings to be economical and at the same time provide suitable game habitat. Invaluable game cover will be furnished by the many comparatively small plantings of conifers2 distributed throughout the project to fit soil conditions. A sane program of “weed tree” elimination will be followed, and not one that would be inimical to wildlife. Plant species of major importance to wildlife will be chosen wherever feasible for erosional control and for sites too poor to produce first class timber. Thus, many of these plants will have the dual function of furnishing food and cover for wildlife and at the same time aid in erosion control. (3) Develop and provide recreational facilities. Only the lack of good roads and recreational facilities have prevented more people from enjoying “Little Egypt’s” points of interest and beauty. In this area there are many places of geographical, archaeological and geological phenomena of edu¬ cational and recreational importance. The construction of good roads will make these points of interest accessible to the general public. Picnic grounds with modern equipment, parks, and in the future, swimming facilities will be constructed. Provisions will be made for fishing and hunting. In this way the people can enjoy the Shawnee National Forest purchase units and at the same time the natural resources will be protected from destructive public habits. (4) Sustained Yields. Both the trees and the game are to be managed on a sustained yield basis. This type of management has many advantages. Game will be protected from being exterminated by its enemies, and at the same time it will not be permitted to multiply to the point where it will destroy its own habitat. By a cutting cycle operated on a sustained yield basis the forest will fulfill its multiple use of protecting soil, regulating water, contributing to recreation, providing a suitable habitat for game, and furnishing steady yearly employment for workers. (5) Sustain forest communities. The Shawnee National Forest purchase units are expected to sustain small forest communities, and, in time, small wood-working industries. In these communities men will find work in the various uses made of the forest. Trees will require planting, thinning, trim¬ ming, logging, and protection from fire, disease, insects, and rodents. Wildlife will need to be cared for. Fishing and hunting parties will need lodging, equipment and guides. The tourist trade will supply wTork for those in private business or working for the Government. Small wood working industries will furnish some annual employment. Some of the family income will be earned by tilling small plots of the better land adjacent to the tovrns. Each family will be expected to have a garden and few animals. It is hoped that 1 Personal Interview with G. S. Horton, December 17, 1936. 2 Ira N. Gabrielson, The Correlation of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Wildlife Research Management Leaflet, BS-37, Bureau of Biological Survey, p. 4. Geography — 1937 Meeting 205 these communities will have a rather steady income from year to year, and not be a booming town one year and a ghost town a few years later. Fires — The keystone of the whole problem in restoring the renewable resources in the Shawnee units is fire control. This is more true of southern Illinois than some of the other areas being reforested. In northern Michigan “weed trees” enter abandoned land and necessitate expense of cutting in order to clear the land for planting of more valuable species. The hardwood species in the Shawnee units if protected from fire follow quickly in the ecological evolution after the transitional vegetation of sassafras and persim¬ mon. However, if the hardwoods in this region are protected they will reproduce prolifically and better commercial types gradually increase. With the control of fires natural propagation will be a great asset to the project. About two-thirds of the 471,000 acres to be purchased in the Shawnee units have a fair stand of second growth, or will have if properly thinned and protected from fire. From the standpoint of reseeding and transplanting, this natural propagation means a great saving. The natural seeding of the trees for transplanting will supplement artificial seeding methods as much as possible. In this way nursery costs will be reduced. In Union county, for example, by keeping fires out of an area for three years, the management has protected from two to three million fine seedlings which can be transplanted in a few years. Because of the lack of a snow blanket, and because of the dry periods in summer, the occasional drought, together with the too prevalent practice of “burning” by the farmers, and the lack of an informed public, fire hazzards are large. The farmers of the region, both in the spring and fall, burn over parts of their land with little care whether the fire stops on their land or not. They have a naive, almost religious philosophy that burning over the ground is beneficial to tree growth. Thus a high per cent of the trees which appear to be commercial timber are fire scarred. Insects and animals also take advantage of these fire scars so that numerous trees are gutted before they reach cutting age. Fire, moreover, not only destroys part of the wildlife, but what little escapes its ravages has its food, water, breeding grounds, and places of shelter destroyed. PROGRESS AND FUTURE Most of the money and time expended thus far has gone for administra¬ tive purposes. First, the land had to be optioned, approved and bought. Then, roads and trails had to be improved and fire lanes marked. Lookout towers, telephone lines, bridges and new roads had to be constructed, and equipment for construction purposes, fire fighting, erosional control and reseeding and transplanting purchased. By May 1, 1937, the government had purchased 63,000 acres and in addition had optioned and approved 153,000 more. By this date, it had also seeded 2,580 acres and planted 1,360. From the standpoint of wildlife, a game survey has been made. Wild¬ life water ponds one-half to one-fourth an acre in size have been constructed and more are under way. Twelve deer, thirty beaver, and a large number of wild turkey have been liberated. The 1937 and 1938 program calls for the seeding and planting of four million trees per year. 206 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions An Inland Inundation Clarence Bonnell Harrisburg Township High School, Harrisburg, Illinois Harrisburg, Illinois, is at the western extremity of a glacial lake bed which lies between that city and Shawneetown and in which flow the lower courses of the Saline River and its tributaries. This ancient lake bed is but little elevated above the normal stage of the Ohio. The Saline River enters the Ohio a short distance below Shawneetown. Due to the extension of the Illinois Ozarks into Kentucky, the Ohio is confined to a narrow valley from the outlet of the Saline River to below Golconda. This “bottle neck” through the hills is part of the cause of grief to the up river inhabitants, since it slows up the current, causing the water to pile up above. The situation at Harrisburg is further complicated by an overflow from the Wabash River. When the Ohio is very high, the Wabash sends part of its water westward over low lands to the northwest of Shawneetown and into the Saline River valley. This increases the back water flow up the Saline. This situation caused Harrisburg to experience more than a foot of back water above the peak at Shawneetown. Fortunately for Harrisburg, little rain fell in Saline County during the flood period, that is, after the headwater preceding the main flood had receded. In other words, the Saline River is so far down the Ohio valley that the headwater from it had gone out before water from far up the Ohio had come down. The main business and residence section of Harrisburg is on what was originally called “Crusoe’s Island,” and surrounded by swampy areas in the early days. Another island section lies to the southeast. Ridge lands are southwest and west. A considerable portion of the city is on the ridge south and west, being separated from the “island” only by lower ground which had never been flooded before, but which at its lowest point had water eight feet deep on February 3, 1937. It was over this flooded district that supplies, including food, water, and some fuel were transported by boats from the mainland to the “island” for more than two weeks. Goods of all kinds could be brought to the mainland from the west by trucks throughout the entire period. The Township High School on the mainland became a refuge camp and feeding depot conducted by the high school faculty. A grade school building on the same side of the water was used as official headquarters for handling incoming supplies, and as a port of embarkation for the “island”. The fertile level areas lying about the older and central portion of the city had become occupied by numerous residences as the city grew. These included many modern homes on paved streets. The pumping and filtering plants of the water works system, the gas supply plant, the rail¬ road depot and extensive yards, and the shafts of three large coal mines lay within this area. One of these mines was flooded. The other two were saved by sand bagging. Geography — 1937 Meeting 207 The 1913 flood had been serious over much of this low ground, but .the citizens of Harrisburg at that time cared for all refugees without any 'outside help. Many homes were put on higher foundations following that record breaking inundation. It was unbelievable that any rise of water could exceed that one. So when warnings of still higher water came this year the people in the low ground scaffolded up their belongings or de¬ pended on the greater elevation of their homes to save them. When the water rose so that the danger could be seen, there were no places to take household goods, and trucks were not available or could not reach the houses then surrounded by water. The eight foot rise above the 1913 mark got up to the scaffolding; and pianos, dressers, etc. toppled over. City water lines had not been shut off. Some few houses floated and broke loose from water pipes. Others had water pipes frozen which burst so that it was difficult to resume operations of the water plant when the water was going down. It was fortunate that no severe cold weather came. There was some ice but never enough to stop boats to the mainland. One stormy day when the water was the highest, strong winds set up high waves that did much damage to partially submerged fences and buildings in the country. The reaction from a wave crest burst out the sides of buildings and rows of shingles on roofs in exposed places so that the approximate water level on that day can be told by the missing siding or shingles. There was little current. Only small buildings, oil tanks, etc. floated, mostly with the wind. Many small buildings would have withstood the flood but were burst asunder by the waves. With eleven stations above Cairo in the Ohio valley reporting an average of over seventeen inches of rain during the first twenty-five days of January, the flood can be attributed primarily to abnormal rainfall the recurrence of which may not happen again within the life time of those now living. There will, at Harrisburg, be a gradual shifting to higher ground which is available within and near the present city limits. Warn¬ ings will be heeded in the event of other floods so that losses of property can be greatly reduced. It would be possible to build a levy across a narrow part of the Saline valley near the east edge of Saline county with gates in the river to per¬ mit head waters to get out at normal times and prevent the flow of back water, but the problem of pumping head water out, if such should come at a time of back water, presents a difficult engineering question. A levee could be built on the low grounds immediately outside of Harrisburg but the cost might be prohibitive when compared with the benefits to follow. 208 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Land Tenure in the Llanos of Venezuela Raymond E. Crist University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois Two motives drove the Spaniards to exploration and conquest in the New World: the quest for gold, and the desire to add new members to the Roman Catholic Church. Hence those regions conquered by the Spaniards were divided up into great landed estates (encomiendas) and given to the most illustrious for two generations (por dos vidas). The Indians living on the land at the time became serfs, forced to work for their white masters, who were to indoctrinate them with Christianity. This led to all sorts of abuses. The goal of all those possessing such a grant was to squeeze as much as possible out of the Indians in the form of labor before both they and the land reverted to the Crown. But very frequently estates did not return to the Crown at the end of two generations. Indeed, many of them still exist intact, controlled by lineal descendants of the Conquistadores. Economiendas were sometimes made to a man about to lead an ex¬ pedition into a region not yet explored. Such was the case in the Llanos of Apure and Zamora. Captain Ochogavia requested many rights and privileges in return for acting as leader of an exploration party on the Apure River. Some of the more important requests were: That in the river port to be founded, a custom house be established, a certain percentage of the receipts to go to the Captain and his heirs for three generations; That of the Indians subdued, the Captain should have one-fourth of them “en encomienda por tres vidas,” and that he should dispose of the others as he saw fit; That he be mayor of one or two towns that might be founded. In return for these privileges he would complete the exploration with¬ in one year, and bear all the costs. His requests were duly complied with by the Audiencia de Santa Fe de Bogota. It is to be noted that he de¬ manded these privileges for three generations, rather than two. Thus the feudal system was transferred to the New World. Indians at first supplied the labor on the estates, but in many areas negro slaves were imported in great numbers — particularly to ranches or plantations on the lowlands. Boundary lines of the great ranches on the plains are notoriously vague. The estates are never fenced in, and are frequently so vast that the cattle on them become almost as shy as wild animals. Such an estate may be bounded by a river or other natural landmarks, or by a purely arbitrary line. Such vagueness has given rise to many difficulties. For instance, a grant of eight square leagues between two rivers may, when surveyed, be much larger, yet the holder of the grant feels entitled to it because of the boundaries specified. If there are less than eight square leagues between the rivers he insists that he has a right to more land beyond the natural boundaries. The series of revolutions has meant a lack of progress on the Llanos. The solitary rancher was powerless against the marauding bands which have scoured the plains from time to time since the wars of independence. The plainsmen are naturally reluctant to establish ranches and to build up great herds if some unprincipled individual — persona grata to the political clique in power — might appropriate them in time of peace, or some revolu¬ tionary faction do the same during a political upheaval. Geography — 1937 Meeting 209 Major Elements in the Geography of Puerto Rico W. H. Haas Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois The geography of Puerto Rico cannot be understood without an appre¬ ciation of the people’s cultural outlook. Even after nearly forty years of separation from the mother country, their point of view is still more Spanish than American. This, however, is not strange as the Island has always been more intensely Spanish than any other part of Spain’s vast colonial empire. For this reason, perhaps, Puerto Rico always was the favorite child of Spain and the loyalty shown in return by this, the favored daughter, was a matter of just pride to the mother country. Because of its position the island was looked upon by Spain as an outpost, strategically located for protecting and controlling the other possessions. The island was looked upon as the key to an enormously rich colonial empire and was guarded accordingly. Even far off Mexico had to help in situados, annual assess¬ ments, up to the time of the Mexican Revolution in order to build up the second strongest fortress in the New World and to help cover expenses for outfitting new expenditions. In the most troublous times for Spain, roughly from 1810 to 1820, when through one successful revolution after another this vast South American empire was crumpling away into dust, Puerto Rico remained most loyal. This continued loyalty of the people of the island, even under the most ad¬ verse circumstances, is a striking anomaly in Spanish colonial relations. For this loyalty Puerto Rico was well rewarded, or perhaps it was this special consideration in superior treatment that kept the Puerto Ricans so loyal. Be that as it may, during this period of a shrinking empire the people were granted in 1815 what may be considered a special Bill of Rights. Though much less publicized in history than that of England and much less in¬ fluential in later history, this Cedilla de Gracias with its 33 articles was for its day like a proclamation freeing an Island people from slavery. It was a most amazing document of liberality, so unlike Spain’s attitude toward her other colonies. Again on February 9, 1898, just before the Spanish-American war, Spain granted to Puerto Rico La Carta Autonomica, another Bill of Rights, which gave the people practically complete autonomy, the thing they had worked and prayed for these many, many years. This hardly had gone into effect when world events over which Puerto Rico had no control, changed all. Only six short days after the principles of the Carta Autonomica had gone into effect the American Battleship Maine was sunk in Havana Harbor. On April 25, 60 days later, congress declared war on Spain and on May 12 Samson bombarded San Juan the capitol of Puerto Rico. On July 25 the first Ameri¬ can troops were landed at Guanico, on August 13 hostilities were suspended, and on October 18 the official transfer of the Island took place. Thus in the short period from February 9 to October 18, 1898, all that the people had hoped for and had so joyously received was swept away because of a war in the cause of which they had no part and in which they had no home in¬ terest. It is not surprising that they say: “With the wind that unfurled 210 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions the American flag, Puerto Rican liberty was swept from the Island.” In their congressional discussions, at the present time the United States is never referred to by name but as the invador, invader. It may readily be appreciated that American control had a most inauspicious start. The change of sovereignty did change the form of government, from a Latin to an Anglo-Saxon form, but it did not add any new resources, or change the cultural outlook, nor did it add any wealth, economically or strategically, to the United States. Under such conditions the question naturally arises, can a foreign power enforce successfully, under democratic institutions, a form of government not to the liking of a people with a totally different outlook? It seems anomalous that a people who fought for and gained independence should try colonial control of an arbitrary sort and to curb like efforts for autonomy. Changing the form of government does not change a people’s outlook or ambitions. The Puerto Ricans are still Spanish minded, not American, and the only hope for loyalty is when they of their own free will have chosen to be a part of the United States. The millions upon millions of dollars of American money spent on relief has not changed the situation one iota. Last autumn the chief of police was assassinated. This spring sixteen people were killed in Ponce and a host of others wounded in a Nationalistic demonstration, and on Easter Sunday troops parading the streets of Mayaguez prevented another outbreak. What solution is there? Have geographical studies anything to offer? I think so. That form of government is best which helps people to help solve their economic problems most effectively. These problems are rooted in very material things. Geographic studies can offer the premises from which correct conclusions may be drawn. The problem of the poor rooted in the soil is a most serious one. The island truly “seethes with misery” because of this poverty. Six or ten or even more people may live in a windowless hut, not more than twelve feet to a side. There is no bed, no chair or stove in such a home. Over large areas on the island there is not a single inclosed latrine. Bush- covered, the hillside affords the only toilet facilities, and with each rain the streams become polluted. Chlorinization of all streams is impossible and typhoid outbreaks are common in spite of the vigilance of the sanitary department. Many a workman before sunrise trudges to work, when there is any to be had, with only a cup of coffee for breakfast, eats a little cold rice and a small piece of codfish at noon, a little more rice and coffee at night, then goes to sleep, not to bed, in the same clothes he wore during the day, and rises again the next day to repeat the performance for less than one dollar per day. No nation can hope to prosper where three- fourths of the population is so dreadfully poor. At one time during the depression nearly 90% of the people were on the government payroll, mostly in the form of relief, this under the rule of the richest nation on earth. This great poverty is largely the result of the scarcity of food crop land. The food crop acreage to feed one and three-quarters million people is ab¬ surdly small: 70,000 acres in corn; 48,000 in yams and sweet potatoes; and 41,000 in beans. Not over one acre in ten of the island’s 2,176,000 acres is given over to food production, and the poorer land at that. This means that each acre is expected to supply seven to ten people with food. The land needed to supply a decent standard of living, according to the U. S. Depart¬ ment of Agriculture is, roughly, two and a half acres per person. On this basis the people have only a twentieth or twenty-fifth of the needed amount. In cases of this kind food must be imported, but imported food is expensive and when there is no money the only alternative is to do without. The United States is looked upon as the wealthiest nation in the world with Geography — 193 7 Meeting 211 seven percent of the people having about 45 percent of the world’s wealth. Do not these million or more American citizens, with rarely enough to eat at any time offer a serious problem, as well as a challenge to our general point of view? The growing of sugar is a strange problem. Although the most profitable money crop, it is far from being the most profitable crop for the people of the Island. With the transfer of possession the Island was placed within high tariff regulations. Sugar entered the United States free, at an ad¬ vantage over other competitors. In addition to freedom from tariff regula¬ tions, was also the element of nearness to the greatest sugar consuming market. American investors were not slow to realize that fortunes were to be made from sugar in Puerto Rico. All sorts of intermediaries were used in buying up all land suitable for cane growing. At first land was bought at normal or sub-normal prices as many land owners had little faith in the future of the Island under American control. Soon those who held out were offered twice or even twenty times what the land owner thought the land actually was worth. The land owner sold, feeling assured that the land boom would collapse and he then could buy back the land at his own price. That time never came. Sugar cane has taken all the flat coastal lands and is reaching out over the low hills into the interior. The problem which in a measure overshadows all others is the extra¬ ordinary increase in number. The Island was already over-populated when it came into the possession of the United States. At that time there were 953,000 people, a little short of a million for 4400 square miles of mostly mountainous terrain. The number rose to 1,110,000 in 1910; 1,300,000 in 1920; 1,544,000 in 1930; and 1,725,000 in 1935. In other words, in 35 short years the population nearly doubled when the doubling rate for the world is roughly 60 years. There is not only this terrific increase but the rate of increase has been growing. From 1920 to 1930 this rate per annum was 1.69 percent but from 1930 to 1935 the rate rose to 1.95 percent per year. Ex¬ pressed in another way the density per square mile rose from 200 in 1899 to 330 in 1910, to 382 in 1920; to 454 in 1930; and to 507 in 1935. As there are practically no immigrants, the growth is due almost wholly to excess of births over deaths. With a birth rate that has no relations to possibilities for making even the barest living, the future for the young, especially, is not particularly promising. Emigration thus far has not proved successful. In an area with two people where only one should be and with the number increasing so rapidly, making two blades of grass grow where only one grew before, even if this were possible, cannot give a permanent solution to the problem. These and a host of other problems are clamoring for solution. Solu¬ tions cannot be worked out on the Island. They are a function chiefly of the American government. Whatever plans are made they must include the development of a land-owning middle class with more favorable conditions for the accumulation of local capital. Whatever plans are made for the rehabilitation de Puerto Rico more understanding of fundamental conditions and less politics must be brought to bear in the solutions suggested. The people must be taught also that when four grains of sugar are necessary to keep four ants alive a certain number of days, eight ants will require twice the sugar or else some must do without or all must die. Education, directly or indirectly, may be the solution in curbing this wild propagation of human beings into a world which can offer little other than poverty and misery to the newborn. The educational advances made under America’s direction reads like a fairy tale, but it should be remem- 212 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions bered that due to poverty the third and fourth grades are still the upper limit for by far the greater number and that many children still never see the inside of a schoolroom because there are no schoolrooms for them to see. In conclusion, a study of the physical features, the climate, and the general resources of Puerto Rico is meaningless without a larger point of view. A geographic study must not neglect the effect upon the people. A sta¬ tistical study of the island since American occupation may be made to read like a fairy story of great success. The economic progress made is truly phenomenal, but the welfare of the vast majority of the people has not been improved; if anything it is worse. The island is mountainous, poor in re¬ sources. Sugar, due to tariff advantages, has become a highly profitable crop on the good, flat lands. Food crops as a result have been crowded back into the hills, grown on unusually steep slopes. These tropical hill slope soils are thin, highly leached, the grower too poor to buy fertilizer, and the yield abnormally low. With such a very dense population there is not enough food to go around. Bordering these hill slopes of poverty, ignorance, super¬ stition, and misery are the rich, dark-green cane fields producing a “white gold” for investors in a foreign land, ignorant of the hardships and sufferings this income brings to another people, also American citizens but on a neigh¬ boring island. It is always relatively easy to find fault but infinitely hard to find even a semi-workable solution. To attempt to outline a course of action is beyond the scope and time of this paper. Too often, however, such solutions have a political rather than a geographic background, a senti¬ mental rather than a factual approach. Geography — 1937 Meeting 213 Colfax-A Corn Belt Village Trading Center Clarence Burt Odell University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois AN ABSTRACT Villages are essential and dynamic parts of the cash-grain section of the Illinois Corn Belt. They serve definite needs of the agricultural communi¬ ties — each village acting as the center of a farming community. The activi¬ ties of the villages show that farmers and villagers live and work in a close functional association. In recent times, with the development of highway transportation and other modern facilities, this functional association has been modified notably. The study from which this paper is derived is con¬ cerned fundamentally with the functional pattern of a group of villages in a selected area of the Corn Belt. This paper presents a portion of an in¬ tensive survey of one of the villages in the area designated in the study as the East McLean Area. This area is located in Central Illinois in the eastern part of McLean County, and is composed of seven townships, each includ¬ ing a small village with a population over 100 and less than 1000. The East McLean Area covers 236.17 square miles, has a total population of 7,044, of which 40 per cent are in the seven villages. The area is characterized by high land values and high crop yields and is indeed a highly productive section of Central Illinois. In this paper the results derived from an in¬ tensive survey of the largest of the seven villages are given as a portrayal of the functional pattern of a well rounded village trading center in the cash-grain section of the Illinois Corn Belt. The complete study consisted of a survey of a total of fifty-eight villages, of which twenty-three were given special study and seven were studied minutely. This village, Colfax by name, is one of the seven. The setting of Colfax is that of a great agricultural region — the cash- grain section of the Illinois Corn Belt. The land lies broadly level but has long gentle slopes which emphasize its level qualities. In most places the country side appears to be under complete cultivation with about four farm¬ steads on each square mile. With their white frame houses and red barns the farmsteads seem to be as much an expression of cultivation as are the well tilled fields. Ribbons of highways, dotted about every two miles with white frame school houses, emphasize the rectangularity of the occupance pattern. Small villages with their buildings and trees rise prominently out of the farmed areas which they serve. They are brought into alignment by the railroads along which they are spaced. Conspicuous grain elevators sug¬ gest the intimate relation of village and country. Every village has an ele¬ vator though every elevator siding has not become a village. The two ele¬ ments, farms and villages, thus make up the landscape picture of this Middle Western and Corn Belt scene. The village of Colfax, with a population in 1930 of 803 persons, is located twenty-six miles from Bloomington. It was platted and incorporated in 1880 during the building of the railroad, and was the terminus for a few years before extension was made to Bloomington. The incorporated village is 214 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions roughly a square, but the area utilized for village purposes has a very irregu¬ lar boundary. The railroad extends through the village in a straight east- west direction and roughly bisects the village. The business district is localized near the center of the village with the main street parallel to and a half block from the railroad right of way. Wood, brick, and concrete blocks are utilized for the business district forms, whereas wood is the dom¬ inant construction material for residential forms. Of the 264 houses 98 per cent are wood. The percentage of good quality houses in the large house group is larger than the percentage found in medium or small sized groups. The medium and small size houses are largely poor or medium in quality. The activities of Colfax have the variety of a well rounded village trading center. There are thirty-one retail or wholesale distributing establishments, ten establishments collecting farm products, and twenty-eight personal service establishments. The last group are of great importance in attracting people to the village but are of little importance in attempting to accurately estab¬ lish service areas for the village. In addition to these, public service estab¬ lishments serve definitely and usually arbitrarily selected areas with little or no overlapping occurring with neighboring agencies. Village service areas vary in intensity of usage from the completely served high school district of approximately two townships to the variable and irregular area served by the local physician. Transportation services of Colfax show a decline in railway activities with a suggested increase of highway utilization as a prob¬ able causation factor. At least the use of trucks and automobiles has in¬ creased to the extent that improvements for all roads are the latest projects. In general Colfax, a corn belt village, serves a community of approximately two townships with a wide variety of functions. The service areas range in size from the village proper of a quarter section to the medical territories which include several neighboring villages. The community high school district is primarily important in establishing a trade territory. It serves as a definite link between the farms and the village. Colfax is indeed moie than a township center and is of importance as a village trading center of the East McLean Area. It is probably not greatly unlike other village trad¬ ing centers distributed over the tributary areas of Central Illinois cities which in turn focus upon metropolitan regional centers. Geography — 1937 Meeting 215 The Geography of Strathallan, Scotland Jane E. Paterson* Bristol, England Strathallan. consists of the drainage basin of the Allan, a small tribu¬ tary of the River Forth in the Central Lowlands of Scotland. The valley is fourteen miles in length and twelve miles in width and is drained west¬ wards to the Forth. It is bounded by hills rising to 3000 feet above mean sea-level: on the north the Braes (or Hills) of Doune part of the Scottish Highlands and on the south the Ochil Hills. Strathallan’s position is very important for it is the central section of a corridor of lowland which links East and West coasts of Scotland. Though the word Strath signifies a wide valley, Strathallan is narrower and more upland in character than the Yale of the Forth to the West, or Strathmore to the East; but it is continuous with both. The highest portion of the corridor is the divide, 430 feet above mean sea-level, which separates Strathallan and Strathmore. In many ways Strathallan may be regarded as typical of rural Scotland. It illustrates very clearly the effect of such geographic factors as accessi¬ bility, relief, soil and climate on man’s activities. Structurally, Strathallan is a synclinal trough composed of Old red sand¬ stone rock which is deeply buried under glacial deposits. The hill slopes above the 700 feet contour are covered with boulder clay or “till.” Below this level glacial melt waters have sorted out the drift into heaps of gravel and sand, providing very light and infertile soils. The uneven surface adds to the difficulties of agriculture. “The riddlings of creation” a local farmer described his land. The farms and wayside villages of Strathallan are very old. Many of them have descriptive names. The prefix “drum” meaning a ridge, is very common as are other names suggesting the hummocky surface. “Hungry Hill” is the name of a farm on a glacial knoll. On a bleak, exposed portion of the Braes of Doune is an isolated sheep farm, “Cauld Hame” meaning Cold Home. The climate of Strathallan is maritime. The average temperature for July is 57° Fahrenheit, and for January 34°. Except for the Southwestern regions Strathallan does not receive much sunshine. The ripening season for crops is late and there is a possibility of frost in June. The valley lies open to the prevailing West winds. The landscape is bare and treeless except in a few sheltered tributary valleys. Rain occurs at all seasons. The average annual total is 48 inches. The conditions of soil and climate are such that grain cannot be raised as a money crop. Oats, potatoes, turnips, hay, are raised chiefly as fodder for livestock. The cultivated area is confined to a narrow strip of land along the valley floor. Since in recent years sheep farming has been more profit¬ able than arable farming, most farmers have some of their land in perma¬ nent pasture. The Blackface Sheep, a hardy breed, valuable for the quality * On the Blooming-ton, Illinois, High School faculty, 1936-37. 216 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions of its mutton, lives successfully on the heather moorlands to the North and South. The pasture of Strathallan, however, is not of a quality suitable for dairy cattle. In two respects the lateness of the season in Strathallan has been put to good account. The rather rigorous conditions make the cattle raised here hardy and healthy and therefore desirable for fattening purposes. Farmers in more favoured localities in Britain also get their supplies of seed potatoes from Strathallan because the late maturing varieties are free from degenera¬ tion diseases, and the sandy soil of the valley is very suitable for them. Strathallan’s location has always been of fundamental importance to its prosperity. It is in close contact with the Highlands to the North and with all parts of the Central Lowlands. Main highways and railways pass through it. In early days when domestic economy prevailed the accessibility of Strathallan was a disadvantage since farms and villages were at the mercy of pillagers and invaders. The Romans built a permanent camp in the Strath. Other reminders of past conflict are Tumuli, Celtic Forts and place names. The Battle of Sheriffmuir was fought in 1715 on the North- West of the Ochils in the first of the Highland Rebellions. “Tighnablair”, the name of a farm signifies the “House on the Battlefield”, and another “Blairmore” means the Great Battle. When peace was established the inhabitants of Strathallan became inter¬ ested in maintaining good roads. Tolls were levied for this purpose. Local industries flourished such as the tanning of leather, weaving, brewing, the manufacture of ink and potato starch, since there was abundance of water power from the Allan tributaries and good communications. But Strath¬ allan’s industrial prosperity did not survive the Industrial Revolution. Popu¬ lation after 1861 drifted towards the newly created factory towns on the coalfields to the South. Many mills and hamlets of the Strath have been deserted. The stage coach with its multiplicity of needs, disappeared. To¬ day some 150 trains pass through Strathallan. Only 10 of these stop at the wayside stations. On the roads “petrol” stations replace changing houses and hotels. Only two of the villages in Strathallan have been able to profit by the new industrialism by becoming holiday resorts, owing to their situa¬ tion in the most picturesque and sheltered portion of the Strath. The re¬ maining villages cater chiefly to the none-too-prosperous farming communi¬ ties around. Good game and fishing have attracted wealthy industrialists to become landowners. Farmers have security of tenure and the freedom to use their land as they wish, but they are restricted in their efforts by difficulties of climate, soil and a fluctuating market. As in many other parts of Scotland farmers can only hope to prosper so long as they maintain the fertility of their land by careful husbandry and at the same time concentrate on the production of those things which are least affected by foreign competition as for instance poultry, cattle, sheep, potatoes and fodder crops. Papers In Geology Extract Feom the Report of the Section Chairman The program of the Geology Section carried eighteen papers, of which ten are here represented. The others are: The, Glacial History of the Rockford Region, by M. M. Leighton, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Taxonomy of Mississippian Productidae, by A. H. Sutton, University of Illinois, Urbana. The Megacycle, a Complex Rhythm in Pennsylvanian Sediments, by Harold R. Wanless, University of Illinois, Urbana. The Seed Habit in Paleozoic Plants, by James M. Schopf, State Geo¬ logical Survey, Urbana. Small Spores Obtained from Maceration Residues of Coal, by Charles J. Hoke, University of Illinois, and James M. Schopf, State Geo¬ logical Survey, Urbana. A Method for Examination of Coal Dusts, by C. C. Boley, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Value of Micro-Geology in Economic Deposits and Research, by Y. A. Latham, State Microscopical Society of Illinois, Chicago. An Extension of the Driftless Area in Northeast Minnesota, by W. Farrin Hoover, University of Illinois, Urbana. Average attendance at the meetings was thirty-six. Clarence Bonnell, Harrisburg Township High School, Harrisburg, Illi¬ nois, was elected chairman of the 1938 meeting. (Signed) L. E. Workman, Chairman [217] . Geology — 1937 Meeting 219 The Physiography and Surficial Geology of the Carlinville Quadrangle, Illinois* John R, Ball Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois The Carlinville quadrangle is located in southwestern Illinois about 20 miles south of Springfield. It is one of the five quadrangles in this part of the State which have been mapped geologically. It is near the western edge of the Illinois coal field and the Herrin (No. 6) coal which is at depth in the quadrange and crops out in the adjacent quadrangle to the west. (See Fig. 1.) The upland surface is impressively flat and the divides are relatively broad between the stream valleys. The higher elevations of 690 to 700 feet are in the northwest part of the quadrangle, and from that level the till plain descends gradually to altitudes of 620 to 630 feet above sea level west of Carlinville. The streams crossing the quadrangle rise in the Jacksonville moraine, the divide between the Sangamon and Mississippi River basins. The streams have a dendritic drainage pattern but in several areas the valley development is somewhat anomalous to the dendritic plan. Sugar Creek, in Shaw Point township, is in a valley parallel to that of Macoupin Creek but its waters move in a direction opposite to the flow of that stream. Macoupin Creek, where joined by Sugar Creek, is deflected almost at a right angle to its course east of Coops Mound, but regains the line of that course through Carlinville township. Other streams, Hurricane Creek, Richardson Branch, and numerous unnamed tributaries fall into this pseudo-trellis drainage pattern. Cottonwood Creek, east of Sugar Creek, is another small stream whose course is directed against the regional slope of the entire area. It is thought that these anomalies reflect the glacial history of the region. Numerous broad, faintly defined linear depressions, more apparent in the field than on the topographic maps, probably exert some degree of control in the adjustments of the present valley development. And the trellis-like stream pattern, apparent in the Raymond quadrangle, probably is aligned with the movement of outwash from the Jacksonville moraine.* 1 The most commanding of the topographic features of the quadrangle is its impressive flatness. The Jacksonville moraine, crossing the northeast corner of the quadrangle, is low and inconspicuous. The slight elevations on its slopes tend to be elongate in the same alignment as the stream adjustment, previously described. Coops Mound, the most commanding elevation within the quadrangle, rises from 60 to 80 feet above the upland surface. Well weathered gravel in the base of the Mound and its elongate outline support the opinion that it is an esker.2 Brushy Mound, six miles southwest of Coops Mounds, and several isolated hills farther east are elongate in a di¬ rection with the elongation of Coops Mound. Hills farther south in the Mount Olive quadrangle have more of a meridional elongation. * Published with the permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. 1 Ekblaw, George E., personal communication. 2 Leighton, M. M., personal communication. 220 Illmois State Academy of Science Transactions Probably the present drainage is modified to some extent by preglacial topography. The existence of a deep preglacial valley in the southeastern part of the quadrangle has been recognized in earlier investigations.3 Com¬ paratively little erosion of the bedrock has been accomplished recently by the larger streams. It is thought that the lower part of the valley of Macoupin Creek and that much of the valley of Otter Creek lie in valley courses cut by preglacial streams. A test boring in the valley floor of Otter Creek in the NWV4 sec. 8, T. 11 N., R. 7 W., five miles east of Palmyra, penetrated glacial deposits for 106 feet before reaching bedrock. No ex¬ posures of the bedrock in the valley of Otter Creek have been discovered. Four outcrops in two of the tributaries of Otter Creek are known. By infer¬ ence, then, a preglacial valley of considerable inaptitude is followed by Otter Creek. Recent mapping by Mr. Buhle, by electrical resistivity methods, has disclosed the probability that another still larger preglacial valley lies between the valley of Otter Creek and the preglacial drainage lines of the southeastern part of the quadrangle. Investigations by MacClintock, Wanless, Bell and others have disclosed that deposits of the Nebraskan ice sheet and the associated interglacial de¬ posits extend over parts of western Illinois as far south as Winchestei . Mac¬ Clintock has located two instances of Kansan drift in the Carlinville quad¬ rangle.4 Several other localities afford evidence of probable or doubtful pre-Illinoian deposits. The several deposits that indicate probable Kansan or Yarmouth age of material are described in summary as follows: Leached and deeply weathered tills are in and near the city of Carlin¬ ville. The first location is in the clay pit of the Carlinville Tile Company in the southern part of the city. Till, at least seven feet in thickness, leached except in the basal part, is gray, sticky and putty-like when wet, and con¬ tains a few pebbles of both basic and siliceous igneous rocks. The upper slopes are in a slumped condition but much of the till is thoroughly oxidized and there are local patches of leached till which may be representative merely of the soil profile in the Illinoian drift. Two and one-half miles east of Carlinville, in the NW% sec. 36, T. 10 N., R. 7 W., a till of variable thickness, ranging to a maximum of nearly twelve feet rests on the LaSalle limestone and is covered by about seven feet of Illinoian till. The lower till is leached and oxidized in the upper four and one-half feet, is buff to reddish brown and contains pebbles of chert and quartz. This deposit is cited by MacClintock as Kansan drift.5 Another instance of a possible pre-Illinoian deposit is a striated till in the SW1! sec. 14, T. 11 N., R. 8 W., near the Duncan school in South Palmyra township. These were first noted by Dr. Needham in 1929 and the surface thus marked is again above the water of a temporary farm reser¬ voir, but the striae have been obliterated by standing water and the tramp¬ ling of cattle. The striae were on the slightly undulatory surface of a slip- off slope of a small stream, were uniformly spaced and about pencil length. If true striae, they possibly were made by the first Illinoian advance, or may mark a re-advance during that epoch. If a record of ice advance, the move¬ ment was in a direction south 46 degrees west. The remaining instances of probable pre-Illinoian deposits have in com¬ mon humus bands, tills or till-like deposits, silts and fossiliferous horizons, the fossils occurring either in the humus or in the silts. On the basis of fossil determinations, therefore, made by Dr. Frank Baker of the Illinois 3 Warren, W. D. P., Ground water supplies from preglacial valleys ; Municipal and County Engineering, Vol. 62, pp. 184-190, 1922. Tnlir 4 MacClintock, Paul, Correlation of the pre-Illinoian drifts of Illinois, Jour. Geol., Vol. 41, pp. 710-722, 1933. 5 MacClintock, Paul, op. cit ., pp. 713, 714, and 721. Geology — 1937 Meeting 221 Natural History Museum, the age of several of the deposits is regarded as Yarmouth. The Yarmouth humus and associated silts have so many similar features, that, in addition to locations, descriptive comments on all of the occurrences probably will suffice. Three of the localities are in the drainage basin of a single tributary to Otter Creek which extends through sections 9 and 16 of T. 11 N., R. 7 W., South Otter township. All occurrences are fossiliferous, but the humus band STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION A.M SHELTON DIRECTOR ^LOGICAL S-URVEY DIVISION M U LEIGHTON. CHIEF ILLINOIS.. fMACOUFIN COUNTY) .dARUNVlLLE QUADRANGLE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR US GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 1 - . 1# -\/-v 1 fc IM C ARLINVI LLE . ILL Fig. 1 — Topographic Map’of the Carlinville Quadrangle. 222 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions is in only two of them. The remaining location in South Otter township is in the SE1^ sec. 10, T. 11 N., R. 7 W. The other occurrences, here men¬ tioned, are in North Palmyra, Carlinville and Shaw Point townships and with one exception are all fossiliferous. In two of these occurrences a considerable thickness of Illinoian till lies upon the Yarmouth and Kansan deposits. An exposure in the east wall of Sugar Creek, NE*4 sec. 30, T. 10 N., R. 6 W., Shaw Point township ex¬ hibits twenty feet of Illinoian till, associated with sand and silt, overlying the humus band and fossiliferous silt of the Yarmouth. At the base of this exposure is a till, seven feet in thickness, calcareous, and somewhat sandy, which is regarded as Kansan till. In this instance the Yarmouth deposits are about midway in the valley wall, somewhat in contrast to some of the other occurrences. The other example of a thick deposit of Illinoian till resting on the Yarmouth is in South Otter township. The Yarmouth deposit is peat, with about two feet of its total thickness rising ip the valley wall and forming part of the valley floor. The peat has been explored by soil auger to a depth of five feet. On its surface a thin layer of molluscan shells contains a Yarmouth fauna. The Illinoian till, overlying, is about 20 feet thick. Another peat deposit, covered with thin till, is located nearly seven miles farther west in North Palmyra township. The peat here is thinner than in the South Otter township occurrence, is associated with a leached zone of considerable areal extent, but its stratigraphic relationship with the leached horizon is not apparent. Fossils have not been observed. The remaining occurrences where humus bands are present are quite similar. In association with one occurrence in South Otter township, SE1^ sec. 16, T. 11 N., R. 7 W., certain aspects of the outcrop deserve additional mention. This is the other occurrence in the quadrangle cited by Dr. MacClintock.6 The humus zone is present, of greater thickness than in other outcrops, mixed with sand, calcareous, and containing twigs and branches. Its fossils are delicate pelecypod and gastropod shells. The material under the humus, “till-like”7 in appearance, nevertheless presents several con¬ trastive features when compared with characteristic Kansan till. Its somewhat anomalous character has prompted the suggestion that possibly it is but a floodplain deposit of recent alluviation with its soil zone covered by slump material from the valley walls.8 This suggestion is supported by the fact that in local areas active slumping is in progress. Where this slumping is the most pronounced, the local relief is about 70 to 90 feet in contrast with the lesser relief of 20 to 40 feet in the region under discussion. Decided slumping, however, is developed in a region of slight relief near the peat exposures in South Palmyra township where the differences in elevation range from 30 to 50 feet. Even in this vicinity, however, are small inclusions of green silts which are suggestive of lake silts* The interpretations of Dr. Frank Baker in respect to the fauna of this occurrence obviously have a further bearing on the questionable character of the underlying “till”. He has observed that sediments bearing the mol¬ luscan shells “ . appear to have been laid down on a river floodplain, or near some stream of greater or less size.” This biological evidence fits in well with the geological picture of a pre-Illinoian surface of slight relief, 6 MacClintock, Paul, op. cit., pp. 713, 714, and 721. 7 Leighton, M. M., field comments. 8 Ekblaw, George E., personal communication. Leighton, M. M., personal communication. Geology — 1937 Meeting 223 crossed by the floodplains of either preglacial or pre-Illinoian streams and marked further by bodies of standing water as evidenced by the peat de¬ posits. These conditions may have persisted through both Nebraskan and Kansan times, and the floodplain alluvium of these stream valleys may be the “till-like” material in some of the exposures. The tendencies toward the deposition of marls, supported by the presence of molluscan remains, may have been accompanied further by the precipitation of calcium car¬ bonate in the waters of ponds and floodplain depressions. The low-lying character of this area has been persistent enough through the Yarmouth epoch to preclude the development of the well-drained profile of weathering except in this part of the quadrangle. 224 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions A Study of the Stratigraphy and the Preglacial Topography of the DeKalb and Sycamore Quadrangles L. T. Caldwell Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb, Illinois This geologic study of the DeKalb and Sycamore quadrangles includes the collecting, compiling, and interpreting of the data from nine hundred and fifty well log records. These data made possible the constructing of a preglacial topographic map, an areal geologic map and two structural sections Since there are no rock outcrops within the area, the field data were limited to well records. A total of nine hundred and fifty well records were collected, forty-six of that number were furnished by the Illinois State Geological Survey, three hundred and thirty-three were secured from farm owners and the remaining four hundred and twenty-one logs were taken from the records of well drillers. The preglacial topography of the DeKalb and Sycamore quadrangles was governed by two dendritic stream valleys which flowed to the southwest across the area. The Shabbona stream drained the DeKalb quadrangle and the Hinkley stream drained the Sycamore quadrangle. The Shabbona river flowed south out of the DeKalb quadrangle near Shabbona. It possessed a gradient of 3 to 5 feet per mile, and its lowest level was less than 500 feet above sea level. Its channel lay near the pre¬ glacial surface contact of the Galena and the Maquoketa formations. Its drainage divide to the west had summit elevations of 750 feet in the north¬ west part of the quadrangle and 700 feet in the southwest. The Hinkley river was located in the south central part of the Sycamoie quadrangle. This stream had two main branches, one flowing south from the center of the quadrangle and the other flowing southwest along the south edge of the quadrangle. The writer has referred to these two branches in this paper as the Maple Park and Big Rock branches. The gradients of these streams averaged near 5 feet per mile in their lower courses with minimum stream bed elevations of 550 feet for the Maple Park branch and 500 feet for the Big Rock branch. Their drainage divide summit levels varied from more than 800 feet above sea level in the north to 650 feet in the south. In large part, the bedrock relief of these two quadrangles is explained by preglacial stream erosion of rock strata of differing hardness and to a lesser degree by structural features. The existence of the preglacial Rock river near the west edge of this region may have made possible the high gradient streams and the parallel dendritic drainage patterns. The west half of the DeKalb quadrangle has its bedrock surface lying in the upper levels of the Platteville-Galena formation, making possible the flat divides and rather abrupt valley slopes. The lower horizons of the Maquoketa formation dominates the valley slope in the east half of the DeKalb quadrangle. Along the extreme east Geology — 1937 Meeting 225 edge of the quadrangle, the middle horizon of the Maquoketa formation consists largely of dolomite. Its superior hardness helped the valley slope to be steep. The northwest part of the Sycamore quadrangle contained the Niagaran formation which helped hold the softer upper portion of the underlying Maquoketa formation in position. Relatively steep slopes bordered this cap rock. The east half of the Sycamore quadrangle was covered almost entirely with a 25 feet to 30 feet capping of the Niagaran formation. Where the streams had cut through this resistant cover to the south and west, steep valleys were common. One valley south of Maple Park had a width of three miles and a depth of more than 150 feet. By and large, the main aerial extents of the formations were fairly easily determined. Certain localities, however, offered problems. For example: the patches of Maquoketa rock shown west of the Shabbona river and which rests on the Galena dolomite drainage divide, were suggested by well records in sections 20, 21, 4, and 5, Milan township, DeKalb quadrangle. The extent of these patches of Maquoketa were postulated by using known dip values and the bedrock surface contour map. Other problems of a similar nature encountered in the making of the areal map were dealt with in like fashion. The stratigraphy and structure has been determined from a study of approximately 25 deep well records with a fair geographical distribution throughout these two quadrangles. These wells vary in depth from 500 feet to more than 3000 feet. Thickness values for various Cambrian formations occurring here are as follows: Mt. Simon 1380 feet, Eau Claire 420 feet, Dresback 145 feet, Franconia 80 feet, and Trempealeau 551 feet. These Cambrian sediments were practically all sandstone with the exception of the Trempealeau, which was largely a cherty dolomite. The Ordovician sediments include the Prairie du Chien with a thickness varying from 55 feet in the west to 80 feet in the east. An unconformity occurs at the top of this formation. The St. Peter formation varies in thickness from 330 feet at Creston to 80 feet at Elburn. The Glenwood formation is largely a calcareous shale and is found at *the top of the St. Peter. It varies in thickness from 95 feet in the west to 55 feet in the east. The Platteville-Galena formations are consistent in thickness and char¬ acter throughout this area, with an average thickness of 345 feet. In a few places in the east part of the region, the Maquoketa formation is shown with its full thickness of 127 feet. This formation has three lithologic types from bottom to top. The lower 35 feet is a soft black shale interbedded with dolomite, the middle 37 feet is a fairly compact dolomite, while the upper 35 feet is composed of a calcareous shaly dolomite. The Niagaran formation does not occur in its total thickness at any place in the two quadrangles. Two geologic sections have been constructed to show the salient features of structure. The section on line A-B crosses the area on a line through Creston, Malta, DeKalb, Cortland, Maple Park, and Elburn. The section on line C-D crosses the area on a line through DeKalb to one mile east of Waterman. In general, the strata have a dip slope to the southeast. Two horizon markers were employed; namely, the top of the Glenwood and the base of the Maquoketa formations. The average dip of the Glenwood from Malta to Elburn, a distance of about 20 miles, is from 7 feet to 10 feet per mile. In contrast to this value, the average dip from Creston to Malta, a distance of 5 miles, is nearly 60 feet per mile. From the northwest corner of the region to the southeast corner, the change in stratigraphic levels amounts to 560 feet in a distance of 40 miles. 226 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The Recent Impetus to Oil Prospecting in Illinois* George V. Cohee Illinois State Geological Survey , Urbana, Illinois The present “oil boom” in Illinois started with the extensive leasing program in Marion and Clay counties by the Carter Oil Company during the latter part of 1935 and the early part of 1936. In a short time many com¬ panies and individuals were taking leases in the Illinois Basin. Land was leased in large blocks for as little as 10 cents a year per acre for a period of t6n In* many areas leasing proceeded rapidly and without any attempt to secure geologic information. The major companies were more fortunate in that they were able to finance the operation of seismograph parties which could provide geophysical information hearing upon oil possibilities These geophysical methods are especially necessary m examination of the Illinois basin as so much of the subsurface formation there is completely hidden by a thick cover of glacial drift. Even where bedrock is exposed by stream erosion, the formations usually consist of sandstones and shales which are very difficult to place in their correct stratigraphic Positiom And in the deeper part of the basin there has not been enough drilling to yield detailed subsurface information. Although the seismograph in many areas has given very satisfactory results in geophysical prospecting for structures favorable to accumulation of oil, and much can be said in favor of the results obtained by the torsion balance, magnetometer, and electrical resistivity in particular kinds < rf ex¬ ploration, still, geophysical surveys are only preliminary steps m the sea for oil: after favorable structures have been located, drilling is necessary to determine whether or not oil is actually present. . , t Two methods used in seismographing, this indirect but very important means for locating oil, are those of refraction and of reflection. The refraction method which was used in the Gulf Coast region until 1930 for the detection of salt domes, consists of setting off a charge of dyna¬ mite with detectors arranged in a circle around the shot point The radius of the circle is from 5 to 7 miles. As much as 500 pounds of dynamite is used for one shot. Velocities of the waves through the rock layers from the shot point to the detectors are computed. Extremely high velocities be¬ tween these points indicate the presence of high velocity beds or salt domes between the shot point and the detector. .. T, . t nf The reflection seismograph method is used in Illinois. It cons . setting oft a charge of explosives at a certain point and having detectors called geophones placed at an accurately measured distance away from th shot to receive the ground vibrations. This distance is usually m the neighborhood of one quarter of a mile. When the detectors are jarred by the ground vibrations they generate an electric current which is in piopoi tionSto the ground vibration. This voltage is stepped up by the vacuum . Published with the permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. Geology — 1937 Meeting 227 Fig. 1. This diagram shows field procedure in reflection mapping. The surveying crew determines the position and surface elevation of points where holes are to be drilled by the drilling crew. Soon after the shot holes are drilled, the dynamite charges of from 1 to 6 pounds each are set off and the recordings are made. The diagram shows the path of the vibrations from the shot to the reflecting limestone layer and to the geophones. (Published in ‘ Seismic Prospecting in Exploration for Oil” (1) by courtesy of the Askama Corporation.) ■7 228 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions tube amplifiers. After sufficient amplification, the electric current goes to the oscillograph. In one type of oscillograph the vibrating element is a loop of fine metal ribbon in a magnetic field. The loop tries to rotate when the current is introduced in the magnet. At the center of the loop a tiny mirror is fastened upon which a strong beam of light is focused. This beam is then reflected upon a moving sheet of photographic paper and records all move¬ ments of the mirror as a fine black line when the paper is developed. When the explosive is set off vibrations travel outward in all directions. Upon reaching thick rock layers, such as the lower Mississippian limestone, vibrations of less intensity are reflected to the surface. The distance between the shot point and the detectors is known, the velocity of the vibrations through the layers of rock down to the reflecting layer is known, the time elapsed between the shot and the reception of the vibration is recorded on the photographic film. With these values the depth to the reflecting layer can be calculated. The depths to certain key horizons in the area covered by the seismograph survey are plotted on a map and the subsurface contours are drawn. When the map is completed favorable structures for the accumula¬ tion of oil such as domes, anticlines, monoclines, and fault zones are outlined if present in the area. Figure 1 shows the operation of the seismograph. At the present time, April, 1937, there are 13 parties in the State. Two parties are operating in southwestern Indiana. The estimated cost of operating a party for one month is from 6 to 8 thousand dollars. The party includes surveying, drilling, shooting, and recording crews and totals twelve to fourteen men. To date there have been four new oil fields discovered in Illinois: Bartelso, May 1936; Patoka, January 1937; Clay City, February 1937; Cisne, March 1937. The Patoka, Clay City, and Cisne fields were discovered on structures outlined by the seismograph. The Bartelso structure was de¬ scribed and recommended in Bulletin 20A published in 1912 by the Illinois State Geological Survey. The Patoka structure was shown as a high on coal No. 6 in State Geological Survey Bulletin 16, published in 1910. The recent discoveries have caused extensive exploration activities in southern Illinois. A map showing the area of best oil and gas possibilities in Illinois was drawn by Dr. A. H. Bell, Head of the Oil and Gas Division of the State Geological Survey, and exhibited by the Western Society of Engineers in Chicago, September 1930. The Illinois basin was then considered to be the most favorable area and is now the center of the recent oil “boom.” The new fields indicate that on similar structures throughout the basin, production is likely to be obtained. Much leasing and exchange of royalties have taken place where the recent “finds” have been made. It has been re¬ ported that as much as five hundred dollars an acre has been paid land- owners for one-half of their royalty which is one-eighth of the production. Oil companies and individuals who formerly were not attracted by the “play” are now taking leases and becoming interested in the possibilities of the Illinois basin. It is anticipated that this year will mark the most wide¬ spread drilling program Illinois has ever experienced. The writer is grateful to Dr. A. H. Bell, of the Illinois State Geological Survey, for helpful suggestions and criticisms of this paper. REFERENCES (1) Gabriel, V. Gavrilovich — Seismic Prospecting in Exploration for Oil. Louisi¬ ana Conservation Review, Vol. 5, No. 4 (1937), pp. 4-8. (2) Eby J. Brian — Geophysics — Its application to petroleum production. The Petroleum Engineer, Vol. 8, No. 5 (1937), pp. 113-134. (3) McKinney, E. G. — Seismographing for oil. The Times Journal Publishing Company, Oklahoma City (1935). Geology — 1937 Meeting 229 Engineering Aspects of the Geology of the Vienna City Reservoir* George E. Ekblaw State Geological Survey, Vrloana, Illinois During the latter part of 1936 the city of Vienna, in the southern part of Illinois, undertook to construct a dam to impound water for a municipal water supply. The dam obstructs the valley of McCorkle Creek, a tributary of Little Cache Creek, in the SE % NE % sec. 3, T. 13 S., R. 3 E., just north of State Highway No. 146, about two miles east of Vienna. Examina¬ tions of the geologic situation at the damsite were made during early phases of construction. The valley of McCorkle Creek is relatively long and narrow. At the damsite the northwest wall of the valley is nearly vertical for about 30 feet, the stream channel is narrow, and the southeast wall of the valley is a gentle slope. Farther upstream the stream channel is less prominent and both valley-walls are moderate slopes. The Menard, Waltersburg, Vienna, and Tar Springs formations of the Chester (Upper Mississippian) series comprise the bedrock in the vicinity of the damsite and are covered generally by a mantle of loess so thin that outcrops are numerous. Dark-colored limestone of variable texture and containing some chert, comprising the middle member of the Vienna forma¬ tion, forms the northwest wall of the valley at the damsite but farther upstream it lies in the bed of the stream and extends across to the southeast wall of the valley. Excavation for the northwest end of the dam exposed beneath the limestone about 4 feet of dense, sticky, plastic, gray, clayey shale (the lower member of the Vienna formation) with a layer of coal or coaly material 0-1 foot thick about a foot below the top. The lower part of this shale member, with another coaly streak near the base, is exposed along the upper part of the banks of gullies on the southeast valley slope. Along the northwest slope of the valley the limestone grades up through silty limestone with shaly structure, constituting the upper member of the Vienna formation, then through shaly sandstone into firm, thin-bedded sandstone several feet thick — the Waltersburg formation — overlain by the Menard limestone. The massive, well-bedded Tar Springs sandstone under¬ lying the Vienna formation is exposed in all the gullies along the southeast slope of the valley. Not far below the damsite the valley changes in character in that it is filled with slack-water deposits several feet thick which effectively conceal the bedrock, and the slopes are consequently modified so that the loessial mantle also becomes an effective cover for the bedrock. All of the formations dip or slope northwesterly at an appreciable angle that is roughly represented by the southeast slope of the creek valley. The course of the creek was determined and the development of its valley has been controlled by the character and structure of the bedrock forma¬ tions. Undoubtedly it originally started in the soft lower shale of the ♦Published with permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. 230 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Vienna formation which is less resistant than any of the subjacent or super¬ jacent strata. As the stream normally cut down, it encountered the more resistant Tar Springs sandstone beneath the shale, and being able to erode the less resistant shale more rapidly than the sandstone, the stream migrated northwestward down the slope of the rocks, gradually deepening as well as widening its valley but being constantly “bottomed” by the sandstone. As it eroded the shale laterally it undercut the overlying limestone, of which blocks broke away, gradually slipped down into the stream bed, and there were eventually worn away by the stream. The softer silty limestone and Fig. 1 _ Part of Vienna quadrangle topographic map, showing location of dam for Vienna city reservoir, the limits of the contributing watershed, and areal dis¬ tribution of bedrock at damsite. M — Menard limestone, W = Waltersburg sandstone, V = Vienna limestone and shales, TS = Tar Springs sandstone. sandstone above the Vienna limestone weathered back more rapidly than the limestone, creating a gently sloping shelf that extends back to the massive Menard limestone, which in turn forms a relatively steep slope that rises to the top of the valley and which is spotted with sinkholes created by subsurface solution of the limestone. In extending itself headward the creek happened to cross the limestone bed before it had deepened itself in the lower shale, so that in its upper course it follows the upper silty shale of the Vienna formation, also relatively less resistant, and at the present time this crossing of the limestone bed occurs where an east-west road crosses the valley a short distance above the damsite. As the stream migrated down the slope, it had a rubbly bottom Geology — 1937 Meeting 231 which was abandoned as the stream migrated, leaving a layer of rubble over the sandstone bottom. Tributary gullies crossing to the stream bear addi¬ tional rubble. The abandoned rubble was then covered by loessial silt, either as deposited directly by the wind or as washed down from higher positions. The geological examinations were made in the first instance to ascertain whether or not the rocks were of such character that appreciable leakage from the reservoir might be expected and if so, what might be done about it. Based on the available data and consequent interpretations, it was con¬ cluded that the bedrock would not offer any such hazard. It was found that some of the Vienna limestone along the northwest wall had become disjointed in blocks that were somewhat separated from the main mass and that there were some solution channels in it, but these all seemed effectively filled with clay, and whatever possible minor hazard they might offer could be easily removed by reasonable precaution in construction, such as remov¬ ing all loose blocks, flushing out soft fillings, and grouting. However, it was pointed out that a real problem existed in the probable presence of rubble in the bottom of the valley, as large amounts of water could seep through it under a dam built only on top of the surficial loessiai silt and might eventually undermine and so destroy the dam. Consequently, it was recommended that consideration be given to extending at least a core¬ wall through the rubble down to bedrock. A channel excavated across the valley as one of the early stages of construction in line with the above recommendation confirmed its value, as there was exposed rubble through which flowed an amount of water sufficient that the question as to whether it might serve as an adequate supply was raised. This question was, of course, answered negatively, in view of the limited amount of rubble that existed above the damsite and could serve as a subsurface reservoir. 232 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Exhumed Ordovician Hill Near Joliet1 D. Jerome Fisher University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois If the bedrock map of the Joliet-Wilmington area2 be examined, it is seen that the eastward-dipping Richmond strata crop out in a belt about 5 miles wide extending along the east flank of the LaSalle anticline from the north-northwest to the head of the Illinois River. With the exception noted below the belt here ends abruptly" due to overlap by Pennsylvanian strata. Presumably a pre-Pennsylvanian bedrock surface map4 * would show this belt extending about due south from here to the SE. Livingston-NW. Ford County boundary.3 The exception referred to above is the narrow belt of Richmond strata outcropping in the Kankakee valley (and tributaries Forked and Horse Creeks) from Warner Bridge at the Will-Kankakee County boundary® to a point two or three miles below Wilmington. The bedrock surface contour map6 makes it reasonably certain that this patch of Rich¬ mond owes its appearance to a trough-like low altitude belt and is of no structural significance.7 Quite different is the explanation for the crescentic-outlined mass of Richmond strata projecting northeast from the main belt from near Chan- nahon towards Joliet. The southwest prong and the north flank of this Richmond crescent owe their existence to a strip having a low altitude of bedrock surface, but just west of the center of the northeast prong Richmond limestone reaches an altitude of above 580 feet in the northern part of Channahon Mound (center sec. 3, T. 34 N., R. 9 E.) while the altitude of the water surface in the DesPlaines River one mile east of here is but 505 feet. In short, this part of the area is an exhumed Richmond hill. It is sur¬ rounded on three sides by Silurian beds at lower altitudes. The southwest boundary is at least in part a fault contact with dips up to 25° on the down¬ throw (southwest) side in basal Edgewood strata. In fact, the drop-off on this side is so fast that a half mile west of Millsdale is found an outlier of Waukesha8 dolomite, miles west of the main belt of strata of this age. More interesting however is the Ordovician-Silurian contact on the opposite (Joliet) side of this old hill. Fig. 1 is a view looking north in the Santa Fe R. R. cut near the middle of the west side of the SE. *4 SE. XA, sec. 35, T. 35 N., R. 9 E., on the southeast side of the DesPlaines River. It shows a bank about 8 feet high with southwest to the left, northeast to the right. The pronounced line indicated by arrows dipping down gently to the right running through the center of the figure is the Richmond-Edgewood contact, which here seems to be nearly a plane surface dipping 10 to N. 75° E. The bedding of the Silurian (lower Edgewood) shaly dolomite is 1 Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. 2 Illinois State Geol. Survey, Bull. 51, p. 22 1925. - 1Qo9 2 Contrary to the Geologic Map of the United States, U. S. Geol. Survey, 193^. 4 Compare A. I. Levorsen in Bull. Amer. Assn. Petr. Geol., 15 (2), PI. I, 1931. 6 Athy L. F., Herscher Quadrangle. Ill. State Geol. Survey, Bull. 55, 1928. 6 Fisher, D. Jerome, Wilmington Quadrangle. Ill. State Geol. Survey Ms. 7 Compare map by D. Jerome Fisher in Bull. 55, p. 77. n , cj.irvpv 8 Age determination by L. E. Workman of the Illinois State Geol. Suivey based on the study of insoluble residues. Geology — 1937 Meeting 233 parallel this contact. Below this angular unconformity the Ordovician (upper Richmond) shale carrying 2-inch argillaceous dolomite layers spaced 8 to 12 inches apart dips in about the same direction at an approximate 5° angle.9 Because the two sets of strata appear to have approximately the same strike, it is possible to assume that but one epoch of diastrophism is repre¬ sented by considering that the basal Edgewood beds were laid down on a gently sloping (5°) hill surface of horizontal Richmond strata with a 5° Fig. 1. — Looking north at the Ordovician-Silurian contact, four miles southwest of Joliet. depositional dip and that later (Permo-Carboniferous?) all were tilted10 an additional 5° to give the present attitudes. If in the future more detailed field work with better exposures shows that the strike of the two sets of beds is not the same, then it will be necessary to assume either two epochs of diastrophism or else that the Richmond shales were not horizontal as originally deposited here. The writer has observed upper Ordovician and lower Silurian strata in northeastern and north- and south-western Illinois and adjacent areas over a period of nearly 20 years and has never before found what may be called an unequivocal surface of contact where argillaceous Edgewood beds rest on 9 The plane of the section strikes N. 52° E. and the dip of the contact line in this plane is just over 9°. Laying a protractor on Fig. 1 so that the line marking the contact plane reads 9°, the dip of the Richmond appears to be but 2°. This effect is due to foreshortening since the camera was not pointed perpendicular to the plane of the section. 10 Walking 750 feet northeast along the tracks one crosses the trough of a syncline and the crest of an anticline, so that the “tilting” concept applies only to a very limited area as shown in Fig. 1. 234 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Richmond shale carrying dolomite layers. Not only does this exposure establish the lithological differences marking that contact in northeastern Illinois, but it may be extending into the other areas mentioned, because associated with this contact is a phosphate-nodule-bearing horizon. This horizon, which is very widespread, marks the uppermost Richmond beds remaining in any area, but does not mark a stratigraphic horizon. Lenses of this nodule-rock occur stratigraphically both above and below the upper¬ most Richmond dolomite layer shown in Fig. 1 in the left and central por¬ tions respectively. At different places these nodules are found in shale, in siltstone, or in limestone, but they have never been noted except at the top of the Richmond. They are considered to be of residual origin, similar to that of many of the well-known phosphate deposits of the southeastern part of the United States. The conclusions reached in the present paper are to be regarded as pre¬ liminary and tentative and are subject to modification in connection with further detailed studies now in progress. Geology — 1937 Meeting 235 Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Central Colorado: Their Correlation by Means of Heavy Mineral Analyses Richard H. Jahns Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois That part of the Front Range which forms the eastern margin of South Park, Colorado, is composed of three distinct rock types, all of pre-Cambrian age. The oldest of these, the Idaho Springs formation, is a series of highly metamorphosed sediments, and is intruded by granites of the Pikes Peak and of the younger Silver Plume batholiths. Because of difficulties in dis¬ tinguishing certain facies of the granites by the ordinary field and petro¬ graphic methods, an attempt has been made to find in their heavy mineral suites any peculiarities or outstanding features which might aid definite identification. The correlations of these Front Range intrusives with similar rocks in the Sawatch Range to the west, as studied by Stark and Barnes,1 were also tested by the same method. Study of twenty-two widely spaced samples has shown that both batho¬ liths bear essentially the same heavy minerals. Moreover, this similarity extends to individual peculiarities in the minerals, as, for example, the anomalous optic properties of the titanite and apatite in both rock types. Careful evaluation of the significance of each mineral encountered has focused attention on three “primary” species, apatite, zircon, and titanite. Each is an early crystallizing mineral, presumably unaffected by assimilated crustal material or by pneumatolytic action, and there most accurately repre¬ sents the batholithic magma at its time of emplacement. The frequency dis¬ tribution of two of these diagnostic minerals, zircon and titanite, presents a striking contrast between the Pikes Peak and Silver Plume granites. Titan¬ ite is relatively abundant in the former, zircon in the latter. Not only do these contrasting distributions appear consistent in all samples studied, but they are also characteristic of the similar rock types in the Sawatch Range. Although the detailed data necessary for definite conclusions are thus far lacking, it is suggested that quantitative studies of primary heavy mineral assemblages are of great value in the identification or correlation of out¬ crops of the Pikes Peak and Silver Plume granites in central Colorado, par¬ ticularly in those exposures near the contacts of the two batholiths. 1 Stark, J. T., and Barnes, F. F., The correlation of pre-Cambrian granites by means of heavy mineral analyses: Geol. Mag., vol. 72, pp. 341-350, 1935. 236 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Identification Key for Illinois Plant Fossils A. C. Noe University of Chicago and the Illinois State Geological Survey R. E. Janssen University of Chicago A comprehensive treatment of this subject by the same authors will appear soon in a Bulletin on “The Fossil Floras of Galesburg and Col¬ chester”, to be published by the Illinois State Geological Survey. Keys are in general use for the identification of living plants, and can be profitably applied to fossil plants although the latter lack some nonpreservable char¬ acters such as color and odor. A key of this kind would be very helpful for the classification of plant forms occurring throughout the Central In¬ terior Coal Field, and also would be useful in other Middle Pennsylvanian localities of the United States. The key consists of six principle divisions corresponding, in general, to the several plant orders represented in the Middle Pennsylvanian of Illinois, and a separate division for the generic form names of gymnospermous seeds. These primary divisions are: 1. Equisetales 2. Sphenophyllales 3. Lycopodiales 4. Filicales & Cycadofilicales 5. Cordaitales 6. Gymnospermous seeds Each of these divisions is subdivided numerous times upon the basis of observable characteristics in fossilized specimens. In general, the steps proceed progressively through the families and genera to the species. The key is based upon the most striking similarities and differences which are apparent in the fossils. It consists of a series of alternatives, and proceeds by an orderly process of elimination. The unknown specimen to be identified is compared with these contrasting descriptions, and is found to fit into one of several possible alternatives. When it is pigeon-holed in the first category, another series of alternatives presents itself. In this way the specimen can be traced down through various steps to its own correct species. The key has for its main purpose the guidance of the user through preliminary steps leading to a definite identification of any particular specimen. A small portion of the key, pertaining to the orders Equisetales and Sphenophyllales, has been adapted from W. J. Jongmans’ work on these two orders in Europe. Appropriate changes have been made to conform to the present purpose. E. Weiss has divided the Calamites into three principal subgenera, based on differences in occurrence of branch-bearing nodes along the main stem. For these he proposed the names Calamitina, Eucalamites, and Stylocalamites. These divisions have been recognized by Jongmans, and have been retained as a primary basis of classification in the present key. Geology — 1937 Meeting 237 However, the customary use of the generic name, Calamites, is retained in all cases when used in conjunction with the species names. The order Lycopodiales is represented in the Middle Pennsylvanian of Illinois largely by impressions of the outer bark of the stems and roots, although leaves and seed-cones are also found. Before their true nature was known, imperfectly preserved stems which had reached various stages of decortication prior to fossilization were placed in separate genera. Four principal stages of decortication, in addition to the outer bark, have been given generic status in the literature dealing with Lepidodendroid forms. However, many transitions may be found between these stages. Since they are of very little botanical or geological value, it is impractical to devise a complex key to cover them. The stages which have been given generic status are listed in the key, and are as follows: 1. Lepidodendron — the epidermis or outer bark. 2. Aspidiaria — the outer cortex. 3. Bergeria — the middle cortex. 4. Knorria — the inner cortex. 5. Aspidiopsis — the surface of the interior cavity of the trunk. The similarity of fern-like foliage borne by members of the orders Filicales and Cycadofilicales makes their separation difficult. They are properly differentiated on the basis of fructification and stem anatomy. However, the super-abundant occurrence of sterile and detached leaflets in the coal measures requires the classification of most of these forms solely on characteristics of leaf appearance. Insofar as the use of the key is concerned, no division into the two orders is necessary, and they are con¬ sidered as a single unit. The generic names used in the key are based on leaf form except in instances where the fructification of a particular form has been definitely established. With one exception, all of the plant forms included in the key occur in Illinois. This exception is in the portion of the key devoted to the Alethopterideae, and covers the genera Pecopteridium and Lonchopteris. These genera, which are characterized by reticulate, or net-like, veination in the leaves, have been found in the Carboniferous of Europe. Specimens have also been found there in which the reticulate veination is seen to grade into a non-reticulate veination. Inasmuch as the situation in Europe suggests the possibility that forms of this nature might sometime be found here, a section covering them has been included in the key. In addition to the great numbers of leaf, stem, and root impressions found in Illinois, there are also many gymnospermous seeds. They usually occur as detached casts in the shales, and belong to either the Cycadofilicales or the Cordaitales. Only in extremely rare instances are seeds found attached to the parent stems. Fossilization which has preserved internal structure, as in the case of coal balls, has provided a basis for biological classification of many of these forms. But detached casts must necessarily be classified on the basis of external appearance, and the key has been devised for use under such circumstances. 238 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Geology and Groundwater Resources of the Bedrock at Rockford* J. Norman Payne State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois The bedrock formations of the Rockford area range in age from pre- Cambrian crystallines to the Galena dolomite of Mohawkian age. The stratigraphic sequence of the area is shown in Plate I. Several wells in northern Illinois have penetrated the pre-Cambrian and have shown it to be red granite. The same material probably composes the pre-Cambrian of the Rockford area. Cambrian System The rocks of the Cambrian system are all of St. Croixan or upper Cam¬ brian age. The Cambrian formations named in order from bottom to top are, the Dresbach formation consisting of the Mt. Simon, Eau Claire and Galesville members, the Franconia formation, and the Trempealeau dolomite. Dresbach formation: Mt. Simon sandstone member. The Mt. Simon member consists, for the most part, of sandstone, probably arkosic at the base. The sand is usually poorly sorted, ranging from very fine to very coarse, locally becoming conglomeratic. There is a wide variation in color of the sandstone ranging through white, gray, buff, yellow, pink, red, and purple. In the upper part of the formation are erratic lenses of sandy, partly dolomitic, red and green shales. Locally there are lenses of pink, purple and yellow, granular conglomerate, generally appearing at a horizon 300 to 400 feet below the top of the member. The thickness of the member is estimated at 1,600 feet. Eau Claire member: The base of the Eau Claire member is marked by a distinctive horizon of sooty-appearing sandstone, the individual grains be¬ ing covered by a black incrustration of finely divided pyrite. It has been suggested that this finely divided pyrite is an indication of the presence of organisms, and the fact that fragments of trilobites and lingulas are found in this zone in some areas substantiates this belief. This zone is generally 10 to 20 feet thick. From the sooty zone upward for about 300 feet, the member consists of a rather monotonous succession of white to buff, fine to medium grained sandstones with erratic dolomitic zones and dolomite lenses. The upper hundred feet of the Eau Claire consists of sandy and silty, dolo¬ mitic, red and green shales interbedded with fine, dolomitic sandstones and sandy, argillaceous dolomite. The aggregate thickness of the member varies from 395 to 420 feet. Galesville member: The Galesville sandstone member ranges in thick¬ ness from 95 to 120 feet within local limits. The formation is thickest in this area in a zone trending northeast-southwest through the central part of the city. Southeastward and northwestward the formation thins slightly. The sandstone is white to buff, fine to coarse sand with scattered dolomitic areas, which may become sandy dolomites in some localities, especially in the upper 20 feet of the member. * Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. Geology — 1937 Meeting 239 Plate I. 240 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Franconia formation: The Franconia is rather consistently 125 feet in thickness. The formation is composed of sandstone which is fine grained, glauconitic, dolomitic, white, pink, and red. It contains interbedded sandy, glauconitic, red and green shales and siltstones. At the base of the forma¬ tion is the Ironton sandstone member which is a coarse dolomitic, glaucon¬ itic, white to red sandstone, having been formed by sorting and redeposition of the Galesville sandstone by the encroaching Franconia sea. The upper 10 to 20 feet of the formation is a very sandy, pink, fine grained, compact dolomite very similar in appearance to the overlying Trempealeau formation. The upper contact of the Franconia is difficult to determine, for the Fran¬ conia seems to grade into the Trempealeau, but the boundary is generally placed where very sandy dolomite gives place to dolomite which is less sandy. Trempealeau dolomite: The Trempealeau formation consists of argill¬ aceous, partly sandy, partly glauconitic, pink and white finely crystalline dolomite. The formation varies widely in thickness, from 25 to 120 feet, due to the pre-St. Peter unconformity. The formation is thinnest in a belt about three-fourths to one mile wide, running northeast-southwest just east of Rock River. To either side of this belt the formation thickens rapidly to a maximum of 120 feet in the west central part of Rockford. This suggests a pre-St. Peter channel about 100 feet deep. Ordovician System Although the Jordan sandstone of Cambrian age and the overlying Oneota of the Prairie du Chien series were probably deposited over the area they were removed by a period of profound erosion which preceded the deposition of the St. Peter sandstone. The Ordovician formations named in order from bottom to top are the St. Peter sandstone, the Glenwood formation, the Platteville dolomite, the Decorah formation, and the Galena dolomite. Chazyan Series St. Peter sandstone: The basal 30 to 50 feet of the St. Peter is a con¬ glomerate composed of pink and white colitic chert and sand and red to brown clay. The chert and clay, and probably some of the sand, were derived from erosion of the pre-St. Peter formation in the area. Partings of red shale are frequently found in the sandstone in this zone. Succeeding this conglomerate is the typical white to pink, fine to coarse grained sand¬ stone of the St. Peter. The thickness of the St. Peter varies considerably in short distances from 180 to 300 feet. As might be expected, the formation is thickest in the same belt in which the Trempealeau is thinnest, that is, in a northeast- southwest belt extending from section 18, T. 44 N., R. 2 E., southwestward through sections 13, 24, 25, 35, and 36, T. 44 N., R. 1 E. Northwest of this belt there is a thinning of the St. Peter until the western part of Rockford is reached, where a single well record suggests that the formation is again thicker. A very minor part of the variation in thickness is to be attributed to pre-Pleistocene erosion which in places removed the overlying formations and cut into the St. Peter. Mohawkian Series Glenwood formations The Mohawkian epoch opened in this area with the deposition of the dolomitic, white, fine and coarse sandstone, sandy, brown and green shale, and sandy, argillaceous, green, rather earthy dolo¬ mite of the Glenwood formation. The sandstone occurs in the basal 10 to 15 Geology — 1937 Meeting 241 feet of the formation and probably represents the reworking of the St. Peter so that the coarse grains of the sandstone are well rounded and frosted. The angular fine grains may have come from a source other than the St. Peter, as there is a very decided break in grade size between the fine and coarse grains. The shale occurs interbedded with the dolomite, or underlying it, and varies in thickness from 0 to 10 feet. The dolomite is found in the upper 10 feet of the formation, ranging in thickness from 0 to 30 feet. The formation varies greatly in character laterally, consequently in some wells the formation is composed entirely of dolomite, while in others there is little or no dolomite. The composite thickness of the forma¬ tion is consistently near 30 feet. Galena- Plattevi lie formation: The thickness of the Platteville formation varies from 0 to 145 feet due to the uneven bedrock surface in the area. The formation is entirely lacking along the Rock River channel and attains its maximum thickness to the east in the vicinity of Mauh-Nah-Tee-See Country Club. At the base of the Platteville a sandy, buff, gray and brown, finely crystalline dolomite occurs, ranging in thickness from 0 to 30 feet. This lower dolomite contrasts with the underlying Glenwood dolomite in not being argillaceous and having finely crystalline texture. Above this basal portion, the formation is composed of buff, brown and gray, finely crystalline dolomite. The upper contact of the Platteville is drawn where the very finely crystalline, compact dolomite gives place to coarser vesicular dolomite. Although the Decorah is probably present in many wells in the vicinity of Rockford, it has not yet been distinguished in well cuttings. The Galena formation is composed entirely of yellow to buff and brownish-gray, partly cherty, medium crystalline, vesicular dolomite. The thickness of the formation varies considerably, being absent over large parts of the area but attaining a thickness of over 100 feet in some portions. Structure The geologic structure at Rockford is very simple. Extending from section 18, T. 44 N., R. 2 E., southwestward through sections 13, 24, 25, and 35, T. 44 N., R. 1 E., there is a shallow basin about one mile wide and of a differential elevation not exceeding 80 feet. The basin is fairly sym¬ metrical. It is bounded on the west by a slight dome and there is some indication of a similar doming to the east of the basin. Due to the lack of data, the northern and southern limits of the structure cannot be defined. The time of folding can be fixed no closer than of post-Galena pre-Pleis- tocene age. Sources of Ground Water Supplies Large volumes of water are obtainable from the St. Peter, Galesville, and Mt. Simon sandstones. The city wells of Rockford obtain their supplies from all three horizons, as do many of the industrial wells. Formerly the city supply was obtained from the St. Peter sandstone, but the St. Peter wells were abandoned in favor of the deeper wells. The yield of 10 to 12-inch wells into these three formations varies from 600 to 1,400 gallons per minute. Numerous private wells obtain water only from the St. Peter sandstone and a few from the Platteville dolomite. 242 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Preliminary Study of Lake Michigan Sediments At Evanston, Illinois Jean P. Todd Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois The phrase “microscopic reconnaissance” might be coined as one fitting the present study of the bottom deposits of Lake Michigan. For it was con¬ ducted on the generalized basis of a preliminary survey and was yet limited to an area of only one-quarter square mile. This area extended in one dimension the length of the Northwestern University campus beach, slightly more than half a mile; in the other dimension it extended half a mile out from shore. Forty stations were located by means of buoys. This was found to be the most practical method of obtaining successive samples from the same location, and such samples were required in order to make a study of the shift of sediment or change in profile during the period of investigation. The buoys were arranged to give four sampling courses of ten stations each, trending normal to the shoreline. On these courses 214 soundings were taken during a two-week period in August. Fifteen more were taken after a lapse of four weeks. Accompanying the last 134 sound¬ ings, bottom samples were collected with a modified clamshell snapper form of sampler. The position of the buoys was repeatedly checked with an alidade during this time and no shift in position was observed. This indicates that there were at least no bottom currents of strength sufficient to move the sixty- pound weights used as anchors for the buoys. The data from the soundings were plotted as a series of profiles. These in only one or two instances showed variation of more than two inches, which is within the probable error of reading the sounding line. This was over the period of six weeks, during which time several storms occurred. Thus the bottom does not seem to be subject to either active erosion or active deposition. These profiles show a relatively steep slope of the lake bottom in the first 200 feet off shore. The bottom of greater depths is of extreme flatness and gentle slope. The line of the north course is notably deeper than the three to the south, however, giving the deepest recorded sounding of twenty-two feet at its outer end. Two distinct types of sediment were brought up from the bottom: one a fine grained sand, the other a pebble-clay complex. These are not scat¬ tered promiscuously but follow a definite pattern. The gravel and clay lie in a belt roughly parallel to the shore and at the base of the relatively steep off-shore slope, and in a second zone, normal to the shore, along the line of the deeper north course. This second zone is thus again at the base of a slope or perhaps a trough, as the slope of the bottom on to the north is unknown. This correlation of topography and type of sediment corre¬ sponds with the results of the previous, more extensive survey of the bottom deposits of Lake Michigan made by Hough.1 He also noted the presence of 1 Hough, J. L., The bottom deposits of Southern Lake Michigan: Jour. Sed. Petrology, Vol. 5, pp. 57-80, 1935. Geology — 1937 Meeting 243 similar clay-pebble material in depressions. It is believed that these areas represent exposures of glacial till, in places overlain by lag concentrates of the coarser constituents of the till. Mechanical analyses were made of the 103 sand samples. The measure¬ ment of the fractions separated by sieving were made volumetrically. The accuracy of this method was compared with gravimetric measurement. It was found to be fully as great in sands of the particular size frequency distribution as those studied. Because of the rapidity of the method it is thought to be a valuable laboratory technique. The median diameter was determined from the cumulative curve and the quartile coefficients of sorting and skewness were computed according to the formulae of Trask.2 The median ranges from .091 to .125 millimeters if 7 of the 103 analyses be excluded. These 7 range on up to .45 mm., but are in each case specimens adjacent to the till areas and are thought to be transitional to the average type of sand. This therefore places the sands all within Wentworth’s grade size of “very fine sand.” Sorting ranges from 1.13 to 1.37, again 7 samples being excluded, 6 of the 7 being transitional to the clay-pebble deposits. This denotes an excep¬ tionally well sorted sediment, as Trask’s lower limit of sorting was placed at 1.26. Skewness ranges from 1.69 to .97, excepting 9 specimens separated from the others by distinct gaps in value. Seventy per cent of the samples fall between 1.01 and .99. As unity denotes perfect symmetry about the mode it is evident that the skewness of the Lake Michigan sands is not great. The median, sorting and skewness show no variation between specimens taken before and after a storm, nor any systematic variation either later¬ ally or with increase in depth. The coefficients are, however, somewhat in error because of the lack of a 150 mesh sieve in the Tyler series used in the analyses. The geometric progression was thus broken at the critical point in the size distribution where over 50 per cent of the sand is con¬ centrated. Hence the slopes of the cumulative curves, in their steepest portion, are not accurately defined. The data read from these curves is thereby in error. A set of histograms drawn for the samples of any one course shows a consistent increase of fine material with increase in depth. This is a result to be expected if currents gradually diminish in transporting power with distance from shore. A less well defined, yet consistent increase in per¬ centage of fine material is noted laterally from north to south. This may indicate that the zone of clay and pebbles on the north course is an area of scour by long-shore currents from the north which diminish in transport¬ ing power with distance from this zone and hence deposit increasing amounts of fine material. Prom fifteen heavy mineral separations made on material from the southern two courses a notable concentration of heavy minerals was found to occur at points one-quarter mile from shore on both courses. On one course this concentration correlates with an increase in coarseness of the sand. This is not the case on the other course. There is, however, enough evidence to suggest that at this distance from shore some change in wave action occurs. The nature of the change is unknown, but remains a problem inviting further investigation. The fauna, consisting mainly of gastropods and plecypods has been kept separately by sample. It has not as yet been identified, but there are sug- 2 Trask, P. D., Origin and Environment of Source Sediments of Petroleum, pp. 67-76, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Texas, 1932. 244 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions gestions of variation in relative abundance as well as of species with varia¬ tion in depth and type of bottom. One such correlation has been established. The largest of the gastropods, Goniobasis liviscens cf. Michiganensis F. C. Baker, is not found in a single sandy specimen but occurs with almost every clay-pebble one. Its habitat is thus defined either by the type of bottom material, or, if these till areas represent points of more active current action, perhaps it is this which is the important environ¬ mental factor. The present study has thus established a control to which future studies of the distribution of sediments and topography of the lake bottom may be referred. It has also, I hope, pointed out avenues of approach, and some problems for future investigation. Geology — 1937 Meeting 245 The Preglacial Rock River Valley as a Source of Groundwater for Rockford* L. E. Workman State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois Rockford obtains its water supply from deep wells penetrating rock formations from the St. Peter to the Mt. Simon sandstone. Being a large industrial city, Rockford requires a great quantity of water and it has been the constant study of the water department and engineers to keep up with increasing demands. Lowering of the hydrostatic levels of water in the various bedrock sandstones causes an increased effort to obtain an adequate supply by lowering the pumps or locating wells at widely separated inter¬ vals thus hurrying the time when the water level will be too low to allow further development along these lines. It is well, therefore, that the city look for possibilities of increasing their supplies from new sources. Such new sources of water supply are available in the sand-and-gravel filled preglacial valley of Rock River which lies close at hand. The exact location of the preglacial Rock River valley throughout its length is still somewhat of a mystery. From Beloit to Rockford it is known to follow the course of the present valley. South of Rockford it continues in a southerly direction somewhere through eastern Ogle and Lee counties and southwestward toward the general vicinity of Princeton where it meets the preglacial valley of the Mississippi River. In general, it can be stated that the preglacial Rock River valley from the northern state line to its junction with the preglacial Mississippi River valley is two to three or more miles in width. It was cut more than 350 feet below the upland in the northern portions and perhaps throughout its length in Illinois. The rock floor at Rockford is about 450 feet above sea level; at Princeton it is 323 feet above sea level, thus averaging a fall of 1.7 feet per mile in a distance of about 75 miles. As determined from well records and outcrops, the accompanying map, Figure 1, shows the major portion of the old valley in the vicinity of Rock¬ ford. The locations of wells which reached bedrock are indicated by the shaded areas. Contours are shown connecting points of equal elevation above sea level on the bedrock surface in the preglacial channel. For the sake of simplicity, contours above 700 feet above sea level are not given, for above approximately this elevation the bedrock surface reaches the present surface. The preglacial valley below the 700-foot level has a width of about 2 y2 miles. It extends from the region of the present broad valley northeast of Rockford in a south-southwesterly direction to the present broad valley south of the city. In the east part of Rockford it underlies an undulating upland. The deepest part of the preglacial valley is shown in two wells to lie below 450 feet elevation. The data on wells in the southern part of the city would indicate that the valley is U-shaped, with a wide floor and steep sides. Very probably additional data on wells to the northeast would show this general shape continuing throughout the local extent of the valley. * Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. 246 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Outside of the main valley the old valley walls are deeply cut by tribu¬ taries and ravines, a suggestion of which is given in the contours on the western side of the channel. Closely spaced wells in Rockford west of Rock River show sharp differences of 50 feet in the elevation of the preglacial surface. Very probably the same type of irregularity is characteristic of the eastern valley wall and would be revealed by additional well data. The preglacial Rock River valley carries a thick accumulation of sand and gravel. Wells in the present alluvial flats in the southern part of the city are reported to encounter sand and gravel at an elevation of 700 feet, beginning within 20 feet of the surface and to continue in these materials with an occasional variation of sandy clay or silt down to the Fig. 1. — Preglacial Rock River Valley at Rockford. Contour interval: 50 feet. • Location of well reaching bedrock. # Bedrock outcrop. Geology — 1937 Meeting 247 bottom of the preglacial channel. To the north an illustration of the succes¬ sion of glacial materials is shown in the following log of the Bradley Heights Sub-division well No. 2, drilled by P. E. Millis and Company, located at A, having a surface elevation of 840 feet above sea level. Formation Thickness Depth Pleistocene system Clay, gravelly, bluff, weathered . 15 15 Gravel, clayey, yellow (may be gravelly till) . 50 65 Sand and gravel, probably water-bearing . 40 105 Clay, silty, brownish-gray . 20 125 Sand, clayey, medium . 15 140 Clay, silty, brownish-gray . 25 165 Sand and gravel, water-bearing . 45 210 Clay, silty, brownish-gray . 10 220 Sand and gravel, water-bearing . 55 275 Clay, brownish-gray . 5 280 Till, gravelly, compact . 55 335 Ordovician system St. Peter sandstone . below 335 Most of this drift, both glacial till and sand and gravel is probably of Illinoian age, although it is possible that the lowest 55 feet of compact till may be partly or entirely of pre-Illinoian age. A number of wells which obtain large water supplies from sand and gravel in the preglacial channel are located in the south part of the city, and it is therefore logical that attention is drawn to that locality as a possible location for an additional supply for the city. A properly developed well there in the general vicinity of the middle of the old valley should supply a great abundance of water, a conservative estimate being 1,000 gallons per minute. However, attention should be called to the possibility that a similar well can probably be developed at any other convenient location along the middle of the preglacial valley. A well located in the more elevated region east of the business district would have some added advantage in being more protected from local seepage of contaminating water by having an addi¬ tional covering of compact materials, and, at the same time, it would be less likely to influence, or be influenced by, the industrial wells. Finally, a location presenting the least likehood of interference between wells, now and probably for a long time in the future, would be northeast of the city. Papers In physics Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman The Physics Section carried eleven papers, all of which are here represented. Attendance averaged fifty at each meeting. It. F. Paton, Department of Physics, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, was elected chairman for the 1938 meeting. The Physics Section voted a Resolution of Appreciation to Professor C. T. Knipp for his work, interest, papers, and demonstrations with regard to that Section. (Signed) Harold Q. Fuller, Chairman. [249] 250 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions A Study of Crookes Dark Space in a Hot Lime Cathode Ray Beam Chas. T. Knipp and James F. Madole University of Illinois, Urloana, Illinois Crooke’s dark space (first observed by Sir William Crookes some 60 years ago) is present whenever there is an electrical discharge between two electrodes no matter what the pressure of the surrounding gas. The length of this space is dependent on several conditions within the tube, such as the pressure of the gas, the temperature at the source of the beam, the voltage applied between the electrodes, etc. In this study the beam eminated from a hot lime surface. The dark space is very sensitive to slight changes in potential and temperature. The paper dealt with the experimental data obtained. Physics — 1937 Meeting 251 A List of Demonstration Experiments in Physics Suitable for Lecture Table Use in First and Intermediate College and University Courses Chas. T. Knipp University of Illinois, Urtana, Illinois This list constitutes a resume of demonstration experiments in physics, original, wholly or in part, with the author during his 34 years connection with the department of physics, University of Illinois. Many of the items listed have been presented down through these years before the physics sections of the Illinois State Academy of Science and also the Indiana Academy of Science. Five were exhibited, by invitation, at A Century of Progress, Chicago, 1933 and 1934. A number also have been used by the author in demonstration lectures before educational and civic organizations throughout Illinois and neighboring states, and also before the Science Exhibit section sponsored the past four years by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, notably at its New Orleans, Pittsburgh, St. Louis and Atlantic City meetings. The list of workable experiments is fairly complete and is here given for the first time. 1 Bicycle wheel gyroscope. This well known lecture table demonstra¬ tion was first described by the writer in 1901. See Phys. Rev., XIII, p. 43, Jan., 1901. 2 A method of maintaining intermediate temperatures. Phys. Rev., XV, p. 125, Aug., 1902. 3 A simple cloud apparatus. A beautiful experiment to show cloud formation. Suggested by C. T. R. Wilson’s cloud researches. Sci¬ ence, XXX, p. 930, Dec. 24, 1909. 4 An efficient and rapid mercury still. The mercury is vaporized in the electric arc. (A physics shop apparatus). Science, XXXIII, p. 667, Apr. 28, 1911. 5 Hot lime (Wehnelt) cathodes. The cathode ray beam from the hot lime shows the Crookes and Faraday dark spaces, and how these vary with the temperature and also with the voltage. The tube shows the effect of positive and negative acceleration as they affect the magnetic deflection of the beam. 6 The production of a helix of rays from the hot lime cathode. A long horizontal tube. Beam along the axis. The tube is surrounded by a loosely wound solenoid. The resulting helix is interesting and its deformation by compressing or extending the loosely wound solenoid is striking. Phys. Rev., XXXIY, p. 58, Jan., 1912. 7 Hot lime cathode. To show circular path of beam in a uniform mag¬ netic field at right angles to plane of circle. 8 Hot lime cathode ray beam to show the aurora borealis (northern lights). Rather complicated but very convincing. 252 lllindis State Academy of Science Transactions 9 The diffusion of gas at low pressures made visible by color effects. Science, XLII, p. 93, July 16, 1915. 10 Absorption of air by charcoal cooled to the temperature of liquid air. A striking lecture table demonstration. Science, XLII, p. 429, Sept. 24, 1915. 11 Color effects of positive and of cathode rays in residual air, hydro¬ gen, helium, etc. (Knipp and Kunz design, was exhibited at A Century of Progress, Chicago, 1933, ’34.) Science, XLII, p. 942, Des. 31, 1915; Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., X, p. 283, 1918. 12 Positive and cathode rays in residual helium, hollow triangular cathode. (Kunz design, was exhibited at A Century of Progress.) 13 Electrical discharge between concentric cylinderical electrodes. Science, XLIII, p. 787, June 2, 1916. 14 Mercury vapor tube, containing pith balls. Tube is highly evacuated. Illustrates Boltzman’s Law. (Was exhibited at A Century of Prog¬ ress.) School Sci. and Math., XVII, p. 442, May, 1917; Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., X, p. 284, 1918. 15 An improved form of high-vacuum high-speed mercury vapor pump. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., X, p. 286, 1918; Science, LXXVIII, p. 183, Feb. 17, 1922; Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., XXI, p. 212, 1928. 16 An old form of top revived. A simple, powerful and long spinning top. School Sci. and Math., XX, p. 113, Jan., 1920. 17 Possible standard of sound. Phys. Rev., XV, p. 155, Feb., 1920; Ibid., XV, p. 244, Mar., 1920. 18 A convenient form of the new singing tube. School Sci. and Math., XX, Dec., 1920. 19 Production of sound by the application of heat (singing tube). Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., XIV, p. 21, 1921; Nature, CXX, p. 362, Sept. 10, 1927. 20 Production of sound by cooling. The entire singing tube, except the closed tip, is cooled to the temperature of liquid air. A very striking experiment. 21 Simple form of C. T. R. Wilson’s alpha-ray track apparatus (with N. E. Sowers). Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., XVII, p. 121, 1924. 22 Improvement in alpha-ray track apparatus. (Was exhibited at A Century of Progress). Science, LXIV, p. 140, Aug. 6, 1926. 23 Electrodeless ring discharge (with L. N. Scheuerman.) Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., XXII, p. 365, 1929. 24 Electrodeless discharge (with J. K. Knipp.) Phys. Rev., XXXVIII, p. 948, Sept. 1, 1931. 25 Photoelectric cell (Kunz design and patent.) 26 High-speed high-vacuum air pumping outfit for lecture table dem¬ onstrations, using the writer’s internal type of water cooled mercury vapor pump. 27 High-potential low-frequency outfit. To produce low potential A. C. discharges and operate ladder experiment. 28 High-potential high-frequency outfit. To operate disruptive dis¬ charges, electrodeless discharges, active nitrogen experiments, etc. 29 Active nitrogen experiments. Afterglow lasts 15 to 30 minutes. In one bulb, it lasted 3 hours. (Was exhibited at A Century ol Progress.) 30 Liquid oxygen experiment. The gas oxygen under pressure is cooled to the temperature of liquid air, and liquid oxygen results. It is blue in color. Physics — 1937 Meeting 253 31 A cold cathode rectifier. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., XXIX, p. 209, 1936. 32 To show that electrons leave the surface normally. A simple and new experiment, of a long accepted phenomenon, strikingly shown. Finally, a short series of experiments suitable for lecture table demon¬ stration that might be styled, “Sleight of hand in physics” (15 to 20 min.) The subject is: SINGING TUBES a) Long tube (about 1.5 x 70 cm.) Heat closed tip . Result is a tone of low pitch. b) Two short tubes (about 2.5 x 25 cm.) Heat closed tips simultan¬ eously. One tube has sliding trombone for tuning . Beats, very sharply defined. c) Long tube (similar to a above.) Open end now closed. Heat closed tip . Effect is uncanny. Heat again and place cold end firmly on a sounding board .... Tube speaks out. Repeat, with two similar tubes, and place both simultaneously on same sounding board . Beats. d) Two small tubes (about 1 x 15 cm.) One end open. Heat closed tips. Sliding trombone for tuning..- . Beats. e) One small tube. Body of tube is inserted in a special jacket and cooled to the temperature of liquid air. Tip kept at temperature of room . Effect is surprising, — the tube sings. f) Two small tubes. The body of each is bent in the form of a U. Grasp tip, one in each hand, and lower into liquid air . Tubes sing. Beats. Results observed in each of the above cases should be explained. LECTURE TABLE DEMONSTRATIONS (The numbers refer to experiments in the preceding list) 3. Cloud apparatus — A spherical glass bulb, with stem, to which a rubber bulb filled with water is attached, forms a convenient means of producing supersaturation by simply squeezing the bulb, then quickly releasing it. The excess moisture obtained on expansion settles on the walls of the vessel or on particles of dust that may be present, thus forming a cloud. Carbon particles from a burning match greatly facilitate cloud formation. 11. Positive rays — The existence of positive and negative ions in an electric discharge through a discharge tube was firmly established about 25 years ago. We thus have cathode rays, positive rays, nega¬ tive rays, etc. Cathode and positive rays may be simultaneously shown in the same tube by employing a hollow cathode due to Goldstein. By introducing helium as the residual gas, both beams stand out prominently — the cathode rays emanating from the cathode face, while the positive rays seem to pass through the hollow cathode and appear as a compact beam on the opposite side. The cathode rays are apple green in color and are deflected readily by a horseshoe magnet, while the positive rays are red and not visibly deflected. The mass of the positive ion is about 7,000 times that of the electron. 19. Singing tubes — Singing tubes were exhibited by the author at Rockford sixteen years ago. To make one of these tubes sing a temperature difference between the closed tip and the body of 254 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions the tube is required. This is usually obtained by applying beat to the closed tip, making the temperature difference about 350° C. A temperature difference sufficient to cause the tube to sing may also be obtained by holding the tip in one’s fingers and sub¬ merging the rest of the tube in liquid air. The temperature difference now is about 200° C., with attendant lowered pitch. 30. Liquid oxygen — Liquid oxygen may readily be produced by making use of the principle of lowering the temperature of a gas under pressure until condensation results. The bulb with its stem con¬ tains the gas oxygen at a pressure of about 2.5 atmospheres abso¬ lute. By placing the stem in liquid air the gas is condensed on the walls of the vessel and collects as a liquid at the lower end of the stem. This action continues until nearly all of the gas is liquified — until the pressure in the bulb falls to about .25 of an atmosphere. Liquid oxygen is quite blue in color. 24. Inductive effect — An electrodeless discharge is always interesting. The energy in the exciting coil around the bulb induces a current in the gas within it. This induced current may in turn be used as a primary of an air transformer and induce a current in its secondary, which may well consist of a few turns of a copper wire circuit containing two or three pea flash light bulbs. This experi¬ ment gives one some idea of the energy flowing in the gaseous circuit. Ordinarily we think of the electric current in a gas as being very small. 29. Active nitrogen — Some gases exhibit an afterglow of definite color when the exciting energy is applied (as in experiment 24 above) and then cut off. The gas nitrogen is unique in this quality. The applied energy causes some of the gas molecules to pass into a meta-stable state. While this is going on energy is radiated with attendant color. The electrons thus displaced within the molecules of gas require considerable time to return to their equilibrium positions. Energy is again radiated. The bright lemon color is peculiar to nitrogen. The afterglow may last for many minutes. Physics — 1937 Meeting 255 Applications of the Photo-Electric Cell in Astronomy Jakob Kunz University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Since about thirty years ago the photo-electric cell has been used as a photometer in astronomy and has led to important results in various fields. At first the cell was used for the study of eclipsing double stars, and the intensity of light of the corona of the sun in the case of total eclipses; in recent years the absorption of light in the milky way system has been determined by the cell which seems to be called upon to measure also the light from the most distant nebulae, which are from 400 to 800 million light years away from us. The cell may be used in the measurements which are planned for the decision as to whether our universe expands or not. The 100 inch and the 200 inch telescope will be used for this purpose. We shall begin with the eclipsing binary stars. The Arabs already knew that the star Algol changes its intensity of light considerably in about three days. But exact measurements were only recently made by means of the photoelectric cell by Joel Stebbins, to whom we owe most of the photoelec¬ tric results in astronomy. The three stars Algol, IH Cassiopeiae and X Tauri give very characteristic light curves as function of time-curves which in connection with spectroscopic investigation and with the knowledge of the distance allow us to determine the mechanical system of the double stars. Over 100 eclipsing binaries are known. The preponderant type of close double stars with components of the same order of size and of equal or unequal brightness, consists of bodies whose distance between centers is approximately 5 times their average radius, whose period of revolution is about 4 days and whose mean density is 1/20 that of the sun. Algol has a total light about 100 times that of the sun, its companion has a surface intensity 10 times that of the sun; the light is yellower than that of the primary star. There are other variable stars whose light variation is not due to eclipses but to the ellipsoidal shape of the components, for instance, 7T5 Orionis and b Persei. It is fairly difficult to find constant stars to be used as standards of comparison. The sun also is a variable star, for a single sun spot is enough to change the total light. The variation of this light is probably easier to measure indirectly than directly by the use of the light reflected from Saturn or Uranus. The photo-electric cell measures not only the intensity of light from point sources, but also the light of luminous surfaces, like the light of the corona of the sun, or of a comet or of a nebula or star cluster or of the zodiacal light. ABSORPTION OF LIGHT IN THE MILKY WAY SYSTEM Trumpler, an astronomer of the Lick Observatory, had found that there is an absorbing layer in the middle of the milky way system. This was confirmed by Stebbins at the Mt. Wilson Observatory by means of a photo-electric cell attached to the 60 inch and to the 100 inch telescopes. There are two distinct phenomena of absorption of light in the sky. Light is scattered by gases and vapors; the Rayleigh scattering, which explains the blue color of the sky and the red lights at sunset. Then there is ordinary absorption and obstruction of light by dust and larger solid particles. We consider at first space reddening by the light scattered by a gaseous layer in the center of 256 Illinoiis State Academy of Science Transactions the milky way. Trumpler had observed this effect by means of open clusters, Stebbins observes it by means of globular clusters and by B stars; in this central zone of the milky way E. P. Hubble found no extra galactic nebulae, while the nebulae are most numerous near the galactic pole. h = 1800 light years, a = 32000 light years. r= 4000 light years, s = sun. The color of a star is measured by its color index. The photographic plate is more sensitive to blue and violet rays than the human eye. The photographic magnitude of a star minus the visual magnitude is the color index. For the class AO stars, on the average the color index is by defini¬ tion zero, while for blue stars the color index is negative, positive for red stars. Now in galactic latitude between +5° and — 17° Stebbins and C. M. Huffer found strong reddening of B stars, outside this zone practically no reddening. The strongest reddening occurs where there are many stars. Each B star was measured through two filters, which with the cell used have effective sensitivities at wave length 4200A and 4700A, giving a dif¬ ference in color index of 0.74 mag. between AO and KO stars. By the results of the measurements of Stebbins it is possible to esti¬ mate the dark material in our galactic system, with the assumption that the absorption and reddening is of the same order as in the atmosphere, where light per cm2 passes through 1000 gr. If r is the radius of the galaxy, then the total scattering by the dark layer in a direction at right angles to the plane of the milky way is due to a mass ‘7rr2.1000. One light year is 9.5 X 10 km, and the radius of the milky way is 40,000 light years, hence the radius r of the galaxy is r = 9.5 X 1012 4.104 X 105 cm. r = 3.8 X 1022 cm and <7rra — 4.5 X 1045, and the scattering or dark mass is m = 4.5 X 1043 X 1000 = 4.5 X 1048 gr. But the mass of the sum is ms = 2.1033 gr., hence 4.5 X 1048 - - 2.2 X 101S 2 X 1033 the dark mass of the milky way is equivalent to Physics — 1937 Meeting 257 suns. This estimate may be reduced to perhaps 2 X 10u suns, while the number of stars in the milky way is about 3 X 1010. Near its median plane the galactic system is filled with a layer of dark material which reddens all stars at sufficient distances and blots out everything behind it. The average density of matter in the galactic system is d = M/V, where M = 2 X 1033 X 2.1011 = 4.1044 gr. and Y = 4^/3 r8 = 4 X 106S cm3, hence d = 10“24 gr/cm3, while the mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.66 X 10-5M gr. Another result of this absorption of light or space reddening is a change in the dimensions of the milky way. The distance of a cepheid variable star can be determined by the fluctuation of its light intensity. For transparent space the inferred distance between the observer 0 and the star would be OS', but with an absorbing layer a between the observer and the star, the true distance will be OS; that is, the absorbing layer makes the distance smaller, in the same way the large diameter of the disc of the milky way shrinks from about 100,000 to about 80 or 60,000 light years, so that our galactic system approaches the dimensions of the nearest galactic system outside our own, i.e., the Andromeda nebula, whose dimensions on the con¬ trary by photoelectric measurements have been increased. Our milky way system may be just another galaxy. ABSORPTION WITHOUT REDDENING This effect seems to be harder to measure than the reddening. But non-selective absorption is found in the case of extra-galactic nebulae in regions where the counted number of nebulae indicate heavy absorption, but where the colors of the nebulae are not very much affected. Moreover faint stars in the dark areas of our milky way would be much redder than they are found to be. NEW PROBLEMS Cosmic relativity leads to the idea of an expanding universe. And the astronomers find that the distant nebulae recede from us with a velocity which increases with increasing distance; this conclusion is drawn from the red shifts of the spectral lines and from Doppler’s principle. E. Hubble has recently concluded that this leads to a closed model of a radius of about 500 million light years, — a large fraction of which can be observed with existing telescopes, and which is packed with matter to the very “threshold of perception.” But the red shifts may not be velocity shifts. This ques¬ tion may be decided by the 200" telescope and the photo-electric cell which is more sensitive than the photographic plate. One of the problems related to astronomical investigations is a more sensitive and constant photo¬ electric cell. Research is going on in this connection and results will be published in a future communication. 258 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Physics and Human Welfare L. S. Smith Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois To the layman the name “physics” means either nothing or something vaguely disagreeable. The man of physics, the physicist, is widely heralded by the modern newspaper as somewhat of a magician and referred to as an atom splitter. As soon as he stops splitting atoms and does something useful he becomes an engineer. The chief value of much of the knowledge of the science of physics is in what might be termed the “scientific method”. This term is applied more and more to all the various forms of human endeavor. If the politician would use more scientific method, and less selfishness, the science of gov¬ ernment would be building a much more permanent foundation. It has been stated that the United States is doing nearly half of the world’s work. This means that the output of energy in this country equals half of the world’s total. This is due to our large sources of water power, coal, petroleum, and natural gas. These natural resources are harnessed by means of the principles of physics. Nature has favored our country with great natural resources and our industrial position is influenced by these resources. The inherent potentialities of America may be attained when discovery and research are closely coordinated with social planning. Social scientists as well as physical scientists have each worked independently of the other. If greater cooperation existed, greater results would be produced. The medical profession has long realized the importance of physics to the progress of medicine. In an extremely crowded curriculum, the course in general physics is still considered an important background course for all medical students. The importance of the physicist as an assistant in medical research is greatly realized. It must be kept in mind that a mastery of physics by the medical student cannot be expected, but it is hoped that a working knowledge of the subject may be attained. Dr. Compton illustrates the importance of physics in medicine in the following way: When some one is ill the doctor is called by telephone, visits his patient by automobile, measures his temperature with a thermometer, his pulse with a watch, exam¬ ines his heart and lungs with a stethoscope, and his throat with a light reflector. Every one of these operations uses a tool and technique supplied by the physicist.” Let me point out a physical principle applied to modern medicine. There is a characteristic temperature above which a certain organism cannot live. It has been determined that this temperature is lower for the organism that produces distemper in dogs than it is for the dogs themselves. Hence dogs may be cured of the distemper by producing fever which raises the temperature above the limit for the organism while safely below the danger limit for the dog. This treatment has been used to cure cases of syphilis in monkeys, but cannot be used in these cases in man, since the threshold temperatures are too close together. Physics — 1937 Meeting 259 Training in applied physics is especially valuable in the electrical, optical, chemical, textile, paper, aircraft, automobile industries, as well as oil production and refining, geology, geophysics, acoustics, and metallurgy. Physical principles, for example, will enter into the development of air .conditioning, economical railway trains, prefabricated homes, preserva¬ tion of foods, processing of plastics which include glass, rubber, paint, and composition, moulding materials, color photography, and television. Architecture, music, and painting take their raw materials directly from the world of physics, and a number of the minor arts involving physics such as the use of color and illustration, are rapidly rising in prominence. Artificial color effects are fast approaching the importance of man made musical effects. The physical basis of color and the physical basis of music are important physical principles having many common applications. At present there is greater emphasis on the treatment of the physical basis of music, perhaps due to the fact that nearly every community has its brass band, its orchestra, its striving musicians, and radio listeners. The enjoy¬ ment of color has been widespread in a general way, people have been strangely unobservant in any refined or critical sense of the world of colors about them. Art galleries where good paintings may be seen are not numer¬ ous, and the colored chromo was considered vulgar by our grandparents. This leads to the thought that the physical basis of color may find its place beside that of music when television is perfected. Hence we see that there is cultural value of physics applied to music and art. Physics can be of use to agriculture in some of the following ways: Increasing agricultural production, both as to quality and quantity, by studying the effects of radiation on plant growth, devising new sources of radiation, electrical methods of growth stimulation, and by providing new physical methods for the control of biological processes. In developing electrical, mechanical, and other physical methods of controlling insect pests, yields will be more certain. In developing engines, motors, and new methods of power distribution, marketing will be simplified. There would be greater benefits to agriculture if it were economically feasible to pre¬ serve crops without deterioration over a period of years. This is a challenge to the research physicist. Other benefits will come to agriculture by the development of new products which will serve as outlets for agricultural materials. Perhaps physics will not be as useful here as chemistry, but the physicist can assist the chemist in much of this type of research. As an illustration of this, let me mention that motor design is important in the selection of motor fuel. Agricultural products may be used for insulating materials, filters, and structural parts used in air conditioning which is a physical process. I hope it is not out of order to mention the relation between scientific advance and social progress. Recently certain economic writers have placed the burden of unemployment at the feet of the scientist. This is a fallacy which can be proved by facts and figures. For example, 50,000 additional telephone girls and a 100% increase of linemen took place during the ten years that the dial system was being installed; five times as many printers are employed today, in spite of the fact that the linotype can set five times as fast; 50% of the theatre musicians have been displaced by sound motion pictures, but musicians and teachers have been increased by 35,000, actors by 17,000, ushers by 7,000, and radio employees by 5,000; typewriters, adding machines, and other office mechanical equipment have increased the typists by 32%, bookkeepers and accountants increased by 27%, although the popu¬ lation increase during this twenty-year period was only 16%. There was about 100% increase in ice dealers because mechanical refrigeration popu¬ larized all refrigeration. There never was an important invention which 260 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions did not cause the ultimate employment of a far greater number of men than it threw out of work. When the automobile replaced the horse, the street cleaner was out of a job, but today there are three times as many street cleaners as there were in the horse-and-buggy days, since there are more streets. The importance of research cannot be over emphasized, for it is through research that new truths are discovered and new industries are developed. Through research the electron was discovered, and from this lone discovery great industrial organizations have been developed. There is every reason to believe that a continuation of the process of discovery of new ideas, the development of new processes, and the control of new forces will continue. The Federal Government can well afford to make larger appropriations for the work of research and thereby increase the efficiency of the overworked, undermanned National Bureau of Standards. There is a trend in university curricula to take cognizance of the tre¬ mendously technical aspect of modern civilization by a realignment of emphasis on the major subjects in favor of the physical sciences. This same idea should be extended to the high school. The high school student should learn his science, keeping in mind the viewpoint of its needs, its scope, and its place in civilization, more than for the benefit of its logical discipline. I believe this will increase the appeal of science to the student. Then we will have writers, executives, legislators, etc., who though chosen without regard to their views on science, will have a greater appreciation and understanding of science. They will be much more “science minded” and they will render more loyal support for the things which science needs. In brief, people can be “science minded” most effectively through education. When this state of training is reached, men of science will no longer need to worry over politics, so long as general order prevails, and there is the abundant development of natural resources. Physics — 1937 Meeting 261 An Experiment in Ultrasonics for Undergraduate Students Glen W. Warner Wilson Junior College, Chicago, Illinois For a number of years the field of ultrasonics has been exclusive terri¬ tory for research, but improvement in technique and more general interest makes it possible and desirable to introduce undergraduate students to this topic. A modified form of Kundt’s tube similar to that used by Pierce was used to measure the wavelength of ultrasonic waves and thus determine the velocity of such waves set up by a quartz crystal of known frequency. The resonating chamber (See Fig. 1) was made from a piece of iron water pipe 2y2 inches in diameter and 6 inches long, fitted with end pieces. The one end piece carried a crystal holder and two binding posts. The other end piece held a screw which carried the reflector. A micrometer screw of one millimeter pitch with a range of 40 millimeters and a head graduated in 100 divisions is a standard piece supplied by the apparatus companies and serves admirably for this purpose. A brass disk about four centimeters in diameter soldered to the end of the screw formed the reflector. A scale graduated in millimeters was also attached parallel to the screw. The crystal holder was a brass platform about 8 cm x 4 cm x .4 cm which carried a frame of cork to inclose the crystal at the sides and back. The end toward the reflector was left open. The top or upper electrode was a sheet of aluminum as big over as the crystal and about a millimeter thick. A copper wire soldered to the lower electrode connected it to one of the binding posts. The connection to the upper electrode was made by a “cat-whisker.” While in operation it is advisable to raise the reflector end of the chamber slightly to prevent the crystal from sliding forward. 262 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions A power unit for operation from an A. C. line was built as shown in Fig. 2. This gives a range of plate potentials from 60 to 500 volts. Crystals suitable for this work usually require a plate potential of from 240 to 300 volts when a ’47 tube is used as a triode with tuned plate circuit. The crystal was connected between plate and grid as shown in Fig. 3. Thick crystals are desirable because they set more air in motion but they are more difficult to set into vibration. For such crystals a feed-back coil of 50 turns placed at the end of the inductance is important, but is not' needed for smaller crystals. The capacity used varied from .0004 to .002 microfarad and the inductance from 4 to 14 millihenries depending upon the crystal used. A radiofrequency 0-100 milliammeter was used in the capacity branch of the tank circuit. When the crystal is set into vibration and the reflector moved toward or away from the crystal, the resonance points are readily detected by the reaction of the milliammeter. It is not possible to determine the exact point of resonance but by moving the reflector through several resonance points and computing the mean wavelength this error and that due to inaccuracies in the screw are largely eliminated. With this apparatus the following re¬ sults were obtained from a crystal vibrating at 57.6 kc/sec. Reflector Positions Length of 11 half-waves 3.93 37.18 33.25 mm 3.99 37.19 33.20 4.02 37.25 33.23 3.99 37.20 33.21 4.00 37.27 33.27 3.96 37.25 33.29 3.97 37.15 33.18 3.96 37.23 33.27 3.97 37.08 33.11 3.96 37.12 33.16 Mean wave length .604 Frequency 57600 Temperature 22.2° C vt = 34790 cm/sec. Vo — 33460 cm/sec. cm Physics — 1937 Meeting 263 If inlet and outlet tubes are attached to the end pieces of the chamber the velocity may be measured in other gases. The total cost of this apparatus will not exceed $50 exclusive of the quartz oscillators. But the financial outlay for them need not be high if they are produced by student enthusiasm and patience. It is not difficult to build a small cutting and grinding outfit. A piece of Brazilian quartz can be bought for about three dollars from which crystals having frequen¬ cies as low as 40 or 50 kc/sec. can be cut. These can be calibrated with sufficient accuracy with a home-made frequency meter which may not add greatly to the cost but may require considerable patience, or they may be sent to the Bureau of Standards for calibration. 264 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Some Focal Plane Shutter Distortions J. H. Sammis Peoria High School, Peoria, Illinois The term “distortion” is not intended to imply something undesirable as we use it in this account. As a matter of fact it may well refer to a useful photographic effect. A focal plane shutter instead of exposing all of a given piece of film simultaneously sweeps the film with a band of light, varying in width and speed with the settings or spring tensions used. Because of this progressive exposure the image of a rapidly moving object may move across the light band as the band moves across the film. When image and slit in the shutter move in the same direction an elongation of the recorded image occurs. When, image and slit move counter to each other there is a shortening or bunching-up effect. If the shutter in the camera travels upward (this usually occurs only when the camera is intentionally turned either up side down or sideways, depending on the normal direction of travel) the image is so re¬ corded that the moving object photographed slants backwards (bottom further advanced than top) and the opposite leaning forward (top further advanced than bottom) effect is obtained when the slit travels downward. The latter effect is the one usually employed by artists in suggesting ter¬ rific speed forward. The lantern slides used to illustrate these points were made from nega¬ tives exposed in a ZXA x 4*4 Graflex camera using the 1/8 inch slit in the shutter (to obtain as little blurring as possible) and tension number one (the weakest one available) to obtain the maximum distortion. This com¬ bination resulted in exposures of l/350th of a second. The car, photo¬ graphed as the moving object, passed the camera at a distance of twenty feet and at a speed of 45 miles per hour. The camera was turned on its sides and bottom side up to obtain the four different shutter directions. Physics — 1937 Meeting 265 A Demonstration of Color Fatigue of the Eye Frank L. Verwiebe Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Illinois The sketch of Fig. 1 below shows a simple arrangement of apparatus which demonstrates the color fatigue of the eye in an effective and striking manner. A description of it is given by Sir William Bragg.1 It can be assembled very readily using the ordinary friction drive rotator, a colored lamp, a white reflecting lamp, and a piece of cardboard properly cut and painted as indicated in the sketch. Green £ruce W. Merwin were removed from the Committee on Conservation, the remainder of the committee being asked to serve for the following year. The committee on Legislation and Finance remained unchanged. Dr. George D. Fuller was appointed delegate to the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Dr. V. O. Graham was reappointed dele¬ gate to the Conservation Council of Chicago. The President and the Council were empowered to appoint the membership of the Committee on High School Science and Clubs after consultation with the Advisory Committee for the Junior Academy. The Council voted that it is desirable that a representative of the Junior Academy be asked to sit with the Coun¬ cil in its deliberation. Following the recommendation of Dr. T. H. Frison, chairman of the Committee on Conservation, it was voted to set up a special committee to be known as the Committee on the Conservation of Archeological and Historical Sites. Dr. Fay-Cooper Cole was appointed to serve as chairman and the remainder of the committee to consist of Dr. Bruce Merwin, Dr. J. B. Ruyle, and Dr. M. J. Herskovits. The Chairman was invested with the power to appoint other members to the committee. An honorarium of $25.00 was voted for Professor George W. Stewart for delivering the Annual Public Lecture. An honorarium of $10.00 was voted to Mr. Louis A. Astell for his services in connection with the Junior Academy activities. Several suggestions were made as to the meeting place for the annual meeting in 1939 but it was decided to leave the final decision in this matter until a later date. The Secretary was instructed to have memorials prepared for : Mr. Fred R. Jelliff, Dr. E. Muriel Poggi, and Dr. Edwin Oakes Jordan. The meeting adjourned at 8 :45 a. m. SECOND MEETING The second council meeting was called to order by President Wanless at 1 :30 p. m., Saturday, November 6, at the University Club, Urbana. Others present were Professor Furrow, Dr. Fuller, Dr. Voth, Mr. Adams, (335) 336 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Mrs. Oliver, Professor Bailey representing Dr. Young, and the Secretary. Dr. Thomas Barton was appointed to serve as chairman of the Mem¬ bership Committee, to take the place of Dr. F. M. Fryxell, resigned. The next item of business was a discussion of the problems of the Junior Academy with Mr. Adams, Chairman of the Committee on High School Science and Clubs. It was voted to ask Dr. Otis B. Young to appoint a local chairman of the committee on High School Science and Clubs. It was voted that the constitution of the Senior Academy be amended so that the Chairman of the Committee on High School Science and Clubs will become a member of the Council of the Academy. It was voted that the Senior Academy contribute not over $50.00 toward the support of the junior Academy and its activities. The following resolution was passed : The Council of the Illinois State Academy of Science wishes to express its appreciation of the work of Mr. Louis A. Astell in founding and editing the publication known as Science Club Service which has been so useful in the Junior Academy movement in Illinois and in other states. We would commend the publication to Junior Academies who are now not using it. We feel that it is performing a useful and worthwhile function. Its ad¬ vantages should be available to all Junior Academies. It should be sup¬ ported by a contributing membership fee from all who use it. It was stated that colored moving pictures of the Junior Academy meet¬ ing at Rockford in 1937 will be shown at the Indianapolis meeting of the A.A.A.S. It was announced that a series of radio broadcasts sponsored by the Junior Academy were to be given over station WILL. The name of the series is to be ‘‘Science in Everyday Life”. Preliminary plans for the annual meeting at Carbondale were discussed. The matter of rooms and housing facilities for both the Junior and Senior Academy members was considered. Plans for at least three field trips in connection with the Annual meeting were tentatively made. The trips were : the geological trip, the biological trip, and the anthropological trip. The question of the handling of the advance publicity for the meeting was dis¬ cussed. Mrs. Oliver gave a report on the status of the publication of the Trans¬ actions. She stated that the September issue was delayed in publication but it was hoped that it would be in press soon. It was voted to request the Secretary to express to Miss Dorothy E. Rose the appreciation of the Council for her activities in behalf of the Academy as editor of the T ransactions. Dr. Geo. D. Fuller gave a brief summary of the plans for the A.A.A.S. Academy Conference to be held at the Indianapolis meeting. The following members were elected to serve as the Committee on A. A. A. S. Research Grants : Thorne Deuel, Anthropology ; W. O. Blanchard, Geog¬ raphy; Geo. D. Fuller, Biology; B. Smith Hopkins, Chemistry, Chairman. It was decided that the fifth member of the committee representing the field of Physics would be appointed at a later date. A discussion of the meeting place of the Academy for 1939 was the next order of business. Evanston, Galesburg, Rock Island, Springfield and Thirty-first Annual Meeting 337 Urbana were mentioned as possible meeting places but no decision was reached. A request by the State Archeological Society for affiliation with the State Academy was transmitted to the Affiliation Committee of the Academy. The meeting adjourned at 4 :45 p. m. THIRD MEETING The third meeting of the Council was called to order by President Wan- less at 1 :30 p. m., February 26, 1938 at the University Club, Urbana. Others present were Dr. Sneller, Professor Furrow, Dr. Fuller, Dr. Young, Mr. Adams, Mrs. Oliver, and the Secretary. The first item of business was a report by Mrs. Oliver on the status of the publication of the Transactions. She stated that the December issue had been delayed but was in the process of preparation for publication. She pointed out that one of the main reasons for the delay was that authors failed to get their papers submitted as soon as they should. In view of this condition the Council voted to instruct the Secretary to inform the Chair¬ men of all the sections that all papers that are to be published in the T r ans¬ ae tions must be presented to the Secretary not later than ten days after the date of the last day of the annual meeting. Papers submitted after that date may not be published in the T ransactions. Problems bearing upon the Junior Academy of Science were now taken up with Mr. Adams. Several suggestions were made as to the speaker for the annual lecture of the Junior Academy. The decision in this matter was left to Mr. Adams. Other items discussed were the organization of clubs in Carbondale and in the Carbondale region, the Science Service leaf¬ let, and the use of the movie film on Junior Academy activities at the annual meeting. The Council voted that a committee be appointed to make recom¬ mendations to the Council relative to the Junior Academy film. President Wanless appointed to this committee : Dr. Rosalie M. Parr, Mr. Louis A. Astell and Prof. Lyell J. Thomas, Chairman. The next item of business was a consideration of suggestions as to the membership campaign. Dr. Young reported on the progress of the cam¬ paign and outlined tentative plans for the future. This was followed by a discussion of plans for the Carbondale meeting. President Wanless outlined his plans for the general sessions of the annual meeting. For the annual public lecture it was decided to ask Dr. John A. Wilson to give a talk on the activities of the Oriental Institute of the Uni¬ versity of Chicago. The Council took up next a discussion of the field trips for Saturday, May 7, and decided to have at least three : an anthro¬ pological, a biological, and a geological trip. Dr. George Fuller was appointed delegate to represent the Academy at meetings of the Associated Conservation Organization of Illinois. It was voted that the Academy become an organization member of the Ecological Society of America for the purpose of forwarding the work of the Committee on the Preservation of Natural Resources. An organization membership of $5.00 was subscribed. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science It was voted that recipients of grants in aid of research from the A.A.A.S. fund were to make reports on the progress of their work at the annual meet¬ ing which next follows their selection as grantees.' The Secretary read an invitation from Dr. Thorne Deuel, Chief of the State Museum, for the Academy to hold its 1939 annual meeting in Spring- held. The members of the Council commented very favorably on this invi¬ tation but the final decision on the 1939 meeting place was put over until the May meeting of the Council in Carbondale. The meeting adjourned at 5 p. m. FOURTH MEETING The fourth meeting of the Council was called to order by President Wanless in the Parlor of the Robert’s Hotel in Carbondale at 7 :45 p. m., May 5, 1938. Others present were : Dr. Gersbacher, Dr. Sneller, Dr. Ful¬ ler, Dr. Young, Dr. Deuel, Dr. Voth and the Secretary. Dr. Gersbacher presented a summary of the plans for the meeting and exhibits of the Junior Academy. Dr. Fuller gave a report on the Peoria meeting of the Associated Con¬ servation Groups of Illinois. This meeting was held March 19, 1938. The chief purpose of the meeting was to organize for a publicity campaign for the commission plan for the organization of the Conservation Depart¬ ment. Dr. Fuller was asked to present this matter to the Resolutions Com¬ mittee of the Academy and to bring in a report at the annual business meeting of the Academy on May 6, 1938. Dr. Cole’s report on the activities of the Committee on Conservation of Archeological and Historical Sites was read by President Wanless. Dr. Cole reported that a State law regulating the excavation of archeological and historical sites was needed and he asked that the Council and the Academy go on record as favoring such action. The Council voted to sup¬ port such action. The Secretary was asked to present this matter to the Resolutions Committee of the Academy. Dr. Young gave a report on the preparations and plans for the ses¬ sions of the annual meeting. The Council voted to accept the invitation of Dr. Thorne Deuel of the State Museum to hold the 1939 meeting of the Academy in Springfield. Dr. Deuel was asked to aid the Council in the selection of a second vice- president who would serve as Chairman of the Committee on Local Ar¬ rangements for the annual meeting. An honorarium of $25.00 was voted for Dr. John A. Wilson for his lecture before the Friday evening session of the Academy. It was voted to continue the editorial fee of $1.00 per paper published in the Transactions. Dr. Fuller read the report of the Committee on A.A.A.S. Research Grants. The report of this committee was accepted and unanimously approved by the Council. The meeting adjourned at 10 p. m. Thirty-first Annual Meeting 339 MEETING OF THE COUNCIL WITH REPRESENTATIVES OF AFFILIATED SOCIETIES The members of the Council met with representatives of the Scientific Societies at 8 :00 a. m. May 6, 1938 in the north room of the Auditorium of the Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale. Mr. F. L. Barloga, representative of the Peoria Academy, gave an interesting report of the activities of the Peoria Academy. Miss Mary Steagall then reported upon the activities of the Southern Illinois Science Club which was fol¬ lowed by a report of Miss Nina Gray on the work of the McLean County Academy of Science. The Secretary brought up the question of the use¬ fulness of a list of available speakers who might give addresses before meetings of the affiliated societies. All the representatives present agreed that such a list would be helpful and the Secretary was instructed to send such a list to the proper officer of each of the affiliated societies. Meeting adjourned at 8 : 30 a. m. (Signed) W. M. Luce, Secretary. 340 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science REPORTS OF OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 1937-1938 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY MINUTES OF THE THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING, CARBONDALE, MAY 6-7, 1938 PRELIMINARY BUSINESS MEETING The preliminary business meeting of the 31st annual meeting of the Academy was called to order by President Wanless at 8 :40 a. m. on May 6, 1938 in the Auditorium at Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale. The president announced the appointment of the following commit¬ tees who were to present reports at the annual business meeting of the Academy at 5 p. m. : Nominating Committee : C. D. Sneller, Chairman ; M. M. Leighton; H. J. Van Cleave. Committee on Resolutions : Mary M. Steagall, Chairman ; Clarence Bonnell ; Louis C. McCabe. Auditing Committee : A. C. Noe, Chairman ; S. V. Eaton ; C. E. Olmsted. The meeting adjourned until 5 p. m. ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING The Annual Business Meeting of the Academy was called to order by President Wanless in the Auditorium of the Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale, 5 p. m., May 6, 1938. About 60 members were present. The reports of the Treasurer, Auditing Committee, Editor, and Libra¬ rian were presented and accepted by vote of the members present. The reports of the standing committees — Committee on Affiliation, the Committee on Membership, and the Committee on Publications — were read and accepted. Reports were presented concerning the work of the following special committees : Compilation of Ecological Bibliography ; High School Science and Clubs ; A.A.A.S. Research Grants ; Conservation of Acheological and Historical Sites. Reports were then given by Dr. George D. Fuller, delegate to the American Association for the Advancement of Science. The Secretary presented the report of Dr. V. O. Graham as delegate to the Conservation Council of Chicago. A resolution favoring the proposed bill for Federal aid for education was next presented. After some discussion, in which sharp differences of Thirty-first Annual Meeting 341 opinion as to the desirability of such legislation were brought out, the resolution was tabled. Dr. George D. Fuller commented upon the work of Associated Conser¬ vation Groups of Illinois in their attempt to set up the Conservation De¬ partment of the State on a commission basis, thus removing it from political control. The report of the Resolutions Committee was read by Dr. Mary M. Steagall and unanimously approved. The adoption of the following amendments to the constitution were unanimously favored : 1. The chairman of the Committee on High School Science and Clubs shall be a member of the Council of the Academy so that henceforth the Council shall consist of : The President, First and Second Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian, Chairman of the Committee on Fligh School Science and Clubs, last two retiring Presidents and the retiring Secretary. 2. The Committee on High School Science and Clubs shall be desig¬ nated as a standing committee of the Academy. President Wanless announced that the 1939 meeting of the Academy would be held in Springfield. He called for invitations for future meetings from the floor but none were received. The Nominating Committee reported the following slate of officers : President : George D. Fuller, University of Chicago, Chicago. First Vice-President, Evelyn I. Fernald, Rockford College, Rockford. Second Vice-President, To be announced. Secretary, Robert F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana. Treasurer, Paul D. Voth, University of Chicago, Chicago. Committee on Affiliations , H. H. Radcliff, Decatur, Chairman, Clarence Bonnell, Harrisburg Township School, Harrisburg. H. O. Lathrop, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. Rosalie M. Parr, University of Illinois, Urbana. Mary M. Steagall, Southern Illinois State formal University, Carbon- dale. Committee on Membership, Harold E. Way, Knox College, Galesburg, Chairman. Thomas F. Barton, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbon- dale. Lester I. Bochstahler, Northwestern University, Evanston. Louis C. McCabe, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Fifth member to be elected later. Committee on High School Science and Clubs, Charles D. Sneller, Chairman. M. M. Leighton, State Geological Survey, Urbana. H. J. Van Cleave, University of Illinois, Urbana. Harry L. Adams, Bloomington High School, Bloomington. Louis A. Astell, University High School, Urbana. Rosalie M. Parr, University of Illinois, Urbana. Lyell J. Thomas, University of Illinois, Urbana. 342 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Rose M. Cassidy, Maine Township High School, Des Plaines. Joyce Zimmerman, Urbana High School, Urbana. Don Carroll, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Two more members to be announced. President Wanless called for further nominations from the floor. It was moved that the nominations be closed and that the Secretary be instructed to cast one ballot for the unanimous election of the officers and committee members nominated by the Nominating Committee. This motion was recorded and carried unanimously, thus constituting the elec¬ tion of officers. The meeting adjourned at 6 T5 p. m. SECTION MEETINGS AND GENERAL SESSIONS The general session of the annual meeting was opened at 9 :0() a. m. Friday, May 6, in the Auditorium, by an address of welcome by President Pvoscoe Pulliam of the Southern Illinois State Normal University. Presi¬ dent Harold R. Wanless delivered the Presidential Address of the Academy on the topic : Geological Records of a Rhythmic Nature. He was followed by Dr. M. M. Leighton, Chief of the Illinois State Geological Survey, who talked on the subject: Our Exhaustible Resources of Minerals. What Should be the Aims of a Conservation Program ? The last address of this session was given by Dr. Theodore H. Frison, Chief, Illinois State Natural History Survey. His subject was: Advances in the Renewable Natural Resources Program of Illinois. The Friday morning program of the Junior Academy consisted in the display and judging of the exhibits which were entered in the annual competition. At the Friday evening general meetings Dr. T. E. Musselman of Quincy addressed the Junior Academy on the topic: Conservation of Birds That Hunt and That Are Hunted, while Dr. John A. Wilson, Director of the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, gave the evening address before the Senior Academy on the subject : New Spades in Old Soil. The Friday afternoon program consisted of the presentation of 121 papers before 1 1 sectional meetings. On Saturday the session of the Academy consisted of three field trips. In spite of a heavy rain at the time of the start of the trips these excursions were well attended. The anthro¬ pological trip under the direction of Dr. Bruce Merwin and Mr. Irvin Peithman inspected the Ware group of mounds at Ware, then visited the Linn farm where one of the largest village sites in the Mississippi valley is located. The next stop was to see the group of pictographs at Fountain Bluff. The climax of the trip was a visit to the Ancient City at Wyckliffe, Kentucky, through the courtesy of Col. Fain W. King and his wife Blanche Busey King. The geological trip was under the direction of Dr. George E. Ekblaw and Mr. J. E. Lamar of the Illinois State Geological Survey, and Professor H. R. Wanless of the University of Illinois, President of the Academy. The Crab Orchard Creek dam was inspected. The southernmost boundary of con¬ tinental glaciation in North America was crossed. Some of the formations examined on the trip were the Pennsylvanian ( Coal Measures) system, Thirty- fir st Annual Meeting 343 the Chester series of the upper part of the Mississippian system, and the Devonian system. Giant City State Park and Bald Knob (the highest point in southwestern Illinois) and the Alto Pass fault were visited and the geologic and physiographic features of the region were pointed out and discussed. The biological trip was under the direction of Dr. T. H. Frison, Chief of the Illinois State Natural History Survey, who was assisted by other members of his staff and by the officials of the National Forest Service and by Mr. Francis D. Hunt, of the State Department of Conservation. The region of Wolf lake on the bluffs of the Mississippi was visited and the inter¬ esting phases of the fauna and flora of this region pointed out and dis¬ cussed. The forest nursery and the fire tower near Jonesboro were next visited. The trip ended at the Horseshoe Lake Migratory Waterfowl Pre¬ serve where the Natural History Survey staged a demonstration of the fish life of Horseshoe Lake. REPORT OF THE TREASURER For the year ending April 30, 1938 RECEIPTS Balance on hand, April 30, 1937 . $ 238.20 Initiation fees and dues _ 788.20 Sale of Transactions _ .70 Editorial fees _ 2.00 Junior Academy _ _ 159.1 1 Research grants by the American Association for the Advancement of Science _ 250.00 $1438.21 EXPENDITURES Expenses of the Annual Meeting, Rockford, 1937 Officers’ expenses _ $ 25.36 Speakers _ 25.00 Publicity _ 14.16 Section chairmen _ 37.20 Junior Academy _ __ 69.23 $ 170.95 Editor’s honorarium _ 150.00 Secretary’s honorarium _ 150.00 Secretary’s expenses _ 48.98 Treasurer’s expenditures Printing, mailing and postage on statements of dues, receipts, and membership cards _$ 97.67 Expenses _ _ 22.40 $ 120.07 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 344 Printing of Transactions $ 204.10 Postage on Transactions _ . - 31.73 Junior Section - - 93.00 Research grants to Prof. John DeVries and Prof. Harold Way, Knox College, Galesburg $123.00 Dr. Paul Beaver, Oak Park Junior College, Oak Park _ _ 100.00 Mr. A. M. Simpson, Peoria _ 27.00 $ 250.00 Collection charges on out-of-town checks by The University State Bank, Chicago _ _ _ _ _ 5.65 Balance in University State Bank, Chicago _ _ 213.73 $1438.21 STATEMENT OF RESOURCES, April 30, 1938 Balance in The University State Bank, Chicago _ $ 213.73 Mortgage Bonds, face value $600 ; probable value _ 200.00 Office supplies _ _ 8.00 Total resources _ $ 421.73 The editorial fees and excess page fees for Volume 30, Number 2 of the Transactions, as well as the printing bill, arrived too late to be included in the above statement.* Continuing the trend of last year, the income from members’ dues shows a small ($30.00) increase. The Junior Academy again has sup¬ ported itself. Income from editorial fees and excess pages increased this year but the need for a larger income is urgent if the functions of the Acad¬ emy continue to expand. ! The Academy membership consists of 71 life members, 612 fully paid up annual members, 160 members one year in arrears, 87 members two years in arrears, and 57 members who are three years in arrears and who are being dropped from the roll at the present meeting. The Academy has received 100 new members during the year, but 26 have resigned (or have left without forwarding addresses) and 5 annual and 3 life members have died. Total membership on April 30, 1938, excluding those in arrears for three years but including the new members, was 930 personal members, a net gain of 3 during the year. Some 20 societies and more than 40 clubs are affiliated with the Academy. The entire report is respectfully submitted. (Signed) Paul D. Voth, Treasurer. REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE This is to certify that we have audited the report of the treasurer and have examined his accounts which appear to have been correctly kept. !:‘See report of Editor. Thirty-first Annual Meeting 345 All expenditures have been authorized by vouchers signed by the President and the Secretary. The balance in the University State Bank of $213.73 agrees with the statement. (Signed) A. C. Noe, Chairman. Charles E. Olmsted Scott V. Eaton Chicago, Illinois May 4 , 1938 REPORT OF THE EDITOR The cost of printing the Academy’s Transactions during 1937-38 has been as follows : State Academy Vol. 30, No. 1 (Sept.) _ $202.29 2 (Dec.) _ 603.95 $ 127.50 3 (March) _ 105.50 4 (June) _ 141.50 Extra page fees on No. 2 amounted to $127.50 and editorial fees to $94.00, a total of $221.50, of which $160.00 was collected and sent to the Treasurer on May 2, 1938. By the first of June $39.50 more had been paid in, leaving $22.00 yet to come from authors. In spite of these extra fees, the Academy must still draw some money from its state printing fund for next year to pay for this year’s publications. It would seem necessary, therefore, that the length of next year’s issue be reduced or that the charge for extra printed pages be increased. Respectfully submitted, (Signed) Grace Needham Oliver, Editor. June 1, 1938 REPORT OF TTIE COMMITTEE ON COMPILATION OF ECOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY The Committee on Compilation of the Ecological Bibliography reports steady though not spectacular progress. The chairman has been assisted by several students, notably Alice Wash¬ burn, Clarence Goodnight, and Esther Riske. A very considerable number of new titles have been found, and many citations have been completed. Respectfully submitted, (Signed) A. G. Vestal, Chairman REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN During the past year a number of Libraries and schools have been added to the mailing list for exchange publications, namely : Rockford College of Science, Rockford College, Rockford, Illinois. Oregon State Library, Corvallis, Oregon Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Indiana State Library, Indianapolis, Indiana John Crerar Library, 86 E. Randolph Street, Chicago Main Library, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada. Changes of address and names of new members have been made on the mailing list according to the list furnished by the Secretary and returned T ransactions. Approximately three hundred volumes and numbers of the Trans¬ actions have been sent out in response to special requests. The majority of these requests came from libraries and universities from which the Academy has received publications in exchange. A list of the institutions may be found on page 360. No re-purchased Volumes of the Academy were sold during the past year. (This refers to Volumes purchased from the members by the Academy) (Signed) Thorne Deuel, Librarian. May 5, 1938 Present supply of Transactions of Illinois State Academy of Science : Single Volumes. Vol. 1- — 10 Copies. Vol. 7- 400 Copies. Vol. 2- —470 Copies. Vol. 8- —440 Copies. Vol. 3- —430 Copies. Vol. 9- —280 Copies. Vol. 4- —100 Copies. Vol. 10- —380 Copies. Vol. 5- —280 Copies. Vol. 11- —10 Copies. Vol. 6- 120 Copies. Vols. 12 to 22 Out of Print. Quarterly Volumes. Vol. 23 No. 1— r 20 Copies. Vol. 27 No. 2 — 375 Copies. Vol. 23 No. 2 — 0 Copies. Vol. 27 No. 3 — 10 Copies. Vol. 23 No. 3 — 0 Copies. Vol. 27 No. 4 — 40 Copies. Vol. 23 No. 4 — 20 Copies. Vol. 28 No. 1 — 45 Copies. Vol. 24 No. 1 — 39 Copies. Vol. 28 No. 2 — 65 Copies. Vol. 24 No. 2— 20 Copies. Vol. 28 No. 3 — 0 Copies. Vol. 24 No. 3 — 0 Copies. Vol. 28 No. 4 — 400 Copies. Vol. 24 No. 4 — 0 Copies. Vol. 29 No. 1 — 350 Copies. Vol. 25 No. 1 — 45 Copies. Vol. 29 No. 2 — 320 Copies. Vol. 25 No. 2_200 Copies. Vol. 29 No. 3 — 20 Copies. Vol. 25 No. 3 — 320 Copies. Vol. 29 No. 4 — 50 Copies. Vol. 25 No. 4 — 290 Copies. Vol. 30 No. 1 — 75 Copies. Vol. 26 No. 1 — 25 Copies. Vol. 30 No. 2— Not Mailed Vol. 26 No. 2 — 300 Copies. Out from Pr< Vol. 26 No. 3 — 0 Copies. Vol. 30 No. 4 — 50 Copies. Vol. 26 No. 4 — 600 Copies. General Index. Vol. 27 No. 1 — 400 Copies. (Vols 1 to 25) — 825 Copies. Thirty-first Annual Meeting 347 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE CONSERVATION OF ARCHEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL SITES The Committee of the Academy on the conservation of archeological and historical sites wishes to report that it is unanimously agreed that a conservation bill should be introduced into the next session of the Legis¬ lature. The bill proposed is to be patterned on the law now in force in Oklahoma. In substance it would provide that each person or institution which desires to undertake any excavation of prehistoric sites, ancient burial grounds, or in any site of importance to the history of Illinois, must first secure a license from the Director of Education and Registration of ihe State of Illinois or his agents (this might be the State Museum) . To obtain this license the applicant would demonstrate his knowledge of archeological and historical problems and methods of excavation. He would then be required to make regular reports of his excavation. The fee should be small and the license cover a term of perhaps three years unless revoked for cause. The purpose of the bill would be to have a record of all work being carried on, the persons engaged in such work, and more particularly to put a stop to commercial exploitation and all acts of vandalism. It is not intended to interfere with the activities of any qualified persons who are willing to make available the results of their excavations. If the action of the Committee is approved in principle, by the Academy, the Committee will confer with the Director of Registration and Education and will proceed to draw up a bill. This bill will then be submitted to the Council of the Academy for its approval and if found satisfactory, will be introduced. (Signed) Fay-Cooper Cole, Chairman . REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS The publications program of the Academy has been maintained on essentially the same basis for the past three years. It has been possible throughout this period to publish 1,000 word abstracts (2 printed pages) of the papers presented before the sectional meetings, and to publish in full the papers presented before the general sessions. While this arrangement has functioned fairly satisfactorily as an emergency measure it would greatly improve the programs of the sectional meetings and the articles published in the Transactions if the biennial appropriation from the State General Assembly for the printing of scientific papers presented before the Academy could be increased in order that the restrictions as to length of published articles might be removed. Miss Dorothy E. Rose who so ably served the Academy as Editor of the Transactions over a period of years found it necessary to resign because of failing health. Her place was filled by Mrs. Grace Needham Oliver who has capably served as Editor since the resignation of Miss Rose. Due to this change of editorship and to certain other circumstances the chief of which was the failure of authors to turn in their manuscripts on 348 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science time, Volume 30, Number 2 of the Transactions , which is made up of the papers presented at the sectional programs of the Rockford meeting of last year, has not been distributed as yet to the members of the Academy. How¬ ever this number of the Transactions is in the hands of the printer and should be distributed within the next few days. The Publication Committee in order to prevent a recurrence of such a delay in publication recommended to the Council of the Academy that a regulation allowing 10 days of grace after the annual meeting for the turning in of papers to the Secretary be passed, and that papers submitted after this grace period may not be published in the Transactions. The Council unanimously voted to establish such a regulation. Wilbur M. Luce, For the Committee on Publications. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON AFFILIATION The Committee on Affiliation has had applications for affiliation from the following, and their applications have been approved by the committee. 1. The St. Xavier Science Club of Chicago. Inquiry from Miss Vivian Gallagher, 4928 Cottage Grove Ave., Chicago. No formal application made but inquiry was made evidently with that in view. 2. The Cyclothem Club, (University of Illinois Geological Society), Urbana, Ill. Respectfully submitted, (Signed) Clarence Bonnell. Mary M. Steagall, H. O. Lathrop. FI. FI. Radcliff, {_ Not present at Rosalie M. Parr, 1 committee meeting REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP The following work was done in addition to personal solicitations in the membership campaign : 1. Fifty active members from high schools, colleges and universities were asked to act as local directors of the membership campaign in their school and city. 2. Sixty letters were mailed to the principals of large high schools in southern Illinois telling them about the Academy meeting in Carbon- dale and suggesting that they be liberal minded and permit their teachers to attend the meeting, 3. Membership blanks and information about the Academy were avail¬ able at the annual meeting of the Southern Division of the Illinois Educational Association. 4. As Chairman of the Membership Committee I cooperated with and made suggestions to the publicity manager. Items concerning the Academy were sent to various newspapers in southern jiiinois every week for one month. The college newspaper carried news items of the Academy every week for a month and this paper is sent to a number of high schools in southern Illinois. Thirty-first Annual Meeting 349 To date 100 new members were secured. (Signed) Thomas F. Barton, Chairman REPORT OF THE JUNIOR ACADEMY (Committee on High School Science and Clubs) 1937-1938 The activities of the Junior Academy in its final phases for the year were somewhat delayed by an unavoidable resignation by one of the officials who accepted a position in the East. We were very fortunate in finding a person to fill the vacancy who has done so with unusual success. Much credit for the success of the meeting is due to the efforts of both the local and statewide assistants. I personally wish to thank all who were connected in any way with the work of the Junior Academy this year. The exhibits are noticeably improving in their scientific quality as the years go by. Several hundred people visited the exhibit hall during the day and one- hundred-ninety registered at the desk. One-hundred-fifty attended the afternoon meeting at which the student officers presided and student dele¬ gates presented talks. Over three hundred schools were circularized during the year and several new clubs were affiliated. Moving and still pictures were taken as a part of what has become a regular project to be followed in the future. Club sponsors should plan their exhibits with explanatory signs to show in the picture. Very high calibre talks were easily obtained by well trained naturalists at both the afternoon and evening meetings. A capacity group attended the banquet. (Signed) Harry L. Adams, General Chairman Report on Science Club Service, Published by the Illinois Junior Academy of Science for Junior Academy Officials and Affiliated Clubs in All States During the current academic year, Science Club Service has been dis¬ tributed in the form of three issues representing approximately 14,000 words of material carefully selected for the benefit of sponsors and Junior Academy officials wherever located. Among the more significant aspects of the publication program are the following: (1) Indiana Junior Academy of Science has voluntarily maintained its status of Sustaining Member, for the third year; (2) Iowa Junior Academy of Science has maintained its status of Cooperating Member for the second consecutive year, (3) the St. Louis Junior Academy maintained the latter status for a portion of the year, having begun in the preceding year. Outright sale of copies of issues, as funds were available in the several states, was made to the Junior Academies in Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Kansas, and Okla¬ homa. The editorial policies as set forth in Volume 29 of the Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (pages 294-295) have been main¬ tained. The recommendations pertaining to publication at that time have 350 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science been carried out and found to be expedient. A copy of the March issue of the leaflet was made available to each member of the Illinois Biology Teachers Association and a copy of the April issue was made available to each member of the Illinois Chemistry Teachers Association. This was done in recognition of the continued services of these two organizations to the Illinois Junior Academy of Science through the annual presentation of loving cups for the competitions. The support of these organizations is greatly appreciated and it is believed that the benefits are mutual. A forecast of the possible usage of Science Club Service for the next year may be stated as follows : Iowa and Minnesota have already indi¬ cated that they would like to continue the present relations. Other states have not been heard from in this connection. Kentucky is continuing the publication of a leaflet designed for the use of the students primarily. St. Louis appears to be ready to publish a leaflet for the needs of that area. It is believed that neither of these organizations will long continue without the benefit of the distinctive service rendered by Science Club Service. It is anticipated that the latter leaflet will be found decidedly useful in sup¬ plementing the local leaflets. The report of the future plans for Science Club Service as outlined in the Report for the Senior Council in December, 1937, is called to the attention of Academy officials at this time. Expansion of the present program would be feasible under certain conditions. These are indicated along with other ideas in the following recommendations : ( 1 ) That efforts be made to develop the larger centers of population as units. (2) That Science Club Service be continued in such expanded form as is possible with funds that are available. (3) That the Junior Academy of Science movement maintain its status of cooperative activity between states, without submerging its identity in the publications of comparable organizations. As has been reported to the Council on previous occasions during the year, the total debits for the year were approximately $61.50, and the total credits $41.75, leaving a debit balance of $19.75. The Illinois Junior Academy has had the benefit it could make from three issues of Science Club Service for the cost of one issue. (Signed) Louis A. Astell, Editor JUNIOR SECTION MEETING WINNERS OF AWARDS LOVING CUPS All-Round Club : Edwardsville Science Club ; Scienois, Granite City ; Bot-Chem-Zoo, Parker High School, Chicago. Biology: The Ferreters, Chester; Joliet Science Club, Joliet; Edwards¬ ville Science Club and Vienna Science Club. Physics : Morton Physics Club, Morton High School, Cicero ; Edwards¬ ville Science Club, Edwardsville ; Normal Community High School. Thirty-first Annual Meeting 351 Geology : Bloomington High School ; Morton Weather Club, Morton High School ; Carterville Science Club, Carterville. Chemistry : Morton High School ; Normal Community High School ; Maine Township High School, Des Plaines. Junior High School : Morton General Science Club. BIOLOGY Individual Poster ( 1 ) Lowanda Martin, Vienna, “Conservation of Wildlife.” (2) Robert Lewis, Chester, “The Values of Pasteurized Milk.” (3) Cecil Warren, Blue Island, ‘ Parts of a Flower.” Group Poster (1) The Ferreters, Chester, “Im¬ munization Rate of Chester.” (2) Phi - Bi - Chem, Christopher, “Disarticulated Frog Skele¬ ton.” (3) Joliet Biology Club, “Bird Mi¬ gration Map.” Individual Projects ( 1 ) Mary Jane Mottar, Edwards- ville, ‘‘Demonstration of the Effect of Adrenalin on Insu¬ lin Shock.” (2) Dale Gill is, Chester, “Cross- Sections of Wood.” Group Project ( 1 ) Edwardsville, ‘‘Guinea Pigs Showing T. B. in Body.” (2) Chester, “Terrarium Con¬ taining Amphibians and Rep¬ tiles and Record of Feeding Habits.” (3) Joliet, “Models of Mouth Parts of a Grasshopper and Model of Spider.” Commercial Products ( Individual ) (1) James Wilson, Joliet, “Insec¬ ticides and Types of Insects Affected.” (2) Marion Wolff, Chester, ‘ Pro¬ ducts of Endocrine Glands.” Commercial Products [Group) (1) Joliet, ‘‘Products Obtained From Coal.” (2) Chester, “Different Types of Cathartics.” Individual Collections ( 1 ) Nadine Whitesides, Vienna, “Wild Flowers.” (2) James Schmerbauch, Chester, “Classification of Leaves.” (3) Julian Hughes, Joliet, ‘‘Col¬ lection of Insect Galls.” Group Collection (1) Joliet, “Trees and Their Pro¬ ducts.” (2) Chester, ‘‘Collection of Class¬ ified Insects.” (3) Blue Island, “Seed Collec¬ tion.” Science Notebooks ( 1 ) Clyde Martin, Chester, “Am¬ phibians and Salamanders of Southern Illinois.” (2) Marian Schooley, Parker, “Botany Notebook.” (3) June Delick, Blue Island, ‘Flower Biographies.” Models (1) Evelyn Cutter, Joliet, “Cap- sella Embryo.” (2) Mary Ann Knirich, Blue Is¬ land, ‘‘Clay Models of Mush¬ rooms.” (3) Etoyie Cavinder, Christopher, “Life Flistory of Wasp.” 2. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2) (3) (1) (•) (1) (2) (3) (1) (1) (2) (3) GEOLOGY Individual Poster Arthur Tomisek, Morton ( 1 ) Weather Club, “Map Show¬ ing Daily Mean Tempera¬ tures in Terms of Degree Days and Departure From Normal.” Garvin Steele, Bloomington, ^ “Showing the Structure Af¬ fecting The Accumulation and Recovery of Petroleum.” ^2) Anthony Simshauser, Granite City, ‘‘Crystal Structures.” Group Poster Bloomington Geology Club, “A Mechanical Time Calen- \ ' dar.” (2) Science Notebook Floyd Brown, Bloomington. NEWSLETTER Mimeograph Zoo, Rockford Zoology Club. (1) Scienois, Granite City. Science News, Edwardsville. Chem Flash. ^2) DittO fay. The Ferre ters, Chester. Group Project Bloomington Geology Club, ‘‘Showing Source of Sedimen¬ tary Rocks From Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks.” Individual Collections Robert Halstead, Carterville, “Collections of Pennsylvanian Fossils.” Burdette Allen, Bloomington, “Collection Showing Crystal Collection.” Models Henry Synek, Morton Weath¬ er Club, “Cloud Apparatus.” Cletus Kock, Edwardsville Science Club, “Soil Conser¬ vation.” Art Craft Class Lab News, Maine High School, DesPlaines. DesPlaines.. Weather Vane, Morton High School. Popular Physics, Morton High School. CHEMISTRY Individual Poster Charles Rapp, Granite City, “Chart of Indicators and Their Uses.” Francis McClay, Morton High School, “Chart Showing Steps In the Refining of Crude Oil.” Theodore Streenz, Normal Community, “Conque ring Cancer Through Use of Rad¬ ium and X-Ray.” Group Poster ( 1 ) Morton Chemistry Club, “Cross-Sections, Details and Elevations of Both the Blast Furnace and Bessemer Con¬ verter.” (2) Normal Community High School, “Showing Triumph of Rayon Over Silk As A Result of Chemistry.” (3) Edwardsville. Thirty-first Annual Meeting CHEMISTRY (Continued) 353 Individual Projects ( 1 ) Floyd Schmake, Morton High School, ‘‘Preparation of Lum- inol for Use In the Demon¬ stration of Gold Light.” (2) Ralph Krupp, Dupo High School, “Chemical Crystals Produced By Evaporation Or Cooling or Both of Saturated Solutions of the Salts.” Group Project ( 1 ) Parker High School, Chicago, ‘‘Alchemy Laboratory.” (2) Maine Chemistry Club, Des- Plaines, “Methods of Cotton Dying.” (3) Edwardsville, “Flares.” Individual Commercial Products (1) Tony Susen, Maine Chemis¬ try Club, “The Process of Making A Dye.” (2) Nick Lewchuh, Morton High School, “Castner Cell.” (3) Robert Caulk, Edwardsville, “Distillation of Crude Oil.” Group Commercial Products ( 1 ) Morton Chemistry Club, “Frasch Process — Method of Obtaining Sulfur From Sul¬ fur Deposits.” (2) Normal Community High School, “Halftone Cuts For Mimeograph.” Individual Collections ( 1 ) Eric Isaacson, Gillespie, “Li¬ quid Gases Sealed In Glass Under Low Temperature.” (2) Paul Fanta, Morton High School. (3) Harry Trough, Normal Com¬ munity, “Compounds Deriv¬ ed From Sodium Chloride.” (3) Tony Susen, Maine Town¬ ship High School, “Derivation of Coal Gas and Coal Tar.” Group Collection ( 1 ) Morton High School, “Cos¬ metic Collection Showing Raw Materials and Finished Products.” (2) Parker High School, Chicago, “Drug Exhibit.” (3) Normal Community, “Coal and Chemicals Derived From It.” Science Notebooks ( 1 ) Normal Community, Ruth Humphries. (2) Morton High School, Laver- na Skeppstrom. (2) Edwardsville, Ruth Weidner. (3) Granite City, Eddie Good. Models ( 1 ) Ed Andrlik, Morton High School, “Model of Atom.” (2) Gene Wehling, Edwardsville, “Nitrogen Fixation Apparat¬ us.” (3) Tony Susen, Maine Town¬ ship High School, DesPlaines, ‘‘Molecular Motion Model.” PHYSICS Individual Poster (1) Carl Stoffels, Morton Physics Club, “Interferometer Meas¬ ures the Stars.” (2) George Schneider, Edwards¬ ville, ‘‘Lifelike Sketch of Thomas Edison.” Group Poster (1) Jack Fricker, Granite City, “Physics In The Enrichment of Life.” (2) Edwardsville Science Club. 354 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science PHYSICS Individual Projects (1) Walter Johnston, Christo¬ pher, “All Wave Radio Set.” (2) William Mraz, Morton Phys¬ ics Club, “Cosmic Ray Detec¬ tion.” (3) Howard Rowatt, Carterville Science Club, ‘‘Tesla Coil.” Group Project (2) Christopher, “Two Tube Radio Set.” Individual Commercial Products ( 1 ) Sidney Lansky, Morton Phys¬ ics Club, “Photoelectric Ex¬ hibit.” (2) Bill Belshaw, Edwardsville Science Club, “Transmitting Set.” (3) Hubert Damron, Carterville Science Club, “Block and Tackle.” Group Commercial Products ( 1 ) Morton Physics Club, ‘‘Elec¬ trical Discharge Tube.” (2) Bot-Chem-Zoo, Parker High School, Chicago, “Spectro¬ scope.” (Continued) Individual Collections (1) Herbie Simons, Edwardsville Science Club, “Light Bulbs.” Group Collection ( 1 ) Edwardsville Science Club, “Model Airplanes.” (2) Morton Physics Club, ‘‘Inter¬ ference of Light.” Notebooks ( 1 ) Graham Whipple, Normal University Major Powell Club, “Modern American Av¬ iation Engines.” (2) William Luksan, Edwards¬ ville Science Club. (3) Carl Stoffels, Morfon Physics Club. Models Graham Whipple, Normal Uni¬ versity Major Powell Science Club, “2-Cycle Gasoline En¬ gine.” (2) Joe Eraser, Morton Physics Club, “Balance Scales.” Radio Notebook (1) John Llarrison, Edwardsville. ASTRONOMY Individual Poster ( 1 ) John Duffy, Normal Univers¬ ity, Major Powell Science Club, ‘‘How To Make a Plan- oscope.” (2) Robert Lange, Edwardsville. Group Poster Edwardsville Science Club. Individual Projects (1) Sarah Jo Springer, Edwards¬ ville Science Club, “Umbrella Star Map of the Northern Hemisphere.” (2) Dorothy Granquist, Bot- Chem-Zoo, Parker High School, “Model of Adler Planetarium.” (3) Lester Felner, Granite City Science Club, “Blue Prints of Constellations.” Astronomy Notebooks (1) Waldemar Jahn, Edwards¬ ville Science Club. (2) Richard Niehaus, Granite city Sience Club. Individual Commercial Products ( 1 ) No Award. (2) Cletus Kock, Edwardsville Club, “Stars Etched in Glass.” Group Project (1) Granite City Science Club, “Earth and Moon Model.” Thirty-first Annual Meeting ASTRONOMY (Continued) 355 Junior High School Victor Gorecki, Morton General Science Club, “Reflecting Telescope.” Harry Loeffler, Morton General Science Club, “Reflecting Telescope.” Everett Clements, Morton General Science Club, “Collection of Plant and Animal Fossils.” REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON A. A. A. S. RESEARCH AWARDS The committee appointed to make recommendations for research awards under the supervision of the A. A. A. S. begs leave to make the following recommendations for awards for the year 1938-39 : Prof. A. Frances Johnson, Department of Physics, Rock¬ ford College, Rockford, for the purchase of needed equipment in her study upon the effect of infra-red, visible, and ultra-violet radiation on differences of elec¬ tric potentials in plants _ $ 117.00 Profs. Harold E. Way and John DeVries, Departments of Chemistry and Physics, Knox College, Galesburg for additional materials for continuing their study of crystals of zinc _ 75.00 Mr. A. M. Simpson, Peoria Academy of Science, Peoria for continuing his study of the culture and villages of prehistoric Illinois Indians _ _ _ 33.00 Respectfully submitted, B. S. Hopkins, Chairman Geo. D. Fuller, W. O. Blanchard, Chas. T. Knipp, Thorne Deuel. REPORT OF THE DELEGATE TO THE ACADEMY CONFERENCE OF THE A. A. A. S. Indianapolis, Indiana, December 27, 1937 After the roll call of the delegates three papers were presented : “The Place and Reasons for Existence of State Academies,” Dr. Frank E. E. Germann, Colorado-Wyoming Academy. “Cooperation Between the State Academies and the A. A. A. S.”, Dr. E. C. L. Miller, Virginia Academy of Science. “Report of the Academies’ use of Research Grants”, Dr. Otis W. Cald¬ well, General Secretary, A. A. A. S. A discussion of the place of the Junior Academies followed and your delegate presented a report prepared by Mr. Louis A. Astell on the ac¬ tivities of the Illinois Junior Academy. Your delegate and the delegate from the Indiana Academy urged that steps be taken to promote the activities of Junior Academies and cited as one of the best means of ac¬ complishing such an end the enlargment of Science Club Service which under the editorship of Mr. Astell has done such good work for 356 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science the past few years. Dr. Caldwell assured us of the sympathy of the A.A.A.S. in our efforts to extend the influence of Science Club Service and indicated that in the future some financial assistance might be available. The delegates were given a complimentary dinner at the Claypool Hotel by the A. A. A. S. Respectfully submitted, (Signed) Geo. D. Fuller, Delegate. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON CONSERVATION Two years ago a subcommittee of the Committee on Conservation was organized “ to aid in the protection, preservation and scientific study of an¬ thropological remains in Illinois.” Last year, thinking the field of activities of this subcommittee was sufficiently broad and important enough to justify full committee status, your committee recommended that such action be taken by the general committee. This recommendation was approved by the Academy, and the activities of this new Committee on the Conservation of Archaeological and Historic Sites indicate the wis¬ dom of this action. Your Conservation Committee has continued to be active in the sup¬ port of state and national legislation favoring the better preservation and utilization of our natural resources. From time to time letters have been written to United States senators or representatives, urging the passage or defeat of certain proposed bills in the interests of a sound state and nation¬ al conservation program. The large attendance enjoyed by certain na¬ tional parks, such as Yellowstone and Rocky Mountain, is making these areas increasingly attractive to commercialized interests. Once a prece¬ dent for exploitation is established within the national parks, it will be increasingly difficult to maintain national parks for the purpose for which they have been dedicated. Respectfully submitted, (Signed) T. H. Frison, Chairman June 1, 1938 REPORT OF THE DELEGATE TO THE CONSERVATION COUNCIL The work of the Conservation Council functions in two ways : ( 1 ) in spreading education in the field of conservation through the delegates ;rom the various organizations represented back to their organizations, (2) through the broad pressure that can be brought to bear on our national and state legislatures in the construction of and passage of laws which in¬ clude the best conservation policies and work. We believe that great steps have been made in forwarding the necessary education for conservation. The Conservation Council has shown a growth each year for the past eight years, so much so in fact that it is difficult to find a luncheon room with sufficient space to handle the dele¬ gates that now wish to be present at the noon meeting on the third Thurs¬ day of each month. A number of years ago the various organizations represented were far Thirty-first Annual Meeting 357 apart in the policies that they were willing to support. It has been the aim of the officers of the Conservation Council to bring these groups more closely together around the definite movements in conservation concerning which all can agree. There is so much to be accomplished in this field that is desirable to all groups that the various organizations have gradually become convinced that they should forget their little differences and work together on the great movements needed by all. Not all the contributing organizations have the same central theme. Their problems differ, but on problems of conservation so many things need lo be done within the realm of all organizations that such problems are given major consideration at our meetings. This has proven helpful also as a means of unification. It has resulted in the shifting of emphasis, in all organizations interested in the outdoors, towards conservation. Or¬ ganizations formerly interested in birds only now take the broader view of the inter-relationships of birds to forests, to shrubbery, and to protecive covering. Those interested in wild flowers are brought, through the science of ecology, to an interest in forestry, prairies, and swamps. Those who en¬ joy fishing must have streams and lakes in order that the fish supply may be supported. All who wish to hunt are favorable to forestry and game re¬ serves. All these interests bring to the fore the major problems of conser¬ vation. In the four fly ways from north to south across the United States there are at present more than 200 resting reserves. About 70 more are definitely needed to complete the picture of the restoration of wild life. At present it seems that the Mississippi Flyway is the best cared for of the four and it is interesting to note that from the low of four years ago there has been considerable pick-up in the game population. The National Park movement has gone steadily forward. The national forests have increased to a considerable extent and proved valuable not only for lumber supply but in the extension of the wild life ranges. Deeper than all of this goes the problem of the total effect of the natural scenery and recreational grounds provided through conservation to the people of the coming generations. (Signed) V. O. Graham, Delegate. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS 1. Resolved, that the Illinois Academy of Science heartily approves the efforts of the Associated Conservation organizations of Illinois to further the commission plan for the administration of the Department of Conser¬ vation in Illinois, and that a copy of this resoluion be sent to Don T. Mason, Secretary of the Associated Conservation Organizations of Illinois. 2. Whereas : From time to time medical progress is hampered by mis¬ leading campaigns for legislation by Anti-Vivisection Societies and whereas the prohibition of humane animal experimentation throttles scientific re¬ search into the nature and treatment of diseases common to both animals and man, the Illinois Academy of Science hereby resolves that such ac¬ tivity is ill informed and dangerous to the public well being. 3. The Illinois Academy of Science desires to record its protest against the introduction into primeval National Parks of any form of commercial- 558 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science ism. Embracing only a minute part of our national area, these superb and irreplaceable examples of unique, primitive conditions should be kept inviolate and preserved for the education and inspiration of future generations. The Illinois Academy urgently petitions all state and federal officers, and especially, the President of the United States, and members of his cabinet, as well as members of Congress, to oppose resolutely the granting of permits extending such privileges in these parks. It is hereby ordered that a copy of these resolutions be sent to the President. Also to the members of the Cabinet, to Illinois Senators, and Representatives in Congress, and that they be furnished to all societies and persons interested in the National Parks. 4. Whereas : It is necessary for the conservation of archeological and historical sites in Illinois that a law be enacted by the General As¬ sembly providing for the licensing of all persons or institutions who desire to excavate prehistoric sites, ancient burial grounds, or any site of im¬ portance to the history of Illinois ; be it resolved that the Committee for Conservation of Archeological and Historical Sites be empowered to con¬ fer with the Director of Registration and Education, and to draw up a bill for submission to the Council of the Academy for its approval. 5. Resolved that the Academy reaffirm its past position with respect to emphasizing the importance of the research agencies of the State, and that they continue their sound and thoroughgoing researches on the natural resources of the State with a view to more intelligent development and conservation. 6. Resolved, that we greatly regret to report the deaths during the year of the following members : Life members : Atwell, Charles B., Swathmore, Penn. Slocom, A. W., Chicago, Ill. Sykes, Mabel, Chicago, 111. Annual members : Boomer, Simeon E., Carbondale, Ill, Bull, R. A., Chicago, Ill. Hildebrand, L. E., Winnetka, Ill, Miller, Dr. J. L., Chicago, Ill. Whitney, Worallo, Chicago, Ill. We feel that in their death the Academy has suffered a great loss and we herewith express our great appreciation of past services they have rendered the cause of science. 7. Resolved, that we express to Dr. Frison and his staff ; to Dr. Leigh¬ ton and his staff ; to Dr. Merwin and Mr. Peithman, and to Dr. Van Noe, our appreciation of their interest in making the resources of Southern Illinois available as first hand educational material for the students of Illinois working in the fields of the natural sciences; and to Col. Fain W. King and wife of Wyckliffe, for their courtesy in entertaining us as guests at the Wyckliffe Mounds. 8. Resolved, that we express our sincere thanks to the officers of the State Academy and to the editor of our publications for their faithful and efficient services during the past year. Thirty-first Annual Meeting 359 9. Resolved, that we express to President Pulliam, and the Southern Illinois Normal Faculty our appreciation of their interest in the various lines of work embraced in the Illinois Academy of Science. We desire also to thank them for the use of the plant and for the welcome they have rendered us. 10. Resolved, that we express to the Local Community headed by Dr. Young and Dr. Gersbacher of the college and to the Biology teachers of the Community High School, our appreciation of their enthusiastic and successful efforts in rendering this Academy meeting a profitable one. 11. Resolved, that the resolutions adopted at this meeting be placed on record and that copies of pertinent resolutions be duly transmitted to interested persons. (Signed) Mary M. Steagall, Chairman. AFFILIATED HIGH SCFIOOL SCIENCE CLUBS Arlington Heights : Arlington Heights Science Club, High School. Bloomington : Amateur Burroughs Club, High School. Abraham Lincoln Science Club, Lincoln Junior High School. Bloomington Geology Club, High School. Blue Island : Blue Island Biology Club, Community High School. Carterville : High School Science Club, Carterville High School. Chester : The Ferreters, High School. Chicago : Botkemzo Club, Parker Senior High School. Bowen Bird Boosters, Bowen High School. Fenger Science Club, Fenger High School. Lake View Science Club, Lake View High School. Major Powell Science Club, Chicago Normal. Science Club, Hyde Park High School. Siena Biology Club, 5600 Washington Blvd. University Science Club, University of Chicago High School. Christopher : Phi-Bi-Chem, Community High School. Cicero : Morton Biology Club, J. Sterling Morton High School. Morton Chemistry Club, J. Sterling Morton High School. Morton Physics Club, j. Sterling Morton High School. Morton Weather Club, J. Sterling Morton High School. Clinton : Bugology Club, Community High School. Danville : Danville Science Club, High School. DesPlaines : Maine Chemistry Club, Maine Township High School. Dupo : Dupo Chemistry Club, High School. East Moline : Bio-Chem-Ics Club, United Township High School. East St. Louis: East Side Science Club, Senior High School. Natural Science Club, Rock Senior High School. Edwardsville : Edwards Science Club, High School. High School Science Club, Edwardsville High School. Gillespie : Gillespie Science Club, High School. Glen Ellyn : Glenbard Science Club, Glenbard High School. Granite City : Vocational Science Club, High School. Jacksonville : David Prince Junior High School Science Club. Joliet : Joliet High School Biology Club, High School. 360 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science McLeanshoro : McLeansboro Science Club, High School. Normal : Chem-Mystery Club, Community High School. Major Powell Science Club, Normal University. Physics Club, Normal Community High School. Pontiac : Bi-Fi-Ki Society, High School. Quincy : Quincy Alchemists Club, High School. Riverside : Catalyst Club, Riverside-Brookfield High School. Rockford : Astronomy Club, Abraham Lincoln Junior High School. Aceraceae Botany Club, Rockford Senior High School. Botany Club, Senior High School. Natural Science Club, Senior High School. Zoology Club, Senior High School. Rockford College Science Club, Rockford College. Rockton : Mote Scientifique, Hononegah Community High School. Roodhouse : Scientia Fratres, High School. IJrbana : Thornburn Junior Science Club, Thornburn Junior High School. Vienna : Science Club, Vienna Township High School. West Chicago : Edisonian Science Club, Community High School. SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AFFILIATED WITH THE ACADEMY Chicago Academy of Science, Lincoln Park, Chicago, Ill. (1925.) Chicago Nature Study Club, 3842 Byron St., Chicago, Ill., care of Dr. H. S. Pepoon. (1928.) Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado. (1937.) Illinois Association of Biology Teachers, Mary R. Earnest, Sec’y. Decatur High School, Decatur, Ill. (1928.) Illinois Association of Chemistry Teachers, H. L. Slichenmyer, Blooming¬ ton High School, Bloomington, Ill. (1928.) Illinois Nature Study Society of Elgin, Mrs. H. M. Armstrong, Sec’y, 395 DuPage St., Elgin, Ill. (1924.) Illinois State Library, State House, Springfield, Ill. (1934.) Indiana State Library, Indianapolis, Ind. (1937.) ]ohn Crerar Library, Chicago, Ill. (1937.) Knox County Academy of Science, Galesburg, Ill., C. L. Furrow, Presi¬ dent. (1923.) Main Library, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada. (1937.) McLean County Academy of Science. Normal Science Club, Illinois State Normal University, care of Bessie I. Hibarger, Treas., 200 W. Mulberry St., Normal, Ill. (1923.) Oregon State Library, Corvallis, Oregon. (1937.) Peoria Academy of Science, Peoria, Ill. (1931.) Rockford College of Science, Rockford College, Rockford, Ill. (193/.) Rockford Nature Study Society, care of Miss Frances S. Dobson, 312 N. Avon St., Rockford, Ill. (1923.) Science Club, Teachers College, Macomb, Ill. Sigma Xi, University of Illinois Chapter, Urbana, Ill. (1925.) Springfield Nature League, Springfield, Ill. Thirty-first Annual Meeting 361 Southern Illinois Science Club, Southern Illinois State Teachers’ College, Carbondale, Ill. (1926.) Theta Chi Delta, Alpha Eta Chapter, Carthage College, Carthage, Ill. ( Chemistry. ) ( 1 929. ) Theta Chi Delta, Alpha Chapter, Lombard College, Galesburg, Ill. (1934.) University of Illinois, Branch of the American Chemical Society, Urbana, Ill. (1937.) Index to Vol. 30 will be included in Vol. 31, No. 1. TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE GENERAL INDEX TO VOLUME 30 1937-1938 Note. — Articles are classified by author, by title, and also are grouped under the following subjects: Academy business, agriculture, anthropology, botany, chemistry, geography, geology, physics, psychology and education, and zoology. Since 1930 the Transactions have been issued quarterly. The number of the quarterly issue is given in parentheses. A Academy business Affiliated high school science clubs and scientific societies affiliated with the Academy (4): 359-361 Affiliated societies, meeting with representatives of (4): 339 Affiliation, report of committee on (4): 348 American Association for the Ad¬ vancement of Science: Report of delegate to the Acad¬ emy Conference of (4): 355 Report of the committee on (4): 355 Rewards to Junior Academy (4): 350-355 Annual meeting, Minutes of 31st (4): 340-342 Auditing committee’s report (4): 344 Conservation Council of Chicago, Report of delegate to (4): 356 Conservation of archeological and historical sites, Report of com¬ mittee on (4): 347 Conservation, Report of committee on (4): 356 Council meetings, Minutes of (4): 335-339 Ecological bibliography, report of committee on compilation of (4): 345 Editor’s report (4): 345 High school science and clubs, Re¬ port of committee on (4): 349 Junior Academy, Report of (4): 349 Junior section meeting (4): 350 Winners of awards (4): 350- 355 Librarian’s report (4): 345 Membership committee, report of (4): 348 Academy business — continued Memoirs: Jordan, Edwin Oakes (1): 21-22 Jelliff, Fred R. (1): 25-26 Poggi, Edith Muriel (1): 23-24 Officers and committees for 1937-38, Reports of (4) : 340-350 Publications committee, report of (4): 347 Resolutions committee, report of (4): 357 Science Club Service, Report on (4): 349 Treasurer’s report (4): 343 Address of the retiring president — Evolution of sex in the mollusca (Furrow), (1): 5-12 Adult education in agriculture (Weiss), (2): 71-73 Adult farmers, evening schools for (Arndt), (2): 43-44 Agriculture Adult farmers, evening schools for (Arndt), (2): 43-44 Adult education in agriculture (Weiss), (2): 71-73 Agriculture for all rural schools (Oathout), (2): 65-66 Agriculture, the art and science of (Davenport), (2): 46-47 Arndt, Paul, Evening schools for adult farmers (2): 43-44 Art and science of agriculture (Davenport), (2): 45-47 Community, the part time school and the (Lamoreux), (2): 61- 62 Compara tive productiveness of some twelve varieties of toma¬ toes on fertile prairie soils (Douglass), (2): 48-50 [41] 42 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Agriculture — continued Corn, hybrid, the rise of (Dun- gan), (2): 54-55 Davenport, Eugene, The art and science of agriculture (2): 45- 47 Douglass, T. J., Comparative pro¬ ductiveness of some twelve varie¬ ties of tomatoes on fertile prairie soils, (2): 48-50 Dowell, W. H., Tazewell county in¬ dustries as a market for farm products (2) : 51-53 Dungan, G. H., The rise of hybrid corn (2): 54-55 Education, adult, in agriculture (Weiss), (2): 71-73 Evening schools for adult farmers (Arndt), (2): 43-44 Experimental test with vegetable soybeans (Hastings), (2): 56-57 Hastings, L., Experimental test with vegetable soybeans ( 2 ) : 56-57 Hudelson, C. W., Pasture demon¬ stration studies (2): 58-60 Hybrid corn, The rise of (Dun¬ gan), (2): 54-55 Lamoreux, The part time school and the community (2): 61-62 Lawns, and golf courses, The influ¬ ence of the chemical composition of soils upon the maintenance of the turf on (Snider), (2): 69-70 Lindstrom, D. E., Natural increase in the population, rural and urban, in Illinois, 1930 (2): 63-64 Market for farm products, Taze¬ well county as a (Dowell), (2): 51-53 Natural increase in population, rural and urban, in Illinois, 1930 (Lindstrom), (2): 63-64 Oathout, C. H., Agriculture for all rural schools (2): 65-66 Pasture demonstration studies (Hudelson), (2): 58-60 Population, Natural increase in, rural and urban, in Illinois, 1930 (Lindstrom), (2): 63-64 Rural schools, Agriculture for all (Oathout), (2): 65-66 School, The part time, and the community (Lamoreux), (2): 61-62 Section chairman, C. W. Hudelson, report of (2): 41 Slothower, L. V., Some proposed curriculum changes in vocational agriculture (2): 67-68 A g r i c u 1 1 u re — continued Snider, H. J., The influence of the chemical composition of soils upon maintenance of turf on lawns and golf courses (2): 69-70 Soils, The influence of chemical composition of, upon mainte¬ nance of turf on lawns and golf courses (Snider), (2): 69-70 Some proposed curriculum changes in vocational agriculture ( Slo¬ thower), (2): 67-68 Soybeans, vegetable, Experimental test with (Hastings), (2): 56-57 Tazewell county industries as a market for farm products (Dow¬ ell), (2): 51-53 Tomatoes, Comparative productive¬ ness of some twelve varieties of (Douglass), (2): 48-50 Vocational agriculture, Some pro¬ posed curriculum changes in (Slothower), (2): 67-68 Weiss, J. N., Adult education in agriculture (2): 71-73 Agriculture, Adult education in (Weiss), (2): 71-73 Agriculture, The art and science of (Davenport), (2): 45-47 Agriculture for all rural schools (Oathout), (2): 65-66 Albino rat demonstration of mineral and vitamin deficiencies in a com¬ mon human diet (Elmslie and Bunting), (2): 177-179 Alkali hydrides, Molecular spectra of (Rassweiler), (2): 269-270 Amaranthaceae, Chromosome num¬ bers of (Willoughby), (2): 150-152 Angus, H. L., The migration and dis¬ tribution of the great blue heron in Illinois (2): 293-294 Anthropology Artifacts typical to Winnebago county (Barloga), (2): 77-78 Axes, monolithic (Stone), (2): 97- 100 Banner stones, ornamental uses of the so-called (Knoblock), (2): 3- 94 Barloga, F. L., Artifacts typical to Winnebago county (2): 77-78 Fulton county, a red ochre mound in (Wray), (2): 82 Hudelson, C. W., Stone artifacts of North American Indians (2): 79- 81 Indians, North American, stone artifacts of (Hudelson), (2): 79- 81 Index to Volume 30 43 A nth ro pology — continued Kentucky, southern, an archaeolog¬ ical reconnaissance in (Knight), (2): 91-92 Kentucky, Wickliffe, recent excava¬ tions at the King mounds (King), (2): 83-90 King mounds, Recent Excavations at, Wickliffe, Kentucky (King), (2): 83-90 Kingston site burials, various types of (Simpson), (2): 95-96 Knight, Kenneth L., An archae¬ ological reconnaissance in south¬ ern Kentucky (2): 91-92 Knoblock, Byron W., Ornamental uses of the so-called banner stones (2): 93-94 Monolithic axes (Stone), (2): 97- 99 Mound, A red ochre, in Fulton county (Wray), (2): 82 Ornamental uses of the so-called banner stones (Knoblock), (2): 93-94 Recent excavations at the King mounds, Wickliffe, Kentucky (King), (2): 83-90 Red ochre mound in Fulton county (Wray), (2): 82 Section Chairman J. B. Ruyle, re¬ port of (2) : 75 Simpson, A. M., Various types of Kingston site burials (2): 95-96 Stone artifacts of North American Indians (Hudelson), (2): 79-81 Stone, Claude U., Monolithic axes (2): 97-99 Stones, banner. Ornamental uses of the so-called (Knoblock), (2): 93-94 Various types of Kingston site burials (Simpson), (2): 95-96 Wickliffe, Kentucky, Recent exca¬ vations at the King mounds (King), (2): 83-90 Winnebago county, artifacts typical to (Barloga) , (2): 77-78 Wray, Donald E., A red ochre mound in Fulton county (2): 82 Applications of the photo-electric cell in astronomy (Kunz), (2): 255- 257 Archaeological reconnaissance in southern Kentucky ( Knight ) , ( 2 ) : 91-92 Areas of interest, Teaching com¬ munity civics through (Ellwood), (2): 277-278 Arndt, Paul, Evening schools for adult farmers (2): 43-44 Artifacts, Stone, of North American Indians (Hudelson), (2): 79-81 Artifacts typical to Winnebago county (Barloga). (2): 77-78 Astronomy, Applications of photo¬ electric cell in (Kunz), (2): 255- 257 Axes, monolithic (Stone), (2): 97- 99 B Ball, J. R., Physiography and surfi- cial geology of the Carlinville quad¬ rangle (2): 219-223 Banner stones, Ornamental uses of the so-called (Knoblock), (2), 93- 94 Barloga, F. L., Artifacts typical to Winnebago county (2): 77-78 Barton, Thomas F., Reforestation in southern Illinois (2): 201-205 Bedrock at Rockford, The geology and groundwork resources of (Payne), (2): 238-241 Behavior problems, Suggestive data concerning the etiology of (Rey- mert and Kohn), (2): 281-283 Bennett, C. W., with Ward, Lyle K., Chemiluminescence-oxidation of py- rogallic acid (2): 198 Biology, medical students’ back¬ ground in (Job), (2): 125-126 Biology, testing for organizing ability in (Montgomery), (2): 136-137 Biology, the use of supervised study in high school (McAvoy), (2): 287- 289 Birds, changing status as regards their abundance (Eifrig), (2): 295- 297 Bluebird population, a scientific ex¬ periment to increase it (Evers), (2): 298-299 Blue heron, the great, its migration and distribution in Illinois (An¬ gus), (2): 293-294 Boewe, G. H., Tiny toadstools on crop plants in Illinois (2) : 103-104 Bonnell, Clarence, An inland inunda¬ tion (2): 206-207 Botany Amaranthaceae, chromosome num¬ bers of (Willoughby), (2): ISO- 152 Biology, medical students’ back¬ ground in (Job), (2): 125-126 Biology, testing for organizing ability in (Montgomery), (2): 136-137 Boewe, G. H., Tiny toadstools on crop plants in Illinois (2): 103- 104. 44 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Botany — continued Botany, elementary, at Northwest¬ ern University (Carlson), (2): 107 Botany, elementary, at the Univer¬ sity of Illinois (Fuller), (2): 115-117 Botany, general, teaching of in liberal arts colleges for women (Therese), (2): 155-157 Botany in a small high school with access to the country (Easter), (2): 111-112 Botany in the program for a sum¬ mer camp (Leedy), (2): 129-130 Brian, C. E., and Stover, E. L., Regions of growth in hypocotyls (2): 105-106 Carlson, Margery, Elementary botany at Northwestern Univer¬ sity (2) : 107 Conservation, forest, in the Ohio valley (Mauntel), (2): 133-135 Chromosome numbers of amaran- thaceae (Willoughby), (2): ISO- 152 Easter, Sister Claretta, Botany in a small high school with access to the country (2): 111-112 Edgecombe, A. E., A comparative study of certain fungi cultivated on carbohydrate media (2): 108- 110 Effects of heat and cold on enzymic activity in bulbs and corms (Fuller and Hanley), (2): 113- 114 Elementary botany at Northwest¬ ern University (Carlson), (2): 107 Elementary botany at the Univer¬ sity of Illinois (Fuller), (2): 115-117 Enzymic activity in bulbs and corms, effects of heat and cold on (Fuller and Hanley), (2): 113- 114 Forest conservation in the Ohio valley (Mauntel), (2): 133-135 Forests of the Yarmouth and San¬ gamon interglacial periods (Voss), (2): 138 Fuller, H. J., Elementary botany at the University of Illinois (2): 115-117 Fuller, H. J., and Hanley, J. H., Effects of heat and cold on enzymic activity in bulbs and corms (2): 113-114 Fungi cultivated on carbohydrate media, a comparative study (Edgecombe), (2): 108-110 Botany — continued Fungi, preservation of in ancient wood (Tehon), (2): 147-149 Gases, a new method for the quan¬ titative measurement of (Lam- key), (2): 127-128 Germination of pollen grains for class use (Marks), (2): 131-132 Hague, Stella M., Illinois liver¬ worts (2): 118-124 Hanley, J. H., with Fuller, H. J., Effects of heat and cold on enzymic activity in bulbs and corms (2): 113-114 Humidity variations affecting tran¬ spiration (Thut), (2): 153-154 Hypocotyls, regions of growth in (Brian and Stover), (2): 105-106 Illinois liverworts (Hague), (2): 118-124 Illinois Pennsylvanian, two new lycopod seeds from the (Schopf), (2): 139-146 Interglacial periods of Sangamon and Yarmouth forests (Voss), (2): 138 Job, Thesle T., Medical students’ background in biology (2): 125- 126 Lamkey, E. M. R., A new method for the quantitative measure¬ ment of gases (2): 127-128 Leedy, J. W., Botany in the pro¬ gram for a summer camp (2): 129-130 Liverworts, Illinois (Hague), (2): 118-124 Lycopod seeds, Two new, from the Illinois Pennsylvanian (Schopf), (2): 139-146 Marks, lea, Germination of pollen grains for class use (2): 131-132 Mauntel, Harry, Forest conserva¬ tion in the Ohio valley (2): 133- 135 Medical students’ background in biology, (Job) (2): 125-126 Montgomery, C. E., Testing for or¬ ganizing ability in biology (2): 136-137 Nature education in parks (White), (2): 160-161 Northwestern university, elemen¬ tary botany at (Carlson), (2): 107 Ohio valley, forest conservation in the (Mauntel), (2): 133-135 Parks, Nature education in (White), (2): 160-161 Pollen grains, germination of for class use (Marks), (2): 131-132 Index to Volume 30 45 Botany — continued Porella, spore germination and thallus development in (Voth), (2): 158-159 Preservation of fungi in ancient wood (Tehon), (2): 147-149 Quantitative measurement of gases, a new method for (Lamkey), (2): 127-128 Sangamon and Yarmouth intergla¬ cial periods, forests of the (Voss), (2): 138 Schopf, James M., Two new lycopod seeds from the Illinois Pennsyl¬ vanian (2): 139-146 Section chairman Neil E. Stevens, report of (2) : 101 Spore germination and thallus de¬ velopment in porella (Voth), (2): 158-159 Stover, E. L,, with Brian, C. E., Regions of growth in hypocotyls (2): 105-106 Summer camp, botany in the pro¬ gram for a (Leedy), (2): 123- 130 Teaching of general botany in liberal arts colleges for women (Therese), (2): 155-157 Tehon, Leo, Preservation of fungi in ancient wood (2): 147-149 Testing for organizing ability in biology (Montgomery), (2): 136- 137 Thallus development and spore germination in porella (Voth), (2): 158-159 Therese, Sister Mary, Teaching of general botany in liberal arts colleges for women (2): 155-157 Thut, H. F., Humidity variations affecting transpiration (2): 153- 154 Tiny toadstools on crop plants in Illinois (Boewe), (2): 103-104 Transpiration, humidity variations affecting (Thut), (2): 153-154 Two new lycopod seeds from the Illinois Pennsylvanian (Schopf), (2): 139-146 University of Illinois, elementary botany at the (Fuller), (2): 115- 117 Voss, John, Forests of the Yar¬ mouth and Sangamon interglacial periods (2): 138 Voth, Paul D., Spore germination and thallus development in porella (2): 158-159 White, Elizabeth, Nature education in parks (2) : 160-161 Botany — continued Willoughby, Mildred, Chromosome numbers of amaranthaceae (2): 150-152 Yarmouth and Sangamon inter¬ glacial periods, Forests of the (Voss), (2): 138 Botany, elementary, at Northwestern University (Carlson), (2): 107 Botany, elementary, at the Univer¬ sity of Illinois (Fuller), (2): 115- 117 Botany in a small high school with access to the country (Easter), (2): 111-112 Botany in the program for a summer camp (Leedy), (20): 129-130 Botany, general, Teaching of, in lib¬ eral arts colleges for women (Therese), (2): 155-157 Bradley, W. F., The place of X-ray diffraction in clay mineralogy (2): 165-166 Brian, C. E., and Stover, E. L., Regions of growth in hypocotyls (2): 105-106 Bunting, W. R., with Elmslie, W. P., An albino rat demonstration of mineral and vitamin deficiencies in a common human diet (2): 177-179 C Caldwell, L. T., Stratigraphy and pre¬ glacial topography of the DeKalb and Sycamore quadrangles (2): 224-225 Carlson, Margery, Elementary botany at Northwestern University (2): 107 Carlinville quadrangle, physiography and surficial geology of (Ball), (2): 219-223 Carroll, Don L,, The 1937 flood in southern Illinois (1): 13-18 Chemiluminescence-oxidation of pyro- gallic acid (Ward and Bennett), (2): 198 Chemical composition of soils, their influence on maintenance of lawns and golf courses (Snider), (2): 69-70 Chemistry Bennett, C. W., with Ward, Lyle K., Chemiluminescence-oxidation o f pyrogallic acid (2): 198 Bradley, W. F., The place of X-ray diffraction in clay mineralogy (2): 165-166 46 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Chem istry — continued Bunting, W. R., with Elmslie, W. P., An albino rat demonstration of mineral and vitamin deficien¬ cies in a common human diet (2) : 177-179 Chemical composition of soils, their influence on maintenance of turf on lawns and golf courses (Snider), (2): 69-70 Chemiluminescence - oxidation of pyrogallic acid (Ward and Ben¬ nett), (2): 198 Cheronis, N. D., Pyrethrum growth in Illinois (2): 167-176 Cryolite, synthetic (Finger and Reed), (2): 180-182 Clay Mineralogy, the place of X-ray' diffraction in (Bradley), (2): 165-166 Coal, properties of heated (Grotts), (2): 183-184 Copley, M. J., with Klein, O. C., A new method for starting ther¬ mite reactions (2): 189 Demonstrations of electrolysis by optical projection (Thiessen), (2): 192-193 Diet, human, An albino rat demon¬ stration of mineral and vitamin deficiencies in (Elmslie and Bunting), (2): 177-179 Electrolysis, demonstration of by optical projection (Thiessen), (2): 192-193 Elmslie, W. P., and Bunting, W. R., An albino rat demonstration of mineral and vitamin deficiencies in a common human diet (2): 177-179 Finger, G. C., and Reed, F. H., Synthetic cryolite (2): 180-182 Fluorine, methods for determining (McVicker), (2): 190-191 Fractional distillation ( Keyes ) , (2): 185-188 Grotts, Paul, Properties of heated coal (2): 183-184 Illinois, Pyrethrum growth in (Cheronis), (2): 167-176 Illinois sedimentary rocks, silicate and related systems involving chemical components of (Too- ley), (2): 194-197 Keyes, D. B., Fractional distillation (2): 185-188 Klein, O. C., and Copley, M. J., A new method for starting ther¬ mite reactions (2) : 189 McVicker, L. D., Methods for de¬ termining fluorine (2): 190-191 Methods for determining fluorine (McVicker), (2): 190-191 C h e m i st ry — continued Mineral and vitamin deficiencies in a common human diet, an albino rat demonstration of (Elmslie and Bunting), (2): 177-179 Optical projection, demonstrations of electrolysis by (Thiessen), (2): 192-193 Properties of heated coal (Grotts), (2): 183-184 Pyrethrum growth in Illinois (Cheronis), (2): 167-176 Pyrogallic acid, chemilumines¬ cence-oxidation of (Ward and Bennett), (2): 198 Reed, F. H., with Finger, G. C., Synthetic cryolite (2): 180-182 Section chairman W. F. Bailey, report of (2) : 163 Silicate and related systems in¬ volving chemical components of Illinois sedimentary rocks (Tooley), (2): 194-197 Synthetic cryolite ( Finger and Reed), (2): 180-182 Thermite reactions, a new method for starting (Klein and Copley), (2): 189 Thiessen, G. W., Demonstrations of electrolysis by optical projec¬ tion (2): 192-193 Tooley, F. V., Silicate and related systems involving chemical com¬ ponents of Illinois sedimentary rocks (2): 194-197 Ward, Lyle K., and Bennett, C. W., Chemiluminescence-oxidation of pyrogallic acid (2): 198 X-ray diffraction in clay miner¬ alogy, the place of (Bradley), (2): 165-166 Cheronis, N. D., Pyrethrum growth in Illinois (2): 167-176 Chromosome numbers of amarantha- ceae (Willoughby), (2): 150 Clay mineralogy, the place of X-ray diffraction in (Bradley), (2): 165- 166 Coal, properties of heated (Grotts), (2): 183-184 Cohee, George V., The recent impetus to oil prospecting in Illinois (2): 226-228 Colfax— A corn belt village trading center (Odell), (2): 213-214 Colorado, pre-Cambrian rocks of cen¬ tral Colorado: their correlation by means of heavy mineral analyses (Johns), (2): 235 Color fatigue of the eye, a demonstra¬ tion of (Verwiebe), (2): 265-266 Index to Volume 30 47 Community civics, teaching through areas of interest (Ellwood), (2): 277-278 Community, The part time school and the (Lamoreux), (2): 61-62 Comparative productiveness of some twelve varieties of tomatoes on fertile prairie soils (Douglass), (2): 48-50 Conservation, Forest, in the Ohio val¬ ley (Mauntel), (2): 133-135 Copley, M. J., with Klein, O. C., A new method for starting thermite reactions (2): 189 Corn belt village trading center, Col¬ fax (Odell), (2): 213-214 Corn, the rise of hybrid (Dungan), (2): 54-55 Crist, Raymond E., Land tenure in the llanos of Venezuela (2): 208 Crookes dark space, a study of (Knipp and Madole), (2): 250 Crystals, micro-photographs of single crystals of dilute solid solutions in zinc (Way, DeVries, and Fur¬ row), (2): 271-274 Cryolite, synthetic ( Finger and Reed), (2): 180-182 Curriculum changes, some proposed, in vocational agriculture (Slo- thower), (2): 67-68 D Davenport, Eugene, The art and the science of agriculture (2): 45-47 DeKalb and Sycamore quadrangles, stratigraphy and pre-glacial topog¬ raphy of the (Caldwell), (2): 224- 225 Demonstrations of electrolysis by optical projection (Thiessen), (2): 192-193 Derbid field-days (Spooner), (2): 315-316 DeVries, John, with Way, H. E., and Furrow, C. L., Micro-photographs of single crystals of dilute solid solutions in zinc (2): 271-274 Diet, An albino rat demonstration of mineral and vitamin deficiencies in a common human diet (Elmslie and Bunting), (2): 177-179. Distillation, fractional (Keyes), (2): 185-188 Douglass, T. J., Comparative produc¬ tiveness of some twelve varieties of tomatoes on fertile prairie soils (2): 48-50 Dowell, W. H., Tazewell county in¬ dustries as a market for farm products (2): 51-53 Dungan, G. H., The rise of hybrid corn (2): 54-55 E Easter, Sister Claretta, Botany in a small high school with access to the country (2): 111-112 Ectoparasitic trematodes of fishes, notes on (Mizelle), (2): 311-312. Edgecombe, A. E., A comparative study of certain fungi cultivated on certain carbohydrated media (2): 108-110 Effects of heat and cold on enzymic activity in bulbs and corms (Ful¬ ler and Hanley), (2): 113-114 Eifrig, C. W. G., The changing status of birds as regards their abundance (2): 295-297 Ekblaw, George E., Engineering as¬ pects of the geology of the Vienna city reservoir (2): 229-231 Electrolysis, Demonstration of, by op¬ tical projection (Thiessen), (2): 192-193 Elementary botany at Northwestern university (Carlson), (2): 107 Elementary botany at the university of Illinois (Fuller), (2): 115-117 Ellwood, R. S., Teaching of com¬ munity civics through areas of in¬ terest (2): 277 Elmslie, W. P., and Bunting, W. R., An albino rat demonstration of mineral and vitamin deficiencies in a common human diet (2): 177- 179 Engineering aspects of the geology of the Vienna city reservoir (Ek¬ blaw), (2): 229-231 Enzymic activity in bulbs and corms, effects of heat and cold on (Fuller and Hanley), (2): 113-114 Evanston, Illinois, preliminary study of Lake Michigan sediments at (Todd), (2): 242-244 Evening schools for adult farmers (Arndt), (2): 43-44 Evers, Robert A., A scientific experi¬ ment to increase the bluebird pop¬ ulation (2): 298-299 Evolution of sex in the mollusca (Furrow), (1): 5-12 Excavations, recent, at the King mounds, Wickliffe, Kentucky (King), (2): 83-90 Exhumed Ordovician hill near Joliet (Fisher), (2): 232-234. F Fatigue of the eye, A demonstration of (color fatigue of the eye) (Ver- wiebe), (2): 265-266 Finger, G. C., and Reed, F. H., Synthetic cryolite (2): 180-182 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Fisher, D. Jerome, An exhumed Ordo¬ vician hill near Joliet (2): 232- 234 Fishes, notes on ectoparasitic trem- atodes of (Mizelle), (2): 311-312 Flood, the 1937, in southern Illinois (Carroll), (1): 13-18 Fluorine, methods for determining (McVicker), (2): 190-191 Forest conservation in the Ohio val¬ ley (Mauntel), (2): 133-135 Forests of the Yarmouth and Sanga¬ mon interglacial periods (Yoss), (2): 138 Fossaria parva (Lea), Part II, Studies on the lymnaeid snail (Hoff), (2): 303-306 Fossils, Illinois plant, Identification key for (Noe and Janssen), (2): 236-237 Fractional distillation (Keyes), (2): 185-188 Fuller, H. J., and Hanley, J. H., Ef¬ fects of heat and cold on enzymic activity in bulbs and corms (2): 113-114 Fuller, H. J., Elementary botany at the university of Illinois (2): 115- 117 Fulton county, A red ochre mound in (Wray), (2): 82 Fungi cultivated on carbohydrate media, a comparative study (Edge¬ combe), (2): 108-110 Fungi preservation in ancient wood (Tehon), (2): 147-149 Furrow, Clarence Lee, Evolution of sex in the mollusca (1) : 5-12 Furrow, C. L., with Way, H. E., and DeVries, John, Micro-photographs of single crystals of dilute solid solutions in zinc (2) : 271-274 G Gases, a new method for their quantitative measurement (Lam- key), (2): 127-128 Geography Barton, Thomas F., Reforestation in southern Illinois (2): 201-205 Bonnell, Clarence, An inland inun¬ dation (2): 206-207 Colfax — a corn belt village trading center (Odell), (2): 213-214 Corn belt trading center, Colfax, a (Odell), (2): 213-214 Crist, Raymond E., Land tenure in the llanos of Venezuela (2): 208 Geography of Puerto Rico, major elements in (Haas), (2): 209-212 Geography of Strathallan, Scotland (Paterson), (2): 215-216 Geograph y — continued Haas, W. H., Major elements in the geography of Puerto Rico (2): 209-212 Illinois, southern, reforestation in (Barton), (2): 201-205 Inundation, an inland (Bonnell), (2): 206-207 Land tenure in the llanos of Vene¬ zuela (Crist), (2): 209-212 Major elements in the geography of Puerto Rico (Haas), (2): 209- 212 Odell, C. B., Colfax — a corn belt village trading center (2) : 213- 214 Paterson, J. E., The geography of Strathallan, Scotland (2): 215- 216 Puerto Rico, Major elements in the geography of (Haas), (2): 209- 212 Reforestation in southern Illinois (Barton), (2): 201-205 Scotland, Strathallan, the geogra¬ phy of (Paterson), (2): 215-216 Section Chairman H. O. Lathrop, report of (2): 199 Southern Illinois, 1937 flood in (Carroll), (1): 13-18 Trading center, Colfax — a corn belt village (Odell), (2): 213-214 Venezuela, land tenure in the llanos of (Crist), (2): 208 Village trading center, Colfax — a corn belt (Odell), (2): 213-214 Geography of Puerto Rico, major ele¬ ments in the (Haas), (2): 209-212 Geography of Strathallan, Scotland (Paterson), (2): 215-216 Geology Ball, J. R., Physiography and sur- ficial geology of the Carlinville quadrangle (2): 219-223 Caldwell, L. T., Stratigraphy and pre-glacial topography of the De- Kalb and Sycamore quadrangles (2): 224-225 Carlinville quadrangle, Physiogra¬ phy and surficial geology of (Ball), (2): 219-223 Cohee, George V., The recent im¬ petus to oil prospecting in Illi¬ nois (2): 226-228 Colorado, pre-Cambrian rocks of central; their correlation by means of heavy mineral analyses (Jahns), (2): 235 DeKalb and Sycamore quadrangles, Stratigraphy and pre-glacial topography of the (Caldwell), (2): 224-225 Index to Volume 30 49 Geology — continued Ekblaw, George E., Engineering aspects of the geology of the Vienna city reservoir (2): 229- 231 Engineering aspects of the geology of the Vienna city reservoir (Ekblaw), (2): 229-231 Evanston, Illinois, Preliminary study of Lake Michigan sedi¬ ments at (Todd), (2): 242-244 Exhumed Ordovician hill near Joliet (Fisher), (2): 232-234 Fisher, D. Jerome, An exhumed Ordovician hill near Joliet (2): 232-234 Groundwater resources and the geology of bedrock at Rockford (Payne), (2): 238-241 Groundwater for Rockford, The pre-glacial Rock River valley as a source of, (Workman), (2): 245-247 Identification key for Illinois plant fossils (Noe and Janssen), (2): 236-237 Illinois plant fossils, Identification key for (Noe and Janssen), (2): 236-237 Illinois, The recent impetus to oil prospecting in (Cohee), (2): 226- 228 Jahns, Richard H., Pre-Cambrian rocks of central Colorado: their correlation by means of heavy mineral analyses (2): 235 Janssen, R. E., with Noe, A. C., Identification key for Illinois plant fossils (2): 236-237 Lake Michigan sediments at Evan¬ ston, Illinois, Preliminary study of (Todd), (2): 242-244 Noe, A. C., and Janssen, R. E., Identification key for Illinois plant fossils (2) : 236-237 Oil prospecting in Illinois, The recent impetus to (Cohee) (2): 226-228 Ordovician hill near Joliet ex¬ humed, (Fisher), (2): 232-234 Payne, J. Norman. The geology and groundwater resources of bed¬ rock at Rockford (2): 238-241 Physiography and surficial geology of the Carlinville quadrangle (Ball), (2): 219-223 Plant fossils, identification key for Illinois (Noe and Janssen), (2): 236-237 Pre-Cambrian rocks of central Colo¬ rado: their correlation by means or heavy mineral analyses (Jahns), (2): 235 G eo I o gy — continued Pre-glacial Rock River valley as a source of groundwater for Rock¬ ford, (Workman), (2): 245-247 Preliminary study of Lake Mich¬ igan sediments at Evanston, Illi¬ nois (Todd), (2): 242-244 Rockford, Pre-glacial Rock River valley as a source of ground- water for (Workman), (2): 245- 247 Rockford, the geology and ground- water resources of bedrock at (Payne), (2): 238-241 Rock River valley, pre-glacial, as a source of groundwater for Rock¬ ford (Workman), (2): 245-247 Section Chairman L. E. Workman, report of (2): 217 Sediments, Lake Michigan, Pre¬ liminary study of, at Evanston, Illinois (Todd), (2): 242-244 Stratigraphy and pre-glacial topog¬ raphy of the DeKalb and Syca¬ more quadrangles (Caldwell), (2): 224-225 Sycamore and DeKalb quadrangles, Stratigraphy and pre-glacial topography of the (Caldwell), (2): 224-225 Todd, Jean P., Preliminary study of Lake Michigan sediments at Evanston, Illinois (2): 242-244 Vienna city reservoir, engineering aspects of its geology (Ekblaw), (2): 229-231 Workman, L. E., The pre-glacial Rock River valley as a source of groundwater for Rockford (2): 245-247 Germination of pollen grains for class use (Marks), (2): 131-132 Golf courses, the influence of the chemical composition of soils upon the maintenance of the turf on lawns and (Snider), (2): 69-70 Goodnight, Clarence J., A key to the adult salamanders of Illinois (2): 300-302 Great blue heron, its migration and distribution in Illinois (Angus), (2): 293-294 Grotts, Paul, Properties of heated coal (2): 183-184 Groundwater resources and the geol¬ ogy of bedrock at Rockford (Payne), (2): 238-241 Groundwater for Rockford, The pre¬ glacial Rock River valley as a source of, (Workman), (2): 245- 247 50 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science H Haas, W. H., Major elements in the geography of Puerto Rico (2) : 209- 212 Hague, Stella M., Illinois liverworts (2): 118-124 Hanley, J. H., with Fuller, H. J., Effects of heat and cold on enzymic activity in bulbs and corms (2): 113-114 Hastings, L., Experimental test with vegetable soybeans (2): 56-57 High school as viewed by some of its recent graduates (Reinhardt), (2): 279-280 High school biology, The use of supervised study in (McAvoy), (2): 287-289 High school botany in a small high school with access to the country (2): 111-112 High school laboratory time, a sug¬ gested change in (Reilly), (2): 313-314 High school student, Personal meth¬ ods and the (Malmberg), (2): 284-286 Hoff, C. Clayton, Studies on the lymnaeid snail : Fossaria parva (Lea), Part II (2): 303-306 Hudelson, C. W., Lapland longspurs in Illinois (2) : 307-308 Hudelson, C. W., Pasture demonstra¬ tion studies (2): 58-60 Hudelson, C. W., Stone artifacts of North American Indians (2): 79-81 Human welfare and physics (Smith), (2): 258-260 Humidity variations affecting trans¬ piration (Thut), (2): 153-154 Hybrid corn, The rise of (Dungan), (2): 54-55 Hybrid crosses in sunfishes (Luce), (2): 309-310 Hypocotyls, Regions of growth in (Brian and Stover), (2): 105-106 I Identification key for Illinois plant fossils (Noe and Janssen), (2): 236-237 Illinois, identification key for Illinois plant fossils (Noe and Janssen), (2): 236-237 Illinois, Lapland longspurs in (Hud¬ elson), (2): 307-308 Illinois liverworts (Hague), (2): 118-124 Illinois Pennsylvanian, two new lyco- pod seeds from the (Schopf), (2): 139-146 Illinois, Pyrethrum growth in (Che- ronis), (2): 167-176 Illinois sedimentary rocks, silicate and related systems involving chemical components of (Tooley), (2): 194-197 Illinois, The 1937 flood of southern (Carroll), (1): 13-18 Illinois, Reforestation in southern (Barton), (2): 201-205 Illinois, The recent impetus to oil prospecting in (Cohee), (2): 226- 228 Index to volume 29 (1): 27-36 Indians, North American, Stone arti¬ facts of (Hudelson), (2): 79-81 Interglacial periods, forests of the Sangamon and Yarmouth (Yoss), (2): 138 Inundation, An inland (Bonnell), (2): 206-207 J Jahns, Richard H., Pre-Cambrian rocks of central Colorado, their cor¬ relation by means of heavy mineral analyses (2): 235 Janssen, R. E., with Noe, A. C., Identification key for Illinois plant fossils (2): 236-237 Jelliff, Fred R., Memoir (1): 25-26 Job, Thesle T., Medical students’ background in biology (2): 125-126 Jordan, Edwin Oakes, Memoir (1): 21-22 K Kentucky, southern. An archaeologi¬ cal reconnaissance in (Knight), (2): 91-92 Kentucky, Wickliffe, Recent excava¬ tions at the King mounds (King), (2): 83-90 Key, Identification, for Illinois plant fossils (Noe and Janssen), (2): 236-237 Key to the adult salamanders of Illi¬ nois (Goodnight), (2): 300-302 Keyes, D. B., Fractional distillation (2): 185-187 King, B. B., Recent excavations at the King mounds, Wickliffe, Ken¬ tucky (2): 83-90 King mounds, Recent excavations at, Wickliffe, Kentucky (King), (2): 83-90 Kingston site burials, various types of (Simpson), (2): 95-96 Klein, O. C., and Copley, M. J., A new method for starting thermite reactions (2): 189 Index to Volume 30 51 Knight, Kenneth L., An archaeologi¬ cal reconnaisance in southern Ken¬ tucky (2): 91-92 Knipp, C. T., A list of demonstration experiments in physics suitable for lecture table use (2): 251-254 Knipp, Charles T., and Madole, Jas. F., A study of Crookes dark space (2): 250 Knoblock, Byron W., Ornamental uses of the so-called banner stones (2): 93-94 Kohn, Harold A., with Reymert, Mar¬ tin L., Suggestive data concerning the etiology of behavior problems (2): 281-283 Kunz, Jakob, Applications of the photo-electric cell in astronomy (2): 255-257 L Lake Michigan sediments at Evans¬ ton, Illinois, preliminary study of (Todd), (2): 242-244 Lamkey, E. M. R., A new method for the quantitative measurement of gases (2): 127-128 Lamoreux, R. E., The part time school and the community (2): 61-62 Land tenure in the llanos of Vene¬ zuela (Crist), (2): 208 Lapland longspurs in Illinois (Hudel- son), (2): 307-308 Leedy, J. W., Botany in the program for a summer camp (2): 129-130 Lindstrom, D. E., Natural increase in the population, rural and urban, in Illinois, 1930 (2) : 63-64 Liverworts, Illinois (Hague), (2): 118-124 Llanos of Venezuela, Land tenure in the (Crist), (2): 208 Luce, Wilbur M., Hybrid crosses in sunfishes (2): 309-310 Lycopod seeds, two new, from the Illinois Pennsylvanian (Schopf), (2): 139-146 L y m n a e i d snail : Fossaria parva (Lea), Part II (Hoff), (2): 303- 306 M Madole, Jas. F., with Knipp, Charles T., A study of Crookes dark space (2): 250 Major elements in the geography of Puerto Rico (Haas), (2): 209-212 Malmberg, C. F., Personnel methods and the high school student (2): 284-286 Market for farm products, Tazewell county industries as a (Dowell), (2): 51-53 Marks, lea, Germination of pollen grains for class use (2): 131-132 Mauntel, Harry, Forest conservation in the Ohio valley (2) : 133-135 McAvoy, Blanche, The use of super¬ vised study in high school biology (2): 287-289 McVicker, L. D., Methods for de¬ termining fluorine (2): 190-191 Medusa, fresh water, another occur¬ rence of (Steagall), (2): 317-319 Memoirs: Jordan, Edwin Oakes (1): 21-22 Jelliff, Fred R. (1): 25-26 Poggi, Edith Muriel (1): 23-24 Medical students’ background in bi¬ ology (Job), (2): 125-126 Methods for determining fluorine (McVicker) (2): 190-191 Micro-photographs of single crystals of dilute solid solutions in zinc (Way, DeVries, and Furrow), (2): 271-274 Mineral and vitamin deficiencies in a common human diet, an albino rat demonstration of (Elmslie and Bunting), (2): 177-179 Mizelle, John D., Notes on ectopara- sitic trematodes of fishes (2): 311- 312 Molecular spectra of the alkali hy¬ drides (Rassweiler), (2): 269-270 Mollusca, evolution of sex in (Fur¬ row), (1): 5-12 Monolithic axes (Stone), (2): 97-99 Montgomery, C. E., Testing for or¬ ganizing ability in biology (2): 136-137 Mound, a red ochre, in Fulton county (Wray), (2): 82 Mounds, The King, recent excava¬ tions at Wickliffe, Kentucky (King), (2): 83-90 N Natural increase in population, rural and urban, in Illinois, 1930 (Lind¬ strom), (2): 63-64 Nature education in parks (White), (2): 160-161 Noe, A. C., and Janssen, R. E., Iden¬ tification key for Illinois plant fos¬ sils (2): 236-237 Northwestern University, Elementary botany at (Carlson), (2): 107 Notes on ectoparasitic trematodes of fishes (Mizelle), (2): 311-312 52 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science O Oathout, C. H., Agriculture for all rural schools (2): 65-66 Odell, C. B., Colfax — a corn belt vil¬ lage trading center (2): 213-214 Oil prospecting in Illinois, The recent impetus to (Cohee), (2): 226-228 Optical projection, Demonstrations of electrolysis by (Thiessen), (2): 192-193 Ordovician hill near Joliet, An ex¬ humed (Fisher), (2): 232-234 Ornamental uses of the so-called ban¬ ner stones (Knoblock), (2): 93-94 P Parks, Nature education in (White), (2): 160-161 Part time school and the community (Lamoreux), (2): 61-62 Pasture demonstration studies (Hud- elson), (2): 58-60 Paton, R. F., Physics — a service course (2): 267-268 Paterson, J. E., The geography of Strathallan, Scotland, (2): 215-216 Payne, J. Norman, The geology and groundwater resources of bedrock at Rockford (2): 238-241 Personnel methods and the high school student (Malmberg), (2): 284-286 Photo-electric cell in astronomy, Ap¬ plications of (Kunz), (2): 255-257 Physics Alkali hydrides, Molecular spectra of (Rassweiler), (2): 269-270 Applications of the photo-electric cell in astronomy (Kunz), (2): 255-257 Color fatigue of the eye, A demon¬ stration of (Verwiebe), (2): 265- 266 Crookes dark space, A study of (Knipp and Madole), (2): 250 Crystals of dilute solid solutions in zinc, Micro-photographs of single (Way, DeVries and Furrow), (2): 271-274 DeVries, John, with Way, H. E., and Furrow, C. L., Micro-photo¬ graphs of single crystals of dilute solid solutions in zinc (2) : 271- 274 Eye, A demonstration of color fatigue of (Verwiebe), (2): 265- 266 P h y s i cs — continued Furrow, C. E., with Way, H. E., and DeVries, John, Micro-photo¬ graphs of single crystals of dilute solid solutions in zinc (2): 271- 274 Human welfare and physics (Smith), (2): 258-260 Knipp, Charles T., and Madole, Jas. F., A study of Crookes dark space (2): 250 Knipp, C. T., A list of demonstra¬ tion experiments in physics suit¬ able for lecture table use (2): 251-254 Kunz, Jakob, Applications of the Photo-electric cell in astronomy (2): 255-257 Madole, Jas. F., with Knipp, Charles T., A study of Crookes dark space (2) : 250 Micro-photographs of single crys¬ tals of dilute solid solutions in zinc (Way, DeVries and Furrow), (2): 271-274 Molecular spectra of the alkali hydrides (Rassweiler), (2): 269- 270 Paton, R. F., Physics — a service course (2): 267-268 Photo-electric cell in astronomy. Applications of (Kunz), (2): 25-5-257 Physics, A list of demonstration ex¬ periments suitable for lecture table use (Knipp), (2): 251-254 Physics and human welfare (Smith), (2): 258-260 Physics — a service course (Paton), (2): 267-268 Rassweiler, Merrill, Molecular spectra of the alkali hydrides (2): 269-270 Sammis, J. H., Some focal plane shutter distortions (2): 264 Section chairman Harold Q. Ful¬ ler, report of, (2): 249 Shutter distortions, Some focal plane (Sammis), (2): 264 Smith, L. S., Physics and human welfare (2): 258-260 Solutions in zinc, Micro-photo¬ graphs of single crystals of dilute solid (Way, DeVries and Fur¬ row), (2): 271-274 Ultrasonics, An experiment in (Warner), (2): 261-263 Verwiebe, Frank L., Demonstration of color fatigue of the eye ( 2 ) : 265-266 Warner, Glen W., An experiment in ultrasonics (2): 261-263 Index to Volume 30 53 P h y s i cs — continued Way, H. E., DeVries, John, and Furrow, C. L., Micro-photographs of dilute solid solutions in zinc (2): 271-274 Physics and human welfare (Smith), (2): 258-260 Physics demonstration experiments, A list suitable for lecture table use (Knipp), (2): 251-254 Physics — a service course (Paton), (2): 267-268 Physiography and surficial geology of the Carlinville quadrangle (Ball), (2): 219-223 Plant fossils, Identification key for Illinois (Noe and Janssen), (2): 236-237 Poggi, Edith Muriel, Memoir (1) : 23-24 Pollen grains, Germination of for class use (Marks), (2): 131-132 Population, Natural increase in, rural and urban, in Illinois, 1930 (Lindstrom), (2): 63-64 Porella, Spore germination and thal- lus development in (Voth), (2): 158-159 Pre-Cambrian rocks of central Colo¬ rado: their correlation by means of heavy mineral analyses (Jahns), (2): 235 Preliminary study of Lake Michigan sediments at Evanston, Illinois (Todd), (2): 242-244 Preservation of fungi in ancient wood (Tehon), (2): 147-149 Properties of heated coal (Grotts), (2): 183-184 Psychology and Education Areas of interest, Teaching of community civics through (Ell- wood), (2): 277-278 Behavior problems, Suggestive data concerning the etiology of (Reh- mert and Kohn), (2): 281-283 Biology, The use of supervised study in high school (McAvoy), (2): 287-289 Community civics, The teaching of, through areas of interest (Ell- wood), (2): 277-278 Ellwood, R. S., Teaching of com¬ munity civics through areas of interest (2): 277-278 Evening schools for adult farmers (Arndt), (2): 43-44 High school student, Personnel methods and the (Malmberg), (2): 284-286 High school as viewed by some of its recent graduates (Reinhardt), (2): 279-280 Psychology and Education — continued High school biology, The use of supervised study in (McAvoy), (2): 287-289 Kohn, Harold A., with Reymert, Martin L., Suggestive data con¬ cerning the etiology of behavior problems (2): 281-283 Malmberg, C. F., Personnel meth¬ ods and the high school student (2): 284-286 McAvoy, Blanche, The use of supervised study in high school biology (2): 287-289 Part time school and the com¬ munity (Lamoreux), (2): 61-62 Personnel methods and the high school student (Malmberg), (2): 284-286 Reinhardt, Emma, The high school as viewed by some of its recent graduates (2): 279-280 Reymert, Martin L., and Kohn, Harold A., Suggestive data con¬ cerning the etiology of behavior problems (2): 281-283 Section chairman R. H. Gault, re¬ port of (2) : 275 Supervised study in high school biology (McAvoy), (2): 287-289 Suggestive data concerning the eti¬ ology of behavior problems (Rey¬ mert and Kohn), (2): 281-283 Teaching of community civics through areas of interest (Ell¬ wood), (2): 277-278 Puerto Rico, Major elements in the geography of (Haas), (2): 209-212 Pyrogallic acid, chemiluminescence- oxidation of (Ward and Bennett), (2): 198 Pyrethrum growth in Illinois (Che- ronis), (2): 167-176 Q Quantitative measurement of gases, A new method for the (Lamkey), (2): 127-128 R Rassweiler, Merrill, Molecular spectra of the alkali hydrides (2): 269-270 Recent excavations at the King mounds, Wickliffe, Kentucky (King), (2): 83-90 Red ochre mound in Fulton county (Wray), (2): 82 Reed, F. H., with Finger, G. C., Syn¬ thetic cryolite (2): 180-182 Reforestation in southern Illinois (Barton), (2): 201-205 54 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Reilly, Sister Mary Fabian, A sug¬ gested change in high school lab¬ oratory time (2) : 313-314 Reinhardt, Emma, The high school as viewed by some of its recent graduates (2): 279-280 Reports of section Chairmen, 1937-38 Agriculture (Hudelson), (2): 41 Anthropology (Ruyle), (2): 75 Botany (Stevens), (2): 101 Chemistry (Bailey), (2): 163 Geography (Lathrop), (2): 199 Geology (Workman), (2): 217 Physics (Fuller), (2): 249 Psychology and education (Gault), (2): 275 Zoology (Moreland), (2): 291-292 Rockford, The geology and ground- water resources of bedrock at (Payne), (2): 238-241 Rockford, The pre-glacial Rock river valley as a source of groundwater for (Workman), (2): 245-247 Rock River valley, The pre-glacial, as a source of groundwater for Rock¬ ford (Workman), (2): 245-247 Reymert, Martin L., and Kohn, Har¬ old A., Suggestive data concerning the etiology of behavior problems (2) : 281-283 Rural schools, Agriculture for all (Oathout), (2): 65-66 S Salamanders, A key to the adult salamanders of Illinois (Good¬ night), (2): 300-302 Sammis, J. H., Some focal plane shutter distortions (2): 264 Sangamon and Yarmouth interglacial periods, Forests of (Yoss), (2): 138 School, Part time, and the com¬ munity (Lamoreux), (2): 61-62 Schopf, James M., Two new lycopod seeds from the Illinois Pennsyl¬ vanian (2): 139-146 Scotland, Strathallan, The geography of (Paterson), (2): 215-216 Sediments of Lake Michigan at Evanston, Preliminary study of (Todd), (2): 242-244 Sex in mollusca, Evolution of (Furrow), (1): 5-12 Shutter distortions, Some focal plane (Sammis), (2): 264 Silicate and related systems involv¬ ing chemical components of Illinois sedimentary rocks (Tooley), (2): 194-197 Simpson, A. M., Various types of Kingston site burials (2): 95-96 Slothower, L. V., Some proposed curriculum changes in vocational agriculture (2): 67-68 Smith, L. S., Physics and human welfare (2): 258-260 Snider, H. J., Influence of Chemical composition of soils upon mainte¬ nance of turf on lawns and golf courses (2): 69-70 Soils, The influence of the chemical composition of upon the mainte¬ nance of the turf on lawns and golf courses (Snider), (2): 69-70 Solutions, micro-photographs of sin¬ gle crystals of dilute solid solutions in zinc (Way, DeVries, and Fur¬ row), (2): 271-274 Some focal plane shutter distortions (Sammis), (2): 264 Southern Illinois, The 1937 flood of (Carroll), (1): 13-18 Southern Illinois, reforestation in (Barton), (2): 201-205 Soybeans, experimental test with vegetable (Hastings), (2): 56-57 Spooner, C. S., Derbid field-days (2): 315-316 Spore germination and thallus devel¬ opment in porella (Voth), (2): 158-159 Steagall, Mary M., Another occur¬ rence of a fresh water medusa (2) : 317-319 Stone artifacts of North American Indians (Hudelson), (2): 79-81 Stone, Claude U., Monolithic axes (2): 97-99 Stones, banner, Ornamental uses of the so-called (Knoblock), (2), 93-94 Stover, E. L., with Brian, C. E., Re¬ gions of growth in hypocotyls (2): 105-106 Stratigraphy and pre-glacial topog¬ raphy of the DeKalb and Sycamore quadrangles (Caldwell), (2): 224- 225 Studies on the lymnaeid snail: Foss- aria yarva (Lea), Part II (Hoff), (2): 303-306 Suggestive data concerning the eti¬ ology of behavior problems (Rey¬ mert and Kohn), (2): 281-283 Summer camp, botany in the pro¬ gram for a (Leedy), (2): 129-130 Sunfishes, hybrid crosses in (Luce), (2): 309-310 Supervised study, The use of in high school biology (McAvoy), (2): 287- 289 Sycamore and DeKalb quadrangles, Stratigraphy and pre-glacial topog¬ raphy of the (Caldwell), (2): 224- 225 Index to Volume 30 55 Synthetic cryolite ( Finger and Reed), (2): 180-182 T Tazewell County industries as a market for farm products (Dow¬ ell), (2): 51-52 Teaching of community civics through areas of interest (Ell- wood), (2): 277-278 Teaching of general botany in liberal arts colleges for women (Therese), (2): 155-157 Tehon, Leo, Preservation of fungi in ancient wood (2): 147-149 Testing for organizing ability in biology (Montgomery), (2): 136- 137 Thallus development and spore ger¬ mination in porella (Voth), (2): 158-159 Therese, Sister Mary, Teaching of general botany in liberal arts col¬ leges for women (2): 155-157 Thermite reactions, A new method for starting (Klein and Copley), (2): 189 Thiessen, G. W., Demonstrations of electrolysis by optical projection (2): 192-193 Thut, H. F., Humidity variations affecting transpiration (2): 153-154 Tiny toadstools on crop plants in Illinois (Boewe), (2): 103-104 Todd, Jean P., Preliminary study of Lake Michigan sediments at Evans¬ ton, Illinois (2): 242-244 Tomatoes, Comparative productive¬ ness of some twelve varieties on fertile prairie soils (Douglass), (2): 48-50 Tooley, F. V., Silicate and related systems involving chemical compo¬ nents of Illinois sedimentary rocks (2): 194-197 Transpiration, Humidity variations affecting (Thut), (2): 153-154 Trading center, Colfax — a corn belt village (Odell), (2): 213-214 Trematodes, Ectoparasitic, of fishes (Mizelle), (2): 311-312 Two new lycopod seeds from the Illi¬ nois Pennsylvanian (Schopf), (2): 139-146 Turf on lawns and golf courses, Influ¬ ence of chemical composition of soils on maintenance of (Snider), (2): 69-70 U Ultrasonics, An experiment in (Warner), (2): 261-263 University of Illinois, elementary botany at the (Fuller), (2): 115- 117 V Various types of Kingston site burials (Simpson), (2): 95-96 Vienna city reservoir, Engineering aspects of geology of (Ekblaw), (2): 229-231 Venezuela, Land tenure in the llanos of (Crist), (2): 208 Verwiebe, Frank L., A demonstration of color fatigue of the eye (2) : 265- 266 Village trading center, Colfax — a corn belt (Odell), (2): 213-214 Vocational agriculture, Some pro¬ posed curriculum changes in (Slothower), (2): 67-68 Voss, John, Forests of the Yarmouth and Sangamon Interglacial periods (2): 138 Voth, Paul D., Spore germination and thallus development in porella (2) : 158-159 W Ward, Lyle K., and Bennett, C. W., Chemiluminescence-oxidation of py- rogallic acid (2): 198 Warner, Glen W., An experiment in ultrasonics (2): 261-263 Way, H. E., DeVries, John, and Fur¬ row, C. L., Micro-photographs of single crystals of dilute solid solu¬ tions in zinc (2): 271-274 Weiss, J. N., Adult education in agri¬ culture (2): 71-73 White, Elizabeth, Nature education in parks (2): 160-161 Wickliffe, Kentucky, recent excava¬ tions at the King mounds (King), (2): 83-90 Willoughby, Mildred, Chromosome numbers of amaranthaceae (2): 150-152 Winnebago County, artifacts typical to (Barloga), (2): 77-78 Workman, L. E., The preglacial Rock River valley as a source of ground- water for Rockford (2): 245-247 Wray, Donald E., A red ochre mound in Fulton county (2): 82 X X-ray diffraction in clay mineralogy (Bradley), (2): 165-166 Y Yarmouth and Sangamon inter-glacial periods, Forests of (Voss), (2): 138 56 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Z Zoology Angus, H. L., The migration and distribution of the great blue heron in Illinois (2) : 293-294 Another occurrence of a fresh water medusa (Steagall), (2): 317-319 Birds, their changing status as re¬ gards their abundance (Eifrig), (2): 295-297 Bluebird population, A scientific ex¬ periment to increase the (Evers), (2): 298-299 Derbid field-days (Spooner), (2): 315-316 Ectoparasitic trematodes of fishes, Notes on (Mizelle), (2): 311-312 Eifrig, C. W. G., The changing status of birds as regards their abundance (2): 295-297 Evers, Robert A., A scientific ex¬ periment to increase the bluebird population (2): 298-299 Fishes, Notes on ectoparasitic trematodes of (Mizelle), (2): 311-312 Fossaria parva (Lea), Part II, Studies on the lymnaeid snail (Hoff), (2): 303-306 Goodnight, Clarence J., A key to the adult salamanders of Illinois (2): 300-302 Great blue heron of Illinois, its mi¬ gration and distribution (An¬ gus), (2): 293-294 High school laboratory time, A sug¬ gested change in (Reilly), (2): 313-314 Hoff, C. Clayton, Studies on the Lymnaeid snail: Fossaria parva (Lea), Part II, (2): 303-306 Hudelson, C. W., Lapland longspurs in Illinois (2): 307-308 Hybrid crosses in sunfishes (Luce), (2): 309-310 Zoology — continued Illinois, Lapland longspurs in (Hudelson), (2): 307-308 Illinois, Migration and distribution of the great blue heron in (Angus), (2): 293-294 Lapland longspurs in Illinois (Hudelson), (2): 307-308 Luce, Wilbur M., Hybrid crosses in sunfishes (2): 309-310 Lymnaeid snail: Fossaria parva (Lea), Part II, Studies on the (Hoff), (2): 303-306 Mizelle, John D., Notes on ectopar¬ asitic trematodes of fishes (2): 311-312 Medusa, fresh water, Another oc¬ currence of (Steagall), (2): 317- 319 Mollusca, Evolution of sex in (Fur¬ row), (1): 5-12 Notes on ectoparasitic trematodes of fishes (Mizelle), (2): 311-312 Reilly, Sister Mary Fabian, A sug¬ gested change in high school laboratory time (2): 313-314 Section chairman George E. More¬ land, report of (2): 291 Salamanders of Illinois, A key to the adult (Goodnight), (2): 300- 302 Sex in the mollusca, Evolution of (Furrow), (1): 5-12 Spooner, C. S., Derbid field-days (2): 315-316 Steagall, Mary M., Another occur¬ rence of a fresh water medusa (2): 317-319 Studies on the lymnaeid snail: Fossaria parva (Lea), Part II (Hoff), (2): 303-306 Sunfishes, Hybrid crosses in (Luce), (2): 309-310 Trematodes of fishes, Ectoparasitic (Mizelle), (2): 311-312 STATE OF ILLINOIS HENRY Horner, Governor TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Volume 31 September, 1938 Number 1 Papers Presented in General Session at the Thirty-first Annual Meeting Memoirs Index of Volume 30 Edited by Grace Needham Oliver Department of Registration and Education State Museum Division, Centennial Building SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois PUBLISHED QUARTERLY Entered as second-class matter December 6, 1930, at the post office at Spring-field, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Council: STATE OF ILLINOIS Henry Horner, Governor DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION John J. Hallihan, Director STATE MUSEUM DIVISION Thorne Deuel, Chief ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Affiliated with the Illinois State Museum Officers for 1938-1939 President, George D. Fuller, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois First Vice-President, Evelyn I. Fernald, Rockford College, Rockford, Illinois Secretary, Robert F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Treasurer, Paul D. Voth, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Librarian, Thorne Deuel, State Museum Division, Springfield, Illinois The Junior Academy Representative, Harry L. Adams, Bloomington High School, Bloomington, Illinois Editor, Grace Needham Oliver, State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois The President, First and Second Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treas¬ urer, Librarian, Chairman of the Committee on High School Science and Clubs, last two retiring presidents, and the retiring secretary. Printed September, 1938 (63327) TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Volume 31 September, 1938 Number 1 CONTENTS PAGE Harold R. Wanless, Geological Records of a Rhythmic Nature (Address of the Retiring President) . 7 Morris M. Leighton, Our Exhaustible Resources of Minerals — What Should Be the Aims of a Conservation Program? . 15 Theodore H. Prison, Advances in the Natural Renewable Resources Program of Illinois . 19 Memoirs Charles Beach Atwell . 37 Louis E. Hildebrand . 39 Arthur Ware Slocum . 40 Index to Volume 30 . 41 LIST OF SPEAKERS A committee designated by the Council of the Academy has prepared a list of speakers who are willing to present talks on various phases of science before interested groups. Unless otherwise indicated, these speakers are willing to give their services for expenses only. In some cases a small honorarium is expected. A copy of this list of speakers may be obtained gratis by sending a request to: Robert F. Paton, Secretary, Academy of Science, Physics Building, Urbana, Illinois. Geological Records of a Rhythmic Nature* Harold R. Wanless, Ph. D. University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois INTRODUCTION THE New Century dictionary defines rhythm as “a procedure marked by the regular recurrence of particular elements or phases.” Rhythms in the history of the earth have attracted the attention of geologists for more than half a century.* 1 The lengths of time represented by described rhythms range from a single day and night sequence to a geologic period. Erosional rhythms or cycles are deciphered principally through a study of the land forms of the earth, but they also reflect their successive stages in the quantity and type of sediment in adjacent basins. Rhythms or cycles of sedimentation are observed through the repeated recurrence of certain layers or sequences of layers in a stratified succession, which thus shows the repeated recurrence of nearly identical conditions. A cycle may consist of no more than two beds, whose total thickness is less than 1 millimeter, or of 15 or 20 lithologic units with a combined thickness of more than 100 feet. My interest in geological rhythms has been aroused through the studies of the “Coal Measures” of the eastern United States during the past several years. These rocks, representing a considerable part of the time scale, ex¬ hibit a “regular recurrence of similar elements or phases” so striking that it can scarcely be regarded as the result of a series of coincidences, and so, despite a recent derogatory remark that the discovery of new rhythms may be regarded as a pleasant pastime to occupy the leisure moments of a geologist between more significant tasks, and because I feel that the study of rhythmic records may aid in determining the duration of various parts of geologic time, in determining the rate of accumulation of various kinds of rocks, and perhaps in discovering evidence of the operation of some little- understood forces in the shaping of the earth, I shall take advantage of my position and my required duty to discuss some of the aspects of geologic rhythms. I shall limit my discussion to rhythms of erosion, rhythms of deposition, and climatic rhythms revealed in the growth rings of trees, both living and fossilized. EROSIONAL RHYTHMS The great physiographer William Morris Davis developed the concept of the erosion cycle accomplished by streams in a humid region2 *. He con¬ ceived a region newly exposed to the action of running water following eleva¬ tion above the sea, the wasting of a continental glacier, the draining of a lake, the hardening of an extensive lava flow, or some other phenomenon. He demonstrated that first the growth and integration of a drainage system in an area would gradually destroy the initial surface and leave a rugged, well drained, maturely dissected region. The continuance of erosion would develop new plains by broadening the major river valleys, subdue the relief of the uplands, and ultimately produce a new land surface near the level of the principal streams. This surface, which he termed a peneplain, would be permanent until it was either submerged beneath the waters of the sea * Address of the Retiring President. Presented before the General Session at the Thirty-first Annual meeting of the Illinois Academy of Science, May 6, 1938, at Carbondale, Illinois. 1 Newberry, J. S., Circles of deposition in American sedimentary rocks ; Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., Proc. 22, pt. 2, pp. 185-196, 1874. 2 Davis, W. M., The rivers and vallej7s of Pennsylvania : Nat. Geog. Mag. 1, pp. 183-253, 1889. [7] 8 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science or elevated and subjected to the beginning of a new erosion cycle. The com¬ plex erosional history of some land areas has been interpreted in terms of several partially completed erosion cycles. The interpretation of multiple erosion cycles is further complicated by the possibility that a high level plain may develop on a resistant stratum contemporaneously with a lower plain on a weaker stratum. Davis3 also pictured the erosion cycle in an arid region, where most of the sediment from the uplands accumulates in intermontane basins instead of being carried to the ocean. In the earlier part of the cycle the drainage system is poorly integrated, and numerous basins at different levels receive the waste. As the cycle progresses waste from the higher basins spills over into adjacent lower ones, and the drainage becomes more integrated. As the mass of debris rises in the basins it may bury smaller ridges, thus ex¬ panding the depositional plain. Temporary saline lakes are likely to occupy the deeper parts of the basins. In cases of extreme aridity wind becomes a more powerful transportive agent than streams and shifting dunes become conspicuous features of the landscape. In cases of greater or increasing humidity the saline lakes increase in size until ultimately they discharge their waters seaward through some notch in the bounding wall of the basin. The Great Basin region of the western United States affords illus¬ trations of various stages in the arid erosion cycle. Douglas Johnson4 has described coastal erosion cycles initiated either by elevation or subsidence of the land with reference to sea level. Wave-cut cliffs are formed along recently elevated coasts, and if the rocks are of un¬ equal resistance to wave attack, headlands and coves may develop. After a time a series of offshore bars or a barrier beach is formed, separated from the mainland shore by a lagoon. The beach is interrupted at intervals by tidal inlets. As the emergent cycle passes from maturity to old age, the offshore bars migrate landward until they merge with the beach. The coast, now fronted by a broad wave-cut bench, straightened of irregularities due to unequal hardness, and protected by a sandy beach, has achieved stability until there is another movement of the land or a change in sea-level. If the sea-level is raised or the land lowered a deeply embayed coast with irregularly branching promontories characterizes the initial stage. Erosion of the headlands and the building of bay-mouth bars continues until maturity. The coast is ultimately straightened in old age and resembles the correspond¬ ing stage for an emergent coast. Hobbs5 described an erosion cycle for mountain glaciers. At the out¬ set, glaciers form from snowfields in deep shaded ravines on the mountain slopes. The surfaces between these glaciers are rounded hills or divides. As glacial erosion proceeds, deep U-shaped valleys are carved out and the divides are narrowed until they become steep-sided, saw-toothed ridges with high peaks or horns at intervals along the range. Later erosion reduces the height of the peaks and the area of the neve fields or gathering grounds for the glacier, and the glacier gradually decreases in size due to lack of nourishment, terminating the cycle. Examples illustrating the various stages of this cycle are to be found in the mountain ranges of western United States. A somewhat different form of erosion cycle is found in areas of lime¬ stone bedrock, where solution-widened joints admit the surface water to a labyrinth of subterranean passages. Erosion in such regions is accomplished by solution and the collapse of materials above limestone caverns. Natural bridges, sink-holes, disappearing streams, and giant springs are all features of this karst erosion cycle. Milner6, Boswell7, and others have showed that an erosion cycle on a land area may be interpreted through the sequence of sedimentary units deposited in an adjacent basin. At the beginning of the cycle, deeply 3 Davis, W. M., The geographic cycle in an arid climate: Jour. Geol. 13, pp. 381-407, 1905. 4 Johnson, D. W., Shore processes and shore line development, pp. 199-392, 1919. 5 Hobbs, W. H., Characteristics of existing glaciers, pp. 25-39, 1922. 6 Milner, H. B., Sedimentary petrography, pp. 361-371, 1929. 7 Boswell, P. G. H., On the mineralogy of sedimentary rocks, pp. 37-59, 1933. Wanless — Geological Rhythms 9 weathered residual soils would be the principal source of sedimentary ma¬ terials, and stable mineral species would predominate. Later, during youth and early maturity, while the streams deepen their courses rapidly into unweathered materials, the sediments will contain numerous unstable min¬ eral species which will afford a clue to the types of rocks exposed in the region providing the sediment. During late maturity and old age, erosion proceeds less rapidly and there is more opportunity for weathering, so that only the more stable mineral species survive destruction. The study of mineral assemblages in sedimentary formations of known geologic age thus affords a check on the number and geologic age of erosion cycles in nearby regions. TREE RING RHYTHMS The variable width of annual growth rings in trees seems intimately related to the relative abundance of moisture during successive growing seasons. Studies of growth rings, especially of such old trees as the sequoias of California, affords one of our best records of climatic variations within the last few thousand years. Huntington8, Douglass9, and others have done much careful work on tree ring sequences. Douglass found it possible to date the Indian cliff dwellings of the arid southwest through matching growth rings in timbers used in their construction with those of very old trees still growing. He also proved that aridity led to the abandonment of these settlements. By matching humid and arid periods of the California “Big Tree” groves with high and low levels of shore-lines on the Caspian Sea as revealed by the records of historic settlements there, Huntington showed that climatic changes recorded in the tree rings are world-wide rather than local. Tree rings afford an opportunity to study the effects of sun-spot and other solar cycles and have yielded evidences of cycles of lengths rang¬ ing from about 10 months to more than 30 years. Petrified wood from various geologic periods indicates by variations in growth rings whether or not seasonal climates prevailed and sun-spots like those of the present day occurred during former periods. The petrified wood from the Pennsyl¬ vanian rocks generally shows no growth rings, leading some geologists to believe that the climate of that period was uniformly mild without cold seasons, although others state that the types of plants composing the coal flora would not develop growth rings even with a seasonal climate. DEPOSITIONAL RHYTHMS Varves Varves are pairs of laminations differing from each other in color and texture, and thought to have accumulated during one year. They were first observed in lake clays associated with glacial deposits in Sweden and Fin¬ land and consist normally of a lighter colored, more sandy bed and a darker colored more clayey layer. Each pair of laminae was interpreted as a single years deposit formed in a lake fed by glacial melt waters. The coarser textured, lighter colored layer is the summer and the finer, darker colored layer is the winter deposit. Varves range in thickness from less than 1 millimeter to more than 1 toot. They were correlated from one exposure to another by the distribu¬ tion of abnormally thin or thick single varves or groups. A correlation with successive positions of the ice front was found possible and the varves were round to thicken and to be composed of coarser material nearer the position ot the ice margin. Johnston11 carried on a study of recent sediments in Lake Louise, Canada, a lake fed by glacial waters. He discovered that the In^‘w^^L^92ThOT.°19^!57. S' aS illustrated in ari<1 America: Carnegie D°uglass, A* 1E;>. Climatic cycles and tree growth; a study of the annual 289^ vol ^11 6 1 928 relatlon to cllmate and solar activity: Carnegie Inst. Wash., Publ. a12-000 years: c°mptes ScL,"6S,^^ol74,^i.S|7^siriMn2.,n ^ L°U‘Se’ Alberta’ Canada: Am' JoUr' 10 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science sediments exhibit paired laminations except in the delta where the glacial stream enters the lake. Calculations based on the known discharge of water into the lake, the volume of lake water, and the average amount of sus¬ pended sediment showed that the paired laminations are of the right order of thickness to be considered annual accumulations. In Sweden postglacial varves were discovered in sediments deposited in a lake which was drained in the 18th century. It proved possible to correlate these postglacial varves with late glacial varves and to reconstruct and date the history of the glacial recession northward across Sweden by means of the varves. Antevs12 and others have attempted to correlate varve sequences between the Scandinavian countries and North America, but the tentative correlations made have been challenged on several grounds. Antevs13 worked out varve sequences in the Connecticut River valley, upon which he based a chronology of ice re¬ cession in that area, indicating an average retreat of 1 mile in about 10 years. Flint14 has studied the Connecticut valley glacial records and believes the glacier did not retreat, but became a stagnant mass of ice and that the varves were formed in a series of lakes at progressively lower levels, held in by temporary ice barriers. He does not accept the varves of that region as a basis for chronology. Andersen15 has similarly criticized de Geer’s con¬ clusions in Denmark and suggested that the varves may record day and night, rather than annual rhythms. This controversy has not yet been set¬ tled to the satisfaction of all concerned. Sayles16, Coleman17, and others have discovered varve-like sediments associated with deposits formed during earlier glacial periods, now indurated and altered to banded shales and slates. These have been found in connection with late Paleozoic glacial deposits in South America, South Africa, Asia, Australia, and Massachusetts, and in connec¬ tion with pre-Cambrian glacial deposits in Canada and elsewhere. Glacial varves are generally considered annual deposits and valuable for recording chronology and calculating rates of sedimentation. Non-glacial Varves Workers engaged in studies of recent and ancient lake sedimentation outside glacial regions have discovered various conditions in lakes which may be responsible for annual paired laminations or varves. Kindle18 has noted that lake water becomes thermally stratified during the summer months, the warm light water (epilimnion) overlying colder and heavier water (hypolimnion). Fine muds and debris from aquatic vegetation will not sink through the denser water, but remain suspended until the fall over¬ turn when all the water achieves an uniform temperature before freezing. This fall overturn is responsible for the settling of fine debris which may form a lamina overlying a coarser band deposited during the summer. Bradley,19 in studying the Green River oil-shales of Utah and Colorado, discovered paired laminations ranging from 0.05 to 0.2 millimeters thick and generally consisting of a band of dark clay very rich in organic matter and a lighter band with less organic matter, but in some parts of the shale particularly rich in calcium carbonate. Considering the area of the ancient 12 Antevs, E., Probable correlation between the last ice retreat in North America and in Europe (abstr. ) : Geol. Soc. Amer., Bull., vol. 36, pp. 153-154, 1925. - The last glaciation, with special reference to the ice retreat in north¬ eastern North America: Am. Geog. Soc., Research ser. No. 17, 1928. 13 Antevs, E., The recession of the last ice sheet in New England : Am. Geog. Soc., Research ser. No. 11, 1922. 14 Flint, R. F., The stagnation and dissipation of the last ice sheet : Geog. Rev., vol. 19, pp. 256-289, 1929. , „ x - The glacial geology of Connecticut, Conn. State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv., Bull. 47, 1930. 15 Andersen, S. A., The waning of the last continental glacier in Denmark as illustrated by varved clay and eskers: Jour. Geol., vol. 39, pp. 609-624, 1931. 16 Sayles, R. W., Seasonal deposition in aqueoglacial sediments : Mus. Comp. Zool. (Harvard Univ.), vol. 47, pp. 5-63, 1919. 17 Coleman, A. P., Ice ages, recent and ancient, pp. 234-236, 1929. 18 Kindle, E., The role of thermal stratification in lacustrine sedimentation : Proc. Royal Soc., Canada, Trans., 3rd ser., vol. 21, pp. 1-35, 1927. 19 Bradley, W. H., The varves and climate of the Green River epoch : U. S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Paper 158, pp. 87-110, 1929. Wanless — Geological Rhythms 11 lake in which the shale accumulated and the probable quantity of suspended load introduced into it, Bradley concluded that the thickness of the varves was reasonable for annual deposits. He argued that organic matter, which is seasonal in production, should be concentrated in part of the annual varve, and that calcium carbonate would be precipitated in greater quantity in the summer than in the winter because of the evaporation of carbon dioxide from the water during the warmer season. Bradley decided there were about 3,000,000 varves in the Green River shale, and found that they dis¬ played long period rhythms in alternations between organic rich oil-shales and marlstones. There are about 22,000 varves in each of these rhythms, and as this corresponds with the cycle of precession of the equinoxes he interpreted the rhythm as of that origin. Stamp20 described varved sediments from the Tertiary of Burma. He stated that the sediments were accumulated in the sea into which the ancestor of the Irrawaddy River discharged and that one lamina corresponds with the flood season of the river and the other with the low-water season. He found that there were on the average about 5 varves per inch, indicating a total period of at least 2 y2 million years for the whole series of rocks which is about 12,000 feet thick. Under favorable conditions a saline lake undergoing evaporation may deposit a lamina of gypsum or anhydrite during one season and some other saline during another. Gypsum and salt alternations have been described from the Permian of Kansas, and anhydrite and dolomite varves of very regular development from the Permian of Texas, in a drill core.21 The speaker has observed presumably nonglacial varves in a fine-grained sandstone or siltstone of Carboniferous age in Wyoming, in which pure white laminae alternate with reddish laminae of somewhat finer texture. A fine-grained siltstone occurring near the base of the Pennsylvanian system and quarried for whetstones in Orange County, Indiana, is also regularly laminated or varved. The laminations in this formation seem to record numerous short-period rhythms which may be associated with sun-spot cycles. LARGER RHYTHMS OR CYCLES IN SEDIMENTATION Newberry22 described a “circle” of sedimentation as consisting of sand¬ stone at the base, followed successively by shale and limestone and separated from other “circles” by unconformities. He interpreted the “circles” as being initiated by diastrophic movement, following which coarse sediment was carried into nearby depositional basins. As the elevated land mass became worn down the particles transported to the basin became finer and deposition proceeded less rapidly. Eventually erosion of the source area ceased and limestone followed shale in the basin. The “circle” is terminated by renewed uplift, which again brings a supply of coarser sediment into the basin. This is a succession of events rather similar to the ideal concept of a geologic period, which should be initiated and terminated by uplift but otherwise marked by general stability. In a valuable contribution to the literature on rhythmic sedimentation Barrell23 outlined a sequence of events including periodic downwarping of basin areas with reference to a hinge line, and intervening periods when, without deformation, the basins became filled with sediment. He noted that because the downwarping would be greatest farthest from the hinge line, numerous stratigraphic units of the deeper part of the basin should wedge out against the edge of the basin or hinge line. 20 Stamp, L. D., Seasonal rhythm in the Tertiary sediments of Burma: Geol. Mag., vol. 62, pp. 515-528, 1925. aiUdden, J. A., Laminated anhydrite in Texas. Geol. Soc. Amer., Bull., vol. 35, PP. 347-354, 1924. 22 Newberry, J. S., Circles of deposition in American sedimentary rocks. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Proc. 22, pt. 2, pp. 185-196, 1874. 23 Barrell, J., Rhythms and the measurement of geologic time : Geol. Soc. Amer., Bull., vol. 28, pp. 745-809, 1917. 12 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Stamp24 has described cyclic sediments of Eocene age in the London and Paris basins, which consist of successive groups of marine strata in one direction intertonguing with nonmarine strata in the other direction. CARBONIFEROUS CYCLES OF SEDIMENTATION The latter part of the Paleozoic era, consisting of the later Mississippian, the whole Pennsylvanian, and the early Permian periods, seems to have been characterized by some form of rhythmic sedimentation over many parts of the world. These rhythms represent a time interval much less than a geo¬ logic period, as the later Mississippian (Chester series) of the Mississippi valley includes 9 rhythms, the Pennsylvanian 30 or more, and the early Permian (Big Blue series)25 of Kansas about 10. Born26 in describing the upper Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) of the Upper Silesian basin stated that 477 cycles have been found in that region. American Pennsylvanian cycles were first noted by Udden27 in the Peoria quadrangle, Illinois, where a similar series of beds was found associated with coals 5, 6, and 7, and the Lonsdale limestone. Cyclic sedimentation was the subject of later investigation by J. M. Weller in Illinois and adjacent states.28 Somewhat similar rhythms of the same age have been described from Ohio,29 West Virginia,30 Kansas and Nebraska,31 England,32 and the Donetz coal basin of Russia.33 The speaker has also observed sedimentary rhythms in the Pennsylvanian rocks of Ken¬ tucky, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, Oklahoma, and several states in the Rocky Mountains. The phenomenon thus seems very widespread in the northern hemisphere, though it has not yet been recognized in the southern hemisphere. Weller stated that the cycle of sedimentation of the Pennsylvanian of Illinois when fully developed consists of the following lithologic units: 10. Gray shale with ironstone concretions 9. Marine limestone 8. Carbonaceous (black) shale 7. Marine limestone (local) 6. Gray shale with plant remains (local) 5. Coal 4. Underclay 3. Fresh water limestone 2. Shale or sandy shale 1. Sandstone Erosional unconformity above No. 10 of next cycle below Weller34 proposed the name cyclothem for this group of strata and con¬ sidered it to be approximately equivalent to a geologic formation. Beds 7-10 24 Stamp, L. D., On cyles of sedimentation in the Eocene strata of the Anglo- Franco-Belgian Basin: Geol. Mag., vol. 58, pp. 108-114, 194-200, 1922. 25 Jewett, J. M., Evidence of cyclic sedimentation in Kansas during the Permian period, Kans. Acad. Sei., Tr., vol. 36, pp. 137-140, 1933. 26 Born, A., Periodizitat epirogener Krustenbewegungen : XVI Intern, geol. congr., Rept., vol. 1, p. 172, 1936. 27Udden, J. A., Geology and mineral resources of the Peoria quadrangle, Illi¬ nois: U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 506, pp. 47-50, 1912. 28 Weller, J. M., Cyclic sedimentation in the Pennsylvanian and its significance: Jour. Geol., vol. 38, pp. 97-135, 1930. - - The conception of cyclical sedimentation during the Pennsylvanian period: Ill. State Geol. Surv., Bull. 60, pp. 163-177, 1931. 29 Stout, W., Pennsylvanian cycles in Ohio : Ill. State Geol. Surv., Bull. 60, pp. 195-216, 1931. 30 Reger, D. B., Pennsylvanian cycles in West Virginia : Ill. State Geol. Surv., Bull. 60, pp. 217-239, 1931. 31 Moore, R. C., Pennsylvanian cycles in the northern mid-continent region : Ill. State Geol. Surv., Bull. 60, pp. 247-257, 1931. 32 Hudson, R. G., On the rhythmic succession of the Yoredale series in Wens- leydale : Yorkshire Geol. Soc., Pr., vol. 20, pt. I, pp. 1-11, 1923-24. 33 Grabau, A. W., The Permian of Mongolia : Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Natural History of Central Asia, vol. 4, pp. 432-442, 1931. 34 Wanless, H. R., and Weller, J. M., Correlation and extent of Pennsylvanian cyclothems: Geol. Soc. Amer., Bull., vol. 43, p. 1003, 1932. Wanless — Geological Rhythms 13 of the cyclothem are considered marine in origin as they generally contain marine fossils. Beds 1-6 are considered nonmarine, largely because they contain traces of land or fresh water plants or animals, and because marine fossils are not found. The successive cyclothems are not all composed of the full sequence of beds. As one cyclothem is traced over a large territory cer¬ tain members may be found to disappear or other new members may be in¬ troduced. In some regions, like southern Illinois, eastern Kentucky, and Virginia, the cyclothems consist almost wholly of non-marine members, while in other regions such as in the upper Pennsylvanian of northern Illinois, Kansas, and Nebraska, the non-marine beds of the cycle may be greatly reduced in thickness or entirely absent, making the record largely one of marine sedi¬ mentation. Traced into other regions the sedimentary rhythms include coarse conglomerates, as in central Colorado and Virginia; red beds, as in the upper Pennsylvanian of Ohio, West Virginia, and Oklahoma; chert or flint, as in the lower Permian of Kansas; and gypsum as in Kansas and Colorado. The lithologic composition and thickness of the cyclothem is a record of (1) the proximity of the area to highlands providing sedimentary materials, (2) the rate of subsistence, (3) the average elevation of the locality in respect to sea-level, and (4) the climate, both of the source area of the sediment and the depositional basin. Geosynclinal areas marked by rapid subsistence have a thicker rhythmic record than regions with less rapid subsistence and if they were close to old land masses, as the Appa¬ lachian geosyncline was, they include coarser sediments. During the Penn¬ sylvanian period, the eastern United States evidently had, as it has now, a more humid climate than the Rocky Mountain region. This is indicated by more numerous and thicker coals, more abundant horizons yielding fossil plant impressions, and a predominance of shales, the product of deep chemi¬ cal weathering of the lands providing sedimentary particles. In contrast the cyclothems of the Rocky Mountain region contain very few coals or plant horizons, the sandstones and conglomerates contain abundant feldspars and other unstable mineral species, shales are infrequent and wholly lacking in some areas, red beds are common, and gypsum and salt are found in a few places. The tracing of a particular cyclothem from the Appalachian region to the Rocky Mountains with a study of the varied conditions of sedi¬ mentation would provide a significant picture of conditions of regional climate and physiography of the Carboniferous. Moore30 has described a still more complex rhythm from the upper Pennsylvanian of Kansas, to which he has applied the name megacycle. This includes as many as 5 marine limestones and locally as many as three coals. Each limestone or shale of the megacycle is characterized by some textural, structural, or faunal features resembling those of corresponding shales or limestones in other megacycles but differing from others in the same mega¬ cycle. A critical analysis of the upper Pennsylvanian succession in southern and central Illinois suggests the presence of a corresponding complex rhythm, characterized by more shale, coal, and sandstone and less limestone than in Kansas. INTERPRETATIONS Several students of Carboniferous cyclic sedimentation have suggested explanations for the rhythmic changes involved. Stout36 and Cady 37 have postulated a broad interior basin subject to periodic downwarping during which shales, limestones, and sandstones were deposited and ultimately built up to a profile of equilibrium on which coal swamps established themselves, to persist until a renewal of downwarping. Stout attaches little significance 35 Moore, R. C., Stratigraphic classification of the Pennsylvanian rocks of Kansas: State Geol. Surv. of Kans., Bull. 22, pp. 29-35, 1936 pp 204-205’ 1931 Pennsylvanian °ycles in Ohio : Ill. State 'Geol. Surv., Bull. 60, 37 Cady, G. H Alternative interpretation of the subdivision of the Pennsyl- for11f9n33Sepie7imi934 Eastern Interior Province (abstract) : Geol. Soc. Amer., Proc. 14 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science to the breaks at the bases of numerous sandstones and believes the sand¬ stones to be marine. Weller,38 on the other hand, believes that the surfaces below the sandstone were the result of erosion above sea-level and that the sandstones are non-marine deposits. In order to fit these views into the in¬ terpretation of the rhythmic movements Weller postulated cycles of alter¬ nating elevation and subsidence for the interior of the United States, the subsidence exceeding the elevation in amount. The maximum emergence in each cycle is placed at the erosional surface initiating the rhythm and the maximum subsidence at the deposition of the upper marine limestone (member 9). Born3® interpreted the Carboniferous cycles of Europe as due to accumulation of stresses to the breaking point, when they were relieved by movement. He believes the movements of similar sorts occurred at similar intervals, and compared the procedure with “breathing” of the earth. The speaker, with Professor F. P. Shepard40 suggested that the move¬ ments of the depositional basin were dominantly downward, but that the sea-level repeatedly rose and fell, causing frequent wide migrations of the strand-line. The sea-level fluctuations were tentatively interpreted as due to the alternative growth and wastage of late Paleozoic continental glaciers principally in the southern hemisphere. They suggested that climatic cycles related to the precession of the equinoxes or some other extra-terres¬ trial cause might be responsible for the growth and melting of the glaciers and for changes in conditions of sedimentation outside glaciated areas. Critics of this latter view point out that late Paleozoic glaciation is not definitely known to coincide in time with the Carboniferous cyclic sedimen¬ tation, nor is it known that there were as many glacial epochs as there were cycles. The length of time required for the individual Carboniferous rhythms has not been determined, nor is it known whether all are of approximately the same duration. The great similarity in sequence in numerous successive cyclothems and their approximate equivalence in thickness suggests that they record approximately equal periods of time and the operation of some regular rhythmic forces. Rhythmic and Nonrhythmic Periods of Earth History In contrast with the Pennsylvanian and Pleistocene periods during which there were frequent changes in climate, sea level, and types of sedi¬ mentary rocks, other portions of the geologic time scale seem to have been characterized by the persistence of similar conditions for long periods of time. The middle Ordovician, the middle Silurian, and the middle Missis- sippian periods were characterized by continuous limestone or dolomite deposition throughout the central parts of the United States. There were thus intervals of geologic history when earth movements and climatic changes attained a rather regular periodicity recording itself in erosion cycles, cycles of sedimentation, and glacial and interglacial epochs. There were other somewhat longer intervals when periodic earth movements and climatic changes apparently were subdued or lacking. 38 Weller, J. M., Cyclical sedimentation in the Pennsylvanian and its signifi¬ cance : Jour. Geol., vol. 38, pp. 110-135, 1930. 39 Born, A., Periodizitat epirogener Krustenbewegungen : XVI Intern, geol. Congr., Rept., vol. 1. pp. 169-189, 1936. 40 Wanless, H. R., and Shepard, F. P., Sea level and climatic changes related to late Paleozoic cycles: Geol. Soc. Amer.. Bull., vol. 47, pp. 1177-1206, 1936. Our Exhaustible Resources of Minerals — What Should Be the Aims of a Conservation Program? Morris M. Leighton Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey, TJrbana SCIENTISTS, as a professional group, have emphasized the importance of conservation of our natural resources along ethical lines more than any other group of our people. And there are reasons why they should. They do not believe in wasteful exploitation; they appreciate the place which natural resources play in the role of progressive human society; they are as devoid of ulterior motives and selfishness as any group; they possess a larger knowl¬ edge of the limitations of the natural resources with respect to requirements of future generations than most lay groups; and they have become liberated from the old view that the life of man on this earth is likely to be cut short at an early date. Furthermore, they have a passion for progress and a realization of the rights of unborn generations. With respect to conservation, astronomy teaches limitless time, physics the relatively unlimited sources of solar energy, chemistry the universality of the physical and chemical changes, geology the long future of habitability of our globe, and biology the probable and relatively endless chain of genera¬ tions of the human species, at least so far as a long future is concerned. All of these sciences furthermore teach that we of the present are writing a tremendous draft upon the resources which future society will also require. On the other hand, the average layman and the average business man deals primarily with the realities of the present generation. A future of a few centuries is a tremendously long time to him, a million years is hardly a reality to him, he still thinks in terms of the possibility or probability of vast resources yet to be discovered, he is quite naturally concerned with the problems of operating at a profit in the exploitation of the natural resources rather than with the problems of existence which will face generations of mankind in the remote future, and he faces daily the changing forces of competition which continually threaten to put him out of the running. It is therefore not surprising that there should be these differences in points of view between the scientists and the laymen. Yet, notwithstanding these different points of view there has developed a wide and increased interest in the subject of conservation and a greater recognition of its importance. However, we must realize that the modus operandi by which progress in conservation may be accomplished is and must be inevitably slow, by reason of the imperfection of our knowledge as to how best to use our natural resources. This fact places a heavy respon¬ sibility upon all of the sciences, because their contribution must be some¬ thing more than the mere teaching that conservation is a necessity. Historically the conservation movement in America had its inception in the rapid depletion of the forests and in the consideration of certain factors which must be taken into account in the development of our streams. The disappearance of the forests could be seen by everyone, and the problem of the changing regimen of our streams, brought about by the widespread de¬ struction of the natural vegetal covering and the plowing of the soil, was apparent to engineers and statesmen who had given the matter study. As the industrial revolution got under way, following the Civil War, and in¬ creasing quantities of iron ore, coal, copper and other minerals were ex¬ tracted, it became more and more apparent that vast inroads would soon be made on the exhaustible resources of the nation. It, therefore, came to be realized that this country was facing a grave national problem. This led President Theodore Roosevelt to call a conference of the Governors of the forty-eight states in 1908. [15] 16 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Although the motives for the call were most worthy, the results were not entirely satisfactory. Anyone who reads the minutes of that conference and the addresses that were made cannot help but feel that too much stress was laid on the wastefulness and the exploitation methods of private in¬ dustry and too little recognition given the conditions which, to a certain degree, justified the methods at that time in this country’s development. This was in part remedied rather late in the conference, in an address made by our revered former President of the University of Illinois, Dr. Edmund J. James, at the fourth session. His point of view is worthy of our careful consideration, and I therefore quote extracts at some length. There is no doubt that we have been extremely wasteful in our mining processes, taken as a whole, and it is high time we should direct public attention to the necessity of greater efficiency in our methods of mining than has characterized our operations thus far. But after all, the determination of what is the proper mining policy turns essentially upon economic considerations. Economic exploitation of our mining re¬ sources does not consist in making the utmost possible saving in the narrow sense of the term. It would, for instance, be perhaps entirely feasible in the mining of coal or iron to extract 90% or 95% of the coal or iron from the mines which are open, and yet such a policy might be after all uneconomic. In other words, it would probably cost more than the entire coal is worth to extract from the mines 99% of the coal to be found in them. It would probably cost quite as much as the gold and silver and iron are worth to undertake to extract 99% of the metals to be found in the mines. That is to say, the extraction of all the valuable material would be such an expensive proceeding as to make mining itself unprofitable. This, of course, would be uneconomic in the highest degree. The question, therefore, as to what the best min¬ ing policy is must turn at bottom upon the fundamental question as to what method will, everything considered, turn out the highest pos¬ sible value. It would be quite feasible, therefore, though I should think there is very little probability of such a state of things, to adopt a set of mining laws which would hamper the development of the mining in¬ dustry to an entirely unreasonable extent, as I am quite sure some of the mining codes of other countries have done. There is no doubt that we have exploited our farms and our lands in many parts of the country in a very wasteful way; that we have ex¬ ploited our soils in some cases to such an extent as almost to destroy them and to make it impossible to restore them except by a very large expenditure, if at all. . . . But economics students would insist that the fact that certain farms in the United States have passed out of cultivation does not of itself prove that the agriculture policy of the Nation has in the large been a mistaken one. . . . Many farms in New England and New York and some parts of Pennsylvania and Virginia have in the last two genera¬ tions fallen out of cultivation. This fact in itself does not necessarily prove that the agricultural policy of the State or Nation has been bad. On the contrary the fact that those unproductive farms fell out of cul¬ tivation was in many instances a sign of one of the greatest blessings that ever came to the American people, namely, the possession and opening up of magnificent opportunities in the Mississippi valley and the West. . . . Those farms fell out of cultivation not because they were exhausted, for in many instances they produced more than when they were first cultivated, nor because we can not cultivate them today as well as we could cultivate them when they were first put under the plow, if we were only willing to accept the return which they would bring us; but because the standard of life among the American people has advanced to a point where the methods of the cultivation of the 1850’s applied to those farms will not yield us that with which we are or should be content. Leighton — Our Exhaustible Resources 17 Thus, it should be emphasized that the economics of the situation must be given a fundamental place in considering any program to accomplish conservation. Conservation of Minerals We are concerned in this paper with the question of the conservation of exhaustible mineral resources, primarily those of Illinois. In this State, as in most states, the mineral resources belong to in¬ dividuals or companies or corporations. The theory of our constitution and of our laws, we infer, is that they, like the farm lands, are for private use or exchange. If they occur under conditions such that they enhance materially the value of the land, they are taxed along with the land. Legislation affect¬ ing their recovery concerns primarily human safety and to a small degree their preservation from damage, as in the case of oil-well drilling through coal beds. The amount of capital invested in their recovery, preparation for the market and for means of distribution by railway and motor truck, repre¬ sents hundreds of millions of dollars. Industries have arisen which provide employment for many thousands of men. Communities have been built up around them. The ability of the companies to fill contracts for large orders has brought other industries to the State. In these and other ways, the mineral industries of Illinois have become indispensably an important part of the framework of society. What is the status of their conservation? In a paper of this scope it is not possible to review all of the mineral resources of Illinois with respect to the status of their conservation; we shall be limited to one of them, and only the broader features of that one, and from it develop our thought as to what a conservation program should entail. We shall consider coal, that mineral being our most valuable mineral resource. In shaft mining, in the Northern Illinois field, the Longwall sys¬ tem is used and about 95 per cent of the coal is recovered, whereas in the rest of the State the room-and-pillar system is used and the average is about 50 per cent. By far the larger percentage of coal mined in the State is by the room-and-pillar system. The reason why the room-and-pillar system is used, although the percentage of recovery is only one-half, are in the last analysis purely economic. Where the coal beds are thick and other condi¬ tions are such that “back filling” cannot be employed to prevent subsidence that will alter the surface drainage of level agricultural lands or damage surface structures, pillars of coal of adequate size must be left. Damage to farm lands is a controlling factor in Illinois. Unequal subsidence may create swampy places or disturb drainage systems or damage water wells. This invites damage suits asking for extravagant awards. This, and other uncertainties, deter attempts at pillar recovery. Outright purchase of both surface and underground rights prevents insuperable obstacles in many cases, but where this is done there are usually other tracts intercheckered with these so that no relief can be obtained. Moderately hilly areas offer their problems also if the subsidence cannot be controlled to keep from interfer¬ ing with streams and surface structures. Coal losses, however, include other than that left in pillars. In places coal is left in the roof and on the bottom, especially if it is very high in ash or if needed to serve special purposes. Coal must also be left under rail¬ roads, along boundaries, or to prevent flooding from water in abandoned workings at a higher elevation. Much coal is also lost through premature abandonment of mines. In many cases such pieces of virgin coal are so irregular and small as to make the cost of future reopening prohibitive. Such premature abandonment took place on a considerable scale during the 20’s and early 30’s of this century when depression conditions caused many companies to become bankrupt. Coal is also lost where there are rolls or where the coal bed becomes too dirty or too thin to work under present economic conditions. From the foregoing and other facts it is apparent that the problem of conservation is exceedingly complex. These complexities become even greater when it is realized that competitive conditions are such that small additional 18 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science costs would endanger or effect bankruptcy, and as has just been pointed out, bankruptcy in many instances brings waste from premature abandonment of irregular areas of virgin coal, and it also has its serious effects upon em¬ ployment and general economic conditions. Since about 1920 the market for coal has ceased to grow, generally speaking, due to competition of other fuels and energy resources. Strip mining results in recoveries closely approximating 100 per cent, but in this case the soil resources are destroyed. This raises the question of competition in conservation, another angle of the already complicated prob¬ lem. Strip mining also sacrifices employment opportunities because of its highly developed state of mechanization. Thus there are arguments on both sides, but again we are reminded that the task of outlining or shaping a program of conservation is not as easy as the great majority of our people might think. Losses which are unavoidable must be charged against the conditions under which we are operating. These conditions are either economic or technological. While advances in technology have been rapid, relatively speaking, we have a long way yet to go before we shall have the scientific and technologic information necessary for an adequate conservation program. Many of the so-called wasteful practices in the production of coal, as in the production of many other commodities, have been necessary for the industrial development of the State, and for the progress in the standards of living which we all share. We cannot afford, therefore, to be radical in the changes that we wish to bring about for there is danger of disaster for both the finan¬ cial and social well-being of the entire State. It is also well, before we embarrass ourselves with making unjust criti¬ cisms, to recognize that incomplete recovery is less sinful than wasteful utilization. After the coal is delivered to us for our use, how many of us use it efficiently? We burn only a portion of it and send the rest up the chim¬ ney. We conserve only a part of the heat and let the rest pass through our uninsulated walls and ill-constructed windows and doors. In the power in¬ dustry, in the use of railroad fuel, and in blast furnaces, we have advanced, but much remains to be done. Again, we shall be criticised for such waste by future generations, unless they liberally charge it against the incomplete state of our knowledge. Where then, and how, shall we attack this problem of conservation of our coal resources? Let us be exceedingly cautious about legislating ourselves into a solution, except where it is patent that legislation has a place. Instead let there be an insistence on improvement in our technical knowledge by thorough-going researches and practical demonstrations of the findings. First of all it is necessary to pursue investigations in regard to the geological conditions that must be met in economic mining; second, there must be further experimen¬ tal study in the technology of mining; third, there must be a thorough study of the constitution of the coal-beds in order that progressive steps can be taken in the proper preparation of the fuels for their different uses; fourth, researches must be carried on to perfect the use of coal; and fifth, studies must be made of the economic conditions of the markets, in order that ab¬ normal situations may be recognized; and sixth, the ready dissemination of new knowledge should be facilitated. The policy of increasing our knowledge will lay the proper foundations for policies of conservation, and will react beneficially to sound economic and social conditions. The same principle is fundamental with respect to our other exhaustible natural resources, the discussion of which is imprac¬ ticable here within the limits of time available. Increase in knowledge will be an important compensating factor to award to our descendants for the depletion of natural resources which they will inherit. As two of our authorities on the economics of mineral resources have stated: “ ... if science shall make a revolutionary discovery, if man shall unlock the secrets of photosynthesis and atomic energy, our popula¬ tion may then be trusted to increase to the point at which it can make full use of the new stores of power.”1 1 F. G. Tryon and Lida Mann, Mineral Resources for Future Populations, Poliak Foundation for Economic Research, Newton 58, Massachusetts. Advances in the Renewable Natural Resources Program of Illinois Theodore H. Frison Chief, Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana MY participation in this program today, speaking on the subject, “Ad¬ vances in the Renewable Natural Resources Program of Illinois,” brings to mind two previous papers presented on annual programs of the Illinois State Academy of Science and later published as a part of the Transactions. Early attitude toward natural resources. — The first of these papers was presented by S. A. Forbes at the Bloomington meeting in 1912 and its title was “The Native Animal Resources of the State.” This paper sketched a broad, general picture of the abundance of the native animal life of Illi¬ nois when the state was occupied by the Indians, and the subsequent re¬ duction of these particular resources in the wake of its rapid settlement by white men. The philosophy of the 1912 period is fairly well revealed by a quotation from this article, as follows: “The whole process has evidently been a perfectly natural and inevitable one — as much so as the flood of the tide in the wake of the revolving moon — and immensely advantageous also from every point of view except that of the inadequate, incompetent and ill-adapted population which it has reduced or suppressed.” A militant pro¬ gressive conservation program, aimed to check further reductions of our renewable native natural resources and to increase certain desirable ones was, as yet, unprojected. Glimmerings of the future, however, were indicated in this paper by the demand expressed for “prompt, vigorous and intelligent rectification and control” of pollution of waters, particularly the Illinois River, which was then showing the effects of the opening of the Chicago Drainage Canal, and in another paragraph by a plea for this Academy to promote by resolution the passage of the National Migratory Bird Act. Modern attitude toward natural resources. — The second paper I wish to mention is one it was my privilege to present on a symposium on “Conserva¬ tion of Illinois Agricultural and Human Resources” at the time of the Decatur meeting of this Academy in 1934. This essay was entitled “Utiliza¬ tion of Illinois Lands for Forestry, Wildlife and Recreation.” I cite this latter paper because its content reveals a marked turning point in the attitude of scientists and the general public in the approach to the renewable native natural resources problems of Illinois. Realization had come that the depletion of such resources had gone too far for the public good in many instances, and a definite program was beginning to take shape for preserving and, if possible, increasing what was left of certain desirable resources of this kind. In this paper there was (1) a facing of the fact that, while restrictive legislation can perhaps retard the decline of certain renewable and highly desirable natural resources, it does not necessarily increase them or even insure their preservation; (2) the recognition that, regardless of the value and desirability of some fish hatcheries and game farms, such a program, because of the costs involved, offers in our State no sure-fire panacea for a general increase of valuable fish and game resources; and (3) the start of a delineation of a sound land utilization program for Illinois in regard to forestry, wildlife and recreation. Four years have gone by since 1934 and during this period definite advances in harmony with this 1934 con¬ servation program have been made. These advances, when we stand close to them in time and space, may seem slight, but, judged from the philosophy of 1912, they are epochal steps. [19] 20 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science No single unit of government or group of people is entirely responsible or can take all the credit for this rapidly-advancing program. In spite of its diversity, in origin and administration the pattern of this program is clearly definable and fortunately its different elements are most compatible. It is my belief that the very diversity of the organizations participating in this youthful program is a guarantee that it will have better balance and perspective. We have not reached as yet such perfection in planning for the infinite preservation and increase in renewable natural resources that as a nation or state we can afford to put all of our plans in one brief case or follow one stereotyped procedure. Natural resources defined. — I have mentioned our renewable natural resources several times thus far in this paper and perhaps I have already proceeded too far without defining the particular type of resources I am in¬ cluding or excluding under this phrase. By renewable natural resources I have reference to the living flora and fauna, particularly those of demon¬ strable economic importance, of this State. To the average citizen this implies forest and wildlife resources. Wildlife resources include, of course, our fish, bird and mammal populations, and forest is to be broadly inter¬ preted as applying to plant life, in general. The fundamental difference between a conservation program dealing with non-renewable natural re¬ sources, such as was the subject of the preceding speaker's address, and a program for renewable natural resources is that the non-renewable cannot be cropped successively without reducing the total resources of that kind, whereas in many instances the renewable resources, with proper manage¬ ment, can be cropped successively without reducing the total resource, and under certain conditions such resources can, moreover, be increased. To prevent getting too far afield, my definition of renewable natural resources for today’s purpose must be further restricted to exclude those renewable natural resources which have already definitely reached such a place in management and development that they are generally considered as agricultural crops. BACKGROUND OF THE PROGRAM Every story and play has a background or foundation and so does a renewable natural resources program for Illinois. Fortunately, due to many years of effort by investigators and scientists of varied stripe and hue, this background is not fictitious but real. A long and detailed description of this State is not necessary before such an audience as this. It does seem necessary, however, to point out that the location of Illinois, in the heart of a large land area, and its extent, a distance of almost 400 miles from north to south, about 285 miles from east to west, presents differences which must be considered in planning for a sound renewable natural resources program. The distance in miles from north to south in the latitude of Illinois is sufficient by itself to influence the composition of the flora and fauna without the aid of a great variation in elevations as proved by the existence within our borders of cypress swamps, mistletoe and cotton fields in extreme southern Illinois and the tamarack bogs of the northeastern counties. The general interior continental location of our State is sufficient also to make our lands a meeting place of eastern and western species of plants and animals, as well as those of northern and southern affinities. Here and there, too, all over the State there are diverse local ecologically different habitats such as the sandy areas near Havana, Kankakee and Savanna, the comparatively recent glacial lakes of Lake and McHenry Counties, the generally distributed large and small river systems, the areas originally with prairie or forest cover, and, in that part of the State in which we are today, a worn-down mountain range, frequently referred to as the Ozarkian Uplift. Need for varied program^. — Because of these differences, no blanket or single-track conservation program can be adopted for Illinois and produce the best results. The hunting season in the northern part of the state, if correctly timed for breeding seasons, rarely, if ever, would coincide with that in the southern tip. The migratory waterfowl which provide such extensive shooting at times in certain localities, particularly the Illinois River valley. Prison — Our Renewable Resources 21 Plate I. Upper. Cypress stand along the edge of Horseshoe Lake in southern Illinois. Middle. Sand dunes and flats near Savanna, in the northwestern part of the State. Lower. Tamarack bog near Yolo, in northeastern Illinois. 22 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science are mostly hatched far without our borders and are mainly visitors tem¬ porarily in our custody. The harmonizing of any sizeable upland game bird or fur-bearing mammal population on such valuable agricultural tracts as compose large areas in our state indeed presents a difficult problem. In a state endowed by nature with waters of very high relative productiveness of fishery resources, the problem of supplying adequate fishing for the many citizens of the state is made difficult by natural limitations in water area, and by most valuable agricultural and industrial industries which diminish aquatic plant and animal life through drainage activities, silting as a result of erosion of denuded soils, and pollution. All of these statements mean, first that a renewable natural resources program in Illinois must be varied to suit the particular locality; secondly, that, because of high land values, a relatively low proportion of poor to good agricultural land and a large population, any area specifically dedicated to forestry and wildlife resources should be developed to its maximum state of usefulness; and lastly, that it is imperative that any such program be conceived and developed upon impartially- and scientifically-acquired data. EXTENT OF RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES Now, what are the renewable natural resources of Illinois which should have special consideration in our state program and which should come within the scope of my topic, and what are the recent advances implied in the title of my paper? Obviously, since our state has a flora and fauna which contains some 2,800 different kinds of plants, 20,000 insects, 240 mollusks, 85 reptiles and amphibians, 170 fish, 365 birds and 54 mammals, I cannot go into any detail concerning many individual kinds or species. My remarks, therefore, are centered about such general groupings as forests, fish, game birds, and fur-bearers, all of which have very definite and tangible values. The fact that forests, fish, game birds and fur-bearers are only now beginning to command the serious attention of the State may seem to imply that their economic values are negligble. This is not the case. These same resources were once practically the total support of the inhabitants of this region, furnishing food, clothing and shelter. This is certainly proof of their basic or fundamental values. Now that all the good soil areas of the state are under cultivation and the problem of providing for the necessities and leisure moments of a large population is beginning to bear down, these types of resources are coming to be looked upon with covetous eyes. A couple of years ago the U. S. Junior Chamber of Commerce estimated that 13 million citizens of this country purchasing hunting and fishing licenses were spending annually about 750 million dollars in pursuit of their favorite recreation. In 1935, 267,606 hunting licenses and about 300,000 fishing licenses were issued in Illinois. Add to these figures the number of persons not required to buy licenses, because of hunting or fishing only on their own lands or because of being under age, and the importance of this industry when translated into dollars and cents begins to be revealed in its true light. Then, too, there is a much larger army of people interested in furthering and preserving these same resources purely because of their general enjoyment and appreciation of the out-of-doors. The statement that my remarks concerning renewable natural resources are centered chiefly about such general groupings as forests, fish, game birds and fur-bearers should not be interpreted to mean that other forms of biological resources do not have definite beneficial or detrimental values. The chinch bug in 1934 reduced the collective income of the farmers of Illinois over 30 million dollars. The state program in this instance, however, is one of control associated with agricultural crops and by earlier definition is eliminated from discussion in my subject today. It does show, however, how important some other forms of our plant and animal life can be. All biological scientists, naturalists and conservationists know that birds in general exert a tremendous influence in holding in check many insects and that birds as a group are beneficial to man and should be preserved and the numbers of many kinds increased. The same may be said for many forms of animal life, including even the lowly and often needlessly destroyed Frison — Our Renewable Resources 23 Fig. 1. — Lifting- nets in Maple Lake, located in the Forest Preserve District of Cook County. Through study of fish populations, the Natural History Survey is able to make recommendations to improve fish management of Illinois lakes. Fish. — -The value of our fisheries resources is easily underestimated be¬ cause of the character of this particular industry. I have already mentioned the large army of fishermen. Based upon the actual water area of the state there is for each fisherman about one-half acre of water with a varied rating from zero to high productiveness. In 1908 the number of men employed in the fishing industry in Illinois, particularly in the Illinois River valley, was given in a census report as 4,359. That same year the Illinois River alone produced $721,000 worth of commercial fish, and over $350,000 worth of mussel shell products came from our rivers. In my Academy paper of 1934, already referred to, I stated as one of the points of a sound utilization pro¬ gram for Illinois the “restoration in the interest of fish, game, forestry and recreation to as natural or improved state as possible of much of the former floodplains and bottom land lakes of our river systems, particularly of the middle and lower Illinois River valley, and the impounding of new water areas wherever useful and practical. Clean waters are prerequisites to the fullest success of this program.” This statement requires no modification now. The impounding of small scattered water areas in counties without good lakes and rivers is the only answer to increasing local fishing. Forests. — The statement that the forests of a state are an economic asset requires no proof before such a gathering as this. There is a direct value snakes. Other forms of life, both plant and animal, while of lesser im¬ portance economically, add much to the beauty, enjoyment and interest of our fields and woodlands, and thereby are of concern to all lovers of the out-of-doors. Fortunately, when our renewable natural resources program is planned so as to preserve and further the increase of our forests, fish, game birds and fur-bearers, most other forms of plant and animal life profit accordingly and all categories of conservationists, scientists, sportsmen and nature enthusiasts can support such a program. 24 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science of the timber products such as logs, boards, boxes, implement handles, cord wood, mine props, railroad ties, etc., which reached a figure in 1920 of 88 million dollars. The forest products of farm woodlots alone in Illinois was evaluated in a 1935 census as a $4,500,000 industry. There is, in addition, the indirect value of timbered areas for the preventing of erosion in poor soil type areas and hence their value in reducing the silting of streams, for the harboring of valuable wildlife resources and for the recreational uses of such areas. All of these values are now becoming of importance equal to Fig. 2. — An example of forested area in the Ozarkian uplift in the southern part of the State. Saddleback Ridge, near Wolf Lake. or perhaps greater than the board foot values of timber. According to a forestry survey of the State made by the Natural History Survey, about 42 per cent of the State was originally forested. This 15 million acres of forest, with its average stand of 7,500 board feet per acre, had dwindled to about 3 million acres, with about 2,000 board feet per acre, in 1926. An ideal or theoretical forest area for Illinois, based upon soil types and a sound utilization program, calls for the restoration of about 6 million acres of forest, using for this purpose the land which is now forested, some which is now semi-cleared, and some which at the present time is practically waste land from any point of view. Game birds. — Game birds cannot be sold upon the open market, except pheasants under game breeders laws, and, therefore, unlike timber products and certain fisheries and fur-bearer resources, no figures can be presented concerning their annual commercial value. The amount of money spent by sportsmen in quest of quail and migratory waterfowl is an astonishing sum, as indicated by the sale of 267,606 hunting licenses in Illinois in 1935 and 53,251 migratory waterfowl hunting stamps in 1937. The initial cost of licenses is small compared with the investments in numerous waterfowl hunting clubs, the renting of blind or shooting privileges, guide services, cost of guns and ammunition, travel, meals and lodging, and a large number of other incidentals considered a necessity by the average sportsman. Quail, pheasants and migratory waterfowl such as mallards, blue-winged teal, pintails, Canada geese and a few others bear the brunt of game bird Frison — Our Renewable Resources 25 hunting in Illinois. The quail is the principal game bird in southern and central Illinois. Along the river courses of the State, particularly the Illi¬ nois and Mississippi, is centered the greatest part of duck hunting. In extreme southern Illinois, not far from Carbondale, is the best goose shoot¬ ing. In northern and north-central Illinois the introduced ring-necked pheasant provides considerable sport for hunters. A few other species of birds contribute to the hunter’s bag but they are relatively unimportant in Fig. 3.— Mallard drake alighting. The mallard is one of the principal varieties of migratory waterfowl frequenting Illinois waters. Photo by courtesy of Paul b. Smith. comparison With quail, the ring-necked pheasant and various species of migratory waterfowl. Prairie chicken, a fine game bird and once abundant in the State, are on the protected list, and our present population of them would soon be decimated if a general open season on them were permitted. Good statistics are lacking concerning the numbers of game birds killed, but the U. S. Biological Survey reports that for the United States the average kill of ducks per season by purchasers of duck stamps is ten. This figure is undoubtedly low and it is safe to say that between 350,000 and 600,000 ducks are shot annually in Illinois, depending upon whether the season is bad or good and the season short or long. Mammals. — Among the mammals, the cotton-tail rabbit affords the chief hunting, and the number killed in all parts of the State annually exceeds the total for any other species of game. Because of their comparative abundance, rabbits up until the 1937 hunting season were still sold on the open market. The year 1937 was considered a poor year in Illinois for rabbit shooting; nevertheless, sportsmen in such a highly-cultivated area as the vicinity of Decatur, in Macon County, reported an average kill of more than three for each time they went hunting. Other mammals which must be considered among our particularly valuable renewable natural resources are muskrats, opossums, raccoons, minks and squirrels. For several years our Natural History Survey has been assembling information regarding the income derived in Illinois from the trapping and hunting of fur-bearers, and from the sale of their pelts. Our data indicate an income, even though pro¬ duction is unaided by man, of one million to two million dollars a year. Of the furbearers responsible for this income, the muskrat is by far the most important and accounts for one-half of the total. The average catch of 26 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science muskrats per Illinois trapper reporting is about 30. The highest catch is in the marsh areas of Lake and McHenry counties where the average jumps to about 90 pelts per trapper. The lowest production of muskrat pelts is in southern Illinois and is explained by the absence of marshy areas and by unstable water levels. Preserving and increasing natural resources. — The objectives of the renewable natural resources program for Illinois must definitely, then, pro¬ vide for the preservation and, if possible, the increase of such valuable re- Fig. 4. — The muskrat (left) is by far the most important Illinois fur-bearer. The cotton-tail rabbit (right) is the most hunted of Illinois game. sources as our fishes, game birds and fur-bearing mammals. Other wildlife resources will also profit by the same program. How is such a program to be advanced? The experience of past years indicates that legislation may help to retard declines of wildlife populations but does not necessarily increase such resources. Propagation of fish and game populations in suffi¬ cient numbers to supply the demand is not the answer because of the costs and other factors involved, however valuable or worth while for certain purposes some fish hatcheries and game farms may be. To preserve these resources and, better still, to increase them so that they are a direct economic asset, they must be provided with areas supplying sufficient food and cover to enable them to reproduce naturally. The “cropping” of such resources, increases permitting, should be in accordance with accurate in¬ formation concerning minimum desirable population levels and changing cyclic fluctuations determined by impartial scientific investigations. Thus far in this paper I have presented the general background and most important objectives of a renewable natural resources program for this State. In my remaining remarks I will outline those steps or actions which I consider as the most important and tangible recent advances in such a program. RECENT ADVANCES There is an old saying that while you watch the tea kettle it never boils and another one that at times one cannot see the forest for the trees. -In other words, there is such a state of affairs as being so closely associated with a general movement and so enthusiastic about it that progress along that particular line seems negligible or tortuously slow. Even a conservative biological scientist or the most effervescent nature advocate should be able to recognize, however, that the advances within recent years in the forma¬ tion and growth of a sound renewable natural resources program in Illinois have been extraordinary. In view of the fact that I am speaking about a program involving a large governmental unit and an extensive geographical Frison — Our Renewable Resources 27 area, I believe that I am justified in using the term “recent” to cover a period of about five years. Governmental action in a democracy ordinarily proceeds slowly because it is not brought about by fiat. Support through the press.— One of the outstanding advances in Illinois and the nation during this period has been the sudden, almost explosion¬ like, increased interest upon the part of all classes of citizens in the preser¬ vation and increase of forest and wildlife resources. A good gauge or yard¬ stick for measuring this increase is the prominent space given by the press, both rural and metropolitan, to publicity concerning the kinds of these re¬ sources, their values and necessity in our present niche of civilization, and descriptions of enterprises having to do with their promotion or develop¬ ment. Newspapers and magazines have a way of appraising subject matter of interest to the public, and the columns of space being devoted to forests and wildlife resources are highly indicative of reader interest. This means better and sounder conservation programs by virtue of public support and interest. Support through organizations. — Another indication of the great advance during recent years in renewable natural resources appreciation is the present number of organizations entirely or in part dedicated to furthering such programs. Fifteen or twenty years ago such organizations were not so numerous and possessed little numerical strength. Fishing and hunting clubs, to be sure, were somewhat of an exception to this statement, but in most instances their membership was not sponsoring the type of conservation now rampant throughout the country. Today almost all large civic organ¬ izations such as garden and women’s clubs, and the Boy and Girl Scouts, have definite departments promoting the cause of conservation. In addition, we have within the State numerous other laymen organizations, such as the Izaak Walton League, Farmers-Sportsmen’s Clubs, Conservation Council, Associated Conservation Organizations of Illinois, Illinois Audubon Society, Prairie Club, Wild Flower Preservation Society, Wilderness Society, Ameri¬ can Forestry Association, dedicated solely to such programs and interests. One of these organizations, the Illinois Farmers-Sportsmen’s Club, has a mem¬ bership in this State at the present time of about 80,000 members. Such an aroused public interest has in turn stimulated the scientific study of our renewable natural resources and forced the reevaluation of con¬ servation theories and practices, many of which, unfortunately, have been and are being found quite wanting. Three years ago there was held at Urbana under the sponsorship of the State Natural History Survey a Wild¬ life Conference, the first of its kind in the Middle West and perhaps in the country. This was essentially a fish and game clinic at which scientists from all the north-central states, without being dominated by administrators or the political type of conservationists, freely discussed wildlife management practices in an effort to winnow out the chaff from the wheat, to coordinate such researches and to orientate scientific studies of wildlife resources in such a way that demonstrable sound management practices would result. This conference is now an established affair between the states concerned and has served, too, as a forerunner of nation-wide activities along this line. Conservation activities in the past, except possibly in the case of forestry, have been exceedingly wasteful of public monies, have had policies based largely upon fancies and undemonstrated assumptions, and often have been directed by individuals who knew little of and cared less for the biological or scientific principles involved. National forestry program. — The biggest single advance in the renewable natural resources program of this State in the last five years was the estab¬ lishment in southern Illinois of a national forest unit. I am glad to say that the Illinois State Academy of Science, through its conservation committee, actively supported this forward-looking movement and that the foundation for its being was laid by the Natural History Survey over a period of years. Because of soil values and present land uses the area for a national forest unit breaks into two separate parts, each of which, however, is a single large administrative unit. Time forbids a detailed statement concerning the accomplishments to date within this national forest unit but they are many, varied and of out- 28 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Fig. 6. Fire tower on High Knob, Hardin County. Many such towers have re- centiy been built to aid in giving fire protection to national and state forests of Illinois. standing importance. During the past four years 125,033 acres have been purchased by the Forest Service and an additional 32,525 acres have been optioned and approved by the Reservation Commission. Slightly over 20 per cent, therefore, of the 784,000 acres gross area within the approved unit boundaries have been purchased or are in process of acquisition. This is a great advance, indeed, and 25 years ago the most enthusiastic advocate of an increased forestry program in Illinois would have shied at predicting such an accomplishment. Fire control on this area has steadily advanced and there are now 14 primary and secondary lookout towers with a connecting telephone system to aid this work. Fire control means the growth of new forests, a reduction in soil erosion, a decrease in the silting of streams and generally-improved wildlife conditions. Other accomplishments involved ex¬ tensive new road construction and the improvement of old ones, the develop¬ ment of recreational centers for picnicking and camping, the reforestation and planting of badly-eroded spots to the extent of some 1,766 acres in 1937, establishment of forestry experimental plots, the Dixon Springs pasture and soil erosion project in cooperation with the Farm Security Administration „ 7. One of the State nurseries that raise forest trees. The tree Nursery, near Anna. Photo courtesy State Dept, of Conservation. Thompson Frison — Our Renewable Resources 29 UPPER \JODAViess T stcpucmson Mississippi Rivej*^ Savanna Wildlife & Fish' Refuge OQUAWKAi Game RefugeJ Pere , Marquette-^®) Wildlife Experimental Area & Migratory Waterfowl Refuge HD County Forest r-7 U V Tree Nursery v O Game Farm A Fish Hatchery Shawnee National Forest (illini UNIT) Union County State Forest Horse Shoe Lake Game and Migratory Waterfowl Refuge Shawnee National Forest (SHAWNEE UNIT) Fig. 5. — Forest, game and fish development areas in Illinois. 30 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science and the University of Illinois, the construction of 45 ridge ponds or catch basins to further wildlife, particularly during drouth periods, the completion of ranger station buildings at Murphysboro and Jonesboro, and plans for the development of experimental and game refuge areas in cooperation with the State Natural History Survey. It should be stated in connection with this record of accomplishments that CCC and relief labor supplied most of the man power and without this aid the program could not have been so far advanced. State forestry program.— The State Division of Forestry also has made noteworthy advances within recent years in the cause of a sound forestry program for Illinois. The State forest located near Jonesboro was acquired of Havaifa- The Chautauqua Lake Migratory Waterfowl Refuge, a few miles north only nine years ago and contains 3,482 acres. Within the last few years this area has been greatly improved from the standpoint of recreational use. Although there has been a tree nursery there since 1929 the real develop¬ ment of this nursery, now officially known as the Thompson Nursery, was initiated in 1936. In cooperation with the U. S. Forest Service, the produc¬ tion of this nursery has been stepped up to the extent that some 3,500,000 trees are now produced there annually. In 1934 another State nursery, the Horner Tree Nursery, was established eight miles east of Havana and this nursery has contributed greatly to the production of seedlings, particularly black locust, for erosion control. January 1, the State Division of Forestry, in cooperation with the U. S. Forest Service, under the terms of the Clarke- McNary Law, began to increase nursery stock production and general State forest fire protection, both of which enterprises are real advances in forestry work in this State. Another project which should be mentioned is the fores¬ tation of abandoned strip-mine lands in cooperation with mine operators and this spring 400,000 trees have been planted on such areas under direct super¬ vision of the State Department of Forestry. Last, but not least, the last session of the Legislature appropriated $50,000 for the establishment of an¬ other new State forest unit which probably will be located in poor-soil-type areas in a central or northern part of the State where it will be accessible to large population centers. Cook, Will, Winnebago, DuPage, Kane and Piatt counties have done much to improve their county forests for wildlife and recreational uses dur¬ ing the past several years with CCC and relief labor but time prohibits any detailed statement here except to say that, although such holdings are small when compared with State and national forests, they are exceedingly im¬ portant because of the large number of citizens served by them. Frison — Our Renewable Resources 31 Migratory waterfowl preservation. — Advances in migratory waterfowl preservation have been notable within recent years. Horseshoe Lake, which is host to so many water birds during the migration seasons, is well known to all and will not be considered here because of its comparatively early establishment in 1927. Within the last three years the U. S. Biological Survey has established near Havana, Illinois, a migratory waterfowl refuge of about 4,000 acres. This area has been so improved that once more Chautauqua Lake is a permanent body of water and not a corn field as a result of drainage. Already the area is frequented in fall and spring by many thousands of ducks, geese and other water birds because here they find food and a safe haven. The importance of this refuge in preserving an abundant supply of these valuable resources is very great and marks a big step in a renewable natural resources program both of the continent and of this State. Under a cooperative agreement with the Biological Survey, the State Natural History Survey will use this refuge as a census station and investigational area. Game research and management. — The State Natural History Survey also has greatly orientated its work and program during the last five years to meet the practical demands of an enlarged and sounder renewable natural resources program for Illinois. The first step in this direction was the establishment, July 1, 1934, of Game Research and Management as a new section of the Natural History Survey, to be coordinated with other investi¬ gations in the fields of entomology, applied botany and plant pathology, aquatic biology and forestry. The money for starting this work was re¬ leased by Governor Henry Horner from a Survey contingency fund, and in 1935 this work was definitely established as an activity directly provided for in the Survey budget by act of the Legislature and approval of the Governor. This program was started with the idea of accomplishing the following objectives : (1) A general survey of all sections of the State from the standpoint of present and past game resources and more detailed surveys in certain selected areas. (2) Studies of our more important game species, both bird and mammal, from the standpoint of desirability, food habits, shelter or cover prerequisites, general habits, reproductive capacities, influence of weather conditions, enemies, diseases and parasites. (3) The establishment of a wildlife technical service to be available to the State Department of Conservation, and other departments of State and national agencies, as well as to layman organizations and private individuals. (4) The promotion of a game increase program with the farmers of Illinois through sportsmen’s clubs, farm bureaus and other agricultural agencies. (5) The need of dovetailing game management practices with our exist¬ ing program of fisheries research and forestry extension, because they are all very closely interrelated in subject matter. Experimental wildlife areas. — The money provided in 1934 and following years has enabled the Survey to add to the staff a well-trained game specialist and to provide him with a part-time winter and full-time summer assistant. This newly-established service rapidly demonstrated its value and it soon became evident that this personnel was inadequate to meet the de¬ mands of this new program throughout the State and at the same time to establish by investigations the basic scientific data necessary. In 1937 the State Legislature appropriated additional funds to the Natural History Survey to strengthen and expand its program and staff for carrying on this work. By 1936 it had become evident that in order to get the type of scientific data necessary for the management of game resources it was necessary to establish some outdoor experimental areas for extensive censusing with regard to fluctuations of wildlife populations and to test out management theories for both fish and game under practical conditions. This new appropriation of 1937 was released by Governor Henry Horner on January 1, 1938, and is enabling the Survey to establish such experimental areas in cooperation with other State and federal agencies which are in a 32 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science position at this time to aid such programs by supplying land, personnel of a varied type and the labor of CCC camps. Two large projects are now under way as a result of this action, and these, I believe, have every possibility of returning to the State in the form of valuable scientific data, in the preservation of certain wildlife resources, and by demonstration of tested management practices, contributions which will be equal to or exceed the total combined work of this nature which has been done by various state agencies to date. Fig. 9. — A minor channel connecting- the Mississippi and Illinois Rivers near Grafton. This borders the Pere Marquette Wildlife Experimental Area and Migratory Waterfowl Refuge. Pere Marquette Area. — The first of these projects has been named the Pere Marquette Wildlife Experimental Area and Migratory Waterfowl Refuge. It is located in the extreme southern tip of Calhoun County, be¬ tween the confluence of the Illinois and the Mississippi rivers. It gets the first part of its name from the fact that it will be adjacent to Pere Marquette State Park, now being extensively developed by the State Department of Public Works and Buildings and the National Park Service. As the rest of its name implies, this outdoor laboratory will be dedicated to the scientific study and practical management of the renewable natural resources of this area and will serve as a refuge or haven for the migratory waterfowl which use the Illinois and Mississippi river valleys as flyways during their spring and fall migrations. If this area contributed nothing else to the cause of conservation in this State except to furnish a safe haven for such valuable birds, located as it is about halfway between Horseshoe Lake Refuge of the State Department of Conservation and the Chautauqua Lake Refuge of the U. S. Biological Survey, it would be worth every cent of its cost. In de¬ veloping this project, the National History Survey has been most fortunate to secure the active cooperation of the U. S. War Department, which, be¬ cause of the installation of the locks in the Mississippi River near Alton and the resulting impounding of the waters at the 420-foot contour, has found it necessary to purchase this bottom land. About 3,000 acres of this land, at the location already mentioned, is now being developed for this experimental area and refuge in cooperation with the National Park Service and the State Department of Public Works and Buildings. Several additions to the staff of the Natural History Survey have been made for the express Frison — Our Renewable Resources 33 ILLINOIS STATE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY PERE MARQUETTE WILDLIFE EXPERIMENTAL AREA AND MIGRATORY WATERFOWL REFUGE Fig. 10. — Aerial view of the Pere Marquette Experimental Area and Migratory Waterfowl Refuge. thus serving as a demonstration project and adding greatly to the recrea¬ tional and educational features of the Pere Marquette State Park and the adjacent U. S. Recreational Demonstration Area. Ridge Lake. — The second project now in course of development is the building of a small experimental reservoir of about 23 acres in the Fox Ridge State Park southeast of Charleston, Illinois, to be known as Ridge Lake. This reservoir is being so constructed that it will enable the Survey to carry on a fisheries management program such as cannot be duplicated at the present time anywhere in the State and probably in the country. Soil maps have been made by the Soil Survey of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. The State Geological Survey has contributed to a detailed mapping of the basin and supplied other geological information in connection with the dam site. The State Water Survey has contributed information con¬ cerning the availability of surface waters and assisted in the designing of a dam of unique type which will enable us to control the reservoir from the standpoint of its fisheries management. Not only will this project contribute important information for the guidance of future reservoir construction in the State in regard to utilization of wildlife resources, but it will form also a valuable asset to the aesthetic and recreational features of the park. This project has been made possible by the cooperation of certain agencies already mentioned, the citizens of Charleston who provided the money to buy addi¬ tional private lands for increasing the park area to accommodate the reservoir, the State Department of Public Works and Buildings and the purpose of carrying out the scientific program on this and other tracts of the same fundamental character within the State. Besides serving a number of valuable scientific purposes, this area will be so developed that under certain conditions and times it will be available for visitation by the general public interested in the wildlife of the State; 34 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science National Park Service. The labor, as in the case of the Pere Marquette Ex¬ perimental Area, is being provided by relief and CCC camps. A small laboratory will be established there to house equipment and personnel utilized in making a detailed study of this lake as it passes through various stages so that such matters as plankton development, change in chemical content of the water, development of bottom fauna, vegetation and fish populations can be studied in relation to maximum fisheries production in such waters. A limnologist has been added to our Section of Aquatic Biology especially to handle the investigational program centered around this reservoir and to work on State reservoir problems in general as they affect fish and other wildlife resources. National forest experimental area. — A third experimental area and refuge, typical of the Ozarkian Uplift and not far from Carbondale, is now reaching a stage which augurs well for its official inauguration within a few months. This is an experimental area and refuge in the National Forest Unit to be developed in cooperation with the U. S. Forest Service. The staff and personnel employed to carry on the experimental program in the Pere Marquette Refuge and Ridge Lake Reservoir will promote research and management practices in this area and will be aided by members of the scientific staff of other sections of the Natural History Survey and the U. S. Forest Service. All three of these projects are fundamentally different, the Pere Mar¬ quette Area stressing migratory waterfowl resources, the U. S. Forest Area emphasizing upland game and fur-bearing mammal populations and Ridge Lake in Fox Ridge State Park the management of our most important game fish. These three projects represent a marked departure in the scientific program of the State, since they introduce the element of scientific field studies in representative water or land type areas in contrast with indoor laboratory researches. Both types of study are essential and must supple¬ ment one another, particularly when the State is faced with a dynamic and practical renewable natural resources management program. Pittman-Robertson Act. — Another most important step, although not com¬ pletely taken, is so definitely a part of the near future that it should be mentioned at this time; this is a federal bill known as the Pittman-Robertson Act. This legislation passed the national Congress last year and sets aside in the federal treasury certain taxes on munitions to be used to aid state programs of game restoration. It is modeled after the national highway legislation which brought the country out of the mud and gave us a unified and coordinated highway program. This bill is very carefully written and so set up that money will go only to states which have a sound program for game restoration. The money is distributed in proportion to the area of a state and the number of hunting licenses issued. Illinois ranks well with most other states in area of square miles and stands about fifth in number of hunting licenses issued; all of which guarantees a considerable allotment of funds to this State. As I have already mentioned, this money is to be used for the actual restoration and development of wildlife areas and the promotion of scientific studies which will aid in the preservation and increase of desirable wildlife populations. Over a period of years, the funds available should accomplish a great deal toward these ends. From all points of view, I believe that this is the most important national or state bill which has been passed to aid wildlife resources in the states and country at large since the passage of the first Migratory Bird Act in 1913 and the establishment of national parks and forest units. Prospects for the future.- — Although you and I, as conservationists, are in the same position as the housekeeper watching the kettle which seemingly never boils, rapid advances in the renewable natural resources program- of this State and the country are being made. This means, too, that the preser¬ vation of most of our remaining renewable natural resources in Illinois is assured and that the decline in numbers of certain wildlife populations is being stopped. In addition, there is every prospect that, within certain limits, there will be increases of certain desirable wildlife populations and an improved technique available for intelligently managing our woodlands, farms and inland waters. Memoirs 35 Memoirs Memoirs 37 CHARLES BEACH ATWELL 1855-1937 NSTITUTIONS which need defence are, in general, either those which have outlived their usefulness or those whose merit the public has not yet dis¬ covered. With this principle in mind the charter-members of an associa¬ tion are usually held in high respect. Thus our Academy cherishes the memory of the group who, more than thirty years ago, first recog¬ nized the need of presenting to the people of Illinois, in easily under¬ stood style, the important results of modern science; and we therefore pause to pay tribute to one of our recently deceased charter members. Professor Atwell was born on the 11th of April, 1855, at Theresa, N. Y., near the point where the St. Lawrence river takes its rise in Lake Ontario. He died at the home of his daughter, Mrs. John A. Detlefsen, in Swarthmore, Pa., on the 14th of September, 1937. His college training was received at Syracuse University where he graduated Ph.B. in 1879 and where he was honored with an Sc.D in 1929. His interest in botany was early awakened; and advanced work in this subject was pursued during the summer of 1887 at Har¬ vard and during the year 1891 at Freiburg in Baden. The years from 1880 to 1888 were spent in the public and the secondary schools of Evanston, Illinois. His marriage to Miss Mary J. Kellogg took place in 1883. Three of their four children, Henry, William, and Ruth are still living; but Mrs. Atwell died eight years before her husband. Professor Atwell’s long con¬ nection of forty-nine years with Northwestern University began in 1888 when he was appointed to an instructorship in biology in that institution. At the end of the first three years he was promoted to a professorship of biology. At the end of another three years, the responsibility of his chair was divided; and Professor E. G. Conklin was called to the new chair of zoology, whole Professor Atwell accepted the new chair of botany which he held until his retirement in 1927 with the title of Professor Emeritus. His contribu¬ tions to botany were mainly along the line of algae and dune plants. In addition to the direction of the botanical laboratory at Northwestern University, Atwell discharged many other duties. He was for twelve years Registrar of the College of Liberal Arts. For two years he was City Forester of Evanston, a densely wooded area covering several square miles. In the Chicago Academy of Science and in the Science Club of Evanston, he was always deeply interested and active. During all his years at Northwestern he gave himself unselfishly to the collection of historical data concerning its alumni; and in 1903 published a volume of 464 pages which still forms the authoritative story of these graduates up to that date. 38 Memoirs To confine this notice to his training and to his university work would be to give a very imperfect and incomplete picture of Charles B. Atwell: for he was so generous with his time, energy and sympathy that friends and strangers were constantly calling upon him to perform a thousand and one kind offices. When the University Club of Evanston was established in 1904, Atwell was chosen as its first president. As a traveling companion on walking, wheeling and fishing trips in the mountains, the present writer can bear witness to his ever buoyant spirits and — severest test of friendship — to his persistent good nature when the rain was pouring and the rations short. In cases of severe illness or death, he was one upon whom his col¬ leagues leaned heavily. In church work, in municipal affairs and upon all public questions, he was on the side of charity, justice and square dealing. His life was, indeed, a blend of courage, constancy and courtesy. Henry Crew. Memoirs 39 LOUIS E. HILDEBRAND 1871-1937 LOUIS E. HILDEBRAND was born at Zoar, Indiana, January 30, 1871. After leaving the rural schools there he attended Valparaiso University, where in 1901 he obtained his B. S. degree. After receiving an A. B. degree from Indiana University in 1904, he taught in country schools near Stendal, Indiana, until he could attend Northwestern University. There, in 1909, he won his M. A. degree. From then until the time of his death he taught in the biology department of the New Trier High School, Winnetka, Illinois. He died at his home, 1620 Ridge Avenue, Evanston, on September 12, 1937. He was a member of the State Academy of Science for many years. He also belonged to the Progressive Educational Association, the Illinois Educa¬ tional Association, the National Education Association, and the Central Asso¬ ciation of Science and Mathematics Teachers, of which last he was vice- president in 1932. An extensive traveler, he visited and studied in various parts of Europe, including Iceland and the Scandinavian countries, and made many trips to augment his knowledge of his own United States, of Canada, and Mexico. An excerpt from the student year-book of New Trier High School shows the appreciation of a large group who knew him well: “For twenty-nine years ‘Hilde,’ as he was affectionately but not disrespectfully referred to, has touched the lives of New Trier students. He was an inspiring teacher, a tireless scientist and a loyal friend. He was born, raised and educated in the rugged hill country of southern Indiana. . . . With him education was a continuous process; so he traveled to the remote corners of the earth in his quest for more and more scientific information. The New Trier Biology Museum, filled with evidence of this force which forever drove him on, will, on Sep¬ tember 12, 1938, the anniversary of his death, be dedicated to his memory.” F. C. Windoes 40 Memoirs ARTHUR WARE SLOCOM 1860-1937 SCIENCE is served in many ways. She is doubtless fond of her spectacular minions whose names commonly appear on important tomes, but cer¬ tainly she must also cherish her unsung servants who are merely listed in the same works as those “to whom acknowledgments are due.” High in the ranks of the latter stood Arthur Ware Slocom, assistant curator of invertebrate paleontology at Walker Museum, University of Chicago, who died on November 20, 1937, in his seventy-eighth year. Mr. Slocom was born in Milford, Massachusetts, on November 8, 1860, the son of Lewis Slocom and Lucinda Ware. He derived a modest satisfac¬ tion from the fact that his ancestry was interwoven with the warp and woof of Colonial New England's best. He was a descendant of Dr. Samuel Fuller of the Mayflower, and six of his forebears were Minute Men who responded to the Lexington Alarm of April 19, 1775. It is not surprising, therefore, that he was an ardent and accomplished genealogist, and for a score of years was an officer of the Illinois Society, Sons of the American Revolution. After a common school education Mr. Slocom went to Milwaukee to enter the straw hat business with an uncle. An increasing interest in science led him to enroll in 1896 for special work in paleontology under Dr. Stuart Weller at the University of Chicago. Although Dr. Weller was ten years his junior, there thus began their happy thirty-year relationship of mentor and student, terminated only by Dr. Weller’s untimely death in 1927. At Dr. Weller’s suggestion Mr. Slocom spent the year 1898-99 at Ward’s Natural Science Establishment at Rochester, N. Y. The next year he was a member of the staff of the Milwaukee Public Museum. Then began in 1901 a profit¬ able thirteen-year term as invertebrate paleontologist for the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. In 1914 he again became directly associated with Dr. Weller as assistant curator at the Walker Museum, a position which he held with quiet competence for twenty-three years. Mr. Slocom published a number of papers between 1906 and 1924. Of these, eight, dealing almost entirely with fossil echinoderms and trilobites, represent significant researches. His major contributions to science, how¬ ever, are not to be found in his publications. He arranged and catalogued the largest collection of Paleozoic invertebrates in any educational institution, prepared hundreds of fossils for study, made up the plates for innumerable papers, and, more or less surreptitiously, guided literally dozens of candi¬ dates for the doctorate through their thesis problems. Little wonder that scores of genera and species of Paleozoic fossils have been named in his honor. Mr. Slocom, whose perpetual good humor and self-sacrificing character were proverbial, was intellectually keen until the day of his death, having been working on Devonian trilobites the last few weeks of his final illness. He is survived by his wife, an adopted daughter and by many generations of graduate students whom he regarded as “his boys,” and who, to a man, rightly feel that “Walker Museum can never be the same again.” Carey Croneis. STATE OF ILLINOIS HENRY Horner, Governor TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Volume 31 December, 1938 Number 2 Papers Presented in the Thirty-first Annual Meeting, Carbondale, Illinois May 6 and 7, 1938 Edited by Grace Needham Oliver Department of Registration and Education State Museum Division, Centennial Building SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois PUBLISHED QUARTERLY Entered as second-class matter December 6, 1930, at the post office at Springfield, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, 1912. STATE OF ILLINOIS Henry Horner, Governor DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION John J. Hallihan, Director STATE MUSEUM DIVISION Thorne Deuel, Chief ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Affiliated with the Illinois State Museum Officers for 1938-1939 President, George D. Fuller, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois First Vice-President, Evelyn I. Fernald, Rockford College, Rockford, Illinois Second Vice-President, Eugene R. Dougherty, Springfield Junior College, Springfield, Illinois Secretary, Robert F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Treasurer, Paul D. Voth, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Librarian, Thorne Deuel, State Museum Division, Springfield, Illinois The Junior Academy Representative, Harry L. Adams, Bloomington High School, Bloomington, Illinois Editor, Grace Needham Oliver, State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois Council: The President, First and Second Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treas¬ urer, Librarian, Chairman of the Committee on High School Science and Clubs, last two retiring presidents, and the retiring secretary. Printed April, 193 it >7 (76488) TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Volume 31 December, 1938 Number 2 CONTENTS PAPERS IN AGRICULTURE PAGE Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman . 61 Badger, C. J., The trailing wild bean in southern Illinois . 62 Lindstrom, D. E., Changes in size of rural families in Illinois . 63 Snider, H. J., Manganese as a factor in the fertility of southern Illinois soils . 65 PAPERS IN ANTHROPOLOGY From the Report of the Section Chairman . 67 Deuel, Thorne, Lower Mississippi traits in the Middle Phase in Illinois. . 68 Harris, Charles, The making of an arrowhead . 71 Peithman, Irvin and Barton, Thos. F., Evidence of early Woodland cul¬ ture at Chalk Bluff Rock Shelter . 74 Thomas, C. J., Bluff shelters of Union County . 77 Wheaton, Harry B., Religious beliefs of prehistoric man of North Amer¬ ica . 79 Wray, Donald E., Hopewell traits in certain bluff mounds of Fulton County . 81 PAPERS IN BOTANY From the Report of the Section Chairman . 83 Tehon, L. R., Ecological aspects of host specialization in fungi . 84 Carter, J. C., Verticillium albo-atrum, cosmopolitan tree parasite . 89 Boewe, G. H., Diplodia ear rot in Illinois cornfields . 92 Fuller, H. J. and Hanley, J. H., The production of roots by cuttings of annual plants under the influence of indole-butyric acid . 94 Bradley, S. Ray, Forest distribution in Crawford County, Illinois . 96 Fuller, Harry J., Bark growth in tropical trees. . 99 Fuller, George D., Growth rings of the oak as related to precipitation in Illinois . 102 Tippo, Oswald, Comparative anatomy and angiosperm in phylogeny . 105 Schopf, James F., A new cycadophyte and its relatives . 107 Hartline, Opal C., A List of the lichens from Hardin County, Illinois. . 110 Marshall, Flossie T. and Hague, Stella M., Basicladia in Illinois . Ill Hague, Stella M. and Drexler, Robert V., Recent collections of Illinois liverworts . . 113 Thut, H. F. and Stover, E. L., College grades in the biological sciences as related to secondary school training . 115 PAPERS IN CHEMISTRY From the Report of the Section Chairman . 117 Astell, Louis A., Audio-visual aids in Chemistry at the secondary level. . 118 Bennett, C. W., Modernizing the beginning course in Chemistry . 122 [57] 58 Contents PAGE Cheronis, Nicholas D., Laboratory experiments for an introductory course in Organic Chemistry . 124 Cheronis, Nicholas D., The ammonolysis of butyl halides . 126 Cheronis, Nicholas D. and Freud, Henrietta, Four years of the Physical Science survey course — an appraisal . 129 Bradley, W. F., Some concepts of the relationship between the chemical compositions and structures of clay minerals . 130 Finger, G. C., Nachtrieb, N. H. and Reed, F. H., The mono-nitration of benzotrifluoride . 132 Hopkins, B. S. and Taebel, W. A., Progress in the analysis of the rare earth group . 136 Keyes, D. B., Research environment . 138 Lowry, C. D., Jr., Modern Gasoline Refining . 139 Roberts, R. G. and Horvitz, H. J., Ammonolyzed epinephrine conjugates and their pressor action in dogs . 141 Sisler, H., and Audrieth, L. F., Structural and chemical similarities of hydrogen peroxide, hydroxylamine and hydrazine . 144 Sveda, M., Butler, Sister M. Josetta and Audrieth, L. F., Sulfamic acid and its derivatives . 146 Pribram^ Ernest A., Inorganic salts in biochemistry . 147 PAPERS IN GEOGRAPHY From the Report of the Section Chairman . 155 Barton, Thomas F., Some geographic aspects of soil erosion in Illinois. . 156 Booth, Alfred W., The lake district of northeastern Illinois and south¬ eastern Wisconsin . 161 Cutshall, A. D., The Muskingum climatic study . 163 Holmes, Leslie A., Municipal water supplies of Illinois . 166 Norris, Chandonette, Oil shale and the petroleum problem . 168 PAPERS IN GEOLOGY From the Report of the Section Chairman . 169 Bell, Alfred H., The new Centralia oil field . 170 Cohee, George V., Rotary drilling in Illinois . 173 Dapples, E. C., Resins and waxes in Colorado coals . 176 Fisher, M. Celestin, and Noe, A. C., A list of coal ball plants from Cal¬ houn, Richland County, Illinois . 178 Payne, J. Norman, Discovery of sphalerite and galena near Millbrook, Kendall County, Illinois . 182 Prescott, Gordon W., Subsurface stratigraphy of Pennsylvanian forma¬ tions associated with Coal No. 6 in the region of Centralia, Illinois. . 184 Schopf, James M., Coal balls as an index to the constitution of coal . 187 PAPERS IN PHYSICS From the Report of the Section Chairman . 191 Brown, H. A. and Ryburn, P. W., The use of the conventional saw-tooth oscillator to generate steep wave front impulses . 192 Contents 59 PAGE Dillinger, Joseph and Green, Frank, Activities of the amateur radio sta¬ tion W9UIH during the 1937 Ohio River flood . 194 Fuller, H. Q. and Almy, G. M., Fluorescence and photochemistry of diacetyl . 196 Johnson, A. Frances, and Baldes, E. J., A thermoelectric method of measuring osmotic pressures . . 198 Knipp, Chas. T., Visual lecture table methods for judging the degree of exhaustion of a vacuum tube . 201 Knipp, Chas. T., Report on the “Flash” in argon bulb prepared in 1931. . 202 Kunz, Jakob, Optical rotatory power of organic solutions in an electric field . 204 Reich, H. J., Trigger Circuits . 209 Verwiebe, Frank L., Secondary images from spherical mirrors . 211 Watson, Richard E., The scattering of 2.6 Mev neutrons by heavy hy¬ drogen nuclei . 212 Way, H. E., Devries, John and Furrow, C. L., Single crystals of dilute solid solutions of iron in zinc . 215 Wray, J. G., One of the problems of the air-conditioning engineer . 216 PAPERS IN PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION From the Report of the Section Chairman . 219 Bosley, Howard, Reading difficulties of college freshmen . 220 Cooke, Robert Locke, A new approach to high school science teaching. . 222 Gault, Robert H., Integration of subject matter and educational rigor _ 224 Goodfellow, LoutsI D. and Heine, Ralph W., The effect of incidental factors on threshold measurements . 228 Stewart, Isabel C. and Galloway, O. F., A preliminary investigation of the types of examination which provide the most satisfactory basis for giving grades . 231 PAPERS IN ZOOLOGY From the Report of the Section Chairman . 233 Adams, L. A., Some otoliths of Illinois fishes . 234 Bucher, Gladys R., A statistical approach to the problem of acid secre¬ tion by the gastric glands . 237 Essenberg, J. M. and Zikmund, Anton, X-rays as causative factors of sex reversal in the developing chick . 239 Hinrichs, Marie A., Differential modification of embryonic development of organs in twins and double monsters of salt-water minnows . 243 Knipp, Chas. T., On the path of the firefly while periodically flashing. . 245 McMullen, Donald B. and Clark, W. W., An anomaly of the venous sys¬ tem in a cat, showing paired superior and inferior vena cavae . 247 Werner, Floyd G., A report on the earwig Doru aculeatum aculeatum (Scudder), from a marsh in northern Illinois . 249 LIST OF SPEAKERS A committee designated by the Council of the Academy has prepared a list of speakers who are willing to present talks on various phases of science before interested groups. Unless otherwise indicated, these speakers are willing to give their services for expenses only. In some cases a small honorarium is expected. A copy of this list of speakers may be obtained gratis by sending a request to: Robert F. Paton, Secretary, Academy of Science, Physics Building, Urbana, Illinois. [60] Papers In Agriculture Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman The program of the Agriculture Section carried five papers, three of which are here represented. The others were: Peach Breeding, by M. J. Dorsey, University of Illinois, Urbana. Heredity Resistance to Pullorum Disease in the Domestic Fowl, by Elmer Roberts, University of Illinois, Urbana. Average attendance was twelve. Chairman of the Agriculture Section of the 1939 meeting was elected: G. H. Dungan, 603 Old Agriculture Building, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. (Signed) E. Roberts, Chairman. [61] 62 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The Trailing Wild Bean in Southern Illinois C. J. Badger University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois The trailing wild bean is a member of the Fabacea or pea family. Britton and Brown in Vol. II, “The Flora of the United States, Canada and the British Possessions,” describe in detail a number of species of this genus. At the present time there are not at hand sufficient data to determine definitely which of these rather numerous species prevail in southern Illi¬ nois or to say which one of the several species is the most commonly found in this region. This work deals with one of the species of the trail¬ ing wild bean. While this apparently was one of the species commonly seen in this region, no attempt was made to determine the particular species to which it belonged. Most observations indicate that the trailing wild bean grows almost entirely in the wild state. It has been observed growing in level fields, pastures and on land out of cultivation, on hillsides, roadways, and at the edge of timber lands. It seems to do well on soils which are acid, and grows chiefly during the warm weather from July to early fall. Table I — Dky Matter and Chemical Composition op Trailing Wild Bean Compared with Alfalfa Dry matter lbs./A Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Calcium Magnesium % lbs./A % lbs./A % lbs./A % lbs./A % lbs./A Trailing wild bean Alfalfa.. 1,550 1,550 2.43 2.45 376.7 379.8 .19 .23 2.9 3.6 1.11 .83 17.2 12.9 1.12 1.98 17.4 30.7 .24 .39 3.7 6.0 The trailing wild bean may prove of value for economic utilization as a pasture plant or hay crop. Cattle relish the plant both as green forage and as dry hay. Horses also eat it readily. Belonging to the legume family the plant should have considerable value for soil improvement pur¬ poses, although there is no experimental evidence available along this line. Some yield measurements were made during September, 1934, of the trailing wild bean grown on untreated soil on the Sparta experiment field, Randolph county, which indicate a probable yield of 1,550 pounds an acre of air-dry hay. The chemical composition of the air-dry hay reported in Table I indicates that the trailing wild bean is somewhat comparable with alfalfa produced on the Raleigh experiment field in Saline county. The total nitrogen content of the wild bean hay was almost identical with that of the alfalfa. The phosphorus content of the alfalfa hay was higher prob¬ ably because it was grown on soil which had been heavily treated with rock phosphate. Similarly, the calcium and magnesium content of the alfalfa was higher probably also because of the large amount of limestone added to the soil in order to prepare it for the growing of alfalfa. The soil on the Sparta experiment field where the trailing wild bean apparently flourished was in a relatively low state of fertility. This soil was very acid having a pH of 4.5 which indicates a very high lime require¬ ment. The total nitrogen content of this soil was 1,100 pounds an acre compared to 3,000 to 5,000 pounds an acre for the most productive soils. The available phosphorus and available potassium content of this soil was also extremely low. Agriculture — 1938 Meeting 63 Changes in Size of Rural Families D. E. Lindstrom University of Illinois , Urbana , Illinois Rural families have been becoming smaller each decade for at least the last 50 years. Farm families averaged 4.2 persons in 1930 according to the 1930 census; ten years earlier farm families averaged 4.4 persons. This trend downward is not limited to farm families; all families in Illi¬ nois decreased from 4.2 in 1920 to 3.9 in 1930; indeed, in 1890 there were 4.9 persons per family in Illinois. Farm life is supposed to be conducive to large families; city life has always discouraged large families. Family labor has usually been consid¬ ered an important factor in the earning of a living on the farm, but in the city a large family is an economic liability. With modernization in agriculture, however, and the spread of the urban influence, farm family sizes are on the downward trend. Size of family is directly related to population increase. Families are so small in cities now that they do not maintain the population. Popula¬ tion analysts have computed that it takes 370 children under 5 years of age per 1,000 women 15 to 44 years of age to maintain the population. In 1930 the seven cities of Portland, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Kansas City, St. Louis, Nashville, and Atlanta, all largely of American stock, lacked about 40 per cent of having enough children to maintain their population stationary without accession from the outside, and all cities of over 100 000 population had a deficit of nearly 20 per cent, while the smaller cities had a deficit of about 7 per cent. On the other hand, the rural non-farm (mostly village and suburban) population had a surplus of over 25 per cent and the farm population of nearly 50 per cent. In 1932 urban deficit and rural surplus about balanced.1 In Illinois, Lake, Cook, Boone, Winnebago, Stephenson, Carroll, DeKalb Kane, DuPage, Will, Kankakee, Lee, Henry, Rock Island, Knox, Peoria, McLean, McDonough, Adams, Logan, Champaign, Macon, Sangamon, Mor¬ gan, Macoupin, St. Clair, and Alexander Counties were not maintaining their population in 1930 on the basis of natural increase, that is, having more than 370 children under 5 per 1,000 women 15 to 44 years of age Note that these 28 counties are located for the most part in the north third of the state, and that a relatively large city is located in each If cities are not maintaining their population, then we must depend on' the large farm families of the state and nation to keep the population growing. Farm families, however, are decreasing in size in Illinois. If this trend continues then it will be only a matter of time until Illinois will have to depend upon outside sources for her population growth. The rate of decline can be shown in a rough way by comparing percentages in various age groups. The census gives these figures for males and females sep¬ arately. The rate of decline seems more rapid for the rural than for the urban areas from 1910 to 1930. For males, the proportion in the under 5-year age group declined from 9.9 per cent in 1910 to 7.8 per cent in 1930 for the urban areas of the state, whereas the decline was from 11.2 per cent to 8.7 per cent for the rural areas. For females the proportion 2, No°2,;^ageai2r9 Future p°Pulation Prospect, Rural Sociology , June, 1937, Vol. 64 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions for the same age group declined from 10.2 per cent in 1910 to 7.7 per cent in 1930 for the urban areas, compared with a decline of from 11.9 per cent in 1910 to 9.2 per cent in 1930. In other words, whereas the difference for the proportion of the urban male population in the under 5-year age group was 2.1 per cent between 1910 and 1930, it was 2.5 per cent for the rural male population; and whereas it was 2.2 per cent for the urban female, it was 2.7 per cent for the rural female population (see Table I). Table I— Percentages of Age Groups — Illinois* Group Urban Rural Year 1910 1920 1930 1910 1920 1930 A. Male Under 5 - ... . . . 9.9 9.8 7.8 11.2 10.5 8.7 Non-farm 8.6 5 to 9 . . . 8.7 9.4 8.5 10.7 10.7 10.7 9.7 10 to 14 _ 8.3 8.4 8.5 10.1 10.4 11.0 9.2 15 to 19 _ 8.9 7.5 8.4 9.9 9.4 10.6 8.5 20 to 44 _ _ _ 45.5 43.5 43.8 36.3 34.7 32.6 34.7 45 and over . - . . . 18.3 21.1 23.1 21.7 24,2 26.3 29.4 B. Female Under 5 - - 10.2 9.8 7.7 11.9 11.1 9.8 8.7 5 to 9 - _ _ 9.0 9.5 8.3 11.5 11.2 11.5 9.8 10 to 14. . . 8.8 8.6 8.5 10.7 10.7 11.7 9.4 15 to 19 _ _ _ 10.0 8.2 9.0 10.1 9.3 9.7 8.5 20 to 44 _ _ _ _ 43.6 43.3 43.9 35.7 35.3 33.8 34.6 45 and over. . . 18.3 20.5 22.6 20.1 22.4 23.3 29.0 * Source — U. S. Census. A study of proportions in the other age groups in the population for 1910, 1920, and 1930 shows, conversely, a gradual increase in the propor¬ tions in the age group 45 years and over. Moreover, the increases in pro¬ portions in this age group were larger for the rural areas than for the urban, a change of 4.8 per cent for the urban male, 6.1 per cent for the rural male, 4.3 per cent for the urban female, and 6.0 per cent for the rural female. Part of the higher rate of increase in the proportion in the 45 years and over age group in rural areas may be due to people moving back to the country after their productive years have passed, but probably most of the increase is due to changing sizes of families. In summary, farm families are getting smaller. If they keep on get¬ ting smaller, Illinois will soon have to depend upon immigration for her increase in population. The rate of decrease in size of families in Illinois is greater for rural than for urban areas. Agriculture — 1938 Meeting 65 Manganese as a Factor in the Fertility of Southern Illinois Soils H. J. Snider University of Illinois , Urbana, Illmois Manganese is among the thirty-five elements that have been detected in the analysis of plants, according to Miller1, and it is an element which is considered essential for at least a majority of green plants. The amount of manganese required by plants is relatively small as compared to the amounts of some of the other commonly recognized essential elements. Generally speaking, concerning what is known of the action of manga¬ nese in soils, it may be said that small amounts are beneficial to most crops, but larger proportions may act as plant poisons and cause consider¬ able harm to the growing plant. Manganese has a peculiarity which dis¬ tinguishes it from some of the other more common elements in the soil. A deficiency is harmful to plants, an optimum amount is unquestionably beneficial, and an excess available in soils may prove harmful to some plants. The amount of available (soluble and replaceable) manganese in cultivated soils is not a constant value throughout the year or season. This may be illustrated by some determinations of available manganese in cul¬ tivated soils on the Oblong experiment field in Crawford county. On this field the amount of available manganese found in the soil about the middle of July was 400 pounds an acre and by late September the amount had dropped to 120 pounds an acre. Changes similar to this have been ob¬ served in cultivated soils throughout Illinois, and such changes are im¬ portant considerations in the study of manganese and its relation to soil fertility. Table I— Composition of the Soil from Limed and Unlimed Plots, June 17, 1937 Experiment field Sparta. Ewing. Soil treatment pH Mn. lbs. N, lbs. P, lbs. No lime _ _ 4.4 240 1,100 14 Lime _ _ 6.3 60 1,340 32 No lime.. . . . . 4.2 340 1,980 16 Lime . . . . 6.1 50 2,120 26 K, lbs 75 70 90 75 A study of the influence of soil treatment indicates that a rise in pH of the soil causes a corresponding drop in amount of available manganese. Soils from the Sparta experiment field having a pH 4.4 had an available manganese content of 240 pounds an acre (June 17, 1937), and where the soil reaction was raised to pH 6.3 the manganese content dropped to 60 pounds an acre. Almost identical results were obtained on the Ewing field as indicated in Table I. This change in the amount of available manganese in the soil is reflected in the amount of total manganese in the young corn plants, June 17, 1937. The results given in Tables I and II indicate that the corn plant is very sensitive to the amount of available manganese in the soil. The rise in the pH of the soil due to liming on the Sparta and Ewing fields increased decidedly the available phosphorus content of the soil, (Table I), and this also is reflected in the higher phosphorus content of the corn plants (Table II.) The total nitrogen content of the soil was increased by liming mainly due to the increased vegetative growth and the growing of legumes. The liming had a tendency to decrease the 66 Illinois State Academy of Sdience Transactions amount of available potassium in the soil, and accordingly decreased the amount of total potassium in the corn plant. The lower potassium content of the corn plants on limed soils may be due to the increased calcium content of the plant which may represent the much discussed potassium- calcium antagonism in plants. Table II— Composition of Corn Plants from Limed and Unlimed Plots, June 17, and the Corn Grain Yield, November, 1937 Experiment field Soil treatment Mn, % N, % P,% K,% Ca, % Mg, % Corn grain bushels per acre Sparta No lime _ .220 3.40 .26 3.45 .68 .55 15.0 Lime... _ .015 3.84 .42 1.92 1.18 .90 38.2 rawing , _ No lime _ .220 3.56 .14 2.00 .70 .53 13.4 Lime _ .022 3.54 .36 1.14 1.10 1.00 30.2 The addition of lime increased the corn yield, increased the available phosphorus in the soil and the phosphorus content of the corn plant, also increased greatly the calcium and magnesium content of the corn plant, but had the opposite effect on both manganese and potassium. These are very important factors in the fertility of southern Illinois soils. 1 Miller, E. C. Plant physiology. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, pp. 232-289. 1931. Papers In Anthropology Extract From the Report of the Section- Chairman The program of the Anthropology Section carried twelve papers, of which six are herewith published. The others were as follows: Classification and Cataloguing of Indian Artifacts, by Harry L. Spooner, Illinois State Archaeological Society, Peoria. The Newlin Mound of Southeastern Indiana, by Glenn A. Black, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis, Indiana. Indian Tribes and Tillage Sites of Illinois, by C. L. Finfrock, Champaign County Archaeological Society, Urbana. Plants Used by Prehistoric Man for Food and in Treatment of Dis¬ ease, by John B. Ruyle, Illinois State Archaeological Society, Champaign. Indian Relics, by W. C. McKern, Milwaukee Public Museum, Mil¬ waukee, Wisconsin. Banner Stones of Muscatine County, Iowa, by Ben Nussbaum, Illi¬ nois State Archaeological Society, Fairbury. Attendance at the meeting was more than 70. Dr. J. B. Ruyle was reelected Chairman of the Section. (Signed) J. B. Ruyle, Chairman. 167] 68 Illinois State Academy of S&ience Transactions Lower Mississippi Traits in the Middle Phase in Illinois Thorne Deuel Illinois State Museum , Springfield , Illinois Before commencing to enumerate and describe the traits referred to, it will be well to define what is meant by the term Lower Mississippi traits. Along the Neches, Angelina and Sulphur rivers of northeastern Texas, the Sabine river of northeast Texas, and eastern Louisiana, the Red river of Arkansas and northeastern Louisiana, is found a cultural manifestation with a nucleus of traits that serve to set it apart from the Middle and Upper phases. The sites exhibiting this diagnostic series (sometimes called Caddoan) I have presumed to designate as Lower Mississippi. Among the characteristic traits are the following: Probable Determinants, Lower Mississippi Phase Ceremonial Complex 1. Burials in small cemeteries generally less than ten skeletons.1 Multiple graves are rare. Dead are buried very seldom with personal ornaments. 2. Pipes are generally of pottery and variable in shape. The following types and varieties seem diagnostic, (a) the equal-armed type with projecting stem bent up and attached to bowl, (b) and the long stemmed pipe of pottery or stone with projecting stem. Military and Hunting Complex 1. Type PP4. Diagnostic subtypes are stemmed, and pentagonal (or undulate-edged) forms. (Simple triangular present but side-notched sub¬ type virtually absent). 2. Coarse PP1, generally a stemmed form present. (In Texas according to A. T. Jackson, seldom in graves; in Arkansas according to Harrington occasionally found with burials.) Pottery Complex 1. (a) A coarse grayish brown utility ware, common shape the am¬ phora or related forms decorated chiefly by brush-roughening, incising or applied clay strips (yielding designs in low relief), (b) A second type of excellent quality black, yellowish brown, or tan with polished surfaces and characteristic designs etched after firing, often with red or white pigment inlaid in the lines. Characteristic pottery forms in this second type include conical bowls, carinated bowls and a characteristic water bottle form (with shoulder low on the body), (c) A third type found is widespread but al¬ ways occurs in small numbers, a ware painted entirely in red, often with etched designs and having two specialized forms, one of them a beaker resembling somewhat a conventionalized lotus blossom. Fringed or spurred lines usually in the etching technique are common decorative elements in most foci. Vertically reduplicate forms, the cockscomb head and complete animal figurine standing on the tail flange on shallow bowls, and shallow bowls decorated with knobs or nodes occur over the whole area but not in large number. Ornaments or Insignia 1. Sheet copper forms with crude repousse designs or ornamentation occur occasionally in Lower Mississippi sites.2 Anthropology — 1938 Meeting 69 Middle Mississippi diagnostic traits Ceremonial 1. The truncated pyramidal mound of earth as substructures for temples and/or public buildings. 2. The equal-armed pipe other than the projecting stemmed (Large “biconical” pottery form most commonly,) and the massive stone image pipe, stemless. Houses 1. Rectangular floor outline. 2. Walls of wattle-and-daub type generally. Costume and Dress 1. The employment, often in profuse amounts, of marine, cut marine shell and pearls for personal adornment. Pottery Complex 1. (a) A dull gray type or variants with beaker, plate* and effigy vessel forms as well as ollas, water bottles, common shallow bowls, etc. The incised technique is probably the most common. Designs include bands and chains of hachured triangles, spirals, scrolls and arches, (b) A less deco¬ rative type but of excellent ware generally with reddish-brown to brownish gray exteriors probably used for utility and storage purposes. The chief forms are the olla and shallow bowl, common type, (c) A painted type, (possibly secured by trading) generally small in amount with two or more colors, less often in solid red. These “colors” include red, black and white and the use of the natural pottery surface at times to give a polychrome effect. The designs in color are similar to those of the dull gray type. The chief form generally is the waterbottle.4 2. The pottery trowel. On account of lack of information, the corresponding traits in the two phases cannot always be compared, as for example, in the case of houses. Reports from Arkansas by M. R. Harrington indicate square (as against rectangular) and round types. The information from Texas is as scanty and less clear. The latest groups of Lower Mississippi appear to have been strongly influenced by the Middle phase, the earlier groups much less. Some Lower Phase Traits Found in the Middle Phase in Illinois 1. The vertical-necked olla occurs in Illinois chiefly in the Tennessee- Cumberland aspect as at Kincaid and related sites. The olla is rare in some parts of the Lower phase but where it occurs in Texas along the Neches, and in part of Arkansas and Louisiana, it is of that form. 2. The seed-bowl or seed-bowl olla occurs at Cahokia in the Monks Mound aspect and to a lesser degree elsewhere as in the Spoon River Focus (Monks Mound aspect) and the Kincaid related components of the Tennes- see-Cumberland. In Texas and Arkansas, it seems to have developed from the carinated or keel-based shallow bowl, and approaches rather closely simi¬ lar forms of the Middle phase in Illinois and Wisconsin.5 3. The scalloped rim or “raised points” on the margins of vessels is common in the Tennessee-Cumberland aspect of Illinois on plates and shallow bowls; in the Lower Mississippi it is confined chiefly to the amphora (Texas) but occurs occasionally on conical and carinated bowls (Arkansas). 4. Vertically reduplicate vessels are found in Tennessee-Cumberland as¬ pect of Illinois and in the Lower phase, in some sites in considerable num¬ bers. (These are vessels in which a usual body form is repeated and set one upon the other, making a composite type.) 5. The short-necked water bottle (or narrow necked olla) occurs in the Tennessee-Cumberland of Illinois and is common in most aspects of the Lower phase, especially in the Sabine focus. 70 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions 6. The dead are generally buried without personal ornaments in the Tennessee-Cumberland of Illinois and in the Sabine and Neches focus (lower Mississippi) of Texas.1 2 3 4 * 6 7. Burials in general seem to be individual or single, not multiple, in both Tennessee-Cumberland of Illinois and in the Lower phase foci. 8. Both type PP4 (so called “bird points”) and type PP1 (Woodland) projectile points or knives are found together in the Kincaid and related components and also in the Lower phase foci.7 9. Large copper-faced ear disks and spools of stone and bone with de¬ signs in relief on outer surface (now in Illinois State Museum collections) were found by McAdams in a mound in Macoupin County and resemble those from the Spiro Mound and other sites belonging to or related to the Lower phase. Here also might be placed a repousse copper turtle found in a mound in Madison County. This is similar to the repousse work found in Lower phase sites of Arkansas. As no cultural series accompanies either of these ob¬ jects it cannot be determined with what manifestations they were associated in Illinois. The stone ear spools look so much like those of Arkansas and Oklahoma that they may be aboriginal importations. The foregoing list has been enumerated to stimulate others to check re¬ lationships toward the Arkansas-Texas-Louisiana region. It is interesting to note that the Kincaid component and several other of the Tennessee- Cumberland sites exhibit traits similar to the Eastern Arkansas aspect. Other points we should consider are that in the first portion of the sur¬ vey of the Lake Peoria region by Mr. A. M. Simpson, a member of this section, that the sites that most nearly fulfill the requirements for the Illinois Indians are Middle Mississippi, that the Illinois cabin was a long- house or rectangular house according to historic accounts, (a Mississippi and not a Woodland trait), that one tribe of the Illinois, the Michigamea came from northeastern Arkansas and that a river named the Illinois8 rises in Benton County, Arkansas and flows into the Arkansas River to the westward in Oklahoma. Again the historic location of the Illinois not only in north¬ eastern Arkansas but also in Southern Wisconsin, and in Illinois along the Illinois and Mississippi rivers, especially at Peoria and Cahokia coincides with the large mounds and/or village sites of the Middle phase. It would be premature however to suggest that the Illinois Indians had a Mississippi culture of the Middle phase and were responsible for the pyramidal earth¬ works in Wisconsin, Illinois and Northeastern Arkansas. More and careful investigation is needed to clear up this problem. 1 A few sites noted by Harrington and others in Arkansas contain about twenty, but only one has more than 25, viz. 43. 2 The technique resembles rather closely the Ohio Hopewellian work of the same type rather than the more artistic Middle Mississippi forms. 3 The plate form may be accompanied or replaced by the shallow bowl with flaring rim. 4 The amount of the painted type increases considerably in the Eastern Ar¬ kansas aspect, and shallow bowls, effigies and even oilas as well as bottles are painted with designs or in solid colors. 6 Harrington in fact places the carinated bowl and this type under the same designation, cazuela. The carinated bowl is lacking from practically all Middle phase sites reported. 6 It might also be noted that Harrington, Dellinger, Moore and Pearce found the skeletons in a badly disintegrated condition, a circumstance found also in the Tennessee-Cumberland of Illinois, only traces of bone being left. Yet the cultures apparently are late, possibly in the historic period. 7 The stemmed PP4 projectile points are found in small numbers in the Kincaid and Cahokia Components of Middle Mississippi, the last mentioned being illustrated in Moorehead’s Cahokia report. This is a common type in the Neches focus and in the Spiro component of the Lower phase. Reports on finds in South¬ eastern sites are not clear as to the cultural relationships of the larger projectile points found. 8 This river may have been named thus after the Illinois tribes were removed to Oklahoma but I have no information on this. There are at present too many statements and facts apparently contradicting the identity suggested above. It is, however, not without interest to note that the Illinois north of the Ohio River in historic times seem to have confined themselves to Wisconsin and Illinois, that the southernmost tribe of the Illinois lies in Arkansas and Oklahoma on the borders of the Lower Mississippi groups, with which they had in common a not inconsiderable number of traits on the level of the phase or lower units. Anthropology — 1938 Meeting 71 The Making of an Arrowhead Charles Harris Illinois State Archaeological Society , Macomb , Illinois The base of all attainments of stone age man was the humble hammer- stone, and skill in its use made possible all achievements in the fabrication of tools and weapons preceding the age of metals. Without question, the stick accidentally splintered to a sharp point or sharpened m rude fashion by fire, and the flint fractured to an equally acci¬ dental sharp edge were first used by man without any thought of purposeful manufacture; but when one stone was used to help shape another for special uses a great step forward was taken. First, the shattering of a flint against another would provide sharp slivers fit for use as knives. This stage of de- veiopment probably lasted for thousands of years. Then came a day when a pebble was used intentionally to strike flakes from a fragment to reduce it to a better shape or to give it a better cutting edge or to restore an edge or point dulled by usage. Deftness in the use of the hammer came with practice and finally well-shaped and serviceable knives and javelin points were produced, as well as fine hand hatchets and a large variety of scraping bormg and piercing instruments. These advances in knowledge and skill had taken fifty thousand years and more to achieve. Then some tribe dis¬ covered a way of using a bone to serve as a punch to drive off flakes in such a way as to produce flint blades of greater thinness and greatly improved edge, as well as more graceful and convenient forms. All this occurred in Asia, Europe and Africa long before man appeared in the Americas. At some time, probably shortly after man appeared in America, the atlatl and the bow were used on both sides of the Pacific, and the making of the arrow head was begun. Certain of the more ancient culture groups found in Illinois left few flints adapted for use as arrows, there being pretty strict limits in the mat¬ ter of weight to which a practicable arrow point can go. In the matter of materials, while bone, horn, cane and wood were used as arrow points it is of those of stone with which I shall deal in this paper. Here we think °f fll^ as th® raw material, but it is true that wherever flint or ’ chert> with the kindred types of workable stone such as jasper, chalcedony, agate and agatized wood were available, they were favorites for the purpose, except where plentiful supplies of obsidian could be used. There are large areas on the Atlantic sea board where these were not easy to obtain, and quartz, slate, shale and other less desirable stones were used, n using these last, the hammer alone was used in most cases, the quartz in many localities being found in the form of flattened, rounded pebbles in ancient sea beaches and gravel bars. A series of blows with the hammer JJ?"nnd *he, edfe® ^duced the thickness and shaped the finished product, only a single blade being obtained from each pebble. Thicker pebbles were split and a blade obtained from each half, and in the case of some of the nf W(?rkm^, Pieces a more refined form may have been obtained by the use ot a bone flaker. thiG slat,e and shale sPecimens I have examined were too much re+n t0flSll°W clearly ^he manufacturing process but as the cleavage was crndPp remo.ved lar^ and few and the product \in most cases crude, the hammer again may have been the only tool used. It will not **“*7 t0 Say ailythinS about the shaping of obsidian, as the cleavage This hH^i manufacture were the same as in the case of flint, vaiw w Q • the arrowheads found on the fields of the mid-Mississippi S pil ls /6 have a Wlde variety of working qualities, some of the material coming from glacial drift pebbles and boulders found along streams, 72 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions some from eroded surfaces, or mined from pits dug deep into the heavy clay residues of the limestone, some from chance exposures in limestone cliffs, and some from great veins of thick flint such as the flint ridge in Ohio. Some of this would be weathered, cross grained, checked, and as gen¬ erally refractory as much of the quartz, grading up into compact smooth¬ grained flints which would yield ribbonlike flakes approaching the best ob¬ sidian in workable qualities. Some campsites yield mostly crude blades made from some nearby sup¬ ply of one of the poorer grades of chert, showing no work not possible with the hammer, while others show fine quality artifacts made from flint identi¬ fiable as having been brought at great expense and labor from high grade deposits hundreds of miles away; for instance, flint ridge blades from along the Illinois River, also nodular flints in large caches from Cumberland River sources. In the more refined workmanship we find the blades carefully shaped with the hammerstone, then worked down by either pressure flaking or by use of the bone or horn punch. All this has been quite fully described in Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin No. 60. Although an old gentle¬ man at Kankakee assured me some years since that in his youth he had seen thousands of arrowheads made by the Pottawatomies by heating the flint and applying a touch of moisture, I have not mentioned the method because all experiments by myself and others with whom I have compared notes have resulted in complete failure. At the time to which he referred, the Indians of Illinois had long had access to guns and steel knives and I could not but consider that he was trying to back up a theory by claiming eyewit¬ ness knowledge. On the other hand, I have seen specimens, some from local finds, but especially a fine curved knife from Egypt, that seemed almost unbelievable as works of the bone flaker; and Holmes1 cites a number of testimonies of early writers who speak of seeing this heating-moisture method used. My neighbor, Mr. Charles A. Benson, in leisure moments has experi¬ mented extensively with the bone flaker, and has proved conclusively that at least the majority of the flint arrowheads and knives can be made readily by a method slightly different from any I have seen described, but easily within the mechanical methods known to the Indians. He has made use of some things not known to the red man, such as a vise and a light steel hammer, but the vise is used only as a means of holding a wooden clamp, which could have been done just as readily by a stick pressed against the clamp with the foot. Perhaps the Indians used such a clamp as that made from the palm of a moose horn found and shown to me by Mr. Walter B. Smith of Brewer, Maine, and which we were only able to explain as a device for holding flint while chipping. Mr, Benson has found that by varying the angle at which the bone is applied to the flint, and the direction and force of the blow, he can strike off flakes either abruptly to produce a typical bevel or to draw the flake well across the face of the blade. By far the easiest point to make is the small point made from a thin flake, of the type used in large numbers by the Middle Mississippi culture, but the production of the flake from which to shape them requires a very skillful workman and a good grade of flint from which to produce them. The common Woodland type of arrow point, on the other hand, requires more flaking but can be made from a much ruder flake as a starter. Mr. Benson has never had access to a really satis¬ factory flint, mostly using the glacial deposit for his source of supply, and does not know whether he would be able to strike off long flakes from which to make the larger spears and knives if he had the quality needed, but specimens of his workmanship will, I think, clearly demonstrate that should necessity require, very satisfactory arrowheads could be produced by the percussion method which he used in his experiments. In his work he uses the bone, well dried and free of grease, largely as a buffer to transmit percussion, having failed to get satisfactory results from pressure alone. The clamp is faced with a bit of leather to prevent too uneven local pressure breaking the piece being worked, and to provide a certain amount of cushioning to permit flakes to extend down within the Anthropology — 1938 Meeting 73 clamp. Seating the bone firmly at the angle experience has proved desirable, a light tap with the hammer removes a flake, which practice has enabled him to control quite exactly. Usually the blow is applied to the side of the punch, rather than to the end. Reversing the work frequently, first to at¬ tain a working edge, then carefully trimming for symmetry, in a short time he will have produced an arrowhead in many cases better than any but the best made by the red man. The experiments were purely a matter of obtaining knowledge, and Mr. Benson has never used his skill in producing any of the reworked “rare forms” nor ever parted with any arrowhead except as a gift to a friend. 1 Holmes, W. H., Bureau Amer. Ethnology, Bull. 60. 74 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Evidences of Early Woodland Culture at Chalk Bluff Rock Shelter1 Irvin Peithman and Thomas F. Barton Southern Illinois State Normal University , Carbondale, Illinois Rock shelters and caves are ubiquitous features in the Shawnee Hills or Little Ozarks. The Shawnee Hills occupy parts of the three southern¬ most tiers of counties in Illinois and are located in the crotch of the Y formed by the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Here, the terrain is of a hilly nature, generally rough and broken with many precipitous rocky slopes, and has a maximum difference in elevation of approximately 600 feet. At the base of many of the perpendicular cliffs (a conspicuous feature of this area) are found rock shelters. These shelters are formed by a more rapid weathering of the exposed basal rock material than of that higher on the bluff so that we have an overhanging cliff. There is material evidence that these rock shelters have given cover to prehistoric man, the historic Indians, early white travelers and settlers, as well as livestock and machinery of the present day dwellers. These overhanging cliffs furnish such fine protection from the weather elements that it would seem only natural for early man to take advantage of their existence. Just how early and how long and by whom the shelters were occupied can be determined only by careful investigation of their sites. The site of Chalk Bluff rock shelter is the southern end of Chalk Bluff in sec. 2, T. 10 S., R. 3 W., approximately nine miles southwest of Murphysboro in Jackson County. The Chalk Bluff in which this shelter is located is an unbroken sedimentary rock escarpment nearly one mile long and has an almost uniform height of 250 feet. Calcareous sandstones are the predom¬ inant rocks in the cliff-like escarpment. This escarpment, lying in a north- south direction and paralleling the Mississippi flood plain has a westerly exposure. Here, where the shelter is located, is a conspicuous overhanging cliff offering the shelter ideal protection from the weather elements. Huge boulders having fallen from the cliff furnish ground protection from westerly winds. Some of these boulders are over 6 feet high. The shelter itself is about 60 feet long and about 40 feet wide. At the time of excavation, the filled-in floor was from 4 to 6 feet deep and contained a large number of fallen slabs and boulders. These were found lying in such a position that it seemed necessary to begin excavating from the back of the shelter and work outward. Just how long these boulders, varying in weight from a few hundred pounds to several tons, had been buried can only be conjectured. However, they were buried so deeply in the floor debris that they could not have fallen into the debris to such a depth. Therefore, the debris in part at least had been filled in around them. Judging by the fire-smoked walls, and a few flint spawls, potsherds and fragmentary bones found scattered about the floor, the writers felt the find to be of importance and were certain that further excavation would reveal more interesting remains. As work progressed, it became apparent from the charcoal beds, crema¬ tory pits, ashes, fragmentary animal bones and human bones, especially those of children, found in the floor debris, that man was an early and prolonged occupant of this shelter. Work was started at the back of the shelter by digging a trench five and one-half feet deep, parallel to the bluff and down to the original stone floor.2 In the process of digging, an abundance of prehistoric evidence was found. This evidence was in the form of flint chips, bone awls, potsherds, and frag¬ ments of bone found throughout the floor debris. All the floor debris was Anthropology — 1938 Meeting 75 taken from the trench and passed through a one-half inch screen in order to secure all fragmentary bones, potsherds, flint and bone awls. Because of the dry powdery condition of the debris and the large rocks that could not be removed, much difficulty was encountered by cave-ins. No burials were found until the trench reached the rock floor of the shelter. The first skeleton was found lying in a semi-flexed position and badly crushed by fallen rock. After the trench was widened to about 10 feet, several parts of burials were found in close proximity. These burials were found tightly wedged between and under fallen slabs, and were apparently badly crushed by the weight of heavy rocks. The finding of these burials created much interest. The fragmentary skulls showed a decided flattening of the frontal bone; another peculiarity evident was the shape of the skull indicating prognathism and pathological conditions. This skeletal material was covered by a thin layer of whitish substance that could not be identified. This same material was also found on the stone floor at the bottom of the trench and was covered by about four and a half feet of filled-in floor debris. At this stage in the excavation, work was stopped. Believing the find to be one of unusual importance, the writers sought the aid of professional archaeologists. Since it seemed impossible to get someone interested enough to take over the work, some of the material was sent to the Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, for study purposes. In the meantime, con¬ tinuing with the excavation, it was decided to widen the trench. A slab weighing approximately a ton was encountered lying on top of the dirt floor. By working carefully we were able to dig under this rock. Excavation here revealed the cremated body of a young child, and in juxtaposition was found a large piece of red ochre and a burnt snail shell bead. This was the only instance where grave goods were found with any human skeletal material. Near this cremated body were other evidences of cremated burials, but the large slab prevented further explorations. After digging a few holes on both sides of the slab to see if anything of importance could be found in the dirt, we abandoned work here. From the animal bones that could be identified, the Virginia deer was found to be the most common; also present were those of the elk, wolf, fox, beaver, woodchuck, squirrel, raccoon, oppossum, and wild cat.3 Practically all of the bones had been broken. This probably was done to extract the marrow. Shell remains from several varieties of fresh water mollusks and snails were found along with fragments of terrapin and turtle shell. Remains of fish and bird bones were also present. The remains of the animals men¬ tioned here were the most numerous of all materials recovered. Such a large quantity of animal bone suggests a long and continued occupancy of this shelter by prehistoric man who used it either as a permanent abode or as an oft frequented shelter during hunting expeditions. A very few projectile points were found, and a very small amount of flint spawls and chips. The points are crudely made and are of the stemmed and notched base types. They are all less than two inches long and suggest a very limited knowledge of flint chipping. The flint projectile points re¬ covered were made from the “flint ball” and. “novaculite” cherts. The material for these points came from the prehistoric quarries found in Union County, about ten miles southeast of Chalk Bluff. The bone awls and ornaments of bone and shell that were found are very interesting. The bone awls, made from deer and bird bones, are highly polished and some of them are six inches long. The ornaments are of two types, bone and shell. The former are parts of bird bones made into beads, while the latter are made of fresh water mollusks perforated for suspension. One of the numerous wolf tusks found was perforated. The potsherds found in this shelter seem to be typical of the Woodland culture. They are all tempered with a coarse grit and have a granular tex¬ ture. The shoulders are poorly defined while the necks are straight or slightly curving. The bottom fragments include several with flat bottoms; the rest have rounded bottoms. The flat bottom ones are very crude and compact. In contrast with the potsherds found in other bluff shelter sites in southern Illinois, those found in the Chalk Bluff rock shelter have very 76 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions little decoration on the rims. A few specimens, however, show incised zigzag lines, raised points and small imperforations near the rim. Most of these have been poorly fired in the process of making. They varied in thickness from one eighth to almost five eighths of an inch. One of the writers, having studied other rock shelters in southern Illi¬ nois, believes there has always been a marked resemblance in the pots¬ herds, bone tools, and other remains found in the various shelters. In these rock shelters, evidences of agriculture such as small digging tools and charred corn cobs1 2 3 4 were found. In none of them was there any evidence of the use of tobacco, such as would be indicated by the presence of pipe or pipe remnants. The Chalk Bluff shelter differs from other shelters in that no evidence was uncovered that might lead one to believe that these people knew any¬ thing about agriculture. The only textile evidence found was the cord im¬ print on pottery sherds. Judging by the remains found in the shelter, it seems that the inhabitants were unskilled in working flint, and possibly did not know about the use of the bow and arrow. Up to the present time rock shelters in southern Illinois have been neg¬ lected in scientific research, while the more conspicuous mounds of the State have been and are being thoroughly studied. In conclusion, the writers wish to say that they and others are of the opinion that a thorough in¬ vestigation of these rock shelters should be made — preferably by or under the direction of well-trained archaeologists.5 Investigations of these shelters may reveal important information on man’s early occupance of the State. However scientific study should not be too long delayed. Since the partial excavation of the Chalk Bluff rock shelter, upon which this paper is based, was stopped, “pot hunters” have blasted the boulders in the shelter several times. Frequent vandalism is destroying important scientific archaeological material in the rock shelters of southern Illinois. 1 Knowing- for some time the existence of this shelter a group of interested persons went to this shelter on November 14, 1937, and spent several days ex¬ cavating. The party consisted of Charles Thomas, Joe Thomas. Warren Whelpley, all of Cobden, and Homer Benz, Raymond Benz, and Irvin Peithman, all of Car- bondale, Ill. , . , 2 This method of excavation is no longer used. In the last excavation in which the writers worked the five foot square method with horizontal layers removal of material was employed. 3 These animal bones were checked by Dr. L. A. Adams of the University of Illinois during December, 1937. , ^ • . „ 4 Peithman, Irvin : “Bluff Shelters on Indian Creek, Jackson Co., Illinois, National Archaeological News, Vol. 1, No. 11, pp. 6-9, 1938. 5 Since this paper was written, a partial excavation of the Cave Hollow rock shelter in Jackson County has been made under the guidance of Professor Fay- Cooper Cole of the University of Chicago and his men. Dr. Horace Miner, Wayne University, Detroit, Michigan and Mr. L. Robert Tschirky, Philadelphia Museum. Anthropology — 1938 Meeting 77 Bluff Shelters of Union County C. Joe Thomas Coldm, Illinois In the conglomerate and underlying sandstones of Union county, Illinois, are numerous perpendicular bluffs of varying heights. The several forces of erosion have produced indentations in these bluffs, commonly in their bases. Many of these indentations are so formed and situated that they are natural shelters. In some cases, water runs over their floors, while in others their interiors have been perfectly dry for great periods of time. In practically all of these shelters some bits of evidence of prehistoric human occupancy can be found on the surface. Over the past fifty years or so, the surfaces of the dry cave floors have been scratched by collectors in search of Indian relics. Three or four years ago, the writer and his brother became interested in these places as anthropological sites. These grottos existed, no doubt, in a condition very near their present one, when the first human entered them. Why then, is there not a possi¬ bility of finding, somewhere in the debris of their floors, some evidence of the earliest as well as the latest human occupant? With this in mind, the writer and his brother excavated a shelter, four miles north of Cobden, in 1935. It is 57 feet long by 25 feet deep at its greatest depth. It was found that the dust and sand was accumulated there¬ in, to a maximum depth of 5 V2 feet. This entire dust layer was removed and passed through a ^-inch mesh screen, and was found to be heavily impregnated with flint chips, bones, shells and potsherds. Flint chips were most abundant near the surface and decreased as the bottom was approached. Among the artifacts encountered were seventeen war points; several of these had delicately serrated edges, the others were of the plain triangular type. There were about fifty complete and numerous fragmentary arrow heads. They were mainly of the stemmed variety, a few were notched, and all were very crude. Six complete bone awls and four fragmentary ones represented the work in bone. There were a half dozen mortars, made of unshaped creek rocks. One mortar weighed several hundred pounds and contained an unusually deep basin. A number of tips of deer antlers were found; these had been cut from the horn by man, and three had holes bored in their bases. There were three beads or ornaments. One was a deli¬ cate arrow head with a notched base and serrated edges; it was slightly over an inch in length, and made of mussel shell; the other was an imita¬ tion animal tooth made of stone. Both were drilled for stringing. There was, also, an antler tip, highly polished, with a notch cut around its tip, and one half of a crude gorget. No agricultural artifacts were found in any condition. The potsherds represented both shell and grit tempered pottery. They were generally roughened on the outside by a sharp instrument or a corded stick. Many of them were burned on the inside and not on the outside. Rims were mostly straight, sometimes slightly flaring. Few attempts at decoration were in evidence. The above material is more or less typical of that found in other shelters of this locality and the neighboring ones, judging from cursory examinations and the reports of others. One remarkable feature of this shelter was the fact that fragmentary human bones were interspersed throughout the mass of animal and bird bones in the same condition. There were fragments of lower jaws, upper jaws, with teeth worn to the bone, skull fragments, toe and finger bones, knee caps, shoulder blades, and fragments of the pelvic bones and arm and 78 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions leg bones. At a depth of 5% feet, a test hole in the hard clay beneath the dust revealed fragments of a human skull and a lower mandible. There was absolutely nothing more in association with them. The skull fragment had a very heavy brow ridge. Other brow fragments, found at higher levels, showed no brow ridges and were structurally delicate in comparison. They were, also, white in color, while the lowest jaw and brow fragments were a deep brown. There was no indication of these bones ever having been burials. In only one instance were bones found grouped together; at a depth of two feet, against the wall of the shelter, a few vertebrae and two femurs were found together. From the fact that the bones showed no signs of decomposition, it would appear that the bones were deposited there in their present condition. It was, indeed, a conglomeration hard to account for, and was suggestive of cannibalism. Practically nothing concerning cultures among these bluff dwellers has been defined; and it appeared to the excavators that this shelter contained the remains of more than one cultural division of prehistoric man. What was suspected here might be confirmed in others. In a bluff 3 miles east of Cobden there is a series of large shelters. Ancient and recent rockfalls cover their floors, until excavation is impossible without the removal of tons of rock. Test holes between these rocks reveal a profusion of remains of ancient occupation. One test pit dug to a depth of 5 feet exhibited no bottom of the dust strata, nor any decrease in re¬ mains. Across a spur of one of these bluffs is built a so-called stone fort. There is known to be, in southern Illinois, 8 of these rock walls built in prehistoric times. It has been noted that habitable shelters are near each of these structures. Their builders might have been bluff dwellers. No doubt, judging from the similarity of remains found in various bluff shelters, one cultural division of ancient man occupied them more than any other kind; yet, considering the length of time they have been available for habitation, the writer believes it is possible to find, within them, some in¬ formation concerning prehistoric man in this locality, from his beginning to and including the last nomadic bands of the American Indian. Anthropology — 1938 Meeting 79 Religious Beliefs of Prehistoric Man of North America Harry B. Wheaton Clinton , Illinois No race of people as far as we know has ever existed but had some form of worship or some God or gods to whom they bowed in reverence. In spite of the fact that recent writers have attempted to prove that the Ameri¬ can Indian was atheistic in tendency, their legends and traditions prove otherwise. Through these, we find that their beliefs followed the same gen¬ eral line of all other religious creeds. In a way all religious creeds follow the same general scheme. They account for the origin of the earth, the sea, the celestial bodies, the animal and plant life, and finally for the pres¬ ence of man, all of which is controlled by some mighty personage who lives in the great beyond. Laws have been set up regulated by the divine will, the keeping of which insures the individual of living to a ripe, peaceful old age and when the mortal body ceases to function, he is transported into another world to live for eternity. In view of the fact that over one hundred tribes lived in North America before the coming of the White Man, that each of these tribes varied slightly or extremely in belief and ceremonies, it is impossible to give more than a brief review of their beliefs in regard to the creation, their ceremonies to propitiate their Gods and their views of immortality. The handbook of the American Indian recognizes five large subdivisions: 1. the Eskimo area in which the preponderance of opinion holds man in the Hero role. Very little tradition is devoted to the animal but when so he is linked to man. 2. the North Pacific Coast area, where there has been built a large cycle of transformed myths, relating to that region, the origin of arts, the whole of which is loosely knit together in a disconnected mass of folklore. 3. the Western Plateau and the Mackenzie Basin, where em¬ phasis is laid on tables of animal in which they are linked to present day conditions. They are not closely connected and are contra¬ dictory in character. 4. the California Area, the mythologies of which are grouped around the theme of creation by will power. 5. the region of the Great Plains, the Eastern Woodlands and the Arid Southwest in which the myths are systematized in the form of a well developed ritual. Early man of North America was a dweller of the forests, rivers, moun¬ tains and hills and so his God or Gods were those of nature. He was a creature of his environment. Caves, mountains, curious rocks, waterfalls and in fact any object that excited his curiosity (especially among those of the Great Lakes Region) was supposed by them to be the dwelling place of a Spirit. These imaginary deities became the object of dread or venera¬ tion. To these an offering of tobacco was given, not as an atonement for sin, but to obtain temporal advantage or to avert the anger of the spirits.1 From this same source we have recorded that the sun, moon and stars were also adored. Usually the natives of this region believed in the existence of one great Spirit, with innumerable subordinate deities who have particular con¬ trol over their destinies. They believe in the existence of evil spirits and made offerings to appease their anger. The Zunia of the West worshipped a God who was the Maker and Con¬ tainer of All, who created the primal fogs and mists and took upon himself the form of the Sun with all its personal attributes, then by his own bright- 80 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions ness and light he thickened the primal mists into water thus creating the sea. Out of his own flesh he fecundated the Sea. Out of the Sea came Mother Earth. Some of the Iroquois have a unique legend explaining the lesser bril¬ liancy of the Moon by stating that in the long ago the Moon Mother married the Sun. She was unable to stand his extreme temperature so she fled and hid in a cave. Fearing his wrath, she remained hidden so long that she pined away until she nearly died. She never recovered her original brightness. When she fattens up she remembers her husband’s wrath and pines away again. The American Indian had a superstitious fear of - the animals, who, they thought, influenced their lives for good or evil. The Algonquin and other tribes believed that the animals fearing extinction called a council to decide ways and means of combating man. The deer agreed to visit man with rheumatism, the insects to inject malaria poison into his system, the reptiles to cause him bad dreams and the birds to give him lung trouble. In order that he might be successful in the chase and ward off misfortune, he always carried in his medicine bag a rabbit’s foot and other parts of animals to protect him from the enmity of the animals. Those superstitious white people who today carry a rabbit’s foot, would hardly believe that the belief came down from the primitive Indian who long ago reverently placed it in his medicine bag with the hope that the Gods of Chance would pro¬ tect him and see that he was well rewarded. In order to propitiate their Gods, it was the custom of some tribes to address a bear as “brother” before he was slain, and carefully explain to him that it was very necessary, otherwise his soul might return and have a baneful influence on them. The Chippewa Indians always addressed the tobacco plant before harvesting it: “You are allowed to grow here for the benefit of man and I give you this tobacco to remind you of this, so that you will do the best you can for me.” Then he would deposit a little dried tobacco where the plant grew. The Chipmunk was considered to be an omen of good fortune for it was he alone of all the animal kingdom, who after the Indian had been visited with the different plagues by the Animal Council, had gone to the plants and trees and persuaded them to part with their medicinal properties to cure their ills and relieve their sufferings. Primitive man must have believed in the immortality of his soul, for in no other way can we account for the great amount of labor expended in building the many mounds that dot the region of the Mississippi Valley; most of which were built to cover their dead who, when they reached the Happy Hunting Ground, would be adorned in a manner befitting ttieir posi¬ tion and would have all the necessary implements of the chase. 1 West’s “Tobacco, Pipes and Customs of the American Indians.” Anthropology — 1938 Meeting 81 Hopewell Traits in Certain Bluff Mounds of Fulton County Donald E. Wray Illinois State Archaeological Society, Peoria, Illinois The site described in this paper is composed of a group of 18 mounds, a cemetery, and at least one village, which are strung along the north bluff of the Illinois River for a quarter of a mile in the southeast corner of Fulton County. In a wooded tract behind the mound are 5 house pits which have never been disturbed by cultivation or by excavators. The village and ceme¬ tery have yielded interesting material of the Middle Mississippi culture and will be dealt with in a later paper. In this report I shall give the results of our investigations of the mound group. All of the 18 mounds are low and circular, the smallest being 11 feet in diameter and 15 inches high, while the largest is 63 feet across and 7 feet high. Most of them are arranged in a single line paralleling the edge of the bluff for a distance of a thousand feet. Four are irregularly placed outside of the general line. They are composed of light yellow clay which forms the sub-soil in this region. All of the prominent mounds have had pits dug into their centers many years ago, but there is no record as to what was found. Trenches dug into several of them yielded no evidence of burials or of any artifacts. The three mounds at the east end of the group are a few hundred feet removed from the next in the line and are low and inconspicuous. For these reasons they escaped the notice of the persons who opened the other members of the group. The first mound which we opened was the third mound from the east end of the group. It was roughly thirty-four feet in diameter and in most places the artificial deposit was only eighteen inches thick, although the curve of the hilltop added to the apparent height of the mound. The first burial which we encountered was flexed on the left side and lay on the base of the mound 18 inches below the surface. A few feet away on the same level were the disturbed bones of a child. Beside this burial were fragments of grit tempered pottery. When reconstructed they formed a globular pot with a slightly constricted neck and a plain almost vertical rim. The body of the vessel was roughened with narrow parallel incised lines drawn vertically from the rims. Two other fragments of grit tempered pottery were found apart from any burial. A little to the south of the exact center of the mound lay a confused mass of bones which represented at least three individuals. The bones were only 16 inches below the surface and may have been disturbed by the pick of some previous digger. However we feel that the bones were undisturbed and represent a bundle type burial. In this group of bones was what appears to be a trophy skull. It consists of the occipital and parietal bones with the edges left rough. It exhibits two scars and a depressed area which might have been caused by a severe blow. Directly below the bundle burial was a pit which was roughly eight feet square and extended 2 % feet below the base line of the mound. This pit contained the remains of twenty individuals, of which seven were repre¬ sented by the skulls only. The complete burials were all extended face up with the exception of one partly disturbed body which lay face down. In this case the skull exhibits a number of long scratches across the back. 82 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Three adult burials were laid one above the other, and on the chest of the lowest burial lay five skulls. Seven of the burials were of children and in¬ fants. The only artifact recovered from the pit was a pearl bead which was found with a child. The next mound which we opened was second from the east end of the group. This was 28 feet long and 23 feet wide, with an average height of 15 inches. In the center of the mound was a circular area 12 feet in diameter which was covered with small flat pieces of limestone. Beneath the stones were the skeletons of two infants and traces of an adult. With the adult burial was an elaborate grave offering consisting of the following objects: A mica reflector 7 inches across and roughly circular; a 3 inch square based obsidian knife or spear head; a beaver tooth and a necklace^ of 51 rolled copper beads. Pendant from this were two bear teeth which" were grooved at the end for suspension. Between the bear teeth was the leg bone of a dog, five inches long which had been polished and cut at one end. Although it is neither grooved nor drilled, its position indicated that it might have been hung between the two teeth. Part of the original necklace cord was preserved inside the copper beads. It was made of two threads twisted together. Each of these threads was composed of a number of coarse hairs. The traits displayed in these two mounds do not fit into the middle Mississippi culture of the adjacent village. They do however correspond to the Hopewell pattern as it is defined by Cole and Deuel.1 The central subfloor pit containing extended burials, the use of pearl beads, grit tem¬ pered pottery, copper beads, bear teeth pendants, mica sheets and obsidian, point unmistakably to the Hopewell culture. Most of these traits have been reported from other sites in Fulton County, but as far as we know this is the first discovery of obsidian. Another unusual feature in the sec¬ ond mound was the covering or pavement of small stone slabs over the central burials. Construction of a series of small mounds along the bluff is contrary to usual Hopewell practice, which was to build rather large mounds in the bottom lands. Possibly the variation here was forced by the narrowness of the strip of land bordering the lake at the foot of the bluff. Local informants say that village material was found during construction of a road along the base of the hill, and this may possibly be the site of the Hopewell village which is otherwise unknown. 1 Cole, F. C., and Deuel, Thorne, “Rediscovering Illinois.” Papers In botany Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman The program of the Botany Section carried nineteen papers, of which thirteen are herewith printed. The others were: The Structure and Development of the Radish, by E. L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston. Exploring for Fossil Plants in the Tropics, by A. C. Noe, University of Chicago, Chicago. (Lantern slides.) Luminous Moss, A Demonstration, by Blanche McAvoy, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. Preliminary Report on the Developing Biota of Southern Illinois Strip Lands, by W. M. Gersbacher and Wm. M. Bailey, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale. Some Suggestions for the Effective Use of Freehand Sections of Plant Tissues in Laboratory Glasses, by Helen M. Thomas, Rock¬ ford College, Rockford. Demonstrating the Relative Humidity of the Intercellular Spaces of Leaves, by H. F. Thut, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston. Average attendance at the meeting was 40. Dr. E. M. R. Lamkey, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois, was elected Chairman for the 1939 meeting. (Signed) P. K. Houdek, Chairman. 84 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Ecological Aspects of Host Specialization in Fungi L. R. Tehon State Natural History Survey , Urbana, Illinois The role of fungi as parasites of higher plants has been recognized now for just about 100 years. And the significance of fungi as destructive agents, recognized centuries before their exact nature was understood, has led within the last fifty years to such advances in knowledge concerning them as can be duplicated in few, if any, of the other branches of natural science. Because they are minute, obscure, and often secretive in their activities until they have done so much damage that human efforts against them are futile, the greatly merited investigations and researches aimed at finding means for combating them naturally have fallen into three chief categories: first, development of poisons which can be applied as preventives; second, life history studies, chiefly of a laboratory nature, aimed at an explanation of the obscurities of their existence; and third, discovery or breeding of races of plants resistant to their attack. Control measures now in wide use are based largely, though it is true not entirely, upon knowledge gained in these three fields. Poisons, in the form of sprays, dusts, and washes, are used extensively as applications often intended for one parasite but as often acting more or less efficiently as blanket preventives of anything and everything that may happen along. Interruption of the normal progressions of life histories is the basis for barberry eradication in controlling stem rust on small grains, for Ribes eradication in controlling white pine blister rust, and for local eradication of red cedars in controlling cedar rust of apples. In recent years, agri¬ culturalists have favored greatly the development of resistant varieties; and if the varieties secured have not always been as satisfactorily resistant as might be desired, certainly much has been learned about plant breeding, per se, and many varieties of crops have been obtained that are valuable in other ways. , ... More direct in approach, if less favored in research and in use, is physio¬ logical control, exemplified at one extreme by the hot water method of seed treatment, which differentiates so closely between the temperature resisting abilities of parasite and host, and at the other by the planting of crops in relation to soil temperature, which stresses differences between host and parasite in ability to grow. Nearly ignored in research, and entirely so in practice as a means of control, though by no means omitted from extensive speculation as an in¬ fluence in the development of wide-spread and destructive epiphytotics, have been the ecological relationships of parasite fungi. And plant disease spe¬ cialists are by no means alone in neglecting this broad field. Plant ecologists have, to the present, dismissed fungi with few words and correspondingly little thought. Unfortunate it is, perhaps, that in science, as in society, size and conspicuous domination attract interest and command thought and effort to the exclusion of obscure, behind-the-scenes and, perhaps therefore, more influential relationships. The sole point in all the foregoing is to bring out, with the emphasis incident to enumeration, that there is extant now in the science of plant pathology an accepted set of beliefs, on which present day practice is largely based, that is adhered to with much the same literality that the St. James version is accepted by many religious believers. And it is the purpose of the remainder of this paper to suggest, on the basis of a number of cir- Botany — 1938 Meeting 85 cumstances falling directly within my knowledge in the State of Illinois, that it is high time to examine with considerable care our original text, with a view toward modernization of our tenets in plant disease control as well as with the intention of stimulating new research and, what may be much more important, new and original thought. One can have no objection to the present use of poisons. This is en¬ tirely a commercial matter, in which the collaborating interests of poison manufacturer and crop producer can be depended upon to increase effective¬ ness and reduce cost to the highest and lowest degrees possible. Neither is there much cause to discourage those who believe in the efficacy of plant breeding. It is, undoubtedly, a field without limit, exceedingly complex in its aspects, interrelationships, and consequences and worthy of most extended attention. It is life histories, and particularly the thinking that is based on what we know about them, that I want to bring into question, today. The first suspicion that dependence on current knowledge of life his¬ tories might be not entirely safe as a foundation for control measures came with the publication in 1927 of Craigie’s1 simple and conclusive experiments, which demonstrated the function of the pycnospores of the rusts. For nearly a quarter of a century, in fact following the cytological re¬ searches of Sappin-Trouffy2 in 1896 and of Blackman3 in 1904, it had been supposed that the phenomenon of combination and resegregation of charac¬ ters attendant on cross-fertilization had been reduced among rust fungi to a vestigial and only partially completed process accomplished entirely within the thallus unit. Craigie's effective experiments proved that cross-fertiliza¬ tion was by no means the vestigial process it had been supposed to be but was, instead, an absolutely necessary function accomplished upon the aecial or “cluster-cup” hosts, without which the life histories of many types of rust fungi could not be completed, and that instead of being accomplished in a vague sort of way within a single thallus it was accomplished in the regular manner by the crossing over of fertilizing cells from one thallus to another The inescapable conclusion had therefore to be that the rust fungus organ¬ ism, as to species, was not an agglomeration of specialized and stabilized races, but, instead, that the species were composed of constantly changing races and that the origin of new races with new characteristics, especially of parasitism, might take place whenever the fungus was inhabiting its so- called alternate host. The bearing of this discovery of Craigie’s upon control measures in prac¬ tice and under development was naturally two-fold. In the first place cer¬ tain control measures, such as Barberry eradication, were based on the assumption that if the alternate host could be eradicated or nearly eradicated it would be impossible for the parasites to develop in quantities injurious to the economically valuable host. In the second place, with parasite races genetically stabilized in parasitic ability and invariable, as required by the life history of the parasite, it would be possible to develop races among the economic hosts which would be resistant to all of the parasitically differ¬ entiated races of parasites. The effects of Craigie’s experiments were, first, to suggest the possibility that, with reduction in number of alternate hosts, some few of the continually changing forms brought about by recombination and segregation of characteristics among the parasites might possibly be adapted to survive without dependence on the alternate host and, second, that with continually changing characteristics in parasitism it would be im¬ possible for geneticists to develop a sufficiently large number of resistant crop races or varieties, or any one race with resistance complete enough to assure escape under all circumstances from the ravages of the parasites to which they were supposed to be resistant. The latter consequence is, of course, a matter for the consideration of a specialist in plant breeding. It presents questions that can be answered only after many years of experiment and it may in the end make the plant breeder s problem both the more difficult and the more interesting because of its increased complications. The real problem from the point of view 86 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions purely of plant disease control lies in the first consequence. And of course we should ask, first of all, whether there is at hand any experience or knowledge which bears directly or indirectly upon it. Within the State of Illinois we have every year experience with, among many, two diseases which it seems to me bear definitely on the problem. One of these is the well-known leaf rust, Puccinia triticina, of wheat. The other is the prevalent but not so destructive rust of corn, Puccinia Sorghi. Both of these rust fungi are known to have alternate hosts. That of the common and destructive leaf rust of wheat is a species of Meadow Rue (Thalictrum). The alternate host of corn rust is a species of the genus Oxalis, which includes the common sheep sorrel of gardens, Oxalis stricta. In spite, however, of the fact that the alternate hosts of both of these para¬ sitic fungi are known, as a matter strictly of scientific information, to func¬ tion in the life history of the parasites under at least experimental condi¬ tions, it remains an uncontrovertable fact that both organisms persist from year to year in some manner, so as to reattack each growing season, some¬ times with disastrous results, the crops upon which they have become spe¬ cialized, and do so independently of their alternate hosts. These two examples have the disadvantage in the first place of being exceedingly well known, and in the second of being selected with respect to attacked hosts which are grown abundantly over exceedingly wide geo¬ graphic ranges, so that variations in climate may readily account, if the proper type of reasoning is used, for the persistence of the parasites in milder-climated portions of the host range during those seasons when sur¬ vival in the severer climates would seem impossible. It is, therefore, desirable to search out other examples with a stricter and less critical bearing upon the question of alternate host and life history control. In the State of Illinois two of these are now available. The first, it seems to me, is outstanding in particular respects. There is a rust, known technically as Pucciniastrum americanunv, which has for its two hosts a spruce, Picea canadensis, and a bramble, Rubus strigosus. The natural range of both hosts lies much to the north of Illinois, and the range of the fungus on the first host is only known to include the Canadian province of Ontario, while the range on the second host has been reported to include territory as far south as Connecticut, Ohio, and Iowa. The strik¬ ing circumstance in Illinois is this. The Latham raspberry, which is a very- popular, cultivated red raspberry derived from the native host, Rubus stri¬ gosus, has been planted commercially in the extreme southern tip of the State, from Carbondale southward, and particularly on that east and west highland known as Villa Ridge. There is not any native alternate host, the spruce species, within many miles of these raspberry plantings. Yet unfailingly the rust makes its appearance upon the raspberries late in the season in the Villa Ridge region and as far north as the hills to the south of Carbondale. Here apparently is a case of a rust requiring two hosts for the completion of its life history, which has followed, in one phase only of its life history, the particular host upon which that life history is passed a very considerable distance, perhaps as much as 500 miles, south, of its normal range, where it appears to propagate itself year after year in con- nection with its particular host and utterly -without regard for the ab¬ sence of the other host. The second instance has to do with white pine blister rust. This de¬ structive pine disease, caused by a fungus known as Gronartium ribicolum, has been known for a considerable number of years in New England and northeastward. More recently it has occurred in northwestern states. With¬ in the last two years the white pine blister rust fungus has been found in Illinois on one of its hosts, Ribes nigrum. Infections have been definitely reported in Lake, Boone, Kane, and Winnebago counties. The natural range of the other host, white pine, in Illinois does not include any of these coun¬ ties, and if white pine does occur in these counties it is only as an occasional decorative planting. It is important to note that up to the present time no case of infection of white pine blister rust has been observed in the State on white pine, either in the counties where infection has been found on the alternate host or in regions where white pine is native. Botany — 1938 Meeting 87 A point that seems full of significance in all of these cases, including the important rusts of cereals, is that the disease-producing fungus is able, by some means we do not now understand, to propagate itself through as wide a range as that occupied by its host and does so quite independently of the presence or absence of its alternate host. It is significant, also, that this propagation occurs in connection with a very definite phase of the fungus life cycle. This phase is usually, though not always, the one that attacks the economically important host. The significant thing about it, however, is not that it attacks the economic host but that it is the phase of the fungus which has a very definite means of abundant propagation by means of vegetative spores. In the case of the stem and leaf rusts of wheat and the rust of corn, there is a period known as the “red rust” stage, where propagation from one host individual to another takes place rapidly and freely. This likewise is true of the rust on the Latham raspberry and of the white pine blister rust on Ribes. This fact may be considered to account for widespread infection of the host on which the fungus is found, but it does not account for the man¬ ner in which original infections of the host occur. We are unwilling to admit, what has often been maintained, that early spring infections must take place by means of spores produced on the alternate host. It seems to me that there is room at this point for very serious thought¬ fulness with regard to permanent interrelations between host and fungus. The suggestion that may be drawn from our examples is this, that any fungus parasitic upon plants, which has in any given part of its life history a definite vegetative reproductive phase, possesses a degree of adaptability that makes it possible for the fungus to exist and multiply in any region favorable to its host. And if such an assumption as this can be tenable, a logical step is to admit that parasite and host constitute together a definite interrelation¬ ship, whereby in any environment, whether under cultivation or in nature, the multiplication of the host is restricted by the activities of the parasite and the multiplication of the parasite is conditioned by both the presence and the abundance of the host. In the development of epidemics of plant disease, especially as they affect hosts or crops of economic value, a great deal of importance has been attributed to weather. This perhaps is the natural outlook from the standpoint of economics, since crop acreages, although varying in total from year to year, always remain so large that an abundance of hosts is always present and furnishes opportunity for large increase in parasite numbers through the growing season. But from the standpoint of the ecologist, who deals with the world's natural inhabitants, undisturbed by man’s economic needs, it is perhaps more important to consider the relative effects of alter¬ nate increase in host abundance and increase in parasite abundance, followed by decrease in host abundance and more than proportional decrease in para¬ site abundance. This in a sense may be looked upon as paralleling certain well-known zoological examples, where the rise and fall of large populations of rodents in the northern part of our continent is attributed to a similar but delayed rise and fall of predators, and possibly in some cases also of internal para¬ sites. From the ecologists point of view, it is also worthwhile to examine certain relationships of fungi which cannot definitely be said to be para¬ sitic, and in this connection I should like to bring forward certain exper¬ iences that have occurred in our own laboratory. During the past several years, we have been examining as a routine matter considerable numbers of chinch bugs, particularly for the purpose of determining the relative prevalence of the so-called chinch bug fungus, Sporotrichum globuliferum. These tests were begun in the late winter and early spring of 1935, following the exceptionally destructive outbreak of chinch bugs in the summer of 1934. That spring the chinch bug fungus was isolated without fail in our laboratory cultures from practically every sam¬ ple of chinch bugs brought in from their dormant winter quarters. In the succeeding years, which have been characterized by diminishing numbers —2 88 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions of chinch bugs during the crop season, the number of isolations of the chinch bug fungus has steadily decreased. And it has been remarkable that, during the winter just past, chinch bugs taken in dormancy in certain localities have yielded not so much as a single instance of the chinch bug fungus. In the same connection, this also is of interest. In the late winter and early spring of 1936, the list of fungi isolated from chinch bugs was dom¬ inated by a type known as Chaetomium. Isolations are likewise made in our laboratory from diseased plants, particularly diseased trees, and it was a striking and noteworthy fact that during the same period the same fungus was commonly and abundantly isolated from diseased bark of trees, thus indicating some circumstance favorable to the development of this particular kind of fungus. In succeeding years, Chaetomium has rarely been obtained in culture, but so far as the chinch bug work is concerned there has been a complete change of complexion in the lists of fungi obtained. It is significant that during the present late winter and spring we have not once obtained the Chaetomium fungus in culture. However, the greatest abundance of fungi tend to be those most definitely considered saprophytic and includes es¬ pecially members of the two genera, Penicillium and Aspergillus. Whether this change in fungus flora accompanying chinch bugs in their winter quarters portends a renewed outbreak of chinch bugs dangerous to economic crops remains of course to be proved, yet the suggestion is very apparent that such may be the case. While the points that have been brought out in the foregoing are not in the nature of exact and measurable data such as can be obtained and tabulated from laboratory experiments, it seems to me that they have an ex¬ ceedingly important bearing upon the manner in which fungi should be regarded from the point of view of the ecologist. There is definite indication that certain types of fungi, particularly those which display the phenom¬ enon known as heteroecism, may propagate themselves quite independently of alternate hosts and, in doing so, become controlling factors in determin¬ ing the population of the plants upon which they are parasitic. This re¬ lationship applies not merely to plants economically important but particu¬ larly and especially to plants of interest and value from the purely scientific point of view. The inference is that fungi deserve a place in the thought of the ecologist, whether plant or animal, considerably larger than has hitherfore been accorded them. 1 Craigie, J. H. Discovery of the function of the pycnidia of the rust fungi. Nature 120:765-767. 1927. a Sappin-Trouffy, T. Recherches histologiques sur la famille des Ur6din6es. Le Botaniste 5 :59-244. 1896. 8 Blackman, V. H. On the fertilization alternation of generation and gen¬ eral cytology of the Uredineae. Ann. Bot. 18:323-375. 1904. Botany — 1938 Meeting 89 Verticillium albo-atvum , Cosmopolitan Tree Parasite J. C. Carter State Natural History Survey , TJrbana, Illinois Wilting of trees by Verticillium albo.-atrum R. & B. was first reported in the United States in 19141 on maple. It was first reported in Illinois in 1926. Since 1926, V. albo-atrum has been associated with the wilting of other shade trees and ornamental shrubs. Since the Natural History Survey began its intensive study of tree dis¬ eases in 1931, V. albo-atrum has been cultured from diseased parts of the following twelve hosts: Acer platanoides L., A. nigrum Torr. & Gray, A. rubrum L„ A. saccharum Marsh., A. platanoides Schwedleri Kock, Catalpa speciosa Warder, Prurms communis Fritsch, Rhus cotinus L., R. glabra L., Robinia Pseudo-Acacia L., TJlmus americana L., and Viburnum Lantana ~L I have been unable to find any previous report of Yerticillium wilt of Catalpa speciosa Warder, Robinia Pseudo-Acacia L., and Viburnum Lantana L. Symptoms on Catalpa, Robinia, and Viburnum are similar to those on Acer and Ulmus. There is the sudden or rapid wilting of individual branches or of the whole plant. This is characteristic of Verticillium wilt. The internal symptom is a colored streaking of the wood, characteristically fine and brown in elm (Figure 2), and from fine and green to solid green dis¬ coloration in maple (Figure 5). In Catalpa pinkish-purple streaks form in the sapwood and turn blueish- brown when dried. In close proximity many fine, short streaks form one large, continuous streak in diseased tissue, and solid discoloration may in- volve entire rings in recent year’s growth (Figure 6). In Robinia, Ver¬ ticillium infection is characterized by fine, short, reddish-brown streaks pro¬ miscuously scattered throughout the infected wood (Figure 4). Coalescing of many fine discolored streaks to form large streaks or bands of discolora¬ tion in the wood has not been observed in Robinia. In Viburnum Verticil- lium was isolated from light to dark reddish-brown wood, which showed very little evidence of streaks. In the cross section in Figure 3 this dis¬ coloration is shown to be localized mostly in one side of the stem. Cultural characteristics have been studied for 9 Verticillium isolations: from Acer platandides, 541-A and C; from A. saccharum , V-P.; from A. nigrum, 571; from Catalpa speciosa, 567; from Prurms communis, V-P-C; from Rhus glabra \ 583; and from Ulmus americana, 568 and 574. All ex¬ cept two, V-P and V-P-C, were secured during 1936. Each isolate was grown on 3 agars, cornmeal, potato dextrose, and malt extract. Growth character¬ istics and diameters were recorded at two-day intervals for sixteen days. On potato dextrose all isolates except 568 produced a luxurient aerial weft of mycelium, which made the whole colony appear white, compact and dense. Isolate 568 produced gray aerial mycelium. Characteristic sclerotia c^rec?i°duCed by a11 isolatas> and concentric zonation was shown by 541-C, 571, 567; V-P-C, and 583. Light and dark V-shaped regions were conspicuous in cultures of V-P and 541-A. On corn meal (Figure 1) growth was sparse in contrast to that on potato dextrose. This was due mainly to the absence of dense aerial mycelium. Production of black sclerotia occurred in all cultures except 574 and 541-A, and concentric zonation was conspicuous except in 574 V-shaped regions were evident in cultures 541-C, V-P-C, and 568. Isolates 574 and 541-A produced hyaline, sparse surface and subsurface growth with prac¬ tically no evidence of aerial mycelium. All other isolates produced black surface and subsurface growth, which resulted from the production of abund- 90 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Botany — 1938 Meeting 91 ant, black sclerotia, and very few scattered, white aerial hyphae were present. A 4.7 mm. growth of white surface and subsurface hyphae made up the periphery of each colony. The mycelial development of each isolate was most sparse on malt ex¬ tract where aerial hyphae were hardly noticeable. Sclerotia were produced by all isolates except 541-A. Concentric zonation was present in V-P and 574. V-shaped regions of light and dark hyphae were produced by isolates 574, V-P-C, 583, and V-P. All isolates except V-P and 568 produced the great¬ est diameter growth in 16 days on corn meal (Table I). However, the total diameter growth of isolate 568 was 36.5 mm. on cornmeal and 36.8 mm. on potato dextrose. With the exception of isolate 583, the smallest diameter Table I— Diameter Growth of Verticillium on 3 Kinds of Agar in 16 Days Isolate Diameter growth in mm. Potato dextrose Corn meal Malt extract Acer platanoides (541-A) _ _ _ 50.5 61 48.3 A. platanoides (541-C) _ _ 43.8 49 43.5 A. saccharum (V-P) _ _ _ 48 43 42 A. nigrum (571) _ _ _ _ 40.5 53.5 34.5 Catalpa speciosa (567)... _ .. 49 54 40.3 Prunus communis (V-P-C) _ 40.5 55 40.3 Rhus glabra (583) _ _ . 48.3 51.8 50.8 Ulmus american (568) _ .. . 36.8 36.5 19 Ulmus american (574) _ _ 50.8 72.5 50.3 growth in 16 days occurred on malt extract. The diameter growth of isolate 583 on all three types of agar differed slightly, 51.8 mm. on corn meal, 48.3 mm. on potato dextrose, and 50.8 mm. on malt extract. The aerial hyphae produced by the several isolates on all three types of agar were white, except that 568 produced gray aerial hyphae on potato dextrose. Surface mycelium of each isolate grew more or less radially out¬ ward from the inoculum on each type of agar. Sclerotia typical of Verticil- Hum, albo-atrum were produced by all isolates on potato dextrose, by all except 541-A and 574 on corn meal, and by all except 541-A on malt extract. * Rankin, W. H. Thrombotic diseases of maple. Phytopath. 4:395-396 1914 a Gravatt, G. F. Maple wilt. U. S. D. A. Cir. 382:2. 1926. Explanation op Plate Fi£; 1* — Nine Verticillium isolates on corn meal agar: a, sumac; b, catalpa ; c, Norway maple ; d, almond ; e, black maple ; f, american elm ; g, hard maple : h, american elm ; i, Norway maple. Figs. 2-6. — Characteristic wood discolorations in several hosts due to Verticillium attack: 2, Ulmus americanaj 3, Viburnum Lantana ; 4, Robinia Pseudo-Acacia : 5, Acer platanoides ; 6, Catalpa speciosa. 92 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Diplodia Ear Rot in Illinois Cornfields G. H. Boewe State Natural History Survey, Urbana, Illinois Diplodia1 ear rot or dry rot of corn occurs annually in Illinois corn¬ fields, but its severity varies and it does not become a serious problem in most seasons, as shown in a previous paper.2 While examining corn for diseases in the fall of 1937, the writer was impressed by the few times dry rot was found in the fields which were examined. A varying amount of time has been spent each fall during a 10-year period, beginning with 1928 and extending through 1937, in studying corn¬ fields to determine the prevalence of ear rots in the field before harvest. Cornfields in various parts of the State were examined each year, but the greatest number was examined in the central section, where the largest acreage is grown. The number of fields visited has varied between 20 in the fall of 1928 and 78 in 1935, and the number of ears examined has ranged between 3,800 in 1928 and 15,880 in 1935. Usually 200 ears were observed in each field, although this number varied from 100 to 500 ears. A summary of the 10 year’s data is shown in Table 1. During this period the prevalence of visible dry rot infection has ranged between a low of 0.14 percent in 1937 and a high of 5.88 per cent in 1930. Table I — Summary of Diplodia Ear Rot Data Taken Annually in Illinois Corn Fields During the 10 Years, 1928-1937 Year Number of ears examined Ears infected Number of fields examined Fields with infected ears 1 Total Per cent Total Per cent 1928 _ 3,200 22 0.58 18 10 55.55 1929 _ 11,900 178 1.49 36 35 97.22 1930 _ 5,800 341 5.88 41 36 87.50 1931 _ 10,850 63 0.58 44 19 43.18 1932 _ 7,805 104 1.33 54 43 79.63 1933 _ 9,200 260 2.83 50 42 84.00 1934 _ 13,660 190 1.39 71 61 85.91 1935 _ 15,880 61 0.38 78 46 58.97 1936 _ 11,900 48 0.40 64 27 42.19 1937 _ 12,600 18 0.14 63 8 12.70 T nt.al 102,795 1,285 519 327 1 0 year average 1.25 63.00 The average for the 10-year period is 1.25 percent. In 5 of the 10 years, the percentage of ears found with visible infection was above the average and in the other 5 years the percent of infection was below the average. In 3 particular years, 1931, 1936, and 1937, dry rot was found in less than 45 percent of the fields examined. In 1937, it was found in only 12.7 percent of the fields. The author made a study of the occurrence of dry rot infected ears in the three sections of the State, north, central and south, recognized by the Weather Bureau, and found, as shown in Table 2, that on an average during the 10 years, 1.12 percent were infected in the north, 1.33 percent in central Illinois, and 1.19 percent in the south. Heaviest loss occurred in the central Botany — 1938 Meeting 93 Table II— Summary of Diplodia Ear Rot Data Obtained from Field Examination of Corn, 1928-1937 Section of State Total number of ears Per cent of ears with diplodia Examined With diplodia 26,430 57,665 18,700 295 767 223 1.12 1.33 1.19 Central _ _ _ _ South _ _ _ _ section, where the greatest acreage of corn is grown. Since dry rot infec¬ tion is known to result from spores produced in old corn stalks and carried as far as 350 feet by the wind, this is to be expected if an abundance of inoculum is a criterion. For in this section, a large percentage of the corn acreage is planted on land which was in corn the previous season, and it is impossible in farm practice to eliminate all diseased stalks of the previous year. There are other factors, however, which affect the prevalence and dis¬ tribution of dry rot in Illinois cornfields. It was estimated1 * 3 that 15 percent of the 1937 acreage was planted with hybrid seed and that this is 5 times as much as was planted in 1936. The low percentage of Diplodia ear rot found in the fall of 1937 is coincident with the increase in hybrid corn acreage. 1 Diplodia zeae (Schw.) Dev. and not Diplodia macrospora Earle of the south¬ ern states. _ i.jai!oewe’ G- l936- The relation of ear rot prevalence in Illinois corn SfldS9n° ear covera&e hy husks. Ill. State Natl. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 6:1-19. JV-Lciy zu. 3 These figures are estimates given the writer in conversation with Prof C M Woodworth, of the Agronomy Department, University of Illinois. 94 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The Production of Roots by Cuttings of Annual Plants Under the Influence of Indole-Butyric Acid Harry J. Fuller and John H. Hanley University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois Numerous experiments have been performed upon root production in cuttings of herbaceous and woody perennials after treatment with indole- butyric acid. Few experiments, however, have been carried out concerning the action of this acid upon root production in cuttings of annual plants, which normally do not produce roots from cuttings or produce roots in such small quantities that vegetative propagation of such plants by florists is impossible. The authors have placed cuttings of the following plants in so¬ lutions of various concentrations of indole-butyric acid to study possible effects on root formation: dwarf bush bean, Alaska pea, sweet pea, marigold, annual forget-me-not, didiscus, calendula, cineraria, and African strawflower (Helipterum rosenm). The source of indole-butyric acid employed was a commercial preparation known as “Auxilin,” manufactured by the Pennsyl¬ vania Chemical Corporation. The cuttings of the various species were placed in the solutions made by adding definite quantities of the acid to portions of dechlorinated tap water, for periods of 6 hours, 12 hours, 18 hours, 24 hours, and 36 hours. After these periods of partial immersion, the cuttings were placed in well- washed moist sand in flats, and were observed from time to time for root production. In most cases where the treatment was effective, root produc¬ tion began about 6 to 8 days after treatment. None of the species used produced roots after 6 hours treatment. After the 12-hour treatment, the forget-me-not and bean cuttings produced a few roots, but in no case did the roots appear in sufficient numbers to support the continued growth of the cutting. The 18- and 24-hour treatments re¬ sulted in the production inside of 9 days of numerous, fast-growing roots in the cuttings of bean, cineraria, African straw-flower, forget-me-not, mari¬ gold, and calendula. There was no apparent difference in the results of the 18- and 24-hour treatments. The 36-hour treatment resulted in extensive rotting. No roots were produced at any time in any of the treatments in cuttings of sweet pea, Alaska pea, and didiscus. Figures 1 and 2 show the appearance of treated and untreated cuttings of bean, marigold, and forget- me-not after 14 days growth in moist sand. The concentrations of indole-butyric acid employed were y2, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 mg per 100 cc of water. The y2 mg concentration was ineffective in root production, the 2 mg. concentration induced moderate root formation in the bean, forget-me-not, and marigold, but none in the other species. The 4 mg. concentration was most effective in those species mentioned above in which root formation occurred. With higher concentrations of the indole- butyric acid, the tendency toward rotting increased, although some root production did occur. The results may be summarized as follows: 1. Rapid rooting of cuttings of calendula, marigold, forget-me-not, cineraria, bean, and African straw-flower may be induced after treatment with indole-butyric acid. 2. The optimum time of treatment is 18-24 hours. 3. The optimum concentration is 4 mg. of indole-butyric acid per 100 cc. of water. Botany — 1938 Meeting 95 96 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Forest Distribution in Crawford County, Illinois S. Ray Bradley Robinson, Illinois Crawford County is one of those in the eastern tier of Illinois counties bordered on the east by the Wabash River with its extensive terrace and bottomlands. The Embarrass bottom which is one to two miles wide crosses the southwest corner of the county. This bottom is not so well drained; so it affords an excellent place for the more southern tree species, especially those of the southwestern coastal plains region. The prairie area and loess deposit makes a notable eastwest change. These factors make the county strategic as a transitional area. The writer wishes to acknowledge the guidance of Dr. A. G. Vestal and the aid of Dr. William Trelease and Mr. S. H. Eaton in identifying tree species. For thorough locations and discussions see Master’s thesis (1) in the University of Illinois Library. Annotated List of Tree Species (Crawford County, Illinois) Plant names used are mostly those of Gray’s Manual, edition 7. In a few cases the names used are those given in Deam’s Trees of Indiana (2) or in Eaton’s list for Lawrence county (3). Abbreviations and symbols used: Habitat X — Xeric XM — Xeromesic M — Mesic HM — Hydromesic U — Upland B — Bottomland T — Terrace S — Swampy ground SB — Stream banks WR — Wide ranging Distribution a — Abundant f — Frequent i — Infrequent If — Locally frequent la — Locally abundant s — Scattering r — Rare w — Weed Tree sev — Several Id — Locally dominant Pinaceae Juniperus virginiana L». Red cedar. XM. s. S3>liC£LCG3/G . Populus grandidentata Michx. Tooth-leafed aspen. U., only three groups. Populus deltoides Marsh. Cottonwood. B. f. & la. ; U. i. Populus heterophylla L. Swamp cottonwood. S. la. i. Populus alba L. Silver poplar. U. e.-f. Salix nigra Marsh. Black willow. SB. f. Salix longifolia Muhl. Sandbar willow. SB. f. ■Salix discolor Muhl. Pussy willow. S. f. Salix humilis Marsh. Prairie willow. U. s. clumps. Salix sericea Marsh. Silky willow. Moist B. r. Salix cor data Muhl. Heart-leaf willow. SB. i. Salix alba L. European white willow. Introduced, one location. Juglandaceae „ _ . . . Juglams mgra L. Black walnut. WR. f. Jug Ians cinerea L. Butternut. M. i. Gary a pecaAi Asch. & Greene. Pecan. B. la. tt * * i» . -r « Coxy a cordiformis K. Koch. Bitternut, yellowbud hickory. U. f. & la. , B. i. Gary a ovate i (Miller) K. Koch. Shellbark hickory. WR. f. Botany — 1938 Meeting 97 Cog/a Lacmiosa (Michx. F.) Loud. Kingnut, big shell bark hickory. B. f. ; Gary a alba (L.) K. Koch. White hickory, big-bud hickory, mockernut. U f Betulaceae ova^ls (Wang.) Sarg. Small-fruited hickory. U. i. ; T. r. Carpinus caroliniana Walter. Hornbeam. M. If., S. B. Ostrya virginiana K. Koch. Ironwood. Sev. trees one location only SB Fagemeae a mgra U Black birch. In. B. If. and la. ; poorly drained U. *i. Fagus grandi folia Ehrh. Beech. M. la. f. ; B. i. Quercus alba L. White oak. U. extremely frequent B i Quercus muhlenbergii Engelm. Chinquapin oak. U. i., s. ' Quercus alexanderi Britton. Broad-leaf chinquapin oak. M f Quercus bicolor Willd. Swamp white oak. B. f. la. : poorly drained IT f Quercus stellata Wang. Post oak U f p y a ea u- Quercus macrocarpa Michx. Bur oak.’ M. s., poorly drained U Quercus imbricaria Michx. Shingle oak. U f • B i Quercus borealis maxima Ashe. Red oak. M U "and T • f Quercus palustris Muench. Pink oak. B. and S ’ U a "f ’ Quercus schneckii Britton. Schneck’s red oak. B and’ T i Quercus velutina Lamarck. Black oak. U. XM f la * UlmaceaeCWS mari^undica Muench. Black jack oak. U. X. XM., i. Ulmus americana L. White elm. Very common, f. on SB w TJlmus fulya Michx. Red elm. M. a. ; XM. i. Beltis occidentals L. Hackberry. Moist B." f. Morus rubra L. Red mulberry. M. f SB M&gn and White river valleys in Illinois and Indiana. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mu ., Schneck, J., 1875. Flora of the Wabash valley. Geol. Surv. of Ind., 1875 : Vestil57A G 1920. Preliminary account of the forests in Cumberland county, Illinois : g^s* j^l pr^fmfnary ' vegeVatfon ^ map of Illinois. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., 23: 204-217. Botany — 1938 Meeting 99 Bark Growth in Tropical Trees Harry J. Fuller University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois As LaRue (1932) has pointed out, botanists have neglected the study of bark and as a result know relatively little about that portion of woody stems. LaRue (1920) has made measurements upon bark thickness in some temper¬ ate zone trees and in the Para rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis. Among his conclusions he has emphasized the rather striking correlation between bark growth and total trunk growth in diameter in temperate zone trees, and the relatively low correlation between bark thickness and total trunk growth in the Para rubber tree. During a recent collecting trip to Trinidad and Dutch Guiana, the author made a number of measurements upon bark thickness of native and introduced tree species. These measurements of bark thickness and wood diameter were made at 1 meter above the ground. The results are presented in figures 1 and 2. In each group of bars, each bar represents one tree; each group of bars, then, represents measurements on different trees of different sizes in the same species. In figures 3 and 4 are presented measurements made in 1935 of bark thickness and wood diameter of common north temper¬ ate zone trees. In figure 5, each group of bars represents measurements on the same tree. The greatest diameter is that of the main trunk at 1 meter above the soil line, the lesser measurements are those of branches of the same tree. The tropical species measured were Hura crepitans, PithecoloVium sa¬ urian, Tamarindus indica, Chry sophy llum cainito, Cynometra trinitensis, Couroupita guianensis, Ouaiacum officinale, Colvillea racemosa, Gedrela mexi- cana, Cordia alliodora, Tectona grandis, and Erythrina micropteryx. The temperate zone trees investigated were Betula lutea, Acer saccharum, Populus deltoides, Populus tremuloides, Quercus borealis, Quercus macrocarpa, Jug- lans nigra, and Ulmus americana. Because of space limitations, it is possi¬ ble to present data on only a portion of these species. A study of the graphs leads to these conclusions: 1. The bark of the tropical trees measured is significantly thinner in proportion to wood diameter than is the bark of the temperate-zone trees measured. 2. The bark of the temperate-zone trees increases in thickness at a rate roughly proportionate to the rate of increase in diameter of the wood. In the tropical trees, the rate of bark increase is far lower in proportion than that of wood increase. 3. In the tropical trees studied, the thickness of bark above 1 meter from the soil line varies but little on the trunk and main branches. Only upon the branches of the third and fourth order is the bark significantly thinner. The author wishes to express his appreciation of a grant from the Gradu¬ ate School Research Board of the University of Illinois which paid in part, collecting expenses of his West Indian trip. Bibliography La4^45l64' I192?ark Thickness in Hevea brasiliensis. Archief voor Rubbercultuur, LaS£ andD'LeBt?er?s™^Sl?2207f S1T3!.MiChiSan TreeS- MlchIgan Acad' of Science’ Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions c 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 JB 1 1 cm. | BARK GROWTH IN TROPICAL TREES 1 1 1 1 HURA CREPITANS | i fi i . 8 i 1 : i i i PITHECOLOBIUM SAMAN 1 1 I 1 f I : i 1 TAMARINDUS INDICA ■ 1 , 1 1 1 L CHRYSOPHYLLUM CAINITO 1 f i i . L 8 i i 1 i CYNOMETRA TRINITENSIS . 0 i 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 cm. | BARK GROWTH IN TROPICAL TREES 1 1 I CORDIA ALLIODORA TECTONA GRANDIS I 1 1 : 1 ERYTHRINA MICROPTERYX jtf A A QUERCU3 BOREALIS 1 QUERCUS MACROCARPA JUGLANS NIGRA ULMUS AMERICANA BARK GROWTH IN TEMPERATE ZONE TREES Fig- 3 Botany — 1938 Meeting 101 10 20 30 40 50 60 - 1 - j Cm* BARK GROWTH IN TEMPERATE ZONE TREES BETULA LUTEA | P.0PULUS DELT0IDE3 1 jj^^^~pOPULU3 TReSuLOIDES fig-4 0 ' _■ 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 I rn cm. 1 i BARK GROWTH IN TROPICAL TREES 1 ■ i —EACH GROUP OF MEASUREMENTS IS FROM A SINGLE TREE s - - 1 ft _ _ _ , L ■ P ITHECOLOB IUM 3AMAN _ i & — , fl i I i i — i , ■ HURA CREPITANS J — 1 i 1 i - 1 i - , 1 COUROUPITA GUIANEN3IS | (In the graphs, the shaded portions of the bars represent bark thickness in mm., the unshaded portions, wood diameter in cm.) 102 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Growth Rings of the Oak as Related to Precipitation in Illinois George D. Fuller University of Chicago , Chicago , Illinois The investigations of Douglas (1) on the relation between the width of the growth rings of western conifers to climatic phenomena are now well known. Within the range of the eastern deciduous forests several investi¬ gators have shown a correlation between tree ring width and precipitation. Among the more recent contributions are those of Diller (2) on the beech in Indiana; Lyon (3) on the pines and hemlocks of New England; Robbins (4) on the oaks in Missouri; and Lyons (5) on the oaks and cottonwoods of Iowa. The reports of other investigators are cited in the bibliographies of the authors mentioned above, but no one seems to have investigated any of the trees of Illinois. During the past year an opportunity was afforded the writer to examine a section of a red oak, Quercus borealis, grown in an open stand on morainic upland soil, on the Chicago Tribune Farm near Wheaton, DuPage County, Illinois. The tree was about 29 inches in diameter, three feet from the ground. It had produced some leaves in the spring of 1937, but had died, from unknown causes, later in the summer. When it was cut down in the late autumn a section made about three feet from the soil permitted the counting and measuring of the growth rings. The smoothing of the cut sur¬ face by a carpenter’s plane and the application of white shellac to the planed surface made the measurement of the rings comparatively easy. Under a magnifier the rings were measured along three radii and the width of each ring recorded in millimeters and tenths of millimeters. The averages of the data for the three radii were plotted, giving a fluctuating growth curve. Ninety-six rings were distinguishable showing that the tree was approxi¬ mately a century old. The measurements along the three radii agreed fairly well. The life history of the tree may be divided into four well marked periods. The seedling period extended over some two decades during which the growth in diameter increased from one-tenth to one-fourth of an inch per year. This was followed by a sapling or youthful tree stage extending over three decades during which there was a maximum rate of increase in diameter, an inch being added about every third year. Maturity may be said to have begun when the tree was a half century old. Under normal conditions this would have continued for at least a century in the red oaks but in this individual an untimely end came in four decades before the tree had lived half its usual span. During this middle life diameter-increase averaged a fifth of an inch per year. A premature decline seems to have begun with the drought years of the early 30’s and death occurred in 1937 when the tree was approximately a century old, for since 96 growth rings were counted it is safe to assume that the seedling was at least four years old before it reached the height of three feet from the ground where the section of the trunk was made. The rainfall records are from the Chicago Weather Bureau 30 miles distant. They began in 1871 and are plotted for the calendar year against a mean of 32.86 inches. Lyon and others have shown that the rainfall during the late winter and spring is most important for tree growth and that a closer correlation between growth and precipitation is obtained by using a year extending from October to September. It was thought, how¬ ever, that for the purpose of this study the calendar year would be most convenient and sufficiently accurate. Botany — 1938 Meeting 103 104 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Comparing the graph representing precipitation with that representing growth one period of more than average rainfall centers about the year 1880 and during that period the growth response was marked. It was followed by more than a decade during which precipitation was below the mean and this too is reflected in the lowering of the growth curve for the decade ending ab°UIf ^closer analysis be made it will be found that for at least 46 of the 66 years for which the record is available there is a positive correla¬ tion between precipitation and growth as represented in the graphs. It is also evident that for some 10 other years the growth curve may be explained by the carry-over of the rainfall excess or deficiency from the preceding yeaiWe may conclude from this that in one instance a very close correla¬ tion is evident between the precipitation for the calendar year m Illinois and the increase in diameter in a red oak tree shown by the thickness of its annual growth ring. Bibliography Carn. Inst. Wash. Publ. 289. Douglass, A. E., Climatic cycles and tree growth. Dilier 910 ’ S" The8 relation of temperature and precipitation to the growth as^an°fndex : J/'SysioL^cal dryness Robbfns^W. Precipitation7 an?d’ the growth of oaks, Columbia, Missouri. Lyons! RXJ., Growth rings in certain trees in Iowa. M. S. Thesis, University of Chicago, 1934. in New Mo. Botany — 1938 Meeting 105 Comparative Anatomy and Angiosperm Phylogeny Oswald Tippo University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois AN ABSTRACT* flhnn'Ptlf* i'SfVeStiSation^W-as a study of some twenty-two families centering Moraceae and it had for its purpose the establishment of the phy- ogenetic relationships of these families. It was based primarily on a com- aaatomical study of the secondary xylem of the plants belonging to these families. Slides representing stems of one hundred and sixtydive fhP * l?nd -f°Vr handred and sixty-five species were examined. In addition ^1Cal-+r^enCe derived from a study of the secondary xylem was harmonijsed with the evidence from floral anatomy, nodal anatomy floral cytofogy?^ and the available evidence from the fields of paleobotany and The Moraceae and allied families have been variously placed bv the phylogenists who have based their systems for the most part upon floral Z?r,ml0gy* and Prantl and Wettstein place thesePfammes in the Amentiferae and they consider this collection of families to be the most primitive group among the Dicotyledons. On the other hand Hutchinson HaRier feel that the Ranales or Magnoliales are most primitive refore they consider the families in the Amentiferae to be rather h ghNowPennalthpd PlE ntS have been derived from various other groups, hv +Jl T’ °-n the T?nie haad tbere are the dlverse Placements of these groups y the various phylogenists and, on the other hand, through the years the anatomists have worked out an extensive list of lines of specialization in the structures of the plant stele— primarily in the secondary xylem It is in^ahhJhi^117 thft tl?eSe lines °r se(luences ^ evolution can be employed m establishing a natural system of phylogeny. F y These lines of specialization have been worked out for the evolution of vessei elements, fibrous tracheary elements, rays, wood parenchyma and Tp^ stIu .f°SVKribs’ Record> Chalk, Sinnott. and some others Space oes not permit a discussion of the evidence upon which these lines of speciahzat.on are founded. It can be said, however, tharThey were estal not1hac,odliePendent 0t any system of Angiosperm classification. They are has g?ven ris?^oPrthCrAenJ- n°tion that this or that group ot «ymnosperms Gn ^be .^ngiosperms, or on any preconceived idea that the Ranales or the Amentiferae are primitive. • to se^^wh fob USi f Up rvu-10 ^he+ anatomical descriptions of the various families anatomi^ facts systems °f phylogeny is favored by the In the Hamamelidaceae, most of the species have tracheids- vessel dis¬ tribution is mostly solitary; the vessels are angular and thin-wlfled the diam?te.r 1S all the species have scalariform perforation tn? w th yessel elements; the vessel element end walls are very oblique ^ntervascuiar pittmg iS scalariform, transitional, and opposite in most f the species; the mean vessel element length is 1089/x; the rays are heterogeneous I or IIA in most; the wood parenchyma is diffuse in most and all1tbe woods are diffuse-porous. The secondary xylem of this noHales!8 ^ ^ “ ““ anatomical detail« to certain groups in the Mag 106 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions In the Casuarinaceae, the fibrous tracheary elements are tracheids; the pores are solitary for the most part; all the woods are diffuse-porous; the pores are angular in some species and angular to round in others; the ves¬ sel walls are thin; the mean vessel diameter is 88m; most of the species have scalariform and simple perforation plates; the end walls on the vessel elements vary from 15° to 90°; the intervascular pitting is mostly opposite and alternate; the mean vessel element length is 412m; the rays are hetero¬ geneous IIB; and the xylem parenchyma is metatracheal in most. It is apparent that this family is rather highly specialized anatomically and there¬ fore cannot be regarded as the most primitive, or among the most primitive, of the families of the Angiosperms— as it has often been considered by cer- In the^etulaceae, there are tracheids and fiber-tracheids ; the pores are solitary and in multiples; all the genera are diffuse-porous; the vessels are angular in most; the walls of the pores are thin; the mean vessel diameter is 48m' the perforation plates are exclusively scalariform in most species, some species, however, have simple with some vestigial scalariform plates; vessel end walls vary from 15° to 50°; intervascular pitting is alternate In most genera; the mean vessel element length is 608m; the rays are heterogeneous IIB or homogeneous I; and the wood parenchyma is diffuse, terminal, metatracheal, vasicentric, or combinations of these. The Betulaceae are clearly on a higher plane of anatomical specialization than the The Fagaceae are quite like the Betulaceae except that the former are higher than the latter anatomically. ~w_. In the Ulmaceae, there are fiber-tracheids and libnform wood fibers, vessel distribution is a combination of solitary pores, pore multiples, and pore clusters; the woods are diffuse-porous or ring-porous ; the pores are angular and round; the walls of the vessels are thin or in a few cases thick* the mean vessel diameter is 96m; the vessel elements bear simple perforation plates or vestigial scalariform perforation plates; the vessel ele¬ ment end walls vary from 20° to 90°; the intervascular pitting is opposite and altermte; the mean vessel element length is 286m; the rays are heterogeneous I, IIA, IIB, or homogeneous I; the wood parenchyma is usually a combination of terminal and vasicentric, or is aliform and con¬ fluent, or diffuse and vasicentric; and there is a tendency towards storied structure in a few species. It can be seen that the Ulmaceae are higher anatomically than the Hamamelidaceae. The vestigial scalariform perfora¬ tion plates would seem to indicate that the Ulmaceae were derived from a family in which there were scalariform perforation plates on the vessel elements The Moraceae are anatomically similar, yet more specialized than the Ulmaceae. The Urticaceae are even more highly developed than the MorBiCe&e The Rhoipteleaceae do not seem to belong in the Urticales for all the vessel elements are very long and have scalariform perforation P^- The Eucommiaceae -are in many ways intermediate m position between the Hamamelidaceae and the Urticales. The Eucommiaceae have latex, also Interpreting the anatomical data given for each family in the lig of the lines of specialization in the structures of the plant stele which have been worked out by the anatomists, together with a consideration of ^ the facts from floral and general morphology, the writer has come to the follow¬ ing conclusions concerning the phylogenetic relationships of the various - ders and families studied in this investigation: 1. The Hamamelidaceae are derivatives of the Magnoliales. 2. The Casuarmales, the Fagales and the Urticales are derivatives of the Hamamelidaceae. 3. the ^ticales, the Ulmaceae are most primitive, the Moraceae are less so, and the Urticaceae are iTgenerarirmay be stated that the above phylogenetic scheme Is sup- ported by the greater part of the evidence from the fields of floral morphol ogy, nodal anatomy, cytology, paleobotany, and floral anatomy. * A more complete account of this investigation is to be published elsewhere. Botany — 1938 Meeting 107 A New Cycadopbyte and its Relatives* James M. Schopf Illinois State Geological Survey , TJrbana Recently a new type of Medullosa stem has been discovered in coal balls from the Clarkson Mine, (coal No. 6) at Nashville. This stem may best be compared with the three species of Medullosa which have been described from the English lower Coal Measures. These are Medullosa anglica, M. centrofilis and M. pusilla and the beds from which they are derived are considered roughly equivalent to the Pottsville series of the lower Pennsylvanian of this country. The new stem from Nashville con¬ sequently is younger geologically than the related European forms In the accompanying drawings the author has attempted to reconstruct cross sec- tions to scale as the stems would appear if uncrushed or undistorted All three English species possess three separate main steles. No doubt the nglish forms are most closely related but their primary structures of ?SmiM e gr°^th differ S0 much in size that they must a11 be considered whiVh sfpeSlfs’ cent™ fills has a small centrally placed accessory stele ^e iplflrrpm-n1Stm^U1+lheS ltm4. A.band*like internal periderm layer between forms^^ g n and the cortex 1S consistently found in all three English Instead of three steles our new Nashville Medullosa has but two The TZ S "T+7hai larger than Metottosa anglica as may be noted on the ruvZJ Zi*1?6 ^rawings are approximately on the same scale. The de- current petiole bases are essentially similar although their arrangement on the stem is different. Details of histology also differ showing that this tvD^anv^r^tP^1116 1S- disti^ct and not simply a distelar aberration of a typicaHy tristelar species. Perhaps the most noteworthy single feature is the extreme asymmetry of the two steles in this new species The sec center7 bm°°ndTii1S de^el°Ped on each vascular member toward the 7 slightly developed on the portion facing the stem exterior M ^LLiin P°iated out „tbat this also occurs in Medullosa anglica and L!? rrExamifali0n-0 De Maine’s figures of M. centrofilis show the 0n StS f°r 11 t00’ but in none of these sPemes is the asymmetry of growth so extreme as in the Nashville stem. Whatever the cause for ifhQe^eP°nderant s®c?ndary growth toward the center of the stem may be its occurrence m all four of these species indicates that it has some definite significance. A band-like internal periderm layer is present enclosing the stelsir tissues of the Nashville Medullosa as in the English stems in*W™s has been suggested by De Fraine as representing a p 1 among the Medullosaceae from which the polystelar forms could have been evolved. A reconstruction (more tentatL than the otTer sketches) obtained by combining features illustrated by Scott (2) and by De Fraine (3) is also included on the plate. Sutcliffia also possesses dZ current petioles, and a less well defined internal periderm band There is stelar unite ^bes^Tte1- CtyIintder ar0.und rhich are a number of smaller » f latter Structures give rise to the multitudinous small l£L Eh. bundles and on this account De Fraine regards them more as large foliar traces than as structures homologous with the central stele direct1! mright be that the Nas]'ville is derived more directly from a Sutcliffia type of stem than any of the other species on account of its fewer steles, notwithstanding that our new form is^f some what younger geologic age than any of the others mentioned. Howeve^it * Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. 108 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions seems more likely that the reverse is the case since the asymmetry of the steles is probably a specialized feature and this is more extreme in the Nashville stem than in the English Medulloseae. The distelar condition may have come about by elimination of one of the steles of a tristelar form as easily as by the division of the stele of an essentially monostelar plant. The lesser number of steles in the Nashville Medullosa is a feature which serves to distinguish it specifically but this character is less important in itself for judging phylogenetic position. Reduction in complexity of general stelar organization seems more in keeping with features of the histologic organization which will be discussed elsewhere4 in connection with a diagnosis of the new plant. Sutcliff ia insignis Scott CROSS-SECTIONS OF STEMS OF CERTAIN MEDULLOSACEAE These plants, whose stem structure is so different from those typical of the present are also known to have had fern-like foliage and large nut¬ like seeds. The male fructification in some instances at least was remark¬ ably large with tubular sporangia containing male spores which are also much larger and very different from the pollen of modern plants. Even in the case of the best preservations these various organs are habitually found separate from one another. This renders it scientifically impossible to make certain of the specific correlation of seed structure, characters of the male fructification or of the stem or leaf in any single instance which would be comparable with that known for plants living today. We cannot know for certain whether allied stems of different ages with specifically different structure also had different seeds or whether the seed characters were about the same in both cases. The sex organs are considered to be Botany — 1988 Meeting 109 conservative by modern taxonomists so the last possibility might conceiv¬ ably be of common occurrence in fossil plants. As a consequence of this general situation the identification of the genus Medullosa is based entirely on characters of the stem. Notwithstanding this handicap the leaves, petioles, seeds, male fructifications and roots which go with these stems are sufficiently known, either from isolated cases where the organs are found in actual connection or from their constant association in the same deposits or on the basis of histologic similarities, that their general relationship is apparent. Thus it is known that several Medullosa stems bore foliage which is classified separately as Alethopteris. Structurally preserved petioles de¬ tached from their stems are designated as Myeloxylon. The characters used in diagnosing species of either of these genera do not necessarily correlate in the course of evolution with species variations exemplified by the stems. Recently fructifications which are related in the Medullosaceae have been discovered. Certain of the Medullosan seeds have been named Ro- todontiospermum and male fructifications are classified under Dolerotheca (in part). It is necessary to use these different names to apply to the various isolated plant organs because their specific inter-correlation cannot be proved with sufficient accuracy. Herein lies the chief difference between the taxonomy of fossil and modern plants. It must be recognized never¬ theless that these fossils classified under different names have a close natural relationship to the stems previously discussed. In various instances the relationship of assembled organs, as in the case of these mentioned may be indicated by classifying them together in a more generalized category such as a family. The reconstructions of complete plants of past ages also are based on generalizations of this sort and they have proved a most effective means of summarizing our detailed knowledge of the fossil floras The foregoing discussion may serve to indicate briefly the problems involved m the paleobotanic study of Medullosaceae. The new stem from Nashville lends emphasis to characters which had previously received little attention. Of course a great deal of study will be necessary before the bo¬ tanical peculiarities and the relationship of this interesting group of plants become fully known. It is definitely encouraging that additional specimens are being discovered in Illinois coal balls because the European specimens known previously left many pertinent questions unanswered. References pp. 2122-f,C1913D' H” °n Medullosa Pusilla: Proc. Roy. Soc. London, B, vol. 87, 2- Scott, D. H., On Sutcliffia insignis, a new type of Medulloseae from the 1906r coa^"measures " Trans. Linn. Soc., London, 2nd. ser., vol. 7, PI. 7, fig-. 5, _ DS- Fraine E., On the structure and affinities of Sutcliffia, in the light of a newly discovered specimen: Ann. Bot., vol. 26, PI. XCI, fig. 1. 1912 S tvt /i^ii Schopf, j. M., Medullosa distelica, a new species of the Anglica eroun of Medullosa: Am. Jour. Bot., Vol. 26 (4) ; 196-207, April, 1939. S &rouP ot 110 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions A List of the Lichens From Hardin County Opal C. Hartline Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois The lichens reported in this paper were collected in the Spring of 1937 by the writer. The collections were made from three regions: Hicks Dome, the ravine near the Boultinghaus Store at Sparks Hill, and the wooded area south of the Union School number four. The names used are those found in The Lichen Flora of the United States by Bruce Fink. The following abbreviations are used to indicate the areas from which the specimens were collected: H. D . Hicks Dome S. P . Sparks Hill U. S . Union School Lichens of Hardin County Parmeliaceae Parmelia borreri Turn . . physodes ( L. ) Ach . quercina (Willd.) Vainio rudecta Ach . conspersa (Ehrh.) Ach. . perforata (Wulf.) Ach... sulcata Tayl . Cetraria ciliaris Ach . S.H. U.S. u.s. S.H. U.S., H.D. U.S. u.s. u.s. Peltigeraceae Peltigera canina (L.) Willd . spuria (Ach.) DC. in Lam. and DC... Graphidaceae Graphis scripta (L.) Ach . eulectra Tuck . lineola Ach . . . Phaeographis dendritica (Ach.) Mull . Arthoniaceae Arthonia lapidicola (Tayl.) Branth. and Rostr. dispersa (Schrad) Nyl . U.S. U.S. H.D. U.S. U.S. H.D. U.S. U.S. Physciaceae Physcia stellaris (L.) Nyl . pulverulenta (Schreb.) Nyl. Anaptychia speciosa (Wulf.) Mass.. USNEACEAE Usnea barbata (L.) Wigg . Pertusariaceae Pertusaria velata (Turn.) Nyl . multipuncta (Turn.) Nyl.. pertusa (L.) Tuck . Dermatocarpaceae Dermatocarpon miniatum (L.) Mann. U.S., H.D. S.H. S.H. U.S. U.S. U.S. H.D. U.S. Cladoniaceae Cladonia mitrula Tuck . sylvatica ( L. ) Hoffm . fimbriata (L.) E. Fries . pyxidata ( L. ) Hoffm . didyma (Fee) Vainio . gracilis (L.) Willd., var. dilacerata Floerke. . H.D., U.S. S H H.D., U.S., S.H. H.D., U.S., S.H. H.D. S.H. Botany — 1938 Meeting 111 Basicladia in Illinois Flossie T. Marshall and Stella M. Hague University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Basicladia, which grows on the backs of snapping turtles, has not yet been reported to occur in Illinois. Previous to this paper it had been identi¬ fied three times in the laboratories of the University. The first was from a collection from an unknown source, the second from collections from the Polly-Wogs, a private fishing club in Vermilion County, Illinois, and the third from the Illinois River near Beardstown, Illinois. Hoffman and. Til den comb, nov Figl Basidadia chelonum (dot tins) c Maple Lake, Cook Co., Illinois chelonum based on collections taken from the backs of turtles, Chrysemys marginal a, and Aronchelys odorata in Michigan. This fresh-water species was again found on turtles at Tewksbury, Massachusetts. L. H Tiffany, Ohio State University, collected and identified Chaeto- morpha chelonum from the backs of turtles, Chrysemys marginata belli, Mil- •iSQ^ay and Lake WeSt 0kob°ji' Iowa> July and August, 1915 and again 112 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions In the summer of 1923 collections were made at St. Peters, Minnesota by W E Hoffmann. The specimens proved to have very distinctive charac¬ teristics, but were easily traced to Collins’ Chaetomorpha chelonum, except that branching occurred and the dimensions were much larger. A second collection was made in Minnesota in 1926 from a shell of a turtle in the Zoological Museum of the University. Because of branching and the variation in size, Hoffmann and Tilden changed the genus from Chaetomorpha to Basicladia and recognized two species. Basicladia crassa, Hoffmann and Tilden, sp. nov., upright filaments reach¬ ing a diameter of 50 to 120 microns. Collected from the shell of the snap¬ ping turtle, Chelydra serpentia, St. Peters, Minnesota, August 17, 1923. Basicladia chelonum (Collins, Hoffmann and Tilden) comb, nov., ( Chaeto¬ morpha chelonum, Collins), upright filaments 45 microns or less in diame¬ ter This species is known from only Michigan, Massachusetts, and Iowa. The maximum diameter of the main filament of the Basicladia found in the Maple Lake collections never measured over 45 microns. It was identi¬ fied as Basicladia chelonum. Bibliography Collins, F. S., Rhodora 199-200. 1907. . _ _ , _ Green Algae of North America. 1907. Hoffmann, W. E. and J. E. Tilden., Bot. Gaz. 89:374-84 1930. Smith, G. M. The Fresh-Water Algae of the United States, pp. 432. 1933. Tiffany, L. H. Transactions of the Amer. Microscopical Soc. 45 .69-132. 1926. Botany — 1938 Meeting 113 Recent Collections of Illinois Liverworts Stella M. Hague and Robert V. Drexler University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois Maechantiales Conocephalum conicum (L.) Dum. Jo Daviess Co. Miner’s Gulley’ . Peoria Co. Rocky Glen . Tazewell Co. Spring Lake . . Vermilion Co. South of Oakwood _ Marchantia polymorpha L. LaSalle Co. Starved Rock . Jo Daviess Co. Apple River Canyon Park Preissia quadrata (Scop.) Nees. Jo Daviess Co. Apple River Park . Reboulia hemispherica (L.) Raddi Hardin Co . Riccia sorocarpa Bisch. Champaign Co. Urbana . Ricciella Sullivantii (Aust.) Evans . . Ogle Co. Oregon . Ricciocarpus natans (L.) Corda. !. . !.!!. ] . Jersey Co. Illinois River . I’.!*.’.’” L 211 1208 1208 L 211 1255 L 1 L 2 H L 3 H 1286 D 1252 D 1252 D L 220 H J UNGERMANNIALES Aneura (Riccardia) penguis (L.) S. F Gray Tazewell Co. Spring Lake . Aplozia ( Jungermannia) caespiticia (Lind.) Dum. Saline Co. Stillhouse Hollow. . Aplozia lanceolata L. Pope Co. Dixon Springs . Calypogea trichomanis (L.) Corda Johnson Co. Fern Cliffe . Cephalozia bicuspidata (L.) Dum. Union Co. Wolf Lake . Cephalozia connivens (Dicks.) Lindb. Saline Co. Stillhouse Hollow . . . Cephaloziella myriantha (Lindb.) Schiff Saline Co. Stillhouse Hollow . Eucalyx hyalinus (Lyell.) Breidl. Ogle Co. East of Oregon . LaSalle Co. Starved Rock . Frullania Asagrayana Mont. Saline Co. Stillhouse Hollow . Frullania eboracensis Gottsche McLean Co. Funk’s Woods . Carroll Co. Smith Park . Johnson Co. Swartz Hill . Geocalyx graveolus (Schrad.) Nees. Hardin Co . 1082 D L 200 H L 219 H L 202 H L 203 H L 210 H L 246 H L 209 H 1257 D L 208 H L 207 L 206 L 223 L 4 H MG MOOM 114 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Jamsoniella autumnalis (DD) Streph. Champaign Co. University Woods... Lophocolea cuspidata Limpr. Carroll Co. Palisades . Tazewell Co. Lick Creek . Union Co. Baleom . Lophocolea heterophylla (Schrad.) Dum. Champaign Co. University Woods... Hardin Co . Lake Co. Lisle . Jo Daviess Co. Apple River Park.... Tazewell Co. Funk’s Timber . Vermilion Co. Oakwood . Lophocolea minor Nees. Tazewell Co. Morton . Vermilion Co. Camp Drake . Plagiochila undata Sull. S. Illinois . Porella pinnata L. Johnson Co. Vienna . Saline Co. Stillhouse Hollow . Porella platyphylla (L.) Lindb. Champaign Co . Hardin Co . Jo Daviess Co. Apple River Park - Lake Co. Lisle. White Pine Park . . Marion Co. Joppa . Ogle Co. Oregon . Tazewell Co . White Co. Norris City . Radula complanata (L.) Dum. Jo Daviess Co. Apple River Park. Ptilidium pulcherrinum (Weber.) Hampe Champaign Co. University Woods.. Scapania nemorosa (L.) Dum. Johnson Co. Fern Cliffe . Saline Co. Stillhouse Hollow . Scapania undulata (L.) Dum. Johnson Co. Fern Cliffe . Saline Co. Stillhouse Hollow . 1267 D L 212 L 213 L 216 789 L 246 517 L 222 L 218 L 217 1221 L 220 1043 L 232 L 233 1261 L 231 L 224 1166 L 235 1258 1252 L 225 L 201 1112 L 238 L 240 L 241 L 245 Anthocerotales Anthoceros laevis L. Peoria Co. Rocky Glen . . Anthoceros punctatus L. Tazewell Co. Lick Creek 1209 D 1211 D Abbreviations H — Collections of Stella M. Hague. D — Collections of R. V. Drexler. L — Liverwort. bb o w woawowwo ww o wo amwdwo www Botany — 1938 Meeting 115 College Grades in the Biological Sciences as Related to Secondary School Training H. F. Thut and E. L. Stover Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Illinois For several years we have wondered whether the high school train¬ ing in the biological sciences had much if any effect upon the grades made by students in our beginning college botany course. In order to substan¬ tiate or refute our subjective deductions that they had little effect we decided to make a comparison of grades. A comparison of grades may be a dangerous thing but if viewed in terms of generalities and not spe¬ cific instances it should show the effect of previous training. To make this comparison we attempted to obtain the actual grade advantage if any for those students who had had some high school training over those having had no such biological experience in high school in their beginning general botany course. Grades for only a year of work or less in botany were considered. The registrar at our college during the past two years has been placing all the grades of all the students that have been in attendance during these two years on new type record cards. As most of the students who have been in attendance during these years have made their grades within the last five years, we decided to limit our study to these students. Older records are available for former students but we wished to have our data of recent origin. The data we wish to present includes the grades of our present student body through the fall quarter of this school year. On investigating the records of the registrar we decided to include the grades for zoology and the one-quarter course in hygiene. The num¬ ber of students considered is 882. Botany and zoology are not required courses except for majors and minors in these fields. Most students are required to elect a one-year course in a laboratory science. These sciences are botany, zoology, physics and chemistry. All students are required to take the one-quarter course in hygiene. Most of the students considered have taken either a year or less of college botany or a year or less of college zoology. Only a limited number have taken both a year of botany and a year of zoology. Most of the students take their year or less of botany or zoology and their hygiene course the same year. Conclusions 1. Those students having had high school biology have a slight advantage over the students having had no biology in making college grades. This is true for the students whether they take botany, zoology or hygiene. From the slight differences in the grades one might say that botany is the subject least frequently taught, zoology next, and hygiene most frequently taught in a so called high school biology course. 2. Those students having had y^ year botany and *4 year zoology showed an advantage over the no-biology students in botany, no advantage in zool¬ ogy and actually did more poorly in hygiene. Their high school train¬ ing gave them no advantage over the students having had no biology. 3. Those students having had one year of high school botany excel in college botany, college zoology and college hygiene. 4. The number for those having had high school zoology is small and not significant but it indicates too that the students tend to excell in col¬ lege work. 116 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions 5. The few students who have had both a year of botany and a year of zoology do superior work in their college courses. Apparently there is considerable transfer of training or information. 6. If these data are an index of conditions, then it is evident that those students who have had one year in a single subject course carry away with them from high school either more available factual material or a superior mental method of approach or both in the biological field. 7. Those students having had high school biology or % year of botany and y2 year of zoology have little advantage over those having had no biology. Apparently they retain from their high school training only a small amount of factual material or a poor mental method in biology or both. 8. Training for a year in high school in a one-subject course gives the student a better approach to further work in the same or related bio¬ logical subjects in college, than a year of work in high school that attempts to cover the whole biological field. The table below shows concisely the data considered. College Grades in the Biological Sciences as Related to Secondary School Training High school High school Grade first college College grades first Difference between H. S. and Students Per cent of college grades Per cent of college grades Average of raw psycho¬ training grade course year college considered A’s D’s logical taken or less grades and B’s and F’s score For Students Taking Botany 1. Biology 1 year.. 9 Hinlngy 2.07 1.09 .96 1.14 1.10 1.03 1.14 —.97 122 150 125 38 34.2 36.2 26 31 26 153.0 163 153.6 3. | year botany... 1.87 — .73 4. Botany 1 year.. 5. Zoology 1 year.. 6. Two years: 1 year botany 1 year zoology 1.68 2.14 2.12 1.54 1.00 2.62 1.52 1.13 2.47 — .16 —1.01 — .35 44 ' 7 8 52.7 31.2 94 16 31 0 175 186 150 For Students Taking Zoology 1. Biology 1 year.. 2 hinlo^y 2.00 1.39 1.44 1.44 1.36 — .56 102 106 45.5 46.5 12 17 146.4 167.7 3. | year botany... I year zoology 1.71 1.30 1.35 —.36 109 45.6 18 157.7 4. Botany 1 year.. 1.57 1.74 1.53 — .04 35 49.3 8 162 5. Zoology 1 year.. 2.50 2.00 2.25 — .25 2 75 0 209 6. Two years: 1 year botany 1 year zoology 2.50 2.00 2.28 — .22 6 92 0 151 For Students Taking Hygiene 1. Biology 1 year.. 9. Nn binlngv 1.92 1.34 1.24 1.17 — .58 185 226 189 43.8 37.6 37.6 15 18 21 155 169 161 3. h year botany... 1.81 — .64 4. Botany 1 year.. 5. Zoology 1 year.. 6. Two years : 1 year botany 1 year zoology 1.57 1.57 2.37 1 .47 ,1.71 2.00 — .10 — .14 — .37 75 14 8 48 64 88 11 0 12 164 175 150 - - Note. — Grade points given on basis of A=3, B=2, C=l, D=0, and F- — 1. Students considered 882. 26.5% had H. S. Biology, 31.5% had NO Biology, 27% had h year Botany and * year Zoology, 11.4% had H. S. Botany, 1.8% had H. S. Zoology and 1.8% had both (1 year of Botany and 1 year of Zoology). Grades from the Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Illinois. Papers In Chemistry Extract From the Keport of the Section Chairman The program of the Chemistry Section carried twenty-one papers of which fourteen are herewith printed. The others were: The Importance of the Elements of the Rare Earths Group as Sub¬ ject Matter in High School Cheniistry, by A. E Cockrum West Chicago Community High School, West Chicago. TJlf Economic Importance of Clays as Ores of Aluminum , by F M McClenahan, Monmouth College, Monmouth. Relation Between Chemistry and Bacteriology , by Verne E. Vinson Commercial Solvents Corporation, Peoria. Challenging Personalities, by Mable Spencer, Granite City Commun¬ ity High School, Granite City. Apparatus for Showing Relative Amounts of Co2 in Air and from the Lungs, by J. H. Ransom, James Millikin University, Decatur. Experiments That Stimulate High School Students Interested in Chemistry, by Willard L. Muehl, Sterling Morton High School and Junior College, Cicero. Methane in Illinois Ground Waters, by T. E. Larsen, Illinois State Water Survey, Urbana. Average attendance was about 50 in each of the two sections. Dr. John DeVries, Knox College, Galesburg, Illinois man for the 1939 meeting. was elected Chair- ( Signed) G. W. Thiessen, Chairman. [117] 118 Illinois State Academy of Sdience Transactions Audio-Visual Aids in Chemistry at the Secondary Level Louis A. Astell University High School , Urbanct, Illinois I. Introduction Of necessity, I shall limit the subject, “Audio-Visual Aids in Chemistry at the Secondary Level,” to certain aspects of the problem specifically con¬ cerned with the selection and use of such aids. Any statement, however general, may well illuminate some of the pupil-teacher problems in relation to such materials of instruction. Beyond these considerations, some em¬ phasis will be placed on the selection and use of two groups of aids: U) radio programs, including electrical transcriptions, and (2) slides, film- slides, and films, both silent and sound. II. Pupil-Teacher Problems Mr. Douglas E. Lawson, of this University, in speaking on the “Chang¬ ing Concepts of the Mind,”1 has summarized in an admirable way the basic pupil-teacher relationships for all learning when he says for the teachers. “We attempt to change stimuli, to direct processes, to establish conditions.” . He then summarizes his thinking on the subject by saying. “We guide, direct, motivate.” Guiding, directing, and motivating students is the indispensable role ot the teacher, regardless of whether the subject is chemistry or Latin; or whether the medium is the latest sound film or the most traditional of texts In relating guidance, direction, and motivation to audio-visual aids the effective teacher will utilize the fundamental principle of pupil par¬ ticipation. Group activity, as an aspect of such participation, will be used also for maximum values. [It may have been such a conception which led Donald A. Laird, the psychologist to say: “Belonging to and working with a group changes each active indi¬ vidual, strengthens his ordinary emotions, and propels him furtb®r toward the goal of the group than he could ever push himself with¬ out the miracle wrought by the mere fact of delonging. ] Concerning the teacher in relation to the effective use of audio-visual aids, we may be led to say in moments of idealistic reaction that real teachers do not need such materials. We are apt to point with pride to the increased teacher training requirements, without pausing to examine the net results. Under such circumstances, we may be genuinely disturbed by ^tet¬ ter’s report2 for the Cooperative Study of Secondary School Standards operating under the American Council of Education. His survey places sci¬ ence teachers, whose major teaching field is science, fifth in the teacher groups of secondary schools from the standpoint of semester hours earned in training for the respective teaching field. That is to say: foreign language teachers rank first with an average offering of 33.6 hours in for¬ eign languages; social studies teachers have 31.2 hours; English teachers, 23.4 hours; mathematics teachers, 21 hours; and science teachers, 19.8 hours. Even if we were to assume that in Illinois, the average chemistry teacher had training equal to that of the foreign language teacher; that is 66. b hours, we would still be forced to recognize the fact that much ot tne average chemistry teacher’s training has suffered for lack of recency an Chemistry — 1938 Meeting 119 that much of the original training was not specifically directed toward the needs of the chemistry courses of the secondary school as they now are and as they are coming to be. The point I am getting at is this: Much is being said and rightly so, it seems to me, about in-service training in the use of audio-visual aids. Little has been said about audio-visual aids, such as the sound films I am to present for the first time in this section of the State (if not in greater area) as in-service training material for teachers. In- service training material for the under-trained, under-paid, and over-worked classroom teachers represents one of the practical approaches to the prob- lem of better teaching. . . . The unseen lecturer of the film, based on inherently silent material, may be eliminated in favor of the teacher’s voice as soon as he feels competent to make the presentation. In the same way capable students may supplant the teacher in repeated showings. ■a ^;®£ar(^ess the contributions which have been made for audio-visual aids through the science of chemistry, the need of special training courses tor chemistry teachers at the secondary level, with reference to such aids, us probably about as pressing as for any other group of teachers at that level. This point is worth making in view of the fact that there were but three training schools in Illinois which offered summer session courses in audio¬ visual aids last summer. This record was only exceeded by Pennsylvania where this course is required of all prospective teachers and is offered in all teacher-trammg institutions of that State. Thus, forty-four of the eighty- six schools offering summer session courses were to be found in one state. “S y' t^ie eighty-six courses considered together are inadequate for the ,000 teachers of the United States. The sooner teachers of chemistry, and or other subjects, have had sufficient training to select and use audio-visual aids effectively, the sooner we may expect desirable improvements in the content of such media. That is to say, master teachers themselves should constitute one of the important tribunals concerned with the audio-visual needs of the classroom. The State Academies of Science, the American Chemical Society, and similar bodies through national and state committees3, may well render positive approvals for specific films and other teaching aids. Likewise, these organizations through concerted action may render a dis¬ tinct service to education by indicating the materials of greatest need. Ml. The Radio Program , The teacher using the radio program in the classroom finds himself beset with many problems. While class periods based on the whole clock hour appear to be increasingly more common, many secondary schools are still operating on periods of forty-five minutes with double periods for laboratory courses. This is further complicated by daylight saving time in given areas; by school days beginning at different hours; by assembly periods of variable lengths substituted for given class periods; by “home room’ and “activity” periods of lengths varying with the individual schools and sandwiched in the school day at no common point; and, also, by situa¬ te118 wherein the regular class periods— due to the shortage of rooms and other factors run through the noon hour. And further, is the fact that given academic subjects are offered at different hours in different schools- perhaps at all hours of the school day in the larger schools. The resulting picture becomes a pattern of variability equally disconcerting to the class¬ room teacher trying to use the programs and to the administrators who are in sympathy with such usage but are unable to do much about it. I have presented this analysis in order that the problem of obtaining radio service tor a given class might be seen in relation to a scheduled series of radio programs. Of course, such series of programs to be effective must be pre- sented at a fixed time in the day as well as in the calendar and on the dial We are fortunate, indeed, in having one of the thirty-odd educational radio stations in our state. With the increased power by which all schools m the state may be reached, it occurs to me that there is a further sig¬ nificant problem for such educational stations as WILL, and that is the opportunity to use the evening hours for educational service. Again such —3 120 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions a valuable service in the cause of education can only come about through the united action of educational forces actually demonstrating selection and use of educational radio programs. For five consecutive years, Station WILL had made possible the broadcasting of the weekly programs of the Illinois Junior Academy of Science. These programs were designed for science club members and as much constituted an aspect of extra-class activities. Stu¬ dents freed from the barriers of the official school day have been free to listen and to participate in these programs. If more time could be made available after school hours, much more could be done through such sta¬ tions to enrich and to support the curricular offerings. As I have said on a previous occasion, “I believe that we may yet produce an educational system wherein the needs, interests, and abilities of the child, rather than the min¬ utes of the hour, will serve more fully as a criterion for what the child is to be doing throughout the school day.”4 It was with such a point of view in mind that Joy Elmer Morgan, Editor of the Journal of the National Education Association once said of the radio: “If it can add as much as five percent to the effectivness of our schools— and that is a most conservative estimate— it is worth $100,000,000 a year to the educational enterprises of our various states and communities.”5 Assuredly, it is no mythical idea that we may have the recreated voices of Madam Curie, of Charles Martin, of Albert P. Mathews, and of our own B. S. Hopkins, speaking as we need them to inspire our students in behalf of chemistry as it could be done in no other way. Through the medium of the electrical transcription we may continue to dwell in the presence of these enthusiastic masters of chemistry. Only the concerted demand of chemistry teachers is required to make possible a library of such vital records for students of the future. Such a library in a greater or lesser degree can likewise become the property of the average school, as can visual complements in the form of film-slides, biblio-films, lantern slides and other materials. IV. Recent Developments Implying Correlation These suggestions are not theoretical ones. To illustrate: “Radio- vision” is the term used to designate the weekly educational radio programs called, “The World is Yours.”6 Specially prepared filmslides will be de¬ veloped and distributed by Mr. Gustave Marx in cooperation with the Smith¬ sonian Institute, the National Office of Education, and the National Broad¬ casting Company. This project is intended to benefit schools and other interested agencies. .. ,. .. The biblio-film or micro-film idea has been developed under the dnection of Watson Davis of Science Service, in cooperation with the Chemical Foun¬ dation and other scientific organizations. These biblio-films are made on 35 mm. motion picture stock and represent 1,600 pages of text or manuscript. Special projectors are used to magnify the material to at least the size ot the original page.7 . . , . . Again, the rotoprint process,8 of producing diagrams, sketches, picto- graphs, and graphs on transparent transolene at a cost of 12 cents per lantern slide, in quantity production, represents a development which should lead to a wider use of the standard stereoptican. From many angles, it is apparent that no one type of audio-visual ai is adequate for all types of desirable and practical learning situations. Further, there is an increasing recognition of the idea that the various types of aids must be correlated with each other as well as with the sub¬ ject matter. One of the types of audio-visual aids in which sound and pictorial values are closely if not perfectly correlated is the sound film. Ob¬ viously, there is no quality inherent in the sound film which will insure that the material will always be perfectly selected and perfectly presented. Indeed, I have seen sound films that might as well have been produced Chemistry— 1938 Meeting 121 m silent form at approximately half the cost. Likewise, I have seen silent films that might as well have been produced in the form of lantern slides, but tor the fact that some schools now possess a motion picture projector and no longer have a stereoptican in working order or otherwise Again I have seen as all of you have, motion pictures that failed or succeeded because coior was wanting or was present. Too few of the educational sound Aims present facts in such a way as to build up a problematical situ¬ ation from which solutions requiring deductive and reflective thinking are required. In the matter of selection and use of these aids, we should keep in mind the extent to which motion, sound, and color are inherent and indispensable qualities of the subject. These considerations tend to be under- emphasized m the literature and in the evaluation schemes such as those of Brunstetter, and Lemler, nevertheless, they may be vital when meas¬ ured m terms of desirable student responses. If the classroom work is to be improved materially through audio¬ visual aids the attention of every teacher using them must be focused con- stantly on the important problems of selection and usage. 20:4L^9WOct\Dl°9U37laS E* “Chan^in^ Concepts of the Mind," Phi Delta Kappan, Tk, 'AtBu&JLf** l???IUat,0“ °f the Trainln® of Teachers,” J. of cK. Ss1 "Signiflcant Aspects of Visual Aids in Chemical Education,” Scie^anA McShJkt ic^7sS^2M 'mSTA*" A‘d in Edition,” School 5 Quoted from the “Introduction” (p. ix) of Darrow, Ben H Radio tho Assistant Teacher, Columbus, Ohio: R. G. Adams & Co., 1932, 271 pp adWf the EducS&^’screlnT 17?96, mlf and Notes— Visual Aids with Radio Lectures,” 8 :22-24f ^Sept^im? <- and Mar- • W° (1932)- 126 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The Ammonolysis of Butyl Halides Nicholas D. Cheronis Chicago City Colleges , Chicago , Illinois The study of the ammonolysis of the butyl halides is part of a general investigation on the ammonolysis of halogen compounds. The reaction of an alkyl halide with aqueous ammonia involves forma¬ tion of amines, alcohols, olefins and ethers, depending on the nature of halide and conditions under which the reaction takes place. The rate of reaction is determined fairly accurately by analysis for a halide ion by standard methods. A modification must be made in the case of ter-butyl halides as they react rather rapidly with silver nitrate. The sample in such cases is rapidly evaporated under reduced pressure until ammonia, solvent and unreacted halide have been removed. A new method was developed for the estimation of primary amines. Briefly, as applied to the butyl amines, it is as follows: The sample, made strongly alkaline, is extracted with ether. The extract is shaken for one minute with specially prepared silver chloride and then for one minute with sodium cobaltinitrite. The ether extract is filtered, titrated with 1.0 N HC1 and the ether evaporated. The residue is made to standard vol¬ ume. The primary amine is determined by the micro-Van Slyke method, while the secondary and tertiary are determined by a modification of Weber and Wilson’s method.* Table 1 shows the rates of ammonolysis of the four butyl bromides in alcoholic-aqueous ammonia at 25°C. Table II shows the composition of the final equilibrium mixture. Table III, the effect of various concen¬ trations of ammonia on the amounts of various amines formed, and Table IV, the rate of ammonolysis of n-butyl bromide in aqueous ammonia at 60 and 100°C. . . . These results seem to indicate that higher conversion to amines takes place in the straight chain halides; the tertiary reacts rapidly, but less than ten per cent is converted to amine with olefin formation assuming a dominant role. Increase in the ratio of ammonia to the halide increases the amount of primary amine. Using four moles of ammonia to one of n-bromide, the formation of primary amine is rapid up to the half point of the reaction, then drops as the secondary and tertiary amines are formed at a more rapid rate than before. The relative amounts of the three amines are not greatly affected by increase in temperature. Ammonolysis in aqueous system takes place at the interface of the halide and aqueous layers; it is slow at 60°C. but fairly rapid at 100 C. The composition of the final equilibrium mixture is not appreciably different for aqueous or alcoholic (90 per cent alcohol) ammonia systems. Catalysts such as copper and other metals do not have any effect at temperatures of 100° C., while substances which increase the surface by dispersion of the immiscible halide accelerate the reaction. SUMMARY 1. The rate of ammonolysis of the four butyl bromides was measured at 25° and 60° C. with alcoholic ammonia. 2. The ammonolysis of n-butyl chloride with aqueous ammonia was meas¬ ured at 60° and 100°C. 3. The influence of temperature and ammonia concentration on the equilibrium mixtures was determined. * Journ. of Am. Biol. Chem., 35:385 (1918). Chemistry— 1938 Meeting 127 Table I Rates of Ammonoltsis of Butyl Bromides with Alcoholic Ammonia* at 25° C. Bromide Time required for conversion of 0.5 mole of bromide Reactivity Total conversion to amines Per cent conversion to amines Hours Moles ter-Butyl _ 2.0 1,000 0.07 14.0% n-Butyl . 14.5 138 0.50 100.0% sec-Butyl _ 266.0 7.5 0.48 96.0% iso-Butyl _ 480.0 4.1 0.40 80.0% * 20% ammonia in 90% methanol. Table II Ammonoltsis of Butyl Bromides with Alcoholic Ammonia* at 25° C. Composition of the Final Equilibrium Mixture Bromide Time Halide ion produced Total conversion to amines Per cent conversion to amines r-nh2 % R2NH % RaN % Hours Moles Moles Tertiary.. . 12 1.00 0.085 8.5% 5.8 Normal _ .. 131 0.978 0.94 97.0% 32.4 41.6 20.3 Secondary _ 885 0.94 0.93 99.0% 76.0 9.0 8.4 iso- _ .. 885 0.875 0.716 81.9% 44.4 17.5 19.7 * 20% ammonia in 90% methanol. Table III Ammonolysis of n-Butyl Bromide at 25° C. (Effect of Ammonia Concentration) Ratio of BuBr:NH3 Time Temp. °C. Halide ion production Total conversion to amines Per cent conversion to amines Hours Moles Moles 1:4 313 25 0.978 0.94 97.0 1:8 100 25 0.970 0.97 100.0 1:60 80 25 1.00 0.997 99.7 1:4 6 60 0.995 0.995 100.0 rnh2 r2nh RaN % % % 32.4 41.6 20.3 53.0 12.4 31.6 82.5 11.4 5.8 43.0 44.2 12.3 128 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Table IV— Ammonolysis of n-Butyl Chloride with Aqueous Ammonia at 60° and 100° C. (Ratio of Halide to Ammonia 1:4) Run number Moles of halide Diameter of ampule Temp. °C. Time hours Halide ion produced Amine produced total % rnh2 % r2nh or /o RsN % 655 0.01 16 60 60 31.4 . . -1 656 0.02 16 60 83 16.4 1 657 0.01 21 60 83 38.1 — ! - 661* 0.01 16 60 83 49.1 i . - 783 1 | 0.01 16 60 | 83 72.4 i . I— ~ 630 | 0.02 21 | 60 151 50.1 47.6 25.1 12.0 10.5 631 0.02 21 60 | 384 88.7 84.0 38.8 20.6 24.6 632 0.02 21 100 48 99.5 84.2 39.2 23.4 j 21.6 660 1 0.02 21 100 0 .993 89.6 38.4 29.6 21.5 * Clay, 83 mg. added, t Bentonite, 83 mg. added, i With 4 moles alcoholic ammonia. Chemistry — 1938 Meeting 129 Four Years of the Physical Science Survey Course — An Appraisal Nicholas D. Cheronis and Henrietta Freud Wright Junior College , Chicago , Illinois An Abstract During the summer of 1934, the three municipal junior colleges of wer.e established with a primary objective of “developing in all students social intelligence, responsibility, and personal culture by means nhion+-Well"°/ganiZ1e(^ Pr°Sram of general education”, and with secondary of/uppl/mg Pre-professional or semi-professional training for such renufreq l*" ,In ,or.der }° accomplish the first aim, the curriculum quires all students to take five survey courses, occupying about half other half devoted t0 c~ in the flelds , ,,0n® °l tbese ?u™iy courses is in physical science, which covers the on the first ^wnS’ Th„miStry’ fSlt,1'onomy' and geology, with especial emphasis on tne nrst two. The aims of this course are: To make the student more familiar with his physical environment- lo give the student an appreciation of the scientific method; nomermdand°P & P°mt °f ViGW and a philosophy concerning natural phe- To lay the foundation for possible future work in the Physical Sciences. rkT*irri^n organJfm.S the course, these objectives were interpreted as implying primary emphasis on the development of understanding and appreciation of the principles of science rather than of its technological aspects The course is presented by the lecture-demonstration method to largeP groups (in some cases slightly over 300), in three lectures and one quiz period a week A syllabus wa^s deveioped by a committee of the three colleges and put into the hands of the students. No single text-book has been adopted • the students are asked to purchase college chemistry and physics texts and to do a great deal of reading in the library * dna 10 time some 5,000 students have taken the course at Wright Jumor College. In practice it has by no means proved entirely satisfactory several dimes'1 and i^in0 ^ faCTilty- . The subject matter has been revised several times, and is m process of radical revision at present. Such changes are based not only on the opinions of the instructors giving the couree been asked at^the^endh^f ' “te£t °n tht6 opinlons ot the students, who have oeen asked at the end of each semester to fill out questionnaires and to make suggestions. The general trend of the revisions has been in the direc- details and of concentrating attention on the relatively few principles which are felt to be of really paramount importance The present revision will be especially drastic for several reasons Tn the first place, it is felt that certain of the objectives are not wisely chosen those^T™^ !n-an0f preparing students for future work in science. Secondly’ those aims which are considered valid are too vaguely stated- intemreta- tmn in more specific terms is felt to be necessary. Detailed criteria for the subject matter are being drawn up, and their appHcatlon wni! it is hoped, result in the elimination of more detail of little value to the student who is seeking general education. Third, it is belie/ed tha? too ine-ot emphasls bas been lald oh the impact of science and invention upon irthey’stuL°nt’s Ia“eaPP"Cati0nS °f SC’enCe Which reCur again and aSaln The. Pew course developed on these lines will of necessity be verv different from the old. To find what the results of the application of these wSh7 be 1S matter1for experimentation; upon those results it will doubt- less be necessary to rebuild the course again and again. * Published with the permission of the Chief, State Geological Survey. 130 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Some Concepts of the Relationship Between the Chemical Compositions and Structures of Clay Minerals* W. F. Bradley State Geological Survey Urbana , Illinois The common clay minerals which have been investigated up to the present time can be classified in one or the other of two general structural types. The first type may be thought of as resulting from the condensa¬ tion of an hexagonal net of silica tetrahedra with a layer of hydrargillite giving rise to a double layer of composition (OHLALSLOs. The second type arises from the condensation of two such silica nets, one above and one below, with one hydrargillite layer, giving rise to a triple layer of compo¬ sition (OHhAhShOio. . . _ „ Of these two types the first seems to be the less variable. It includes kaolinite, nacrite, dickite, and the halloysites. The second type is subject to many significant variations in chemical composition with concomitant ef¬ fects on physical properties. In this group are found montmorillomte, beidellite, nontronite, illite, and perhaps several others. It has been sug¬ gested by several investigators, notably Linus Pauling^ and C. E. Marshall that the broader chemical freedom of the second type is due to the greater stability of its symmetrical configuration. It is with the inferential rela¬ tionships between the chemical composition and properties of the second type that this paper is concerned. • . . .. In these two idealized types, each silicon ion is located in the interstice between four oxygen ions in tetrahedral configuration, and each aluminum ion in the interstice between six oxygen (or hydroxyl) ions in octahedral configuration. On the basis of various proven structures for silicate min¬ erals, the following substitutions have been suggested as possible: tetrahedral positions may be occupied by Al+++ or by P+++++; octahedral positions may be occupied by Mg++, Fe++ Fe+++, Ti++++, or Li+. . . By far the most common, the best authenticated replacement, ++is that of Al+++ for Si++++, as it occurs in muscovite.3 One fourth of the Si++++ posi¬ tions are occupied by Al+++, and the excess (— ) charge resulting is com¬ pensated by the presence of one K+ ion in 12-coordination between ti iple layers. Muscovite builds a rigid stable crystal with perfect cleavage be¬ tween layers. Its rigidity is attributed to the attractive power of the K ions for each of the adjacent triple layers. Illite, perhaps the most widely dis¬ tributed clay mineral in Illinois, exhibits the same crystal structure as does muscovite. It differs in having a lower K20 content, a higher relative con¬ tent of Si02, and in the exhibition of moderate base exchange properties. Whereas the ratio of Si++++ to Al+++ in the tetrahedral layers for musco¬ vite is 3, and one K+ ion is required for each set of 4 such positions, the similar ratio for illite may be 6 or 7 or higher, and only about one K+ ion is required for two sets of 4 such positions. Thus the illite, being subject to only about one-half the attractive forces responsible for the crystal habit of muscovite, occurs as a clay rather than as macro-crystals. The analogy between the two minerals is perhaps better illustrated by ex¬ amination of “structural formulae” for each: Muscovite (KAISL) Al2 (OH)2Oio Illite (KxAlxSh-x) (Al2 • Fe2 • Mg3 • Mg2) (OH)2Oio where x < 1, usually about *4. A second common, and significant, replacement is that of Mgf+ (or Fe++) for Al+++ in octahedral positions. This replacement, presumably can occur in either of two ways, as has been implied in the above formula. * Published with permission of the Chief, State Geological Survey. Chemistry — 1038 Meeting 131 Three Mg++ ions may perform the role of two Al+++ ions as has been de¬ duced in the case of several biotite micas, and of talc, without the in¬ troduction of any unbalanced charges, or one Mg++ ion may directly re¬ place one Al+++ ion with the appearance of one excess ( — ) charge per replacement. Such a (— ) charge, however, differs from that observed in the case of muscovite in that, whereas, the muscovite charge is localized at the surface of a unit and can be readily balanced by an adjacent K+ ion this second sort occurs in the middle of a stable structural unit. Observa¬ tions on specimens of montmorillonite have shown that the number of this sort of charges approximates the base exchange capacity. Montmorillonite is a soft, finely crystalline, and very readily dispersed clay with high base exchange capacity. & Nontronite is a name applied to several clays with physical character¬ istics quite similar to those of montmorillonite, but with more or less Fe->03 content. These are presumed to arise from substitution of Fe+++ ion for A1 ion in octahedral positions, a substitution which does not effect elec¬ trical neutrality. Both nontronite and another similar clay, beidellite are commonly distinguished from montmorillonite on the basis of lower Si0>:R->01 ratios, but neither is fully characterized at present. No natural clay has yet been observed where only one sort of replace- Tl! be 1sbown *° be active- However, these qualitative consider¬ ations of the relations between physical properties, structure, and chemical composition lead to the suggestions that in cases where the first sort of substitution predominates one finds the illites, with stable lattice dimen¬ sions, moderate plasticity, and moderate base exchange capacities: where the second sort of substitution predominates the clays swell on addition of water, disperse readily to extremely small particle sizes, and exhibit high base exchange capacities. 6 Literature Cited o' £a™ing’,_P^oc~ ^at>1 Acad- Sci. 16, 123-9, 578-82 (1930) gy E Marshall, Zeit. Krist. 91, 433-49 (1936). W. W. Jackson and J. West, Zeit. Krist 76, 211-27 (1930) 132 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The Mono-Nitration of Benzotrifluoride* G. C. Finger, N. H. Nachtrieb and F. H. Reed State Geological Survey , Urbana , Illinois Benzotrifluoride (C6H6CF3) and its derivatives show promise of becoming commercially significant, due to their unusual properties. The — CF3 side chain, in contrast to its chlorine analog, — CC13, is remarkably stable to most chemical reagents. Benzotrifluoride is readily prepared from benzo- trichloride and anhydrous antimony trifluoride, usually with heat and pres- sure.1 . The most common approach to the synthesis of benzotrifluoride deriva¬ tives is through the meta nitro compound and is illustrated by the following equation: C6H5CF3 + HNOs CF3 • C6H4 • NO. (1,3) + H20 Swarts,2 in 1898, obtained a 89 per cent yield by nitrating benzotrifluoride with a large excess (approximately 500 per cent) of fuming nitric acid. The reaction was run at 0°C and then finished off at reflux temperature. Aelony3 reported a yield of 89.5 per cent using the same method. Booth1 modified the procedure slightly and reported a 96 per cent yield with a mixture of one part of fuming nitric (sp. gr. 1.5) acid and 1.5 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid. The latter procedure is very indefinite, as no supplementary information was given to clarify it; the high yield may have been based on the crude product. The status of this nitration obviously is (1) that fum¬ ing nitric acid is used in large excess, (2) the addition of sulfuric acid increases the yield, (3) the nitro compound is very stable, and (4) ^the high yields indicate the absence of higher nitration products. Swarts,4 in a very careful study, also showed that 99 per cent of the nitration was the meta derivative, which shows that the — CF3 group is one of most powerful meta directing groups known. With the above facts in mind, a study was made to determine the factors which influence the yield, so as to evolve a more simple and eco¬ nomical procedure. The experiments were divided into classes, (1) nitra¬ tion by a nitric acid — sulfuric acid mixture, and (2) nitration by solid sodium nitrate in the presence of sulfuric acid. The factors of temperature} concentration of reagents, relative amounts of reactants, and time were studied. Experimental The nitrations were run on 0.5 or 1.0 mol quantities of benzotrifluoride (b.p. 99-100 °C.) in a 500 cc. three-necked flask, equipped with a mercury- sealed or a closely fitted shaft stirrer, a thermometer, and, in the case of the nitric acid method, a separatory funnel. The concentrated sulfuric acid was the ordinary c.p. acid (95.5-97 per cent). Agitation was vigorous enough in all cases to obtain intimate contact of all reactants. At the end, the nitration mixture was poured over ice; the crude nitro compound sep¬ arated as a heavy pale yellow to cream colored oil. The oil was washed once again with water, then twice with approximately two per cent sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide solution, giving a yellow to orange aqueous layer, and finally with water. The washings were all extracted with ether and the combined ether extracts treated in the same way as was the crude nitro product. The crude product and ether extracts were separately dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate. * Published with permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. Chemistry — 1938 Meeting 133 The magnesium sulfate was removed by suction filtration. The dried ether extracts were evaporated on a steam cone and the residue was then combined with the main fraction. All distillations were made by using a Claisen flask-air condenser set up with an oil bath for heating; the pure fraction was taken at 200-203 °C. The material which remained after removal of the main fraction from all experiments was combined. Vacuum distillation of this residue showed that it consisted almost entirely of the mono nitro compound. Therefore the yields may actually be somewhat higher than listed. a. Nitric acid-sulfuric acid mixture The literature, as well as preliminary work, appears to indicate that the addition of concentrated sulfuric acid to the nitric acid favors an increased yield; consequently all of the experiments were made with a nitric acid- sulfuric acid mixture. Since only a mononitrate can be formed, the benzo- trifluonde was added dropwise to the nitric-sulfuric acid mixture with occa¬ sional cooling to hold the temperature between 30 to 35 °C. The experiments are tabulated in Table I. Table I— Yields of CF3.CeH4.NO2 1,3 (Nitric acid-Sulfuric acid Method) Sp. Gr. HNOa Per cent excess HNO3 Moles of H2SO4 Mol ratio H2Ot H2SO4 Yield of CF3.CeH4.NO2 (1,3) in grams Theor. Crude Pure % (Pure) 1.42-1.425 1.42-1.425 1.42-1.425 1.42-1.425 1.42- 1.425 1.42- 1.425* 1.42- 1.425 10 0.75 10 1.05 10 1.23 10 1.55 10 2.25 10 2.25 10 5.36 2.05 1.5 1.25 1.1 0.85 0.85 0.5 95.5 78.3 95.5 90.0 95.5 92.5 95.5 93.1 95.5 90.3 95.5 92.8 95.5 92.4 40.3 42.2 73.8 77.2 82.9 86.7 86.8 90.8 84.3 88.3 85.5 89.5 81.4 85.2 1.42-1.425 1.49- 1.5 1 .49— 1 .5*t 1.59-1. 6*f 100 568 568 602 4.17 3.14 6.28 6.4 .92 .57 .57 .38 95.5 95.5 191 191 90.3 90.4 176 180 85.3 73.9 166.8 164.5 89.2 77.2 87.3 86.2 * Nitration at 30-35° throughout ; all others finished off at 60° I ^n,e P101 °f CeHsCFs used ; all others based on 0.5 mol quantities. + 1 otal water at the end of the nitration. nr ld -f+ mtJ° JfomPollnd 1S almost entirely independent of amount or specific gravity of the nitric acid above certain limits. The amount of onnUriCi^ld Is th® most important factor and the optimum condition is approached when the mol ratio of water to sulfuric acid is one This in¬ formed ^ tHlethnter PreSentxin original reagents plus the water theoretically fn Sndenidh r ?Cm°n^ Hl+gh c^centrations of sulfuric acid cause a decrease twho ??ld V Pro^ably due t0 sulfonation. Preliminary experiments indicated ahCTMt -low^nf Heipereure °-f 0 a ^as of n0 yield advantage and involved a great loss of time and an increased cooling cost. On the other hand a wSPfiSshed off0lSdfio°C5°pW^S- "Tu co+nvenient t0 control and the reaction was finished off at 60 C. Raising the temperature after all of the benzotri- "to one ir, added CUt the t0tal reacti0n time down fom about 2% In summary, the optimum conditions involve (1) a 10 per cent excess of concentrated nitric acid, (2) sufficient amount of concentrated sulfuric acid ature^f rrT t the. Jnal _to?al water content, (3) and a temper- of„30'35 for nitration with a finishing off at 60 °C. Ninety per cent yields of a pure product are obtained under these conditions. 134 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions b. Sodium nitrate-sulfuric acid mixture Commercially, many nitrations are made by adding solid sodium nitrate to a mixture of sulfuric acid and the compound to be nitrated. Sodium nitrate is not only much lower in cost than nitric acid but the equipment overhead is also much less. This method with benzotrifluoride can be illustrated as follows: CeHeCFa + NaNOs + H2S04 CFa • CcH< • N02 (1,3) + NaHSCh + H20 Finely ground sodium nitrate was added in small amounts from a porce¬ lain spatula to the benzotrifluoride-sulfuric acid mixture. The reaction mix¬ ture was cooled by tap water and the sodium nitrate was added at such a rate that the temperature did not exceed 30 °C. The reaction was finished off at 60 °C. The experimental results are indicated in Table II. Table II — Yields of CF3.C6H4.NO2 1,3 (Sodium Nitrate-Sulfuric Acid Method) Per cent excess NaNOa Moles of H2SO4 Yield of CF3.CeH4.NO2 (1,3) in grams Theor. Crude Pure % (Pure) 0.0 2.74 95.5 88.1 78.0 81.6 10 2.5 95.5 91.8 82.4 86.2 10 2.74 95.5 89.5 83.7 87.6 10 3.0 95.5 98.2 82.9 86.8 10 4.0 95.5 87.5 81.4 85.2 10 5.0 95.5 89.7 79.9 83.6 10 5.0 95.5 88 81.9 85.8 20 2.92 95.5 89.8 85 89 20 2.92 95.5 88.9 85 . 89 20* 2.92 95.5 83.8 64.8 67.9 30 3.5 95.5 86.8 82 86 30 3.5 95.5 87.5 82.4 86.2 All nitrations were run at 25-30° and finished at 60° C. • Not finished off at 60° C. The yield of nitro compound is almost independent of the amount of sodium nitrate, 20 per cent excess being the optimum condition with only a slightly lower yield at 10 per cent. A H20 to H2S04 mol ratio is of no par¬ ticular significance because of the large excess of acid needed to prevent the mixture from becoming too viscous as the sodium bisulfate progressively precipitates. Investigation of the mol ratio of H2SC>4 to CeHsCFa with a 10 per cent excess of sodium nitrate showed an optimum yield of approximately 87 5 per cent at 5.5. The decrease in yield beyond this point is also prob¬ ably due to sulfonation. A temperature of 25-30 °C. was selected for con¬ venience of control and it was necessary to finish the nitration at 60 , as indicated in Table II, in order to convert all of the sodium nitrate to nitric acid. The formation of the nitric acid at the end was indicated by the rapid rise in temperature. In conclusion, the optimum conditions involve, (1) a 10-20 per cent excess of sodium nitrate, (2) a mol ratio of sulfuric acid to benzotrifluoride of 5.5, and (3) a temperature of 25-30 °C. with a finishing off at 60 C. The maximum yield of pure product was 89 per cent. Chemistry— 1938 Meeting 135 Summary and SQ hr^fr S f°U,ad P°f?ible to obtain meta nitrobenzotrifluoride in 90 89 Per ceat yields with concentrated nitric acid-sulfuric acid mixtures and sodium nitrate-sulfuric acid mixtures, respectively. A 10 per cent ex¬ cess of nitric acid or sodium nitrate at room temperature was used. 1. 2. 3. 4. Bibliography B™*1}’ a?d Burchfield, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 57, bwarts, Bull. sci. acad. roy. Belg\, 85, 375 (1898) £• Chem Soc., 56, 2063 (1934). Swarts, Bull. sci. acad. roy. Belg., (5) 6, 395 (1920) 2066 (1935). 136 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Progress in the Analysis of the Rare Earth Group B. S. Hopkins and W. A. Taebel University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois For many years the analysis o t the rare earth group for individual rare earth content proved to be one of the most difficult problems in rare earth chemistry When we recall the great similarity in both the Physical and chemical properties of their compounds we can readily understand why the analr^jj| 'early* mialy st^estrirted6^) ^methods of analysis which depended ss? e^roS srsr^ t discovered that the rare earths could be separated into ce yttrium groups by means of the differences m the solubility of the double alkali sulfate, the percentages of these two groups were reported In 1843 Mo sander1 found that cerium could be oxidized to a tetravalent state. This offers a means of estimating the amount of cerium present. Cerium in the tetravalent state is the least basic of the rare earths. Consequently if th cerium in a neutral rare earth solution is oxidized, hydrated ceno oxid precipitates upon boiling the solution. The cerium may then be determined gravimeMcally. The advent of a number of suitable oxidation-reduction indicators had made it possible to determine the cerium v olumetncally. Willard and Young2 give a good review of the literature concerning the volumetric determination of cerium and have established the best p C0^dl^0^ for the determination. With the exception then of a few J^rnSiiPd which the lanthanum and didymium content, as determined by long-contmue fractionation, was reported, the early analysis included only total rare earth, percentage of cerium earths and yttrium earths, and cerium content. . Within recent years the rare earth chemist has had at his disposal hot physical and chemical means of analysis. Quantitative analysis based o physical measurements include the use of the x-ray and arc spectra, the magnetic susceptibility, atomic weight determinations, a^d s^bl^ J^ lationships. With the exception of the x-ray and arc spectra ^the P^sic al methods are usually confined to binary or at the most tertiary mixtures. Our most important means for a complete analysis depend therefore upon the use of X-ray or arc spectra. . . „ I Noddack3 has employed the x-ray spectra for the analysis of rare earth ores and artificial mixtures. The method consists essentially- jtmeMr uring photometrically the intensity of certain line pairs of . the jpecha ot rare earth and an internal standard. The intensity ratios between “J® selected line pairs are plotted against known concentrations of each rare earth. A spectogram is then taken of the sample md ^ lie mten^y ratios determined. By referring to the graphs one may obtain the Percentage of each earth present. The method is one of the most accurate of those we B. S. Hopkins and co-workers4 studied the use of the arc spectra as a means of analysis. The method is similar to that employed by Noddack. That is, the intensity ratios between the selected line pairs of rare earth and internal standard lines are determined by means of the microphotometer. These ratios are plotted logarithmically against concentration. As previously mentioned, cerium has been determined for a by taking advantage of its anomalous valence In 1930 Yntema showed that europium and ytterbium could be reduced electrolytically m a(l solution. This contribution to rare earth chemistry has prompted other chemists to investigate the chemistry of those rare earths which may Chemistry— 1938 Meeting 137 reduced to the divalent state. McCoy6 found that europium could be de¬ termined quantitatively by means of the Jones reductor. An acidified rare Thre excess10iid?nr?rteb^bydZinC and passed into a standard iodine solution. A“e e^C 10dme . 1S t]?en determined by means of sodium thiosulfate If the reduced europium is passed into a sulfate solution, insoluble euronous ^fatf p"ecipi ates; The Precipitation however is not q^^tivl c?nB^ quently the volumetric method is preferred to the gravimetric Brukl7 bv method aforathegdP°tP th® anomal°us valence of ytterbium has worked ou^a ili mi-natl°? 0f the ytterbium content of rare earth mix¬ tures. The ytterbium is reduced electrolytically in an inert atmosDhere sulfate The r^ Z ?S then /rented with an excess of ferSc ammonfum mang^nat™ d Ced lron 1S then determined by means of potassium per- yttei’bhim faTbP«fpmmp/haHalHSiS h%S been confined to cerium, europium, and earths1Umpraseodvirfiurn°fnr^^Pen^ ?pon the anomalous valences of the rare - Praseodymium for example may assume the quadrivalent state ra^pnu,111^ be reduced to the divalent state. Valuable contributions to are earth chemistry will be made when conditions are found in wbieh 'i^fwSr s? rssus risvs l Mosander J. Prakt. Chem. 30 276 (1843). T0X^h!Ti fM 1379 (1928)- (1936>[ 138 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Research Environment D. B. Keyes University of Illinois, Urlana, Illinois AN ABSTRACT Although it is commonly recognized that physical environment affects the productivity of ideas, it is very difficult to say just what specific physical conditions are most salutary to the generation of an idea involving industrial research. One thing, however, seems fairly certain: the research worker cannot “work unto himself alone.” Exchange of ideas with others, through conservation or reading, is absolutely essential. To this end, a library well ventilated and lighted should always be close at hand and the worker given plenty of opportunity to make use of it. This method of gathering data should be augmented by conferences with other workers and authorities 111 1 After the* facts have been collected, the production of a new pattern from them cannot be hurried, nor the worker harried. An environment free of irritation is the prime requisite for an efficient solution of any re¬ search problem. Too often this environment is entirely lacking, and freedom from irritation is often sought through reading detective stories, or at¬ tending motion pictures. In an effort to take the edge off his worries (frequently economic and unsolvable until he makes more money) the worker finds that they still hang over his head like a Damocles’ sword. In¬ stead of feeling mentally refreshed, ready to tackle once more the research problem which is his job, he finds himself mentally exhausted. Concentration becomes laboured and forced, a thing of less and less moment. How can the tired mind function efficiently? . If only we could reproduce in a man’s working hours the feeling of quiet and freedom from irritation that most people enjoy just before the day’s grind— that clear early-morning feeling, relaxed and untram¬ meled with minutiae. An approximation of this state may be artificial y but readily produced by providing the research worker with a comfortable room, air-conditioned, well lighted, free from a telephone, with sound-proofed walls and a lock on the door. Restful furnishings, and i a from the windows are helpful addenda. Few men are capable of continuous pattern-making for more than a few minutes at a time, and pleasant sur¬ roundings in contrast to drab ones interrupt the mind without irritating it. They allow the mind to return to the problem on hand refreshed rather But the worker needs more than a pleasant place in which to think- He needs exercise. A convenient shower bath helps on sluggish days vigorous physical labor in the plant does no harm and may be beneficial. Then, too, a change of scenery from time to time during the year ^ (the t ditional two-week period is viciously uneconomic) will keep him tiom g ing stale and unprofitable. , . _r- Why not put our research worker on as efficient a working basis as we do the prize fighter. At present we expect him to do creative work on a nine-hour-daily production schedule: under such conditions he operates only fitfully after great mentally-destructive struggle against irritations. Apparently we can change this state of affairs, we can increase his mom - tary optimum of accomplishment if, instead of keeping him constantly straining against irritations, we provide him with a favorable envl™nm • Mental relaxation, attained through lessened financial worry, restful - roundings, frequent conferences, frequent vacations, will clear the clutteie , harassed mind and leave it relaxed and ready to form spontaneous, new patterns of thought. Chemistry — 1938 Meeting 139 Modern Gasoline Refining C. D. Lowry, Jr. Universal Oil Products Company, Chicago, III. pro.duction °f cracked gasoline now exceeds that of straight run and it has become the dominant motor fuel. This is in striking contrast ^?2drnS Whea crac,kinS was first introduced. Cracked gasoline only hkeh tha? nftyi seca,]ed a place ln the gasoline market. Its odor was not form^um f tralsht run’ !t was yellow in color and it had a tendency to Cracked gasoline could not be kept down, however, as it was soon found The deVvaefonmen?ernf0hilh Stra‘Sht rUP gasoIines * antiknock value i ne development; of high compression motors of superior performance de- pended upon the availability of gasoline of high antiknockmUn^! In the great advances the automotive industry has made in recent years the pro¬ vision of superior motor fuel by cracking has played a leading^part P crack;ed gasoline was heavily refined to make it look like the nf fhlt1 prod.uct- Eventually, however, it was recognized that most of this refining simply wasted chemicals and caused loss of part of the gasoline Insistence on water white color was found to be a useless fetish ^AmaakeS novdiffe^nce to a motor whether gasoline is white ^ or yellow sulfui ywasgfoSundetoSlhpS fUlly &S WeU &S a highly refined product Low So! T f d t0 bex an unnecessary requirement, particularly in warm climates. In many parts of the country the specification of one tenth pe™ ri1S obsolete and ^ is only adhered to in some places because pLnkpH lgldltr °f State re^ulatlons- The only two useful ends which refining wm not form' gum6^8 th® production of motor fuel of good odor which The unpleasant odor of some cracked gasolines is due to the presence of mercaptans. These may sometimes be largely removed bv repeated eqifation Wlth CaUStic soda> which forms mercaptides according to the RSH + NaOH— > RSNa + H20 (1) it i s ^parlfial 1 v° sa t m-n t ^em 0 ve the iower mercaptans and these only until iV hnfiLa I 7 saturated- Eor economy therefore, the caustic is regenerated in ' gaseous formUS%hTpSalt?f tbe r and RSH + Na2Pb02- 2RSH + Na2Pb02- RS PbO Na + NaOH (RS)2Pb + 2NaOH (2) (3) lowing reactions (VanT r(5P)°:1.ysuIflde-‘ead comP°unds are first formed, foi- (RS)2Pb + S— > RSS-Pb-SR (RS)2Pb + 2S-^ RSS-Pb-SSR (4) (5) 140 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions These complexes break down according to reaction (6): RSS-Pb-SR— > RSSR + PbS (6) or if excess sulfur is used, probably according to reactions (7) and (8): RSS-Pb-SR + S— > RSSSR + PbS RSS-Ph-SSR + S— > RSSSR + PbS (7) (8) When the doctor reaction goes as desired only reaction (6) occurs and the mercaptans are converted into disulfides. However, if an excess of sulfur is used, reactions (7) and (8) take place, and probably in any case, some trisulfides remain in the gasoline. The presence of polysulfides reduces the antiknock value of the gasoline and at least the higher polysulfides lessens the response of the gasoline to inhibitors. For this reason sweeten¬ ing should be carried out with the least possible amount of sulfur and this is aided by efficient mixing of the reagents with the gasoline. While the larger part of the gasoline of the country is sweetened with doctor solution a newer process employing copper salts is rapidly coming into wide spread use. In this process, the essential reactions are (8) and (9) • Cu+ + + RSH-^ RSSR + H+ + Cu+ ( 9 ) 2Cu+ + 2H+ + 02-> H20 + 2Cu+ + The gasoline is first brought in contact with the copper salts, which oxidize the mercaptans to disulfides. Either at the same time or m a separate step the reagent is blown with air to reconvert the cuprous copper to the cupric form. , . _ , + Prevention of gum formation in cracked gasoline has long been brought about by treatment with sulfuric acid or fullers earth. A more economical method of securing gum stability is the addition of an oxidation inhibitor, which prevents loss of hydrocarbons, saves the loss in antiknock value usually caused by chemical refining, the cost of reagents and of operating treating process. Much of the gasoline now sold is given no treatment beyond sweetening and adding inhibitor. Such gasoline often changes less in storage than motor fuel refined by other methods. Ammophenols, naph- thols and wood tar fractions are the most widely used commercial anti¬ oxidants. Their use is steadily increasing and probably will eventually largely replace other treating methods. i ott and Reid, Ind. Eng. Chem. 22, 884 (1930), Chemistry — 1938 Meeting 141 Ammonolyzed Epinephrine Conjugates and Their Pressor Action in Dogs Richard G. Roberts and Herman J. H orvitz Chicago Medical School , Chicago, Illinois When epinephrine is treated with anhydrous liquid ammonia an ammon¬ olyzed derivative is formed (1). This new product on intravenous inject¬ ion causes a more prolonged (50% longer) elevation of blood pressure in dogs than epinephrine, although the extent to which the pressure is elevated is approximately the same. Because this is obviously a desirable pharma¬ cological feature of the new product, an attempt has been made to augment this feature by conjugating one of the normal constituents of blood plasma with epinephrine. The substances chosen to be conjugated with epinephrine were glycine, tyrosine, glutamic acid, urea, lactic acid, dextrose, cebione and cholesterol.’ Liquid ammonia was used as a solvent and dispersing medium because the changes wrought by conjugation in liquid ammonia are generally more marked than those obtained by ammonolysis alone. For example, by conju¬ gating glycine with hematin in liquid ammonia a compound is formed which retains the properties of the original pigment and yet is soluble in water at pH 7.0 to 7.4. Methods: The method used was essentially the same as that described m the first paper (1). The liquid ammonia was dried over sodium by the method of Fernelius and Johnson (2). The combined sample (epinephrine plus the substance to be added to it) used for a single reaction was usually less than 0.5 gm. The reaction was carried out in a heavy walled, trans- parent Dewar flask which was attached to a mercury seal so that the excess liquid ammonia could boil off without moisture being admitted to the epine¬ phrine. This required about 24 hours. 200 cc. of liquid ammonia were used. The Dewar flask was then attached to a vacuum pump until the odor of ammonia was removed. The flask was not heated. The dry powder was then ready for use, and was made up to a concentration of one mgm per cc. in terms of its epinephrine content. Distilled water and ethylene glycol were the only vehicles used. Glycerol was abandoned as a vehicle m favor of ethylene glycol due to the lower viscosity of the latter. weighing about 12 kgm. were used to assay the new compounds, the injections were made into the femoral vein, and the carotid blood pres¬ sure was measured by the customary method. Ether and sodium pheno¬ barbetal were the anaesthetics used. At least twenty minutes were allowed to elapse between injections. Results: It was found that epinephrine dried to constant weight in a vacuum desiccator over sulfuric acid is essentially insoluble in liquid ammonia m a concentration of 25 mgm. of epinephrine to 200 cc. of liquid ammonia. The powder swells slightly and becomes darker, and the liquid ammonia continues to boil faster for thirty minutes or more indicating some kind of an exothermic reaction between the epinephrine and the liquid ammonia. Glycine is exceedingly soluble in liquid ammonia and when epinephrine is added to such a solution of glycine in ratios of 0.5 to 10 moles of glycine to one of epinephrine, the epinephrine is brought into solution or is very finely dispersed, and the clear solution becomes yellowish. A light flocculent precipitate then forms quickly, but does not begin to settle for an hour or more, although epinephrine itself settles immediately. The new product in concentrations of 1:1000 is not entirely soluble in either water or ethylene giycol, but it can be injected in the form of a finely dispersed sol. Water 142 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions can be used as a vehicle, but the injection must be made at once as the desiccator. Observing the above precautions, the glycine and epinephrine of obtained In ethylene glycol, however, the derivative remains active for weeks, even in an open beaker. The activity is retained in glycerol also. The dry powdered derivative retains its activity in well stoppered bottles or sealed ampoules, but loses it when kept over sulfuric acid in a vacuum desiccator. Observing the above precautions, the glycine and epinephrine of equal molar proportions gives when injected intravenously a blood pressure Explanation Fig. 1. X = Base line and site of injection. I = Rise from below base line following primary excursion and continuation upward. II — -Elevation reached by rise I, and maintained for one hour when drum was stopped. Time ^^^ni fo one rotation was twenty-five minutes. Ether anaesthesia was used M®* ld was 0.25 ccc. of 1 :1000 epinephrine equivalent for a 1 :1 molar conjugate of epine phrine and glycine. The vehicle was glycerol. . .Y„lir„inn TI Fig. 2. X = Base line and site of injection. I is the primary excursion. 11 marks the prolongation of the secondary which did not ^ f all below * etthesll ^as III is a continuation of rise II after twenty:flve minutes. Ether anaesthesia wa used. Dose used was 0.25 cc. of 1 :1 000 epmephnne equivalent for a l .1 molar conjugate of epinephrine and dextrose. The vehicie was ethyle^ glycoL Trio- q v _ "Ro op linp and site of injection. 1 is tne primary eAuuMun. fo^a^^'molar^on^jgate^of6 epilf^hrrtfe and vehictelwas Prevails in the same tissues; e.g. Na+ and Cl', iV.aar F(V. * The.same is true between ions and colloids; e. g. K+ and Na* and T’*! ■' t*!rous: ^out the entire PIant and animal structures, ort-an l t t f /’ j1* ar? frequently found together in one and the same ciated (3) b' dy fluids' and Cu and vitamine B which are always asso- II. Function Mn^rrT?ynlma11 qaantities are often of hiSh functional value; Cu++, fn • +Chem.lcally related ions (K+, Na+, Ca++ and Mg++) frequently function as antagonists, although they may replace each other or may have 148 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Table I— Ratio of Cations and of Anions from Various Sources Na+:K+ Ca++:Mg++ Other Cations C1-:P203 Other Anions Cholesterol : Lecithin Human body - 1:2 30:1 i Fe++, Mn++ Du++, NH4+ 1:7 < DO3 ,S203, NO3 [-, Br- FI" Milk _ _ 1:4 5:1 1:14 I- Fat Blood Plasma _ Erythrocytes - - Leucocytes (pus) - 10:1 1:4 1:2 3:2 / / 2:1 Fe++>Cu+ Fe++ 1:30 COs- Skin . --- Nails, hair - Sweat - - Lacrymal seer _ _ Sebaceous seer . - > > + :0 Ca++ Ca++ Fe^ > 700:1 + :0 P2O5 co go OO Muscle (Striated, heart and smooth) _ 1:24 1:4 Fe++.NH4+ 1:3 S2O3 Lung . . 20:1 1:1 Fe++ 1:6 > Digestive tract Saliva . Gastric juice . . Pancreatic juice . Pancreas . Bile _ _ Liver (child) . - . Liver (adult) . - . 1:5(1 :1*) 1:1 300:1 1*:1 19:1 1:3 1:1* 33:1(6:1) + :trace 1:1 10:1 3:1 5:1 15:1 Fe++, NH4+ Mn++ Fe++, Cu+ Fe++, Mn++ 1:1 24:1 22:1 18:1 8:1 1:10 1:20 S2O3 ,F1~ S2O3— 1:1(13) Spleen Male... . - . Female . - . 44:1 2:1 14:1 14:1 Fe^, Cu+ Fe++, Cu+ 1:50 1:20 Kidney . . . Urine . . . 24:1 4:1 14:1 Fe++, Mn++ 1:24 34:1 S2O3 , etc Chemistry — 1938 Meeting 149 a synergistic function in other respects. Certain units (Na+, Cl-; Na+, choles¬ terol) are often aggregated in organs side by side, but separated from their antagonists (K+, lecithin; K+, phosphate), which results in a high potential difference (white and grey substance of brain; organ cells and body fluids; brain and spinal fluid). The importance of the equilibrium between ions can easily be demonstrated. co2 a. the respiration quotient, - =1, is increased by feeding dextrose, but 0 much less by feeding dextrose with mono- or disodium phosphate (Fig. 1). This is explained (Fig. 2) by a deficiency of glycogen formation (4). b. the proportions, (Na+ + K+) : (Ca++, Mg++::50:1, and K+:Ca++::l:2 are essential in the maintenance of the heart beat and the irritability of cellular elements in general (5). c. the ratio, (K2HPO + KH2P04) : (Ca++ + M g++), is a stimulus for the respiratory center, the irritability of which is increased by an in¬ crease in the quotient and is decreased by a decrease in the quo¬ tient. This ratio can be influenced either by X-ray treatment (6), by adrenalin injection (7), by splenectomy or sympathectomy, or by resection of the pancreatic duct (8). The functional significance of the presence and of the prevalence of certain ions in the different structures will be shown in a few examples. A study of Table I and more detailed analyses would furnish much more material. The purpose of this paper is to initiate these studies, A brief survey of the tabulation will, however, aid in making the study a little easier. Milk, the simplest food, may be compared with the needs of the human body (Table I), and we see a parallel occurrence and prevalence of ions. More detailed studies reveal that human milk contains iodine during the first five days of lactation (9). This fact, as a rule, is entirely overlooked when cow’s milk is given (Fig. 3) during the first days of lactation. This may account, in part, for the high mortality of children not fed with moth¬ er’s milk during the first week. The erythrocyte contains, closely aggregated into a cell nine micra in diameter, all the ions necessary for, and favorable to oxidation-reduction; Fe+++, K+, P04 , with oxygen attached to the hemoglobin, and with lecithin as the vehicle. The nuclei of the leucocytes are relatively rich in copper; the plasma is rich in NaCl, Ca++ (blood coagulation), cholesterol, with phos¬ phates and carbonates as buffers. For further details, see Pribram (10). The high functional differentiation between brain and nervous substance is characterized by the absence of Na+ in the grey substance and in the axis cylinder, and the absence of K+ in the nerve cell and in the white substance of the brain. The prevalence of Cl and P04 corresponds, as a rule, to that of Na+ and K+ respectively. There is, however, an exception. The retina contains Na+ and Fe++ instead of K+, and is rich in P04 — which plays a role in the activation of retinoflavin. The stable chemical structure of the bone and the unstable structure of the bone marrow with its high functional (reproductive) activity, are striking examples of the significance of the distribution of ions in the body. The teeth show a prevalence of calcium in the enamel and of magnesium in the dentine. Further work is needed to find the functional significance of this fact. The skin has the most complicated structure of all organs; each layer responds differently to ions, and each layer aggregates different ions. Even different concentrations influence the closely related fibres of the skin differ¬ ently. Connective tissue responds to diluted NaCl with hydration; collagene fibres to concentrated NaCl. The most potent hydrator of the skin is iodine- the most potent dehydrators are S04” and C03”. The anions, therefore, regu¬ late the water content of the skin. Sweat glands and lachrymal glands ag¬ gregate NaCl while hair and sebaceous glands aggregate calcium. 150 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions INFLUENCE OF PHOSPHATE ON RQ. INFLUENCE OF PHOSPHATE ON LIVER GLYCOGEN £235 gms V/'/\ 5 gms- saccharose 5gms. dextrose IODINE CONTENT (in gammas per lOOcc ) gammas Chemistry — 1938 Meeting 151 The influence exercised by each of the constituents of the blood on the function of the heart muscle has been thoroughly studied by Ringer (11). See also Langendorff (12). Inorganic salts play the main role here. The antagonisms of K+ and Ca++, K+ and Na+, Ca++ and NH4+ are striking. The importance of the K+ for diastole and of thd Ca++ for systolic contraction are well established. K+ acts as a radioactive substance and can only be re¬ placed by radioactive substances or by beta-rays. The primary stimulus for the contraction of muscles is NH4+ (13). Charles Darwin (14) observed that 1/20,000 of a grain (= 3.3 grammas) of (NH4)3 P04 causes flection of almost all the tentacles of drosera. Prawdicz-Neminski showed that relaxation of the muscle, after contraction by the ammonium salt, is caused by the for¬ mation of the double salt with Mg++. Twenty mg of MgCl2 (6 H20) and 0.25 mg of NH4OH to 100 cc. of Ringer’s solution are sufficient to counteract exhaustion of the heart muscle. The salt is soluble in lactic acid, and is removed from the muscle after contraction. The periodic contractions of striated muscle find here their explanation. All the ions are present in the muscle fibre; phospho-creatine being the source of NH4+ and P04 — , Mg++ also being present in relatively large quantities (Ca++:Mg++: :1:4). NH4+ is present in the intestinal tract, and preponderant in the vena cava superior since its blood does not pass the liver. The blood of the vena cava inferior, after having passed the liver, contains less NH4+. A high potential difference be¬ tween the two venae cavae arises from this fact. In addition, the blood of the vena cava superior is emptied at the most sensitive spot of the heart, the Keith-Plack node (15). The vagus nerve likewise enters the heart at this area. Ammonium salts are accumulated by nerve tissue, which is thir¬ teen times richer in NH4+ than muscle tissue, and, in the active state, even fourteen times (16). The importance of the exchange of K+ against Na+ for the distribution of water (shifting to the inner organs) during fever has been emphasized by the author (17). The lung tissue, different from all the other organs, is very rich in Na+. The prevalence of phosphates over chlorides is remarkable in this connection. It may be due to the Ca++ and Mg++ content. The ventilation of the blood by the lung governs the C02 balance and, indirectly, the acid-base balance of the blood. In the digestive tract we have the saliva, very rich in K+, especially if undiluted and the urea, containing the balanced C02~NH3 compound, a potent solvent. In the gastric juice we find HC1, unique in living tissue. It is formed by a relatively simple chemical process: H2C03 + NaCl = HC1 + Na2C03 (18). This reaction involves an automatic regulation of the C02 ten¬ sion in the blood, which tension is the stimulus for the respiratory center. The liver, extremely rich in K+, harbors the bile which is rich in Na+ and cholesterol. The importance of the ratio (K+ + Mg++):Na+ in the liver may be learned from Fig. 4 in which the Na+, K+ and Mg++ contents of the normal liver, of the liver in pregnancy, and in eclampsia are compared (19). The spleen is rich in Na+ and in phosphates, especially in the male, less in the female. The kidney takes care of the removal of all ions from the body. III. Regulation and Distribution of Ions by Hormones, and Influence of Ions on Hormones Fig. 5, in which the cations and the anions are combined with those organs in which they prevail and in the function of which they play an im¬ portant role, shows the coordination of certain groups of organs and the in¬ terrelation of their ionic function. Fig. 6, in which the physiological cations and anions are connected with the endocrine glands (hormones) and with the vitamines (A, B, C, and D) to which they have relation, shows the co¬ ordination of hormones, vitamines and ions. It is evident from these dia¬ grams that each ion has a specific projection in certain organs and endo- crines, such as the I" in the thyroid, the NH4+, Ca++, Mg++, C03”, and P04 — —4 152 Illinois State Academy of Sdience Transactions NORMAL LIVER K+Mg _ 82 + 16 . 3 Na 33 Na E3 LIVER IN PREGNANCY K + Mg . 76+16 j_ Na " 41 4 K LIVER IN ECLAMPSIA K + Mg . 5 3 ♦ 12 . s: Na ' 7 8 ' Tl Mg ■ Chemistry — 1938 Meeting 153 in the parathyroid. Synergistic hormones and ions are to be found. Exam¬ ples are: Na+ and insulin (20), Na+ and adrenalin (21). This means that the simultaneous administration of Na+ and the hormone is equivalent to a larger quantity of the hormone. The distribution of certain ions is controlled by hormones, such as that of Na+ and of Ca++ by the anterior pituitary gland; that of K+ and of Na+ by the posterior pituitary gland, which shifts the ions to skin, liver, and circulation. The Mn++, likewise controlled by the pituitary gland, has a fundamental importance in the development of the testis (22). Complete lack of Mn++ in the food causes degeneration of the testes in male rats. After 100 days the rapidly progressive degeneration leads to a complete atrophy of testes. Five mg. of Mn++, added to the same diet, are sufficient to prevent the testicular atrophy (23). In the female, Mn++ and dextrose are necessary to maintain the normal oestrus cycle. The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland evidently needs Mn++ as a stimulus for the production of its hormone. IV. VITAMINES AND IONS Vitamines (dotted lines) have definite affinities to certain ions, such as vitamine D to Ca++ and P04+++, vitamines C and B2 to Fe++, and vitamine A to I. The two diagrams, Figs. 5 and 6, combined, in three dimensions would give a model of the simultaneous cooperation and interrelation between organs, including the ductless glands (hormones), vitamines, and ions. This would offer “an imperfect glimpse of the operation of some of the potent forces peculiar to the tissue of living beings.” 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. BIBLIOGRAPHY Pribram, E. A., Kolloid-chem. Beih., 2, 1, (1910). Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol, and Med., 32, 8, 11, (1934). Schweiz. Med. Woch., 65, 184, (1935). Wien. Med. Woch., 36, 1, (1936). Med. Record, lkk, 30, (1936). Vierordt, H., Anatom. -Physiol, and Physikal. Tabellen, Jena, 1906. Hammarsten, O., Physiol. Chem., 1899. Sherman, Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Macmillan, 1932. Zondek, Mediz. Ges. Berlin, 2, Nov., 1932. Abelin, J., Biochem. Ztsch., 175, 274, (1926). Loeb, J., Pflueger's Arch., 80, 229, (1900) ; 88, 68, (1901). Kroetz, Chr., Biochem. Ztsch., 151, 147, 157, (1924). Dresel and Katz, Klin Woch., 32, (1922), cited by: Seo, T., Biochem. Ztsch., 163, 283, (1925). Maurer, E., and Diez, St., Biochem. Ztsch., 178, 161, (1926). Pribram, E. A., Schmiedeberg’s Arch. f. exper. Path u. Phar., 172, 444. (1933). Ringer, S., J. of Physiol., 18, 425, (1895); lk, 125, (1893). Langendorff, O., Erg. d. Physiol., 1/2, 263, (1902) ; IV/2, 764, (1905). (Lit.). Prawdicz-Neminski, Biochem. Ztsch., 152, 388, (1924). Darwin, Ch., Ges. Werke, 8, 155, (1876). Selenin, Hirth, both cited by Prawdicz-Neminski (13). Lee, PearPand Taschiro, Amer. J. of Physiol., 61, (1922). Pribram, E. A., Arch, of Pathol., 2, 1. (1926). Bruecke in, Gamgee, Chemie d. Verdauung, p. 121, Leipzig, 1897. Mosonyi, J., Biochem. Zeitsch., 169, 120, (1926). Keller, R., Med. Klin., 11, 38, (1934). McQuarrie, I., Proc. of the Staff Meet, of the Mayo Clin., 10, 15, 239, (1935). Kendall, J. A. M. A., 105, 1487, (1935). Skinner, Van Denk and Steenbock, Am. J. of Physiol., 101, 591, (1932). Orent and Me Collom, J. Bio. Chem., 92, 651, (1931). papers In Geography Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman The Geography Section carried nine papers, five of which are herewith presented. The other three were: Some Natural Bridges of Southern Illinois, by Flemin Cox, South¬ ern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale. Mineral Relationships in the Mediterranean , by Walter H. Vos- kuil, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Mathematics in Geography, by Raymond Huck, Township High School, Centralia. Great landed estates in the Mediterranean area, by Raymond E. Crist, University of Illinois, Urbana. About 35 attended the meeting. Thomas F. Barton, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbon- dale, Illinois, was elected Chairman of the Section for the 1939 meeting. (Signed) R. E. Crist, Chairman. [155] 156 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Some Geographic Aspects of Soil Erosion in Illinois Thomas F. Barton Southern Illinois State Normal University , Carbondale, Illinois To most laymen a map of Illinois (Fig. I1) showing the areas that are subject to erosion may be a dull and meaningless pattern, but to some geographers such a map would stimulate them into attempting to interpret the distribution and seriousness of the eroded areas in terms of physical environmental factors. State Distribution of Soil Erosion Most of the soil erosion in Illinois is found in the west-central and southern part of the State. Looking on a map at the location of the 16 counties having over 75 per cent of the areal surface affected by erosion of a “serious” and “destructive”2 nature, we find that the Ozark Ridge runs through 6 of them, and that 2 are influenced by the rough terrain m the northwestern part of the State. Of the remaining 8 counties, 6 are found by the Illinois River, one is badly eroded by three forks of the Big Muddy River, and the last is sandwiched between the Little Wabash and Saline rivers. . , . In contrast with the 16 badly eroded counties m the south and wesu central part of the State are the 21 counties in the northeastern part having less than 11 per cent of their area affected by erosion of a “serious and “destructive” nature. Not one of these 21 counties lies south of where the Wabash River becomes the eastern boundary of Illinois. It is interesting to recall that at one time most of these counties were covered with a prairie vegetation. It is also interesting to note that these 21 negligibly eroded counties generally occupy the more level terrain. Many of them, in fact, are so level that at one time they contained large swampy areas presenting drainage problems to the pioneers. Besides comparing the badly eroded counties with the slightly eroded ones, a contrast of soil erosion made in the 24 northernmost counties with the 24 southernmost ones proves that erosion is more serious in southern Illinois. The following table gives the extent and seriousness of soil erosion in the two extremes of the State.4 Area Affected by Serious and Destructive Erosion Northern 24 counties Southern 24 counties 2 8 1 9 4 4 4 3 13 0 . 24 24 Perhaps the most significant fact to be gained from this table is that over half of the 24 counties to the north have less than 11 per cent of their land affected by erosion of a “serious” and “destructive” nature while over two- Geography — 1938 Meeting 157 Fig-. 1 — Extent of Erosion in Illinois. 158 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions thirds of the 24 counties to the south have over half of their land affected by the same type of erosion. Looking at these figures we should bear in mind that we are contrasting the number of counties rather than the area in these counties. However, we should also remember that the 24 counties in the northern part of the State are larger than those to the south— a fact which increases the difference in thq extent and seriousness of erosion be¬ tween the two areas. Reasons for Greater Soil Erosion There are a number of physical environmental factors that cause the soil erosion problems to be greater in the southern part of the State. These important factors may be classified under three primary elements of geography, namely (1) weather and climate, (2) soil, and (3) landforms. Weather and climate. Climate is not only the most important factor in the transformation of regolith into soil, but it is also one of the most important factors in the problems of soil erosion. All other factors being equal soil erosion increases (a) with an increase in the amount of the thun¬ der-shower rainfall, and (5) with longer periods when the ground is not Except for large parts of Franklin, Perry, Washington, Monroe and St. Clair counties which have from 35 to 40 inches of rainfall, the 24 counties to the south get over 40 inches of rainfall with a large part of Union and Pope getting over 45 inches. The 24 counties to the north, on the other hand, get less than 35 inches. In the northern part of the State, moreover, a large per cent of the rainfall is of the cyclonic type. If the ground is not frozen, the slow drizzle* characterizing cyclonic rains permits more of the moisture to enter into the ground. If the ground is frozen the run-off does not cause soil erosion. . . . The heavy, dashing, prolonged rains of southern Illinois m contrast with the cyclonic type to the north bring large volumes of water to the surface causing most of it to run-off. Then, the ground here being frozen for a very short time, the erosion period is longer. Furthermore, during the winter months the heavy rains in southern Illinois often fall on a thawed surface with the lower part of the soil still frozen thus preventing the water percolating into the ground. Under these conditions, sheet erosion is very effective. Sheet erosion also occurs with continual heavy rains in the late fall and early spring. Winter sheet erosion in northern Illinois is negligible. Soil. In explaining the wider distribution and greater destruction by soil erosion in the southern part of the State, soil characteristics are o primary importance. In considering the soil erosion problems three soil characteristics should be borne in mind, namely, depth of soil and subsoil. character of soil, and subsoil permeability. . , The depth of the soil and subsoil in part determines the size of the underground reservoir. If the mantle rock is thick and the texture of t e soil is such that water can run into the ground readily, then, during pro¬ longed rains a large quantity of water can be held in the underground reservoir. On the other hand, if the mantle rock is shallow, only a small amount of rain can be stored. Consequently, during prolonged rains the water table may approximately coincide with the surface of the earth an additional rainfall runs off unless it is held by surface features. Southern Illinois not only has large areas with shallow mantle rock, but in some counties barren out-crops are conspicuous features in the landscape, in con- trast with this picture, the deep glacial drift in northern Illinois provides an ideal reservoir where a large quantity of water can be stored. Because of the character of soil, it is possible to have a deep mantle rock and still not have a good underground reservoir. If the soil does not contain an abundance of humus and does not have a good structui , then water cannot seep into the ground rapidly. Therefore, during hard rains a higher per cent of the water runs off than it would if the rain ten upon a porous soil. Geography — 1938 Meeting 159 The most widely distributed soil in the northern 24 counties belongs to the brown and black group of soils.6 Since these soils developed under a slough grass or prairie grass vegetation, they are high in humus. Being high in humus they are porous and permit rapid percolation. Consequently, these soils act as “open doors" to the mantle rock reservoirs below. In contrast with the soil to the north, the two most widely distributed soils in the southern 24 counties belong to the yellow-gray and reddish- yellow groups. The reddish-yellow group developed under forest vegetation and is low in humus. The pore space in this type of soil, therefore, is low and the soil is “tight”. Water does not percolate readily into this type of soil. The other abundant soil in southern Illinois, the yellow-gray group, is more porous but it is underlain with a clay pan which prevents adequate underdrainage. Subsoil permeability is a very important factor to consider in judging mantle rock as a probable reservoir. The southern 24 counties are found in two subsoil permeability regions, namely, (1) a region of “slow per¬ meability on level areas, and moderate permeability on sloping areas," and (2), a region of “very slow permeability on nearly level, and moderate per¬ meability on sloping topography."7 In the first region, because of the down¬ ward movement of very fine-textured material and its collection in a zone, there has developed a layer of slowly pervious claypan beneath the level land. Beneath nearly all the level areas in the second region, a compact and plas¬ tic claypan has formed at a depth of about 18 inches. This slowly permeable stratum seriously interferes with the movement of moisture. Therefore, dur¬ ing heavy or prolonged rains the soil above the claypan is quickly filled with water and the excess must run-off. The 24 northernmost counties on the other hand, are in two subsoil per¬ meability regions of a different nature: (1) “rapid permeability on level and on sloping topography," and (2) “moderate permeability on nearly level and on sloping topography."8 Both of these regions are primarily free of clay pans and permit rapid seepage into the mantle rock below. Landforms. The importance of slope in the problem of soil erosion is well known. Not only does a steep land gradient increase the velocity of the run-off which in turn causes greater destruction, but there is a close correlation between slope and soil types. And since different soils respond differently to surface run-off, slope exerts an indirect as well as direct influ¬ ence on soil erosion. In the first part of this paper attention was called to the fact that one- half of the counties having over 75 per cent of their area affected by “serious" and “destructive" erosion contain the most rugged topography in the State. Because the hill region in southern Illinois is conducive to erosion, the Illinois Soil Survey, after studying the present conditions, recommends that “all slopes exceeding about 7 per cent should be in perma¬ nent pasture or forest. . . Slopes of less than 7 per cent, if tilled, should be farmed on the contour and some kind of vegetation cover left on the land as much of the year as possible to protect it from erosion.”19 Thus we see that three primary physical features of geography, weather and climate, soil, and landforms play an important part in influencing the distribution and seriousness of soil erosion. In addition to physical causes, man, with many of his well meaning practices, has also accelerated erosion. It is only natural that when the ground was covered with a grass and tree vegetation erosion was negligible. But when man settled in southern Illinois, he could hardly have caused greater erosion had he planned it. He cut down forests and plowed the grass sod under. He brought steep slopes under cultivation. Open cultivated crops of corn, cotton, and sweet potatoes were grown under a one crop system and with the furrows running up the slope rather than against it. Man often burned the vegetation that might have become humus, and he often overgrazed the pastures. Cover crops and green manure crops were not generally grown. Now that we are acquainted with the physical and cultural causes of soil erosion, a way of reducing and preventing it should be followed. Since 160 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions we cannot change the physical environment, man must change his practices so that they will be more in harmony with conditions in nature. Through experimentations, remedial practices of soil erosion such as contour farming, terracing, winter cover crops, etc., should be studied and followed. 1 This map is taken from A National Plan for American Forestry, p. 375, Senate Document No. 12, First Sessions of the 73rd Congress. Since this map was issued, more detailed research indicates that a revised soil erosion map will be necessary No revised map has been issued yet. (May 6, 1938.) Such a revised map, when issued, will show more detailed information. The relation of one eroded part of the state to another, however, which is the central theme of this paper, would be approximately the same on the new map. . , . - 2 “Destructively eroded areas are defined by Dr. A. E. Norton, assistant chief of the Illinois State Soil Survey, as ‘areas which cannot be cultivated by _any prac¬ tical known means at a profit because they erode faster than it is possible to build the soil up . . Dr. Norton defines seriously eroded lands as areas which cln be cultivated by specialized methods tor profit' . . . No doubt much of it could best be utilized in forests until such a time as there is greater demand for cultivated crops than at present.” A National Plan for American Forestry, Senate Document No. 12, First Session of the 73rd Congress, P- 374. 3 Two of these counties are also bound by the Mississippi river. (Of the 16 counties having over 75 per cent of their area affected by serious and de¬ structive” erosion, 6 are bound by the Mississippi river. „ 4 A National Plan for American Forestry, op. cit., Figures obtained from page 375 6 Norton, E. A., and others, Jackson County Soils. Soils Report No. 55, 1933, P " « Smith R S., and others, “Parent Materials, Subsoil Permeability and Surface Character of Illinois Soils,” Map in pocket of book entitled, Surface Character of ZZZiU?X1 2 3 4 S * * 8 9bid0/lMap in pocket of book entitled. Subsoil Permeability of Illinois Soils. 8 Ibid! 9 Ibid. p. 13. Geography — 1938 Meeting 161 The Lake District of Northeastern Illinois and Southeastern Wisconsin Alfred W. Booth University of Illinois , Urbctna , Illinois The lake district of northeastern Illinois and southeastern Wisconsin is about 12 to 30 miles wide and 70 miles long and trends roughly north and south about 20 miles inland from the Lake Michigan shoreline. Despite the advanced stage of the agricultural occupance of this area, it is one of the most important recreational districts in the Middle West, for within it there are over 150 lakes, the primary focal points for a great number and a great variety of recreational forms and activities. This district may be said to exhibit a “mature” recreational landscape. This maturity is ex¬ pressed by (1) a complete utilization of the most desirable shore sites, (2) the over-crowding of cottages in less desirable sites, (3) the comparatively small number of hotels and resorts, (4) the growing permanency of land ownership of lakeshore sites, and (5) the growing tendency toward all-year occupance of lakeshore homes. The lakes of the district are largely of glacial origin occupying drift- blocked, preglacial valleys, valleys lying between marginal moraine ridges, former glacial drainage channels, simple or complex ice-blocked depressions, and depressions in the ground moraine surface. However, the original char¬ acter of many of the lake basins has been changed by much damming and dredging activity, brought about primarily by the present great demand for more and better cottage sites. The most valuable type of shoreline is one which rises rather steeply from the water level, thus allowing for a better view, insuring fairly deep water close to shore, and affording better drainage. The character of the offshore bottom, as an adjunct to bathing, is another significant site factor and has determined quite frequently the locations of the larger resorts. The vegetation of the shoreline might also be considered amongst the criteria determining site attractiveness. Certainly a wooded plot, especially if it contains indigenous oak and hickory trees, is most desirable, while an area of coarse marsh grass is least desirable. All of the lakes were naturally stocked with a great variety of fish and although the supply has been greatly depleted, extensive planting has prevented complete fish depopulation. By and large, however, fishing is at present only a minor attraction of the district. Several situational factors also help determine land values. Among these are (1) ease of access, at one time determined by distance from a railroad and now by distance from a concrete highway, and (2) the prox¬ imity of such recreational facilities as golf courses, amusement parks, re¬ sorts, riding stables, or scenic areas such as are found in the nearby rough marginal moraines. This lake district has long been a center of attraction, and as early as 1856 fishermen from Chicago were journeying to Lake Geneva. Since that time there has been a steady growth in the utilization of the area for recre¬ ation. This growth was greatly accelerated in the post war period with the common use of the automobile and the improvement of highway facilities. In this latest period nearly every lake, including some only 10 acres in size, was made the scene of active subdividing schemes. These schemes, because of the earlier utilization of the best sites and because of rising land values, have led to the use and overcrowding of fair and poor sites. As a result, 162 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions many lakes exploited during the past 20 years are actually surrounded by villages of rather poor summer homes, some of which might actually be considered rural slums. , , , , .. , . The summer home or summer cottage is, by all odds, the most important and conspicuous cultural feature of the landscape of the lake district. There are approximately 15,000 of these structures in the region and they vary considerably in their appearance, running the gamut from stately mansions to flimsy four-walled shacks. The most common type of summer home is a rectangular, one-storied, frame building with two or three rooms, partially surrounded by a wide porch. Usually such an average cottage occupies a wooded 60 to 80 foot lot with exclusive lakeshore frontage, has a garage and a short private pier, and is supplied with electricity. Boathouses are generally found associated with the larger and more pretentious summer h0min addition to the summer cottage, there are numerous other features and forms which attest to the recreational use of the lake district. Usually the larger lakes have one or two hotel resorts, each with its battery of cot¬ tages At present, the number of resorts, is comparatively small (co; 72), emphasizing the fact that this is a mature recreational area— an area with a semi-permanent or summer population, too over-crowded and too accessible to the larger cities to attract visitors from a great distance. Most of the fesorts now function by maintaining public bathing beaches and renting boats to week-end visitors. In addition to the resorts, the highways of the area are everywhere with roadside eating houses, taverns, barbecue stands, and dancing pavilions, while every city and village in the region offers many forms of entertainment to visitors and lakeshore residents. Indeed, most of the settlements in the district function chiefly as recreational cen¬ ters a fact more easily understood when one realizes that on a summer weekend there are approximately 150,000 outsiders utilizing the area. Certainly this lake district constitutes one of the most important and valuable recreational assets of the states of Illinois and Wisconsin, and despite the haphazard and sometimes disastrous way in which it has been exploited, still lends itself to further scientific development. Much of the submarginal land in areas of marginal moraines should be restored to wood¬ land. A zoning plan to insure larger lots, better cottages, and more esthetic laying out of subdivisions should be enacted. More scenic drives, river and lake parkways, and public bathing beaches and camping grounds should be planned. And perhaps some thought should be given to controlled suburban¬ ization of the whole district. Geography — 1938 Meeting 163 The Muskingum Climatic Study A. D. Cutshall Valmeyer , Illinois Historical Development The Oklahoma Climatic Research Center at Kingfisher, organized in the fall of 1935, was a pioneer in the field of microclimatology. This project comprised approximately 200 stations located about three miles apart in three counties of west-central Oklahoma. It was in operation about 18 months and furnished the data for several scientific papers such as Thornthwaite’s “Life History of Rainstorms”.1 It was discontinued in June, 1937. In February, 1937, plans were begun for establishing a similar, but larger unit in the Muskingum Valley of eastern Ohio. The first station of the new project began reporting the last of April, and all the data received after June 1 is considered satisfactory. Undoubtedly the individuals in charge of this project had various and sundry reasons for choosing an area in Eastern Ohio. Certainly the associ¬ ated work already in progress there was a vital factor in the final decision. The Muskingum Conservancy District was then in the process of constructing a series of 14 flood control dams in that drainage basin. There were two permanent Soil Conservation Service Experiment Stations in the area, namely at Zanesville and Coshocton; as well as the State Agriculture Experi¬ ment Station at Wooster. Furthermore there were four demonstration projects and several CCC soil erosion camps in operation. All of these agencies were able to give physical, and, in some cases, scientific assistance to the project. Scientifically, southeastern Ohio offered physiographic and climatic phenonoma which were almost a direct antithesis of those experi¬ enced in Oklahoma. Objects of the Study It is expected that such a detailed climatic study will permit a more accurate determination and give a better understanding of the frequency and intensity of rainstorms in individual areas; and, at the same time, give further information on the areal expanse and movement of individual storms. In this work each rainstorm can be treated as an individual unit and traced in detail across the entire 8,000 square miles of the Muskingum drainage basin. Also, the hydrologists of the Muskingum Conservancy District are work¬ ing in close cooperation with the members of the Washington staff of the Conservation Service in developing improved methods of flood forecast. This, of course, suggests a new approach to the problem of flood hazards by study¬ ing the characteristics of complete storms through the data obtained by simultaneous observations from numerous, closely-spaced stations. There is also the problem of soil erosion and the technical people of the Soil Conservation Service are now utilizing this data in studying the rain¬ fall-run-off relationship, thereby giving it a practical application in the field of soil erosion and land utilization. This is in keeping with the policy of the Conservation Service in studying erosion processes and their variation with changing rainfall intensities. 164 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Personnel This project is under the general supervision of C. W. Thornthwaite, and under the immediate supervision of Leonard B. Corwin, both in the section of Climatic and Physiographic Research, Soil Conservation Service. The project manager, as well as the laboratory supervisors and most of the field supervisors have had geographic or climatic training. The routine lab¬ oratory, shop and observation work is done entirely by W.P.A. labor; of course under the constant supervision of these trained individuals. It may be assumed that individuals of the caliber found on relief roles would not be suitable for scientific work. However, in most cases, they, have proved to be quite satisfactory. Many of the observers became quite com¬ petent in a very short time and, generally speaking, have put themselves wholeheartedly into their work, realizing that they are merely a cog in a large scientific wheel. The laboratory workers, too, have turned out some excellent examples of isopleth maps, which were neatly and accurately colored. Station Location and Equipment The 500-odd stations are located at the home of the respective observers. Theoretically they were to be four miles apart; however, the final location and distribution was somewhat dependent upon the number and residence location of the available WPA workers. a ^ Each station is equipped with a rain gage, wind tower, and shelter house, the latter containing a minimum thermometer and both a wet and dry bulb psychrometer. The purchase of such a quantity of meteorological apparatus would probably have been the defeat of the project. Therefore, the Service was required to build all but the most technical equipment. For example, the wind towers and shelter houses were constructed entirely by the W.P.A. shop laborers, the shelter houses costing only a mere fraction of what they would command on the market. The total cost of one of these S. C. S. stations was less than 15 per cent of the cost of similar previous installations. Compilation of Data Each observer is required to make his wind, temperature, and cloudiness observations and recordings at 30-minute intervals from 7 A. M. to 7 P. M. These are recorded on convenient printed cards and mailed the morning fol¬ lowing their completion. The chart on the rain gauge is inspected daily, being removed and mailed each morning following a rain. Upon receipt of these cards and charts the laboratory workers check them and plot the data for each 30-minute interval on large onion paper base maps of the Muskingum Drainage Area. To avoid confusion each phenonomon is plotted on a separate map. After the plotting is completed the isopleths are drawn and inked, the map smoothly colored, then checked by a supervisor and filed for reference. Results and Conclusions This detailed climatic study in conjunction with the work being done in the field of flood control by the Muskingum Conservancy Project has caused this drainage basin to be referred to as the world’s greatest hydro- graphic laboratory. Certainly the climatic study provides observations at more frequent intervals of time and space than is carried on by any other organization, and this procedure may easily give new knowledge concerning some aspects of local meteorology. Undoubtedly this information will prove valuable to anyone working on a geographic problem in eastern Ohio, and it has already created an interest in the area for two or three individuals are now planning to work or are working on Ph.D. dissertations dealing with the Muskingum Valley or some portion of it. Geography — 1938 Meeting 165 The real value of this study is not due to its continuation over a period of years, but to the obtaining of sufficient simultaneous observations to per¬ mit the classification of rainstorms on the basis of their individual char¬ acteristics. In conclusion, I wish to use the words of one of our outstanding physical geographers, Richard J. Russel of Louisiana State University. At the Ann Arbor meeting of the Association of American Geographers he said, “The Muskingum Climatic Project is an outstanding cooperative project in physical geography and the results should justify the expense a thousand times”. 1 Geog. Rev., vol. 27, pp. 92-111, (Jan. 1937). 166 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Municipal Water Supplies of Illinois* Leslie A. Holmes Illinois State Normal University , Normal , Illinois AN ABSTRACT The Municipal water supplies of Illinois are obtained from three sources. The northern part of the State obtains its water from deep, bed rock wells, the central part from shallow wells into the glacial drift, while the southern part obtains its supply from surface waters. There are many exceptions in eaCh Northern*1 Illinois. This area extends from the Wisconsin boundary south to an irregular line drawn from Streator east to the Indiana boundary and southwest to where the Des Moines River joins the Mississippi River at Keokuk Iowr» Most of the cities in this area obtain water from deep wells drilled into the Ordovician or Cambrian formations. The water obtained is rela¬ tively low in mineral content and is almost always cool and pure. Most of the wells are less than 2,000 feet deep. The biggest problem in this area is lack of volume. If the wells are pumped rapidly the volume of water produced decreases in proportion. As a result many of the larger cities in this area, as for instance, the cities along Lake Michigan, Rock Island and Moline, have had to resort to treated surface water for their municipal supplies. Rockford with a population ot 86,000 is the largest city using deep well water. It obtains its supply from wells drilled to a maximum depth of 1,600 feet. . Scattered throughout this region are shallow wells drilled into the glacial drift. These wells serve the smaller cities with water that frequently has a mineral content higher than that of the deep wells. For example the deep wells of Rockford produce water with a mineral content of 323 parts per million while in Poplar Grove nearby the water produced from drift wells has 402 parts per million. Another example is Freeport with water from deep wells having 449 parts per million while Pearl City nearby uses drift water with 538 parts per million. . . In some cases the drift wells produce water with less mineral content than the deep wells. This becomes increasingly common the further south in Illinois one goes. For example the drift wells of LaSalle produce water with 550 parts per million, while at Peru, next door, the deep wells produce water with 878 parts per million. , Central Illinois . This area extends southward from the Streator bound¬ ary on the north to a line extending roughly east and west through northern Calhoun County, Pana, and Effingham. . Most of the cities in this area obtain water from glacial drift, lhis drift is an excellent reservoir since it is deep and porous. The wells pro¬ duce water quite similar in total mineral content to that of many of the northern Illinois drift wells. Drift wells here do not produce sufficient water for the larger cities, so water supply from this source is confined to smaller towns. There are several outstanding exceptions. For instance Peoria uses water from drift wells. These wells are located near the Illinois River. Indirectly some water may come from this source. Champaiga- Urbana also uses water from drift wells. In the case of Peoria much of the water used in manufacturing is obtained from the Illinois River. Cham¬ paign and Urbana are not manufacturing cities, so do not use large volumes of water. Large cities in this area that are required to use surface water * The information used in this report was obtained from the Illinois Depart¬ ment of Public Health and the Illinois State Water Survey. Geography — 1938 Meeting 167 because of insufficient drift water are Bloomington, Quincy, Springfield, Decatur, and Danville. Even though the drift wells produce water that is low in mineral con¬ tent, most of the surface water supplies contain even a smaller amount. For example, the water from the drift wells of Normal has a mineral con¬ tent of 460 parts per million, while the surface water used by Bloomington has a mineral content at 261 parts per million. Another example of this same situation is at Mattoon. Here the mineral content of the water from drift wells is 500 parts per million, while that in Charleston’s surface water supply is 281 parts per million. There are a few deep wells in this middle area but frequently the water produced has a high mineral content. Minonk’s deep well produces water containing 2,210 parts per million. Toluca’s deep well produces water with a mineral content of 2,006 parts per million. South Illinois. This area extends southward from the northern Calhoun County, Pana, and Effingham boundary of the Central area, to the southern part of the state. Most of the cities in this area obtain their water supply from surface sources. It is impossible for them to obtain enough water from the drift since in this section the drift is usually thin with very little pore space. For this reason it makes a very poor reservoir for large quantities of water. The cost of drilling deep wells, and of pumping them after drilling, is prohibitive since in some places the wells would have to be as much as 5,000 feet deep. Water produced from these wells would be highly charged with minerals, and hence, without treatment would be unfit for human use. This then leaves but one satisfactory source of water and that is from the sur¬ face of the land. Usually the streams are dammed and a reserve of water obtained in this manner. Since the soil is compact there is little loss of reservoir water excepting by evaporation. Surface supplies here have the same advantages and disadvantages as are found at other places in Illinois. The advantage is that the water is low in mineral content. At Centralia the surface supply has 178 parts per million and at Carbondale 163 parts per million. The disadvantage is that all surface water must be purified. Summary Because of definite physical conditions it is advantageous for northern Illinois to use deep wells, central Illinois to use drift wells, and southern Illinois to use surface water. These regions, in every case, however, have cities using other sources of water. In the last ten years there has been a tendency for the three regions to develop surface water supplies. This tendency will probably continue as the demand for water in Illinois increases. 168 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Oil Shale and the Petroleum Problem Chandonette Norris Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois The threatening shortage of the oil supply of the United States as shown by increased oil consumption and diminishing reserves, constitutes a serious problem. In 1936 about one billion barrels were consumed, drawn from a reserve of thirteen and a half billion barrels. A consumption of one billion barrels and the addition of only nine hundred million barrels per year as estimated for 1936, represents an alarming shortage. With the yearly increase in consumption the reserves are inadequate. One solution of the problem lies in the utilization of oil shale of which the United States has enormous deposits west of the Appalachians and in Colorado, Wyoming and Utah. . — . o An oil shale is a bituminous rock containing kerogen. Kerogen is a mixture of hydrocarbons not identical with the petroleum series. It must be processed to obtain the crude oil. Crushing prepares it for the retorts in which distillation takes place. The crude oil distilled from shale is more difficult to refine than petroleum crude for it contains a greater percentage of substances that must be removed. Each shale presents a different re¬ fining problem. . Shale oil has been used as a petroleum substitute in many countries, but competition with low petroleum prices has made government protection necessary. The Scottish product is aided by a tax on foreign gasoline and oil. The Esthonian government operates successfully a large shale plant by forbidding the importation of foreign fuel. By making use of a very eco¬ nomical process and cheap labor, Japan is extracting fuel for her navy from Manchurian deposits. With the application of sanctions during the Ethiop¬ ian war, Italy resumed distillation of shales in Sicily. The development ot oil shales at this time by these nations is a result of their desire for economic independence. . _ However, in the United States shale oil must compete with very cheap petroleum. The high cost of shale oil is due to comparatively expensive processing costs which produce at present a slightly inferior oil. Compe¬ tition must await a rise in petroleum prices, a time that now seems remote. Even then, oil shale may not be the substitute. Gasoline has been made by pressure cracking of coal-tar and by hydrogenation of coal. If these processes prove commercially satisfactory, the long-established coal industry may offer a more efficient and economical substitute. Papers In Geology Extract From the Report oe the Section Chairman , •+v,Th\1^ei0l5gyr^ection carried thirteen papers, of which seven are here¬ with published. The other six were: Surface Geology of the Carbondale Quadrangle, by J. E. Lamar State Geological Survey, Urbana. Surface Geology of the Alto Pass Quadrangle, by George E. Ekblaw State Geological Survey, Urbana. The Undeveloped Coal Resources of Southern Illinois, by Gilbert H Cady, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Improved Projection of Optical Apparatus, by T. T. Quirke Univer¬ sity of Illinois, Urbana. The Scenic Geology of the Illinois Ozarks, by S. C. Trigg Eldorado The Subsurface Geology of the Carbondale Region, by L.’ E Work¬ man, State Geological Survey, Urbana. About forty-five attended the meeting for theT193S9tameeto0grthWeStern UniVersity’ Evanston, was elected Chairman (Signed) Clarence Bonnell, Chairman r i69 ] 170 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The New Centralia Oil Field1 Alfred H. Bell2 Introduction The New Centralia oil field is of special interest at this time for several reasons (1) It is being drilled more rapidly than any other field in the State. (2) Geologically, it is located along a well-known line of structural disturbance — the DuQuoin-Centralia monocline — and the new well data are revealing that the structure of the Chester strata differs considerably from that of the Pennsylvanian strata. (3) Economically, the rapid additions by this field to the daily production of the State have resulted in a critical con¬ dition of the oil market locally, necessitating curtailment of production by oil buyers in this field. The writer’s purpose in this paper is to describe briefly the development of the New Centralia field and to discuss some of the subsurface geologic features revealed by the new drilling. Discovery The discovery well of the New Centralia oil field — the Adams Oil and Gas Company, Schmitz No. 1 well (SE corner, NE %, sec. 2, T. 1 N., R. 1 W., Clinton County, Illinois) — was completed November 30, 1937, and was put on production early in December. The initial production was 156 barrels “natural” on the pump from the Benoist sand in the Chester series 1348-1384 feet. This well is located on the northwest flank of a small closure on Coal No. 6, as shown in a map published by the Illinois State Geological Survey in 1927 (Illinois Petroleum No. 10). The Adams Oil and Gas Company made seismograph investigations in the area before choosing the location of the successful test well. Development Up to April 29, 1938 The rapidly increasing drilling activity in the New Centralia field during the past five months is shown in the following table: Date Producing wells Dry* holes Drilling wellsf Rigging up New locations December 1 _ _ 1 0 0 0 0 January 1 _ 2 0 0 0 0 February 1 _ _ 5 0 4 1 5 March 1 _ 12 0 13 16 3 April 5 - _ 64 0 56 16 3 April 29 _ 102 2 92 14 5 t Includes drilling wells shut down. * Within I mile of producing wells. The wells are drilled with rotary tools and 6%-inch casing is set on top of the Benoist sand and cemented. Average depth to top of Benoist is approximately 1,350 feet. The “pay” or oil-saturated sand is usually from 20 to 30 feet thick. A small shot of nitroglycerine (usually 10 qts.) is used in most of the wells. Initial production varies from 15Q to 500 barrels. 1 Published with the permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. 2 Geologist and Head of the Oil and Gas Division, Illinois State Geeological Survey. Geology — 1938 Meeting 171 Up to April 29, 1938, the New Centralia field has yielded 264,000 barrels of oil. On April 19 the daily production of the field had risen to 6,200 barrels or an average per well of approximately 62 barrels daily. On April 20, production was ordered curtailed to 20 barrels per well by the pipe line companies because the storage was full at the refineries which were taking the oil. The apparent producing area of the New Centralia field as of April 29 was 1,000 acres of which 840 acres, more or less, are outside the city limits and 160 acres, more or less, inside the city limits. Of the 102 wells pro¬ ducing on that date, 51 were outside the city and 51 inside. Outside the city most of the wells are spaced in a rectangular 10-acre pattern. Inside the city the average spacing was 1 well per 3 acres on April 29 with about 70 oper¬ ations (including drilling wells, rigs and new locations) which would result in an average spacing of about 1.3 acres per well. The New Centralia field brings forward in an acute form one of the problems of the oil industry— that of the proper control of well spacing in a townsite development. Cross-Section When the discovery well was completed it was at once apparent that the interval from Coal No. 6 to the Benoist sand is much less than anywhere else in the area where the Benoist had been drilled. Fig. 1 — Cross section in Centralia oil field area. 172 Illinois State Academy 0/ Science Transactions Interval from Coal No. 6 to Benoist Sand Well Feet Increase in interval from Roth well 853 18 835 955 120 990 155 1,105 270 An interpretation of the manner in which this interval changes from the central part of the field in a direction north and east is shown in figure 1 According to this interpretation the change in interval is principally due to the absence on top of the structure of some of the forma¬ tions in the Chester which are present off structure. There is also a marked thinning on structure of several Chester formations as for example the Tar Springs, Golconda and Cypress. A period of uplift and erosion of post-Chester, pre-Pennsylvanian age in this area is indicated. The present outline of the producing area indi¬ cates a trend west of north and east of south for the Benoist sand struc¬ ture. This trend does not seem to be reflected in the structure of Coal No. 6, in which the principal structural trend — the Centralia monocline and fault — is almost due north and south. Geology — 1938 Meeting 173 Rotary Drilling in Illinois* George V. Cohee Illinois State Geological Survey , Urbana To the end of 1937 over 20,000 oil wells have been drilled in Illinois, practically all of which have been drilled with churn-drill rigs. The first oil well in Illinois drilled by the rotary method was the discovery well of the Patoka field, completed in January, 1937. Since that date nearly all of the wells in the new fields of the State have been drilled with rotary rigs. The churn-drill method works on the principle of percussion; a heavy steel bit attached to a manila rope or wire line is raised and dropped about 2 feet on the bottom of the hole to shatter and pulverize the rock. After drilling a few feet the tools are removed from the well and the sludge and cuttings are bailed from the bottom of the hole. The bailer is con¬ structed of pipe, in the lower end of which is a valve that opens by the upward pressure of the fluid passed through as the bailer descends and closes when the bailer is raised. After all of the cuttings are bailed from the hole the tools are again placed in the hole and drilling is resumed. .The churn-drill method was used by the Chinese centuries before the Christian era. It consisted of a bit suspended from one end of a horizontal cross-pole securely anchored at the other end. Coolies, jumping upon a plat¬ form connected to the free end of the cross-pole, provided the motive power for raising the tools which, descending by gravity, deepened the hole.1 Later came the spring-pole drilling which was used until the latter part of the nine¬ teenth century, and then the power driven churn-drill machines now used. The first well in Illinois to be drilled by the rotary method was drilled by a portable rotary rig, which had the power and drilling machinery mount¬ ed on a large truck. Stationary rotary rigs soon made their appearance m the Patoka, Cisne, and Clay City fields. During 1937, 447 wells were drilled in Illinois and of this number, 285 were drilled with rotary rigs. In rotary drilling the rock formations being drilled are chipped away by the grinding action of the rotating steel bit. The bit is attached to the bottom of a thick-walled pipe called the “drill stem”. The “kelly” or “grief” stem is attached to the upper end of the drill pipe and extends upward through a square hole in the power driven rotary table. It is free to move vertically from a swivel and to rotate with the table while the upper part of the swivel and hoisting block remains stationary. The swivel, kelly stem and drill stem are hollow, so that the drilling mud may be pumped under high pressure down to and out through holes in the bit. The stream of mud keeps the bit cool, washes the cuttings away from the cones, and car¬ ries them upward between the drill stem and the wall of the hole to the surface where they are allowed to settle out in “slush pits”. After the cut¬ tings have settled out, the mud is then pumped into the well again. This circulation is continuous as long as drilling is carried on. In addition to carrying the cuttings to the surface, the mud plasters the side of the hole and prevents caving. This is especially necessary while drilling in the Chester series in the Illinois basin. The Chester shales disintegrate when water touches them. In rotary drilling the face of the shale is mudded and does not cave. When drilling through the Chester shales with cable tools frequently it is necessary to drill a few feet and lower the casing and drill some more in order to prevent serious caving of the hole. Urba*nfUl!jtaoids W“h permission of the chief> State Geological Survey. 174 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Drilling Mud. The physical properties of the mud used m drilling are varied according to the drilling conditions. If the hole caves, a speciaHy prepared clay which forms a gel is added to the drilling mud to make it thicker, more effectively plastering the wall of the hole, so that it will stand up In most wells drilled so far in Illinois, it has been necessary to use a special mud only to drill through the glacial drift to set the surface pipe. For the rest of the hole the formations drilled through usually contain an abundance of shale and the mud formed weighs from 8 to 10 pounds per gallon In some wells in the Clay City and Noble fields special mud weighing 10.4 pounds per gallon is used in drilling from the Cypress sandstone to the McClosky sand. This especially heavy mud is used to prevent caving in the Paint Creek shales immediately below the Cypress. The Paint Creek shale causes more difficulty in drilling than any other CheSFresh water is used in drilling and the mud remains fresh even though salt water formations are drilled through. As the pressure is very high, the mud ^enters* the pore spaces in sands near the hole sealing off the salt water. Since salt water will flocculate the clay particles, it is important that the salt content of the mud be kept at a minimum. Adequate Water Supply Necessary for Rotary Drilling. One of the big problems confronting rotary drilling, especially in the summer months is an adequate water supply. The Diesel drilling ngi ises from 500 to 0 barrels of water a day, while the steam rig uses fiom 800 to 1,400 parrels It is usually necessary to pump water from a nearby creek or river to have a sufficient auantity of water to supply a number of drilling wells. Drilling Time. The wells in the Clay City and Noble fields are cfriHed to a depth of about 3,000 feet. It usually requires from 18 to 21 days to drill a well in these fields to the McClosky “sand”. The wells m . the i Cen- tralia field are drilled in four or five days. The producing formation is the Benoist sand and is reached at a depth of about 1,350 feet Usually sand- stone drills the fastest, then porous limestone, shale and solid limestone in inCreTahln!hre*coney'type of bit is used in drilling the wells. BMhMt costs annroximately $100. The average number of bits used m drilling a 3,000 foot hole in the Illinois basin is about 15. However, this number will vary with drilling conditions. In a recent test, drilled a little more than 4,00 feet deep to the St. Peter sandstone, 95 bits were used. The cherty forma¬ tions of the Devonian system penetrated in this well were especially hard to dlillThc average cost of drilling in the new fields is about four dollars a foot. A completed oil well in the Clay City and Noble field costs from 20 to 25 thousand dollars. In the Centralia field it is from 8 to 9 thousand dollars; this includes the necessary equipment f( or producing the wells. neces_ Comparison of casing programs for rotary and cable tools. It is neces¬ sary to case off the water sands before drilling deeper, using cable tools, b cause deeper oil sands may be flooded. The hydrostatic pressure of the column of water above the sand may be sufficiently hi^^^^ back into the formation. In the discovery wells of theCinw and day City fields a number of strings of casing were run m order to shut off salt water from sands passed through in drilling to the oil i sand The amount of casing used in the discovery- tveil of the' ClsIJe -1® ?. follows: 44 feet of 20-inch casing; 447 ’feet of 1^'1Qn/9h^;06n5f /?ch3 ’ 2,142 feet of 103,4-inch; 2,877 feet of 8%-inch; 2,942 feet of 5%-mch. With rotary drilling only two strings of casing are used In the Clay City and Noble fields, the well is drilled to a depth of About 200 feet .an 10-inch casing is run to this depth and cemented. The well is then drille to the bottom of the pay sand with open hole. If the well ^ll] ma^.®rPth ducer, 7-inch casing is run to the top of the sand and cemented After the cement has set and the concrete plug at the bottom of the hole has been drilled out, the well is usually acidized or shot with nitroglycerin if o not flow to the surface. This treatment makes a larger hole and m creases the porosity in the sand. If the well then does flow, a LJ^Tn unit which pumps the oil to the surface and into the storage tanks is in stalled. Geology — 1938 Meeting 175 Acknowledgment The writer extends to the representatives of the Pure Oil Company at Olney, Illinois, and the Shell Petroleum Corporation, Centralia, Illinois, ap¬ preciation for information regarding drilling in the new fields. The writer also acknowledges the suggestions and criticism of Dr. A. H. Bell, Head of the Oil and Gas Division of the Illinois State Geological Survey, in the prep¬ aration of the paper. 1 Diehl, John C. — Natural Gas Handbook, published by the Metric Metal Works, Erie, Pennsylvania (1927), page 215. 176 Illinois State Academy of Sdience Transactions Resins and Waxes in Colorado Coals E. C. Dapples Northwestern University , Evanston , Illinois The nature and behavior of resinous substances in the Upper Cretaceous coals of the Anthracite-Crested Butte quadrangles, Colorado, are being in¬ vestigated by the writer. At present such studies are still in the preliminary stage but certain information has been gathered which may be of interest to students of coal. , , , In the Anthracite-Crested Butte district all coals below the rank of an anthracite contain small blebs and veinlets of resinous substances. Some of these substances are known to be resins, whereas others have certain prop¬ erties which distinguish them from resins and are tentatively designated as “waxes.” Resins appear to be of two varieties, (1) oval-shaped, yellow or orange colored, anisotropic bodies which occur in resinous cells within cellular woody material, and (2) oval-shaped, round or angular masses of canary- yellow color occurring predominantly in the attritus. The former are found chiefly within the anthraxylon in ovaloids 1/100 mm. or less in diameter, but occasionally appear in the attritus. Thus they are distinct from the yellow resins which are strongly anisotropic and appear to be restricted to the attritus. Ordinarily the canary-yellow resins are irregularly distributed throughout the attritus much as are spores and cuticles, but occasionally they are found in zones within the attritus, suggestive of deposition as detrital grains. , . , .. Strongly contrasted with the resin cells m the anthraxylon and the canary-yellow bodies of the attritus are other gum-like substances, the “waxes” The former are microscopic in size but waxes range from small bodies less than 1/100 mm. in length to veinlets whose length exceeds 2 cm. The wax varies in color from a light honey-yellow color to a deep brown, and is readily distinguished under the petrographic microscope by its iso- tropism, in contrast to the anisotropism of the resins. Waxes appear to have several habits of occurrence. They may occur bedded within the attritus and in such instances appear to be original con¬ stituents, since the micro-banded attritus is commonly contorted about the wax bleb. In other cases wax occurs as fillings in cleat fractures, desiccation cracks within the anthraxylon, or not infrequently, filling lumens of plant cells in fusain. The latter cases demonstrate that wax may also be a sec¬ ondary deposit. Late secondary deposition of waxes was clearly shown in one case where a deposit of calcite and “kaolin” in a cleat fracture formed a crusted vein with the wax. The calcite-“kaolin” deposit lay adjacent to the coal, and the wax had been deposited on the inorganic matter. Waxes of the yellow, translucent type are extremely soft, having a hardness of 2, and break with conchoidal fracture into a white powder In ordinary light they have an index of refraction of 1.537 ± 2, and when fresh melt over a temperature range of 193-210 °C. A dark brown variety, melts at various temperatures ranging from 35 °C., for those fragments taken from highly weathered coal, to 180 °C. for those waxes taken from seemingly un¬ altered coal. Except for the great disparity in melting points the brown wax behaves very much like the yellow variety, and a complete gradation seems to exist between the two types. Either kind may occur singly but l the two occur together the yellow variety is always surrounded with brown wax. Likewise brown wax is rarely found without a yellow core. Geology — 1938 Meeting 177 Weathering alters the brown variety to a dark colored, granular sub¬ stance, which completely loses its brittleness and becomes a soft powder melting at temperatures as low as 35 °C. Such alteration is believed to be largely the result of oxidation, for yellow wax was altered to the brown variety by heating for 15 hours in an oven at a temperature of 130 °C well below the melting temperature of the yellow wax. Heating raised the index of refraction from 1.537 ± 2 to 1.551 ± 2, an increase which is proportional to the darkening of color. Similar results were produced by boiling the waxes five minutes in concentrated nitric acid. Oxidation of waxes within the coal was accomplished by heating polished blocks of coal containing vein- lets and lenses of waxes within the attritus. The blocks were heated in an oven for 300 hours at a temperature of 165 °C. When placed in the oven all waxes were of honey-yellow color but after eight hours of heating some had already become dark brown. Some waxes within the fissures had shrunk in size, allowing cracks to develop through their center. On the other hand some of the bedded waxes showed signs of swelling and had burst their way through the block to the polished surface. All such masses of wax were now a brown color. Twenty-four hours after first being placed in the oven the blocks were again removed. Some of the waxes had become so dark as to be nearly indistinguishable from the anthraxylon with which they were closely associated. In other instances honey-colored wax had altered to a powdery dark brown substance apparently identical with that noted in the highly weathered coal. After 300 hours of heating there was practically no further change beyond that of the first 24 hours. The dark material oc¬ cupying fissures was. partly dissipated or highly fractured but a few veinlets of lighter colored wax remained and by swelling had completely separated themselves from the polished block. Swelling seems to be followed in a later stage by marked shrinkage and Assuring of the wax. The study has not advanced sufficiently to warrant any definite conclu¬ sions except that changes in the resins brought about through heating in the laboratory seem to parallel those observed by White1 to have taken place as the coals approached higher ranks. Geol! Purvey .“prof! plpta!5!npP faTlnS.^8 ^ C°a'S °f Wgh rank : U- S' 178 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions A List of Coal Ball Plants from Calhoun, Richland County Mary Celestin Fisher1 and A. C. Noe2 The coal balls which form the basis of this study were collected in the Calhoun Coal Mine, Richland County, Illinois, under the auspices of the Illinois State Geological Survey. The McLeansboro or Upper Conemaugh, in which geological horizon they were found, is the youngest formation in Illinois and was contemporaneous with the Stephanian of western Europe. Coal balls are nodules, usually calcareous, sometimes siliceous, found in certain localities in those coal seams which are overlaid by marine de¬ posits They are often crowded with plant remains of different kinds which have been petrified and so have not undergone carbonization. In order to study microscopically the plant structures found in them it is necessary to make sections of the coal balls. Thin sections may be made by sectioning with a diamond saw and then grinding with carborundum until they are transparent. A simpler method, that of making “peels, has made it possible to avoid some of the labor involved in making thin sec¬ tions. Peels are made by polishing the cut surface of the coal ball with carborundum and subsequently etching with a weak solution of HCl, which dissolves the inorganic surface material, leaving the organic plant tissue m relief. A thin film of nitrocellulose in butylacetate is poured on the surface. The peel can be removed when dry, which is usually about twenty-four hours later. Subsequent study with the microscope usually reveals nice details ot plant structure. , , _ ... . , .. The work of preparing peels of over one hundred and fifty coal balls was done by the authors. The species identified were represented by one, but occasionally by several, of the following structures: petioles, stems, strobili, spores, sporangia, glandular hairs, seeds, and roots. Explanation of Table 1. Table I indicates the relative frequency of the species identified in the coal balls studied. (++) Very common ( + ) Common ( — ) Infrequent 2. The numbers of the coal balls, as given in the table, refer to those in the University of Chicago paleobotany collection. 3. The table also indicates which of the specimens identified are listed in Koopman’s Monograph (14) on the coal balls of the Netherlands. 4. This American material is correlated with genera and species in Hirmer’s study (9). Specimens included which are identical as to species with those of Hirmer’s report are indicated with two stars; those which show generic relationship only are indicated with one star. 5. Each species included is followed by a letter in parentheses which indicates the initial of the author who has described or listed the specms as occurring in Calhoun coal balls: Crocker (C); Fisher and Noe (FN), Graham (G) ; Hoskins (H) ; Reed (R) ; Steidtmann (S); Underwood (U). 1 University of Chicago and Calumet High School, Chicago. 2 University of Chicago. Table I. — Frequency of Species Identified in Coal balls From Calhoun, Richland County, Illinois Geology — 1938 Meeting 179 uosstng W9o: a a !U §a *11 *1^-2 3 8*93.* *3 GQ 03 fl £ c4 oj O ^ @ oq-t'-S § 8 S' >>£ fc.2.2.2.2 § &‘S*S.2 =33=3j Iff | ||i !|J i i ! 1 1 2131° * s s s s 8s:s»a-g.S'“g Sg^SZiiHPLHPHPHf^aiaQOQaitBcoMcoE-i Geology — 1938 Meeting 181 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Bibliography fur ia fronde des Zygopteridees. Lille, 1909. Carpentier, Alfred, Etude de vegetaux a structure conservee. Lille, 1932. c Morphological Studies of some Illinois coal ball plants.” 1933 Whd Masters thesis’ Department of Botany, Syracuse University, Grstatn ’Te^nolS'yPa8ati?5-68f ^ ‘he peel method. Gaz 95 • fl°ra °f Plinois as revealed in coal balls. I. Bot. ’ Gaz 97 . f5ef1J|yli934an flora of Illinois as revealed in coal balls. II. Bot. Pber~ ^rkommen und Verbreitung der Dolomitknolen und clrbSnSere Li2g?°lf27SS P°Ur 1 advancement des etudes de stratigraphie H<8?-in4S27-36 St1926Ure °f Pennsylvanian* Plants from Illinois. I. Bot. Gaz. ~IL Bot GazteS85°^ 74^82 ^ °f Pennsylvanian Plants from Illinois. „OT, Tv/r-^n (ton^Tri^uti9fls to the coal measure flora of Illinois. The Ameri¬ can Midland Naturalist. 12: 154-63. 1930. thp MnT fanTn ,classiflcation of certain Cycadofilicinean roots from 1931 MCLeanSb°r° °f Illmois- American Midland Naturalist. 12: 533-48. ?2°ra e? fauna van het Nederlandsche karbon (Researches f T ? y03,1 &allsr from the “finef raunebenbank” horizon in the Province of Limburg). N. V. Boek, Heerlen, 1928. K 9arneife Yalletta . Structure of seedlike fructifications found in coal balls from Harrisburg, Illinois. Bot. Gaz. 93: 151-172. 1932 Noe, A. C., Coal balls. Science 57: 385. 1923. 52 A19?5 Pennsylvanian flora of northern Illinois. Ill. Geol. Survey Bull. 179-80 — 1925^ ballS hGre and abroad* Trans- HI- State Acad. Sci. 17: Coal-ball floras of Illinois. Trans. Ill. State Acad. Sci. 23: 429-. Reed, Fredda^Doris, Flora of an Illinois coal ball. Bot. Gaz. 81: 461-69 1926 ~ Bot. Gaz 9^e-P3d0°7C-ir5POni937rang:ia fr°m the Upper Carboniferous of Illinois! Stopes, M. C., and Watson, D. M. S., On the present distribution and origin ££ *he calcareous concretions in coal-seams, known as “coal balls.” Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 200(B): 167-218. 1909. n^dSm7^nn’ waldo E„ A preliminary report on the anatomy and affinities of 2 1 . 124-2 5 ^ 1937’ n°V* fr°m the Pennsylvanian of Illinois. Am. Jour. Bot. ^?ar?r .“Morphology of some Illinois coal ball plants.” Un¬ published Masters thesis, Syracuse University, 1934. 182 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Discovery of Sphalerite and Galena near Millbrook, Kendall County* J. Norman Payne Illinois State Geological Survey, Vrbana, Illinois SamDle cuttings from a well drilled in May 1937, on the Barron farm near Millbrook, m the NE % Sec. 9, T. 36 N„ R. 6 E„ Kendall County, I1U- nois (Fig 1), revealed an abundance of sphalerite and a trace of galena in a weathered portion of the Platteville dolomite directly underlying the glacial dnftf ^ weU from whlch this materlal was obtained is given as follows by Mr. B. L. Htajt, weU driller of Aurora, Depth Pleistocene system -- Glacial drift . Ordovician system Galena-Platteville formation Hard, Blue dolomite . . • ; • • & Conglomerate, soft, blue, cavey, containing ^ Hard dolomite . • • • 18 . L. E. Workman of the Subsurface Division, Illinois State Geological Survey, describes the mineral-bearing material which occurs between depths 60 fixture661 Rounded^^ragments of dolomite, light gray, fine vesicular more or less weathered, containing much finely disseminated marcasite, some sphalerite, and a trace of galena; loose, coarse crystals of sphalerite; numerous large, irregular masses of marcasite, apparently replacing plant fragments ; sand, coarse, rounded grains with secondary crystalline quartz sur- The bedrock^nder the glacial drift of this area is shown on geologic map (Fig. 1). It consists from the top downward of the Maquoketa shale, the Galena-Platteville dolomite, and St. Peter sandstone. Fig. i — Geologic map of Millbrook area. * Printed by permission of the Chief, State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois. Geology — 1938 Meeting 183 The rocks have a general eastward dip. The dominant regional struc¬ ture is the Kankakee arch, the crest of which is to the southwest of Mill- brook. This structure probably had its most important movement in the interval between the deposition of the Shakopee and the St. Peter forma¬ tions.1 However, there was some recurrent movement at some time after Maquoketa deposition, as is reflected in the gentle doming evident near Mill¬ ington, south of Millbrook. It was probably during this post-Maquoketa movement, which possibly may represent relaxational movements after the first intense folding of the LaSalle anticline, that the southeastward-trending fault zone, shown on the map, was developed. The fault zone is represented by two faults extending in a southeast direction, one through Sandwich and the Barron farm, and the other a parallel fault 3 or 4 miles to the southwest. Very probably other smaller faults connect the major faults. The sphalerite and galena found in the Barron well are probably a residue from solution in a sinkhole or cavern developed by groundwaters along a fault or in a joint near a fault. If the material occurs in a sink, it is capped by a boulder or overhanging cliff of dolomite encountered at 55 to 60 feet depth in the well. The proximity of the well to the Sandwich fault suggests that the mineralization is related to the faulting. Probably the fault fractures served as channels bearing the mineralizing solutions. Prospecting may reveal other deposits of these minerals. 1 Ekblaw. G. E., Kankakee Arch in Illinois: Bull. G. S. A. vol. 49, 1938, pp. 1425-1430. Reprinted as Illinois State Geological Survey Circular No. 40. —5 184 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Subsurface Stratigraphy of Pennsylvanian Formations Associated with Coal No. 6 in the Region of Centralia, Illinois* Gordon W. Prescott Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois Studies of cuttings from oil wells show a certain succession of strata associated with Coal No. 6 occurring over wide areas in Clinton and western Marion counties and adjacent regions. Because Coal No. 6 is frequently used for structure maps, it may be useful to describe the various elements in this group. The strata comprising a thickness of 150 feet includes four coal seams of which the second from the top is Coal No. 6, well known from mining operations and commonly used for Pennsylvanian structure maps. There are at least four groups of beds, each group containing a coal. The coals are designated as Coal A, Coal B or No. 6, Coal C, and Coal D, re¬ spectively, from top to bottom. In making this study data were used from the study of sample cuttings from fifteen wells in the Centralia region, three in the Bartelso field, two in western Clinton County, and four others at intervening locations. NO. 6 COAL AND ASSOCIATED STRATA NEAR CENTRALIA DEPTH SHALE, RED, LIGHT GRAY LIMESTONE, GRAY, VERY FINE SHALE, gray; limestone,gray, VERY FINE LIMESTONE, BROWN, LITHOGRAPHIC SHALE, CARBONACEOUS, BLACK COAL, UNDERCLAYiSHALE, LIGHT, GRAY, WEAK LIMESTONE .VERY FINE, BRECCIATED SHALE .GRAY, CRINOIDAL LIMESTONE, LITHOGRAPHIC , CRINOIDAL SHALE, CALCAREOUS, BLACK, BROWN LIMESTONE, ARGILLACEOUS, BLACK SHALE, CARBONACEOUS, BLACK COAL, HERRIN NO. 6 UNDERCLAYiSHALE , LIGHT GRAY LIMESTONE, ARGILLACEOUS, LITHOGRAPHIC SANDSTONE, GRADING TO SILTSTONE LIMESTONE.GR AY, LITHOGRAPHIC TO VERY SHALE, GRAY TO BLACK LIMESTONE, LIGHT GRAY, VERY FINE SHALE, CARBONACEOUS, BLACK COAL UNDERCLAY SILTSTONE, SANDSTONE, SHALE SHALE, SILTY, BROWNISH- GRAY SHALE, GRAY, BROWNISH - GRAY, SMOOTH LIMESTONE, LIGHT GRAY, LITHOGRAPHIC SHALE, CARBONACEOUS, BLACK COAL UNDERCLAY LIMESTONE, ARGILLACEOUS, GREEN ; SHALE, SANDSTONE WEST EAST 60 80 500 20 40 60 80 600 Printed by permission of the Chief, State Geological Survey. Geology — 1938 Meeting 185 The upper group contain Coal A and extends from a red rock at the top to a breeciated limestone at the bottom. The red rock is a red shale grading to light greenish-gray. Directly below the red rock is a very fine gray lime¬ stone, which in some places is cherty, the chert appearing to be a siliceous replacement of the limestone. Under the limestone is a medium gray, slightly calcareous shale which reaches a thickness of about 15 feet in the Centralia region but thins toward the west with an accompanying addition of lime¬ stone lenses. The limestone is usually very fine and light gray but is oc¬ casionally medium grained with fossil fragments. In the extreme western part of Clinton County it is somewhat dolomitic and the color grades from gray to light brown. Between this limestone and the black shale associated with Coal A is a light to dark brown limestone which is, in most places, lithographic, but is slightly dolomitic in western Clinton County. Over- lying Coal A is a highly carbonaceous, very firm black shale which, however, does not have a slaty appearance. The coal is usually only about 2 feet thick. Coal A is followed below by a light gray, weak underclay grading to shale, and a very fine, brownish-gray, partly breeciated limestone. The beds in the group associated with Coal B or No. 6 may be divided into three parts: 1) The upper shale and limestone, 2) the middle shale, limestone, slate, coal, and underclay, and 3) the limestone and sandstone below the coal. Both the shale and limestone in the upper portion of this group are crinoidal. The shale is calcareous, gray, smooth, and is prominent in all of Clinton County, except the extreme eastern part where it becomes only a thin parting between the limestones. The limestone is light brownish- gray in color with a lithographic to very fine texture. The middle shale is calcareous and gray. It becomes brownish in the western portion and dark gray in the eastern portion of Clinton County. The underlying limestone is a very persistent horizon and is constant as to lithology over a wide area. It is argillaceous, dark brown to black, very fine grained, and contains numerous foraminifera which are white or have a white outline giving the limestone a speckled appearance. Below the limestone is a very carbon¬ aceous, black slaty shale. Coal No. 6 has an average thickness of about 6 feet. It commonly has a blue shale band noted in diamond drill records and outcrop descriptions, but not evident in the sample cuttings. Below the underclay in the lower part of this group is a layer of limestone about 2 to 5 feet thick which is argillaceous, nodular, gray, very fine to lithographic; it is pyritic and sideritic in some places and often breeciated. In the west it thickens and becomes a pure lithograph limestone in the lower part. Be¬ low the limestone in western Marion and eastern Clinton counties is a sand¬ stone which grades to siltstone. It is about 10 feet thick in the east but lenses out to the west in western Clinton County. The sandstone is very silty, light gray to gray, very fine, and usually rather compact although it is friable in some localities. The siltstone is either interbedded with the sand¬ stone or completely takes the place of it. In the group which includes Coal C is a shale and limestone section above the coal with underclay and silty shale to sandstone below. The shale at the top of the group is dark gray to black in eastern Clinton County but grades to a gray shale in the west. Under the shale is a light gray, very fine limestone. In some places these beds have been cut out and are replaced by the sandstone occurring below Coal No. 6. Above Coal C is a carbonaceous black shale similar to the one above Coal A, although in some places it is brownish-gray instead of black. Coal C is commonly two or three feet thick and has an associated underclay. Below the underclay is a gray to brownish-gray, silty, firm shale interbedded with gray, argillaceous siltstone. In central Clinton County this shale and siltstone are represented by a sandstone that occupies the interval to the black shale above Coal D. In the eastern and western parts of the county the imbedded siltstone and sandstone grade downward into a brownish-gray, silty shale. The last group has at the top a shale, limestone, and sandstone. The upper shale of this group is gray to brownish-gray, smooth and firm, and is not silty as is the overlying shale. Below this shale is a light to medium gray, lithographic to very fine limestone, which is underlain by a carbon- 186 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions aceous black shale similar in appearance to that above Coal B or No. 6. Coal D is generally about 3 feet thick; below the coal is an underclay about 2 to 3 feet thick. The underclay grades downward into a weak to firm green shale containing lenses of greenish, argillaceous, lithographic to very fine limestone, which is occasionally quite pyritic. These beds thin and disappear to the west so that the sandstone which is below the limestone and shale is in contact with the underclay. The lower sandstone is silty, light gray, very fine, and compact. Geology — 1938 Meeting 187 Coal Balls as an Index to the Constitution of Coal* James M. Schopf Illinois State Geological Survey, JJrbana The Herrin (No. 6) coal at Nashville in central Washington County is on the whole fairly typical of what is known as “normally banded” bi¬ tuminous coal. In many places in the mine at Nashville there is in addition an upper bench of coal which on close scrutiny seems to vary considerably from the rest of the bed. The coal is finely striated somewhat like clarain, but is considerably brighter than usual and breaks with a marked conchoidal fracture similar to normal vitrain. It is apparent that this bench of the coal exhibits features commonly given as characteristic for hand specimens of both of these coal constituents. Microscopic observations on thin sections of the top coal reveal that it is composed to a large extent of small vitrain- ite bands and lenticles. Waxy constituents such as spores and cuticles are rarer than in ordinary clarain and the cell structure is in general more obscure than in the usual vitrainite observed in thin sections of Illinois coals. The coal balls found in this coal at Nashville occur almost exclusively in, top coal of this character. Ever since the important paper by Stopes and Watson, on the “ Origin of Calcareous Concretions in Coal Seams known as Coal Balls”,1 it has been evident that coal balls are formed in situ during the peat stage of coal forma¬ tion. Thus the organic remains within these concretions may be taken as a sample of the plant material which went into formation of the surround¬ ing coal. In recent years a great deal of attention has been given to study of the constitution of coal by use of thin sections, and etched, relief polished and simply polished coal surfaces. Coal balls, however, have received but very slight attention toward the elucidation of this subject although they would seem to be particularly suited to precise studies relating to the com¬ position of coal seams. The present study is based on analysis of the tissues preserved in the Nashville coal balls. Seven coal balls ranging in size from one about 18 inches across down to the smallest about 3 inches in diameter were selected from the hundred or so which have been sectioned. Nitrocellulose peels were prepared from the sectioned surfaces and the actual studies made from the peels. One horizontal line and one vertical line were ruled on peels from the smallest coal balls; several lines were ruled in each direction on the larger speci¬ mens. Care was taken to space the rulings so each would transect new ma¬ terial with the exception of where the vertical and horizontal lines crossed each other. The selection of coal balls and subsequent ruling was done with knowledge that some rather infrequent forms were present and an attempt was made to include some representation of each of these. A wholly random selection would probably have caused some types of vegetable ma¬ terial to be omitted. It seemed better to avoid this possibility although the percentage of area occupied by the rarer forms is naturally quite small. A glass millimeter rule was laid along the ruled lines and clamped in place with spring clips during each observation. The peels were examined under the low power Greenough type microscope, the plant material transected by the ruled lines was classified and its distance in each case along the line of observation recorded to estimated tenths of a millimeter. Over three meters of coal ball surfaces were measured in this way. Plant entities of the different classes were then totaled and the percentages of each com- puted. This data is presented in the accompanying block diagram which is •Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. 1 AT 0 on/l Tirnfortw Tv H/T o r»un m _ _ r. _ r , 200: pp. 167-218, 19093 Watson* D‘ M- S- Phil* Trans- Roy. Soc. London, B., vol. 188 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions largely self explanatory. Percentages of the more infrequent materials (of less than 2 per cent in each case) are blocked in on a larger scale below the 5 more frequent classes. The different plant entitites are combined according to the main groups of plants to which they belong in the smaller diagram at the lower right hand side of the cut. MATERIALS IN NASHVILLE COAL BALLS Psaronius root material PLANT GROUPS 50 45.38% Ferns (mostly Psaronius) 22.18%! Lycopods Pteridosperms (mostly Medullosa) Sphenophylls OTHER MATERIALS 20.59% Unidentifiable debris Not identified Free calcite The most striking thing illustrated by this diagram is the predominance of root material. Rootlets (Psaronius and Stigmarian) form 51.01 per cent of the material transected, a far greater percentage than any other indi¬ vidual type of component. The infrequence of woody tissues is also note¬ worthy and is quite representative of coal balls from this locality. An ex¬ planation for the finely striated bright Nashville top coal probably is to be found in the conjunction of these two factors. The rootlets are succulent and composed for the most part of delicate parenchyma cells. The thin- walled cells enclose large air spaces and are very evidently compressible into the characteristic vitrainite strips shown by thin sections from the top coal. These rootlets are lacking in waxy parts such as leaves possess. This, and their manner of introduction into the peat deposit by ramifying growth may account for the dense compact nature of the top coal which gives a good conchoidal fracture similar to that of hand specimens of vitrain. Unidentifiable general debris is an item of some significance. This ma¬ terial is in the form of disorganized cell and tissue fragments, spores, fusain particles and small masses of humic and waxy material. It bears a strong resemblance to the pulverized residue formed by work of insects in decomposing vegetable matter. No doubt a considerable quantity of this Geology — 1938 Meeting 189 material enters into the constitution of ordinary coal by filling the inter¬ stices. The presence of this material in coal contributes to the difficulty of precisely interpreting microscopic preparations of coal by direct observa¬ tion. In coal balls this comminuted portion is readily distinguished from the more complete plant parts. The amount of unidentifiable debris may reflect the degree to which decomposition was active during early stages of coal formation. The plant material in the coal balls has not been subject to a greater degree of packing than is evident in the uppermost layers of a modern peat deposit. Consequently many interstitial spaces are filled with free cal- cite. Such calcite areas free of plant material amount to 6.2 per cent in the specimens studied. This space would be completely eliminated by com¬ paction later in the coal forming process where calcite concretions were not present. The unidentifiable debris, lycopod leaf material, Medullosa petioles and other minor elements probably contribute in the normal formation of clarain when not effectively dispersed by a preponderance of rootlets. Any large slabs of homogeneous tissue either wood or bark would form a correspond¬ ing band of vitrain. As shown by the coal balls most of these latter tissues are too small in the Nashville material to form notable macroscopic bands of this sort. Plant organs composed of heterogeneous tissues such as petioles of Medullosa probably never would produce normal vitrain bands although under the microscope the individual tissues would be classifiable as vitrainite. In general it is evident that tree ferns (Psaronius) dominated in forma¬ tion of the Nashville top coal and Lycopods are probably next in importance. However it is somewhat misleading to assign importance in coal formation to particular plant groups as such. A truer relationship would seem to be manifest between the proportionate amounts of essentially similar tissues supplied for coal formation by various plants of the coal swamp flora. The Nashville coal balls seem to indicate that a large amount of succulent root tissues were included in the top coal and it is very likely that this was influential in determining the character of this particular kind of coal. Papers In physics Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman The program of the Physics Section carried fifteen papers, twelve of which are herewith published. The others were: Approach to Science via the Survey Course, by G. W. Warner Wil¬ son Junior College, Chicago. Scattering of Neutrons by Ortho and Parahydrogen, by J. H Man- ley, University of Illinois, Urbana. Compton Chart of the Electro-Magnetic Radiations, by D. L. Barr William M. Welch Mfg. Co., Chicago. Average attendance at the meeting was 40. A. Prances Johnson, Rockford College, Rockford, Illinois, was elected chairman of the 1939 meeting. (Signed) R. F. Paton, Chairman. I191| 192 Illinois State Academy of Sdience Transactions The Use of the Conventional Saw-Tooth Oscillator to Generate Steep VJuxe Front Impulses H. A. Brown and P. W. Ryburn University of Illinois , Urhana , Illinois Description of apparatus — The conventional saw-tooth oscillator used to produce a linear time base or sweep voltage for the cathode ray oscilloscope is shown with slight modifications in figure 1. The type 34 tube provides a constant rate of charging the condenser C, and at a critical condenser po¬ tential type 885 discharge tube breaks down so that the discharge current from the condenser flows through the plate-cathode circuit of the tube. The Fig. 1 — Conventional saw-tooth oscillator used to produce a linear time base or sweep voltage for the cathode ray oscilloscope, with slight modifications. switch S is closed to the right when the ordinary sweep voltage output is desired, allowing the 700 ohm limiting resistor in the discharge circuit as shown. When switch S is closed to the left this resistor is short circuited and a 1,000 ohm resistor R is introduced, and the condenser discharge pro¬ duces an impulse voltage drop across this resistor. There is also a voltage drop across the resistor while the condensers are charging, but this is so small compared to the amplitude of the impulse upon condenser discharge that the former is negligible in comparison. The 0.002 mf. condenser and 5 megohm resistor are connected across the impulse voltage output termma s Physics — 1938 Meeting 193 for convenient coupling to output circuits such as vacuum tube amplifier grids and so forth. From the impulse voltage terminal connection is made through a potentiometer to an impulse voltage amplifier illustrated in the figure. This impulse amplifier has low value coupling resistors and capacitor, that in the plate circuit of the type 45 power tube being of the order of 1,000 ohms or less. Impulse voltage amplitudes of 150 to 200 volts are thus easily obtained. A cathode-ray tube K is shown in the figure with its vertical deflection plates connected to the amplifier output by means of switch Si. By means of switch S2 the horizontal deflection plates can be connected to another sweep circuit shown in the figure so that a pattern of the impulse voltages can be observed on the cathode-ray tube screen. Impulse voltage pattern — When the cathode ray tube is used as ex¬ plained, impulse voltage waves which appear to be simply spaced parallel lines perpendicular to the time base trace are observed. These are illus¬ trated in the small diagram in the lower right-hand corner of the figure. With the impulse voltage generator operating with a saw-tooth wave fre¬ quency of 25,000 sweeps per second, the impulses are of course 1/25,000 sec¬ ond apart. The portion mn on the tracing where the beam leaves and re¬ turns to the base line was measured and it was found that it could be made as small as approximately 2.5 microseconds. This portion of the impulse can be conveniently eliminated by biasing the type 45 amplifier tube below cutoff, leaving only the vertical line impulse indicated by m’n’ and the peak value 0 of the impulse. In order to determine the space between the impulses switch Si is closed to the right, introducing a 1,000 to 10,000 cycle oscillator, and after observing the horizontal distance between the crests of the comparison oscillator voltage wave, and distance between the impulse voltage traces, and hence the time interval, can be very easily estimated. In order to de¬ termine the time interval between the start, nT, and the finish, n’, of the unidirectional steep wave-front impulse, a radio frequency oscillator is sub¬ stituted for the sweep circuit shown diagrammatically in the lower part of the figure. This oscillator is adjusted until a stationary Lissajoux figure is obtained, after which the time interval is determined from the form of the figure and the measured frequency of the oscillator. This was found to be as low as 1 microsecond. Application of regularly timed steep wave front impulses. — The useful applications of repeating regularly timed impulse voltages of short duration are many. One of its possibilities is in the study of polarization of a dielec¬ tric or in studying the depolarization phenomena. The impulse may be used to shift the grid bias of an amplifier or gaseous discharge tube for a suf¬ ficiently short interval to remove the geometric charge on the test electrode plates embracing the dielectric under study, after which the rate at which the charge coming from the dielectric under test may be observed by the re¬ sulting pattern on the cathode-ray tube screen. Another possibility is in the study of break-down of air or gases under the influence of impulse voltage, such as are produced by switching, lightening, or other disturbances. This im¬ pulse voltage is entirely sufficient to excite a circuit into damped oscilla¬ tions, and, while the device is not intended to be a transient visualizer, the decaying portion of a transient may be readily observed on the oscillo¬ scope screen by closing S2 on its upper position, and the sweep voltage will then immediately follow the impulse voltage, giving the transient phe¬ nomena pattern upon the screen. This does not show the starting of the transient as does the transient visualizer.1 Such characteristics as the logarithmic decrement of the damped oscillation and hence of the circuit can be very readily determined by measuring the amplitudes N cycles apart and taking 1/Nth of the natural logarithm of the two amplitudes so meas¬ ured. In obtaining these decaying transients the circuit being studied is merely connected in the plate circuit of the amplifier tube of either the type 56 or type 45 stages indicated in the diagram. 1 H J. Reich. “Electronic Transient Visualizers” : Electrical Engineering Vol¬ ume 55, No. 12, December, 1936. 194 Illinois State Academy of Sdience Transactions Activities of the Amateur Radio Station W9UIH During the 1937 Ohio River Flood Joseph Dillinger and Frank Green Southern Illinois State Normal University , Carbondale, Illinois By way of introduction, a brief resume of the factors leading to the establishment of the two radio organizations at Southern Illinois State Nor¬ mal University might be of interest. In 1934 there were several students on this campus who were interested in amateur radio. After numerous informal discussions of topics of common interest pertaining to the field of radio, they decided that they would like to have a regular meeting place where they could discuss and benefit by the experiences of the others. The physics department was eager to cooperate, and a radio club was soon organized to familiarize students with radio equipment and to give instruction in radio communication. Dr. O. B. Young was chosen sponsor and has served in that capacity since that time. At first the members of the physics department did not feel justified in requisitioning any equipment for the club. Since this is a nontechnical school, they felt that the interest manifested in this type of work would not warrant the purchasing of radio equipment. However, several of the members possessed amateur operators licenses and had considerable equip¬ ment of their own. With various contributions sufficient equipment was accumulated to build a receiver and a small transmitter. A license was then obtained for a station here on the campus with the call letters W9UIH. Several other students became interested as soon as they came to ap¬ preciate the type of work which was being done. The membership of the club increased rapidly, and as a result of that first year of work, eight persons were enabled to pass the examination for an amateur operators license which is given by the Federal Communications Commission. A year later, in 1935, a bid was received to establish on this campus a chapter of Synton, which is a national radio fraternity. This bid was accepted and Epsilon chapter was established here. Synton had chapters in several of the Big Ten schools, but this was the first Teachers College to be admitted into it. Only those persons who possessed amateur operators licenses were eligible for membership in the fraternity. The members of Synton meet each week to discuss technical problems of common interest in the field of radio. „ . .. . In view of the interest manifested in this type of work the physics department included in its curriculum a four quarter hour course in radio and requisitioned equipment for the groups. The organization now possesses in addition to testing meters, a National HRO receiver, a 150 watt trans¬ mitter on the 160 meter phone band, and there is being constructed a 1,000 watt code transmitter which has modulation equipment capable of 500 watts on phone. The radio frequency final stage consists of two type 852 tubes in push-pull and will be plate modulated, class B by a pair of 203 A’s m push- The advantages of such a set up, particularly in a non-technical school are many. The student, to a considerable extent, masters the field ot radio which is a practical application of physics. He learns and better appreciates the fundamentals of the theory courses. He develops manipu¬ lative technique and resourcefulness, which lead toward more skillful lab¬ oratory and research work. He is made to assume the responsibility ot valuable equipment and to operate it in strict compliance with the rules o the Federal Communications Commission. Physics — 1038 Meeting 195 This type of work here in the past four years has also in many cases led to a vocation and thus has added a skilled worker to the large indus¬ trial field of radio. A few of the fellows have gone into radio work as a life's occupation while many others have obtained employment during sum¬ mer vacations in various radio fields. Nevertheless, the great opportunity of the radio organizations on the campus to show their importance in a most practical way came during the 1937 Ohio river valley flood. The following messages are typical of those handled by the members of Synton during the 10 days following the break of the flood. “Hello cq cq cq flood traffic cq cq cq Have messages for Shawneetown Stop Water expected to rise 3 feet in the next 24 hours stop Are shipping pump parts requested by air Stop sent 500 cc of anti¬ toxin serum by plane 4:52 this p.m., etc.” At the time of the crisis we had a 70 watt code station in operation of 80 meters, which was soon found to be inadequate to handle the large number of messages received. Two of our men were also operating a trans¬ mitter on 160 meter phone elsewhere here in town, but in view of our advantageous location it was decided, on Tuesday at 6:30 p.m. to move their equipment to the radio shack and make it the center of operations. By 10:30 that night all changes had been made and our station was in the midst of flood work. During the following eight days our station was in continuous operation. Our radio shack was selected as the ideal location for a central station for various reasons. In the first place there were some 700 refugees living in the gymnasiums on the campus. By telephone we were also in direct contact with the Health, Red Cross, and Highway Department offices in Carbondale. Also, the fact that there were several experienced operators on the campus was one of no little importance. At first we had 10 operators, but 3 of them soon left to go down into the flood area to operate portable transmitters. Each operator here had definite hours during the day or night to work, arranged so as not to interfere with his regular program of school work. Regular schedules at intervals of one or two hours were kept with Shawneetown, Villa Ridge, Paducah, Herrin, Anna, Cairo, and others which were most influential in flood work. One of the three receivers which we had in constant operation was used to monitor WQPD, the police station at DuQuoin. They also had a receiver tuned to our frequency so that we were in direct contact with each other at all times. During the first two days personal messages poured in from all over the United States. One station alone which we contacted in New Jersey had 25 personal messages to be delivered in southern Illinois and Kentucky. However, the Federal Communications Commission soon banned all personal messages from the air. From then on the majority of messages handled by the station were those from the Health office, Red Cross, Highway De¬ partment, and those personal messages involving a situation of life or death. During the 10 days that the transmitter was in continuous operation, there were approximately 800 messages handled, and this was accomplished through approximately 900 different contacts. In recognition of the work done by our station we received an invitation to join the Army Amateur Radio System the purpose of which is to establish and have available a system of communication for use in emergencies such as floods, earthquakes, fires, or any other disaster in which commercial communications are out of commission, and where valuable services can be performed by organized amateur radio stations. We also received a certificate of merit from the American Radio Relay League and a letter of appreciation from the Adjutant General of the State of Indiana. 196 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Fluorescence and Photochemistry of Diacetyl H. Q. Fuller and G. M. Almy University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois Photochemical reactions are chemical reactions which are produced di¬ rectly, or indirectly, by the absorption of radiation. The most important law in photochemistry is that of Grothus which states that only the radiation which is absorbed is capable of producing chemical reaction. The absorption of the radiation supplies the energy necessary to start the process of chemical reactions. One frequent method for the qualitative study of photochemical reactions has been to radiate with a wavelength which is absorbed and to analyze chemically the end products. However, in order to obtain informa¬ tion concerning the fundamental processes it is necessary to study the ma¬ terial while it is being radiated. This may be done by investigating the fluorescence, when produced, and also by investigating absorption during radiation. The study of the fluorescence is very useful as it gives a means of in¬ vestigating various processes which may occur and enter into competition with the fluorescence. Some of the processes are as follows: (1) Disso¬ ciation — i.e. the molecule upon becoming excited may dissociate into atoms or radicals. This probability of dissociation depends upon the energy and the lifetime in the excited state. Hence dissociation is a function of the wavelength of the incident radiation and temperature; (2) Collisions of Sec¬ ond Kind — that is, the energy of an excited particle is transferred to another particle by collision. This may mean a loss of electron energy or loss of vibration energy by the excited particle. The number of collisions would be a function of the pressure, i.e., number of particles present; (3) Chemical Reactions — that is, chemical reactions may occur which would not take place between unexcited atoms. Photo-oxidations would be examples of this reaction. The study of absorption during radiation is very useful as it affords a means of studying the intermediate steps or products of a photochemical reaction. This is important as the intermediate products may exist only a short time. Such would be the case for a photochemical reaction in which free radicals were produced. Diacetyl vapor absorbs from the blue down to the near ultra violet. Bandedges are found from 4,650 to 4,000 A°U. and the continuum goes down to 3,500 A°U. Fluorescence of diacetyl may be excited by the 4,358, 4,047, 3,650 lines of the mercury arc. The 4,358 line is most efficient. The apparatus used for the production of diacetyl fluorescence was a tube for the diacetyl vapor placed parallel to a mercury arc. Liquid filters were placed between the arc and fluorescing tube to insure monochromatic radia¬ tion and also for focussing purposes. The spectral distribution was obtained by the use of a fast Steinheil spectograph. The fluorescence of diacetyl consists of three broad bands, at 5,120 A°, 5,580 A°, 6,100 A°, on which is superimposed some fine structure. This fluorescence has been studied under various conditions; namely, variation of pressure of diacetyl vapor, varia¬ tion of intensity, and with admixture of oxygen. The distribution in the spectrum is independent of the pressure in range of .1 mm. to 50 mm. The intensity of the fluorescence is directly propor¬ tional to the pressure over the same range. One can interpret this to mean that there is no self-quenching in this pressure range. That is to say, there is no effect of collisions upon the fluorescence which means that the ex¬ cited particle must be stable against collisions with the unexcited diacetyl molecules. Physics — 1938 Meeting 197 The intensity of the diacetyl fluorescence has been found to be directly proportional to the intensity of the incident radiation over a five-fold range. For simple interpretation one would say this seems to indicate a single quantum process. The intensity of the fluorescence is diminished by small amounts of oxygen. The oxygen is consumed upon continued illumination and the fluor¬ escence increases in brightness. Thus one can follow the photo-oxidation by observing the fluorescence. The data obtained for the quenching of the fluorescence by oxygen show that the quenching does not follow the Stern- Yollmer1 law. The absorption of diacetyl vapor in the region of the green fluorescence has been investigated during radiation. No change of absorption is detected during the first illumination. However, if the vapor is radiated for a time then left in the dark for a period and then again radiated, marked changes are produced. In a short time after the second radiation begins the absorp¬ tion reaches a sharp maximum. The absorption immediately decreases to a minimum which is followed by a broad maximum (in time). This maxi¬ mum is followed by a plateau which precedes the final decay of absorption. A series of products follow one another, as in a radioactive series, the new substances absorbing light of longer wavelength than does diacetyl. The successive transformations are apparently induced by light and the prod¬ ucts are detected by changes in the absorption of the vapor. The purpose of this investigation is to draw from the above experimen¬ tal facts and others such conclusions as one can concerning the details of the processes following the absorption of light in this molecule. 1 Physik Zeit. 20, 183 (1919). 198 Illinois State Academy of Sdience Transactions A Thermoelectric Method of Measuring Osmotic Pressures A. Frances Johnson Rockford College, Rockford, Illinois and E. J. Baldes Mayo Foundation, Rochester, Minnesota In 1930 A. Y. Hill1 developed the thermoelectric method of measuring osmotic pressures, using a sensitive thermopile. This method was modified in 1934 by E. J. Baldes2 who used a single thermocouple. The method so modified and later modifications are the subject of this discussion. The apparatus consists essentially of a constantan-manganin thermo¬ couple made of wires 0.002 inch in diameter, fashioned into loops (as shown Fig I in Fig. 1A) and coated with bakelite varnish. In order to make measure¬ ments in duplicate two separate couples are put on one support and enclosed in the same compartment (see Fig. IB). Either couple may be connected to a galvanometer whose sensitivity is about 10-9 ampere. Small droplets of two solutions whose osmotic pressures are to be com¬ pared are placed respectively on the two junctions. The couple is then en¬ closed in a small water-tight metal chamber the walls of which are cov¬ ered with filter paper moistened with one of the solutions (see Fig. 2A). The chamber is lowered into a water bath whose temperature is maintained Physics — 1938 Meeting 199 constant to 0.001 °C. If, for example, the vapor pressure of one of the drop¬ lets is lower than that of the solution on the walls, vapor from the walls will diffuse to the droplet and condense upon it. The latent heat of vapori¬ zation which is liberated will raise the temperature of the droplet and con¬ sequently the vapor pressure until there is equilibrium with the solution on the walls. This equilibrium is reached in about 20 minutes. A differ¬ ence of temperature will thus be maintained between the thermojunctions which will cause a current to flow in the galvanometer-thermocouple circuit. This current will be proportional to the original difference in vapor pressure of the two solutions and likewise to the difference in osmotic pressure. Since this method has been used most often in physiological measure¬ ments, the apparatus is calibrated by using 0.9 per cent and 0.8 per cent solutions of NaCl on the loops and 0.9 per cent NaCl on the walls of the chamber. With these solutions a difference in temperature of about 0.006 °C. is maintained between the junctions. The sensitivity of the apparatus is such that this difference in temperature causes a deflection on the gal¬ vanometer scale of at least 50 mm. Thus differences in concentration cor¬ responding to 2 mg of NaCl in 100 gms of water can be detected. Each thermocouple was found to develop an e.m.f. even when identical solutions were placed upon the two loops. This e.m.f. was usually constant and was allowed for by making two sets of observations in any measure¬ ment, the droplets being reversed in the second set. It was found, how¬ ever, that the above zero e.m.f. is less when the loops are farther removed from the walls. Consequently, the authors had built a large cylindrical brass chamber having a diameter of 6 inches and a length of 12 inches (see Fig. 2B). Three tubes extend from the chamber to a distance of 3 inches above the surface of the water. Three double couples supported by brass rods through which the electrical connections pass are inserted through these tubes into the chamber. The chamber is lined with filter paper moistened with one of the two solutions to be compared and immersed in the water bath. This chamber has proven very satisfactory, giving consistent results. 200 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The zero e.m.f.’s developed in the couples remain nearly constant, the varia¬ tion of the deflections produced being of the order of 1 mm. The moist filter paper lining remains in good condition, requiring no attention for many days. Three measurements can be made simultaneously and the whole manipulation is simpler than when three individual chambers are used. Since in the measurement of osmotic pressures of blood it is necessary to make measurements in a mixture of air containing 5 per cent C02, tubes are provided in each case for sending such a mixture of gases through the moist chamber. The accuracy of this method and the possibility of making measurements on small amounts of material at normal physiological temperatures and in an atmosphere of any gas which may be desired, make this method a valu¬ able one in physiological research.3’4 Since vapor pressure is considered a significant property of solutions, the method may also prove of value in the investigation of the behavior of solutions in general.5 Bibliography 1 A. V. Hill, Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 127, 9, 1930. 2. E. J. Baldes, J. Sci. Instr., 11, 223, 1934. 3. H. M. Fox and E. J. Baldes, J. Exper. Biol., 7, 174, 1935. 4 B. B. Westfall and E. M. Landis. J. Biol. Chem., 116, 727, 1936. 5.' H. M. Parton, Transactions of the Faraday Society, May, 1937. Physics — 1938 Meeting 201 Visual Lecture Table Methods for Judging the Degree of Exhaustion of a Vacuum Tube Chas. T. Knipp University of Illinois, Urlana, Illinois The experiment showing the exhaustion of a vessel from atmospheric pressure to, say, 0.001 mm of mercury by means of char¬ coal and liquid air alone is always interest¬ ing and convincing. The degree of exhaus¬ tion may be readily shown simultaneously in three separate ways, all within the same vessel. These by themselves are not new. Two were presented before the Academy by the writer several years ago. The three are: a) Attach to the discharge vessel a barometric tube set in a dish of mercury, as shown in Fig. 1. As the air is absorbed by the charcoal cooled to the temperature of liquid air the mercury rises in the barometric leg giving a visual indication of the degree of exhaustion. b) Seal in two electrodes (shown by m and n in Fig. 1) to which are attached wires from an induction coil, or from the secondary of a small transformer. As the exhaustion proceeds the electric discharge will begin to pass when the Geissler vacuum is reached. This is a very accurate indi¬ cator. c) Mount a small pyrex glass bead delicately on a long slender solid fiber of the same glass within the discharge vessel. When thus mounted (Fig. 1, &) the bead will be free to vibrate in any azimuth, and may be set in motion by gently jarring the vessel. When the pressure within is atmos¬ pheric the vibrations are soon damped out, however as the pressure is reduced (by the charcoal being cooled to the temperature of liquid air) the vibrations continue for a longer time, and when the vacuum is of the order of 0.001 mm of mercury there is little damping other than that due to the internal friction of the glass can support. The to and fro motions of the glass bead may be seen more clearly, and made visible to an entire class, by reflection of light from a 60- or 100-watt lamp. The bead being spherical its motion may be seen from any angle. For accuracy this device must be calibrated. The demonstration consists in operating (a), (b) and (c) simultan¬ eously. Fig. 1. 202 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Report on the “Flash” in Argon Bulb Prepared in 1931 Chas. T. Knipp University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois That there may be a “flash” in the afterglow of certain gases was shown by the writer about eight years ago. An account of the same was presented before the Academy at its twenty-fifth annual meeting and published in the Transactions of the Academy for the year 1932, p. 173. The initial and practically only bulb (Fig. 1) that still successfully shows this phenomenon was prepared in May, 1931. On two or three later dates an occasional bulb was primed that exhibited flashing but only for a day or two, when this quality would cease. During the second year of A Century of Progress, Chicago, 1934, a 12-liter bulb was exhibited showing the afterglow in nitro¬ gen. After a run of several weeks this began to show flashes, i. e., it flashed Fig. 1. for an instant during the period of decay of the illumination of the active- nitrogen afterglow. The writer happened to be present when this flash first became perceptible. In his endeavor to get a more marked effect, by allowing the mechanism that intermittently operated the bulb to continue several hours more, the stem under the exciting coil became hot, softened and was sucked in, thus ending what probably would have been an exceed¬ ingly fine prospect, — even better than the 1-liter bulb of May, 1931. Further attempts at the Fair with other bulbs proved unsuccessful. Nor were the experiments at the physics laboratory (University of Illinois) successful either. Later, during the years 1934 and 1935, the original bulb of 1931 was put through a spectroscopic test, in an endeavor to determine the composition of the residual gas within. The study revealed strong lines due to cyanogen in addition to traces of the more common gases. To check this experi¬ mentally pure cyanogen was used in priming a number of bulbs, but wholly without success so far as flashes were concerned. Other gases were also in¬ troduced with the cyanogen in varying amounts, all without success. It thus seems from the observations through these years that the exact surface conditions within the bulb (for it seems to be a surface effect) for marked and permanent flashing are exceedingly difficult to obtain. Even the operator’s breath in preparing the bulb may have been a very variable factor too. Nor has the original bulb remained “put”. It has changed with Physics — 1938 Meeting 203 the years. During the first few the flash occurred within a second or two after turning off the current in the energizing coil. Then during the spectro¬ scopic study, referred to above, it was sort of smeared out, beginning a little later, continuing some longer, but decidedly less bright. In fact at times it was doubtful whether there even was a flash. However after periods of six months or more the bulb seemed to regain, in part at least, this prop¬ erty, but never with the same original characteristics. After a rest of over a year (April, 1938) the bulb (Fig. 1) was again subjected to an excitation. This was done last week and to the writer’s surprise quite a marked flash occurred, however late on the decay curve, some 15 or 20 seconds after the exciting energy was shut off. Only one trial was made at the time for fear that the effect might be “killed” if subsequent excitations followed closely on the heels of this one. Because of the success of this trial it was decided to report the life-history of the bulb to the physics section of the Academy at its May, 1938, meeting at Carbondale. The excitation was car¬ ried out in an “inky dark” room, with some misgivings as to its probable outcome. Some of the audience reported a faint flash, others none, others were not sure. The writer from his position at the lecture table (operating the exciting mechanism) also was not sure. Further excitations may have followed but none were conclusive. The foregoing shows quite conclusively that the ability of the bulb to flash may build up over long periods of time, however that one or two ex¬ citations following in close succession (even separated by periods of a few days) seem to remove the possibility of the gas flashing. It also seems quite certain now that the composition of the gas was intrinsically changed during those long periods of excitation at the time of the spectroscopic study. The bulb has practically lost this unique quality; however, the interest in the problem has not waned. It is planned to continue the study with this and other bulbs. The elusiveness of the phenomenon makes the problem the more fascinating. 204 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Optical Rotatory Power of Organic Solutions in an Electric Field* Jakob Kunz University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois Andrew McLean, a Scotch chemist, has shown that a relationship exists between the rotatory power of an optically active solution and the electron moment of the solvent. It has been found that in general the rotation varies in the opposite sense to the electric moment of the solvent throughout a series of solvents derived from the same parent hydrocarbon. An explana¬ tion of this observation has been advanced in terms of dipolar association between solvent and optically active solute and numerous results have been brought forward in support of this hypothesis. These observations suggested the possibility that an electric moment in¬ duced in the solvent molecules by an external E might have an effect simi¬ lar to that of the permanent moment. First Experiments. — Previous experience had shown that solvent influ¬ ences are best observed with optically active components of simple molecular structure with a strongly polar group situated near the asymetric center. For this reason 21-menthyl-3 nitrohydrogen phthalate was considered a suitable optically active solute. CH, NOa CH A COO — CH A \/ C00H CHS v CH CH,— -CH CH, Since the moment induced in the solvent molecule by an external E is likely to be small compared with that due to the introduction of a polar substituent, it was thought that solvents with zero or very small permanent electric mo¬ ment would be most advantageous for the proposed investigation. Accord¬ ingly benzene and toluene were employed as solvents. Fig. 1 gives the experimental arrangement. We filled the polarimeter tube with a 3 per cent solution of menthylester, applied a field of about 6,000 volts per cm, and rotated the tube through an angle of 180°. Results are shown in Fig. 2 which is a sine curve. Previous observations have shown that the Ken effect was not present. The Kerr effect is independent of the direction of the electric force and its magnitude is proportional to the square of the electric intensity. Curves in Figs. 3 and 4 show the complicated effect of E. It could not always be repeated. Finally it was found that these solutions had a very slight turbidity. They were filtrated through very fine filter paper and then the effect disappeared completely. * Published posthumously. Prof. Kunz died before he could present this paper at the annual meeting. In fact it had not yet been Put at the time of his death. The Academy is honored to publish one of ttie last works to come from his hand, and hereby acknowledges indebtedness to Prof. J. T. Tykociner for his aid in carrying it through to publication. Physics — 1938 Meeting 205 t FIG. I FIG. 2 ROTATION - DECREES 206 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Theory. — Molecules are either permanently polarized, polar molecules. F i? flT = - 3kT or moments are induced by external field. e* 2F nn=z - f V? /i = /iT-(-/!D=aF = F ( a0 + - ) 3kT 4-771 I = n/i = naF:=na (E + - ) 3 D = E + 4-771 = kE D — E E (k — 1) I = - = - substitute in (1) 4*77 4*77 E (k — 1) / 477 k — 1 \ - = naE 11 + - ( - ) 1 4-7 t \ 3 477 / k — 1 n a 4*77 k — 1 — na4'77 (1+ - ) ^ - ( 3 + k — 1 ) 3 3 4*77 = n a - (k + 2) 3 (1) k k k — 1 M 4*77 MnM _ c_na - = N = 6.06 • 1023 k+2 S3 S S k — 1 M 4*77 - = — a N = P = molecular polarization k + 2 S 3 for a sphere a s= a3, and k — 1 M 4*77 p — _ = - a3N = volume of molecules in gm. mol., but in general k + 2 S 3 4*77 fJ? 4*77 P = - N (a0 + - ) Po = - N a0 3 3kT 3 4*77 fla P — P0 = - N - for high frequencies. 3 3kT the polar part disappears and k = naand n*77 3P0 nB — 1 M P0 = - N a, a = - and P«, = - 3 4*77 N n2 + 2 S — 1 4*77" + 2 M = molecular weight S = density. Physics — 1938 Meeting 207 This determines a, finally At = a • F F — E • 1.4 E = 66 F = 93 fi = 1.02 • 10-23 • 93 = 9.5 • 10"22 M [M]= - [a] 100 a [«]= - 1E5 C«H5N02 : n = 3.89 • 10"18 C»H6 : n — 9.5 • 10"22 [M] — 423 [M] = 543 the difference 543 — 423 = 120 is due to the moment of NO? group which is 3.89 • 10 120° : 3.89 10"18 = x° : 9.5 10"22 x — 0.0293 = molecular rotation = [M] [M] 100 [a] — - = 0.0376 M a = [a] 1 E 8 = 0.00108° hence our fields were too weak even for E = 20,000 volts/cm. New Experiments. — The experiment was repeated with stronger A. C. field up to 65,000, volts per cm. A straight line shown in Fig. 5 is obtained according to the theory while the Kerr effect gives a parabola, Fig. 6, which we have obtained for CS2. /vg. S /?or/\r/o/v yj. £l£ct#/c /v£lo Sx jol c/r/o/v or mcnthyl £jrer/r-r*/-Ayr/tQ puruAt/c ac/o /n 3£*Z£/v£ 208 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions A/g. 6 Aerf Affect W/th CSd. Special Observations.— 1. After this solution, which gave the straight line, had been standing several days (16 days) then, if the field is thrown on, the polarization changes slightly. When the field is taken off, the other side of the field of sight in the polariscope becomes very dark and then changes gradually to zero. The change amounted to as much as one degree. . 2. The optically inactive compound of ethylester was dissolved m toluene. The solution was made by heating the ester and toluene, and while hot, poured into the tube. There again when a field was applied a rota¬ tion was obtained, as functions of E, reaching a maximum at about 3,0UU volts. It was difficult to repeat these results as the solution seemed to change continuously during the experiment. With the same field strength the polarimeter readings were very erratic, e. g., at one observation the application of a field of 14,300 volts caused an instantaneous rotation of 3 , but in a few seconds, whilst the field was still on, it dropped to 0.35 . Alter the solution had been standing for 3 days even the most powerful field had no effect on it. However, with a fresh hot solution rotational changes were again observed. , Summary: Various optically active menthyl compounds have been sub¬ jected to an electric field. No Kerr effect has been observed. It was found that the rotation of the plane of polarization depends on the angle between that plane and the lines of the external electric field. The rotation of the plane of polarization is a linear function of the field strength in agreement with the developed theory and quite different from the Kerr effect. Physics — 1938 Meeting 209 Trigger Circuits H. J. Reich University of Illinois , Urlann, Illinois Amplifiers in which the direct output current or voltage changes abruptly from one stable value to another stable value at a critical value of direct input voltage or current and changes back abruptly to approximately its original value at a different critical input voltage or current are called “trigger” amplifiers. Trigger circuits are of value in the measurement of short time intervals,1 in high-speed counting,2 as the basis of relaxation oscillators,3 and in numerous other applications. Figure Legends Fig. 1. Basic form of Eccles-Jordan trigger circuit. Fig. 2. Practical form of Eccles-Jordan trigger circuit. Fig. 3. Improved form of Eccles-Jordan circuit using pentodes. Fig. 4. Trigger circuit using a single pentode. Fig. 5. Relaxation oscillator for the production of saw-tooth voltages. 210 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The best known type of trigger amplifier using high-vacuum tubes is the Eccles-Jordan circuit,4 shown in basic form in Fig. 1. This circuit functions by virtue of the fact that only one tube at a time passes plate current. This may be shown by assuming that both tubes carry equal currents. Then any small increase in the current of tube 1 raises the IR drop in its plate resistor, and thus increases the negative grid voltage of tube 2. This in turn reduces the current of tube 2 and hence lowers the negative voltage of the grid of tube 1 and increase its plate current still further. The action is cumulative, the current building up with great rapidity in tube 1 and falling to zero in tube 2. The current can be caused to transfer from tube 1 to tube 2 by applying a negative voltage in series with the grid or plate of tube 1 or a positive voltage in series with the grid or plate of tube 2. The plate current of either tube may be used to operate a relay or other cur¬ rent-controlled device, or the voltage drop in either plate resistor may be applied to the grid of another tube, the plate current of which is used to operate a relay or other device. In practice the circuit is modified so as to require only a single source of voltage, as shown in Fig. 2. The writer has found that the Eccles-Jordan circuit may be advan¬ tageously modified to make use of pentodes, as shown in Fig. 3. The cathodes, plates, and suppressor grids are connected in the same manner as the triode electrodes in the circuit of Fig. 2, and a fixed positive voltage is applied to the screen grids. The control grids are used for tripping the circuit, a nega¬ tive voltage of half a volt or less on the grid of the conducting tube being sufficient to cause the current to transfer. The circuit is very insensitive to positive voltage applied to the control grids. This lack of response to posi¬ tive voltage is an advantage in some applications of the circuit.6 ' Another type of trigger circuit which the writer believes to be new is shown in Fig. 4. When the circuit is correctly designed and adjusted, there are two stable values of screen current and two corresponding values of plate current. When the voltages are properly chosen, the plate current corresponding to the higher value of screen current is zero. The plate cur¬ rent increases when the screen current decreases. The plate current may be increased by an increase of negative control-grid voltage, an increase of plate voltage, a decrease of screen voltage, or a decrease of negative sup¬ pressor voltage, the control grid being the most sensitive triggering element. Either the plate or the screen current may be used to operate a relay, or the voltage across the plate or screen resistor may be used to control an amplifier tube. . ... To use a trigger circuit as the basis of a relaxation oscillator it is only necessary to design the circuit so that the abrupt change in current from one stable value to the other is followed by the charging or discharging of a condenser, the voltage of which in turn causes the current to return to its original value at a critical condenser voltage. The multivibrator, based upon the circuit of Fig. 1, and the van der Pol oscillator, based upon the circuit of Fig. 4, are two well-known types of relaxation oscillator. The writer has found that the circuit of Fig. 4 may be used as the basis of another relaxation oscillator, which generates a saw-tooth voltage. The circuit of this oscillator is shown in Fig. 5. This oscillator has proved to be very satisfactory as a source of sweep voltage for a cathode-ray oscil¬ lograph. A very small portion of the cycle is taken up in the return sweep of the luminous spot, and no difficulty has been experienced in obtaining oscillation at frequencies up to 20,000 cycles per second. There appears to be no reason why the frequency range cannot be extended into the radio frequencies by proper design of the circuit. Bibliography (Bibliography of 7 items.) (With bibliography.) Physics — 1938 Meeting 211 Secondary Images From Spherical Mirrors Frank L. Verwiebe Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Illinois. The ordinary spherical mirrors of the physics laboratory, both concave and convex, usually have plane surfaces in front being silvered on the back curved surface. The front plane surface acting as a ‘plane mirror reflects some of the light coming from the silvered spherical surface back to the silvered surface which in turn reflects it out once more. In this manner an image is formed not only after one reflection but also after three reflections. The secondary images so formed have much less intensity than the primary images but in a well darkened room they are of sufficient intensity that a beginning student might mistake them for primary images. The formation of these secondary images may be worked out readily as due to a combination of a spherical mirror and a plane mirror. The effec¬ tive focal length of the combination is equal to one-half the focal length of the spherical mirror alone. The following figures which are self-explanatory show some of the pos¬ sibilities of images formed after multiple reflections. 212 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions ✓ ✓ . Xx C Object \ \ Ob/*ect at infinity 'Secondary Xmaye at F~/ 2. . n9. S Ordinary Method of Finding Focal Length of Convex Mirror fip. C / Physics — 1938 Meeting 213 The Scattering of 2.6 Mev Neutrons by Heavy Hydrogen Nuclei Richard E. Watson University of Illinois , Urbana Our understanding of the structure of light nuclei is awaiting further experimental knowledge of the interactions between the nuclear constituents From recent experimental work1 on the scattering of neutrons of mean energy 2.6 million electron-volts energy in ordinary hydrogen in a Wilson chamber, conclusions have been drawn regarding the radius and strength of interaction of the neutron with the proton. The experiments show a spher¬ ically symmetrical distribution of proton recoils with scattering angle in the center of mass reference system. The neutrons producing the recoils are those of mean energy 2.6 Mev from the deuteron-deuteron reaction. The distribution of proton recoils observed was according to the cosine of the angle of scattering measured. The description of such scattering, the S- scattering, is that only those neutrons have a large probability of being scattered which have no orbital angular momentum about an axis through the protons encountered, i. e., executive head-on collisions. The interaction between neutron and proton has been successfully de¬ scribed by a pair of potential wells of different depths and widths for the triplet and singlet states in the deuteron. From the S-scattering observed, no test is provided for specific assumptions regarding the character of the n-p force, as to whether it involves an exchange of charge, of spin or of both, or no exchange at all. The present experiment on the scattering of neutrons by deuterons was undertaken in the hope that it would provide a check on the symmetry of the forces, in the neutrons and protons, i. e., on whether the neutron-neutron force is the same as the proton-proton force, excepting the Coulomb repul¬ sion of the protons. This would be determined by comparing the distribution of deuteron recoils in the present experiment with the distribution resulting from the scattering of protons by deuterons, provided that the protons were of the same energy, about 2.6 Mev. Another point of interest in the neutron- deuteron scattering is whether it is possible to represent the interaction by a suitable fixed potential hole, or if the deuteron is “polarized” by the in¬ cident neutron, so that higher orders of approximation to the nuclear three- body problem are necessary. The angular distribution of 328 tracks of recoil deuterons has been studied. These tracks have been selected from one thousand tracks measured on 3,000 photographs, which were taken with the aid of an expansion cham¬ ber. The chamber was filled with 54.3 per cent deuterium, 37 per cent argon, 6 per cent nitrogen, and 2.7 per cent heavy water vapor; this mixture was bombarded with neutrons of 2.6 Mev energy from the deuteron-deuteron reaction: deuterons plus deuterons give helium three plus neutron plus dis¬ integration energy, Q. The criterion for selecting the above-mentioned 328 tracks was estab¬ lished by using: (1) the calculated stopping power of the gas mixture, (2) the pressure variation within which tracks can form, (3) the energy-range relationship for deuterons,2 and (4) the energy variation in the neutrons caused by (a) loss of energy of the incident deuteron beam in the thick heavy-ice target and (b) the angular aperture of the detector. To these selected tracks have been applied the necessary azimuthal, area, and ran¬ dom track corrections, in a manner similar to that used in the study of the scattering of neutrons by protons.8 214 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The observed distribution of deuterons, in the laboratory reference sys¬ tem expressed as per cent number of tracks per unit of solid angle found in each 10° scattering angle interval, is the following: 25 per cent in (0°-9°), 16 per cent in (10°-19°), 12 per cent in (20 -29 ); 8 per cent in (30°-39°), 9 per cent in (40°-49°), 12 per cent in (50 -59 ), 13 per cent in (60°-69° ), 5 per cent in (70°-79°). 0 Q. Although these results are based on a small number of tracks (328), the data indicate that there is present a marked deviation from spherically symmetrical scattering in the center of mass system. More data are needed to establish the reality of the peak in the curve at scattering angle 60 . Plotted in the center of mass system against the scattering angle in that system, the data seem to follow the curve expected if P-scattering is in¬ cluded, i. e. approximately a quadratic expression in the scattering angle. Such a variation has been found by Massey and Mohr, assuming rectangular potential holes of radii 4 x 10^ cm and 6 x 10"13 cm except that the varia¬ tion of our curve is a much more rapid falling off at small angles, and per haps a deviation at large angles. The minima of observed and calculated curves coincide with respect to the abscissa. It seems plausible that the choice of a different potential hole, with further regard for the structure of H3 might allow better agreement with this experiment. The deviation at large angles, if real, would require higher orders of partial waves in the description of the scattered neutron. The deviation at small angles may require for its explanation a potential depending on the polarization ot the deuteron by the incident neutron. The polarization potential, superimposed on the fixed potentials assumed for the n-p and n-n interactions, would be slowly varying, acting over longer distances than the ordinary potential. Its effect would be to introduce many spherical harmonics into the de¬ scription of the scattered neutron wave, which would interfere strongly at the large scattering angles, but would pile up the intensity at the small o orl po An important side result of this investigation is the calculation of the energy of disintegration, Q, of the deuteron-deuteron reaction. The range of a recoil deuteron at 0° scattering angle has been found by extrapolating* the curves ot numbers of tracks against track length along the steepest tangents to the length axis, for the intervals 0 -10 , 0 -20 ,0 -30 . These ranges were reduced to ranges in air under standard conditions through multiplication by the calculated stopping power of the mixture with respect to air. Proper corrections4 5 were made for obtaining the mean range, and the range-energy relation for deuterons6 gave the energy of the deuteron. Considerations of momentum and energy conservation make the disintegra¬ tion energy Q equal to 3/2 of the energy of the recoil minus Vs of the energy of the deuteron beam incident on the target. For the ^ree intenrals meI\* tioned, the calculated Q’s were 3.39, 3.38, and 3.38 Mev, ± 0.09 Mev, in good agreement with the result of Bonner/ 3.29 it 0.08 Mev. Footnotes 1 The Scattering of Neutrons by Protons, P. Gerald Kruger, W. E. Shoupp, and F. W. Stallmann, Phys. Rev. 52, 678, 1937. 2 H. Bethe, Physical Review, 58, 313, 1938. 4 H* ' W?f|reMassey and C. B. O. Mohr, Roy. s°c’MPJlocAhV* July 1 1937 5 M. S. Livingston and H. A. Bethe, Reviews of Mod. Physics, July, 1937. 6 Cf . Reference 2. TT. W. Bonner, Phys. Rev., 58, 711, 1938. Physics — 1938 Meeting 215 Single Crystals of Dilute Solid Solutions of Iron in Zinc H. E. Way, John DeVries and C. L. Furrow Knox College , Galesburg , Illinois To Bunker Hill zinc, which is exceptionally pure, was added small known percentages of iron. From these solid solutions single crystals of zinc were grown by the Czochralski-Gomperz method. The growth condi¬ tions as a function of percentage of iron present were noted. Previous work1 has shown that the addition of iron has a peculiar effect upon the micro structure of the pure single zinc crystals. Photomicrographs were prepared of typical samples of various orientations of each concentration of the iron. Lantern slides showing the results of these photographs have also been prepared which correlated with the width of the growth conditions lending additional support to the idea that the iron takes a preferred spot in the zinc lattice. Additional experimentation may give some more definite clue regarding the exact crystalline structure of the compound. 1 “Micro-Photographs of single crystals of dilute solid solutions in zinc," by Way, H. E., DeVries, John, and Furrow, C. L., Ill. Acad. Sci. Transactions, Vol. 30, No. 2, 1938. —6 216 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions One of the Problems of The Air-Conditioning Engineer J. G. Wray Chicago, Illinois After many years of development, air-conditioning for the home, the office, or the factory is an accepted fact. Within recent years this industry has been expanding rapidly; in the movie, the restaurant, the hotel, the store, the train, the office, the factory, and now in the home. This discussion relates principally to a problem arising from the faulty design and con¬ struction of winter air-conditioned homes which is causing much grief and needless expense for the home owner. By adding special types of heat insulating materials to the outside walls and ceiling or roof structures, and by the use of weather strips, storm win¬ dows and doors, and a tighter construction to minimize the infiltration of air, houses are being constructed to better keep the heat out during hot weather and keep it in when outside temperatures are low. Moisture is also added for comfort and health. A few elementary facts relating to the physics of heat and of water vapor are necessary for a correct understanding of the problem. Heat tends to flow from higher to lower temperature areas and seek a common; temperature' level. It does this in one or all of three ways, by radiation, by convection, and by conduction. Suitable types of heat insulating materials tend to impede the flow of heat by conduction and convection, while other types of materials reflect the radiated heat. Loose, fibrous, or granular insulating materials, and such materials in the form of a blanket or insulating board, will impede the flow of heat by conduction and convec¬ tion, and certain insulating materials having polished surfaces reflect ra¬ diated heat as a mirror reflects light. Air tends to flow from higher to lower pressure areas carrying with it the heat of the agitated air molecules, unless prevented by an effective barrier. Water vapor, like water, also tends to seek its level and, like water, will flow from higher to lower levels or pressures unless prevented from doing so by an effective barrier. Many kinds of materials that will prevent the flow of air will not ma¬ terially impede the flow of heat, and what is even more important, many kinds of materials that act as effective barriers to the flow of air and of heat will not stop the flow of water vapor. Water vapor is always present in the atmosphere. Room air in a dwel¬ ling will usually have a higher vapor content and pressure than the out¬ side air due to evaporation from water pans over radiators and from cook¬ ing and body moisture. Adding heat to air containing water vapor, without the addition of vapor, will reduce the relative humidity. Removing heat will have the opposite effect, increasing the relative humidity until the air has become saturated and its temperature has fallen to the dewpoint temperature. As the temperature is caused to fall below the dewpoint temperature, precipita¬ tion of moisture from the air will take place and will continue so long as temperatures below the dewpoint temperature are maintained. Adding water vapor to unsaturated air without changing the temperature will increase the relative humidity and the dewpoint temperature, and re¬ moving it will reduce them. Physics — 1938 Meeting 217 Air containing a certain amount of water vapor can be brought to the saturation point or 100 per cent relative humidity in either of two ways, by adding water vapor or by reducing the temperature. When the temperature of water vapor is reduced below the dewpoint temperature, which is the saturation point of 100 per cent relative humidity, condensation and precipitation of moisture takes place. During fairly cold weather some of the materials in wall, ceiling or roof structures will have temperatures below the dewpoint temperature of the inside air. Unfortu¬ nately, ordinary construction methods do not prevent the infiltration of moisture through walls and ceilings to those materials having temperatures below the dewpoint where the vapor will be condensed, often forming frost and ice, staining walls and ceilings and causing rot and decay at the same time making relatively ineffective the heat insulating qualities of wall and ceiling materials. Vapor condensation does not often take place in the walls, ceilings and roof structures of buildings of ordinary construction, having no air con¬ ditioning, as the relative humidity of the inside air is usually low, seldom more than 15 per cent in cold weather, and wall and ceiling structures permit leakage of heat that keeps the temperatures of structure materials above the dewpoint temperature, and allows some infiltration of air and ventilation that carries off water vapor that otherwise would be precipitated. Air at ordinary room temperature of 70° F. and relative humidity of 40 per cent, frequently attained in winter air-conditioning, has a relatively high dewpoint temperature. Heat insulation added to walls and ceilings of ordinary construction will raise the temperatures of the inside wall and ceiling surfaces and lower the temperatures of the outside surfaces with the result that the dewpoint temperature will often lie within the wall structure and sometimes within the heat insulating material itself with resulting condensation of moisture. A recent experience with this problem will be referred to. In January of this year one of a number of modern air-conditioned homes in East Lansing, Michigan, built within the last two or three years, was inspected. It was a six room two-story house of wood frame and stucco exterior and wall board and plaster interior, of ordinary construction except for rock wool insulation above the ceilings of the second floor rooms and between the studs of the outside walls. The house was equipped with storm windows and doors and with weather strips, and was tightly and snugly built to prevent the loss of heat from the infiltration of air through walls and window and door frames. Room temperature of 70° F. and rela¬ tive humidity of 40 per cent were maintained. But the architect had failed to provide against the flow of water vapor through the wall and ceiling structures into the insulating materials. Con¬ densation was taking place and ceilings of the second floor rooms and the lower parts of the outside walls of the first floor were wet; so wet that the ceilings were warped and sagging and stained, and in places had pulled loose from the ceiling joists. The first floor walls were badly stained. The house was rapidly deteriorating. The owner had complained to the architect who could suggest no remedy. The situation just described is typical of all too many modern, insulated, air-conditioned homes built in recent years. It represents a problem gen¬ erally prevalent in the northern states where winters are severe and bring low temperatures of long duration. The subject within the last few years has received considerable attention by investigators of college and other re¬ search laboratories, and particularly by Mr. L. V. Teesdale, Senior Engineer of the Forest Products Laboratory of Madison, Wisconsin, in cooperation with the University of Wisconsin. The solution of the problem appears to be a comparatively simple one; stop the flow of vapor into the walls and ceiling structures. To accomplish satisfactory winter air-conditioning in the homes requires not only that air flow and heat flow be minimized or prevented, but as is evidenced by ex¬ periences such as has been described, the vapor flow must be stopped. / 218 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions This cannot be accomplished with such porous insulating materials as rock wool, mineral wool and other types of loose or packaged insulation or with the various kinds of fibre board insulation. Reflective insulations represent positive correctives of moisture conden¬ sation, and at the same time furnish the necessary resistance to heat leakage and air infiltration. This form of heat insulation can best be applied in the outside walls between the studs and under the attic floor between the ceiling joists. Where other forms of heat insulations are used it will be necessary to place the vapor seal inside of the heat insulation as near as practicable to the inner wall surfaces. A good grade of building paper will tend to impede the flow of vapor but not nearly so effectively as the reflector types of heat insulation. Vapor which readily flows through ordinary plaster will be re¬ tarded somewhat by paint or other like surface treatments. For the homes originally built without special heat insulation and later insulated with rock wool or similar fibrous or granular insulation blown into the walls between the studs and over the ceilings between the ceiling joists, two coats of aluminum paint applied to the inside surfaces of outside walls and ceil¬ ings has proven to be most practicable and permits of usual methods of wall decoration. Experience has not yet shown a perfect vapor seal. Reflective types of insulation seem to be the most nearly perfect. Ventilation of attic and wall spaces outside of the heat insulation should be provided to carry off any vapor that might get through the insulation and otherwise condense, form frost and ice and ultimately cause all of the troubles resulting from a leaky roof. Heat insulation and air-conditioning are fine, but the effective vapor seal is a necessary concomitant. Papers In Psychology And Education Extract From the Report oe the Section Chairman The Psychology and Education Sections carried thirteen papers, five of which are herewith published. The others were: Curriculum Organization and. Integration, by J. Monroe Hughes, Northwestern University, Evanston. The Catholic Method of Integration, by Allen P. Farrel, Loyola Uni¬ versity, Chicago. Educational Integration and Personality Balance, by Ralph W. Pringle, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. Intelligence Tests as Aids to Educational Integration, by Ralph Yakel, James Millikin University, Decatur. A Program for the Appraisal of Teaching, by Robert S. Ellwood, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. The American School Vocabulary, by W. H. Coleman, Shurtleff Col¬ lege, Alton. Science and Education, by Peter L. Spencer, Claremont Colleges, California, Visiting Professor, Illinois University, Jacksonville. Reasons Given by Freshmen for Their Choice of a College, by Emma Reinhardt, Eastern State Teachers College, Charleston. Average attendance at the section meetings was 40. L. D. Goodfellow, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, was elected Chairman of the 1939 meeting. (Signed) J. A. Melrose, Chairman T219I 220 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Reading Difficulties of College Freshmen Howard Bosley Southern Illinois State Normal University , Carbondale, Illinois During the fall term at Southern Illinois State Normal University, the freshmen advisers and members of the department of education cooperated in a study of the causes of freshman failure. Diagnostic treatment took several forms, including mental ratings through the use of mental tests, the discovery of personality traits, environmental conditions, the economic situa¬ tion of the student, the determination of individual effort, aptitudes, and general reading ability. This paper will attempt to present the findings of the reading ability survey. As a first step in the program, the Iowa Silent Reading Tests, Advanced, were administered to a group of 104 freshmen who stood in the lower deciles of achievement according to marks given in the fall quarter. The results of the tests were shown in Table I. Table I Test Test norm. Class median No. pupils who equalled or exceeded the norm. Grade rating of pupils below norm. 12 11 10 9 be ow 9th Test 1 _ _ Paragraph meaning 36 26 23 8 17 6 10 40 Test 2 . . . . . Word recognition (vocabulary) 47 38 7 19 26 26 10 16 Test 3 _ _ Paragraph organization 12 7 7 14 13 12 11 49 Test 4 _ _ Sentence meaning 30 29 18 18 5 14 7 11 Test 5— . . . . Locating information 20 19 40 29 10 12 8 3 Test 6 _ _ Rate 31 27 39 2 3 18 19 26 A study of the table reveals the following facts: 1. Most students were low in paragraph reading ability, and very low in organization. 2. Almost half the students knew how to locate information reasonably well. 3. The group was very low in word recognition ability. 4. The rate curve was markedly bi-modal, students tending on the one hand to be moderately rapid to very rapid, or to be very slow, with only a small sprinkling midway between. 5. Sentence reading ability was almost normal, so far as the group was concerned. However, it must be noted that considerable numbers would profit by increased training in this respect. It was found that a definite positive correlation existed between read¬ ing ability and marks in content subjects, as would be expected. A much lower positive correlation existed between reading ability and other subjects, as mathematics, while dependent upon reading ability, draw also upon other major skills. Psychology and Education — 1938 Meeting 221 At this same institution, a college remedial reading class has been set up for those students who desire to improve their reading skills. The class meets once each week, and attempts to assist students to initiate a self help program. Each week attention is called to some new phase of read¬ ing, and suggestions are given which assist the student in his attempt to acquire each set of skills. Thus far we have deemed it advisable to stress the following. 1. More voluntary recreational reading. At each meeting several short stories likely to be highly interesting to students are called to their atten¬ tion. Considerable additional reading is resulting, and students are becom¬ ing acquainted with sources heretofore unknown to them. 2. The only request which is made of students other than the sug¬ gestion to enjoy the story is that they keep a sharp look-out for new words, and that they attempt to master and use such words in their own writing and speaking. 3. Aside from increasing rate and vocabulary, it is felt that many desirable reading habits and general attitudes are being formed as students of low reading ability engage in such recreational reading. 4. Reading by phrases or thought units. 5. Automatic selection from a sentence or a phrase of those “key” words which are high in meaning content. 6. General comprehension, and skill in dealing with the various types of paragraph material. 7. Skill in the use of the table of contents, the index, etc., in finding information. 8. Skill in organizing the content of reading as a means to thorough learning and better written or oral expression. It is probable that from kindergarten to college more stress must be placed upon dealing with ideas. The kindergarten child who repeats a story is receiving practice in dealing with sequential thought. Story telling on this level will therefore develop organization skills which will function after the student begins to depend upon the printed page for ideas. All through the pupil’s school career, more emphasis must be placed upon the ability to organize. After the basic reading skills have been formed in the first three or four years of the pupil’s school experience, it is probable that there should be little or no formal instruction in reading as a subject course, and much instruction of a more informal nature, utilizing the content matter of regular subjects. This will help to give to reading instruction more vitalized subject matter which has been somewhat lacking hitherto. The idea of extending reading subject matter to all the subject fields of the school should be carried further into the area of voluntary reading. Many teachers are multiplying many fold the amount of so-called supple¬ mentary reading material by encouraging pupils to read newspapers, peri¬ odicals and other materials, thus stimulating students to find material in¬ trinsically interesting and forming reading habits and attitudes likely to persist. Under such a plan of development reading becomes to the child, not another subject with which he must deal but a means to an end — in school and out — a means of acquiring information, and a means of securing whole¬ some, interesting recreation. 222 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions A New Approach to High School Science Teaching Robert Locke Cooke Wheaton College , Wheaton, Illinois Those whose acquaintance with high school science teaching goes back to the comparatively recent period when the high school was primarily for the selected few, will realize that only gradually was it impressed upon teachers and administrators that science teaching would have to under¬ go considerable modification to meet the changed conditions brought about by the influx of students who were to a large extent not academically minded, and who were not intending to continue their schooling beyond the secondary level. From that time to this we have seen various attempts made to provide a course suitable to such groups, particularly in the science courses of the junior and senior years. Many times we have seen the solu¬ tion attempted by offering two separate courses, a physics and chemistry “general course” and a somewhat stiffer college preparatory course. This was surely a step in the right direction, but too often, many will admit, the general course was simply a milk-and-water copy of the regular college preparatory course, a pale imitation which had the justification neither of real value nor of interest. Too often when this was not done, the single courses offered for both groups in junior and senior year science took on much of the nature of the weaker course, with loss to those who needed college preparation, and to the weariness of all. Many have felt, and rightly I believe, that it would be well to uphold the original high standard for college preparation and to face determinedly the problem of noncollege-preparatory science by attempting to develop a course entirely different, if need be, and really suited to the group for which it is intended. Such an attempt I would call to your attention today, using physics as an illustration. Its practicability has been proved both in actual teaching and in its successful use in teacher-training programs. It will be recognized that if changes are to be made, the problem of both method and content will have to be faced. Turning first to content, the approach may be described briefly. The idea as worked out for a group of low IQ students in physics, was frankly to abandon the text book, except as desired for reference, and to omit class recitations except for an occasional group gathering when the situation warranted. The key to the situation was in the developing of a set of apparatus which was practically self-teaching, so that by means of brief mimeographed guide-sheets the individuals or groups could proceed in independent order through the larger part of the various standard divisions of the subject, though by no means taking all the traditional subdivisions. To make this material self-teaching, the absolutely essential requirement was to make sure that every piece of apparatus was divested of all its mechani¬ cal mystery. This was done by making it either dissectible or glass-enclosed. Sturdiness, full working size if possible, “fool-proofness”, and maximum simplicity are the essentials. Whenever possible, though that was not very often, the standard materials supplied for the usual course were used, many times needing modifications however to suit the changed requirements. Throughout, the emphasis is on stressing the interests of the common man rather than of the research specialist. The result was a course offered in mensuration which by means of a ninety-cent imitation of a surveyor’s transit and one or two still simpler devices, rather thoroughly covered the elements of plain surveying; which by means of reclaimed pieces from the nearest automobile wreckers, covered the essentials of the automobile; which by means of a set of “open-faced” panels beginning with the carbon coherer Psychology and Education — 1938 Meeting 223 and proceding through the crystal and one-tube receiver up to a fairly com¬ plete transmitter offered a thorough enough course in radio so that only the addition of the code was needed to qualify the student for a government license. Finally by means of a small wind-tunnel and a simple lift-and- drag meter, both built by the school shop, a thorough course in aerody¬ namics may be developed, including both streamlining and the flying of models. The total cost of the complete apparatus needed for such a course need not be greater than that of the standard equipment, even if purchased from an apparatus supply house. A considerable number of the pieces may be made by any teacher possessed of a workroom and a little ingenuity. Only brief mention can be made of a course in chemistry planned along similar lines, emphasizing the practical and industrial features and includ¬ ing many working models of common chemical processes. The possibilities are being developed also in the biological sciences so that there is now no need, where such a program has been worked out, of putting the terminal group in with the college preparatory classes at any stage in their high school science career. Incidentally, it may be added that much if not all of this type of apparatus has been used with great enthusiasm instead of the usual material by college preparatory students working with the standard manuals. Time will not permit a discussion of the other item mentioned, that of method. Suffice it to suggest that the new approach has seemed best adapted to a rather unique procedure which may be described as a compromise between the teacher-demonstration and the individual laboratory method. This, which might be called the pupil-demonstration method, has been rather completely described elsewhere. 224 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Integration of Subject Matter and Educational Rigor Robert H. Gault Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois The slant I am taking upon this subject is doubtless different from what you have anticipated. If my course seems strange to you, I remind you that in our formative years as an American people we elected to develop an individualistic society. Such an order of life wTas growing here during a couple of centuries or more prior to our Revolutionary War. And long before that it had found a hospitable rootage in the minds and hearts of individuals of consequence and in influential groups on the other side of the Atlantic. The individualistic society does not represent a new adventure; not new at any rate, as compared with the span of life of the human in¬ dividual, but in relation to the range of history since the dawn of what we call our western civilization, this individualistic type of society is a babe in swaddling clothes. We have yet to see what it shall come to be. Thus far, it has made rich contributions for the advantage of us all and for the future its possibilities are great beyond our ability to imagine them. At the outset I want to affirm my conviction that this type of society bodies forth the highest ideal that was ever invented for men and women who have to live together. All for the individual, not all for the state. The latter, its government, laws and other institutions, are secondary. They are for the convenience of the individual, not to swallow him up. They are his servants. These servants in the individualistic society are here to facilitate the development of the individual toward attainment of the greatest dimensions of which he is capable. The more closely the individual in this society approximates the attainment of his greatest dimensions the less essen¬ tial these servants become; the bureaus of government and its machinery generally tend to fade away — not to expand to the extent of obscuring the whole landscape. The great individual that is envisaged by the individual¬ istic society gets on with other people with the very minimum of external control and direction. Direction and control by the wholesale from the outside is the very antithesis of the spirit of the pattern of society we have chosen for ourselves. As a further preliminary, let us take a glimpse at this individual — the focus of our order of life. Those who would substitute a collectivistic order for ours apparently think of him as something small and narrow on the order of the babe in his cradle: an organization of flesh and limber bones and blood with appetites for food, drink, and comfort; an organiza¬ tion that exercises its own natural initiative in various ways as means to obtain satisfaction; that counts as nothing the measure of inconvenience his obtaining these things may occasion to others. As long as these appe¬ tites are satisfied, and by whatever means, it’s all right with him. And throughout his life he never loses these natural urges. But he enlarges them and adds diverse other equipments, and the additions are as much a part of his individuality as the original equipments themselves. What are these additions? In general terms, and in a large part, they are techniques, with many of which you are entirely familiar, such as the arts of reading and computation; mathematical and other scientific formulae; methods of investigation, diagnosis in the field of medicine, perhaps, and of the evaluation of evidence. These techniques supply the grooves by way of which the natural personal initiative of the individual may be directed toward the attainment of satisfaction for his innate appetites. Psychology and Education — 1938 Meeting 225 But of course, we have here come very far from listing what enter into the composition of the great individual. One may use the techniques for computation as means for directing natural initiative toward making a live¬ lihood as a bookkeeper or as an expert accountant, according to the pattern of our society or may use the same techniques as means for directing the same initiative toward defrauding an employer in direct violation of our pattern of social behavior. Something else in individual psychology over and above familiarity with techniques is an effective determiner of the issue between behavior that accords with our social pattern and what is destructive of it. I am thinking here of affective attitudes and I shall attempt to make clear what I mean by that term. Everyone here, for example, I presume, is affiliated with a political party. How many of you can give me what, in your soberest moment, you would regard as an intelligent answer to my question why you are so affiliated. Probably no one of you can do it. It is most likely just as a matter of course that you are a Republican or a Democrat. You are this or that and there’s the end of it. You have a satisfactory feeling: a feeling of all¬ rightness about your party. You feel quite comfortable and strong because of your affiliation. It is therefore, an easy matter to whip you up to a state of enthusiasm — and you “do your duty at the polls.” It is likewise with your religious and your national affiliations. I am speaking here of political, religious, and national attitudes. The quiet sense of satisfaction that saturates them and their matter-of-courseness mark them as affective atti¬ tudes. It is probable that you will never quite shake yourself free from them. You may scratch your ticket but it takes a pull to do it. You may in time lapse from your religious attitude, but you can’t bring yourself to it at a fell swoop. And as a matter of course you swell with some pride because you are a citizen of your nation. These attitudes grow in the individual from his childhood because he has been all but continuously breathing the atmosphere of the party, the religious organization and the nation. Their leaders have been repeatedly dramatized before his eyes. So have the great ideals of justice and personal integrity, freedom, and philan¬ thropy, that these leaders represented in their lifetimes till what we may call his affective attitudes of justice and integrity and freedom and philan¬ thropy are deep rooted in his make up, and till he perforce lives all these characteristics as a matter of course. His affective attitudes of justice and philanthropy or fair dealing toward the remotest farmer in the realm may be just as inseparable from him as his appetite for food. Such attitudes are the immediate determinants of the question whether one shall as a matter of course employ one’s techniques of computation for earning an honest livelihood or for defrauding another. I repeat that these attitudes are a part of the composition of every individual; certainly of every normal individual. They are as surely a part of him as is his appetite. And in the next place I want to make a statement that I have not time to develop: your party, religious, national, philanthropic, attitude is a sense of psychologic unity with others who compose the party, who adhere to the same religious organization or the same nation as that to which you profess allegiance or with those who are philanthropic as you are. In a sense of the word the individual with these attitudes is psychologically identified with those others. He and they are a part of each other. Each is a great in¬ dividual — not necessarily in the sense of a Napoleon. And therein — in this sense of unity — is solidarity and a sense of invincibility. Out of that is cooperation as a matter of course. It is the genius of the individualistic society to create these great in¬ dividuals, be they between the plow handles, in the great centers of finance or in the capitol. It has succeeded in such measure that there is encourage¬ ment in the belief that it can meet with more success. These are the individuals who, I have already suggested, minimize rather than magnify the necessity for external direction and control. And now, I am going to assert that it is only in an individualistic society that individuals can attain to the magnificent proportions of which they are capable. The 226 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions necessity of such a social order as ours sternly dictates that men and women shall attain these proportions: that they shall acquire the techniques whereby they may control the world and that they shall grow into a sense of psychologic identity or of belonging together with others who cherish the political, national and ethical ideals that are embodied in our patterns of social behavior. When the necessity of the situation makes its demand upon human nature we are on the way toward accomplishment. But we, in our several capacities as leaders, must be vividly conscious that the necessity exists. We dare not just lazily and as a matter of course acknowledge that it is there and let it go at that. What are we going to do about it? Are we going to organize some new curricula? Laboriously document the content of each course? I once heard President Butler say: “It makes little difference what subjects are taught; it makes some difference how they are taught, but it makes a great deal of difference who teaches them.” Already you are prepared for a violent reaction toward my coldness in respect to the organization of curricula and courses of instruction. I am recalling now two of my teachers: two who have meant more to me than any other two with whom I had to deal in all my school and col¬ lege and university days, — unless I should except one or two who worked within the field that has become my specialty. One of those was a teacher of Latin in a small Ohio college — William Notestein; the other was a teacher of Shakesperian literature in a great university— Hiram Corson. The latter, at least, qualified as a great scholar and an exact scholar. But they had in common one very important characteristic: they could dramatize their sub¬ ject — and they dramatized it. The great persons of the drama moved in the midst of our classrooms; the traits of their characters stood in vivid relief before our eyes; they made us tingle with excitement. They contributed toward making and they roused our positive affective reactions toward the great characters in the literature they were teaching. They made us feel that the admirable traits in these characters were ours too. Thus far, be¬ tween them and us, we began to sense a psychologic identity. Now that kind of thing can’t go on long without creating in the pupils a drive toward per¬ fecting in themselves those character traits that the teacher is dramatizing and at the same time toward making them dynamic. Every good teacher acts upon these suggestions whether he makes an analysis to discover the whys and the wherefores of his procedures or not. And so I am urging something very old fashioned: not organization or integration of a curriculum. This, I believe, is of secondary importance. Our pupils must acquire facility in the use of the tools by which they may gain some control of their world, to be sure. That is of first rate and im¬ mediate importance. And equally important it is that they acquire a great and vigorous individuality. That is what we must emphasize. And this immediately implies a feeling of identity: a sense of belonging together with those characters who have in the past possessed and demonstrated the qualities of benevolence and philanthropy; of honesty and justice and fair dealing; of personal initiative in the ordinary affairs of everyday living, in the affairs of great business and in statecraft; in all the relations of life. And it implies, likewise, a feeling of identity with those who are now, in our American way of life, demonstrating their possession of these qualities of the great individual. It is upon these things that we must have a new and systematic and continuous emphasis in our teaching of literature and history, science and art. We talk about vitalizing the educational process and we soft pedal the means by which it can be accomplished. We talk about socializing education and at the same time we neglect the very essence of socialization. What is it? Once more it is the individual’s matter-of- course, satisfying sense of identity with those people who have in the past exhibited, and who are now exhibiting such qualities as I have mentioned: the qualities of the great individual without which social life can never be in flower. I have now suggested my idea of the integration of subject matter. It must be integrated about what, by common consent, we will regard as the great personal qualities of those whom, again by common consent, we will Psychology and Education — 1938 Meeting 227 call our great men and women. This demands dramatization of those qualities to the end that our pupils may be helped in developing affective attitudes toward them: that they may be warmed by the feeling that these qualities are as a matter of course to be supremely desired: that the people who exhibited them are THE people. Therein is educational rigor from the point of view of the teaching process and from the view point of the finished product. The debunker is a failure as an educator. That great nebulous abstraction, THE STATE, will get along if we attend to the busi¬ ness that is immediately at our hand: making great individuals. And by the same token, it is the first business of the individual to make himself great in the sense I have indicated. Any other emphasis than that makes a hard character; places a limitation upon the development of the individual; maintains him in a diminutive stature and so obstructs the processes of social life. 228 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The Effect of Incidental Factors on Threshold Measurements Louis D. Goodfellow and Ralph W. Heine American Institute for the Deaf and Blind , Chicago, and Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois The determination of “limens” or “thresholds” as a measurement of the sensitivity of receptor organs is a corner stone of psychophysics and ex¬ perimental psychology. This technique is also used to advantage as a diag¬ nostic instrument in clinical work. Not until recent years, however, has much attention been given to the factors affecting the stability of thresholds. That the vague point in sensory discrimination, termed the “limen”, is unstable is not surprising when one considers that its accurate determina¬ tion depends upon the observer’s ability to maintain a constant criterion of sensation throughout the experiment. Even if the observer could meet this requirement, changing conditions in the laboratory and subjective changes in the observer still significantly alter a threshold measurement. Goodfellow1 has studied some of these factors affecting vibro-tactile thresh¬ olds, and he found that thresholds were changed by the following actors: 1. suggestion; 2. psycho-physical technique; 3. motivation; 4. practice or training; 5. the experimenter; 6. instructions to the observers; 7. part of the body stimulated; 8. fatigue of the end-organ due to previous stimulation; 9. long period of sleep immediately before measurement; 10. intense illumina¬ tion. Ray Mars Simpson2 enumerates over forty factors involved in meas¬ uring sensory thresholds, including such factors as “mental set”, “aufgabe”, anticipation, motivation, suggestion effects through the experiment criterion of judgment, instructions, and attention. For some time we suspected that observers, when forced to make dis¬ criminations at or slightly below their threshold, did not rely entirely upon the modality being measured but turned to incidental variables in an at¬ tempt to gain cues from the environment. To test this possibility, we in¬ troduced a known cue into an ostensibly normal set-up for determining thresholds. Our primary concern was the selection of a cue that could be controlled and at the same time was in and of itself least affected by the factors mentioned above. We finally employed time discrimination in the visual “ready” signal because it most nearly approached our criteria for an unaffected cue. Observers were requested to place their fingers on a vibrator and de¬ termine at a given signal whether or not any stimulus was present. As a “ready” signal we used a flashlight bulb placed behind a two-inch square of red paper and situated directly in front of the observer. It was either one second or one and three tenths seconds in duration. The long (1.3 sec.) and short (1 sec.) “ready” signals were used in a random order. Both the “ready” signals and the two-second interval following each stimulus were accurately controlled by mechanical means. During this particular experiment, the vibrator was completely dis¬ connected from the power supply, in order that we might be absolutely sure that any extra-chance results were due to responses to our differential sig¬ nal rather than to a subliminal vibratory stimulus. The observers were instructed that the vibrations would be below threshold but that by respond¬ ing to “hunches” and by careful attention to the vibrating instrument they should be able to achieve better than chance results in determining whether Psychology and Education — 1938 Meeting 229 the vibrator was activated or not. After each appearance of the “ready" signal, the observer was expected to respond “yes” or “no". During the first half of the experiment, judgments were taken in groups of five, to determine whether any allowance had to be made for a pattern effect similar to that found in the Zenith telepathy data.8 Each observer recorded his own response on the forms supplied by the experimenter. An analysis of several hundred responses from each of five observers show two pronounced tendencies,4 namely, a tendency to respond in the negative, and secondly, a tendency to follow certain patterns or sequences. Any tendency to use our extraneous cue was, if it existed, over-shadowed by these two other tendencies. Consequently, the chief problem seemed to be the elimination or con¬ trol of these two factors. To accomplish this we changed our instructions and procedure in certain details. First of all, we impressed upon the ob¬ servers the fact that even though the stimuli were subliminal, they would, by responding to any slight impression or “hunch”, be correct more often than not. Furthermore, we reminded our observers that stimuli were pre¬ sented in chance order, and therefore, there would be approximately an equal number of “yeses” and “noes”. These instructions we hoped would reduce the tendency to respond with a preponderance of “noes.” By having the observers report their guesses directly to the experimenter over our loud¬ speaker telephone system, we hoped to minimize the tendency to follow par¬ ticular patterns or sequences. (We assumed that this observed tendency to follow certain patterns or sequences is due largely to the influence of one’s previous responses. By using an oral report, we removed the necessity of having our observer’s previous responses called to his attention.) Six observers were used under this new set-up, and the results are shown in table one. Table I Table showing the number of positive responses on the long ready signal and negative responses on short ready signal. Actual number of coincidences Expected by chance Deviation Sigma C.R.* L.M _ _ _ _ _ 67 75 —8 6.2 —1.3 A.M _ _ _ _ 108 100 8 7.1 1.1 J.C.... . . 430 350 80 13.2 6.1 L.W _ _ _ 111 100 11 7.1 1.6 I.H . . . 52 50 2 5.0 .4 C.O _ _ _ 134 100 34 7.1 4.8 Totals . . . . 902 775 127 19.7 6.4 * A critical ratio of three or more, indicates that the obtained deviation from expectation cannot reasonably be attributed to chance. J. C., a male college student, was the first observer whose scores indi¬ cated that he was reacting to our cue. On his first series he showed a tendency to respond “yes” on the long (1.3 sec.) signal, and “no” on the short (1 sec.) signal. On the fourth series this tendency produced sta¬ tistically significant results. His introspections showed that he had been unable to feel any vibration or even derive any “hunches” from the vibrat¬ ing instrument so that he had concentrated more on the ready signals. On the succeeding series of tests, his introspections failed to mention the signal light again, but laid his success to the fact that he was “very relaxed, and in a receptive mood.” Of particular interest was the reaction of I. H. to one series in which, unobserved by us, the contacts on our timing mechanism had become rough¬ ened so that the signal light flickered rather than producing a steady glow. The long and the short signals had a distinctive flicker. Eighty-two percent of I. H.’s responses followed the formula: — long ready signal equals “yes”, 230 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions short ready signal “no.” Her introspections revealed this differential flicker between the two lights. We immediately adjusted the apparatus but not without being embarrassed to think that even an experiment on incidental factors affecting psycho-physical measurements was affected by an unpre¬ dicted incidental factor. Another fact which is interesting and has a possible significance is that with the exception of L. M.’s results, every observer showed a tendency to respond “yes” on the long ready signal and “no” on the short one. It is not unreasonable to suppose that all of the observers were in the same de¬ gree influenced by our cue. This supposition has possible support when it is further observed that, although only two observers achieved extra-chance scores, the group as a whole was significantly above chance. Fully aware that neither the number of observers employed nor the actual results obtained warrants a conclusive statement concerning the effect of cues on psycho-physical measurements, we wish only to say that this is an indication of what might happen in the determination of thresholds. When an observer is being tested for sensory acuity, he may either be like at least three of our observers and stolidly refuse to acknowldge the stimu¬ lus until it is unquestionably present— that is he sets his criterion of sen¬ sation far too high, or he may react to what is ordinarily an inadequate stimulus and base his response on some factor having no connection with the stimulus other than temporal agreement. 1 Goodfellow, L. D., Factors Affecting Thresholds, (not yet published). 2 Simpson, R. M., Effects of Muscular Tension on Visual and Tactile thresholds, doctoral thesis, Northwestern University, 1937. ,. _ . 8 Goodfellow, Li. D. A Psychological Interpretation of the Zenith Radio Tests of Telepathy, Journal of Experimental Psychology, Dec., 1938, 23, 601-32. 4 Goodfellow, L. D., Heine, R. W., and Ranseen, Emil. The Significance for Psychometry of Tendencies to Follow Certain Patterns in Recording Judgments. Psychology and Education — 1938 Meeting 231 A Preliminary Investigation of the Types of Examination Which Provide the Most Satisfactory Basis for Giving Grades Isabel C. Stewart and 0. F. Galloway MacMurmy College , Jacksonville , Illinois Most of the research concerning the comparative merits of the objective and the essay examination has dealt with reliability and validity. Very little research has attempted to compare the different types of examination with reference to their merits as basis for giving grades. In an attempt to find the type or types of examination which furnish the most satisfactory basis for assigning final marks in Educational Psy¬ chology, 57 students were given an objective and an essay test on each of four units into which the course had been divided. For two of the units the objective test was given first and for two units the essay test was given first. At the end of the semester scores were tabulated as fol¬ lows: total objective score, total essay score, total combined score, and total score on two objective and two essay tests. The last named com¬ bination of scores was the method previously used in the course. Letter grades were assigned on each distribution according to the Missouri Plan, and the marks thus given each student were compared. It was found that a reasonably satisfactory distribution was secured by each of the four types of scores, but the most satisfactory one was secured by the com¬ bination of scores made on two essay and two objective tests. This distri¬ bution more nearly approximated the normal, provided more decided breaks at the division points, and secured a more adequate separation of students at the two extremes. Reliability of the objective tests was + 0.84 ± 0.03 and of the essay tests, + 0.92 ± 0.01. The coefficient of correlation between essay and objective tests was + 0.81 ± 0.03. A comparison of the marks assigned students on the four plans shows that 56 per cent received the same grade regardless of the plan used. It appears that the best students were best regardless of the method of meas¬ urement used, the poorest were uniformly low, and the decidedly average were average regardless of the plan by which they were measured. Students near the dividing point between two grades were likely to be near the bor¬ derline on all plans but did not always receive the same letter grade. To secure further evidence in a course of the same general type but under somewhat different conditions, 114 students in General Psychology were given both an essay -and an objective examination covering the work of an entire semester. The reliability of the essay examination was + 0.80 ± 0.02 and that of the objective, + 0.84 ± 0.02. The coefficient of correlation between the scores on the two examinations was + 0.66 ± 0.04. One half of the group took the objective examination first, while the other half took the essay first. Scores were tabulated as follows: objective score, essay score, and combined essay and objective score. Letter grades were assigned as had been done in Educational Psychology. Again, a reasonably satisfactory distribution of scores was obtained by all methods, but the most satisfactory one was secured by combining essay and objective scores. Of the 114 students, 54 per cent received the same letter grades on all plans. Again, it was observed that students decidedly in a grade division were usually found in the same division on all plans, while those near the division points were likely to receive different letter grades on different plans, but to remain near the borderline. 232 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Due to the small number of subjects involved, conclusions remain ten¬ tative. The procedure is being repeated with 93 students in Educational Psychology. Conclusions tentatively reached are: 1. Either essay or objective examinations furnish a reasonably satisfactory basis for assigning marks in General Psychology or Edu¬ cational Psychology, but a combination of the two types yields a somewhat better distribution of scores. This may be due to the combination scores being based on a larger number of questions. 2. A majority of students receive the same letter grade regard¬ less of the type of examination used, and those who receive different marks are usually the ones near the borderline between two grades. Papers In Zoology Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman The Zoology Section carried sixteen papers and one demonstration. Eight papers are herewith published. The titles of the remaining eight and of the demonstration were as follows: Abortive Ovogenesis in Valvata, by C. L. Furrow, Knox College, Galesburg. A Research on the Refractiveness of the Animal Body to Certain Hormones, by Martha Scott, Southern Illinois State Normal Uni¬ versity, Carbondale. Relative Abundance of Species of Fresh Water Mussels, by H. J. VanCleave, University of Illinois, Urbana. Some Parasites of Prairie Chickens of Illinois, by W. Henry Leigh, State Natural History Survey and University of Illinois, Urbana! Biliary Tract of Hyrax, by Stewart Craig Thomson, School of Medi¬ cine, Loyola University, Chicago. Critical Periods in Mammalian Development as Indicated by X-Ray, by T. T. Job, School of Medicine, Loyola University, Chicago. Notes on the Ecology of Southern Illinois Salamanders, by W. M. Gersbacher and Paul G. Barnickol, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale. Some Effects of Hormones on Maze Performance in Rats, by Eloise Pannell, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale. Demonstration: Color Motion Picture on the Embryology of the Pig, by H. H. Strandskov, Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. About 60 attended the meeting. M. T. Townsend, Illinois Wesleyan Uni¬ versity, Bloomington, was elected chairman of the 1939 meeting. (Signed) Paul C. Beaver, Chairman. [233] 234 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Some Otoliths of Illinois Fishes L. A. Adams University of Illinois , Urljana, Illinois All vertebrate ears have some form of material in the endolymph that serves to motivate the sensory patches of the equilibrium and hearing regions of the ear. These are usually small crystals of calcium carbonate, although sea sand is often found in the endolymph fluid of the Elasmobranchs, in which the endolymph ducts open to the outside of the head. Continuing through the vertebrates, the same system is always present, but it may take different forms in the hearing region of the ear. The lower fishes, such as sharks, have the fine carbonate crystals, while starting with the ganoids, and ending with the teleosts, there is an agglutination of the sand-like crystals into definite bodies of a larger size. These enlarged structures are found in the utriculus, sacculus and lagena. Amphibia may have otoconia agglutinated into a mass, but in birds, reptiles and mammals, there is no agglutination at all. Peculiarly, the dipnoi have masses of material but no definite otolith bodies. ....... An analysis of the otoliths shows that they are made up principally of calcium carbonate, with slight additions of other salts, and a small amount of organic materia, 1. Since they are attacked by acids, they disintegrate in the digestive system, are destroyed by formaldehyde and must be ob¬ tained from fresh specimens, those preserved in alcohol, or in salted speci- IX10HS. In intermediate fishes, the semicircular canals lie in the side of the brain case, and the otoliths are easily taken out by splitting the skull and taking out the brain, which leaves the canals and membraneous ear ex¬ posed The same procedure is possible with the lower teleosts such as the Isospondyls, (trout, salmon, etc.), but in the higher teleosts, the otoliths are in such a position that the only way to dissect them out, is to slice off the top of the head, and approach them from the dorsal side. In many fishes, (Percomorphi, Ostariophysi) the sacculus and lagena lie in a tunnel which extends under the floor of the brain case, and are embedded m bone. Percomorphi have a thin bony capsule that is easily removed, but the Ostariophysi, have the otoliths in a heavy bony tunnel and m these, the best method is to remove the block containing them, and then dissolve the bone in KOH. By boiling it gently, the delicate otoliths can be removed uninjured. This method is the only safe one for the members of the Ostariophysi (carp, catfishes, characins, and electric eels). Knowledge of the otoliths goes back to Aristotle and the early natural¬ ists, who probably saw the otoliths in dissecting and in eating fish heads. During the middle ages, they were considered as somewhat problematical, were worn as amulets, and used in medicine. They were considered as spe¬ cific for headaches, colic, kidney troubles and for other ills. Since otoliths have peculiar markings on them, they were often regarded with superstition, and people saw in them pictures of saints, the key to paia- dise, and other mythical figures that lent themselves to popular supersti¬ tion The earliest anatomists considered them as structures that were high¬ ly detrimental to the fishes, and thought that they would conduct cold to the brain and thus kill the fishes in cold weather. No real work was done on the otoliths in a scientific way until the beginning of the seventeenth century, when the early students of fish anatomy began to work on the organization of this large group. The otoliths were recognized early as having some value in classification and were thus used by some of the eaiiy anatomists. Zoology — 1938 Meeting 235 Otoliths are found ini three parts of the ear: the utriculus, sacculus and lagena. The otoliths are given names according to their position in the ear. The stone from the utriculus is called the lapillus, or utriculith; that from the. sacculus the sagitta or sacculith; that from the lagena, the asteriscus or lagenalith. They are placed so that they have a definite relation to the receiving macula of these ear regions. The utriculith is usually quite small, and is not as distinctive in shape as the others, al¬ though a general symmetry is always present, and it is possible to separate rights and lefts with ease. The sacculith is usually the most striking, both from its size and configuration, and the mesial face usually has a distinctive pattern, that is correlated with the receiving macula. Many points present themselves concerning this pattern on the inner face that may be used in the determination of similar forms. In most fishes the sacculith is of con¬ siderable size, as in the drums, and the weakfishes receive their generic name Otolithus, from the striking otoliths. The greatest break in the type of sacculith comes in the Ostariophysi, where the lagenalith is enlarged and the sacculith reduced to a very delicate, fragile winged spike. The lagen¬ alith is distinctive enough so that it is possible to separate it from the oth¬ ers, and it is always possible to separate rights from lefts. Numerous ex¬ periments have been made to determine the use of these structures in hear¬ ing, and it is generally assumed that they act in connection with the sen¬ sory patches of the hearing part of the ear. They are held in place by slight membranes and their movements are slight. From the great variabil¬ ity of the otoliths it seems probable that there is some relation between the habits and type of ear structures. The structure of the otoliths shows that it is built up in concentric layers so it is assumed that a new layer is added each year. In section these seasonal rings appear, and in many species they are quite distinct. These seasonal rings are of a different color and texture, and in a number of species lend themselves readily to age determination. In old animals the rings become somewhat blurred so that the reading is much more difficult and in this they resemble scales. In spite of some irregularities, the growth rings are of distinct value in age determination. Studies made of a( long series of otoliths, of the same species, and with a wide range of sizes, show that the variability is surprisingly small. While some de¬ fective otoliths are found, they are generally true to type, and a series of a hundred specimens will show but little variation. In other words, there is little change with growth and age, and the changes in size are proportional. Otoliths differ much in their clearness, and while some are so clear that the rings are plain, others are opaque, and it is necessary to use some clearing material to make the rings show at all. Some appear to be quite chalky and rough but generally the texture is fine and clear cut. Since there are three otoliths, there are many possible combinations, and in a systematic study of fishes, these different elements can be used very effectively. There is a wide range in shape, size, markings, and po¬ sition in the skull, so that it is possible to use them in systematic work. It is at once evident that there are numerous problems that have not even been touched as to the cause of the great variation in size and shape, and also their functional significance. It seems logical to suppose that the great variation in size and shape must have some relation to the habitat in which fishes live, and to the peculiar conditions to which the different species are subjected. There must be a great variation in the needs of fishes, since in some habitats, the ear would be a most valuable sense, while in oth¬ ers, the value to the animal would be slight or conjectural. The fact that the sacculus usually has the largest otolith, and that it is usually more varied, appears to indicate that this part of the hearing ear is most important in fish sense reception, but a reversal of this size relation occurs in the Ostariophysi, where the sacculith is small and the lagenalith large. In this case the lagenalith appears to have the functional importance usually given to the sacculith. Some anatomists believe that the names should be reversed in this case, and that the supposed lagenalith is really the sacculith in a changed position. 236 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The use of the otoliths in fish work has been somewhat neglected in the United States since most of the papers dealing with them are of European origin. A long series of papers by A. N. Frost made something of a survey of the whole fish group, while others on the Continent have made important contributions both in fossil fishes and in present day forms. There is a real significance in the value of otoliths to systematic work, and it is shown that the differences in the combinations of the otoliths can be used to separate orders, families, genera and often species. An added use comes in the ability to identify the food material of car¬ nivorous fishes and even other fish-eating animals (Cormorants and fish¬ eating birds, and other vertebrates). The otoliths are retained in the stomach for some time before they are destroyed by the acids, thus making food identification possible. This has been used and has proved of value to students of fish food habits. To be of value it is necessary to have large collections of otoliths identified and cataloged as one would arrange a collection of fishes for study. Small black cards to which the otoliths are attached by black celluloid are very useful. This arrangement permits classification, storage, and ready access at all times. . Much work has been done on the otoliths of fossil fishes, because certain geological horizons contain abundant specimens. It is not difficult to account for these accumulations, when one has seen some of the fish holocausts that occur so often in nature, when millions of fishes are killed, and left in windrows along the shores. With a knowledge of the modern forms, it is possible to work out fossil faunas with some accuracy, and to establish} the fish horizons on a scientific basis. Because of the structure of the otoliths and the growth by adding lay¬ ers it is possible to make use of them in age determination and for growth rate. Some fishes lend themselves easily to studies of this type, especially when the otoliths are clear or only slightly opaque. When the otoliths are chalky, grinding and sectioning must be used. With age there is a gradual infiltration and a gradual loss of the distinctness of the rings, so that the value for accurate age determination is greatly lessened. Since there are three of the otoliths, and since the patterns of the three are quite variable, they do offer a very promising field for the study of the relationship of specie genera, families and orders. The tie that binds the Ostariophysi are certainly not apparent from the outside of the ani¬ mals, although all have Weberian ossicles, but the relationship is strik¬ ingly verified however, by the types of the otoliths, which in this case are of distinctive shape, and also imbedded in the floor of the brain case. Zoology — 1938 Meeting 237 A Statistical Approach to the Problem of Acid Secretion by the Gastric Glands* Gladys R. Bucher Mundelein College for Women and Northwestern Medical School , Chicago , Illinois It was the purpose of this research to secure a large number of ob¬ servations and deduce by statistical methods the answers to the following questions: (1) How do the chemical constituents containing chloride vary with the rate of secretion? (2) How do these constituents vary with re¬ spect to one another? (3) Which relationships contribute the most useful information toward answering the paramount question, at what concentra¬ tion does the cell of the gastric gland secrete the hydrochloric acid? Fig. 1. We have used dogs provided with pouches of the total stomach. The secretory stimulant was a constant amount of histamine administered sub¬ cutaneously every 10 minutes. This dose was varied during part of the work to secure all ranges of volume-rates. Collections were made every 20 minutes. Total and free acid was determined by titration. Total chlorides were determined by the Yolhard titration method. The neutral chloride was taken as thel difference between the total and acid chloride values. + hundred separate samples were collected and analyzed on each of two dogs. In addition, 183 samples were collected from 6 dogs and these /nto 9 large samples on the basis of volume-rate in 20 minutes The data on each sample consisted of the following: neutral chloride out- put, neutral chloride concentration, acid chloride output, acid chloride * Part of a complete study by J. S. Gray, G. R. Bucher and A. C. Ivy. 238 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions concentration, total chloride output, total chloride concentration, and the volume. All relationships were studied by a method of “least squares”, which determined a linear equation that mathematically and graphically would express the trends of the data. The general form of the equations obtained is y = a + bx. The validity of these curves was measured in a degree by the probable errors of the constants a and b or by the standard error of estimate. The mathematical results of all our experiments dis¬ play amazing uniformity. When the observed values were plotted about the theoretical lines, the degree of fit was most gratifying. The outputs of both total and acid chlorides were found to increase with the volume-rate, the total chloride output increasing more rapidly. The mathematical difference between these equations expresses the relationship of neutral chloride output to the volume-rate. The neutral chloride output also increased but at a very slow rate. When all lines are extended to the volume-rate axis, meaningless values are indicated for it would appear that a neutral chloride output can exist in the absence of a total chloride output. We feel certain that at minute volume-rates, the relationships cease to be linear and deviate to describe curves that pass through the origin. After the manner employed by Lim (1), these linear expressions were converted into hyperbolic functions expressing the relationship of con¬ centration to the volume-rate. These curves are seen in Fig. 1 for the dog B. The asymptotic nature of these curves is self evident. If the vol¬ ume-rate is extrapolated to infinity, the maximum concentration of total chloride approaches 165.7 mM and that of the acid chloride, 151.6 mM as maximum value, while the concentration of the neutral chloride approaches a minimum at 14 mM. Since all the curves level off at experimentally possible volume-rates, this extrapolation is justifiable. The significance of these curves near the origin is meaningless again, until after the point at which they intersect. , . ,. , When the relationships of the concentrations to each other were studied, the results could also be expressed by straight lines. As the acidity in¬ creased the total chloride concentration increased and the neutral chloride concentration decreased. Applying the “least squares” method to the data was found to be no more accurate than to derive the relationship from the output equations. This relationship is subject to large errors regardless of the way the equation is obtained: i.e. fitted or derived. Our experiments have yielded statistically significant results showing that: (1) As the volume-rate increases, the outputs of total chloride, acid chlor¬ ide and neutral chloride all increase in the order given, beginning with total chloride increasing most rapidly. , (2) The concentrations of the various chlorides bear a ship to the volume-rate; those for total chloride and ,aclA chi°rllto^ creasing with the volume while that for neutral chloride decreases. (3) The concentrations when studied as f unctions of volurne, all dis¬ play asymptotic maximum or minimum values when the volume is extrapolated to infinity. This extrapolation is justified for the lim¬ its are reached at volume-rates experimentally attainable. Average values for these limits from our 3 experiments are: Maximum total chloride 165-7 mM Maximum acid chloride 152.6 mM Minimum neutral chloride 13.1 mM , Ml The concentration of total chloride increases in a direct linear man (4) with the acidity while the neutral chloride concentration de¬ creases. These linear functions must be limited to the maximum and minimum values as determined by the hyperbolae obtained from the output equations. Extrapolations beyond these limits are mean- ingless. Because the output studies can be manipulated to express concentration relationships as well as show the limits under which the relationships aie valid and significant, we feel that the output to volume-rate studies con¬ tribute the most useful information relevant to the question; at what con¬ centration is each of chloride constituents secreted by the cells. 1. 2. Bibliography A. C. Lieu, I. C. Yuan and R. K. S. Lim, Chinese Journal of Psysiology, Vol- Franklin i^oflander, Jow'nal of Biological Chemistry, 97 :585 :1932. Zoology — 1938 Meeting 239 X-Rays as Causative Factors of Sex Reversal in the Developing Chick J. M. Essenberg and Anton Zikmund Loyola University School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois Introduction Experiments dealing with the effects of X-rays on the origin and differentiation of germ cells and the formation of gonads have involved many departures from the normal course of development. Difficulties have often been encountered as to the proper interpretation and evaluation of such anomalies. Structures resembling young seminiferous tubules were found in the cortex of X-rayed ovaries. Findings of this nature have led to a closer study of the accumulated material from the point of view of sex reversal. The data are recorded in this publication. Materials and Methods The X-ray machine used was a Type C model, made by the Standard X-ray Company. It was mechanically rectified and provided with a Landauer roentgenometer. A Universal Coolidge therapy tube was used. The set-up of the machine for the entire experiment was as follows: The kilowatt meter was set at 96, which delivered 112 peak kilovolts as meas¬ ured by the sphere gap; the milliameter was set at 6 milliamperes; the focal distance was 10 inches; the filter was equivalent to 4 mm aluminum; the roentgenometer was kept at 3.2 microamperes, which, by calculation, gave 0.6 r per second. The desired r, or dosage, was obtained by varying the time of exposure. The number of specimens used for these experiments was 121. Of these, 28 were controls and 93 were X-rayed. Of the latter there were 18 eggs irradiated prior to incubation, 26 eggs treated between 5 and 12 days of incubation and 49 chicks X-rayed from the time of hatching to 21 days of age. Fourteen of the specimens irradiated during incubation received a second dose of X-rays after hatching. The dosage of X-rays varied from 40 to 600 Roentgen units. The time of preservation of the material for study ranged from the 18th day of incubation to the 22nd day after hatching. All of the material was fixed in a solution of four parts of Kleinen- berg’s picro-sulphuric acid reagent and one part of 10 per cent formalde¬ hyde. It was embedded in paraffin and stained with eosin and hematoxylin. Results Mitotic activity is perhaps one of the most sensitive indicators of the effects of X-rays on living tissues. In all of our material so far studied, no definite injuries on mitosis were observed with dosages between 60 to 80 r. Recovery from a temporary arrest takes place in a few hours. On the contrary, there are indications that mitotic activity is accelerated in the embryonic chick with dosages less than 80 r. The next most sensitive structure in the chick embryo to the effects of X-rays appears to be the germinal epithelium. Initial injuries to the germinal epithelium were noted with dosages between 80 and 100 r The proliferation of germ cells is inhibited and the fully formed germinal epi¬ thelium of two or three layers of cells in thickness returns to the original structure of the peritoneal epithelium. The germ cell content of the cor- 240 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions mm EXPLANATION OF FIGURES Fig 1 Section of an ovary of an 18-day-old chick embryo irradiated with 400 r on the fifth day of incubation. Note the scarcity of germ cells and the ex¬ cessive tunica albuginea (x488). . Fig 2 Section of an ovary of a 21-day-old chick irradiated at the seventh day after hatching with 400 r. Note atrophy of primary follicles and the abund¬ ance of testicular cords (x275). , . • . ... 9.n _ Fig. 3. Section of an ovary of a 25-day-old chick X-rayed with 240 r at 70 hours incubation and again on the seventh day after hatching with 120 r. Note anovular follicles, testicular cords, testicular tubules and excessive tunica albuginea (x450). Zoology — 1938 Meeting 241 tex was drastically reduced. Its place is occupied by fibroblasts in the formation of an exaggerated tunica albuginea (Fig. 1). With dosages of 200 r or more the ova of the young follicles are so severely injured that atrophy follows. The resulting anovular follicles were found in all the ovaries of this experiment. Their further development can be divided into two stages: (1) testicular cords and (2) testicular tubules. Testicular Cords,— During the degeneration of the ovum, the follicular cells continue to multiply and invade the space occupied by the ovum. It is likely that the absorption of the contents of the ovum is accomplished by the follicular cells. In due time, the follicle becomes a spherical mass of cells (Fig. 2). There is reason to believe that such cell masses may also originate from germ cells prior to follicle formation. This is indi¬ cated by the presence of cell masses in ovaries in which primary follicles had not formed at the time of killing of the specimen. The degeneration of ova in growing follicles has been noted in many ovaries. Their fate remains, for the present, uncertain. It is likely that they degenerate com¬ pletely. The spherical shape of the cell masses is apparently not retained for any length of time. By growth, mostly in length, the cellular masses be¬ come cords of various sizes and shapes. The testicular cords are sur¬ rounded by a connective tissue sheath which is derived from the former ovarian follicles (Fig. 2). Testicular Tubules.— The next stage in the development of the orig¬ inal anovular follicles is the formation of lumina in the testicular cords. Apparently, lumina result by rearrangement of cells constituting the cords. The cells assume an epithelium-like position along-side the connective tissue sheath. In the formation of lumina, liquifaction of cells has not been noted. The testicular tubules were found almost exclusively in ovaries that re¬ ceived a double innervation (Fig. 3). Discussion Testicular cords have been found in all of the ovaries that were severely injured by X-rays. Definitely formed testicular tubules occur in double irradiated ovaries that had received at least 300 Roentgen units of X-ray. These structures were found in the cortex of the definitive ovary. By histological criteria the testicular tubules are readily comparable to the seminiferous tubules of the chick shortly after hatching. The develop¬ mental history of the testicular tubules resembles that of the seminiferous tubules. A third male characteristic is the greatly enlarged tunica albuginea found in severely injured ovaries. It is possible that sex reversal in the developing chick can be induced experimentally by means of X-rays. However, the problems cannot be solved on histological data alone. The findings must be verified in the living chick before any definite statement can be made. That sex in animals is not irrevocably set at the time of fertilization is now recognized by all students of sex problems. Partial sex reversal occurs spontaneously in many groups of animals including man. The litera¬ ture dealing with sex reversal in the domestic fowl is abundant but only a few publications can be mentioned here. Sporadic sex reversal in the chicken has been reported by Dent (1), Berner (2), Crew (3) and Hartman and Hamilton (4). These reports deal with adult chickens in which the changes are in the female-male direction. The factors underlying such changes have not been definitely determined. In some instances pathological destruction of the ovary has been found and thus interpreted as the cause of sex reversal. Histological studies of such birds have revealed the formation of seminiferous tubules in the diseased ovary or the rudimentary right ovary: Boring and Pearl (5), Fell (6) and' Mackling (7). 242 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions Attempts have been made to induce sex reversal in the domestic fowl experimentally. Two methods have been used: ovariotomy and sex hor¬ mones. Ovariotomized young female chickens have developed testis on one or both sides. In some instances apparently normal spermatogenesis was observed: Goodale (8), Zawadowsky (9), Benoit (10) and Domm (11). By the use of the male sex hormone partial sex reversal has been in¬ duced in the chick embryo. Seminiferous tubules were obtained in the definitive as well as the rudimentary ovary, Willier (12). Summary 1. Initial injuries to the ovarian follicle result in all ovaries irradiated with 200 or more Roentgen units. 2. Major damage to the ovary is caused by double irradiation. 3. The ovum of the young follicle is affected first, it atrophies and the cavity is filled with follicular cells. 4. The resulting cell masses are found in the cortex of ovaries irradiated with 200 or more r units. 5. Testicular cords develop from the spherical cell masses. 6. Testicular cords become tubules by the formation of a lumen. 7. The tubules so formed have a marked resemblance to the seminiferous tubules of the young chick. The developmental history of the two structures is similar. 8. The development of an extensive tunica albuginea adds a third male characteristic to the X-ray injured ovary. LITERATURE CITED Dent D F. : Hermaphrodite Fowl. Reliable Poult. Jo., 24: 335, 1917. Berner O. : Masculinisation d’une poule chez laquelle fut trouvee une tumeur de l’ovaire. Arch. Biol., 35: 295-311, 1926. ...... Crew F RE.: Studies on intersexuality. II. Sex reversal in the fowl. Proc. Roy. Soc., 95: 256-278, 1923. ^ ^ . .... 4 Hartman, C. S. and Hamilton, W. F. : A case of true hermaphroditism in the fowl. J. Exp. Zool., 36: 185-203, 1922. 5. Boring, Alice and Pearl, Raymond: Sex studies. XI. Hermaphrodite birds. 6 Fehf ^H.^B?1; ’ Histological studies on the gonads of the fowl. I. The histo¬ logical basis for sex reversal. Brit. J. Exp. Biol., 1: 97, 1923. 7. Macklin, M. T. : A description of material from a gynandromorph fowl. J. 8. Go^daie^°H. ’ D.8 9 10; ^Castration in relation to the secondary sexual characters in brown leghorns. Am. Nat., 47 : 159-169, 1913. 9. Zawadowsky, M. M. : Des Geschlecht un die Entwitke ung der Geschlecht- smerkmale. Moscow State Publication: 255 pp., 20 pis., ,93 ng., 10. Benoit, Jacques: Sur la structure histologique dun prgari de nature testi culaire developpSe spontan£ment chez un Poule ovariotomis6e. C. R. Acad. Domm, TL.1 V. : ^ex* reversal following ovariotomy in the fowl. Proc. Soc. Wd Her, B00H.a^ ^ The ^action of synthetic male hormone upon the differentiation of sex in the chick embryo. Science, 86 : 409, 1937. 3. 11. 12. Zoology — 1938 Meeting 243 Differential Modification of Embryonic Development of Organs in Twins and Double Monsters of Salt-Water Minnows Marie A. Hinrichs Southern Illinois State Normal University , Carhondale, Illinois This paper is supplementary to one which recently appeared in Physio¬ logical Zoology (Vol. XI, 2), and is the fourth in a series of studies with ultraviolet radiation and fertilized Fundulus eggs. The radiation source was a Cooper-Hewitt quartz mercury-vapor arc. Eggs were exposed for varying periods of time at intervals shortly after fertilization. In singly developing axes, the most frequent modification appeared in regions of the body, which at the time of exposure were physiologically more active in relation to other regions. In this way varying degrees of reduction in the developmental potency of the anterior median region appeared.1 Similar effects may be obtained when early exposures made just prior to the first cleavage result in the development of two axes with consequent production of twins and double monsters. Each member of such a pair may be independent of the other, or the two may be united posteriorly and show varying degrees of normality of development. In the above instances, each member usually has its own circulatory system with a heart whose rate of beat seems to be a function of its relative normality, i. e., two hearts may beat at different rhythms on the same yolk sac.2 Such embryos may be antipodean in their positions on the yolk sac, and be entirely unconnected anatomically and appear not to influence each other’s growth. Microscopic examination of such embryos reveals complete mirror imaging of parts.3 On the other hand, where developing axes are anatomically connected, and one seems to have a developmental advantage at the outset, they appear to influence each other physiologically, and within a short time it becomes evident that one embryo is growing at the expense of the other. The result is that one embryo may be completely normal and its smaller partner be differentially inhibited. The inhibition of development manifests itself in the same way as the inhibition which appears in single axes, but since the inhibiting agent (in this case the other member of the pair) is continually present, the degree of inhibition is definitely more marked and its effect continuous and uncomplicated by differential recovery. When these embryos are sectioned and studied microscopically certain facts are evident, namely, the central nervous system is most frequently inhibited particularly in the region of the developing forebrain. In some instances, differentiation seems not to have kept pace with proliferation, with the result that a large amount of brain tissue develops without any characteristic brain structure. In such an embryo the rest of the organs appear to develop normally in most instances. A similar condition has been previously reported in chick embryos.4 In some double monsters the development of both embryos is inhibited. Microscopic study of these forms reveals the same selective inhibition along developmental axes. In some extreme cases, namely, in the autosite-parasite type only a small protoplasmic mass appears in place of a second embryo. Study of sections of such an inhibited member may show little more than a heterogeneous mass of commingled tissues which can scarcely be distin¬ guished from each other and in which a directional developmental force is obviously lacking. Such a form may or may not have its own yolk sac circulation. A hormonal influence on development appears to be ruled out 244 Illinois State Academy 0/ Science Transactions in the former instance. Furthermore, the inhibitory effect is obviously already active at the time of early development of the nervous system, i. e., before the circulatory system becomes active. In many instances, in the development of closely adjacent parallel axes, a mid-line fusion is obvious in the central nervous system and frequently the only evidence of duplication appears in the single posterior axis, as a ventral bifurcation of the neural canal, and a double notochord. In conclusion it may be stated that where developmental inhibition of embryonic axes is produced by early exposure to ultraviolet radiation, the developing nervous system, in most instances, shows the greatest degree of modification. 1. REFERENCES Hinrichs, Marie A., and Genther, C., Ultraviolet radiation and the production of twins and double monsters, Physiol. Zool., Vol. IV, 3, 1931. Hinrichs, Marie A., Temperature effects on the heart rate of double embryos of Fundulus, Manuscript, 1933. . , , , _ Hinrichs, Marie A., The microscopic anatomy of twins and double monsters of Fundulus Heteroclitus, Physiol. Zool., Vol. XI, 2, 1938. Hinrichs, Marie A., Axial duplications produced in ^wer vertebrates by early exposure to ultra-violet radiation, Illinois Acad. Set. Trans., Vol. XXII, 193 U. Zoology — 1938 Meeting 245 On the Path of the Firefly While Periodically Flashing Chas. T. Knipp University of Illinois, Urbana A good deal has been written on the life history of the firefly, and many, including physicists and chemists, have speculated on the efficient light that these small insects can turn on and off at will. It is not the writer’s inten¬ tion to say anything regarding the former, for he is not a zoologist, or any¬ thing regarding the chemical and physical aspects in the production of the light, but he does wish to call attention to one of the firefly’s instinctive qualities, namely, to its path in flight while periodically flashing. A fairly complete search through the literature for discussions on this point has been made without much success. The writer was reared on a farm in the “Big Woods” of northwestern Ohio at a time when nature there was still in its unspoiled state, for three- fourths of the area was forest. He remembers as a boy a field of about ten acres, recently cleared, lying alongside of the road and adjacent to his father’s place. We often drove along this road at dusk and with wonder¬ ment observed the myriads of fireflies moving about over this newly cleared, but not yet broken, field. The soil conditions, the humidity, the decaying stumps and new undergrowth must have been favorable for their existence and propagation. It was in this field that the writer first observed the actual path that the firefly traces in flight while flashing periodically. He has observed this same characteristic path down through the years, and only last summer checked it again. It should be stated that numerous persons have been interviewed, including zoologists, chemists, physicists, physiologists and psychologists and the first has yet to be found who definitely stated having noticed the recurrent irregularities in the flight of the firefly at the time of flashing. A brief description and discussion follow: The firefly on its twilight excursions flies for the most part in a horizontal direction. Take a windstill evening. A trace of its path viewed horizontally and from the side is shown in Fig. l. 246 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions The portions a, l) and c represent the more or less undulating stretches of flight of the fly, while mi, m, m2 the path during a “flash”, and ru n, n2 the path during the next following flash. As viewed from the side the fly on approaching mi slows down appreciably (seeming to waver slightly as if in an effort to stop) but maintains its flying level. The light then goes on and simultaneously the firefly drops visibly from its horizontal flight, but acceleration at once ensues, the downward duck is quickly arrested followed by an upward spurt as shown by the trace m m2 in the figure. On reaching m^, at a distance of from 5 to 15 cm from the beginning of the flash, the light is suppressed and simultaneously the flight is again slowed down. The firefly seems to waver, as in an effort to regain its equilibrium, before continuing its more or less undulatory flight along b, reaching when the luminous path cycle is repeated. Looking down from above, (Fig. 2) the path discloses no outstanding characteristics. The direction of flight is pretty much straight ahead, but on close observation there may be seen at times signs of wavering at points mi and m2 and also at ru and m, referred to above and shown m Fig. 2 by the thickened portions of the line. Observations from above reveal the ac¬ celerations in flight, both positive and negative, over the flash period. These observations are not, however, easy to make, as one can well imagine. Speculating on the evidence revealed by the foregoing, it seems that the system (the firefly) may be thought of as containing stored energy under control of thei insect for both maintaining flight and producing flashes ot light. The fly now contemplates a flash as it approaches, say, mi. On turn¬ ing on the light (drawing energy from the common source) the attendant “overload” causes the mechanism necessary for sustained flight to slow down and the fly drops slightly. Simultaneously extra stores of energy are tapped, the flight mechanism responds, the illumination brightens and the insect speeds upward, in its endeavor to overcome the falling tendency, and reaches the point m2, having thus described the smooth path mi m ms. At m2 the energy for the production of the light is shut off, and with it doubtless some that was needed in maintaining flight. The flight mechanism again slows down, the fly may waver as though to regain its balance (Fig. 2), and then starts off at reduced speed over the routine flight between flashes, while energy for the next flash is generated (chemically or otherwise) enroute. That considerable energy is expended in the production of the flash, and mus be renewed (between flashes) is evidenced by the fact that if the fly i caused to emit light continuously its brightness dims perceptibly with time. The above are the writer’s observations, extending over a long penou. Figure 1 depicts the path quite accurately. Have other observers noticed similar persistent irregularities? Zoology — 1938 Meeting 247 An Anomaly of the Venous System in a Cat, Showing Paired Superior and Inferior Vena Cavae Donald B. McMullen Monmouth College , Monmouth , Illinois W. W. Clark Whitesburg High School , Whitesburg, Georgia A mature eat, dissected in 1932 by Mr. Clark as a part of the laboratory work in Comparative Anatomy, was found to have an interesting anomaly of the systemic veins. From the ventral side (Fig. 1) the ventricles and auricles of the heart appear to be normal. Just anterior to the right auricle there is a rather large, blood-filled sac which is formed by the union of two large veins. One of these veins passes anteriorly as a right superior vena cava with normal branches. The other passes posteriorly as a com¬ bined azygous and right inferior vena cava. After passing through the diaphragm it goes into the posterior end of the body receiving normal veins from the right side of the body. There are, however, no hepatic veins emptying into the inferior vena cava. On the left side of the heart a superior and inferior vena cava can be seen. These unite at about the level of the auriculo-ventricular groove to form a large blood-filled sac. The Fig. 1. Ventral view of the heart of cat. Fig. 2. Dorsal view of the heart of cat. blood vessels entering the two left vena cavae are similar to those on the right side of the body. Hepatic veins unite to form a common hepatic which passes through the diaphragm and disappears dorsal to the heart. — 7 248 Illinois State Academy of Sdience Transactions From the dorsal side of the heart (Fig. 2) it can be seen that these two sacs do not unite but empty into the right auricle by separate openings. The right sac empties into the auricle near the middle of the anterior border. The left sac lies on the dorsal side of the heart in the auriculo-ventricular groove and enters the auricle at the lower left corner. Near the median line of the heart the left sac receives the common hepatic vein. This anomaly is evidently due to the arrested development of certain blood vessels in the fetal life of the animal. The systemic veins are practi¬ cally bilaterally symmetrical, resembling those found in the lower vertebrates or in the early stages of fetal development. It seems probable that during fetal development the anterior cardinal veins failed to anastomose and form the left innominate vein. In the abdominal region the right and left sub¬ cardinals also failed to anastomose. These, combined with parts of the postcardinals and supracardinals, must have developed into the right and left inferior vena cavae found in this cat. As a result the absorption of the sinus venosus and ducts of Cuvier was incomplete and their remnants remain as the two pouches formed by the union of the superior and inferior vena cavae. The left duct of Cuvier has not been reduced to a mere coronary sinus but is retained as a large functional vessel. The caudal extension of the hepatic veins evidently failed to anastomose with the subcardinal and umbilical veins so the common hepatic vein passes into the remnant of the sinus venosus on the left side. Zoology — 1938 Meeting 249 A Report on the Earwig Doru aculeatum aculeatum (Scudder), from a Marsh in Northern Illinois Floyd G. Werner Ottaiva , Illinois Dorn aculeatum aculeatum (Scudder) is one of the three earwigs found in northern Illinois, other than adventives, of which Doru lineare (Escholtz) has been reported at Urbana on cabbage shipped from Texas. Labia minor (Linn.) is another of the three, and I have found it flourishing at Ottawa. One evening (June 28, 1936) I took twenty specimens at a light, and I have found six specimens since then. Doru aculeatum aculeatum (Scudder) is a distinctly marsh species. It was reported by Thomas (1876) from northern Illinois, but has not been taken from the State since then, as far as is known. I have taken this species in and near a marsh across the Illinois River from Starved Rock State Park. Being permanently wet, but shallow, this marsh is an ideal location for most prairie marsh fauna and flora. It is a typical virgin marsh for Illinois. In the deeper portions is a good stand of Blue Flag, mixed in with Cat-tail. Most of the specimens were taken by Mr. Charles J. Alikonis of Ottawa and myself from under boards and logs along the border. They became more common on approach to the border, and were found very common on it. None were found over fifty feet away. In early summer specimens were found on the blossoms of the blue flag and crawling over the other vegetation. They seemed to be feeding on either the pollen or the corolla of the blue flag. When disturbed they “dropped”, this making them very hard to collect, especially since the water and mud were almost to one’s knees in places. This species is nocturnal in habit. Specimens kept in captivity were very active at night, but hid when light was placed upon them, as they also did during daylight. They make full use of the stink-glands on top of the abdomen, creating quite an odor when a hundred or so are con¬ centrated and disturbed. All of the specimens taken are brachypterous, and in all those examined the wings are much aborted. The size varies in the male from 13.25 mm. to 20 mm., and in the female from 12 mm. to 16 mm., all measurements taken from the front of the head to the tip of the forceps. It is a queer fact that the larger males have the best-developed forceps, while the smaller ones invariably have slender ones, sometimes wholly untoothed. The fe¬ males are very uniform. Following is a record of the specimens taken: (hibernating) May 15, 1936 C. J. Alikonis. , . 1 male Feb. 28, 1937 F. G. Werner. . 9 males, 10 fern. C. J. Alikonis. . 4 males, 17 fern. Feb. 11, 1938 F. G. Werner. . . 53 males, 42 fern. Feb. 12, 1938 F. G. Werner. , . 170 males. 260 fern. C. J. Alikonis. , . 18 males, 27 fern. Feb. 13, 1938 C. J. Alikonis.. . 1 male Feb. 26, 1938 F. G. Werner. . . 1 male (on Blue Flag, and crawling over vegetation) June 3, 1937 F. G. Werner. , . 6 males C. J. Alikonis. . . 4 males, 2 fern. June 13, 1937 F. G. Werner. . . 7 males Many were seen dead, possibly due to the cold or to the fact that the land was burned over in the fall. A short series was sent to Dr. Morgan Hebard for determination, and he verified it as this species. * . - ■ • STATE OP ILLINOIS HENRY HORNER, Governor TRANSACTIONS OP THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE VOLUME 31 MARCH, 1939 NUMBER 3 ANNOUNCEMENT Thirty-second Annual Meeting Officers and Committees, General Program Section Meetings, Junior Section General Information Friday and Saturday, May 5-6, 1939 SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS Published by the Academy Affiliated With the State Museum Division Department of Registration and Education Centennial Bldg., Springfield, Ill. PUBLISHED QUARTERLY Entered as second-class matter December 6, 1930, at the post office at Spring- field, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, 1912. OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES 1938-1939 President , George D. Fuller, University of Chicago, Chicago First Vice-President , Evelyn I. Fernald, Rockford College, Rockford Second Vice-President , Eugene R. Dougherty, Springfield Junior College, Springfield Secretary , R. F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana Treasurer , Paul D. Voth, University of Chicago, Chicago Librarian, Thorne Deuel, State Museum, Springfield Editor, Grace Needham Oliver, State Geological Survey, Urbana Junior Academy Representative, H. L. Adams, Bloomington High School, Bloomington Committee on Conservation : T. H. Frison, Natural History Survey, Urbana, Chairman M. M. Leighton, State Geological Survey, Urbana W. H. Haas, Northwestern University, Evanston David D. Lansden, Cairo Paul Houdek, 710 N. Cross St., Robinson R. S. Smith, University of Illinois, Urbana H. J. Van Cleave, University of Illinois, Urbana W. C. Allee, University of Chicago, Chicago E. L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston Committee on Le gislation and Finance : H. B. Ward, University of Illinois, Urbana, Chairman Fay-Cooper, Cole, University of Chicago, Chicago Frank W. Aldrich, 1506 E. Washington, Bloomington Edson S. Bastin, University of Chicago, Chicago B. Smith Hopkins, University of Illinois, Urbana Committee on Affiliation : • H H. Radcliff, 1346 Macon St., Decatur, Chairman Clarence Bonnell, Harrisburg Township High School, Harrisburg H. O. Lathrop, Illinois State Normal University, Normal Rosalie M. Parr, University of Illinois, Urbana Mary M. Steagall, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale Committee on Membership : Harold E. Way, Knox College, Galesburg, Chairman Thomas F. Barton, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale Lester I. Bochstahler, Northwestern University, Evanston Louis C. McCabe, State Geological Survey, Urbana J. R. Byerly, Springfield. Committee on the Conservation of Archeological and, Historical Sites . Fay-Cooper Cole, University of Chicago, Chairman —2— Frank W. Aldrich, 1504 E. Washington, Bloomington M. J. Herskovits, Northwestern University, Evanston M. M. Leighton, State Geological Survey, Urbana Paul Martin, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago Bruce W. Mervin, 601 W. Walnut St., Carbondale j. B. Ruyle, 9 Main St., Champaign Henry B. Ward, University of Illinois, Urbana Committee on Research Grants from the American Association for the Advancement of Science : Charles T. Knipp, University of Illinois, Urbana, Chairman Thorne Deuel, State Museum, Springfield Charles H. Behre, Jr., Northwestern University, Evanston W. C. Blanchard, University of Illinois, Urbana L. Hanford Tiffany, Northwestern University, Evanston Committee on Publications : George D. Fuller, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ex-officio Robert F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ex-officio B. Smith Hopkins, University of Illinois, Urbana Committee on the Compilation of Ecological Bibliography : A. G. Vestal, University of Illinois, Urbana Committee on High School Science and Clubs : Harry L. Adams, Bloomington High School, Bloomington, General Chairman Audry C. Hill, Chester High School, Chester, Chairman of Exhibits Allen R. Moore, j. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero, Chair¬ man of Judging Louis A. Astell, University Pligh School, Urbana, Editor , “Science Club Service” Rose M. Cassidy, Maine Township High School, Des Plaines, Con¬ tributing Editor for Illinois Rosalie M. Parr, University of Illinois, Urbana, Radio Chairman Rosalie M. Parr and Lyell J. Thomas, University of Illinois, Ur¬ bana, and Don Carroll, State Geological Survey, Urbana, Ad¬ visory Committee Ruth M. Wood and Lewis Brown, Springfield High School, Spring- field, Local Arrangements Chairmen Delegate to the American Association for the Advancement of Science : George D. Fuller, University of Chicago, Chicago. Delegate to the Conservation Council of Chicago : V. O. Graham, 4028 Grace Street, Chicago Publicity Director : Carrol Hall, Springfield High School, Springfield General Chairman, Springfield Meeting : E. R. Dougherty, Springfield Junior College, Springfield —3— ANNOUNCEMENTS Research Grants from the American Association for the Advancement of Science : The Academy is granted a fund of approximately two hundred dollars for use in the aid of research projects. Members of the Academy desiring such aid should communicate with Professor C. T. Knipp, De¬ partment of Physics, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, outlining the project which they wish considered. To be given consideration, projects must be definitely outlined, with specific purposes stated. Recipients of the awards will be announced at the annual business meeting of the Academy at 5 p. m. Friday, May 5, 1939. GENERAL PROGRAM All Addresses and Section Meetings Are Open to the Public THURSDAY, MAY 4, 1939 6:00 p. m. Council dinner at the St. Nicholas Hotel, Springfield. 7 : 30 p. m. Meeting of the Council, St. Nicholas Hotel, Springfield. FRIDAY, MAY 5, 1939 Springfield High School, Springfield, Illinois 8 :00 a. m. Registration by all members and guests. Securing of final program, and tickets for the annual banquet. Reg¬ istration for Saturday Field Trips. N. E. Entrance, Centennial Building. 8 ;00 a. m. Meeting of the Council with local committee and delegates from affiliated societies. State Museum Board Room. 8:30 a. m. Preliminary business meeting of the Academy. State Muse¬ um office. GENERAL SESSION, AUDITORIUM, CENTENNIAL BUILDING 9 :00 a. m. Address of Welcome — Honorable John Stelle, Lieutenant Governor of Illinois. Address of Welcome— R. E. Fildes, Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Illinois. Presidential A ddress— Interglacial and postglacial vegeta¬ tion of Illinois— Professor George D. Fuller, University of Chicago, Chicago Address: Plant growth and growth hormones — Professor Charles A. Shull, University of Chicago, Chicago Address: State forests of Illinois— Anton Tomasek, State Forester, Springfield. Address: Aims of the Illinois State Museum— Dr. Thorne Deuel, Chief, State Museum, Springfield. —4— 11 :30-l :00 p. m. Luncheon. Springfield High School Cafeteria. 1 :00-l :30 p. m. Exhibits : Junior Section, High School Science Club ex¬ hibits on display, Gymnasium, Springfield High School. 1 :30 p. m. Section Meetings : Election of Chairmen for 1939-40. Papers, demonstrations and discussions. High School class rooms. See page 7 ff. 5 :00 p. m. Annual Business Meeting. Announcement of grantees for A.A.A.S. Research Awards. Springfield High School Auditorium. 6:15 p. m. Annual Banquet. Informal, St. Nicholas Hotel, price $1.00. Reservations made in advance by personal application or by mail to Mr. Gilbert Wright, State Museum, Cen¬ tennial Building, Springfield, Illinois. Tickets should be called for before 10:30 a.m., Friday, May 5th, N. E. entrance, Centennial Building. Speakers at the Banquet : Honorable John W. Kapp, Mayor of Springfield Honorable John A. Wieland, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Walter L. Wilkins, Dean, Springfield Junior College. 7 :45 p. m. Annual Public Lecture. Title to be announced. Auditorium, Centennial Building. SATURDAY, MAY 6, 1939 8 :00 a. m. Meeting of the New Council. Board Room, State Museum, Centennial Building. 9 :00 a. m. Field Trips. The local committee will arrange transportation if reservations are made on Friday at the registration desk, N. E. Entrance, Centennial Building. All trips leave from the Centennial Building, meeting places as¬ signed as follows : Archaeological Trip*: East Edwards Street, North side, from Second to Fourth Street. Probably the most in¬ teresting Middle Mississippi cemetery known is located in Central Illinois ; the Dickson Mound, near Lewis¬ ton, in Fulton County. Starting from the Centennial Building at 9 :00 a. m., cars will proceed to the junction of Illinois routes 24 and 78, east from here to the Dick¬ son Mound (following markers) south again to the Og¬ den Mound group, and from here north along the pic¬ turesque road at the foot of the Bluffs to the abandoned mining town site of Tampico and the Gooden Mounds. Three cultural manifestations within a radius of four miles ! Doctors John B. Ruyle, Don Dickson, and Thorne Deuel will act as leaders. Biological Trip*: East Edwards Street, North side, from Fourth to Spring Street. Visit to the State Division of —5— Forestry Horner Tree Nursery near Havana, where 10,000,000 trees can be produced annually for re¬ forestation purposes. Leaving the Nursery, a trip to the new State Forest in Mason County, now in process of acquisition, will be made. Crossing the Illinois River strip-mine forest plantings will be inspected in Fulton County. Nature Study and Lincoln Lore Field Trip*: Spring Street, East side, from East Edwards Street to West Jackson Street. A locally conducted field trip to the his¬ toric places associated with the life of Lincoln, including his former home, his burial place, and a trip to New Sa¬ lem, eighteen miles away, where Lincoln met Ann Rut¬ ledge. The nature study portion of the trip will include visits to new Lake Springfield, nature study trails, and the Springfield Civic Gardens. This trip is sponsored by the Springfield Civic Garden Association, the Springfield Guide Tour Service, and the Springfield Nature League. The Director will be Father George M. Link, State Nat¬ uralist. Geological Trip*: Second Street, West side, from East Jackson to East Edwards Street. The State Geological Survey will cover not only some of the principal geologic features in the Springfield region, but also other matters interest. Recent sand dunes, Wisconsin outwash in the Sangamon River valley, Illinoian drift with its soil profile, and Yarmouth (pre-Illinoian) fossiliferous loess and non- fossiliferous silt, all of Pleistocene age; and massive sandstone, fossiliferous limestones, and a thick sequence of several formations of Pennsylvanian (“Coal Meas¬ ures”) age will be examined and their history inter¬ preted. The following points of interest will also be visited : Lake Springfield, the recently developed reser¬ voir supplying the city of Springfield ; Ann Rutledge’s grave at Petersburg, and New Salem State Park, where the trip will end. Drs. George E. Ekblaw, M. M. Leighton, and J. Marvin Weller of the State Geological Survey will serve as leaders of the trip. * (a) Participants should wear suitable clothes and shoes for hiking, and should bring packed lunches. (b) Arrangements will be made for lunches, packed by one of the local con¬ cerns, if orders are left at the registration desk. N. E. Entrance. Centennial Building, on Friday. All prepaid orders will be delivered to the registra¬ tion desk if desired. —6— PROGRAM OF SECTION MEETINGS All Meetings will be held in Springfield High School FRIDAY, MAY 5—1 :30 p. m. AGRICULTURE, G. H. Dungan, University of Illinois, Chairman Room 202 Election of Chairman for 1939-40. 1. Corn Hybrids resistant to bacterial wilt and stalk-rotting dis¬ eases — J. R. Holbert, Funk Brothers Seed Company, Blooming¬ ton. (Illustrated). 2. Does it pay to make an individual ear test of hybrid corn? — Benjamin Koehler, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana. (Illustrated). 3. Plowing dates as they affect abundance of corn root aphids. — J. H. Bigger, State Natural History Survey, Urbana. 4. Abnormalities resulting from crossing individual corn plants. — C. M. Woodworth, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana. 5. Hybrid corn tends to stabilize yields. — R. R. Copper, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana. 6. Insect abundance around wild life areas. — M. D. Farrar, State Natural History Survey, and W. P. Flint, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana. 7. Taxonomic study of bacteria found in ice cream. — J. A. Bran¬ non, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana. 8. Azotobacter flora of the Morrow plots. — M. D. Appleman and O. H. Sears, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana. 9. Effects of the soybean crop on soil productivity. — O. H. Sears and W. L. Burlison, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Stat¬ ion, Urbana. 10. The relationship in soils of total nitrogen, total bases, and productivity. — H. J. Snider, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 11. Vagaries of some Illinois Soils. — L. H. Smith, Illinois Agri¬ culture Experiment Station, Urbana. 12. Opportunity for teaching agricultural information through the Vocational Agriculture teacher. — Melvin Henderson, Uni¬ versity of Illinois, Urbana. 13. Trends in rural organization. — D. E. Lindstrom, University of Illinois, Urbana. 14. Benefits resulting from activities connected with the Agri¬ cultural Adjustment programs. — O. L. Whalin, University of Illinois, Urbana. —7 — ANTHROPOLOGY— J. B. Ruyle, 9 Main St., Champaign, Chairman Room 14 Election of Chairman for 1939-40. 1. A cache of southwest Indian pipes. — Prof. William F. Schulz, University of Illinois, Urbana. 2. The site of Fox Indian-French battle of 1730.— Stanley Faye, Aurora. 3. Detection of fraudulent copper needles. — Harold Mohrman, University of Illinois, Urbana. 4. Title to be announced. — Byron Knoblock, LaGrange. 5. Mound remains in Peoria County. — Floyd Barloga, Peoria Academy of Science, Peoria. 6. Ornamentation among the American Indians. — Stanley Sop¬ er, Bardolph. 7. Discovery of a buried aboriginal shellheap in the Illinois River valley. — Mrs. George E. Shoenbeck, Peoria Academy of Science, Peoria. 8. Types of pre-historic remains in Peoria County. — Harry B. Spooner, Peoria Academy of Science, Peoria. 9. Engraved shell gorgets from Illinois. — B. W. Stevens, Quincy. 10. Migration and influences in Illinois from the Lower Mississippi valley region. — Thorne Deuel, State Museum, Springfield. 1 1 . An unrecognized artifact. — Charles Harris, Macomb. 12. Some Mayan customs of today. — James Myers, Springfield. 13. Modern botany and the ancient Indians* contribution to it. — L. F. Gumbart, Macomb. 14. Some comments concerning the so-called Banner Stone. — Byron Knoblock, LaGrange. BOTANY— Ernest M. R. Lamkey, State Normal University, Normal, Chairman. Section A — Room 4 Election of Chairman for 1939-40. 1. Botanical demonstration. — Sister M. Ellen O’Hanlon, Rosary College, River Forest. 2. A teaching device chart showing family relationships among angiosperms. — Blanche McAvoy, State Normal University, Normal. 3. Oedogoniales of Illinois. — L. H. Tiffany, Northwestern Uni¬ versity, Evanston. (Lantern). 4. Illinois lichens.— Opal Hartline, State Normal University, Normal. 5. A preliminary list of the flowering plants of Winnebago Coun¬ ty, Illinois. — Evelyn I. Fernald, Rockford College, Rockford. 6. Variations in Carpel number of Abutilon theophrasti. — —8— Charles A. Shull, University of Chicago, Chicago. 7. Pollination drops in conifers. — Phyllis L. Cook University of Illinois, Urbana. 8. The pollen of certain Taxodiaceae. — Margaret Kaeiser, Uni¬ versity of Illinois, Urbana. 9. Notes on the histology of an Illinois Psaronius stem.— Gerald¬ ine M. Moon, University of Illinois, Urbana. (Lantern). 10. Mega-and micro-sporangiate cones of Mazocarpon. — James M. Schopf, State Geological Survey, Urbana. (Lantern). 11. Studies of the relation of cell wall structure to the final con¬ figuration of the primary xylem of the higher plants. — E. L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston. 12. A radiographic study of anthesis in Lilium speciosum rubrum. — Sister Mary Therese, Mundelein College, Chicago. Section B — Room 10 1. The Blackman interpretation of plant growth. — Harry J. Fuller, University of Illinois, Urbana. (Lantern). 2. Water absorption by leaves. — H. M. Thut, Eastern Illinois State Normal University, Charleston. (Lantern). а. Differential distribution of minerals along the axis of herba¬ ceous plants. — A. E. Edgecombe, Northwestern University, Evanston. 4. The relations between growth substances and the abscission of the leaves of Coleus blumei. — R. Maurice Myers, North¬ western University, Evanston. 5. A study of the relation of cicatrization to evaporation from leaves of Bryophyllum.— Walter B. Welch, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale. б. Carbohydrate utilization by Diplodia macrospora. — Neil E. Stevens and Howard A. Larsh, University of Illinois, Urbana. 7. Why the Illinois settlers chose forest land.— A. G. Vestal, Uni¬ versity of Illinois, Urbana. 8. Composition of prairie vegetation in Illinois. — Vernoy Reihmer, University of llinois, Urbana. 9. Variability of composition in Brownfield Woods.— A. G. Vestal and Charlotte Young, University of Illinois, Urbana. 10. Plant cover for wild animals during the winter season. — George L. Terwilliger, Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb. (Lantern) . 11. The plants of the Smoky Mountains. — Elizabeth White, Com¬ munity High School, Blue Island. CHEMISTRY J. DeVries, Knox College, Galesburg, Chairman . Section A — RESEARCH — Room 204 Election of Chairman for 1939-40. 1. Liquid ammonia as a dietary nitrogen supplement. — Richard G. Roberts, Chicago Medical School, Chicago. —9— 2. Structure of Vinyl Polymers : the polymer of Methyld-bro- moacryolate. — J. C. Cowan, University of Illinois, Urbana. 3. The structure of Polyvinyl chloride. — Carl S. Marvel and James H. Sample, University of Illinois, Urbana. 4. Synthetic Resins.— Charles L. Levesque, University of Illinois, Urbana. 5. Special study of vapor pressures of saturated salt solutions. — O. W. Rees and G. W. Land, State Geological Survey, Urbana. 6. A comparison of the chemical characteristics of crude oils produced in the old and new Illinois fields. O. W. Rees and P. W. Henline, State Geological Survey, Urbana. 7. The chemistry of Europium.— W. A. Taebel and B. S. Hop¬ kins, University of Illinois, Urbana. 8. Hydrolysis of tertiary alkyl halides.— Nicholas D. Cheronis, Wright Junior College, Chicago. 9. The preparation of humic acids from Illinois coal.— G. R. Yohe and C. A. Harman, State Geological Survey, Urbana. 10. Some chemical changes in coal samples during storage.— O. W. Rees and M. L. Kalinowski, State Geological Survey, Ur¬ bana. SECTION B— EDUCATIONAL DIVISION Room 209 1. Technique for large group demonstrations in the physical sciences. — Nicholas D. Cheronis and Henrietta Freud, Wright Junior College, Chicago. 2. Motor fuels over the world. — Gustav Egloff, Universal Oil Products, Chicago. 3. Quantitative estimations in qualitative analysis. Elijah Swift, Jr., Knox College, Galesburg. 4. Marihuana. — L. A. Higley, Wheaton College, Wheaton. 5. pH experiments for the first course in chemistry. G. W . Thiessen, Monmouth College, Monmouth. 6. Some curious growths of copper sulfate crystals. J. B. Mag- nuson, Augustana College, Rock Island. 7. Project work in the High School. — John C. Chiddix, Normal Community High School, Normal. 8. Simple distillation procedure in qualitative analysis.— VV ilbur Simon and John H. Reedy, University of Illinois, Urbana. 9. A modified procedure for the tin sub-group.— A. R. Hanke and John H. Reedy, University of Illinois, Urbana. 10. A new approach to first year chemistry. — G. M. Schmeing, Loyola University, Chicago. . 11. Title to be announced. — D. G. Nicholson, University of Illi¬ nois, Urbana. 12. Some practical applications of the glass electrode.— Forrest Anderson, Wilkins, Anderson & Co., Chicago. —10— GEOGRAPHY — Thomas F. Barton, Carbondale, Chairman. This section is sponsored by Illinois Chapter of the National Coun¬ cil of Geography Teachers. Room 117 Election of chairman for 1939-40. 1. Distribution of Japanese cities. — A. W. Booth, University of Illinois, Urbana. 2. Geographic aspects of inter-areal transition. — H. Lemons, Graduate student, Northwestern University, Evanston. 3. Sequence of economic adjustment in a Saxi-cultural commun¬ ity as illustrated by Leadsville, Colorado.— E. M. Gunnell, Knox College, Galesburg. (Illustrated). 4. Reading geographic symbols. — Otis McMahon, Cartersville. 5. Variations in the frost-free season in Coles County.— G. D. Kock, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Macomb. 6. The geography of the Mississippi Gulf coast.— Elizabeth Josey, Graduate Student, Northwestern University, Evanston. 7. Natural regions of the Ozarks.— A. B. Cozzens, University of Illinois, Urbana. 8. The Guatemala plateau.— H. Branigan, Graduate Student, Northwestern University, Evanston. 9. Recreation in the Shawnee National Forest Purchase Units. — Thomas F. Barton, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale. 10. A day of tornadoes.— H. O. Lathrop, Illinois State Normal Uni¬ versity, Normal. 11. Illinois precipitation.— E. W. Holcomb, U. S. Dept, of Agricul¬ ture Weather Bureau, Springfield. (Charts and maps). 12. Wanted: More variety in the geographic menu. — W. O. Blanchard, University of Illinois, Urbana. GEOLOGY — J. T. Stark, Northwestern University, Chairman. Room 13 Election of Chairman for 1939-40. STRUCTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY OF ILLINOIS 1. A new geologic map of Illinois.— J. Marvin Weller, State Geological Survey, Urbana. 2. Structural trends of the Illinois Basin (A preliminary report). G. V. Cohee and C. W. Carter, State Geological Survey, Urbana. 3. Age of the La Salle Anticline. — J. Norman Payne, State Geo¬ logical Survey, Urbana. 4. The Covel conglomerate — a guide bed in the Pennsylvanian of northern Illinois.— H. B. Willman, State Geological Survey, Urbana. —11— 5. Silurian rock exposures of southern Illinois. J. R. Ball, North¬ western University, Evanston. . 6. Some applications of petrofabric analysis in the study of sedi¬ ments. — R. A. Rowland, State Geological Survey, Urbana. 7 Pennsylvanian correlation studies between Carlinville and Ne- oga, Cumberland County, Illinois.— E. F. Taylor and Gordon Prescott, State Geological Survey, Urbana. MISCELLANEOUS 8. Sampling the ocean floor.— K. O. Emery and R. S. Deitz, Uni¬ versity of Illinois, Urbana. . 9. Some geological factors in the location and construction oi the dam for Lake Springfield. — George E. Ekblaw, State Geo¬ logical Survey, Urbana. . 10. Preglacial features in Grundy County, Illinois.— K. P. bharp, University of Illinois, Urbana. 11. An unusual feature of brachiopod shell. — A. H. Sutton, Uni¬ versity of Illinois, Urbana. * _ 12. Recovery and preservation of marcasitized microfossils. — li. U. Borger, University of Illinois, Urbana. 13. Structural control of topography in the Appalachian Moun¬ tains near Harrisburg, Pennsylania.— Harley Barnes. PHYSICS _ A. Frances Johnson, Rockford College, Rockford, Chairman. Room 211 Election of Chairman for 1939-40. 1. Some experiments with vortex rings.— L. I. Bochstahler, North¬ western University, Evanston. 2. The one-hundred-twenty-foot pendulum at Mundelein Col¬ lege.— Sister Mary Therese B.V.M., Mundelein College, Mun- 3. Single crystals of zinc.— H. E. Way, and J. DeVries, Knox College, Galesburg. 4. Sound absorption as affected by resonance of absorbmg sur- face. — H. O. Taylor, Wheaton College, Wheaton. 5. Saturating reactors for control purposes. Alan S. Fitzgareld, Haverford College, and L. J. Bulliet, W. F. & Barnes Co., Rock- ford. , , 6 How engineers use basic scientific facts— illustrated by a con¬ crete example.— A. L. Riche, Micro Switch Corporation, Free- 7. Further experiments of singing tubes.— C. T. Kmpp, Uni¬ versity of Illinois, Urbana. 8. Demonstration of a novel homemade electrostatic generator. — Zeleny electroscope assembly. — D. L. Eaton, Northern Illi¬ nois State Teachers College, DeKalb. 9. Demonstration of artificial radioactivity produced by neutron capture.— J. H. Manley, University of Illinois, Urbana. —12— 10. A new installation for nuclear research. — L. J. Haworth and J. H. Manley, University of Illinois, Urbana. PSYCHOLOGY and EDUCATION — Louis D. Goodfellow, Northwest¬ ern University, Evanston, Chairman , Harold S. Carlson, Eureka College, Presiding Chairman . Room 107 Election of Chairman for 1939-40. 1. The development of higher education in the Mid-west with ref¬ erence to social change. — Jordon T. Cavan, Rockford College, Rockford. 2. Student activities in the Junior College. — Walter Wilkins, Springfield Junior College, Springfield. 3. Some significant implications of earlier types of psychology for the biological or organismic concepts of learning. — B. C. Moore, Lincoln College, Lincoln. 4. Techniques in special education.— D. C. Cloud, Illinois State School for the Deaf, Jacksonville. ZOOLOGY — M. T. Townsend, Illinois Wesleyan University, Blooming¬ ton. SECTION A— SYMPOSIUM ON “ANIMAL DISEASES IN ILLINOIS” Room 207 Election of Chairman for 1939-40. 1. Insect vectors of disease in Illinois. — C. L. Metcalf, University of Illinois, Urbana. (Lantern) . 2. The equine encephalomyelitis outbreak in Illinois in 1938. — Robert Graham and H. E. Hester, University of Illinois, Ur¬ bana. 3. Life histories of ticks— Philip C. Stone, University of Illinois, Urbana. 4. Rocky Mountain spotted fever in Illinois.— W. H. Tucker, Commissioner of Health, Evanston. 5. Tularemia in Illinois.— Cecil A. Z. Sharp, Assistant Epidemi¬ ologist, Department of Public Health, Springfield. 6. Mammary tumor location in mice. — Seward E. Owen, Cancer Research Unit, Veteran’s Administration, Hines. (Lantern). 7. Animal tumors as test objects in cancer research. — Perry J. Melnick, Chicago. 8. Observations on Balantidium coli in culture. — Norman D. Levine, University of Illinois, Urbana. (Lantern). (Intro¬ duced by Dr. Robert Graham) . 9. Histamine and pepsin stimulation. — G. R. Bucher, Mundelein College, Mundelein, and A. C. Ivy, Northwestern University, Evanston. —13 10. Studies on the structure and biology of the pigeon mite— Hypodectes.— Paul C. Beaver, Lawrence College, Appleton, Wisconsin. 11 A case of snake poisoning in the cotton-mouth Moccasin.— Francis Lueth, State Natural History Survey, Urbana. (Intro¬ duced by Dr. D. F. Hansen). SECTION B — PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST Room 217 1. Some aspects of atypical ovogenesis in Valvata. — C. L. Furrow, Knox College, Galesburg. (Lantern). 2. Notes on Illinois leeches. — Marvin C. Meyer, University ot Illinois, Urbana. (Lantern). _7 3. Some nesting records for Ohio and Illinois birds. W. V. Balduf, University of Illinois, Urbana. 4. An aberrant Cliff swallow.— Kenneth L. Knight, University ot Illinois, Urbana. . t 5. Expeditioning in Mexico.— Harry Hoogstraal, University ot Illinois, Urbana, introduced by Dr. C. L. Metcalf. 6. How common are mammals? — Carl O. Mohr, State Natural History Survey, Urbana. (Lantern). 7. Land use and wild life management.— Harry E. Gearhart, Department of Agricultural Soil Conservation Service, Ed- wardsville. 0 .. 8. Variation in the Stickleback.— Donald F. Hansen State Nat¬ ural History Survey, Urbana. , 9. Some observations on Mosquito fish, Gambusia afinis (baira and Girard) in the Chicago area. — Louis A. Krumholz, Uni¬ versity of Illinois, Urbana. (Lantern). 10. Studies on starvation in the Largemouth Black Bass.— Marian F. James, University of Illinois, introduced by D. H. Thomp¬ son. (Lantern). . ... 11. The relationship of body size and egg size in Drosophila.— II. I. Eigenbrodt, North Central College, Naperville, and Paul A. Zahl, Haskins Laboratory, Schenectady, N. Y., introduced by Dr. M. T. Townsend. . c 12. The Silverfish in a new role.— Ruth Slabaugh, University ol Illinois, Urbana, introduced by Dr. C. L. Metcalf. 13. Thoracic abdominal venules, etiology and treatment.— N. C. Iknayan, Charleston. (Lantern). 14. An experiment in conducting laboratory work in zoology classes.— W. M. Gersbacher and Charles Mayfield, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale. 15. Notes on the Predaceous Stink Bug, Apaticus cypnnus Say.— Philip C. Stone, University of Illinois, Urbana, introduced by Dr. C. L. Metcalf. —14— JUNIOR SECTION PROGRAM (Chairmen listed on page 2) Springfield, Illinois FRIDAY, MAY 5, 1939 8 :00 a.m. 8;00—10:00 a.m. 10:00—12:00 a.m. 12:00 m. 1 :00 — 1 :30 p.m. 1 :30 — 3 : 00 p.m. 4 :00 — 5 :00 p.m. 5 :30 — 7 :00 p.m. 7 :00 — 8 : 00 p.m. 8:15 p.m. Registration. Gymnasium, Springfield High School. Arrangement of competitive entries. Exhibits of Equipment of Scientific Companies. Gymnasium, Springfield High School. Judging of Competitive Exhibits. Luncheon. High School Cafeteria. Meeting of Club Sponsors. Study Hall, High School. Address of Welcome. Mr. F. W. Hendricks, Princi¬ pal, Springfield High School. Annual Business Meeting of Official Delegates of the Junior Academy. Auditorium, High School. Presentation of Junior Academy Officials. Roll Call of Clubs. Science Clubs in Action. Six ten-minute talks and demonstrations by student delegates. Removal of Exhibits. Annual Banquet. Place to be announced. Community singing. Annual Lecture. Speaker to be announced. Audi¬ torium, High School. Announcement of Election Results. Presentation of Awards. SATURDAY, MAY 6, 1939 — See trips for Senior Academy. JUNIOR ACADEMY REGISTRATION AND HEADQUARTERS : Springfield High School Gymnasium Telegrams and other messages may be sent to individuals in care of Mr. E. R. Dougherty, Springfield Junior College, Springfield, Illinois and called for at the Junior Academy desk in the Gymnasium. Changes of schedule or program and other special announcements will be posted at the registration desk. Housing facilities for out-of-town guests attending the Junior Sec¬ tion will be provided in private homes at a minimum cost. Reservations should be made in advance with Mr. Lewis Brown, Springfield High School, Springfield, Illinois. —15— GENERAL INFORMATION SENIOR ACADEMY REGISTRATION AND HEADQUARTERS Centennial Building, N. E. Entrance. Telegrams and other messages may be sent to individuals in care of Mr. E. R. Dougherty, Springfield Junior College, Springfield, Illinois, and called for at the registration desk. Changes of schedule or program and other special announcements will be posted near the registration desk. Secure tickets for banquet before 10:30 a.m., Friday, May 5th, at the registration desk. II you cannot arrive by that time and wish tickets, send check or money order to reach Mr. Gilbert Wright, State Museum, Centennial Building, Springfield, Illinois, before Wednesday, May 3rd. For your convenience in making reservations, a printed form is enclosed with this program. HOTEL AND ROOM ACCOMMODATIONS Persons wishing hotel accommodations should write as soon as possible directly to Springfield. Four hotels are available: the St. Nich¬ olas, Leland, Abraham Lincoln, the Illinois, and also the Elks Club. Reservations for other room accommodations can be arranged by com¬ municating with Miss Ruth Wood, Springfield High School, Springfield, Illinois. —16— STATE OF ILLINOIS Henry Horner, Governor TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Volume 31 June, 1939 Number 4 Minutes of Council Meetings Minutes of Thirty-second Annual Meeting Reports of Officers and Committees Edited by Grace Needham Oliver Department of Registration and Education State Museum Division, Centennial Building SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS PUBLISHED QUARTERLY Entered as second-class matter December 6, 1930, at the post office at Springfield, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Council : STATE OF ILLINOIS Henry Horner, Governor DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION John J. Hallihan, Director STATE MUSEUM DIVISION Thorne Deuel, Chief ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Affiliated with the Illinois State Museum Officers for 1938-1939 President , George D. Fuller, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois First Vice-President , Evelyn I. Fernald Rockford College, Rockford, Illinois Second Vice-President , Eugene R. Dougherty Springfield Junior College, Springfield, Illinois Secretary , Robert F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Treasurer , Paul D. Voth, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Librarian , Thorne Deuel, State Museum Division, Springfield, Illinois Junior Academy Representative , Harry L. Adams, Bloomington High School, Bloomington, Illinois Editor , Grace Needham Oliver, State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois The President, First and Second Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian, Chairman of the Committee on High School Science and Clubs, last two retiring presidents, and the retiring secretary. Printed June, 1939 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Volume 31 June, 1939 Number 4 CONTENTS PAGE Minutes of meetings of the 1938-39 Council . 271 Report of meeting with representatives of societies affiliated with the Academy 272 Reports of 1938-39 officers: Secretary. Minutes of thirty-second annual business meetings, Springfield . 273 Section meetings and general sessions, thirty-second annual meeting, Springfield . . 274 Treasurer . 275 Auditing committee’s report . 277 Editor . 278 Librarian . 278 Reports of committees and delegates for 1938-39: Affiliation . 279 A. A. A. S. Research Awards . 280 Academy Conference of A. A. A. S . 280 Conservation . 281 Conservation Council . 282 Conservation of archaeological and historical sites . 282 Compilation of ecological bibliography . 282 Legislation and finance . 282 Membership . 283 Publications . 283 Resolutions . 283 High School science and clubs . 284 Report on “Science Club Service,” Junior Academy publication . 285 Winners of awards, Junior Academy . 286 List of High School science clubs . 290 List of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy . 291 The index to Volume 31 will be published separately in September [269] MINUTES OF MEETINGS OF THE 1938-39 COUNCIL First Meeting, May 7, 1938 — This meeting was called to order at 8:10 a. m. in the Auditon urn at Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale, by President huller. Other members present were: Dr. Wanless, Dr. Fernald, Dr. Deuel Dr Voth Dr. Luce and Mr. Adams. 5 ' ’ The Council appointed to the Committee on Conservation David D. Lansden of Cairo and removed from that committee Jens Jensen of Ravinia. To the Committee of Legislation and Finance, Fay-Cooper Cole was appointed Chairman in place of Mr Don Carroll and the name of Frank W. Aldrich was added. After Mr. Cole requested that he be excused from the duties of chairman, Prof. H. B. Ward was appointed in his place Prof B. Smith Hopkins was appointed the third member of the Publications Committee the ex-officio members being the President and the Secretary. President Fuller was appointed delegate to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and Dr V O Graham to the Conservation Council of Chicago. For the Committee on A A A S Re’ search grants, the following were named: Prof C. T. Knipp, Chairman, Dr. Thorne Deuel, Dr. W O. Blanchard, Dr. C. H. Behre, and Dr. Hanford L. Tiffany. The Secretary was instructed to have memorials prepared for Charles B. Atwell, Life member 215 Lafayette Ave. Swarthmore, Penn.; Miss Mabel Sykes, Bowen High School, Chicago- Tr‘ Aithu/cW/ S ° S5f9 Dorchester Ave, Chicago; and Mr. L. E. Hildebrand, New 1 ner High School, Winnetka. The Council voted to hold its 1940 meeting at Knox College, Galesburg. Meeting adjourned at 8:50 a. m. 6 6 (Signed) W. M. Luce, Retiring Secretary. Second Meeting Oct 1 5, 1938— This meeting was called to order at 1:30 p. m. at the Quadrangle Club Chicago, by President Fuller. Other members present were: Dr Fernald, Dr. Voth, Dr. Deuel, Dr. Luce, Mr. Adams, and Dr. Paton Eugene R. Dougherty of Springfield was elected 2nd Vice-President, and he and Dr Deuel were empowered by the Council to select a publicity chairman for the annual meet¬ ing to be held in Springfield in May. The status of the Academy publications was discussed and it was noted that it would be necessary to continue the editorial fee of $1.00 for each article published. In view of the Academy’s present limited means, the Committee on Publications was directed to exercise its best judgment in restricting the number of papers to be published this year. Messrs. Tomasek, Wilkins, and Wright were suggested as possible members of the local (Springfield) Committee on Arrangements and L R. Byerly was appointed the local representative of the Membership committee.’ On motion u was voted that the Committee on High School Science and Clubs be empowered to codify their functions, reorganize the Junior Academy movement in Illinois, and set up means of electing Junior Academy officers on a democratic basis, reporting their plans at the next meeting of this Council. As an aid to the Junior Academy the Council voted to COritcAAAte t0 the finaLncial suPPort of the Junior Academy as much as it might need up to $30.0U, over and above any sums collected by the Junior Academy. It was voted that new high school science clubs be required to pay an initiation fee of $1.00 per club and annual dues of 10c per club member. Meeting adjourned at 3:40 p. m. u Jhirxr ^ePtin?T/ Fe,b- 25/ 1 939— This meeting was called to order at 2:35 p. m. at the St Nicholas Hotel in Springfield, by the President. Minutes of the two previous Gouncil meetings for the year were read and approved. A report on the activities of the Junior Academy was submitted by Mr. H L Adams the Junior Academy Representative on the Council. He presented a new constitution for Se ViinTlor Acade,my PrePared by a committee consisting of L. A. Astell, D. L. Carroll . M. Luce, R. M. Parr, and L. J. Thomas. Dr. Luce reported that this committee had’ met regularly once a week from October 15, 1938 to date. Special attention had been given [271] 272 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science to setting up a rating sheet for selecting the officers of the Junior Academy and to planning for an orderly procedure which would provide continuity and democratic vigor for the Junior Academy. Some suggestions for further revision were suggested by members of the Council and it was finally voted that the constitution be referred back to the com¬ mittee for a few changes and that then it be submitted to the Junior Academy Clubs for their approval. On motion it was further voted that the committee reporting on the prob¬ lem of election of Junior Academy officers be empowered to make recommendations to the chairman of the Governing Committee concerning a method of selecting new officers. It was also voted that Dr. L. J. Thomas be asked to submit a report at Springfield in Mav of the A. A. A. S. meeting he attended in February as a representative o i the Academy. This meeting, held in Indianapolis Indiana, concerned projected plans for junior Academy work. Appreciation was extended to Dr. Tnomas for his work and that of his committee in drawing up a constitution for the Junior Academy. It was voted that the Academy continue its contributing membership in the Eco¬ logical Society as in the past. The discussion then turned to plans for the coming annual meeting at Springfield, reports of various Council members indicating that plans for an excellent program were well under way. The Council passed unanimously a vote of thanks to Dr. M. M. Leighton of the State Geological SurveyP for extending a loan of funds to the Academy m order that publication of thelarge number of the Transactions (papers given at Carbondale 1938 meeting) would be possible. Meeting adjourned at 4:10 p. m. Fourth Meeting May 4, 1 939— The last meeting of the present Council was called to order by pfesS Fuller at the St. Nicholas Hotel in Springfield at 7:15 p m. Members present were: Miss Fernald, E. R. Dougherty, R. F. Paton, P. D. Voth, Thorne Deuel, and H. L. Adams. . , , After some discussion of the financial status of the Academy, it was voted that the incoming President be requested to appoint a special committee to study the situapon and make recommendations to the new Council. A previous decision to hold the ^ rneeting at Galesburg was confirmed. President Fuller submitted an invitation from Chicago for the 1941 meeting and the invitation was voted filed with others that might come in. usual honoraria for the evening speakers at the Junior and Senior fromMr T voted A report on costs of publishing “Science Club Service, as submitted from Mr. l.. A As tell the editor was read. The Council expressed appreciation of this ■ very importa nt wo! and voted such an expression be sent to Mr. Astell, as well as a $10.00 honorarmm to him as editor. . , Mr Dougherty reported for the local Committee on Arrangements, outlining the excellent facilities which were being provided for the annual meeting ation of the local schools, Chamber of Commerce, the Press, and State officials. A spec exhibit arranged for Academy visitors by the State Museum was announced by Mr. Deuel. Mr. Adams announced that special arrangements had been made for taking motion nictures of the Tunior Academy, and the Council voted to assume $20.00 of the e*.pe"^ connected with obtaining the film. It was pointed out that this sum was wel ^ budget allowed the Junior Academy. Mr. Adams stated that these films would be on file at the University of Illinois and could be obtained by science clubs for a very small trans¬ portation charge. . . . , One of the large items of expense to the Academy each year is keeping the mailing list up to date Extra postage required to return unclaimed copies of the Transaction amounts to'almost half of thf total cost of mailing. Dr. urcred that all members keep the secretary informed as to their correct addresses, ^eve suggestions were made to assist the secretary in this matter, after whtch the meetmg ad- journed, the hour being 9:25 p. m. Meeting of the Council with Representatives of Affiliated Societies, MaV At this meeting called to order at 8:00 a. m., Chairman of the Committee on Affiliations,, Mr. Radcliff, reported on activities during the past year. Mr. wraY ^ported for t e Peom Academy after which Mr. Radcliff read reports of representatives from several otfter societies7 President Fuller asked for invitations from any of these affiliated societies i teres tecl i n p rovkli n g a meeting place for the Academy in 1941. Meeting adjourned at 8:30 1This entire report is respectfully submitted. (Signed) R. F. Paton, Secretary Thirty-second Annual Meeting 273 REPORTS OF OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 1938-39 Report of the Secretary Minutes of the Thirty-second Annual Meeting, Springfield Preliminary Business Meeting May 5, 1939— The meeting was called to order by President Fuller at 8:30 a. m. in the Auditorium of the Centennial Building, Springfield Personnel or three special committees was announced: Nominating Committee: C. L. Furrow, Chairman , M. M. Leighton- C. T. Knipp Committee on Resolutions: C. Bonnell, Chairman; C. A. Shull; W. M Luce Auditing Committee: C. A. Shull, Chairman; S. V. Eaton; C. E. Olmsted. These committees were instructed to report at the business meeting at five o’clock. Meeting adjourned at 9:00 a. m. s Annual Business Meeting — The annual business meeting of the Academy was pm Ma°yd5eri939PreSldent F“ " m the Auditorium of Springfield High School at 5:00 Dr. Paul D. Voth Treasurer, read his report and Dr. C. A. Shull reported that the auditing committee had found the books of the Academy in fine shape, stating the appre¬ ciation of the Committee for the cooperation of the treasurer. Both these reports on motion, were voted accepted. v ’ Reports from the Editor and the Librarian were also presented and accepted. The standing committees-on Affiliation, Membership, Legislation and Finance, Publications, and High School Science and Clubs — submitted reports, all of which were voted accepted by the members present. Reports from special committees and special representatives appointed to represent the Academy were submitted and accepted. These reports are printed hereinafter. The nominating committee, appointed by President Fuller at the preliminary business meeting in the morning presented the following slate of of¬ ficers and committees and delegates for 1939-40: President: Evelyn I. Fernald, Rockford College, Rockford. First Vice-President: T. H. Frison, Natural History Survey, Urbana. Second Vice-President: H. E. Way, Knox College, Galesburg. Secretary: R. F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana. Treasurer: John Voss, Manual Training High School, Peoria. Librarian: Thorne Deuel, State Museum, Springfield. Editor: Grace Needham Oliver, Geological Survey, Urbana. Junior Academy Representative: Audry C. Hill, Chester High School, Chester. Committee on Conservation: T. H. Frison, University of Illinois, Urbana, Chairman; M. M. Leighton Geological Survey, Urbana; W. H. Haas, Northwestern University Evanston; W. M. Gersbacher, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale Dav. D Lansden Cairo; Paul Houdek, 710 N. Cross St., Robinson; R. S. Smith, Uni¬ versity of Illinois, Urbana; H. J. Van Cleave, University of Illinois, Urbana; W C Allee Charfeston °f ChlCag°’ Chicago; E- L- Stover, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College’ Committee on Legislation and Finance : H. B. Ward, University of Illinois, Urbana Chairman; b ay-Cooper Cole, University of Chicago, Chicago; Frank W. Aldrich, 1506 e! Washington, Bloomington; Edson S. Bastin, University of Chicago, Chicago; B. Smith Hopkins, University of Illinois, Urbana. Committee on Affiliations: H. H. Radcliff, 1346 Macon St., Decatur, Chairman; Clar¬ ence Bonnell, Harrisburg Township High School, Harrisburg; H. O. Lathrop, Illinois State Normal, Normal; Rosalie M. Parr, University of Illinois, Urbana; Mary M. Steagall oouthern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale. 274 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Committee on Membership: Louis C. McCabe Geological Survey, Urbana Chairman; Thos F Barton, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale, P. D. o , University of Chicago, Chicago; Lester I. Bockstahler Northwestern University, Evans¬ ton; J. Byerly, Springfield; A. F. Johnson, Rockford College, Rockford; David M. Delo, Knox College, Galesburg. Committee on the Conservation of Archeological and Historical Fay-Cooper C^le> University of Chicago, Chairman ; Frank W. Aldrich, 1504 E Washington, Bloomington, M. J. Herskovits, Northwestern University, Evanston; M. M. Leighton State Geologica Survev Urbana; Paul Martin, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Bruce W. Mervin’, 601 W. Walnut St., Carbondale; J. B. Ruyle, 9 Mam St., Champaign; Henry B. Ward, University of Illinois, Urbana. Committee on Research Grants from the American Association for the Science: Charles H. Behre, Jr., Northwestern University, Evanston, Chairman, Charles T Knipp University of Illinois, Urbana; Thorne Deuel, State Museum, Springfield, L. HanfordTiffany, Northwestern University, Evanston; W. C. Rose, University of Illinois, Committee on Publications: Evelyn I. Fernald, Rockford College, Rockford, Ex- officio; R. F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ex-officio ; W. M. Luce, University of Illinois, Urbana. . . , Committee on Ecological Bibliography : A. G. Vestal, University of Illinois Urbana Committee on High School Science and Clubs: Audry C Hill, Chester High Sc oo Chester Chairman ; Mary Creager, Vienna, Chairman of Exhibits , Allen R. Moore, J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero, Chairman of Judging; Louis A, Astell, University High School, Urbana, Editor , “Science Club Service;” Rose M. Cassidy, Maine Township High School, Des Plaines, Contributing Editor for Illinois , Science Club Service; Rosalie M Parr University of Illinois, Urbana, Radio Chairman. ' Advisory Committee: Rosalie M. Parr and Lyell J Thomas University Urbana; Don Carroll, Geological Survey, Urbana; and Harry L. Adams, Bloomington High School, Bloomington. _ , , , Local Arrangements Chairman for 1940 Meeting: to be appointed from Galesburg High School Staff. j j 'T'L Delegate to the American Association for the Advancement of Science: L. J. 1 nomas. University of Illinois, Urbana. Delegate to the Conservation Council of Chicago: V . O. Graham, 4028 Grace St., C icago. Publicity Director: Wade Arnold, Knox College, Galesburg. General Chairman , Galesburg Meeting: H. E. Way, Knox College, Galesburg. After additional nominations were called for from the floor and none were forthcom- ing, a motion instructing the Secretary to cast a unanimous ballot for the slate was voted. All reports of activities during the year having thus been heard, the meeting was ad- journed at 6:15 p. m. (Signed) R. F. Paton, Secretary. Section Meetings and General Sessions The general session of the Academy was called to order by Rr/sld.en1t0Eflllre>r in the Auditorium of the Centennial Building in Springfield at 9:00 a. m., May 5, 19d9; ^°7nded Henry Horner sent a message of regret at not being well enough to attend, but exte"£ed the Academy his best wishes for a successful meeting Cordial addresses of J|Hcome ere given by R. E. Fildes, Springfield Superintendent of Schools, and \ . Y. Dallman, Editor of the Illinois State Register. After this the members of the Academy were privileged to listen to the address of the President, who spoke on Interglacial and fost-glacial \ ege- tation of Illinois.” Short addresses were also given by Professor Charles A. Shull, U ■ - versity of Chicago, on “Plant Growth and Growth Harmones; by Anton Tomasek, State Forester, on “Forests of Illinois;” and by Thorne Deuel, Chief of the State Museum, on “The Aims of the Illinois State Museum.” The addresses will appear in a subsequent number of the Transactions. Thirty-second. Annual Meeting 275 The attendance at the Section Meetings in the afternoon was large and enthusiastic So many interesting papers were presented that several Sections had to be divided into two groups to accommodate listeners. In the evening the members banqueted at the St. Nicholas Hotel. The high light of the banquet came unexpectedly when President Fuller was presented with a gift a fine Den and pencil set, from a representative group of his associates in Academy work these many years. Clarence Bonnell made the presentation. After short speeches by the Presiden t- and bvfM Ve FernfalQd’ Rockf°rd ^ Mr- Wilkins, Springfield Junior College; and by Mayor Kapp of Springfield, the banqueters adjourned to the Centennial Building ArizoiaVe^erls ’’rated ^ ^ Har°ld K‘ G1°yd’ Chica§°’ on “Animal Life in esrnrM-nr ^ld^n.ps Saturday morning, all well attended and well-conducted, with police escort for an efficient send-off, brought the thirty-second annual meeting of the Academv infrin!?rSe* ReP°r^ from participants in the trips indicate great appreciation of the would beVffisufficiente SC1Cntlfic primages without which, they feel, the Section Meetings MpJn°r an acPougt of Junior Academy work during the year, and of the Annual Business Meeting, see the Report of the Committee on High School Science and Clubs, page 284. (Signed) R. F. Paton, Secretary. Report of the Treasurer For the fiscal year May 1, 1938 to April 30, 1939 Receipts Balance on hand April 30, 1938 . Dues and initiation fees: Annual members . Affiliated societies . Libraries . $859.14 23.00 6.00 $ 213.73 Sale of Transactions . Sale of Ecological Bibliography . Editorial and excess pages fees . Research grants by the American Association for the Advancement of Science ’ ’ ’ ' Junior Academy: Dues and initiation fees . $ 90 Q0 Sale of Science Club Service . 11 25 Refund on Carbondale banquet . 3 7q Sale of File of Information on Science Club Work . 1.00 Grants for trophies by societies and Associations . 20.00 Annual Cooperative Service Fees, Iowa and Minnesota . 20.00 888.14 1.50 .35 184.50 225.00 146.85 Expenditures Expenses of the Annual Meeting, Carbondale, 1938: Officer’s expenses . Annual Address . . . Expenses of the Section Chairmen .... $ 44.61 25.00 55.94 $1660.07 Honorarium to Secretary . Expenses of Secretary . Honorarium to Editor of Transactions $ 125.55 . 150.00 59.87. 150.00 276 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Expenses of Editor of Transactions Expenditures of Treasurer: Dues notices and postage . Expenses . $ 41.43 27.28 Expenses of Council meetings . Printing of Transactions . Postage and transportation on Transactions: Initial mailing and transportation. . ■ • ■ Postage on unclaimed and requested numbers 16.26 68.71 12.13 384.50 $ 77.02 Grant to Committee for the Preservation ciety of America) : 1937- 38 . 1938- 39 . of Natural Conditions (Ecological So- . $ 5.00 . 5.00 10.00 Corporation Report filing fee (to Secretary of State, Edward J. Hughes) Research grants: „ „ A. Frances Johnson, Rockford College . A. M. Simpson, Peoria. . ... .... Harold E. Way and John DeVries, Knox College $117.00 33.00 75.00 Collection charges on out of town checks by the University State Bank, Chicago . Returned bank checks . J umo^Acad^em ^ Annual Meeting, Carbondale, 1938: Annual Address . Motion picture expense . Exhibit expense . Publicity . Trophies . $10.00 10.00 17.25 6.00 44.95 1.00 225.00 11.01 2.00 Honorarium to Editor of Science Club Service Expenses of Editor of Science Club Service . . . Printing of Science Club Service . Officers’ expenses . Balance in University State Bank, Chicago $ 88.20 10.00 11.00 . 22.50 . 18.13 149.83 217.19 $1660.07 Statement of Resources, April 30, 1939 $ 217.19 Balance in the University State Bank, Chicago . ; • • ; ‘ . . . Certificate of Deposit No. 760 for Meyer Block Bonds (Chicago) for an Aggre^ gate Principal Amount of $300.00 . unknown Certificate of Interest No. 13 for Forbes Building (Chicago) for original value^ of $300.00 . unknown 3.00 Office supplies . . $ 220.19 Thirty-second Annual Meeting 277 The total volume of business of this year exceeded last year’s by $221 86 The bal ance of funds in the bank shows a negligible increase of $3.46. In other words, the increased financial activities of the Academy have counterbalanced the increased income. In this report the accounts of the Academy and of the Junior Academy have been itemized separately to facilitate annual comparisons. Income from dues was J190.84 more than last year. This figure includes the dues of the Jumor Academy wh.ch totaled *90.90. About 53% of the Academy’s total income was om membership dues and about 13% was from the research grant made by the American Association for the Advancement o: Science. Editorial fees and miscellaneous items account for the other income of the Academy. The financial activities of the Academy during a fiscal year are very seasonal. Ex¬ perience during the past two years has shown that the favorable bank balance of May 1 is exhausted by about July 1 in meeting printing bills, expenses of section chairmen, and expenses of the annual meeting. At the present moment only $38.57 remains of the $217.19 exnenHdH°nAhlay V u : PrintlnS M*8 and c°sts of this meeting account for the money expended Although the income of today has been approximately $80.00, most expenses of the Section Chairmen still remain to be paid. Since very few dues are sent to the treas¬ urer during the months of June to October, inclusive, the Academy is practically without funds for the five months immediately following the annual meeting. Unpaid bills accumu- I ate during this time interval and are paid as soon as income from dues payments permits Under the circumstances it is advisable to continue the editorial fees to the Transactions and to exert every effort to increase the membership of the Academy which in turn will increase the annual income of the Academy. The Academy membership consists of 69 Life members, 581 fully paid up annual members, 124 members one year in arrears, 79 members two years in arrears, and 58 mem¬ bers three years in arrears. The latter are being dropped from the roll at the present meet- mg Durmg the year one affiliated society has ceased to exist. Eighteen other societies are affiliated with the Academy. Of the affiliated High School Science Clubs, 31 are fully paid up, 18 are one year in arrears, 2 are two years in arrears, and 14 are three years in arrears. The latter are now being dropped from the membership list. The Academy has added 90 new members during the year, but 25 members have re¬ signed or have removed leaving no forwarding address, and 10 annual members and one Life member have died. Each year the Academy loses many members because no forwarding addresses are available. Such a lost person” is a financial liability for the time being in that approxi¬ mately 4 to 9 cents postage is spent in sending dues notices and the Transactions before efforts to locate such a member are abandoned. Total membership including new members but excluding those in arrears for three years is 943 personal members, a net gain of 13 during the year. The Junior Academy has again been self-supporting since only $2.98 was contributed by the Academy. The entire report is respectfully submitted. (Signed) Paul D. Voth, Treasurer. Report of the Auditing Committee This is to certify that we have audited the report of the treasurer and have examined his accounts which appear to have been correctly kept. All expenditures have been authcr- ized by vouchers signed by the President and the Secretary. The balance in the University State Bank, Chicago, of $217.19 agrees with the statement. (Signed) Charles A. Shull, Chairman Scott V. Eaton Charles E. Olmsted 278 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Report of the Editor The cost of printing the Transactions during Vol. 31, No. 1, September . No. 2, December . No. 3, March . No. 4, June . 1938-39 was as follows: State $266.92 824.95 Academy $ . 80.00 82.20 120.00 Although fewer authors published in this year’s No. 2 issue, entailing a consequent reduction in income from Editorial Fees, expenses for this number were about the same necessitating the borrowing of $180.00 to pay for publication. This amount was loaned to the Academy through the State Msueum by the Geological Survey Division until July 1st, 1939 when the new biennial appropriation from the State becomes available. A revised oubHcatkm schedule isf being submitted to the Publications Committee which will allow for earlier publication of papers given at the Section meetings. It is hoped that an increase in membership contemplated by the Membership Committee will materially increase the funds available to the Academy for publishing expenses. Respectfully submitted, fSitmedl Grace Needham Oliver, Editor. Report of the Librarian During the past year the following Libraries and Scientific Societies have been added to the mailing list for exchange publications: Indiana Historical Bureau Indianapolis, Indiana. Polish Museum of Zoology Warsaw, Poland. Wilcza 64 Library, , University of California at Los Angeles Los Angeles, California. The Main Library University of Manitoba Winnipeg, Canada. The Lloyd Library Cincinnati, Ohio. South Carolina Academy of Science University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina. Virginia Academy of Science Richmond, Virginia. The Minnesota Academy of Science Minneapolis, Minnesota. Louisiana Academy of Science University, Louisiana. Department of Agriculture Ottawa, Canada. The Library Princeton University Princeton, New Jersey. Scientific Library Bureau of Science Manila, Phil. Dept, of Anthropology University of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Mexico. National Library of Peiking o/o Fung-Ping-Shan Library Hong Kong, China. Illinois Association of Biology Teachers, A. C. Brookley, Sec’y.-Treas. Harvey, Illinois. Joliet Botanical Club Joliet, Illinois. Rockford Nature Study Society Rockford, Illinois. Illinois Section American Chemical Society Urbana, Illinois. The mailing list of the Academy has been brought up-to-date, with new multigraph ates cut for all new names added and plates removed where names have been dropped om membership. Thirty-second Annual Meeting 279 During the year 410 copies of the Transactions were sent out in response to special requests. The majority of these requests came from institutions on the exchange lists Seven copies of the re-purchased Volumes of the Academy were sold and the money for these was collected by the Treasurer. money now on hind ^ SUPply °f the Transactions of the Illinois State Academy that are Single V olumes Vol. XXV No. 3.. Vol. I . 6 Copies. .466 Copies. .445 Copies. Vol. XXV No. 4. Vo. II . Vol. XXVI No. 1 . . Vol. Ill . Vol. XXVI No. 2. Vol. IV . . 138 Copies. Vol. XXVI No. 3. . Vol. V . .293 Copies. . 128 Copies. .327 Copies. .438 Copies. .300 Copies. .407 Copies. . 17 Copies. Out of Print. Vol. XXVI No. 4.. Vol. VI . Vol. XXVII No. 1 . Vol. VII . Vol. XXVII No. 2 Vol. VIII . Vol. XXVII No. 3 . . Vol. IX . Vol. XXVII No. 4 Vol. X . Vol. XXVIII -No. 1 . . . Vol. XI . Vol. XXVIII No. 2 Vol. XII to XXII . Vol. XXVIII No. 3.. Vol. XXVIII No. 4. . . Vol. XXIX No. 1 . . 21 Copies. 436 Copies. 43 Copies. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Quarterly Volumes XXIII No. 1 . 12 Copies. XXIII No. 4 . 16 Copies. XXIV No. 1 . 39 Copies. XXIV No. 2 . 252 Copies. XXIV No. 3 . No Copies. XXIV No. 4 . No Copies. XXV No. 1 . 848 Copies. XXV No. 2 . 288 Copies. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. 332 Copies. XXIX No. 2 . 334 Copies. XXIX No. 3 . 8 Copies. XXIX No. 4 . 194 Copies. XXX No. 1 . 381 Copies. XXX No. 2 . 379 Copies. XXX No. 3 . No Copies. XXX No. 4 . 371 Copies. XXXI No. 1 . 41 Copies. XXXI No. 2 . 400 Copies. XXXI No. 3 . 15 Copies. (Signed) Thorne Deuel, Librarian . Report of the Committee on Affiliations The following societies are affiliated with the Illinois State Academy of Science but failed to make any report for the annual meeting this year: The Chicago Academy of Science— Lincoln Park, Chicago, Illinois. ChlCin°nffisatUre StUdy Club’ Emma F- Heerwagen, 2440 Ridge Ave., Evanston, College of St. Francis, 303 Taylor St., Joliet, Illinois. Illinois Association of Biology Teachers, A. C. Brookley, Sec.-Treas., Thornton Town¬ ship H. S., Harvey, Illinois. Illinois Association of Chemistry Teachers, S. A. Chester. Bloomington High School, Bloomington, Illinois. Blinois^SectiomAmerican Chemical Society, C. C. Price, Sec, University of Illinois, Joliet Botanical Club, Miss Lula E. Connell, Sec, 653 Third Ave, Joliet, Illinois. Kn°Ilhnffisty Academy °f Science> Page L- Baker, Treas, Knox College, Galesburg, N°ri?llinois?nCe C1Ut>’ BeSS1C E HibarSer> Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Peoria Academy of Science, Lois B. Hite, 609 Nowland Ave, Peoria, Illinois. R°C forcf Bhnofs SaenCe Club> Miss Jane Southworth> Sec, Rockford College, Rock- Theta Chi Delta, Alpha Eta Chapter, Carthage College, Carthage, Illinois. 280 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science From other Affiliated societies reports have been received as follows: The Cvclothem Club, Department of Geology and Geography University of Illinois Urban a Lawrence J Finfrock, Pres. Organized 1937 as Geological Soc. of U. of I New name refers to a cycle of deposition. Purposed-Furtherance of geologic interest. Growth rapid, due to interest in Illinois oil basin. Illinois Nature Study Society, Mrs. Margaret Atcheson, Sec., Elgin, Illinois. Has regular monthly meetings with roll call reports on personal observations of na¬ ture. Also field trips to study nature out of doors. Five new members at the last Illin”s Stafe Archaeological Society, Mr. Wray, Sec., Peoria, Illinois. Organized in 1936. Has Seventy members. o f , Rockford Nature Study Society, Miss Rose Cassidy, Sec., 510 S. First St., Rockford, Illinois. Organized more than thirty years ago. Has about thirty members. Has monthly meetings; is interested in Museum; has issued three Publications. Sigma Xi University of Illinois, E. G. Young, Sec., Ill. Chapter. Installed in 1904 Has k fluctuating membership of about 700, many being transferred to other chapters each year. Holds eight scientific meetings each year. Speakers chosen from list of notable scientists, neighboring institutions and from its own me^e^ Larger membership from Chemistry. Expect to establish prizes ($250-300) for scientific work. Respectfully submitted, (Signed) H. H. Radcliff, Chairman . Report of the Committee on A. A. A. S. Research Awards The Committee on Research Grants announces the following awards: To Fred R. Cagle of the Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale ?85 to be1 used in conducting a survey of amphibians and reptiles for Jackson and Umo Counties, Illinois. . Xft Marie A Hinrichs , M. D. of the Southern Illinois State Normal University, Car- bondale, the sum of $70 for continuation of a research project on the effects of fatigue on the blood picture of college athletes. To Dr Paul Beaver of Lawrence College, Appleton, Wisconsin the sum of $70 for the continuation of the study of the life histories and pathogenesis of the echinostome para¬ sites of waterfowl. (Signed) Charles T. Knipp, Chairman Thorne Deuel Charles H. Behre W. O. Blanchard L. Hanford Tiffany Report of the Representative to the Academy Conference of the A. A. A. S. The twelfth annual session of the Academy Conference was held a»he Jefferson Hote, Richmond Virginia, or .the was elected Chairman for 1939. resentatives. Thirty-second Annual Meeting 281 W H. Schoewe, of the Kansas Academy, presented a paper on “A Comparison of the • ? j Affihate£ with the A. A. A. S.,” and Bert Cunningham read a paper en- titled The Objectives of the Academy Conference.” These papers were followed by a symposium on “Financing Academy Publications.” Reports on such financing were made by representatives of the Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, North Carolina, Ohio, and West Virginia Academies. A summary of the papers presented and of the symposium has been issued and sent to the representatives present at the Academy Conference and to the secretaries of all the Academies. At the close of the Conference, the representatives of the Academies were entertained at a dinner given by the A. A. A. S. Respectfully submitted, (Signed) George D. Fuller, Chairman Report of the Committee on Conservation , j nserv.atl?V Committee of the Academy has continued to follow closely all federal and state legislation regarding the conservation of our natural resources. In some 1?? "SF ^tters.have been written opposing or recommending the passage of proposed ooi 1 be Committee on Conservation went on record as favoring Illinois House Bill No. 221, which proposed the creation of a commission for the administration of the State De¬ partment of Conservation. In line with this Committee action, a resolution to the same effect was passed by the Academy at its annual meeting in Springfield in May. Since then, this particular bill has been tabled by the House Committee on Fish and Game. Several years ago your Committee opposed sections of a reorganization plan for cer¬ tain federal activities upon the basis that the Forest Service would be removed from the Department of Agriculture to the Department of Interior and certain desirable present Civil Service provisions were endangered. No protest was made against the present federal reorganization plan, now approved by Congress, since this new plan did not call for the remova1 of the Forest Service from the Department of Agriculture, and present desirable Civil Service features were not to be altered. Although the U. S. Biological Survev was transferred from the Department of Agriculture to the Department of Interior under this new plan, it was felt that this move had its good features. Furthermore, the removal under the same reorganization bill of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries from the Department of Com¬ merce to the Department of Interior, to serve as a companion service with the U. S. Bio- logical Survey, offered distinct advantages to a coordinated federal conservation program which would compensate for any bad features of removing the Biological Survey from the Department of Agriculture. One of the biggest steps forward in many years for furthering wildlife research and restoration in Illinois was made possible by the enactment in the fall of 1937 of the federal Pittman-Robertson Bill, or Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Act. Under the terms of this act the various states were eligible to secure funds under certain conditions from the exase tax on arms and ammunition collected by the federal government. In order to secure these funds, the state had to match federal money on a 25 to 75 percent basis; the 25 per¬ cent state money to be derived from income on hunting licenses and the 75 percent federal money from the then existing excise tax. The amount of money available to each state was apportioned to the states on the basis of the number of hunting licenses sold during the fiscal year 1938 and the area of the state, limited only by the amount actually ap- propnated by Congress from the excise tax. Under this apportionment there was made available to Illinois in 1938 the sum of 326,139 of federal money, which has now been matched by a state appropriation of 38,714, making a total of 334,853 available for the Illinois Program. Under this Wildlife Restoration Act a series of projects have been set up by the Illinois Natural History Survey in cooperation with the State Department of Conservation. These projects involve the leasing, acquisition and development of certain land where game management practices will be carried out, and in all cases, research studies for the future guidance of Illinois conservation programs. Respectfully submitted, (Signed) T. H. Frison, Chairman 282 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Report of the Delegate to the Conservation Council Since the last annual meeting of the State Academy of Science, some important con¬ servation has occured— among these the protection of National Park Standards has ne¬ cessitated considerable pressure to prevent the diversion of the waters °,f fhe Yel1?^^ lake. Considerable difference of opinion has resulted from the proposal for establishing John Muir King’s Canyon National Park. Some see the dangers to the standards if the deep canvons in their entirety be included because of their great scenic beauty. The Sierra Club has favored the Gerhardt bill to create this National Park while many eastern con¬ servation groups oppose the bill unless more of the canyons are to be included. Results are rapidly accruing from the law which requires towns and cities to obtain permit and approval of the state for installation or repair of sewage disposal plants. Since die state will not approve of any that do not provide for the prevention of stream pollution our once putrid rivers are rapidly becoming clean streams with the consequent increase of aquatic life within them. The Cook County Forest Preserves have become real wild life preserves through the setting aside of specific parking spaces and picnic grounds and thus separat mg ^ay great areas not commonly traversed by the multitudes. In these wild areas the fallen tmber s not removed, consequently the wild life cycle is not interrupted neither does the soil deteriorate as would be the case if the organic matter were removed from the soil. V O Graham. Chairman Report of the Committee on the Conservation of Archaeological and Historical Sites I have met with different members of the Committee and considerable correspondence has passed between us concerning the desirability of a licensing bill to be introduced in the legislature. We are well agreed as to the sort of bill we would like to put through so far we have not been able to find a satisfactory licensing agent Licensing might be done through the Bureau of Education and Registration which might then pass this duty on to the^State Museum. Discussion with Dr. Deuel, Chief of the State Museum, has made clear that at this time he does not feel he is able to undertake this additional duty. Since no other satisfactory agency is in sight at present, the Committee ^ troduce the bill into this session. No other recommendations are to be made at this time. (Signed) Fay-Cooper Cole, Chairman Report of the Committee on the Compilation of Ecological Bibliography There has been a steady accretion of material, much as during the previous year. Two members of the University of Illinois library staff have completed manuscript bibliog¬ raphies (on wild life conservation and on biological conditions m Illinois during the period o ^settlement) which have given us a number of new titles and leads to further search. Several students have helped accumulate other references to conditions during earlyda>s and one graduate student is now actively engaged in the same kind of study. On my own part I have run across a large number of new titles and added them to our material. (Siened) A. G. Vestal, Chairman Report of the Committee on Legislation and Finance This committee desires to report only that it has been at work and has Blomgren P. A. Glenn, Frank F. Hoffman, R. H. Jaffe, Frank G. Logan, Catherine A. Mitchell, Warren King Moore- head, H. W. Mumford, Adolph Carl Noe, and Rev. Castor C. Ordonez. Their loss to the cause of science and to the Academy in particular, is especially felt since these members have so generously given of their time and energy to the service of the Academy. The Secretary of the Academy is directed to send a copy of this resolution to the fam¬ ilies of the deceased. Resolved that the Illinois State Academy of Science express its sincere thanks to the State of Illinois and its officials for use of the Centennial Building to the citizens of SDringfield for their cordial co-operation, to the public school system of Springfield for the use of buildings, to the Springfield Junior College for use of its facilities and cooperation in furthering the annual meeting; to E. R. Dougherty, Thorne Deuel, Gilbert \\ right, Ruth Wood, and Lewis Brown, together with all others who have contributed to the sue cess and pleasure of the meeting. Resolved that the Illinois State Academy of Science express its sincere thanks and appreciation to its officers and to the editor of its publications for their very faithful and efficient services during the last year. Resolved that the Illinois State Academy of Science express its appreciation to the Springfield Chamber of Commerce and the press of Springfield for their fine spirit and efficient efforts in giving publicity to and promoting the welfare of this annual meeting of the Academy. Resolved that the Illinois State Academy of Science commend the members of the Illinois State Board of Museum Advisors for their vigorous and efficient efforts in behalf of the State Museum and its activities. Resolved that the secretary of the Academy is authorized and directed to record and send copies of these resolutions to all who should receive them. (Siorned) C. Bonnell, Chairman . Report of the Committee on High School Science and Clubs A committee consisting of Dr. Rosalie M. Parr, Dr. Lyell J. Thomas, Dr. Wilbur M. Luce and Mr. Louis A. Astell met weekly throughout most of the winter revising the con¬ stitution of the Junior Academy, as directed by the Council of the Senior Academy The revisions bring the constitution up to date in that changes in the activities of the Jumor Academy had made the original constitution not workable. They also were instructed to codffyX work of the various Junior Academy Officials. This they did and incorporated it in the revised constitution. The revised constitution was adopted by the Junior Academy at the Springfield meeting. During the year details of honorary memberships in the American Association for the Advancement of Science have been worked out. One boy and one girl member of the Illinois Tunfo? Academy are to be chosen annually for a period of one year to receive this honor The method of choosing the two students has been worked out using student. rat mg sheets to be filled out by sponsors of all affiliated clubs and then balanced against those from all other clubs. This insures that the honorary membership is really worth working for. These memberships provide: (a) Suitable certificates of membership; Thirty-second Annual Meeting 285 (b) those selected are privileged to attend the meetings of the association in¬ cluding the general programs of the meetings, without the payment of the regular registration fee; (c) the four copies of Science containing the preliminary announcements and the Reports of the two meetings each year, and (d) each honorary member will receive the Science News Letter for one year. Delegates to the A. A. A. S. for 1939-40 are: Delbert Rainey, The Ferreters, Chester. Nadine Whitesides, Vienna Township High School Science Club, Vienna. , ,T{je General Chairman of the Junior Academy was made a member of the Council of the Senior Academy this year. It is certain that closer relations can be maintained with the Senior Academy and the two organizations can work in closer harmony in this way. The Junior Academy wishes to thank the Senior Academy for its financial aid in under- wnting the expenses of the Junior Academy, to a limited extent. The Judges, also members of the Senior Academy, work untiringly to award fair decisions on the exhibits and deserve a great amount of credit for the steady improvement in the quality of entries. Several new clubs have been added to the list of affiliated clubs this year and we are in contact with several other clubs that will affiliate in the near future. A most worthwhile Radio Series ran throughout the year over Radio Station WILL under the direction of Dr. Rosalie M. Parr. The annual meeting was very well attended and excellent exhibits prepared by en- thusmstic students. The afternoon program consisted of speeches by six students and one adli!t,The. banquet, with 156 attending, was followed by an hour’s demonstration-lecture on The Liquefaction of Gases” by Prof. C. T. Knipp, then the annual business meeting and presentation of awards. (For winners, see p. 286). A number of delegates attended the Senior Academy field trips on Saturday morning. Candidates for the various student officers were chosen from the student rating sheets this year. Officers for 1939-40 are as follows: President: Paul Backer, The Ferreters, Chester. Vice President: Clifford Horton, Major Powell Science Club, University High School, Normal. Secretary: Doris Sympson, Bugology Science Club, Clinton. (Signed) Harry L. Adams, General Chairman. Annual Report, Science Club Service , 1938-1939 To the Officials and Members of the Illinois State Academy of Science: During the current academic year, Science Club Service , published under the auspices of the Illinois Junior Academy of Science and with the aid of other Academies of Science for the benefit of science clubs affiliated with Junior Academies of Science wherever lo¬ cated, has been published in three iussues representing a total of approximately 14,000 words of information specifically related to the needs of science clubs, science club spon¬ sors, and state as well as national officials concerned with the possible values and general welfare of the Junior Academy of Science movement. That the publication program has met with success is found in the following facts: I. Present Status: The Indiana Junior Academy of Science has voluntarily maintained its status of Sustaining Member for the fourth consecutive year, while the Cooperative status has been maintained by the Iowa Academy for the third consecutive year, and by the Minnesota Academy for the second year. Outright sale of copies in quantity have been made to such State Academies as Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Kansas. II. Forecast: New state-wide Junior Academies are anticipated in several states and there are possibilities of more than one new municipal organization in cities comparable to St. Louis, which has been organized for several years. In several instances, the Academies 286 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science already cooperating have voluntarily indicated that the continuation of the present pub¬ lication service for affiliated clubs would be desired. Such statements, for reason of chang ing administrations and for reason of national complications, have not been considered final any more than has a statement from an Academy which would like to join the co operating group for the first time. Nevertheless, the forecast appears 8““^ ^iuJtas^he for the continuation of the publication during the academic year of 1939-40, just as the record of the past four or more years has shown that the publication is self-supporting we assume that the Illinois share of expense should be that of a Sus taming Member. The Illinois State Academy of Science, with the aid of other State Academies of Science as indicated in the minutes of the Transactions published heretofore, has made possible the issuance of Science Club Service for the past six years. In that time, approxi¬ mately 86,000 words of information, designed to aid in the development of science clubs and the Academy movement, have been released in printed form. Files of the accrnnulated information, including reprints, have been sent without charge to Academy officials in states where the Junior Academy organization was being considered. Th s policy will be maintained as long as there is a surplus stock, but the files will be equivalent rather than eXaCThePeditorial policies previously set forth have been maintained. It is increasingly . apparent that if Science Club Service , or any other medium, is to serve the needs of the Junior Academy movement within the frame-work of our democracy, there is need for ad- herance to several fundamental principles. Among these, I would suggest: • (1) that the Junior Academy of Science movement maintain its status ot cooperative action between state and municipal academies, without submerging the identity ot the movement as such in any major aspect. . , (2) that any action relative to publication to be taken at the next annual meeting of the Academy Conference take into account Science Club Service and other publication contracts extending through the academic year of 1939-1940. (3) that there be created an Advisory Board which includes a representative from eac state Academy involved for any permanent publication program. , • (4) that the policy of Contributing Editors for each state and municipality be main¬ tained in any permanent publication program. T=nrher<; Asso Instead of distributing sample copies by mail to the Illinois BloloSy,J"a^ ciation and to the Illinois Chemistry Teachers Association, as has i been [don ; it is recommended that copies of Science Club Service be distributed at the annual meeting of these organizations, in recognition of continued support. A stock sufficient for such pur¬ poses has been accumulated and will interfere in no way with the program of the General ^ AThas been reported in detail to the Treasurer and to the Council by way of a con¬ tinuous record throughout the year, the total debits involving Science Club S 'ermce during the academic year of 1938-39 were $73.20. The tota! creffits were^74.^ assumi mg that the Illinois Academy, like the Indiana Academy for the past four years allocate twenty dollars for the publication service during the current academic year. That is to say) the Illinois Junior Academy of Science has had the benefit it could make from three pn issues of Science Club Service , representing approximately 14,000 words, for the cost ot a single^sue^iticai examination of facts concerning the development of the Junior Academy movement, I think we may find confidence to believe that the future of the will be of greater significance because of the work that the Illinois Academy has made possible through the first two decades of Junior Academy endeavor. Respectfully submitted, (Siened) Louis A. Astell, Editor. Winners of Awards The club which placed first in each division was presented a cup while those placing second and third were given certificates of recognition. Physics Division 1. Morton Physics Club, Cicero. 2. Edwardsville Science Club, Edwards- ville. 3. Vocational Science Club, Granite City High School. Chemistry Division 1. Maine Chemistry Club, Desplaines. 2. Morton Chemistry Club, Cicero. 3. Chem-Mystry Club, Normal Com¬ munity High School. Thirty-second Annual Meeting 287 Biology Division 1. The Ferreters, Chester High School. 2. Joliet Biology Club, Joliet. 3. Normal Community High School, Normal Zoo Club, Rockford — Tied for third. Geology Division 1. Bloomington Geology Club, Bloom¬ ington. 2. Morton Weather Club, Cicero. All Round 1. Edwardsville Science Club, Edwards- ville. 2. Vocational Science Club, Granite City. 3. Youth Science Club, Madison. Junior High School Division 1. David Prince Science Club, Jack¬ sonville. I. NEWS LETTERS Hectograph News Letters 1. The Ferreters , Chester High School, 2. Meteograph , Morton Weather Club. Cicero. 3. Biology News, Morton Biology Club, Cicero. Hon. Men. Bugology , Clinton Bugology Club. Mimeograph News Letters 1. The Zoo, The Zoo Club, Rockford. 2. Scienois , Vocational Science Club, Granite City. 3. Audubonite , Bloom Twp. H. S., Chicago Heights. Hon. Men. Superstitions , Vienna Science Club, Vienna. H and Craft News Letters 2. The Lab News , Maine Chemistry Club, Desplaines. 3. The Powellite , Major Poweli Science Club, Normal University H. S. II. RADIO NOTEBOOKS 1. Kay Brown, Maine Chemistry Club, Desplaines. 2. Stanley Hoffman, Vocational Science Club, Granite City. 3. Ruth Morris, Scientia Fratres, Roodhouse. III. BIOLOGY Posters — Individual: 1. Conservation of Hawks, John Clay¬ ton, The Ferreters, Chester. 2. State Flowers of U. S., Helen Ritchter, East Side Science Club, E. St. Louis. 3. Zoological Relationships, Elizabeth Morrison, Joliet Biology Club, Joliet. Hon. Men. Ralph Gage, V. T. H. S. Science Club, Vienna. Posters — Group: 1. Trapping Records of Chester Vi¬ cinity, The Ferreters, Chester. 2. Structure of the Skin, Joliet Bi¬ ology Club, Joliet. Proj ects — I ndi vidual : 1. Ant Colony, Wm. Hahn, Zoo Club, Rockford. 2. Mounted birds and egg size com¬ parison, Raymond Lutostanski, Royalton Biology Club, Royalton. 3. Fossils, Richard Sterba, Morton Biology Club, Cicero. Proj ects — Group : 1. The Starling and its relationship, Joliet Biology Club, Joliet. 2. Mounted animal skeletons, Royalton Biology Club, Royalton. 3. Soap carvings of animal phyla, Youth Science Club, Madison. Hon. Men. Rat Skeleton, Biology Club, Normal Community H. S. Commercial Products — Individual: 1. Soilless Garden, Raymond Fike, Biology Club, Normal Community H. S. 2. Products of Corn, Marion Wolff, The Ferreters, Chester. 3. Amber and its products, Preston Hyatt, Joliet Biology Club, Joliet. Commercial Products — Group: 1. Cheddar cheese, Biology Club, Nor¬ mal Community H. S. 2. Manufacturing Process of Paper, The Ferreters, Chester. 3. Medicinal Plants, Morton Biology Club, Cicero. Hon. Men. Aquarium supplies, Joliet Biology Club, Joliet. Collections — Individual : 1. 110 Classified Spring Flowers, Hilda Meyer, The Ferreters, Chester. 2. State Flowers, Nadine Whitesides, V. T. H. S. Science Club, Vienna. 3. Preserved small animals, Donald Pennington, Bugology Club, Clinton. Hon. Men. Meal for animals and seed collections, Helen Homelos, Youth Science Club, Madison. 288 Transactions oj the Illinois State Academy of Science Collections — Group: 1. Mounted and classified skulls. The Ferreters, Chester. 2. Live reptiles, Royalton Biology Club, Royalton. , 3. Tree anatomy collection, Youth Science Club, Madison. Hon. Men. Seed Collection, Bugology Club, Clinton. Science Notebooks— Individual: 1. Zoology classroom notebook, Eliza¬ beth Morrison, Joliet Biology Club, ^ 2. Zoology classroom notebook, Jane Kohl, Joliet Biology Club, Joliet. 3. Amphibian Observations, Clyde Martin, The Ferreters, Chester. Hon. Men. Observations of Biology Study, Mildred Martin, Normal Com¬ munity Biology Club, Normal. Models — I ndi vidual : 1 Organs and systems from newborn lamb, Lester Moeller, The Ferreters, 2. Brain and head model, Harold Ash¬ by, Youth Science Club, Madison. 3. Wax models of internal structures of animals and plants, George Lautner, Edwardsville Science Club, Edwardsville. Hon. Men. Dinosaur plaques, June McDowell, Morton Biology Club, Cicero. IV. GEOLOGY Posters — Group: 1. Cross-sections of Grand Canyon Bloomington Geology Club, Bloomington. 2. Seasonal Snowfall of Chicago, Mor¬ ton Weather Club, Cicero. Projects — Individual: 1. Mechanical Sunshine Recorders, Robert Kubisto, Morton Weather Club, Cicero. . ... , . . 2. Cross-sections of oil geological struc¬ tures, Burdette Allen, Bloomington Ge¬ ology Club, Bloomington. 3. Seasonal mean and normal daily temperatures of Cicero, Olga Vytlacil, Morton Weather Club, Cicero. Hon. Men. Soil Profile, Howard Rogers, Edwardsville Science Club, Edwardsville. Commercial Products— Individual: 1. Electrical anemometer, Carl Stof- fels, Morton Weather Club, Cicero. Commercial products — Group: 1. Lapidary tools, Bloomington Ge¬ ology Club, Bloomington. Hon. Men. Miniature diorama of oil field, Botkemzo, Parker High School, Chicago. Collections — Individual: *(1. Bobby Jean Westman, V. T. H. S. Science Club, Vienna. * (1. Pennsylvania Plant Fossils, Louis Henninger, Bloomington Geology Club, Bloomington. 2. Weather Maps of foreign countries, Robert Kubisto, Morton Weather Club, Cicero. Collections — Group : 1. Crystals from six main divisions of creptal Kingdom, Bloomington Geology Club, Bloomington. Science Notebooks — Individual: 1. Work of streams, Floyd Braun, Bloomington Geology Club, Blooming¬ ton. . 2. Eddie Good, Vocational Science Club, Granite City. 3. Mining Operations in McLean County, Louis Henninger, Bloomington Geology Club, Bloomington. Models — I ndi vidual : 1. Kinds of Springs, Donald Hopkins, Bloomington Geology Club, Bloomington. 2. Types of Soil & Soil Erosion, George Dittman, Youth Science Club, Madison. V. CHEMISTRY Posters — Individual: 1. Wood into Paper, Milford Lawhun, Chem-Mystery Club, Normal Com¬ munity. 2. Glands and their secretions, Arthur Olson, Maine Chemistry Club, Des- Plaines. 3. Vera Creager, V. T. H. S. Science Club, Vienna. Posters — Group : 1 . Water Treatment, Vocational Science Club, Granite City. 2. Purification of water, Morton Chem¬ istry Club, Cicero. 3. Sugars, Maine Chemistry Club, FlpcPlaines. Proj ects — I ndi vidual : 1. Water Purification, Cletus Koch, Edwardsville Science Club, Edwards¬ ville. *Tied for First Place. Thirty-second Annual Meeting 289 2. Relief Color Photography procedure, Evelyn Johnson, Maine Chemistry, Des- Plaines. 3. Real Crystals, Albert Zebos, Dupo Chemistry Club, Dupo. Proj ec ts — Group : 1. Synthetic gems, Morton Chemistry Club, Cicero. 2. Adventures in Amateur Photog¬ raphy, Scientia Fratres, Roodhouse. 3. Metallurgy, Vocational Science Club, Granite City. Commercial Products — Individual: 1. Destructive Distillation of Crude Oil, Harold Kendall, Youth Science Club, Madison. 2. Natural Color Photography, W. G. Hagemann, Maine Chemistry Club, Des- Plaines. 3. Electroplating, Joseph Kucera, Mor¬ ton Chemistry Club, Cicero. Commercial Products — Group: 1. Half-tone engravings on copper, Chem-Mystery Club, Normal Com¬ munity. 2. Manufacture of ether, chloroform, and iodoform, Maine Chemistrv, Des- Plaines. 3. Commercial Pigments, Scientia Frat¬ res, Roodhouse. Hon. Men. Luminous tube lighting, Morton Chemistry Club, Cicero. Collections — Individual : 1. Materials of industry, Dale Hus- tand, Vocational Science Club, Granite City. 2. Soil Analysis, James Luza, Morton Chemistry Club, Cicero. 3. Compounds arranged according to position of principle element in periodic table, Colvin McCrum, Maine Chem¬ istry Club, DesPlaines. Collec tions — Group : 1. Cosmetics, Morton Chemistry Club, Cicero. 2. Leather and its treatment, Maine Chemistry Club, DesPlaines. 3. Coal Derivatives, Chem-Mystery Club, Normal Community. Hon. Men. Fuels and their combustion. Vocational Science Club, Granite City. Science Notebooks — Individual: 1. Louise Whitman, Chem-Mystery Club, Normal Community. 2. Lucille Becker, Chem-Mystery Club, Normal Community. 3. Evangeline Rawers, Morton Chem¬ istry Club, Cicero. Models — Individual : 1. Plastics, Marvin Steppes, Morton Chemistry Club, Cicero. 2. Cottrell Precipitator, Robert Rich¬ ards, Edwardsville Science Club, Ed- wardsville. 3. Carbon Disulfide furnace, James Fraser, Maine Chemistry Club, Des¬ Plaines. VI. ASTRONOMY Pos ters — Indi vi dual : 1. Blueprints of Constellations, Don Cox, Vocational Science Club, Granite City. 2. Vera Creager, V. T. H. S. Science Club, Vienna. Projects — Individual: 1. Tom Thumb Planetarium, Dorrence Wilkinson, Edwardsville Science Club, Edwardsville. 2. Star Umbrella, Elizabeth Gitcho, Youth Science Club, Madison. 3. Planosphere, John Duffy, Major Powell Science Club, University High, Normal. Science Notebooks: 1. Class notebook, Shirley Wilkinson, Botkemzo, Parker H. S., Chicago. Models — Individual: 1. Sextant, Sarah Springer, Edwards¬ ville Science Club, Edwardsville. 2. Planet Road Map, John Duffy, Major Powell Science Club, University High, Normal. VII. JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL Posters — Group: 1. Birds Protect Man, Richard Hail and Roy Wright, David Prince Science Club, Jacksonville. Proj ects — Individual : 1. Insects, Friends and Foes, Russell Ward, David Prince Science Club, Jack¬ sonville. Proj ec ts — Group : L Electric bird questioner, David Prince Science Club, Jacksonville. Commercial Products — Individual: 3. Electric wild flower questioner, Lawrence Vieira, David Prince Science Club, Jacksonville. Commercial Products — Group: 1. What Tree is that? David Prince Science Club, Jacksonville. 290 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Collections — I ndi vidual : Hon. Men. Leaves of trees, Clara Curdie, David Prince H. S., Jacksonville Collections — Group : 2. Rocks & Fossils, David Prince Science Club, Jacksonville. Science Notebooks— Individual: 1. Rocks, Roy Wright, David Prince Science Club, Jacksonville. Models — Individual: 1. Electric questioner of animals, trees, and flowers, David Prince Science Club, Jacksonville. VIII. PHYSICS Posters — Individual: 1. Chart on spectrums, Caroline Ben¬ esh, Morton Physics Club, Cicero. Posters — Group : 1. Chart on polaroid, Morton Physics Club, Cicero. 2. Progress in Electric Lighting Sys¬ tems, Botkemzo, Parker H. S., Chicago. Projects — Individual: 1. Radio transmitter. Bill Belshaw, Edwardsville Science Club, Edwardsville. 2. Electric Motor Assembly, Harold Kendall, Youth Science Club, Madison. 3. Physics in Everyday Life, Roy Shup, Vocational Science Club, Granite City. Hon. Men. Diffraction grating spectro¬ scope, Charles Cermak, Morton Physics Club, Cicero. Projects — Group: 1. Principles of Reflection, Morton Physics Club, Cicero. 2. Analytical Balances, Edwardsville Science Club, Edwardsville. Commercial Products — Individual: 1. Stroboscope, Carl Stoffels, Morton Physics Club, Cicero. 2. Cletus Koch, Edwardsville Science Club, Edwardsville. Commercial Products — Group: 1. Commercial use of polarized light, Morton Physics Club, Cicero. Collections — I ndi vidual : 1. Stop-Action Spark Photography, Joe Praser, Morton Physics Club, Cicero. Collections — Group : 1. Infra-red photography, Morton Physics Club, Cicero. Science Notebooks: 1. Physics notebook supplemented with magazine and newspaper clippings, Carl Stoffels, Morton Physics Club, Cicero. Models — Individual: 1. Wind tunnel for testing airplanes, Don Schneider, Edwardsville Science Club, Edwardsville. 2. Changes of Electrical Energy, Clar- ence Stallings, Vocational Science Club, Granite City. Affiliated High School Science Clubs Arlington Heights: Arlington Heights Science Club; Thos. H. Wilson. Bloomingon: Abraham Lincoln Science Club, Lincoln, Jr. High School; Mary u e. 1 Amateur Burroughs Club, Bloomington H. S.; H. L. Slickenmeyer. Bloomington Geology Club, Bloomington H. S.; Harry L. Adams. Edwards School Science Club; Vera F. Wakefield. Blue Island: Blue Island Biology Club, Blue Island H. S.; Elizabeth White. Carterville: Carterville High School Science Club; Loren G. Spires. Charleston: Charleston Science Club, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College High School; Harold M. Cavins. Chester: The Ferreters, Chester High School; Audry C. Hill. Chicago: Botkemzo Club, Parker Sr. H. S.; Jessie E. Potter. Bowen Bird Boosters, Bowen H. S.; Helen Kluge. Fenger Science Club, Fenger H. S.; Emil C. Bennett. Hyde Park H. S. Science Club. Lakeview Biology Club; T. E. Coes, 4015 N. Ashland. Siena Biology Club, 5606 Washington Blvd.; Sister M. Stemslaus. Chicago Heights: Audubon Club, Bloom High School; Altha Haviland. Christopher: Phi-Bi-Chem Club, Community H. S. Clinton: Bugology Club, Clinton H. S.; Chas. R. Evans. Thirty-second Annual Meeting 291 Cicero: Biology Club, Morton H. S.; Earl W. Brakken. Camera Club, Morton High School. Chemistry Club, Morton H. S.; L. T. Lucan. General Science Club, Morton H. S.; E. E. Befrava. Physics Club, Morton H. S.; D. L. Barr. Weather Club, Morton H. S.; Allen A. Moore. Danville: Science Club, Danville H. S.; C. O. Johnson. Des Plaines: Maine Chemistry Club, Des Plaines H. S.; Rose M. Cassidy. Dupo: Chemistry Club, Dupo High School; Willis T. Maas. East Moline: Bio-Chemics Club, East Moline High School; H. W. Pratt. East St. Louis: East Side Science Club, Senior H. S.; T. W. Galbreath. Lansdown Science Club, Junior H. S.; Lowell Davis. Edwardsville: Science Club, Edwardsville H. S.; B. W. Robinson. Galesburg: Chemistry Club, High School; L. J. Seiler. Gillespie: Science Club, Gillespie H. S.; R. W. Wallin. Glen Ellyn: Science Club, Glenbard H. S.; W. P. Gronenwald. Granite City: Vocational Science Club, Community H. S.; Mable Spencer. Jacksonville: David Prince Junior High Club; Anna T. Stevenson. Joliet: Biology Club, Joliet H. S.; H. V. Givens. Kankakee: Byrd Science Club, Junior H. S.; Helen M. Arnett. McLeansboro: McLeansboro Science Club; Edna Woodruff. Normal: Chem-Mystry Club; Community H. S.; J. C. Chiddix. Biology Club, Community H. S. Physics Club, Community H. S.; J. C. Chiddix. Pontiac: Bi-Phi-Ki Society, High School; Herbert McConnell. Riverside: Catalyst Club, High School; M. G. Lott. Rockton: Ho-No-Ne-Gah Club, Community High School; M. C. Howd. Mote Scientifique Club, High School. Rockford: Biology Club, Senior H. S.; R. E. Horrall. Acerac'eae Botany Club, Senior H. S.; M. Lamont Clikeman. Roodhouse: Scientia Fratres, High School; H. D. Barr. Vienna: Science Club, Township H. S.; Mrs. Mary Creager. Scientific Societies Affiliated with the Academy American Chemical Society, Illinois Section; C. C. Price, Sec., University of Illinois, Urbana. Beta Pi Sigma, St. Xavier College; 4928 Cottage Grove Ave., Chicago. Chicago Academy of Science; Lincoln Park, Chicago. Chicago Nature Study Club; Emma F. Heerwagen, 2440 Ridge Ave., Evanston. College of St. Francis; 303 Taylor St., Joliet. Cyclothem Club; Dept, of Geology and Geography, University of Illinois, Urbana. Illinois Association of Biology Teachers; A. C. Brookley, Sec.-Treas., Thornton Township High School, Harvey. Illinois Association of Chemistry Teachers; S. A. Chester, Bloomington High School, Bloomington. Illinois Nature Study Society; Mrs. H. M. Armstrong, Sec., 395 DuPage St., Elgin. Illinois State Archaeological Society; 604 Caroline, Peoria. Joliet Botanical Club; Lula E. Connell, Sec., 653 Third Ave., Joliet. Knox County Academy of Science; Page L. Baker, Treas., Knox College, Galesburg. Major Powell Science Club; Blanche McAvoy, Normal University, Normal. Normal Science Club; Geo. A. Soper, Sec.-Treas., Normal University, Normal. Peoria Academy of Science; Lois B. Hite, 609 Nowland Ave., Peoria. 292 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science Rockford College Science Club; Helen M. Thomas, Treas., Dept, of Biology, Rockford College, Rockford. . Rockford Nature Study Society; Rose Cassidy, Sec., 510 South 1st St. Rockford. Science Club of Chicago Normal College; Genevieve Sowa, Sec., 6800 So. Stewart Ave., Englewood. Sigma Xi; University of Illinois Chapter, Urbana. Southern Illinois Science Club; So. Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale. Springfield Nature League; Mrs. Guy E. Bonney, 823 S. Fifth St., Springfield. Theta Chi Delta, Alpha Eta Chapter; Carthage College, Carthage.