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STATE OF ILLINOIS
Dwight H. Green, Governor

TRANSACTIONS

OP THE

ILLINOIS STATE
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Volume 34 September, 1941 Number 1

Special Papers Presented at the Thirty-fourth
Annual Meeting
Evanston, Illinois, May, 1941

Memoirs

Edited by Grace Needham Oliver

Department of Registration and Education
Illinois State Museum Division, Centennial Building

SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS

[Printed by authority of the State of Illinois]

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY

Entered as second-class matter December 6, 1930, at the post office at
Springfield, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, 1912,

STATE OF ILLINOIS

Dwight H. Green, Governor

DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION

Prank M. Thompson, Director

ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM DIVISION

Thorne Deuel, Chief

ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Affiliated with the
Illinois State Museum

Officers for 1941-1942

President: T. H. Frison
Natural History Survey, Urbana

Fist Vice President: F. M. Fryxell
Augustanai College, Rock Island

Second Vice President : George E. Ekblaw
Geological Survey, Urbana

Secretary: R. F. Paton
University of Illinois, Urbana

Treasurer: John Voss
Manual Training High School, Peoria

Librarian: Thorne Deuel
Illinois State Museum, Springfield •

Junior Academy Representative: Mary Creager
Township High School, Vienna

Editor: Grace Needham Oliver
Geological Survey, Urbana

In addition to current officers, the Academy Council for 1941-42 includes
the two most recent past presidents: Evelvn I. Fernald, Rockford College,
Rockford, and V. O. Graham, 4028 Grace St., Chicago.

Printed SeDtember, 1941

[2]

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Volume 34 September, 1941 Number 1

■ UCQ (L

I XL

CONTENTS

Page

Announcements . . . . . . . . 4

Graham, Verne 0. Fungi and Man. Presidential Address,

1941 Meeting . . . . . . . _ . . . 5

Fernald, Evelyn I. Michael S. Bebb, Illinois Naturalist and

Letter Writer. Presidential Address, 1940 Meeting . 12

Turner, C. L. Hormone Control of Reproduction and Secondary

Sexual Characters in Fishes . . 17

Herskovits, Melville J. Patterns of Negro Music . 19

Brown, Frank A., Jr. A Summary of Our Knowledge of

Endocrine Mechanisms in Crustaceans . . 24

Turner, C. Donnell. The Endocrine Functions of the

Mammalian Ovary . 29

Memoirs

Charles Zeleny . 35

Eugene Richard Dougherty . 36

Rose M. Cassidy . 37

[3]

ANNOUNCEMENTS

Attention is directed to the fact that the Committee on Research Grants
of the Illinois State Academy of Science has at its disposal a small sum of
money to be disbursed in support of worthy research projects. Applications
for grants will be accepted up to and including March 31, 1942. It is customary
to give preference to scientists connected with the smaller institutions of
the state.

Requests for grants should be accompanied by a brief statement of the
training and experience of the applicant, the purpose of the investigation,
and the estimated cost. Previous publications should be listed. At least two
letters of recommendation should be transmitted directly by their authors.
Correspondence may be addressed to William C. Rose, Chairman, Department
of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.

SECTION CHAIRMEN 1941-42

Agriculture : C. H. Oathout, Macomb, Ill.

Anthropology : Donald E. Wray, 604 Caroline St., Peoria, Ill.

Botany: Paul D. Voth, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.

Chemistry : N. D. Cheronis, 5556 Ardmore Ave., Chicago, Ill.

Geography : Joseph Van Riper, Southern Illinois State Normal University,
Carbondale, Ill.

Geology: A. H. Sutton, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.

Physics: F. L. Verwiebe, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston,
Ill.

Psychology and Education: J. M. Hughes, Northwestern University, Evanston,
Ill.

Social Science: C. W. Schroeder, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, Ill.
Zoology: Orlando Park, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.

1942 MEETING — URBANA — MAY 8-9

[4]

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

FUNGI AND MAN*

Verne O. Graham

A few years ago the speaker was
deeply concerned over a number of eco¬
logical problems such as why more fungi
occur during autumn than in the spring¬
time, when an observer ventured the
chance remark, — “Why spend so much
time on these peculiar forms of life?
Are they of any value to man?” Two
answers to these questions may be pro¬
posed. The first is supported by all true
scientists and includes the idea that all
pnre science is, across the centuries, of
far greater value than the form which
for personal reasons goes forth to find
evidence in support of a proposition or
conclusion arrived at from inadequate
data. The second is based on our knowl¬
edge of the harm done by this great
group of plants in causing decay of eco¬
nomic products. We know much more
about their destruction than their con¬
trol; we see the collapse of a structure
weakened by the inroads of wood-inhabit¬
ing fungi; we are made aware of the
constant expense incurred by replace¬
ment of decayed ties and timbers along
our railroads; we note the dead and
dying trees in our forests, and some¬
times try to salvage some of the lumber
before decay has completely destroyed
its value. We look at fungi as food and
hope that here we may find sufficient
defense for their existence, and are dis¬
mayed to discover food value but little
in excess of that found in cabbage. All
these are superficial, and yield but little
toward our understanding of this great
group of plants and wherein they fit in
the economy of life.

The greatest contribution of fungi to
the balance of life is related to the decay
of organic material. We need but imag¬
ine the effect of removal of all decay
activities from our forests. Trees broken
by wind or lightning crash to the earth
year after year and lie until the forces
of decay or fire change their nature from
debris to soil. Unaffected by these forces
the forest eventually would accomplish
its own suffocation, mounting fallen tim¬
bers would heap higher and ever higher

to mingle, first, with the lower branches,
kill them by suffocation, and finally,
bring death to the entire forest. Fungi
increase in number with food supply, the
debris of the forest furnishing food for
countless numbers of them; with more
debris more fungi appear; with decrease
in this food supply occurs a correspond¬
ing decrease in fungi. In a complicated
relationship these agencies continue to
exist interdependent in their life needs.
A dead branch lies on the ground but a
short time before the scavengers of the
plant world begin their work upon it.
Sometimes the reduction process is ac¬
complished by a single visible species,
sometimes by many causing several
forms of decay.

Each autumn, leaves carpet the earth,
but in a few weeks all have disappeared
except for a few kinds. Maple leaves
color and make beautiful the autumn
forest but on the ground they soon de¬
cay. Poplar leaves are more persistent
as part of ^ the forest carpet; not until
spring has 'decay completely decomposed
them. The dominant in any such carpet
in this region is a mixture of leaves from
some of the nine species of oak. The
thick, leathery leaves and the presence
of tannic acid make possible their per¬
sistence for more than a year. As rain¬
fall slowly leaches preservatives from
them, decay gradually softens the tough
protective covering to produce a leafy
substratum for the growth of many
species of Marasmius, Collybia, and
other small pileate fungi.

What are some of the environmental
results of the carpet of leaves? The first
important one accrues from the blanket¬
like covering of the soil tending to re¬
tain heat within the soil when the out¬
side air is cold, and the prevention of
warming processes from the outside dur¬
ing the time when the air is much
warmer than the soil. Consequently the
soil retains sufficient heat during the
autumn months for the growth of ter¬
restrial fungi long after the normal ex¬
pectancy. During November it is not

♦Address of the Retiring President before the general Academy membership met in convention
at Evanston, Illinois, May 1-2-3, 1941.

0

6

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

unusual to find such species as Hygro-
phorus Russula and Tricholoma person-
atum among others pushing the leafy
covering upward, tent-like, to gain posi¬
tion for spore dissemination. During this
time humus is abundant and moisture
has been retained sufficient for the wide
spread development of mycelium. These
conditions are ideally favorable for fruc¬
tifications, providing the precipitation is
at least average, and if no unusually
long periods with freezing temperatures
have occurred to penetrate the leafy-
blanket and halt the development of the
vegetative structure from which carpo¬
phores arise. With average autumnal
conditions prevailing, the beneath-the-
leaves habitat is populated by a flora
unusually rich in species of fungi.

It is natural to question the applica¬
tion of the above facts especially when
we account for the abundance of mycelial
growth and fructifications for autumn
only. Do not the same conditions have
a vernal application? Do the results ex¬
actly correspond? The answer to the
first question is yes, to the second, no.
The leafy carpet retards the change of
soil temperature both during autumn
and in spring, but the retardation in one
case while soil temperature is becoming
warmer is disadvantageous and in the
other when the change is from warm
to cold is advantageous. In other words,
the autumnal retardation of tempera¬
ture change makes possible a continued
production of fungi, while the vernal
retardation delays the production. Con¬
sequently we find the first terrestrial
fungi appearing at least a month after
the vernal equinox, likewise abundant
production continues for a month beyond
the autumnal equinox.

Many people are disappointed by the
absence of fungi during the months April
until August, inclusive. The weather is
warm and rainfall, especially during
spring and early summer, is often suf¬
ficient for the growth of these elusive
plants. Why are they not everywhere
conspicuous, especially in the forests? A
few reasons may be proposed, each ex¬
plaining a different phenomenon.

From the paucity of terrestrial vernal
fungi a few facts may be gleaned by
direct observation. Fungi which are to
be found are in pastures, open woods,
and other habitats where sunshine may
exert its warming influence. The genera

Morchella, Peziza (see fig. 1), Coprinus,
Panaeolus, Naucoria, and various field
puffballs, although widely separated,
make up the collections found during
April and May. The warm sunshine has
a drying effect in addition to its heat,
consequently the arid months arrive al¬
most simultaneously with the proper soil
temperature within the forest. Add to
these factors the time element required
for vegetative growth of a fungus and
the presence or absence of fungi during
the various seasons becomes reasonable.
Yes, but what is this time element?
We have always supposed “mushroom
growth” to be very rapid, requiring but
a few hours, and that any time during
the year when a high moisture content
and warm temperature prevail, even for
a very short time,, mushrooms should be
everywhere ready for collecting. The
answer is: “mushroom growth” refers
only to the production of carpophores
and takes no account of the two weeks
required, under most favorable condi¬
tions, for the mycelial growth necessary
before our smaller fungi will appear in
fruit, or the several weeks required for
larger fungi. As evidence of the time
element requirement, new data accumu¬
lates each year during August and Sep¬
tember when, after several weeks of dry
weather, rainfall again becomes normal
or above normal, yet at least two weeks
intervene before some of the smaller
terrestrial forms appear, to be followed
by medium sized and finally after sev¬
eral weeks by the very large ones. What
interpretation may we consider applic¬
able to such evidence? Certainly the
accumulation of nutrition within the
mycelial network and a widespread
growth of the structure in order to con¬
tact and contain the supply of nutrition
must occur before the dicaryophase con¬
dition and its stimulus brings forth rapid
production of fructifications. The wide¬
spread growth and the large accumula¬
tion of nutrition required for larger
species is relatively comparable to the
extended time required for these plants
to come to fruition. It is also true in
general that large mycelial structures
accompany and produce large fructifica¬
tions, and comparatively small vegeta¬
tive structures produce small carpo¬
phores. Hence, with the recurrence of
rainfall regularly and abundantly follow¬
ing the deadening affect of several arid

Graham — 1941 Meeting

7

weeks, events follow in normal sequence;
one or two weeks of rainfall in which
no fructifications appear, a week in which
small fungi, such as species of Mycena,
Collybia, Marasmius, and Coprinus are
dominant, followed by succeeding days
with new and larger forms gradually
coming into and adding to the total num¬
ber composing the fungal flora.

The continued growth of the vegeta¬
tive structures of these saprophytes
greatly reduces the leafy covering of the
soil. Here again a balance is maintained
between the amount of moist decaying
leaves and the numerosity of fungi. The
annual budget of fallen leaves is rapidly
becoming an integral part of soil when
the time arrives for the new autumnal
carpet.

The normal human questions during
spring invariably deal with why fungi
are so few and far between. Recollec¬
tions of the autumnal forest densely be¬
set with hundreds of terrestrial fungi
has led the usual observer to expect sim¬
ilar growth during the vernal season.
The somewhat detailed discussion of eco¬
logical factors bearing on these ques¬
tions serves to make reasonable the con¬
trasting paucity and abundance.

Mosses, lichens and liverworts consti¬
tute a living substratum, nestled among
and beneath the leaves to invite other
entirely different types of fungal com¬
munities. Usually somewhat removed
from the leafy floor and from the living
mosses, liverworts and lichens, grasses
grow, their roots and dead leaves giving
sustenance for fairy rings of Marasmius
oreades (see fig. 2) and Agaricus cam-
pestris on pastures and fairways.

An analysis of the interrelationship of
the various! parts of the substrata brings
forth the tremendous importance of
fungi. On a single stump, somewhat de¬
cayed, one may find six or seven species
of fungi, each with its own peculiarities
of action, but all functioning to eventu¬
ally return the wood to the soil. In the
growth of fungi chemicals are ecologic¬
ally more important than for seed plants
where physical factors are largely re¬
sponsible for associational differences.

Diversity of saprophytism and para¬
sitism is illustrated by the presence of
Polyporus Schweinitzii always on pine,
Mycena vulgaris on pine needles, Maras¬
mius oreades attached to grass roots,
Polyporus conchifer (see fig. 3) on elm

twigs, Tricholoma transmutans on black
oak roots, Polyporus tsugae on living
hemlock and Nyctalis asterophora on an¬
other fungus, Russula nigricans.

The economic importance of fungi as
related to the decay of structural timbers
has by some been recognized for three-
quarters of a century. In a letter of De¬
cember 9, 1889, P. H. Dudley wrote to
Charles H. Peck, state botanist of New
York, calling attention to the loss due to
decay of bridge timbers, ties, and the
lumber used in building freight cars. He
mentioned the prevalence of Lentinus
lepideus on the ties of yellow pine (Pinus
palustris Mill.) He stated that these
were so numerous in main line tracks
and so conspicuous during September
1889 as to be noticeable from the trains.
“Pilei six to eight inches in diameter
were frequent, while four in a cluster
of small diameter springing from the
same mycelium seemed to be a common
mode of growth, this unusually wet sea¬
son. The resinous matter in yellow pine
in its natural state does not seem to
check the growth of the fungus.” This
same fungus reaches ten inches across
on the timbers used for construction at
the parking area near Tower Falls in
Yellowstone National Park. Construction
here is mainly of Lodgepole Pine. Dudley
further writes that Omphalia campanella
Batsch (see fig. 4) was found fruiting on
white cedar (Chamaecyparis sphaeroidea
Spach) from May until October. White
oak timbers frequently showed Fomes
applanatus Fr. in fruit while Polyporus
versicolor Fr. was very abundant. The
absence of fungi in fruit upon ties of
chestnut (Castanea) was as striking as
its frequency on other woods. “It is a
well known fact” he writes, “that chest¬
nut ties last longer where the ground is
damp, than where it is dry.”

Concerning the presence of Omphalia
campanella on the white cedar, one ex¬
planation seems sufficient. This fungus
may have occupied the timbers for
months, spreading vegetatively and caus-
irig decay without producing a single
fruit; then with the stimulus of decay-
chemicals in the substratum added to
the presence of a moisture supply came
to abundant fruition. The same, to a
lesser degree, may be said of Fomes
applanatus and Polyporus versicolor.
They too are prolific in the growth of
mycelium, and show but little tendency

8

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

to fruit until the supply of nutrition
undergoes a marked chemical change,
then, as though signaled by the code of
race preservation, the pile! appear. The
procedure varies in degree with different
fungi, but the story is much the same.
Some produce several successive crops
for several years while the decaying
wood becomes softer and softer in its
reduction to soil.

Another interesting observation by Mr.
Dudley concerns the abundance and de¬
structiveness of Lenzites sepiaria Fr.
Under the station platforms and the
planking of the walks, he found its my¬
celium abundant, generally without fruit¬
ing, and follows with the observation:
“This has not set men to thinking of
better methods for replanking for they
carry on the replanking exactly as of
old, that is, in the best manner to pro¬
mote the growth of a new crop of fungi.
Consequently in a few years replace¬
ment is again necessary. Unseasoned
timbers are especially susceptible and
during a damp season will show traces of
mycelium in two or three weeks. Well
seasoned timbers contain inert mycelium
if any at all and this remains inactive
until moisture reaches it. This again
starts decay. Some have suggested paint¬
ing the timbers to protect them from the
mycelium of decay but this proves of no
value if moisture and the mycelium are
present within, for in the same short
period of time decay has weakened the
wood and replacement must follow. Users
of wood have long considered the fungi
as merely accompanying the decay and
not its cause, consequently they have done
little to preserve the wood or to elimin¬
ate the fungi. So small are the spores
and so readily disseminated that every
crevice in the timber contains many
which await the presence of moisture to
begin the growth of mycelium and with
it the decay of the wood.” During a

plate I

Explanation of Plate

la. — Morchella esculenta. The morel, some¬
times called honeycomb mushroom occurs
during spring.

lb. — Peziza coccinea (Scarlet. Peziza) occurs
during April. The inside of the cup is a
brilliant scarlet color.

2. — Marasmius oreades. Fairy rings of this
species and of Agaricus campestris are found
on golf courses and pastures.

3. — Polyporus conchifer prefers to grow on
dead and fallen elm branches.

4. — Omphalia campanella. Golden trumpets;
with golden yellow caps; a multitude of these

period of fifteen years the old railroad
bridge over the north branch of the Chi¬
cago River in Harm’s woods, west of
Evanston, proved a most interesting il¬
lustration of these processes. The most
prevalent of all was Lenzites sepiaria
(see fig. 5) and ninety percent of the
decay was attributable to this species
alone. Remembering that these timbers
were solid twenty years ago and that the
trolley cars were then in use, one could
with a minimum of time repeatedly visit
these timbers and evaluate the destruc¬
tion caused by the growth of mycelium
within the wood.

The final paragraph of Mr. Dudley’s
letter is interesting: “As an illustration
of simple and effective measures, I will
give an example: When I was chief
engineer of the Valley Railway of Ohio,
I built some extensive trestles. This was
in 1873. Before doing so I examined a
number of trestles near Cleveland, Ohio,
built of 10 by 12 or 12 by 12 timber, the
life of which did not exceed seven or
eight years. In examining them, I found
that while the large timbers were sound
upon the outside, internally they were all
decayed. The small timbers, 6 by 8 used
for braces and of the same kind of wood,
were sound. The small size enabled
them to season in the structure. This
was an important fact, so I made all my
timbers small, using more of them to
give the proper factor of safety. One of
these trestles is in use now, 16 years
later. In this case, one of the three
essential requisites for the growth of
fungi was eliminated, namely, moisture
in the interior.”

Much of the discussion in the letter of
Mr. Dudley refers to the decay of timbers
but this may not apply to the decay in¬
ternally of trees by parasitic fungi. Some
fungi do perform the double function of
saprophytism and parasitism exhibiting
ability to thrive on a living or on a dead
substratum. It is not unusual to find

rapidly decay a log or stump. Caps y2 inch
across.

5. — Lenzites sepiaria lower surface is gilled,
but in some specimens is somewhat daedaloid;
yellow and brown colors make the plant very
attractive; on railroad ties.

6. — Fomes applanatus. Species of the genus
Fomes are perennial adding a new layer of
pores each year. Many of them are obligate
parasites.

7. — Hydnum erinaceum. Hydnums are in¬
cluded among our edible fungi.

8. — Amanita phalloides (Deathcup). This is
the most deadly of all to those who look for
mushrooms for the table.

Graham — 1941 Meeting

9

10

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

Polyporus Schweinitzii on the dead trunk
of Pinus strobus or on the living trunks
or roots of the same species, or to find
Polyporus tsugae on either living or
dead hemlocks. Because of such latitude
of toleration, it is sometimes difficult to
formulate laws for determination and
prediction as is indicated by the follow¬
ing illustration: On the high point of
land bounded by the two streams at the
confluence of Turkey Run into Sugar
Creek stands a hemlock afflicted for at
least twenty years with Polyporus tsugae.
The *ormal expectancy for such a disease
includes mycelial growth within the tree
until decay has changed greatly the
chemical nature of the wood, the store¬
house of food for the mycelium, then in
the final stage of the life of the tree,
the appearance of fructifications. This
remarkable tree has all these years been
host of a disease, and for at least
eighteen years produced on its branches
and trunk four or five pilei of Polyporus
tsugae, yet the health of the tree has
not greatly changed for several years.
A few of its branches exhibit internal
decay, but always such branches produce
pilei of the disease-producing fungus. It
is evident in this case that the disease
is local in character, that the tree is
parasitized in one sector only, the decay-
producing mycelial strands follow the
grain of the wood upward from its point
of entrance, until the tissues of wood
divide, some to a branch and some within
the tree trunk. Strands then multiply
within the branch until decay renders
this member an unfit host. When such a
condition arises fructifications appear, to
scatter the spores on the winds to other
hosts.

The destruction of trees in our forest
preserves, especially in local areas, fur¬
nishes a splendid opportunity for ob¬
servation and study. A survey of a
single forest such as Harm’s woods will
reveal more than one hundred epixylous
species. A few of these are obligate para¬
sites, others fit into a varied classifica¬
tion. Some like Polyporus gilvus show
preferment for dead trees and where
present on living trees are attached to
and deriving nourishment from dead
wood. Others exemplified by Pomes con-
natus derive nourishment from the liv¬
ing wood of the tree trunk. Direct evi¬
dence of their presence is withheld from
us until a considerable part of the tree

is dead when fructifications appear. A
third type may be said to live on either
dead or living wood. Within this classifi¬
cation may be such as Fomes applanatus,
(see fig. 6), usually found on stumps or
logs in various stages of decay, but some¬
times on the living trunk of Quercus
alba. Such obligate parasites as Fomes
connatus of maples, Fomes rimosus of
Piobinia pseudoacacia (black locust),
Fomes Everhartii of Quercus, Fomes
pinicola of conifers, Fomes pini of pines,
Fomes juniperinus of Juniperus Virgin-
iana (red cedar), Fomes fraxineus and
Fomes fraxinophilus of Fraxinus (ash),
sometimes surprise us by their presence
after death has changed the living tissue
of the host into decaying wood. These
same parasites also sometimes surprise
us by their presence on other than the
usual host. Fomes pinicola, easily recog¬
nized by the presence of red color on
younger tissues, is ordinarily expected
on pine or other living conifers but
sometimes occurs on beech logs. Fomes
fraxineus, notoriously a parasite on ash,
produces splendid fruits on cottonwood
trees along the Des Plaines River near
River Forest, west of Chicago. Fomes
fulvus does not divide its host genus
into species. It grows on any kind of
cherry but is not adverse to the other
half of the genus made up of wild plums.
Fomes fomentarius is found on living
deciduous trees but avoids conifers.
Fomes ribes prefers bushes to trees,
growing on Ribes (gooseberry) or Sym-
phoriocarpus (relatives of the snow-
berry). On such very large bushes as
witch hazel and alder may be found
Fomes scutellatus. In Harm’s woods
where maple is abundant Fomes connatus
is prevalent on that tree, and, were you
to look no farther, your conclusion would
be that this fungus is an obligate parasite.
Somewhat rarely in other localities this
disease also affects elm and beech. In
the forest preserves of Cook County liv¬
ing elms are exceptionally free from
parasitism by fungi, but on the dead
twigs will almost invariably be found the
attractive cup and saucer shaped fructifi¬
cations of Polyporus conchifer. Had Mr.
Dudley who spoke of the absence of fungi
on wet chestnut timbers known of later
findings, he would have been much sur¬
prised to learn that more than 150 dif¬
ferent, easily observed fungi could be
found on the dead and dying remnant of

Graham — 1941 Meeting

11

that tree. That these are not minute
species hidden from the average observer
is indicated by the facts that —

29 are of the genus Polyporus

24 are Agarics (gilled mushrooms)

19 are Porias

18 are of the genus Stereum
9 are of the genus Fomes

The remainder are largely resupinate
forms of the family Thelephoraceae.

Another contrast with the statements
of Mr. Dudley are the observations about
the reconstructed village, Lincoln’s
Salem, Illinois. The timbers used in this
village are infiltrated under high pres¬
sure with zinc chloride. The effect of
this salt on the protoplasmic content of
the mycelium is immediate and powerful,
causing plasmolysis and sudden death.
It seems probable that timbers so treated
may endure for several centuries.

In more recent time, an ever increas¬
ing use of preservatives adds years to
the endurance of structural timbers. The
conditions prevalent a century past, when
lumber and labor were cheap, occur less
frequently in modern times for the best
economy encourages building for the
years.

We cannot but wonder concerning the
details of adjustment for the balance of
life. What biotic changes occur within
the host and how are these adjustments
accomplished? The softer plants which
furnish food for man have been carefully
observed and studied in order that strains
resistant to disease may be selected.
Nature carries forward a selective pro¬
cess producing on the one hand a host
sufficiently resistant for endurance of the
numerous parasites, and on the other
hand, parasites strong, but not too strong,
in order that their life and their food
supply may continue. A parasite attain¬
ing its ecological factors in one part of
the world, suddenly released in another
region may destroy its host before re¬
sistance adaptations occur. A single para¬
site nearly eliminated the American
chestnut from our forests. Such life
processes can in the medical field be
many times exemplified by such exam¬
ples as susceptibility to tuberculosis, of
people who come from south of our bor¬
der. The parasitic germs in this case
find a virgin field for development where
growth may be rapid and without host

resistance. Application of these prin¬
ciples to our forests helps to establish
understandings of why trees may in
various stages of decay live on for many
years, finally to be killed by secondary
parasites which find entrance through
wounds made by the original fungal
growth.

Speaking of fungi and man invariably
causes many people to see but one side
of the subject and they properly ask,
“How can we know without learning
to recognize all the fungi which ones
are edible?” Without knowing them as
individuals your diet must be consider¬
ably restricted. Analysis of the fungal
flora of Illinois and the region within
one hundred and fifty miles of Chicago
shows the following rules applicable. Our
most poisonous mushrooms are gilled. All
fungi are non-poisonous which grow on
wood, except the beautiful Clitocybe illud-
ens, which is a large, bright pumpkin-
yellow gilled-mushroom. Among other
edible fungi are all puffballs if used be¬
fore the changes for spore production,
that is while white throughout the cross
section, all coral mushrooms (Clavaria
and Tremellodendron), morels and pe-
zizas, and finally the black fungi of the
genus Xylaria, as well as the peculiar
ones which appear shaggy with white
hair-like aeulei, belonging to Hydnaceae
(see fig. 7). The very poisonous mush¬
rooms grow on the ground and belong to
the genus Amanita (see fig. 8). Other
mildly poisonous mushrooms of other
genera of the Agaricaceae are terrestrial.

In conclusion, I wish to express the
hope that some of these scattered ideas
may make future visits of yours to for¬
ests, fields and mossy bogs more inter¬
esting, and that you will try to recognize
some of the numerous plants which you
formerly passed by with the remark:
“Just another toadstool”. It is much
more than a toadstool and its very pres¬
ence in a particular place must arouse
a whole chain of ideas. Your conclusions
may then arouse other new associations
out of which may grow your ecology.
Fungi whether epixylous or terrestrial fit
closely into the scheme of human exist¬
ence and each has an important place to
fill in the total organization of relation¬
ships between fungi and man.

12

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

MICHAEL S. BEBB, ILLINOIS BOTANIST AND
LETTER-WRITER*

Evelyx I. Feknald
Rockford College, Rockford, 111.

The letters of Michael Schuck Bebb
(1833-1895) are of interest not only to the
botanists but to the historians of Illinois.
In them are recorded the observations of
a man with a keen critical mind and with
accurate power of observation combined
with a deep love for his fellow men and
the world about him. Scraps of wit and
humor scattered throughout make them
easy to read.

Early in life, in 1861, he corresponded
and exchanged plants with the Rev.
Joseph Blake, a Maine botanist. In one
letter, he gives the following description
of himself:

“I herewith hand you my photograph —
and here just for a dash at something
that may help you to guess what manner
of man I am — Hoefland says if a man
knows not at thirty his purpose in life
it is probably because he has none — Alas
Poor Yorick, I have but six months left
wherein to find my purpose — and ‘still
it is a fleeting.’ But I must not spin out
so — western man — born and bred — Mas¬
sachusetts wife — two children — mix-up
(strange as the mixture is) farmer-
naturalist-musician — like tough reading —
radical republican (turned insurrection¬
ist) never made a noise in the world—
never tried — don’t think I should have
succeeded if I had — Father a lawyer and
politician — here is the end of my sheet,
so I must stop.”

In another letter to Blake written De¬
cember 9, 1864 from Washington, he
writes in a more serious vein, as fol¬
lows:

“I will never be much of a botanist
but I can enjoy the dear flowers — and
the fellowship of true plant-lovers as
keenly as the biggest Dr. Hooker of
them all — and I question if even he
found more satisfaction in working up
Welicitchia than have I over my micro¬
scope and seeds of Juncus — After all
perhaps we lose in sentiment and en¬
thusiasm to gain in knowledge and
fame without enhancing our enjoyment.
It is not best to be such a topping
Scientist as to lose one’s interest in the

common things of the nearest meadow —
I mean of course for humble botanists
who seek recreation — and the cultivation
of mind and heart — rather than to study
and scramble to augment their reputa¬
tions as Naturalists.”

He corresponded with practically all of
the prominent botanists of his time and
in the library of the Gray Herbarium at
Cambridge, Massachusetts, letters to
Bebb from eighty-seven contemporaries
are deposited. Copies of thirty-two of
his letters to the Rev. Joseph Blake
were obtained from the University of
Maine through the courtesy of Professor
E. H. Steinmetz after they had been
brought to the author’s attention by the
generous interest of Professor Neil E.
Stevens of the University of Illinois and
copies of over two hundred letters to
Walter Deane and others from the Gray
Herbarium of Harvard University
through the courtesy of Professor M. L.
Fernald.

By reading these letters you can
understand how he was able to accom¬
plish so much work of real value at
considerable distance from any other
botanists. In the following letter to
Walter Deane (February 8, 1888 from
Rockford, Illinois), he gives us an ex¬
planation of his “technique”.

“My tailor has always made two pock¬
ets on the hips of my pantaloons. I am
too old perhaps to acquire new habits
making them useful. I carry no revolver
and have a time honored place for my
handkerchief. But I have just learned
what to do with them and I find they
are mighty convenient. I pity people that
don’t know how to use hip pockets. In
one I keep a whole bunch of blank
tickets. No matter what I am doing, if
if pops into my mind to ask some friend
a thousand miles off a question, I out
with a ticket, make a memorandum of
the question and slip it in the other
pocket. So now when I sit down to write
to you I go over the accumulation and
find two which read as follows ‘Deane
ask to refer to Salix Cutleri Tuck Sillim

* Address presented by the then-retiring president of the Academy before the membership at
its annual meeting held in Galesburg, Illinois, May 2-3-4, 1940.

Fernald — 1940 Meeting

13

Journal 45; 36 what reasons there given
for discarding the old name S. Uva Ursi
Pursh — please copy anything likely to
be useful’.”

While in Washington during the Civil
War, he became acquainted with Wil¬
liam M. Canby and some of the pleasure
and stimulus he obtained from that rela¬
tionship is passed on to Blake, December
9, 1863:

‘‘Yes, Mr. Canby has been very suc¬
cessful — I presume he has told you about
our trip to New Jersey — and the East
shore of Maryland — We got a fine lot
of plants — and thanks to many favoring
circumstances made satisfactory speci¬
mens. To what new plant do you allude
— The Rynchospora heretofore confound¬
ed with R. alba? — Your remarks about
finding new species are very just — but I
try to keep my mind as free from this
whole matter as possible — Envious strife
and ambition to possess large herbaria —
or to add a species or so to the 100,000
already known tends to embitter the life
of a naturalist — and to smother the high¬
er enjoyments he might otherwise derive
from his studies— Darwin’s observations
on the dimorphism in Linum are worth
a whole batch of new species.”

In another letter of February 18, 1863
he mentions another significant contact.

“Dr. Torrey is here lecturing at the
Smithsonian on ‘Flame’ gas light &c.—
I was talking with him about our Oaks
and was glad to hear him say that all
the Chestnut group must be put back
as Micheaux left it — Certainly no Western
botanist with a clear idea of species
would separate Q. castanea and Q. mon-
tana — for I have often gathered both
from the same tree — the former at the
top and the latter from the lower
branches! ”

His time in Washington was not spent
entirely in a botanical way, as is indi¬
cated in this account sent to Blake, July
16, 1864:

“The capitol is safe. The ‘Pension
Office Guards’ were regularly mustered
into the service of the U. S. for thirty
days. The Rebs got wind of the move¬
ment and retreated precipitately! Per¬
haps the advance of the 6th Army Corps
may have contributed to the discomfiture
of the enemy, but still the Moral effect
(?) of 60 valiant quill drivers ordered to
Fort Baker to do garrison duty must
have been stunning! Well! now that the

emergency is past and I have retired
from active military life — the mails re¬
opened etc. I have taken to the pen —
answered all the letters I had lately
received, and getting in the way of it I
believe I will keep on and stir up some
of my delinquent correspondents begin¬
ning with your esteemed self.”

A very fine account of Bebb was writ¬
ten by Walter Deane of Milton Academy,
Milton, Massachusetts, and published in
1896 in the Botanical Gazette. (This
also includes a complete list of his pub¬
lications.) They exchanged letters and
specimens and were very close friends.
It is singular that they never saw each
other. They had arranged to meet each
other at the Columbian Exposition in
Chicago but missed each other by a few
days — a great sorrow to both of them.

When the father of Michael, William
Bebb, former governor of Illinois, pur¬
chased five thousand acres of land in
Winnebago County and in 1850 most of
the family and belongings were sent via
the Miami canal to Sandusky and thence
by the Great Lakes to Chicago and over¬
land to Fountaindale near Seward in
Winnebago County, Michael and a
brother drove a herd of cattle the four
hundred miles. A glimpse of that trip
is thus pictured for us:

“How beautiful the rolling prairies
were before man’s incoming! You nevef
saw an old fashioned prairie “breaking
plow” — It was drawn by ten huge oxen
and cut a furrow 30 inches across — The
soil was cut only about two inches thick
and was laid over as smooth and even
as the boards of a floor. On the ‘land
side’ stood in all the purity and fresh¬
ness of its pasture beauty the native
vegetation — on the other was a black
field with not a vestige of living plant
to be seen — such an outfit — and there
were thousands of them at work all over
the country — would destroy in one hour
more beautiful plants than have been
collected by all the botanists of the state
since the Indians were driven out — A
few choice things were left on stony
knolls where the stones would dull the
sharp edge of the breaking plow — or in
nooks too irregular in shape to pay for
cultivation but even they gave way a
few years later to blue grass and cow
pasturage — Troximon which grew out in
the open and upon the richest and sun¬
niest slopes was about the first choice

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

thing — botanically considered — to be ut¬
terly exterminated. I have not seen a
plant of it growing in years.”

in the prime of early manhood.

On the county line road northwest of
Rockford and northwest of Byron, the
father built a new home, designed by
Downing. How spacious the house and
grounds were for those early pioneer
days is shown in Figures 3 and 4.

Bebb’s interest in plants began when
he was very young and persisted
throughout his life. When Emerson’s
Trees ancl Shimbs of Massachusetts was
added to the family library in Ohio, it
was his first real contact with formal
botanical science. At this time, he be¬
gan to collect plants, and the splendid
herbarium of 50,000 sheets now in the
Field Museum was built from such a
simple foundation. Since he did so much
of the work in those days without in¬
struction of trained and experienced
botanists, the records on many of the
earlier sheets are incomplete. However,
by the time (1873) he became interested
in Salix, he had had sufficient oppor¬
tunity to know more of the established
practices in systematic botany.

From 1857 to 1861 he lived in Odin
and Salem and the vicinity of Spring-
field and at these places made extensive
collections. From this locality he went
to Washington, D.C., where he remained
until 1867. At that time he purchased
the old homestead at Fountaindale and
made his home there or in Rockford
until his death in December 1895.

Fig. 1 (above). Michael Schuck Bebb as a
boy, copied from an old daguerrotype loaned
by A. S. Rubl of Rockford, Illinois.

Fig. 2 (below). Fountaindale, Illinois, home
of M. S. Bebb.

An old daguerrotype given to Mr.
Antes Ruhl of Rockford, Illinois, by mem¬
bers of the Bebb family, represents Bebb
as he looked at that time (Fig. 1), and a
later photograph (Fig. 2) when he was

His studies of the difficult genus
Salix are more valuable because he made
observations of living specimens as well
as pressed specimens. In a Salicetum
located near a stream at Fountaindale,
he planted willows from all over the
world. Dr. Hooker sent 1100 cuttings of
175 species from the willows cultivated
at Kew and they all lived. When Charles
Sprague Sargent was planting willows at
the Arnold Arboretum, Bebb sent cut¬
tings and detailed directions for their
arrangement and culture. The following
is an extract from a letter to Walter
Deane written on February 5, 1892:

“I have been fussing over Willows, my
usual winter occupation, and have really
become quite enthusiastic. It began with
work done in a perfunctory way to dis¬
charge obligations to others, but in the
prosecution of this, certain fresh lines
of investigation had to be followed up

Fernald — 1940 Meeting

15

Fig. 3. Michael Schuck Bebb, from a pic¬
ture loaned by A. S. Ruhl of Rockford, Illi-
1 nois.

and these in the end led to a better
understanding of some old questions laid
aside as unanswerable. Finding my way
Clear I was in fine mood to go on and
block out three or four batches of Willow
notes for the Gazette. It is only in this
way, now, that I can keep up the pleas¬
ant illusion that I still belong to the fra¬
ternity of working botanists. I envy you
your industry and vim, but after all this
is only relative. Young Macoun writes
that ‘hia hours are from 8 A. M. till mid¬
night with an hour off for luncheon and
dinner’ (presumably half an hour for
each.) I wrote him that he might work
that way in Germany but he had better
stop right off or he would get a rap on
the head to remind him that the thing
1 couldn’t be done in this climate.”

Bebb became the world authority on
Salix. In his early days he devoted some
time to Carex and corresponded with
“that young man Bailey” (Liberty Hyde
Bailey).

Among his most important contribu¬
tions to science are the publication of
the Willows of the Peary Auxiliary Ex¬
pedition in Bulletin V of the Geograph¬
ical Club of Philadelphia , of notes and
articles in the Botanical Gazette and
Garden and Forest. He selected material

Fig. 4. Fountaindale, Illinois. Home
“rounds of M. S. Bebb.

f*from which Mr. Charles E. Faxon drew
the willow plates in Sargent’s Silva of
North America and later criticized the
sketches. His death in 1895 prevented
the completion of the revision of the
willows for the Flora of North America.

In his lifetime the appearance of north¬
ern Illinois underwent many changes and
botanizing became more difficult. On
January 28, 1891, he wrote to Walter
Deane:

“The electric car lines have been, ex¬
tended in several directions one or two
miles beyond the city limits (mainly to
boom suburban lots) and will afford me
facilities in reaching some very desirable
botanizing grounds which last summer
were beyond my walking ability. One
is the hills above the city on the bank of
Rock River which last summer I could
only visit twice. Now I can go to within
a mile by the cars. The other is one
upon which I am counting greatly, viz.,
the right-of-way of the Chicago & North¬
western R. W. which was fenced in thirty
years ago and has of course never been
cultivated or pastured since.

“All I have the dread is that Blue-
grass will have spread in from the
farms alongside and smothered out most
of the indigenous vegetation.”

16

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

On May 22, 1894 he wrote to Walter
Deane:

“The boys wanted me to join them in
an excursion to a favorite collecting
ground of theirs on the lake shore near
Whitings, Indiana. I was quite as eager
as the rest so one morning we took an
early train and did not get back to the
city till after dark. We had a walk of a
mile and a half along the lake shore,
after leaving the R.R. station and then
turned off into what was expected to be
a region of alternate sand dunes and
bogs — heavily wooded in some places, —
open and sunny in others — aquatics in
the water and the plants of hot sand
banks a few rods away. Trees for shade
— underbrush for seclusion — where we
could cook and eat our dinner with a
feeling that we were far removed from
man’s intermeddling — To the very great

disgust of my entertainers we discovered
that the whole district for miles had
been taken hold of by a land improve¬
ment company. The bogs had all been
drained by deep ditches — discharging in¬
to the lake — the trees cut down or pulled
up by the roots with some powerful
machine — and the whole surface burned
over.”

His whole family was actively inter¬
ested in his botanical work. An inten¬
sive study of the plants of Cook County,
Illinois was made by his son Robert, and
his son William was a well known nat¬
uralist in Illinois and Indiana.

In this study of the life of Michael
Schuck Bebb we realize more clearly
than ever that in the youthful scientists
and in the amateur scientists there is
much of immeasurable value which
should be conserved.

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

17

HORMONE CONTROL OF REPRODUCTION AND SECONDARY
SEXUAL CHARACTERS IN FISHES

C. L. Turner

Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

AN ABSTRACT

There is great diversity in the repro¬
duction, reproductive habits and in the
secondary sexual character of fishes.
The various peculiarities in structure
and function furnish a rich background
for a study of endocrine factors control¬
ling reproduction and the sex accessories.

Sex and sex reversal. Functional pro-
tandric hermaphroditism occurs in some
fishes (Spams) and many groups furnish
instances of non-functional hermaphrodi¬
tism. In Xiphophorus helleri it is re¬
ported that males develop from young
females by sex reversal. In other cases
experiments involving removal of ovaries
have sometimes resulted in regeneration
of a testis. It is indicated that in some
fishes sex is indeterminate, lightly held
and easily reversible. It is not surpris¬
ing, therefore, that gonads are easily
modified. Testosterone propionate ad¬
ministered in appropriate doses has
caused degeneration of the ovary in
Phoxinus and several poeciliid fishes and
estrogenic hormones have produced a
breakdown of the testis or the formation
of an ovotestis.

Relation of pituitary hormones to germ
cell stimulation and to ovulation. Pre¬
cocious maturity has been produced in
young fishes by implanting the pituitaries
of mature fishes in the eye and in other
locations. A similar effect has been ob¬
tained by grinding pituitaries and inject¬
ing them into the peritoneal cavity.
Gonadotropic hormones from mammalian
sources have also been found to be ef¬
fective in producing early maturity in
fishes. In general, a low degree of group
specificity is indicated in the gonado¬
tropic response.

Ovulation occurs in numerous species
of fishes when pituitary extracts, ground
pituitaries or whole glands are injected
or placed in the peritoneal cavities of
fishes of the same species. The pituitary

hormone of one species is often found
to be effective in other species of the
same general group but ineffective when
administered to a species of a widely
separated group. For example, the pitu¬
itaries of teleost fishes have been found
to be ineffective in cyclostomes.

Hypophysectomy when performed upon
a fish undergoing ovulation inhibits com¬
pletion of the process but ovulation is
resumed when pituitary substance is in¬
jected into the hypophysectomised fish.

Secondary sex characters. It is con¬
venient to divide secondary sex char¬
acters of fishes into two groups. The
first includes temporary characters or
structures which appear normally only
during the breeding season. Pearl organs,
nuptial coloration, the mucous glands of
the kidneys of the Stickleback and the
elongated ovipositor of the Bitterling be¬
long to this group. The second group
consists of permanent organs developed
at the onset of sexual maturity and in¬
clude the gonopodia of various fishes in
which internal fertilization occurs.

The appearance of temporary sec¬
ondary sexual characters is inhibited by
castration and it is assumed that the
characters are controlled at least in part
by hormones secreted by the gonads. A
better demonstration of the control of
secondary sexual characters by estro-
genis and androgenic hormones has been
furnished by experimentation on the
gonopodium of poeciliid fishes. It has
been shown that castration inhibits gono-
podial development but development is
resumed if there is testicular regenera¬
tion. A piece of regenerated testis about
one fiftieth the size of a normal mature
testis furnishes sufficient hormone for
the complete development of the gono¬
podium. Smaller amounts of testicular
tissue furnish hormone enough only for
the earlier stages of development. When

18

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

completely castrated males are treated
with an androgenic hormone (ethinyl
testosterone) gonopodial development is
resumed. When females are treated with
ethinyl testosterone the anal fin under¬
goes a metamorphosis and produces a
gonopodium which is atypical but con¬
tains the specific characters of the male
gonopodium. It has been found that a
very dilute solution of the hormone, I mg
of the hormone to 110000 cc of water,
will produce the earliest stages of meta¬
morphosis but that increasingly greater
concentrations are required for the de¬
velopment of each succeeding stage. Re¬

action to the hormone takes place more
rapidly in younger specimens and at
higher temperatures. When development
has ceased because the temperature
level is too low or the concentration of
hormone is below that which is required
further development may be induced
either by raising the temperature or by
increasing the concentration of the hor¬
mone. It is inferred that in the normal
development of the male gonopodium
very small quantities of hormone are
required to initiate development but that
increasing amounts are required for each
succeeding stage.

Illinois Acndemif of Science Transactions

19

PATTERNS OF NEGRO MUSIC

Melville J. Herskovits
Northwestern University. Evanston. III.

The study of musical forms can make
an important contribution to an under¬
standing of the nature of human civiliza¬
tion, its processes of change, and the
historical relationships between various
bodies of custom. That the value of this
contribution has been thus far but little
recognized either by students of human
civilization or by musicologists is not
strange, since each field is sufficiently
broad to demand the entire attention of
specialists. The student of comparative
culture must be prepared to deal with
the habits of peoples whose modes of
behavior differ as widely as do those of
Eskimos and South Sea Islanders, of
Zulus and aboriginal Australians. The
musicologist, also, even though he may
restrict his research to problems in the
field of western European and American
music, must utilize techniques so spe¬
cialized that little time remains to him
for the consideration of materials out¬
side his specialty.

We may thus ask at the outset how
the comparative study of music can con¬
tribute to an understanding of the pro¬
cesses of human civilization; or, con¬
versely, how a knowledge of these pro¬
cesses helps the investigator concerned
with understanding the derivation and
significance of a particular musical style.

To answer the first question, it must
be recognized that music, as a part of
any given body of tradition, can be
studied like any other aspect of custom.
But the peculiar value of studying music
for this purpose is that, even more than
other aspects of culture, its patterns
tend to lodge on the unconscious level.
Especially as regards the processes of
change, it seems to manifest that phe¬
nomenon which, in the field of linguists
has been termed “drift.” This implies
an almost imperceptible, but consistent
and steady change as a result of the
continuous introduction of many small
elements, all of which are in accord with
the underlying structure of the accepted
musical style. The cumulative result is

that this process eventuates in some¬
thing which, though differing from the
earlier form, is still recognizably related
to it.

This process is to be seen, for instance,
in the changes that, over the genera¬
tions, have taken place in style of Eur¬
opean folk music and, in more recent
times, in that of our more sophisticated
musical forms. Each generation, we find,
has had its “modern” music, to be pro¬
tested against by those devoted to an
earlier convention. Yet each new step
toward “modernism” has been shown to
consist of nothing more than the utiliza¬
tion of intervals which represent the next
series of overtones to the combinations
already accepted. The point is that this
process has gone on within the frame¬
work of our polyphonic patterns of music
which emphasize harmony, patterns that
were established when unison singing
gave way to two-part melodies, and later,
in the Middle Ages, much against the
edicts of the Church, the major triad
was completed by the addition of a third
element.

For the musicologist, an understand¬
ing of the wider significance of changes
of this sort in our own culture, and the
variations in tonal and rhythmic pat¬
terns that exist outside our own civili¬
zation, afford a perspective that is not
only useful to any investigator of human
behavior, but in this particular field
materially broadens the basis of his ap¬
proach to his specific concerns. The
very techniques that are employed in
analyzing foreign musical idioms are,
from this point of view, revealing. It
was not until a generation ago that the
musical significance was realized of the
fact that in our society, music is more
intimately related to the playing of in¬
struments of fixed pitch than in any
other. Today the importance of the
piano, with its rigid tonal system, in
conditioning our musical reactions is
recognized as paramount, not only in

20

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

shaping tile way in which we express
ourselves musically, but the way in
which we hear music. It is recognized,
of course, that the particular scale we
employ is a convention arbitrarily se¬
lected from subtly differing tonal values
that have an infinite range; that, for
example, whole tone scales, or penta¬
tonic scales can give material quite as
adequate for the making of musical style
as the chromatic system prevailing in
our music. Yet the fact that within the
limits set by our scale system we regard
true pitch as so important, sets us off
from folk who do not base their music
on mechanically tuned instruments;
among such people, for example, a reac¬
tion of distaste such as the trained mu¬
sician in our culture feels when a singer

the left hand, and a 9/4 in the right —
with a rhythmic consonance every 36
beats, is well-nigh impossible.

For the musician, then, to understand
that the idiom of his own culture is
merely one of an almost infinite variety
is of considerable value; a further under¬
standing of the significance of this fact
in terms of the techniques employed in
recording and analyzing foreign idioms
is equally important. As in all scholarly
research, to attain the greatest precision
and accuracy is essential, and in the
study of a strange music, this can be
achieved only by the use of recording
apparatus. Because of early condition¬
ings, the ear of a person in any culture
is so trained that one who attempts to
study differing styles soon learns that he

Fig. 1. Drummers and dancers in the
market-place of Kano, Nigeria (British West
Africa).

flats a note is, for example, unknown.
A given tone has only a more or less
constant value, and even a quarter-tone
deviation causes no discomfort, if, in¬
deed, it does not go unrecognized.

The comparative musicologist, how¬
ever, will realize that with casual regard
for true pitch may go a far greater sensi¬
tiveness to rhythm than is the case
among ourselves, where in all but the
most sophisticated “modern” composi¬
tions, and in certain forms of dance
music, rhythm is subsidiary, and rarely
falls outside the limits of the 4/4 or 3/4
patterns, or some variant on these. The
difficulties which many persons in our
culture experience in beating out a 5/4
measure is an example of this. For such
persons, to master a simple South Af¬
rican piece on the marimba which re¬
quires the player to follow a 4/4 beat in

Fig. 2. Members of a cooperative society
singing to give rhythm to the hoe-strckes of
those working. Dahomey, French West
Africa.

cannot trust himself to write down the
music he hears, however facile he may
be. Having collected his data on cyl¬
inders or disks, he can, however, later
in his laboratory, with the aid of tuning
fork and metronome, transcribe what
has been brought from the field. Here,
without distraction, he can analyze preva¬
lent scale systems, record the complex¬
ities of rhythm, indicate the extent of
individual variation in singing and.
should he have sound films to work
with, attempt to assess such intangibles
as singing style and motor behavior
while singing.

No body of music can better document
the advantage to be gained, both by the
social scientist and the musicologist,
from research in the field of compara¬
tive musicology, than that of the Negro
peoples of Africa and the New World.

TLerskovits — 1941 Meeting

21

For here are to be found patterns which,
because of the historical relationships
involved, have certain broad similarities
that reflect the contacts between peoples
of Africa and the Negro New World, and
at the same time reflect the local devel¬
opments that have occurred in the vari¬
ous areas involved. Negro Africa, south
of the Sahara, comprehends thousands
of tribes, among all of whom music
plays an important r61e in the daily life
and the ceremonial round. The Negro
slaves who were brought to the New
World, deriving principally from West
Africa and the Congo, brought their
music with them, not only to the United
States, but to the Caribbean Islands,
Central America and the northern tier of
South American countries, the Guianas,
and Brazil. And in all these areas Negro
music to some extent reflects this Af¬
rican background. In essence, this forms
the fundamental basis for the overlay
of European characteristics which, dif¬
fering in terms of the contacts of these
people with Spanish or Brazilian or
French or Dutch or English musical
styles, and the intensity of these con¬
tacts, gives to the musical expression
of each local group its special flavor.

The principal characteristics which
mark off the underlying pattern of Negro
music may be broadly described. The
convention whereby the statement of a
theme by a leader is repeated by a
chorus, or a choral phrase is balanced as
a refrain against a longer melodic line
sung by the soloist, is universal. This has
been commented on by all who have
heard Negroes sing in Africa or else¬
where, and is to be found in spirituals
and work songs in the United States as
well as in various kinds of melodies
heard in the West Indies and South
America. An intimate and often intricate
relationship between the melody and its
accompanying rhythm — carried on by
drums, rattles, sticks beaten one against
the other, hand-clapping or short non¬
musical cries — is also ubiquitous. So
prominent is the element of rhythm in
Negro music that this music is ordinarily
conceived as relegating its melodic line
to second place, though this concept has
only partial validity. For as is demon¬
strated by the songs sung by choruses of
chiefs' wives in Dahomey, West Africa,
on the occasion of rites for the royal

ancestral cult, or by some of the Shango
cult songs from Trinidad, British West
Indies, or by some of the Brazilian Negro
melodies, a long and complex melodic
line is by no means unknown in Negro
songs. Yet the need to ornament an
underlying rhythmic structure is funda¬
mental, and when Negro music as a
whole is considered, this trait must re¬
ceive close attention.

The phonograph records played in con¬
nection with this discussion in illustrat¬
ing the characteristics of Negro men¬
tioned above, and documenting the unity
of Negro musical style, bear out the
theoretical and methodological points
with which this discussion opened. It
is evident, when these melodies and
rhythms from South Africa, from the
Congo and West Africa, from Brazil,
Trinidad, and Haiti, are heard, that the
derivation of the music sung and played
by the Negroes of this country will be¬
come apparent. At the same time, when
the differences between the musical style
of these various areas are noted, it will
be remarked how these various musical
conventions, regarded as cultural pat-
ternings, throw light on what has hap¬
pened to aboriginal Negro musical en¬
dowment in contact with various Eur¬
opean cultures. The Brazilian songs, it
will be noticed, show a strong Iberian
overlay, through which African stylistic
values manifest themselves in terms of
the complex rhythms of the percussion
instruments, and in the prevalence of the
leader-and-chorus convention. It will be
noticed in the Trinidad recording of
“Jesus, Lover of My Soul” how, using
a “Sankey” — a Sankey and Moody hymn
— the thematic material has been so re¬
worked in terms of African conventions
that they finally take a form far re¬
moved from the slow stately measures
of the original — a form, indeed, that is
essentially the form of the “swing”
rhythms that United States Negroes
have introduced into the secular dance
melodies popular today among all groups
in this country.

These records are the following; un¬
fortunately, here only tribe or area rep¬
resented, type of song, title, and in the
case of commercial discs, the company
manufacturing the record, and its num¬
ber, can be given:

99

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

Africa

South Africa

1. Zulu: Nkonto Ka Tshaka ( Gallo (Pty.) Ltd., Johannesburg.

2. Zulu: Malombo { South Africa, No. G. E. 86

Congo

3. Bahutu: Chant and Dance

4. Babira: Songs

5. Manbetu: Songs

6. Congo Dialect Song: Iduba

Denis-Roosevelt Expedition, No. 10.
Reeves Studios, Inc., New York City
Same, No. 2

Same, No. 1

British Zonophone Co., London.
No. E. Z. 439

West Africa

7. Yoruba: Igi Da Pa Ele Po

8. Yoruba: Oyibo Sewun Ti Oto

9. Yoruba: Tani Nawa Oni Baba

10. Fanti: Kwesi Kadagyi

11. Fanti: Nsamo Pom

Zonophone No. E. Z. 305
Zonophone No. E. Z. 549
Zonophone No. E. Z. 426
Zonophone No. E. Z. 560
Zonophone No. E. Z. 475

New World

Brazil

12. Macumba: No Fundo Do Mar |

13. Macumba: Caboclo do Matto )

14. Batuque: Babao Miloque

15. Jongo: Sao Benedicto e Oro S6

Victor (Brazil) No. 34158

Victor (Brazil) No. 33253-A
Victor (Brazil) No. 33380-A

Haiti

16.

17.

18.
19.

Vodun song:
Vodun song:
Vodun song:
Vodun song:

Ibo Lele

Joue Kanga Joue
Moundongue ye ye
Ciye Ciye ’ti
Bobine Carre

( General Records, New York,

| No. 5001

General Records, No. 5002 B
General Records, No. 5003 B

T rinidad

(Note: All Trinidad recordings were made in the field by M. J. Herskovits,
during the Northwestern University Expedition of 1939.)

20.

Bele song: Me no well-o

No.

65

b

21.

Bele song: Chamber po’, Chamber po’ Lady

No.

31

a

22.

Bongo song: Killin’ Peter Agent

No.

70

a

23.

Bongo song: Dolaido

No.

79

a

24.

Bongo song: I wan’ a Pretty Woman

No.

47

b

25.

Spiritual: Our Father |

No.

31

26.

Spiritual: ’Rasslin’ Jacob \

27.

Baptist Shout: Jesus, Lover of My Soul

No.

58

b

28.

Shango cult song: Yemanja

No.

96

b

29.

Shango cult song for Osho: Menia, Menia

No.

97

a

30.

Shango cult song: Adjadja-e

No.

98

a

Herskovits - — 1941 Meeting

23

This music has considerable point for
the current controversy as to the deriva¬
tions of American Negro songs, particu¬
larly the spirituals. The discussion of
this matter goes back to about thirty
years ago, when H. E. Krebhiel pub¬
lished his volume “Afro-American Folk
Songs,” in which he attempted to show
that the spirituals were essentially Af¬
rican. His hypothesis was generally ac¬
cepted, until a re-examination by various
students some ten or fifteen years ago
noted striking similarities between the
spirituals, and hymns — in some cases
what may be called folk hymns — of the
white people of this country, in both
melodies and words. Since then, scholars
have tended to align themselves on one
side or the other, though, curiously
enough, in no case has anyone who has
written on the matter had any large
acquaintance with African music, even,
indeed, as large an acquaintance as
would be gained by hearing the series of
records played in connection with the
presentation of this paper.

To a person acquainted with the range
of local style included in such a collec¬
tion as is represented in the records
listed above, this discussion must seem
pointless, and somewhat unrealistic. For
one thing, the problem of origins goes
beyond the spirituals, involving also the
roots from which such other forms of
Negro music as work-songs, songs of
recrimination, “blues” and other dance
forms have been derived. As far as the
spirituals are concerned, a realistic ap¬
proach would seem to indicate a con¬
clusion that their present form repre¬
sents responses on the part of Negroes
both to the music of the Whites heard
by them in this country, and a rework¬
ing of this material in terms of the
aboriginal stylistic patterns of their an¬
cestral African forms. In stating this,
the renderings of the spirituals written
for concert presentation are not meant,
for though they may be beautiful, they
are nonetheless artificial versions, trans¬
lated into current majority patterns of
music. The living spirituals, sung by
devotees affiliated with groups whose
worship is outside the commonly ac¬
cepted conventions of American relig¬
ious behavior, sung in lowly Negro
churches, in places of worship such as
are colloquially known as store-front
churches, and the like, are quite differ¬

ent. For in these humbler gatherings,
the “swing” element, so important in
secular Negro song, also predominates
in the sacred songs, and the synthesis
of both African and European elements
is plainly to be discerned. Jazz and
swing are rarely taken into account in
discussions of the derivations of Negro
music. Yet it is not an accident that
the exponents of these musical styles
who are most effective in their presenta¬
tions are Negroes. The importance of
rhythm in this dance music, the im¬
provisation that characterizes its play¬
ing, the repetition of thematic material
are all distinctly African. It is more
than chance that this music is so closely
associated with the dance, for the rela¬
tionship of song and rhythm to dance
in Africa and Negro America is funda¬
mental.

In considering some of the problems
present in the study of Negro music,
therefore, it has been indicated how ad¬
vantageously certain controversial issues
can be approached through the use of
these materials. In the case of a ques¬
tion which is of great importance for
this country at the present time, that of
the derivations of Negro custom in gen¬
eral and the carry-over of Africanisms
in all aspects of Negro behavior, it has
been shown how an approach of this
kind affords definite data that throw
light on the mechanisms which can then
be considered in terms of their applic¬
ability to the change in other aspects
of custom resulting from the contact of
Whites and Negroes. From the larger
point of view, also, it is to be seen how
the study of comparative musicology
makes for an understanding of the fact
that the musical style of our own cul¬
ture is but one of an infinite number of
possible varieties of musical expression,
and that the student who approaches our
music with this fact in mind will find
new values in it which arise from a
deeper realization of its significance as
a part of the musical resources of hu¬
manity as a whole. Finally, as concerns
the student of society, it is apparent
that music, objectively recorded and com¬
petently analyzed, can offer effective
guides to an understanding of the mech¬
anisms of cultural change, and of the
historic relationship between cultures as
they exist over the earth at the present
day.

24

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

A SUMMARY OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ENDOCRINE
MECHANISMS IN CRUSTACEANS*

Frank A. Brown, Jr.

Northwestern University , Evanston, Illinois

Definite demonstration of the presence
of an endocrine mechanism in inverte¬
brates is of quite recent origin, extend¬
ing back not more than about fifteen
years. Biologists have, nevertheless, sus¬
pected for several decades that such
mechanisms existed among these lower
animals. When one considered the fact
that almost every basic physiological
mechanism found in the Vertebrata ap¬
peared to have its counterpart some¬
where among the Invertebrata it was
not unreasonable to presume that hor¬
monal coordinatory mechanisms were
operative there just as in the Vertebrata.
Many problems in invertebrate physi¬
ology which remained quite refractory
to solution solely in terms of nervous
coordination recently have yielded much
ground in terms of endocrine coordina¬
tion. A number of general reviews of
the subject have been prepared, namely
Roller, 1929, Hanstrom, 1937a, von der
Wense, 1937, Roller, 1938, Lelu, 1938.
Hanstrom, 1939, and others are in prepar¬
ation.

The first invertebrate group to pro¬
vide unequivocal evidence for the pos¬
session of an endocrine mechanism was
the Crustacea (Perkins, 1928). And to¬
day we probably have as large a body
of information concerning crustacean
endocrine physiology as we have for
any other invertebrate group, with the
possible exception of the Insecta. Even
in these best known groups, however,
our knowledge is still very rudimentary
and sketchy. One who is primarily fa¬
miliar with the relatively refined and
detailed state of the field of mammalian
endocrinology must look with patience
and understanding upon this new field
which is only now concerned with the
rough determination of hormonally con¬
trolled processes, and the sources of the
hormones, involved. Furthermore, the in¬
vestigation of invertebrate endocrinol¬
ogy is rendered somewhat difficult by

the small size of most of the animals
which must be investigated and also due
to the general phylogenetic tendency to¬
ward decrease in structural differentia¬
tion and segregation of organs or parts
of organs concerned with specific func¬
tions. This last tendency, of couse, cul¬
minates in the Protozoa whose total
structural bases of functions are confined
within the limits of a single cell mem¬
brane.

It is obviously impossible within the
twenty minutes allotted for this report
to cover even in outline the whole of
our knowledge of invertebrate hormonal
mechanisms. The literature includes
more than 1000 articles. Nor is there
even time to discuss adequately the ex¬
perimental evidence upon which our
knowledge of a single endocrine gland
(i. e. the insect corpora allata or crus¬
tacean sinus gland) is based. Instead, a
middle pathway has been selected in
which there will be an attempt to pre¬
sent a brief and summary account of
our present picture of crustacean endo-
crines, their sources, and the functions
which have been assigned to them. It is
hoped that too much has not been at¬
tempted.

The Eyestalks and the Sinus Glands. —

For many years it has been known that
many higher crustaceans macroscopically
blanch or darken their integument to
correspond with the shade of the back¬
ground upon which they come to lie.
These color changes are principally the
result of migrations of differently col¬
ored pigments within the bodies of
highly branched integumentary cells
called chromatophores. Any pigment
which is dispersed into the branches and
ultimate twigs of a chromatophore im¬
parts its color to the general appear¬
ance of the animal; conversely, any pig¬
ment which is concentrated into a min¬
ute knot in the chromatophore center
has little or no influence upon the gross

♦Contributed by the author, on invitation, to the Symposium on Endocrinology held in the
Zoology section meetings of the Academy at Evanston, Ill., May 3, 1941.

Brown — 1941 Meeting

25

coloration. By appropriate differential
migrations of pigments of several colors
a number of crustaceans may simulate
more or less perfectly the tints of vari¬
ously colored backgrounds. Many oper¬
ative techniques involving cutting of
nerves and consequent denervation of
areas of the body of crustaceans have
failed to interfere with the normal re¬
sponses of the chromatophores con¬
cerned. Thus there is evidently no direct
nervous control of these cells. Roller
(1925, 1927) gave us evidence from blood
transfusions that a blood-borne agent
was responsible for certain of these
chromatophore responses in the shrimp,
Crago. Shortly thereafter, Perkins (1928)
discovered that water extracts of the
eyestalks of the shrimp, Palaemonetes,
possessed the ability to concentrate dis¬
persed red pigment strongly, thus blanch¬
ing this animal. Extract of no other part
of the body appeared to do this. Roller
(1928) confirmed the presence in the eye-
stalks of Crago and of Leander of such
a chromatophorotropic substance which
produced strong concentration of their
dark pigments. Roller further demon¬
strated that the eyestalk substance was
not species-specific, but that eyestalk
extract of Leander was effective upon
Crago chromatophores and Crago eye¬
stalk extract was effective upon Leander
chromatophores.

During the following few years Rropp
and Perkins (1933) tested many stalk¬
eyed crustaceans and discovered that all
possessed such a substance in their eye-
stalks. Therefore this eyetalk substance
which effected blanching of dark shrimp
was of quite general occurrence.

In 1935 Carlson, and later in the same
year Abramowitz, showed us that, con¬
trary to the condition obtaining in
shrimp, eyestalk extract of crustaceans
produced dispersion of concentrated black
pigment in the crabs, Uca and Portunus.

Meanwhile, Brown (1935b) had been
examining in much detail the structure
and responses of the chromatophore sys¬
tem of the shrimp, Palaemonetes. After
learning that this animal possessed four
pigmentary types (red, yellow, white
and blue), all of which were able to
react relatively independently of one
another (even in a denervated area)
when the animal was placed upon back¬
grounds, he concluded that the existence
of at least four hormones was indicated

to account for this complex behavior.
This conclusion was unnecessary, as has
been pointed out by Parker (1940), since
three hormones, A, B and C, can be
seen to yield seven combinations which
could conceivably have as many quali¬
tatively different actions on the chrom¬
atophore system. As a matter of fact,
the absence of all three would provide
an eighth possibility.

Abramowitz (1937a) believed that all
of the responses of the chromatophore
systems which had been described might
be explained in terms of one principle
which he called ESH (eyestalk hormone).
He believed that differences in the ef¬
fectors together with differing threshold
responses would account for the com¬
plicated responses of the chromatophore
systems. This theory he called the
“unitary theory” in contrast to the “mul¬
tiple theory” proposed by Brown. How¬
ever, even on the basis of his own
theory, Abramowitz failed to explain sat¬
isfactorily the complex behavior found in
Palaemonetes (Brown, 1934-1935a) or
Portunus (Abramowitz, 1935). Despite
this, Abramowitz continued to uphold
the theory that a single hormone was
present in the eyestalk, and subsequently
set about assaying and attempting to
purify it (Abramowitz, 1937b).

Hanstrom (1933, 1934) had earlier de¬
scribed two gland-like bodies in the eye¬
stalk of crustaceans, the blood gland
and the X-organ (Dohrn, 1906). In 1935,
by dividing eyestalks of various crus¬
taceans transversely into thirds, he
found a correlation between that third
possessing the blood gland (later called
the sinus gland) and that possessing the
chromatophorotropic activity. He con¬
cluded upon this circumstantial evidence
that the sinus gland was the source of
the principle. This conclusion was con¬
firmed by Brown (1940) who made ex¬
tracts of isolated sinus glands and com¬
pared their activity both quantitatively
and qualitatively with extracts of both
whole and sinus glandless stalks. The
sinus gland appeared to be the only
eyestalk gland concerned in the reac¬
tions examined.

A year following the discovery of the
chromatophorotropic activity of the eye¬
stalk, Roller (1930) brought forth evi¬
dence that the eyestalk hormone was
concerned with calcium metabolism in
Crago, since eyestalkless animals pos-

26

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

sessed less calcium in their molted exo¬
skeletons than did normal ones.

Another function ascribed to an endo¬
crine originating in the eyestalks is the
control of retinal pigment migration.
The retinal pigments are located within
the ommatidial complex and are typic¬
ally classifiable into three groups: (1) the
proximal retinal pigment, (2) the distal
retinal pigment, which are light-absorb¬
ing melanins, and (3) the white reflecting
pigment, guanin. These three pigments
assume different positions in the com¬
pound eye in light and in darkness. In
many crustaceans these pigments con¬
tinue to show rhythmical diurnal move¬
ments even when maintained under con¬
stant conditions of light. Kleinholz
(1936) brought forth clear evidence for
endocrine control of certain of these pig¬
ments. Injection of eyestalk extract into
a dark-adapted Palaeomonetes caused the
distal retinal absorbing pigment and the
white-reflecting pigment to assume the
condition for light adaptation. The prox¬
imal retinal pigment, curiously enough,
was unaffected. In 1938 Kleinholz con¬
cluded as did Hanstrom (1937b) that the
hormone involved in this capacity must
be different from those involved in in¬
tegumentary pigment control since the
retinal pigment activity was apparently
quite independent of that of the integu¬
mentary chromatophores.

Welsh (1937) believed he had evidence
that a principle originating in the eye-
stalk produced acceleration of heart rate
in Cambarus, but during the following
year performed other experiments which
suggested that the effect was due to
acetylcholine which could be extracted
from crustacean nerve tissue quite gen¬
erally. Scudamore (1941) however, pre¬
sents evidence to prove that the sinus
gland produces a principle which accel¬
erates heart rate in the normal animal.

Another line of research has led to
the conclusion that a hormone arising
in the eyestalk is concerned with the
control of molt and consequently is a
factor influencing growth. Brown and
Cunningham (1939) were able to accel¬
erate molting rate by eyestalk extirpa¬
tion and conversely were able to com¬
pensate partially for the effect of eye¬
stalk removal by implanting sinus glands
into the abdomens of the eyestalkless
animals. Confirmation of molt accelera¬
tion following eyestalkeetomy was ob¬

tained by Smith (1940), Abramowitz and
Abramowitz (1940), and by Kleinholz
(1940). Abramowitz and Abramowitz also
showed a growth rate greater than nor¬
mal. Unfortunately none of these later
workers attempted implantation of eye¬
stalk tissue, or extract injections, to de¬
termine whether the effects were actu¬
ally the result of a hormone deficiency.

Brown (1938), Brown and Cunningham
(1939) and Smith (1940) reported greatly
decreased viability of Cambarus follow¬
ing eyestalk removal. The reason for
this effect is still far from clear.

Finally, of the many functions ascribed
to an eyestalk hormone, we might men¬
tion the control of blood sugar concen¬
tration (Welsh, 1941). Injection of eye¬
stalk extract results in a sudden modi¬
fication in blood sugar.

With all of the more or less well dem¬
onstrated functions of hormones arising
in the eyestalks of crustaceans it appears
highly improbable that we are dealing
here with a simple gland secreting a
single principle. This is particularly
evident when we recall, for instance,
the demonstrated relative independence
of the four pigments of Palaemonetes in
normal color change, and the independent
behavior of the retinal pigments with
respect to the integumentary pigments.
It appears far more likely that a number
of hormones are present.

The first successful attempt to demon¬
strate more than one active fraction from
sinus gland was made by Brown and
Scudamore (1940). They found that
when dried sinus glands were extracted
with 100 per cent ethyl alcohol a frac¬
tion entered the alcohol which showed
qualitatively different chromatophoro-
tropic properties from the fraction which
was alcohol insoluble. Whereas extract
of whole sinus gland strongly concen¬
trated red pigment of Palaemonetes and
strongly dispersed black pigment of Uca,
the alcohol soluble fraction had almost
no effect upon Uca black pigment while
it had a strong effect upon Palaemonetes
red. On the other hand, the alcohol in¬
soluble fraction had a very strong dis¬
persing action on Uca black but had a
relatively weaker effect upon Palaemon¬
etes red. Thus these results obviously
could not be explained in terms of dif¬
ferent concentrations of a single sub¬
stance in the two fractions. A number of
crabs and shrimp were examined and all

Brown — 1941 Meeting

27

showed the presence of these two prin¬
ciples in varying proportions.

Central Nervous Organs. — It gradually
became evident to certain of those work¬
ing with crustacean chromatophores that
the eyestalk was not the sole source of
chromatophorotropic hormones. Eye-
stalkless animals showed chromatophore
fluctuations and responses which could
not be explained in other terms than
variations in the concentrations of con¬
trolling hormones in the blood of these
eyestalkless forms. Heterologous stimu¬
lation of the eyestubs of eyestalkless
forms resulted in definite though transi¬
tory chromatophore responses by way
of blood-borne agents. Brown (1933,
1935b) and Hosoi (1934) discovered that
extracts of the nervous system of cer¬
tain shrimp possessed chromatophoro¬
tropic activities. Kleinholz (1936) and
Abramowitz (1937a) believed these ef¬
fects were probably due to storage of an
eyestalk principle in the central nervous
organs. This explanation is quite un¬
tenable especially since the properties
of this principle or complex of prin-
ciles has been shown to be unlike eye¬
stalk extract, even affecting certain
chromatophores, the guanophores, in
quite the reverse manner.

It appears highly likely that certain
diurnal chromatophore changes which
are known to occur in eyestalkless Uca
and Cambarus result from a periodic
liberation of such a principle from the
nervous system.

The Rostral Organ (Schwarz-Organ).

— Roller (1928), after confirming the
discovery of Perkins that the eyestalks
yielded an extract which would produce
rapid blanching of the shrimp, reported
that an antagonistic substance originated
in the rostral region of Crago. Injection
of extract of this region resulted in a
darkening of the shrimps. The source
of this hormone Roller named the
“Schwarz-organ”. With the exception of
Beauvallet and Veil (1934) no one has
been able to confirm the presence of
such a rostral organ in shrimp, even in
Crago. The matter appeared conclusive¬
ly settled by the work of Kleinholz
(1938) who carefully reinvestigated
Crago obtained at the same place as
Roller’s animals. Kleinholz found no
evidence for a schwarz-organ.

Commissural Ganglia. — The shrimp,
Crago, possesses a very complex pig¬

mentary system containing at least eight
physiologically or morphologically dif¬
ferent pigmentary types (Brown and
Wulff, 1941). Despite the fact that this
shrimp had been one of those most fre¬
quently investigated, yet there seemed
to exist a very inadequate picture of the
mechanism of pigmentary control. Dur¬
ing the summer of 1939, Brown and
Ederstrom (1940) reinvestigated this
species. The investigation was com¬
menced since the apparent final elimina¬
tion of the “schwarz-organ” by Kleinholz
left certain responses of eyestalkless ani¬
mals (Brown, 1939) quite without ex¬
planation. If the “schwarz-organ” of
Roller was non-existent then another
source of a pigment dispersing agent
seemed essential to explaining certain
observations. Brown and Ederstrom
noticed that within an hour after the
removal of the eyestalks of Crago the
telson and uropods become completely
blanched and normally remain so. Stim¬
ulation of the eyestubs or other harsh
stimulation resulted in a rapid darken¬
ing of the “tail”; this darkening per¬
sisted for one half to one hour and then
disappeared. This was demonstrated to
result from the activity of a blood-borne
agent. A thorough siurvey of body tis¬
sues finally resulted in localizing the
source of the hormone involved in the
ganglia upon the circumoesophageal com¬
missures. This principle was shown to
be present in greater quantity in the
commissures of white adapted animals
than of black adapted ones. Thus it was
demonstrated to be concerned with nor¬
mal color changes in this animal.

Further investigation of the control of
Crago chromatophores by Brown and
Wulff (1941) led to the clear conclusion
that in Crago the commissural ganglia
are apparently as important in the hor¬
monally controlled color changes of this
form as are the much more publicized
sinus glands. A number of pigments
within the integumentary chromato¬
phores are affected in opposite directions
by extracts from the two sources. Other
pigments are affected in the same direc¬
tion by the two, but to differing degrees.

Evidence has been obtained demon¬
strating that the commissural ganglia
contain more than a single chromato¬
phorotropic principle. Ethyl alcohol ex¬
tracts of the ganglia yield a fraction
which is very active in blanching the

28

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

trunk of Crago. The “tail-darkening’’
principle of the ganglia is alcohol in¬
soluble and remains in the residue after
brief alcohol extraction. The alcohol
soluble fraction appears at the present
time to be similar to the principle which
is found in all of the central nervous
organs of Crustacea.

It is interesting, from the comparative
standpoint, that the “Crago-tail-darkening
principle” has been found in the commis¬
sural ganglia of the other shrimp hut
not of the crabs examined. Furthermore,
a sinus gland principle which antagon¬
izes the action of the commissural gan¬
glia in tail darkening is found in the
sinus glands of the shrimps but not of
the crabs examined. This appears to be
one of the first bits of evidence (see
also Kleinholz, 1936) that the endocrine
complex is not uniform throughout even
the decapod crustaceans.

The Gonads. — Despite the fact that the
earliest suspected endocrine activity
within crustaceans was probably respect¬
ing a hormone influencing the develop¬
ment and maintenance of certain sec¬
ondary sexual characteristics, yet this is
still today not adequately established.
The early suspicions were based upon
many observations that when a male
crab was castrated through parasitiza-
tion by a rhizocephalan such as Saccu-
lina there was a strong tendency for the
animal to take on the external charac¬
teristics of the female sex. One of the
more popular of the interpretations of
this phenomenon was that the animal, as
a result of the castration, was deprived
of the source of a male sex hormone.
These results may, however, be equally
well interpreted in terms of modification
of the general metabolism, or of specific
metabolic processes by the activities of
the parasite. These modifications might
secondarily influence the secondary sex¬
ual characteristics.

Somewhat better evidence for the
hormonal activities of crustacean gonads
has come from such experiments as
those of Haemmerli-Boveri (1926) work¬
ing with Asellus and Callan (1940) work¬
ing with Leander. These authors report
that destruction of the ovaries by X-
radiation results in failure of develop¬
ment in the case of certain female ex¬
ternal characteristics concerned with
incubation of the developing eggs.

The sum of all the innumerable re¬
ports on the subject of determination of

the secondary sex characteristics in
Crustacea leaves one with the general
impression that sex hormones are actu¬
ally operative, but with little further-
idea, as to the exact site of their forma¬
tion or the extent of their action.

Definite demonstration of the presence
of hormones concerned with the develop¬
ment of secondary and accessory sexual
characteristics in crustaceans must be
dependent upon the results of surgical
removal of the hormone source and upon
the results of effects of extracts or im¬
plants of this tissue source.

LITERATURE CITED

Abramowitz, A. A., 1935, Proc. Nat. Acad.
Sci. Washington, 21 :667-681 ; 1937a, Jour. EXp.
Zool., 76 : 407-422 ; 1937b, Biol. Bull., 72 :
344-365.

Abramowitz, R. K., and A. A. Abramowitz,
1940, Biol. Bull., 78 :179-188.

Beauvallet, M., and C. Veil, 1934, C. R. Soc.
Biol. Paris, 128 :635-636.

Brown, P. A., Jr., 1933, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
Washington, 19 :327-329 ; 1934 ; Biol. Bull., 67 .
365-380 ; 1935a, Jour. Morph., 57 :317-333 :

1935b, Jour. Elxp. Zool., 71:1-15: 1938, Proc.
Nat. Acad. Sci. Washington, 24 :551-555 ; 1939,
Amer. Nat., 73 :247-255 ; 1940, Physiol. Zool..
13 :343-355.

Brown, P. A., Jr., and O. Cunningham, 1939,
Biol. Bull., 77:104-114.

Brown, F. A., Jr., and H. E. Ederstrom, 1940,
Jour. Exp. Zool., 85 :53-69.

Brown, F. A., Jr., and H. H. Scudamore, 1940,
Jour. Cell, and Comp. Physiol., 15 :103-119.

Brown, F. A., Jr., and V. J. Wulff, 1941, Bull.
Mt. Desert. Isl. Biol. Lab., January : 27-29.

Callan, H. G., 1940, Jour. Exp. Biol., 17 :168-
179.

Carlson, S. Ph., 1935, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
Washington, 21 :549-551.

Dohrn, R., 1906, Zool. Anz., 29 :347-352.
Haemmerli-Boveri, V., 1926, Zeitschr. vergl.
Physiol., 4:668-698.

Hanstrom, B., 1933, Zool. Jahrb., Abt. Anat.
u. Ontog. Tiere, 56 :387-529 ; 1934a, Zool. Jahrb..
Abt. Anat. u. Ontog. Tiere, 58 :101-144 ; 1934b,
Psych. Neurol. Blad. (1934) ;1-14 : 1935, Proc.
Nat. Acad. Sci. Washington, 21 :584-585 ; 1937a,
Ergeb. Biol., 14 :143-224 ; 1937b, Kungl. Svenska
Vetenskap. Handl., 16(3) : 99 pp. ; 1939, Oxford
University Press.

Hosoi, T., 1934, Jour. Fac. Sci. Imp. Univ.
Tokyo, 3:265-270.

Kleinholz, L. H., 1936, Biol. Bull., 70 :159-184 ;
1938, Biol. Bull., 75 :510-532 ; 1940, Anat. Rec.,
78 :Suppl. 70-71.

Koller, G., 1925, Verh. deutsch, zool. Gesell.,
30 :128-132 ; 1927, Zietschr. vergl. Physiol., 5 :
191-246 : 1928, Zeitschr. vergl. Physiol., 8 :601-
612 : 1929, Biol. Rev., 4 :269-306 ; 1930, Zeitschr.
vergl. Physiol., 12 :632-667 ; 1938, Akad. Verlags.,
Leipzig.

Kropp, B., and E. B. Perkins, 1933, Biol. Bull.,
64 :28-32.

Lelu, P., 1938, Gauthier-Villars, Paris.

Parker, G. H., 1940, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts
and Sci., 73 :165-195.

Perkins, B. B., 1928, Jour. Exp. Zool., 50 :
71-103.

Scudamore, II. II., 1941, In press.

Smith, R. I., 1940, Biol. Bull., 79 :145-152.
Welsh, J. H., 1937, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
Washington, 23 :458-460 ; 1941, Jour. Exp. Zool..
86 :35-49.

Wense, T. von der, 1938, Johann Ambrosius
Barth, Leipzig.

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

29

THE ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS OF THE MAMMALIAN

OVARY*

C. Donnell Turner

Northiuestern University, Evanston, Illinois

The complete expression of sexuality
in the female involves the secretion of
female sex hormones, ovulation, copula¬
tion and the birth of young. The internal
secretions of the ovary regulate the sex
accessories, the secondary sex char¬
acters and the mating reactions. Numer¬
ous factors in the external environment
are known to influence the cyclicity of
the female tract and it is probable that
most of these effects are mediated by
means of neuro-endocrine mechanisms.
Not all of the genetic, endocrine, neural
and nutritional phenomena involved in
the control of ovarian functions have
been elucidated, though substantial prog¬
ress has been made in this direction dur¬
ing the last few decades. In natural
environments there is a basic tendency
for females to permit copulations only
during recurrent periods when the best
opportunities prevail in the female tract
for the union of spermatozoa and eggs
and for the differentiation of the zygotes.

In newborn mammals a large number
of primary follicles are identifiable in
the ovaries and, in certain species at
least, there is evidence that this number
is augmented by proliferations from the
germinal epithelium during postnatal
life. Only a small proportion of the
original follicles ever complete their dif¬
ferentiation, the majority of them under¬
going atresia without ovulating. As the
individual approaches pubescence, cer¬
tain of the ovarian follicles increase
greatly in size and rupture in order to
free their ova. The periodic release of
eggs from the ovary is termed ovulation.

After ovulation the collapsed wall of
the follicle undergoes rapid structural
changes. The cells of the granulosa and,
in most species, the cells of the theca
interna enlarge, become fat-laden and
highly vascularized, thus forming a com¬
pact body called the corpus luteum. If
impregnation ensues, the corpus grows
and persists functionally until near the

end of gestation. In the absence of fer¬
tilization it persists for a shorter period
which varies according to the species.
The primary function of the graafian fol¬
licle is the nourishment and discharge
of the ovum, but it is also associated
with an incretory function. The corpus
luteum seems to be entirely incretory
and its secretion is distinct from that of
the graafian follicle.

I. OVULATION

Ovulation is a complicated process in¬
volving both hormonic and nervous
mechanisms. Only within recent years
has experimental evidence made pos¬
sible a satisfactory explanation of this
phenomenon. Morphological studies in¬
dicate that the graafian follicle enlarges
appreciably during proestrus and early
estrus. Extensive mitoses occur in the
follicular walls and the secretion of
liquor folliculi distends the antrum. The
cumulus oophorus loosens and frees
the ovum and its surrounding corona
radiata. The tissue between the graafian
follicle and the surface of the ovary
thins out somewhat and an avascular
area, the stigma, appears on the surface
of the follicle. As the pressure within
the antrum increases, the whole avascu¬
lar area is caused to bulge. The weakest
point on the avascular area bulges still
further, producing a nipple or cone which
finally ruptures. Slight hemorrhage into
the antrum may precede rupture of the
follicle. Direct observations indicate that
rupture of the follicle is a non-explosive
process somewhat similar to the break¬
ing of an abscess. A small jet of thin
liquor folliculi first spurts from the burst
follicle but the remainder of the fluid is
more viscous and leaves the follicle
more slowly. Ovulation in the mammal
requires less than a minute, whereas in
the frog the release of an egg from the
ovary occupies a period of from four to
ten minutes.

♦Contributed by the author, on invitation, to the Symposium on Endocrinology in the Zoology
section of the Academy meetings May 3, 1941, at Evanston, Illinois.

30

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

In the past there have been many un¬
successful attempts to explain ovulation
on the basis of local changes in the
graafian follicle and the adjacent wall
of the ovary. Most of the earlier views
held that ovulation resulted from in¬
creased intra-folliciulafr pressure, sup¬
posedly brought about in various ways,
or from the enzymatic dissolution of the
follicular wall. While both of these may
be important auxiliary factors, they are
for the most part incidental. The mod¬
ern view is that ovulation is a differ-
entiational phenomenon which is initi¬
ated by the gonadotropic hormones of
ilie anterior lobe of the hypophysis cere¬
bri. During the past few years the fol¬
lowing pertinent points have been estab¬
lished:

1. The administration of purified FSH
produces huge cystic follicles which do
not ovulate. Thus ovulation cannot be
explained on the basis of increased secre¬
tion of liquor folliculi and a consequent
elevation of pressure within the antrum.

2. Hypophysectomy prevents pre-ovu¬
latory swelling and rupture of the
graafian follicle.

3. Ovulation can be induced in a
variety of vertebrates by the administra¬
tion of a proper mixture of FSH and LH.
A correct ratio between FSH and LH
seems to be absolutely essential for the
full expression of the ovarian follicle.
While ovulation in the rabbit is condi¬
tioned normally by cervical stimulation,
it may be induced in normal or hypo-
physectomized subjects in the absence
of sexual excitement by the administra¬
tion of both FSH and LH. This seems
to justify the assumption that ovulation
is a growth phenomenon which occurs
only in the presence of the proper an¬
terior lobe principles.

4. Ovulation is not dependent upon
the nerve supply to the ovaries. Normal
ovulation may occur in ovarian grafts
and in intact ovaries deprived of all
nervous connections when the proper
hypophyseal hormones are present.

5. The release of the ovulatory hor¬
mones from the anterior pituitary is al¬
most certainly regulated by means of
nervous pathways. Rabbits continue to
copulate after surgical section of the
infundibular stalk but ovulation does not
occur in these animals. Under these
conditions ovulations can be induced by
the administration of FSH and LH. In

normal estrous rabbits ovulation may be
induced by electrical stimulation of a
certain area in the pre-optic region of
the brain, but this becomes impossible
after section of the infundibular stalk.
An increasing amount of evidence jus¬
tifies the assumption that the secretion
and/or release of ovulatory principles
from the anterior hypophysis is con¬
trolled by nerve fibers which extend to
it from the hypothalamic region of the
brain stem.

The continued removal of eggs from
the nests of certain birds may prolong
the period of egg-laying very appreciably.
In the light of what is known about ovu¬
lation in other vertebrates, one might
suppose that this response is affected by
means of a neural mechanism which pro¬
longs the release of gonadotropins by
the hypophysis rather than by a direct
nervous stimulation of the ovaries. Endo¬
crinologists are just beginning to ap¬
preciate the possibility that stimuli orig¬
inating in the central nervous system
may profoundly modify the functional
states of endocrine glands.

II. THE OVARIAN HORMONES

A. The estrogenic hormone of the
graafian follicle. — The first experiments
leading to the identification of the ovar¬
ian hormones were attempts to prevent
castration atrophy in the female by
means of transplanting ovarian tissue.
Near the turn of the present century,
several investigators demonstrated that
castrate atrophy of the uterus could be
prevented by incorporated ovarian grafts.
These first experiments demonstrated
clearly that the atrophic changes follow¬
ing castration resulted from the with¬
drawal of an ovarian secretion rather
than from nervous disturbances.

During the next few years there were
attempts to develop desiccated prepara¬
tions and ovarian concentrates which
would be as effective as subcutaneous
ovarian grafts in correcting the syn¬
drome resulting from castration. At this
period, the ovary was regarded as per¬
forming an incretory function but the
ovarian secretion was conceived of as a
single substance. While Adler’s work
was unconvincing, he claimed in 1912
that he was able to prepare aqueous ex¬
tracts of ovarian tissue which had the
property of restoring some degree of
sexual activity in spayed females.

C. D. Turner — 1941 Meeting

31

The next observations of importance
were detailed histological studies of the
ovary and the female accessories during
the course of the normal cycle. It be¬
came possible to correlate ovarian
changes with differences in the sex ac¬
cessories and secondary sex characters.
The estrous cycle of the guinea pig was
described in minute detail in 1917 by
Stockard and Papanicolaou (1). Similar
studies were made on the rat by Long
and Evans (2) and on the mouse by E.
Allen (3). These observations were ex¬
tremely significant since they suggested
that the graafian follicle is the source
of the estrogenic hormone, and since
they indicated sensitive physiological in¬
dicators for the assay of estrogens. In
these laboratory rodents, it was de¬
termined that a rhythmic sequence of
changes occurred in the vagina and that
these changes, followed by the vaginal
smear technique, corresponded to rhyth¬
mic modifications of the ovary. Follow¬
ing oophorectomy the vaginal rhythm
ceases and the diestrous condition pre¬
vails.

The final physiological identification of
an ovarian hormone awaited the epochal
experiments of Allen and Doisy (4).
These workers aspirated liquor folliculi
from the vesicular follicles of fresh
sow’s ovaries and injected it into
oophorectomized mice and rats. Within
fifty hours subsequent to the injection
of fresh liquor folliculi, or alcoholic ex¬
tracts of the fluid, to spayed animals
the vaginal smear contained cornified
epithelial cells typical of normal estrus.
Histological examination of the sex ac¬
cessories indicated that the vaginal wall
had attained maximal growth, the super¬
ficial layers being cornified as during
estrus. The uteri were hyperaemic and
distended with fluid. Following with¬
drawal of the injections, the castrate
condition supervened. When admin¬
istered to immature rats and mice these
extracts produced premature canaliza¬
tion of the vagina. The property of
estrogenic substances to produce corni-
fication of the vagina of the spayed rat
or mouse was adopted as a simple and
accurate method of bioassay.

Frank (5), using castrate mice as test
animals, demonstrated that an estrogenic
substance having the same properties as
follicular fluid was present in menstrual
and circulating blood of the human fe¬

male. During pregnancy the amount in
the blood was increased. In 1928 Zon¬
dek (6) reported that large amounts of
estrogen were present in the urine of
pregnancy. This was a timely discovery
inasmuch as the urine from pregnant
women and mares provided a cheap
source of tremendous amounts of estro¬
gen for chemical studies. This substan¬
tial background of animal experimenta¬
tion culminated quickly in the chemical
isolation and purification of the follicu¬
lar hormone and chemically related es¬
trogens.

During the 1920s many investigators
believed that the ovary secreted only
one hormone, i. e., estrogen. Here was
a substance which fulfilled many of the
functions ordinarily attributed to the
ovary. Since it appeared likely that
estrogen, when properly purified and
physiologically tested, would substitute
completely for the ovaries in castrate
rodents, there seemed to be little in¬
centive to look further for additional
ovarian hormones. Other workers, how¬
ever, remained skeptical and insisted
that it was necessary to account for
certain observations which had been
made during the first decade of the pres¬
ent century.

B. The Hormone of the Corpus Lu-
teum. — Long before any experimental
evidence became available, there were
many speculations regarding the func¬
tion of the corpora lutea. Beard in 1897
suggested that the corpora lutea consti¬
tuted an “organ of pregnancy” and spec¬
ulated that this organ exerted an inhibi¬
tory influence upon ovulation and that
it prolonged the cycle. Born (1900) was
aware that the corpora lutea attained
maximal differentiation during the period
when blastocysts were ready to implant
in the uterine mucosa and when the
placental connections were being estab¬
lished. He indicated to his student, Lud¬
wig Fraenkel, that he believed that the
corpora lutea produced a substance which
prepared the uterus for the reception
and inplantation of the developing em¬
bryos. Born died before having oppor¬
tunity to test experimentally his hypo¬
thesis and Fraenkel (7) proceeded to
do so. Fraenkel bilaterally oophorecto¬
mized rabbits immediately after mating,
or removed the corpora lutea from
mated individuals, and found that under
these conditions implantation and pla-

32

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

centation did not ensue. He found that
the removal of the corpora lutea previous
to the twentieth day of pregnancy re¬
sulted either in absorption or abortion
of the young.

Additional evidence that the corpora
lutea are important in conditioning uter¬
ine reactions was provided by the clas¬
sical experiments of Leo Loeb (8). He
allowed estrous guinea pigs to mate
with vasectomized males and, several
days later, laparotomized the females
and traumatized the uteri. He found that
a tumor of decidual cells differentiated
at the sites where the uteri were in¬
jured. This indicated that the corpora
lutea produce the hormone which makes
it possible for the endometrium to
undergo decidual changes in response to
the irritating effect of the blastocysts.
Loeb (9) demonstrated also that extirpa¬
tion of the corpora lutea hastened the
next estrus and that removal of other
parts of the ovary did not give this
effect. Later it was found that ablation
of the corpora during pregnancy might
be followed by ovulations. On the basis
of these early experiments, many be¬
lieved that the corpora lutea secreted
the ovarian hormone and that this was
the only hormone concerned in the repro¬
ductive cycle.

Ancel and Bouin (10) extended Loeb’s
work to include the pseudo-pregnant
rabbit. Since ovulation in this species
occurs ten hours subsequent to copula¬
tion or cervical stimulation, luteinization
can be induced in the absence of preg¬
nancy by artificially stimulating the
cervices or by mating with a vasecto¬
mized male. These two French investi¬
gators found that during pseudopreg¬
nancy the uterus underwent a type of
proliferation which simulated that nor¬
mally occurring during pregnancy. They
found that this type of uterine growth,
now designated as progestational pro¬
liferation, did not occur after the abla¬
tion of the corpora.

Herrmann (11) prepared lipoid extracts
of corpora lutea and placental tissue and
showed that they produced uterine
growth and congestion.

In 1921, it was reported that corpora
lutea could be shelled out of the ovaries
of the non-pregnant cow by means of
rectal palpation. This procedure was
followed within two days by ovulation
and estrus.

The chain of evidence establishing the
incretory function of the corpus luteum
was completed by Corner (12) and his
collaborators. These workers prepared
lipoid extracts of corpora lutea obtained
from the ovaries of pregnant swine and
found that such extracts produced pro¬
gestational proliferation in the uteri of
castrate adult rabbits, a reaction which
cannot be elicited by estrogen alone.
The recognition of this physiological end¬
point in the rabbit was as instrumental
in the isolation of the luteal hormone as
was the vaginal response of the mouse
and rat in the physiological identification
of estrogen. These extracts, adminis¬
tered to rabbits which had been cas¬
trated eighteen hours after fertile mat¬
ings, maintained pregnancy to term.
They sensitized the uterus so that de¬
cidual reactions resulted from uterine
trauma and, in short, produced all of
the effects which earlier experiments
indicated as attributable to the corpus
luteum. The active extract of the cor¬
pus luteum was named “progestin”. By
1933 several groups of investigators had
announced the isolation of the hormone
in crystalline form. Shortly thereafter,
it became possible to synthesize the hor¬
mone of the corpus luteum, progesterone,
from stigmasteral and from pregnanediol.

C. Androgenicity of the Mammalian
Ovary. — There is substantial evidence
indicating that the ovary may become
capable of liberating appreciable amounts
of androgen during unusual or abnormal
circumstances. Steinach and Kun (13)
reported that the luteinized ovaries of
the guinea pig may exert masculinizing
effects. Lipschxitz (14) found that an
ovarian graft persisting for three years
in a castrate male guinea pig had re¬
stored fully the seminal vesicles and
prostatic glands of the host. The experi¬
ments of Hill and collaborators (15, 16)
indicate that ovarian homotransplants
into the ears of castrate mice frequently
become capable of maintaining secretion
in both the seminal vesicles and pros¬
tate. A similar androgenic action of
ovarian grafts persisting in the ears of
rats has been reported by Deanesly (17).
She did not find that the androgenicity
of the ovarian grafts was conditioned by
temperature as Hill maintains for mice.

Several workers have shown that crys¬
talline progesterone produces masculin¬
izing effects. It has not been proved,

C. D. Turner — 1941 Meeting

however, that the chemical configuration
of the progesterone molecule is not
altered by the organism before andro¬
genic effects are elicited. Nelson (18)
found that progesterone resembled an¬
drogens inasmuch as it was capable of
maintaining spermatogenesis in the go¬
nads of hypophysectomized rats. Tur¬
ner (19) described a spontaneous lesion
of the rat’s ovary which rendered it
hyper-estrogenic and definitely andro¬
genic. The absence of corpora lutea pro¬
vided presumptive evidence that the mas¬
culinizing action of these ovaries was
not due to progesterone.

The identity of the androgenic sub¬
stances which derive from ovaries has
not been ascertained. While the ad¬
ministration of large amounts of pro¬
gesterone elicits masculinizing effects
in certain laboratory rodents, the evi¬
dence seems to indicate that the ovaries
may librate another androgenic com¬
pound which is similar to but not iden¬
tical with that secreted by the testis.
Deanesly found that gonadotropins caus¬
ing extensive luteinization of the granu¬
losa did not alter appreciably the andro-
genicity of the ovarian ear grafts in the
rat. From studies upon the growth
curves of male accessory glands, Hill
and Strong concluded that the physio¬
logical response induced by ovarian
grafts in the ears is not nearly dupli¬
cated by the experimental administra¬
tion of testosterone propionate plus es¬
trogens.

On the basis of studies undertaken in
this laboratory, we believe that the an-
drogenicity of the ovary is correlated
with hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the
theca interna of follicles which are
forced experimentally to become atretic.
In the case of ovaries persisting in the
ears of castrate males, the hypophysis
stimulates the differentiation of many
vesicular follicles. These cannot ovulate
because of an improper endocrine bal¬
ance in the male and because of the
complete encapsulation of the graft by
dense tissue. When the cords of epithe¬
lioid cells derived from the theca interna
persist and become abundant the ovary
is made capable of secreting enough
androgen to maintain secretion in the
male sex accessories.

A permanent impairment of the rat’s
hypophysis and ovary results from the

33

daily administration of 100 IU of estro¬
gen during the first ten days of post¬
natal life.' The follicles become atretic
before reaching full maturity. The the¬
cal cells become epithelioid and persist
after other elements of the follicles have
deteriorated. Some of the ovaries from
adult animals of this type induce secre¬
tion in the seminal vesicles and pros¬
tate when such gonads are transplanted
to the kidneys of long-time castrate male
hosts. Since both kidney and ear grafts
sometimes possess androgenic potencies,
it appears that the temperature of the
transplantation site is not the principal
factor determining the androgenicity of
the ovary.

In conclusion, an attempt has been
made to present evidence upon which a
modern theory of ovulation is based, and
to outline the major events which led to
the physiological identification of the
ovarian hormones. Evidence has been
presented which indicates that the ovary,
under certain conditions at least, may
secrete a male-sex-hormone-like com¬
pound which seems not to be progester¬
one.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Stockard, C. R., and Papanicolaou, G. N
1917. Amer. J. Anat., 22:225.

2. Long-, J. A., and Evans, IT. M. 1922. Mem.
Univ. Calif., 6 :1.

3. Allen, PI. 1922. Amer. J. Anat., 30 :297.

4. Allen, E„ and Doisy, Ei. A. 1923. J A
M. A., 81-819.

5. Frank1 et alii. 1925. .T. A. M. A., 85 :510.

6. Zondek, B. 1928. Klin. Wchnschr., 7 :1404.

7. Fraenkel, L. 1903. Arch. f. Gynak., 6S :
u38.

8. Loeb, L. 1908. ,T. A. M. A., 50, 1897.

9- - 1911. Deutsche med. Wchnschr..

37 :17.

10. Ancel, P., and Bouin, P. 1910. J. de

physiol, et de path, gen., 12 :1.

11. Herrmann, E. 1915. Monatschr. f. Ge-

burtsh. u. Gynak., 41 :1.

12. Corner, G. W. 1928. Amer. J. Physiol..
86 :74.

13. Steinach, E., and Kun, II. 1931. Pflug.

Arch. ges. Physiol., 227 :266.

14. Lipschutz, IT. 1932. Virchow's Arch..

285 :35.

15. Ilill, R. T. 1937. Endocrinology, 21 :495.

16. Hill, R. T., and Strong, M. T. 1938. Endo¬
crinology, 22 :663.

17. Deanesly, R. 1938. J. Physiol., 92 :34I’.

18. Nelson, W. O. 1936. Anat. Rec. Suppl.,
67 :110.

19. Turner, C. Donnell, 1941. Endocrinology.
28:729. In press.

Illinois Academy of Science Memoirs

35

CHARLES ZELENY

1878-1939

CHARLES ZELENY died in December
1939 after an illness of four years. He
was born of Czech parents at Hutchinson,
Minnesota, and was one of five brothers,
three of whom have had distinguished
careers in science. He studied at the Uni¬
versity of Minnesota and Columbia Uni¬
versity, and took the doctorate in zoology
at the University of Chicago in 1904. After
five years at Indiana University he came
to the University of Illinois in 1909 where
he taught zoology and was active in
research until his death. He was head
of the department of zoology and chair¬
man of the division of biological sciences
from 1933 to 1937.

He was a professor in the strict sense
of the word because to him, science was
a faith and a way of life rather than a
profession or an occupation. A keen stu¬
dent of experimental biology, he was ex¬
tremely cautious and careful in analyzing

data and drawing conclusions and had a
passion for seeking out alternative expla¬
nations. He believed that the mechanistic
viewpoint was the most productive ap¬
proach to biological problems and that
quantitative research would establish
biology as an exact science comparable
to the physical sciences. Perhaps his
greatest delight was in simple, clear-cut
experiments which gave definite answers
to questions concerning the internal
mechanisms of living things.

As a young man his principal research
was an analysis of the factors involved
in regeneration and he became known
for his establishment of the principle of
compensatory regulation in the organ¬
ism. He maintained his interest in re¬
generation and the localization of devel¬
opmental factors in the fertilized egg and
spent many summers in later years ex¬
perimenting with serpulids and other
marine invertebrates at the Naples and
Woods Hole biological stations. In 1914
he received a stock of the bar mutant
of Drosophila which occupied his atten¬
tion and that of many of his research
students for twenty-five years. He
learned that selection had its effect by
sorting out and accumulating definite
germinal differences. He made the first
measurements of the rates of mutation
within a single series of multiple allelo¬
morphs and, with his research students,
analyzed in detail the effect of tempera¬
ture and other environmental factors on
the somatic manifestation of this bar
series of multiple allelomorphs.

Mild-mannered and kindly, he had an
unusually wide circle of friends. He
was greatly interested in international
affairs and was saddened by the ap¬
proach of the present war. He was an
ardent and skilled outdoorsman and
made many trips into the north woods
with his family or a crony or two.

David H. Thompson.

36

Illinois Academy of Science Memoirs

EUGENE RICHARD DOUGHERTY

1902-1940

ON NOVEMBER 4th, 1940, the Acad¬
emy lost an esteemed member. Though
his affiliation with our society was of
relatively short duration his whole¬
hearted efforts as Vice-President and
Chairman of the Local Committee, at
the time of the Springfield meeting, as
well as his contribution to the scientific
papers in the section of Zoology, entitle
him to special recognition at this time.

Mr. Dougherty was born in Beaver
Falls, Pennsylvania, June 22, 1902. After
graduating from Beaver Falls High
School he attended Geneva College, in
Beaver Falls. He was graduated from
St. Louis University in 1928 with a
bachelor’s degree. Graduate studies were
pursued at St. Louis University and the
University of Buffalo.

In 1934 Mr. Dougherty became asso¬
ciated with Springfield Junior College,
Springfield, llinois, in the capacity of
instructor in Biology. In 1939 he was
promoted to the position of Dean.

It was in connection with the Spring-
field Meeting (1938) of the Academy that
Mr. Dougherty first took an active part
in the organization. His generous serv¬
ices in making arrangements for that
meeting are gratefully remembered by
officers and members alike.

Mr. Dougherty’s untimely death oc¬
curred suddenly following a brief illness.
He is survived by his wife, Flora Pul-
linger Dougherty.

Gilbert Wright,

Illinois Academy of Science Memoirs

37

A TRIBUTE IN MEMORY OF ROSE M. CASSIDY

In the passing of Miss Rose M. Cassidy
on January 8, 1941, the Illinois State
Academy of Science has lost one of its
most loyal members.

Miss Cassidy was a graduate of the
University of Michigan, and later took
advanced work at the Universities of Chi¬
cago, Utah, Wisconsin and Notre Dame.
For the past twenty-three years she has
been a member of the Science Depart¬
ment of the Maine Township High
School.

Miss Cassidy became a member of the
Illinois State Academy of Science organi¬
zation in 1930, in the same year that the
Maine Chemistry Club, which had recent¬
ly been organized under her sponsorship,
became affiliated with the Junior Acade¬
my of Science. In the very early phase
of the existence of the Junior Academy,
she was among the first to recognize its
possibilities and was ready to assume re¬
sponsibilities and to give a vast amount
of time and energy to constructive work
in its development.

Through the Maine Chemistry Club
Miss Cassidy was able to demonstrate
the foundation principles and ideals upon
which the Junior Academy movement was
based. In this club under her faithful
guidance were fostered scientific imagi¬
nation, originality, and invention, togeth¬
er with accuracy in learning and skill in
technical procedures. Here, also, the pleas¬
ure of scientific creative activity was en¬
hanced by the healthy competition with
other clubs in the annual exhibit of the
Junior Academy. The success of Miss
Cassidy as a sponsor and leader is shown
in the record that the club received high¬
est honors in the Chemistry Division of
the annual exhibits for seven of the past
ten years.

Miss Cassidy was made chairman of
the Chemistry section in the Junior
Academy for 1932-1933 and again in 1933-
1934. She was then appointed to serve
as co-chairman of the Annual Competi¬
tion 1934-1935 and in the following year,
1935-1936, she served as co-chairman of
the Junior Academy. In 1936 she was
chosen the Illinois editor for Science Aid

Service, the official organ of the cooper¬
ating Junior Academies of Science, in
which capacity she served with distinc¬
tion during the past four years.

At the annual meetings of the Junior
Academy she displayed unusual talent as
an executive. Her plans were well formu¬
lated and the staff of helpers well chosen
while she in person directed the work,
giving the timely word or active help
wherever it was needed.

Miss Cassidy never ceased to be a stu¬
dent. She read widely in fields of science,
world affairs, poetry and art, — sources
from which she derived inspiration for
daily work. She transmitted to her pupils
appreciation of the beauties of nature
which she had learned from her father,
a great nature-lover, with whom in her
earlier years there was a great compan¬
ionship. From her mother, gifted in mu¬
sic, she learned beauty in rhythm and in
exquisite techniques.

Although gifted in many lines, Miss
Cassidy found her greatest joy in work
with young people, where she watched
youthful minds develop methods of scien¬
tific thinking with a measure of creative
genius appearing under the guidance of
this gifted sponsor. In her home, open
evenings to club members, programs were
planned and projects organized by com¬
mittees from the Maine Chemistry Club.

With a humility of spirit often found
in the truly great she devoted time and
energy to the development of cultural
ideals in the lives of her pupils. Honesty
and integrity were incorporated into her
teaching along with methods for trans¬
muting scientific dreams into forms of
reality. She had assumed responsibilities
from her early youth and worked with
all her great fund of energy to put order
into the lives of those about her. She
loved the world and she loved people and
was never without deep interests in
science and in humanity. These interests
which might have been only a pleasant
pastime to be put aside and forgotten as
the years passed, grew with her and en¬
riched her life.

Miss Cassidy belonged to several scien-

38

Illinois Academy of Science Memoirs

tific organizations. For many years she
was a member of the Illinois Association
of Chemistry Teachers. While in the
West she was a member of the Sierra
Club. The beauty of the Western canyons
inspired her to a study of the plant life
of those regions and for a number of
years she helped to organize this mate¬
rial and to make collections for the
Smithsonian Institute.

At one time in her college dramatics,
she was asked to select a drama suitable
for presentation by the club. She un¬
earthed an Elizabethan treasure full of
rich humor and appealing traits of char¬

acter. Her interest led her to continue
this search until she had the nucleus of
a volume which was shared and pub¬
lished by an English teacher. This study
was a contributing factor in her love
and admiration for the British people.

In the memorial address for Miss Cas¬
sidy, Rev. Dr. Walter D. Spangler quoted
from several of her favorite poems. A
quotation from a poem by Henry Wads¬
worth Longfellow aptly describes the life
of Miss Cassidy as her friends and co¬
workers in the Junior Academy have
known her.

‘‘‘‘Among the many lives that I have known,

None I remember • more serene and sweet.

More rounded in itself and more complete,

Than hers, who lies beneath this funeral stone.

These pines that murmur in low monotone,

These walks frequented by scholastic feet,

Were all her world; but in this calm retreat
For her the teacher's chair became a throne.

With fond affection memory loves to dwell
On the old days, when her example made
A pastime of the toil of tongue and pen;

And now amid the groves she loved so well

That naught could lure her from their grateful shade,

She sleeps, but wakes elsewhere, for God hath said, Amen.”

Always she used her mind, was a
cheerful companion, high spirited and
fearless, reaching out for what was fine
and beautiful, and scorning what was
base.

The sympathy of members of The

State Academy of Science is extended to
the bereaved family.

To Miss Minnie C. Cassidy I am grate¬
ful for collaboration in the preparation of
this paper.

Rosalie M. Parr.

STATE OF ILLINOIS
Dwight H. Green, Governor

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ILLINOIS STATE
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Volume 34 December, 1941 number 2

Papers Presented in the Thirty-fourth Annual
Meeting, Evanston, Illinois
May, 1941

Edited by Grace Needham Oliver

Department of Registration and Education
Illinois State Museum Division, Centennial Building

SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS

[Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois]

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY

Entered as second-class matter December 6, 1930, at the post office at
Springfield, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, 1912.

[39]

STATE OP ILLINOIS

Dwight H. Green, Governor

DEPARTMENT OP REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION

Frank M. Thompson, Director

ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM DIVISION

Thorne Deuel, Chief

ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Affiliated with the
ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM

OFFICERS FOR 1941-1942

President: T, H. Frison
Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana

First Vice President: F. M. Fryxell
Augustana College, Rock Island

Second Vice President: George E. Ekblaw
Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana

Secretary: R. F. Paton
University of Illinois, Urbana

Treasurer : John Voss
Manual Training High School, Peoria

Librarian: Thorne Deuel
Illinois State Museum, Springfield

Junior Academy Representative : Mary Creager
Township High School, Vienna

Editor: Grace Needham Oliver
Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana

In addition to current officers, the Academy Council for 1941-42 includes
the two most recent past presidents: Evelyn I. Fernald, Rockford College,
Rockford, and V. O. Graham, 4028 Grace St., Chicago.

Printed December, 1941

(11703)

[40]

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Volume 34

December, 1941

Number 2

CONTENTS

AGRICULTURE

PAGE

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 45

Dungan, George H. and Wilbur C. Brokaw, Relation between moisture content of

the soil and the optimum depth of planting corn . 46

Cassell, Robert C., Preliminary report on corn and pasture fertilization in

southern Illinois . 48

Graham, Burdette, Adapting the teaching of agriculture to the needs of the

v Community . 50

Fuelleman, R. F. and W. L. Burlison, Palatability of pasture plants . 51

Sullivan, J. L ., Certain factors affecting the growth of azotobacter in the soil . . 55

Woodworth, C. M., The role of hybridization in the improvement of the soybean . . 57

ANTHROPOLOGY

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 61

Bascom, William R., Possible application of kite photography to archaeology

and ethnology . 62

Ruyle, John B., The Chicago portage . 63

Schoenbeck, E., Cultural objects of Clear Lake village site... . 65

Wray, Donald E., Middle Mississippian grit tempered ware . 66

BOTANY

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 69

Hopper, William Edward Reid, Seed formation, germination, and post-germina¬
tions development in certain Cichorieae . 70

Rummer, Anna Pedersen, Germination and seedling growth-form of two hun¬
dred weeds . 73

Oexemann, Stanley William, Relation of the effects of seed weight to roots and

tops of two varieties of soybeans . 75

Skok, John, Effect of length of day and temperature on the opening of buds of

dormant twigs . 76

Skok, John, Some mineral deficiency symptoms in plants . 78

Naylor, Aubrey W., The use of fluorescent light in experimental work . 82

Noggle, Glenn Ray, Trace elements in oats and sudan grass . 84

Fuller, Harry J. and Adelard W. Thuente, Some quantitative aspects of

phototropism . 86

Stephenson, Richard B. and Kathryn Johns, The tissue culture technique as

a means of studying correlation . 88

Wood, Richard D., An evaluation of general methods of “deoxygenation” of water 90
Wynd, F. Lyle, Physiological disturbances in tobacco plants accompanying

mosaic infection . 92

Hudson, J. W., A device for visualizing the solution of genetics problems . 93

Stover, E. L., A collection of Myxomycetes from eastern Illinois . 95

Vaughan, R. Harold, Bryophytes of Rocky Branch region of Clark County, Illinois 96

Evers, Robert A., The trees of Adams County, Illinois . 98

Buchiiolz, J. T., Multi-seeded acorns . 99

Barkley, E. Elizabeth, Gemmae of Funaria hygrometrica . 102

Tippo, Oswald, A list of diagnostic characteristics for descriptions of dicotyle¬
donous woods . 105

[41]

PAGE

Hoskins, J. Hobart, and Aureal T. Cross, Techniques useful in the study of

fossil plants . 107

Tehon, L. R., Composition of the genus Carex in Illinois . 108

CHEMISTRY

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . Ill

Archer, Sydney, Hydrogen fluoride as a condensing agent . 112

Dole, Malcolm, The surface tension of strong electrolytes . 112

Dunker, Melvin F. W. and Byron Riegel, Investigations on 3-hydroxy-5-cholenic

acid . 115

Gold, Marvin H. and Byron Riegel, The synthesis of cancerogenic hydrocarbons

closely related to the steroids . 116

Green, Frank O., Acylals . 118

Martinette, Sister Mary, B. V. M. and L. F. Yntema, A study of the oxidation of

trivalent molybdenum . 119

Liggett, R. W., K. M. Gordon and Charles D. Hurd, Separation and identification

of sugars from mixtures . 121

Morris, Humbert, The structure of mixed hydrogenation catalysts . 122

Sammis, J. H., The history of chemistry as applied to photography . 123

Walton, Harold Frederic, Cation exchange in a carbonaceous ion exchanger.... 124

GEOGRAPHY

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 127

Barton, Erselia M. and Thomas F. Barton, United States Airway Weather

Station, Carbondale, Illinois . 128

Barton, Thomas F., Agricultural landscapes of the Sudbury Area, Ontario . 130

Booth, Alfred W., The soil factor and land use in Barbour County, Alabama. . . . 137

Brown, Clarence L., The factor of position in hemisphere defense . 139

Cozzens, Arthur B., Gopher-hole barite mining in Washington County, Missouri. . 143

Cutshall, Alden, Growth of Robinson, Illinois . 145

Icke, Paul W., Original forest vegetation in a glaciated area . 147

Krause, Annemarie, Water in southern Illinois . 149

Van Riper, Joseph E., The urbanization of southern Illinois and its relation to
national defense . 153

GEOLOGY

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 159

Smith, Maurice H., Structure contour map of the pre-Pennsylvanian surface in

Illinois . 160

Stevenson, Frank V., Devonian formations in New Mexico . 163

Gutschick, R. C., Niagaran ostracods from Burlington, Wisconsin . . 164

Garrels, Robert, The chemistry of lead-zinc deposition and the problem of zoning 165
Branson, C. C., A new edrioaster from the upper Ordovician of northern Illinois 166
Huff, Lyman, The sedimentology and physiography of Wisconsin glacial outwash

along the Chippewa River . 167

DuBois, Ernest Paul, Additional evidence on the origin of conodonts . 168

Lundahl, A. C., A shape-roundness study of beach sands from Cedar Point, Ohio. . 168
Johnson, Charles G., Use of stereoscope with aerial photos in elementary geology 169
Plumley, William J., The application of probability theory to sediment sampling 171

Holden, Fred T., Mississippian stratigraphy of Ohio . 172 i

Hinrichs, F. W., The occurrence of commercial muscovite in pegmatites . 173 j

Bell, Alfred H., Status of the carbon-ratio theory in Illinois . 175

PHYSICS

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 179

Beutler, H., Progress in theory and use of concave gratings . 180

[42]

PAGE

Countryman, M. Auden, Two simple pieces of apparatus for lecture demonstration

in general physics . 181

Harris, Roscoe E., The metering of projection printing. . . 182

Johnson, A. Frances, Differences of electric potential in the leaves of plants . 183

Knipp, Chas. T., Radioactive tips for the lecture table . . . 185

Jones, Richard W. and Walter S. Huxford, Forms of discharge in micro-gaps. . . 186
Therese, Sister Mary, B. V. M., Observing and measuring sway in a tall building 188
Phillips, Theodore G., The use of the periodogram in establishing the reality of

hidden or suspected periodicities . 189

Page, Thornton, The emission spectra of planetary nebulae . 191

Swaim, V. F., A satisfactory method for measuring the coefficient of friction be¬
tween rubber tires and road materials . 192

Shonka, Francis R., The production of Geiger-Muller tubes . 193

Verwiebe, Frank D., The analysis of an A. C. circuit containing R, L, and C . 195

SOCIAL SCIENCE

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 197

Todd, Arthur J., The sociologist in a time of crisis . 198

Lindstrom, D. E.t Report on research projects “in process” in sociology and rural

sociology at the University of Illinois, 1941 . 200

Cooke, Robert L., Workers’ education and its implications for vocational guidance 202

EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 205

Hughes, J. M., Attitudes in school administration . 206

Jacobsen, O. Irving, Guidance testing . 208

Lake, George B., A vocational philosophy of life . . 210

Yum, K. S., Student preferences in divisional studies and their preferential
activities . 213

ZOOLOGY

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 215

Bonnell, Clarence, The introduction of wild life into southern Illinois . 216

Brown, Clarence L., Unique flight formation of blackbirds . 217

Ederstrom, H. E., The effects of carbon dioxide on Daphnia . 218

Gloyd, H. K., Amphibians and reptiles of Illinois . 220

Hill, Henry C., Jr., and True W. Robinson, Induced ovulation in Rana Pipiens II 221
Hinshaw, Margaret Bernice, The effects of formalin upon development in the

bar-eyed race of Drosophila Melanogaster . 223

Kendeigh, S. Charles, Distribution of upland birds in Illinois . 225

Koestner, E. J., Noteworthy records of occurrence of mammals in central Illinois 227

Mohr, Carl O., Distribution of Illinois mammals . 229

Owen, Seward E., Bacterial response to growth stimulants . . 232

Riegel, Garland T., Relative abundance of Cyclocephala immaculata and C.

borealis at Urbana . 234

Ross, Herbert H., Distribution of Illinois insects . 236

Wherry, Robert J. and James M. Sanders, Modification of a tropism in Lumbricus

terrestris . 237

Scudamore, Harold H., A correlation between the rate of heart beat and the state

of certain chromatophores in the shrimp, Palaemonetes . 238

Thomson, Stewart C., Observations from a study of the comparative anatomy of
the extrahepatic biliary tract . 241

[43]

ANNOUNCEMENTS

Attention is directed to the fact that the Committee on Research Grants
of the Illinois State Academy of Science has at its disposal a small sum of
money to be disbursed in support of worthy research projects. Applications
for grants will be accepted up to and including March 31, 1942. It is custom¬
ary to give preference to scientists connected with the smaller institutions
of the state.

Requests for grants should be accompanied by a brief statement of the
training and experience of the applicant, the purpose of the investigation,
and the estimated cost. Previous publications should be listed. At least two
letters of recommendation should be transmitted directly by their authors.
Correspondence may be addressed to William C. Rose, Chairman, Department
of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.

1942 MEETING
URBANA— MAY 8-9

GENERAL CHAIRMAN: George E. Ekblaw, 216 Natural Resources Building,

Urbana, Illinois

SECTION CHAIRMEN 1941-42

Agriculture : C. H. Oathout, Macomb, Ill.

Anthropology : Donald E. Wray, 604 Caroline St., Peoria, Ill.

Botany: Paul D. Voth, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.

Chemistry : N. D. Cheronis, 5556 Ardmore Ave., Chicago, Ill.

Geography : Joseph Van Riper, Southern Illinois State Normal University,
Carbondale, Ill.

Geology: A. H. Sutton, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.

Physics: F. L. Verwiebe, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston,
Ill.

Psychology and Education: J. M. Hughes, Northwestern University, Evans¬
ton, Ill.

Social Science: C. W. Schroeder, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, Ill.
Zoology: Orlando Park, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.

[44]

Papers in Agriculture

Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman

Eight papers were presented at the Evanston meeting, six of which are
herewith published. The others were :

Burlison, W. L. and Fuelleman, R. F. University of Illinois, Urbana, —
Pasture Studies of Brome Grass, Bromons inermis Leyss.

(Being published in enlarged form in the Journal of American Society
of Agronomy, Vol. 33, No. 10, October, 1941.)

Douglass, T. J., Illinois State Normal University, Normal, — Mulching
of Strawberries.

Nine people attended the meeting and re-elected Mr. Oathout chairman
for 1941-42.

(Signed) C. H. Oathout, Chairman
Macomb, Illinois

[45]

RELATION BETWEEN MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE SOIL
AND THE OPTIMUM DEPTH OP PLANTING CORN

George H. Dungan

University of Illinois, Ur~bana, Illinois
and

Wilbur C. Brokaw

Bradford High School, Bradford, Illinois

In 1934 the corn seedlings in one par¬
ticular series of hand-planted plots of the
Illinois Corn Performance Tests1 were
markedly more vigorous and uniform
than those in the other series.

The question naturally arose as to the
cause of this difference. Since all the
series were planted with the same kind
of corn, the difference could not have
been due to a difference in quality of seed
The cause of the variation had to be due
to some difference in the manner of plant¬
ing. Since the soil to a depth of three
inches was unusually dry there was the
possibility that depth of planting was the
factor.

Growth of Corn Seedlings in Dry Soil.
— In order to determine the influence that
moisture content of the soil has on the
growth of corn seedlings, six samples of
soil were prepared from a field being
summer fallowed on the Agronomy South
Farm at Urbana. Some soil was dried
on a bench in the greenhouse. It was
mixed with moist soil in such proportions
as to make samples of two different mois¬
ture contents. One contained 3.3 and the
other 4.6 percent moisture. Four other
samples were taken from different levels
in the field so as to get soil carrying
diverse amounts of moisture. The mois¬
ture content of the various samples thus
collected was as follows: 5.2, 5.5, 6.8,
and 8.1 percent.

One hundred kernels of corn were
planted in each lot of soil in the green¬
house. At the end of seven days the
seedlings were dug up and shoot and root
measurements were made. The results
are shown graphically in Figure 1.

No growth occurred in the soil contain¬
ing 3.3 percent of moisture. Growth was
apparently normal in the soil containing
8.1 percent of moisture. Seedling growth
in the other lots of soil was roughly in

proportion to the amount of moisture
present. The development of roots in
soils lacking in moisture was strikingly
greater than the development of plumules
in the same soils. This shows that the
minimum amount of moisture for plu¬
mule growth is at a higher level than it
is for root growth. It also indicates that
relative dryness of soil is a factor in the
germination and seedling development of
corn.

Depth of Planting Corn in Dry and
Moist Soils. — In order to determine what
influence depth of planting has on the
growth of corn plants and the yield of
grain a field experiment was conducted
in 1939 and in 1940. Seed of good quality
was planted by hand at depths ranging
by one-inch intervals from one to six
inches. To attain the desired depth ctf
planting the soil in each hill was opened
with a spade to approximately the depth
wanted. Three kernels of corn were
dropped into the opening, and with the
end of a ruler resting on top of the ker¬
nels, the soil was filled in to exactly the

A

_

\

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

t

9'

|

°3.3 52 55 68 8.1

MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOIL IN PERCENT

Fig 1. — Average length of plumules and
radicles produced by corn seedlings during
seven days’ growth in soil containing dif¬
ferent percentages of moisture.

1 Dungan, G. H., Holbert, J. R., Mumm, W. J., Bigger, J. H., and Lang, A. L. Illinois com perform¬
ance tests — results for 1934. Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 411:58, 59. 1939.

[46]

Agriculture — 1941 Meeting

47

Table 1. — Influence of Depth of Planting Corn in a Dry Soil and in a Moist Soil
on Percentage Field Stand, Height of Plants, and Yield of Grain Per
Acre. Urbana, Illinois.

Depth of planting

Proportion of a
perfect stand

Average height
of plants 36 days
after planting

Yield of shelled
corn per acre

inches

percent

inches

bushels

Dry Soil — 1939

1 .

83

23.8

78.0

2 .

98

29.3

110.5

3 .

95

32.1

113.2

4 .

92

29.6

111.3

5 .

88

28.8

100.6

6 .

70

24.4

78.4

Moist Soil — 1940

1 .

95

28.0

105.3

2 .

83

27.5

94.7

3 .

88

26.2

103.0

4 .

64

25.5

72.8

5 .

67

24.1

81.1

6 .

67

23.0

73.2

one-inch level, two-inch level, etc. Each
hill was considered as a separate plot or
unit. Twenty-two separate hills were
planted at each depth.

The amount of rainfall prior to and
immediately following planting was very
different in the two years. Soil condi¬
tions at planting time in 1939 were dry,
but in 1940 they were moist and favor¬
able. In 1939, a total of .92 inch of rain
fell during the three weeks just ahead
of corn planting and only .03 inch fell
during the ten days after planting. This
difference in the moisture conditions at
planting time and following planting is
reflected in the germination, plant height,
and yield records which are shown in
Table 1.

In the dry soil the highest percentage
field stand was obtained from the two-
inch planting depth. In the moist soil
the best stand was from the one-inch
depth. In the dry soil the greatest aver¬
age plant height 36 days after planting
came from the three-inch planting. One-
inch planting produced the tallest plants

in the moist soil, whereas the one-inch
planting in the dry soil produced the
shortest plants.

The yields also show wide differences
attributable to depth of planting in dry
and moist soil. The lowest yield in 1939
was from one-inch planting whereas in
1940 the highest yield was from the one-
inch depth. Good yields in dry soil were
obtained from the two-, three-, and four-
inch planting depths. In the moist soil
the yields dropped off sharply for plant¬
ings deeper than three inches.

Apparently the optimum depth of plant¬
ing corn depends upon soil conditions.
If the soil is amply supplied with mois¬
ture, corn can be planted as shallow as
one inch with the expectation of maxi¬
mum yields. If, on the other hand, the
surface soil is dry, corn should be planted
deeper than one inch to get maximum
yields. The exhaustion of the seedling
as a consequence of deep planting is
seemingly less harmful than the stunting
influence of insufficient moisture near the
surface.

48

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON CORN AND PASTURE
FERTILIZATION IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS

Robert C. Cassell

Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale, Illinois

Corn Fertilization

In 1940 an opportunity was afforded at
the College Farm to study the effects of
complete commercial fertilization of corn
by the hill drop method. In the follow¬
ing described corn experiments as well
as the pasture experiment it should be
borne in mind that the data takes into
account only the one year’s results. Prac¬
tical implications must necessarily await
confirmation in subsequent experiments.

The first experiment was on a three
acre plot of ground where a three year
stand of alfalfa had just been plowed.
The field was on rolling upland of Ava
Silt Loam which, before the experiment
was started, tested slightly acid, between
6.5 and 7.0 pH. The test for phosphorus
showed only a moderate amount present,
but enough to grow alfalfa. The soil,
however, proved to be low in potassium.

The field was planted two kernels to
the hill with Funk’s G-Hybrid 135. The
fertilizers were applied at a rate of 200
pounds per acre. The yields from the
fertilized plots were calculated from two
replications of four 96 hill rows. The
unfertilized yield was obtained from 42
rows rather than eight as unfertilized
checks were left at regular intervals
across the field. The only adjustments
made in yield were for moisture percent¬
age of the corn at harvest time and for
missing hills.

From the data presented in Table 1,
it would be difficult to select any one
fertilizer mixture for recommendation.
Practically any fertilizer except the
straight superphosphate (0-20-0) pro¬
duced a sufficient increase in yield to
justify its use and any fertilizer listed
in the table above the 4-16-4 would be well
justified under the conditons of this ex¬
periment. It would seem that any mix¬
ture with a little nitrogen, a medium
quantity of phosphate and a high per-

Table 1. — Fertilizers Hill Dropped at a
Rate of 200 Pounds Per Acre, 1940.

Fertilizer

Acre

yield

bushels

Moisture
in grain
at harvest
; percent

Approxi¬
mate
cost of
fertilizer
per
acre

2-12-6. .

81.62

17.4

$3.14

0-8-24. .

79.18

18.5

3.96

0-10-20.

75.14

21.0

3.70

3-12-12.

74.53

20.6

3.85

3-18-9. .

74.33

14.8

4.22

0-12-12.

72.05

18.0

3.26

0-20-20.

70.08

18.7

5.06

4-16-4. .

68.64

14.1

3.84

0-20-10.

Unfertil¬

68.36

16.9

4.00

ized. . .

62.24

18.4

0

0-20-0 . .

61.58

20.1

2.66

centage of potash would be adequate.
The two high yield producing fertilizers
(2-12-6 and 0-8-24) gave yield increases
over the unfertilized corn of 19.38 and
16.94 bushels per acre respectively. It
may also be worthy to note that the plots
with the four fertilizers containing nitro¬
gen in the mixture averaged 8.29% miss¬
ing hills, the unfertilized corn 10.21%
and the six fertilizers with no nitrogen
12.48%.

In another 10 acre fertilizer experi¬
ment, 13 Funk hybrids and two replica¬
tions of open pollinated corn were fer¬
tilized at a rate of 65 pounds per acre
in comparison with check plots of each
not fertilized. Six other Funk hybrids
and two replications of the same open
pollinated corn were fertilized at a rate
of 120 pounds per acre in comparison
with check plots of each not fertilized.
The corn was all check planted, two
kernels to the hill, and hill fertilized

The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Irvin Peithman, Superintendent of the College
Farm, and Mr. Leo Sharp, student employee, in carrying on the routine work of the fertilizer trials. Funk
Bros. Seed Co., and the Armour Fertilizer Works furnished the hybrid seed com and fertilizer respectively.

Agriculture — 1941 Meeting

49

Table 2. — 3-12-12 Commercial Fertilizer Hill Dropped at Rates of 65 and 120

Pounds Per Acre, 1940.

Corn

Treatment

Average

acre

yield

bushels

Average
increase
per acre
bushels

13 hybrids . .

Unfertilized .

59.25

65.96

43.49

44.31

57.20

69.71

42.67

51.95

Same 13 hybrids .

Open Pollinated

Fertilized (65 lbs. per A) .

Unfertilized .

6.71

Same Open Pollinated .

6 hybrids

Fertilized (65 lbs. per A) .

Unfertilized .

0.82

Same 6 hybrids .

Open Pollinated .

Fertilized (120 lbs. per A) .

Unfertilized .

12.51

Same Open Pollinated .

Fertilized (120 lbs. per A) .

•

9.28

with a 3-12-12 commercial fertilizer. Ad¬
justments in yield were made for mois¬
ture percentage and missing hills.

Where the 3-12-12 fertilizer was applied
at a rate of 65 pounds per acre an aver¬
age increase of 6.71 bushels per acre was
obtained over the yield of the same hy¬
brids not fertilized. When the rate of
application was almost doubled (120 lbs.
per acre), the average increase in yield
was almost doubled (12.51 bushels per
acre). In the case of the open pollinated
corn 65 pounds of fertilizer per acre in¬
creased the yield only 0.82 bushels per
acre, but an application of 120 pounds
per acre increased the yield 9.28 bushels
per acre. The greatest single hybrid in¬
crease due to fertilization at the rate of
65 pounds per acre was 17.94 bushels
per acre and in only one case among the
13 hybrids did the unfertilized plot out-
yield the fertilized plot and that was by
7.32 bushels per acre. The greatest single
hybrid increase due to fertilization at
the rate of 120 pounds per acre was
17.25 bushels per acre and the least single
increase was 6.19 bushels per acre.

Pasture Fertilization

At the college farm there is an old blue
grass pasture. The pasture has been
over grazed and the stand of blue grass
is poor. The only improvement the pas¬
ture has received is an application of
limestone made a few years ago. The
soil at present tests sweet, but there is
a deficiency of both phosphorus and po¬
tassium. In 1940, one-fourth acre plots
were laid out and given treatments as
shown in Table 3. The nitrogen fertilizer
was made up of approximately equal por¬
tions of 16% nitrate of soda and 20%
sulfate of ammonia. The fertilizers were
applied by means of the fertilizer attach¬
ment of a disc grain drill.

The 1940 season was unusually dry
and only four cuttings were obtained;
the last one August 14. There were no
fall rains to produce a late pasture;
this and the fact that the pasture
was thin to begin with accounts for the
small amount of green material pro¬
duced even on the fertilized plots. In
all of the treatments the greatest in-

Table 3. — Pasture Fertilization, 1940.

Treatment

Date of
treatment

Yield of green
material per
acre (season)
pounds

Increase
per acre

pounds

Cost of
ferti¬
lizer per
acre

1.

Check .

1,573

2.

4-12-4 (250 lbs. per A) .

April 1

4,840

3,267

$ 4.31

3.

Nitrogen (300 lbs. per A) .

May 7

4,114

2,541

5.80

4.

(2 and 3) .

(2 and 3)

5,292

3,719

10.11

50

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

crease in yields over the check was ob-
tained with the first and second cuttings.
Prom the data presented in Table 3, it is
to be noted that the 4-12-4 fertilizer pro¬
duced the most efficient increase of green
material. Where only 1,573 pounds of

green material were obtained from the
untreated plot, 4,840 pounds (over three
times as much) were obtained from the
application of 250 pounds per acre of the
4-12-4 fertilizer at a cost of $4.31 for the
fertilizer.

ADAPTING THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE TO THE
NEEDS OF THE COMMUNITY

Burdette Graham
Prairie City, Illinois

ABSTRACT

One of the primary needs of the com¬
munity is to secure and apply informa¬
tion as soon as possible after it is known.
I feel that in too many cases the gap
between the time a thing is proven to be
good and the time when it is put into
practice is too great. All of the agencies
which are experimenting and carrying on
research for new and better practices are
doing a fine job. They are also doing a
fine job in placing the information they
have in the hands of schools and exten¬
sion agencies in the local communities.
A way must be found, however, to short¬
en the gap between the time a thing is
known and the time it is applied. I am
reminded of the boy who in school was
taught many phases of soil conservation.
When he returned home to the farm
after having been away for several years
he found that the gully he had learned
how to control when he was in school,
had taken the school house and much of
the surrounding land with it. While he
was studying about soil conservation
control the gully went right on taking
its toll. He thought what he was learn¬
ing was for some one else to apply. When
he realized it was for him to apply much
damage had been done which could never
be repaired. The gap was too great be¬
tween the time a thing was learned and
the time it was applied. In this article
four suggestions are made to help over¬
come this gap.

Find the Need by Community Surveys.

— The first suggestion is to find the real
needs of the community. This can best
be done by means of surveys of the vari¬
ous areas of activity. Surveys of various
kinds can be used, such as: question¬
naires, conferences, tours, and personal

observation. From these surveys one
with training should be able to arrive at
the needs with accuracy.

Create Interest in Doing Something
About the Needs. — One of the best means
of creating enough interest to secure ac¬
tion in working toward the goal of meet¬
ing a need is to direct the attention of
adults, school boys, and the youth toward
the goal. Showing the results of the sur¬
veys of the community to all groups, and
getting them all to work toward a cer¬
tain goal is the first step. They may he
made fully conscious of the needs by
tours, discussion, pictures, and many
other means. Once the people of a com¬
munity see a need they will do something
about it if they know what to do. Some
means must be used which is effective,
interesting and accurate to show them
what and how to do.

Community Demonstrations Get Ac¬
tion. — Community demonstration is the
third suggestion which I have to make
to help get ideas into action and takes
many forms. The boy’s supervised prac¬
tice programs are good examples. They
do not touch enough of the problems of
the farm however, so something more is
needed. The community demonstration
is a practice set up in the community so
that people can see it often, and under
home conditions. It is local so that it is
talked about many times, and so its good
and bad points brought up and discussed
by all. If the demonstration is good, and
it should be, people are in favor of the
practice demonstrated, and that is just
what we hope they will be.

As an illustration of the effectiveness
of a community demonstration, let us
consider one which we used effectively in

51

Agriculture—

■

this community. It was one showing
contour farming of corn, a practice
which, in everyone’s mind, was one
which could never be used and would not
be effective, would be a nuisance, would
be laughed at. We established a small
demonstration field on two sides of the
community, along the road where people
could see them. We visited them on
tours and discussed them at meetings.
The following year the same farmers in¬
creased their own contour acreage by
30 percent and several other farmers for
the first time tried a field on the contour,
proof enough of the effectiveness of the
demonstration in getting action.

Other demonstrations which are being
used are: terraces, windbreak planting,
grove planting of hedge trees, forest
plantings, sod flumes, diversion ditches,
swine sanitation, grass waterways, and
terrace outlets.

Show the Demonstration to People. —

Good demonstrations should be visited by
many people, and at times when they are
interested, and when there is something

■1941 Meeting

of interest to see. Visit terraces during
a big rain, or visit a swine sanitation
demonstration when the pigs are showing
the results of clean raising. Tours are
always good, as people see things and
discuss them better when in a group.
What one does not see another will. A
picture record of the construction and
results of the practice will be good to
show to future groups. Once people see
a thing they are much more in a mood
to attempt it, if it is something they
can use profitably.

By following the steps outlined above,
a program in agricultural education can
be made to result in action, which is
the desired end of such education. The
four steps outlined above followed out
with any practice will do much to shorten
the gap between the time it is known and
the time it is applied on the farms. Over¬
coming this lag is the greatest need our
communities have. We must adapt our
teaching to meet this need, or our com¬
munities will find some other way to ac¬
complish it.

PALATABILITY OF PASTURE PLANTS

R. F. Fuelleman and W. L. Buklison
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Palatability is a relative term. When
applied to vegetation with respect to
animals, the cataloging of palatability of
plant species is extremely difficult. If it
were possible to isolate certain variables
and subject each factor to analysis with
relation to palatibility, the problem
would be greatly simplified.

Methods of analysis are contingent
upon animals, vegetation, environment

!and climate. During no period in the
grazing season, whether it be a month,
a week, or day, do any of the above fac¬
tors function in the same manner. The
most static, if they can be termed as
such with respect to palatability, are the
animals. Vegetation changes from day
to day at a surprising rate of speed, ani¬
mals more slowly. A large group of ani¬
mals on a given area tend to balance
among themselves small changes due to
environment. The converse is true with
vegetation. Different species have dis¬
similar requirements of moisture, light,
and temperature; their maturity differs.
An ideal environment for one species

may not be best for another. Pasturing
a single species of forage as Kentucky
bluegrass ( Poa pratensis ) would obvi¬
ously provide a measure of palatability
as related to maturity of this plant, but
would not be a criterion of the palatabil¬
ity of this grass as compared to some
other species. Animals with no alterna¬
tive or choice must necessarily derive
their nourishment from what is at hand,
whereas a mixture or series of mixtures
would provide a choice which would, be
conditioned by species, maturity, and a
number of factors so closely linked as to
be inseparable.

This paper presents briefly some re¬
sults of palatability studies inaugurated
in 1938.

Methods of Approach. — In attempting
to place palatability value on a plant
species, the best approach is through the
use of grazing animals and parallel botan¬
ical analyses of vegetation. Yield data
will also indicate the relationship be¬
tween palatability and available vegeta-
tion; however, the values assigned to a

i

IHMwr w

r (i* U.IIN0IS

52

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

particular species or mixture of species
do not distinguish definitely between
qualitative and quantitative results.

In attempting to assess the palatability
value of pasture plants, they should all
he offered to the animals at a stage of
growth where the majority of species are
at a stage of maturity most acceptable
to the animal. Undoubtedly, this stage
is during the early part of the grazing
season. It is difficult, if not impossible,
to project an experiment in which all
species would be pastured at the same
stage of maturity. If this were possible
the variable of animal changes is in¬
troduced.

A second factor indicates that the ani¬
mals should be of similar age and breed.
Obviously, different aged animals may
well have different tastes with respect to
vegetation. For example, aged animals
(sheep) may have greater requirements
for body maintenance, particularly dur¬
ing gestation periods, and therefore
might easily be less selective than an im¬
mature animal. Certain breeds c*f sheep
are larger or smaller than others and
introduce a variable into the picture dif¬
ficult to analyze. Acclimatization has not
been mentioned. However, a band of
sheep just arrived from a western range
and placed on a palatability test would
probably be less selective than the same
band following an acclimatization period.

Botanical analyses are considered as an
essential adjunct in palatability studies.
The method of analysis is of course ar¬
bitrary; but when a large number of
species plots are used, the matter of time
becomes most important. Hence, that
method affording the most rapid analysis
is used. The results obtained are quali¬
tative, but the application is remotely
quantitative.

Grazing animals, particularly sheep,
are selective and it can be assumed that
they will consume the more palatable
species whether it be weed, grass, or
clover. This is unquestionably one of
the fundamental bases for assessing pal¬
atability values to plant species.

That sheep are fairly constant in their
grazing habits can be seen by close ob¬
servation. When forage is plentiful — no
long period of time is necessary to sat¬
isfy their appetites — the daily grazing
periods are short. Usually this does not
exceed an hour’s time. If the experi¬

mental plots are large, they need not
graze all plots before obtaining their fill.
Under the above conditions, periods of
grazing seem to follow a time schedule;
i.e., beginning at 4 a. m. to 5 a. m.; 7
a. m. to 8 a. m.; 10 a. m. to 11 a. m.;
1 p. m. to 2 p. m.; etc., until dusk. Cer¬
tain external conditions may change the
direction of grazing — a strong wind tends
to cause them to rest on the lee side of
the field or plot, and when grazing, to
travel into the wind. When available
forage is short (literally), a much longer
period of time is required for the animals
to obtain sufficient to satisfy their needs.

Methods of Determining Palatability. —
Seventy-two plots in duplicate, each 1x2
rods in area, were seeded in the fall of
1936 and the spring of 1937 with pure
seedings and mixtures. Some 20 species
were seeded in various combinations and
in most cases alone. The position of an
individual plot in the series was prede¬
termined, and a comparison between cer¬
tain species and mixture plots was ex¬
pedited by using a single species on one
plot and mixtures of this species in com¬
bination with other species on adjacent
plots. An example of this was a mixture
containing red clover, Kentucky blue-
grass and redtop on one plot, and three
adjacent plots containing the same
grasses, but with alfalfa, alsike clover
and white clover as the legumes.

If the entire series of plots were used
in this paper the mass of data would be
unwieldy and confusing; therefore, the
writers have deemed if best to use a
group of six plots to illustrate the pro¬
cedure and results.

Botanical analyses by means of a point
quadrat were made in the fall of 1937
and in the summers of 1938, 1939, and
1940. Results were expressed in terms
of percentages for purposes of compari¬
son. The point quadrat method in prac¬
tice does not provide a measure of actual
weight of the component vegetation on a
plot, but does indicate the relative in¬
cidence of a particular species. The rela¬
tionship between point quadrat analyses,
occurrence, and actual quantity of any
species in a plot becomes more directly
comparable as the season advances and
as the vegetation is consumed by animals.

Yields of dry matter were obtained in
the spring of 1938 and again in the fall
from each plot for purposes of compari¬
son.

Agriculture — 1941 Meeting

53

In May of 1938, seventy even-aged
sheep were turned on the plots. From
a platform or tower located in the center
of the series of plots, observations were
made of the number of sheep on each
plot at intervals of 15 to 30 minutes over

a period of three days and the data re¬
corded. These observations coupled with
the botanical analyses, forage weights,
and observations form the basis for the
determination of palatability as recorded
in the results.

TABLE 1— RELATIVE PERCENTAGES OF SPECIES IN PLOTS ON SEPTEMBER 29, 1937, MAY 3,

1938, AND JUNE 13, 1940.

Plots

Species

1

2

3

4

5

6

9/37

5/38

6/40

9/37

5/38

6/40

9/37

5/38

6/40

9/37

5/38

6/40

9/37

5/38

6/40

9/37

5/38

6/40

Lad inn p.lnver

86

68

14

Bromegrass

21

13

36

1

6

5

Orchard grass

1

2

Tall nat grass

6

4

5

Timothy

4

16

52

76

29

47

54

4

6

Redtop .

”3

4

2

9

4

4

"" i

5

87

83

67

Kentucky bluegrass

1

11

43

6

9

3

2

35

2

10

89

"~77

87

7

6

18

Alfalfa

40

49

14

Reed canary grass

86

98

47

6

White clover

6

2

Weeds... . ... _

9

5

34

21

5

51

9

....

14

20

....

18

4

2

8

6

....

15

Results and Discussion.— The six plots
included in this discussion were seeded
with the following species: 1. Ladino
clover; 2. Timothy; 3. Reed canary
grass; 4. Alfalfa, timothy, redtop; 5.
Kentucky bluegrass; 6. Redtop.

Preliminary point quadrat readings
were made on September 29, 1937. The
results, as well as readings made on
May 3, 1938 and June 13, 1940, are shown
in table 1. Percentages are not an ex¬
pression of dry weight, but indicate the
relative percentage of each species.

The absence of grazing animals on the
plots in 1937 and a single clipping of
the plots in June allowed the taller grow¬
ing species to recover by September 29,
and in some cases suppressed the inci¬
dence of white clover, Trifolium repens.

Another factor which may result in the
presence or absence of white clover is
that of root interaction with the subse¬
quent elimination or entrance of certain
species from plots.

Table 1 illustrates the changes in
botanical composition over the period of
four years. A measure of relative pal¬
atability is found in the percentage of a
species remaining on the last analysis
date, June 13, 1940. In Plot 1, Ladino
clover decreased from 86 percent in 1937
to 14 percent in 1940. On the same plot
Kentucky bluegrass constituted 41 per¬
cent of the cover in the latter year. These

percentages at once illustrate the high
palatability of the clover and the aggres¬
siveness of the bluegrass. Plot 2 con¬
tained 76 percent timothy in 1938 and
none in 1940. Plot 3 was seeded to reed
canary grass. This grass has been con¬
sidered unpalatable. The figures in the
table bear out this statement, for in 1940
47 percent of the vegetation was reed
canary grass and Kentucky bluegrass oc¬
cupied 35 percent of the remaining space.
Similar relationships are illustrated in
Plots 4, 5, and 6.

Tables 2 and 4 are particularly inter¬
esting in that they provide a direct
measure of comparative palatability.
Yields of dry matter were obtained on
May 3, 1938, previous to turning in sheep,
and again on June 9 at the end of the
grazing period. Similar data are shown
for the period May 15 to June 29, 1939.
The amount of forage remaining or re¬
sidual yield, expressed in percentages, in¬
dicates the relative palatability of the
various species and mixtures. The factor
of growth occurring during the grazing
period is applicable to all species; i.e.,
the grand period of growth for all of the
species considered is encompassed by the
dates May 3-June 29. It is also a period
when these plants are most succulent and
therefore if a difference in palatability
occurs it is borne out in the differences
in consumed forage.

54

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Table 2. — Yields of Dry Matter in
Pounds Per Acre.

May 3 and June 9, 1938.

Plot

Seedings

Yield
pounds
per
acre
May 3

Yield
pounds
per
acre
June 9

Forage

remain¬

ing

%

1...

Ladino

2,424

684

28.0

2...

clover. . .
Timothy. . .

1,332

324

24.3

3...

Reed cana¬
ry grass .

5,280

2,832

56.4

4. . .

Alfalfa,
Timothy,
Redtop. .

2,136

372

17.4

5...

Kentucky

852

1,020

119.7

6...

bluegrass
Redtop. . . .

1,548

1,200

77.5

Table 3. — Total Number of Sheep Re¬
corded as Grazing on Each
Plot Over a Period of Four
Days. May 4 to May 7, 1938,

A Total of 70 Sheep was on
the Plots, and the Observa¬
tions Made at Regular In¬
tervals were 70.

Plot

Number of sheep on plots

1

44

2

26

3

0

4

30

5

5

6

5

Plot 5 gave a larger yield at the end
of the period than on the first sampling
date. Kentucky bluegrass, Poa pratensis,
was the dominant species. Redtop,
Agrostis alba, and reed canary grass,
Phalaris arundinacea, can be placed in a
second group of palatability. Alfalfa,
Medicago sativa, Ladino clover, trifolium
repens Latum, and timothy, Phleum pra-
tense, can all be placed in a group as
species of relatively high palatability.
Some species of the latter groups are

Table 4. — Yield Data for 1939. Plots
Grazed in Interim by Sheep

Plot

Yield
pounds
per
acre
May 15,
1939

Yield

pounds

per

acre

June 29,
1939

Forage

remain¬

ing

%

1 .

564

Trace

0.0

2 .

756

372

49.2

3 .

864

916

106.0

4 .

1,836

240

13.0

5 .

432

360

83.3

6 .

480

132

27.5

distinguished as being more palatable
than others.

Sheep Data. — The number of sheep
grazing a plot at a single specified time
is not an indication of palatability of the
species, but when a number of observa¬
tions are made and the number of ani¬
mals totaled it is safe to assume that the
figure obtained is an indication of palata¬
bility. Certain factors other than pal¬
atability may prevent the animals from
grazing some plots and must be consid¬
ered. The location of a plot is an ex¬
ample. If located near a farm road, the
traffic may cause sheep to avoid it. Table
3 shows the total number of sheep on
each plot — the total of 70 observations.

Palatability of Kentucky Bluegrass and
Redtop. — In 1939 two plots — one seeded
to Kentucky bluegrass, Poa pratensis, the
other to redtop, Agrostis alba — were used
to test the palatability of these species.
The palatability of both species is con¬
sidered as low during their mature stage
of growth. An enclosure was placed on
the plots, encompassing one-half of each
species. Two sheep were placed within
the enclosure for a period of eight days.
Yields were obtained at the beginning
and at the end of the period. The re¬
sults are shown in table 5. It is inter¬
esting to note that the apparent palata¬
bility of Kentucky bluegrass, as indi¬
cated by the percent of forage remaining,
was much higher than that of redtop.
The effect of maturity on palatability is
illustrated in this table.

Agriculture — 1941 Meeting

55

Table 5. — Comparison of Redtop (Agros-
tis alba) and Kentucky Blue-
grass (Poa pratensis) in Ma¬
ture Stages of Growth.

Period July 1 to July 8, 1939.

Plot

Yield
pounds
per
acre
July 1

Yield
pounds
per
acre
July 8

Number

of

sheep

Forage

remain¬

ing

%

Ken¬

tucky

blue-

grass

1,608

432

2

26.8

Red-
top. .

1,464

1,152

2

78.7

Summary

Data are presented to support state¬
ments regarding the palatability of pas¬
ture plants. The increase or decrease
of species in a sward is dependent upon
competition, environment, and maturity;
these in turn condition palatability and
therefore the relationship of this latter
factor to the animals themselves. Com¬
petition eliminates some species, but this
is speeded if one species is more palatable
than another. Maturity connotes more
fiber in a plant and therefore makes for
lowered palatability. Environment in
general was similar for all species and
hence the effect was considered equal.

certain factors affecting the growth of
azotobacter in the soil

J. L. Sullivan

Western Illinois State Teachers College , Macomb, Illinois

During the many years which have
elapsed since the discovery of the nitro¬
gen-fixing organisms of the genus Azoto¬
bacter, much experimental work has been
done dealing with their nutritional re¬
quirements and their probable economic
importance in the maintenance of soil
fertility. It is generally agreed that
Azotobacter may, under favorable condi¬
tions, be an important factor in the main¬
tenance of soil fertility. It is not definite¬
ly known how much nitrogen will be fixed
by these organisms under field conditions,
but the evidence available indicates that
these bacteria may be important in add¬
ing to the nitrogen content of the soil
and therefore in furnishing growing
crops with the nitrogen they need.

The experiments reported here were
undertaken to study the influence of vari¬
ous factors on nitrogen fixation by Azoto¬
bacter, and to determine if possible
whether any of these factors can be con¬
trolled by artificial means.

In order that one might determine
what influence soil treatment had on the
occurrence and activity of Azotobacter,
soil samples were collected from twenty-
five experimental fields located in the five
major soil divisions of Iowa and repre¬

senting eleven soil types. These fields
had been under observation for many
years. Manure had been applied to these
soils at the rate of eight tons an acre
every four or five years. Lime had been
added as needed according to the Truog
lime requirement test, while twenty per¬
cent superphosphate had been applied at
the rate of 160 pounds an acre a year.
Composite samples were collected from
three plots in each field. One sample
was collected from the check plot, a sec¬
ond sample from the plot which had been
treated with lime and manure, and an¬
other from the plot which had received
manure, lime, and superphosphate. These
soil samples were tested according to the
following methods: by Winogradsky’s
spontaneous culture test, by nitrogen
fixation in solution and on silica gel,
by the soluble phosphorous test, by pH
determination, and by the Truog lime
requirement test.

The results secured indicate that soil
reaction is probably the most important
factor affecting the distribution of Azoto¬
bacter in these soils. Different results
were secured, however, with the two
methods employed for establishing the
presence of these organisms. Many of

56

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

the soils which gave positive results with
the silica gel method failed to show the
presence of these bacteria when tested by
the Winogradsky spontaneous culture
method. The results obtained indicate
that the silica gel method is more reliable
for testing the presence of Azotobacter
in soils than the spontaneous method,
which is more widely employed. It is
our belief that the silica gel exerts some
beneficial effect on the growth of these
bacteria. On the basis of the Winograd¬
sky test many investigators have con¬
cluded that Azotobacter do not occur in
soils more acid than pH 6.00. In the
work reported here, however, these bac¬
teria were detected in soil as acid as pH
5.6.

Many investigators have reported that
Azotobacter can live in culture media far
more acid than pH 6.00 if combined nitro¬
gen is present. Since many of the soils
used in this investigation had been ma¬
nured, there may have been sufficient
nitrogen present to support these organ¬
isms even though the soils were quite
acid. Rather recently some research
workers have been able to demonstrate
the presence of Azotobacter in soils as
acid as pH 4.00. From their results it
appears that these organisms will live
in extremely acid soils if other soil fac¬
tors are favorable for their growth. In
fact, it has been reported that the addi¬
tion of calcium carbonate to soil may,
under certain conditions, inhibit the
growth of these organisms. It has been
observed that the addition of hydro¬
chloric acid, sulphuric acid, or phosphoric
acid to soils which had been limed in¬
creased the activity of Azotobacter in
these soils. Furthermore, some of these
research workers have concluded that
there is no close correlation between soil
reaction and the occurrence of Azoto¬
bacter, but that the carbonate phosphate
ratio is more important than the soil re¬
action. Other investigators, however,
have concluded that the soil complex is
the most important factor affecting the
occurrence of the non-symbiotic nitrogen¬
fixing organisms in soils. It is interest¬
ing to note that many of the extremely
acid soils which contained Azotobacter
were soils with a relatively high organic
matter content. One might assume from
the results that soil organic matter con¬
tains some factor or factors which stimu¬
late these organisms. In fact, it has been

observed that humus and soil extracts
from high humus soils will stimulate
these bacteria.

It seems that there is no general agree¬
ment among research workers concerning
the influence of soil reaction on the oc¬
currence of Azotobacter. I believe, how¬
ever, it is safe to say that the majority
of evidence available supports the belief
that Azotobacter are more likely to occur
in soils more alkaline than pH 6.00, than
in soils more acid than pH 6.00.

It has already been pointed out that
in the work reported here many of the
soils more acid than pH 6.00 contained
Azotobacter. In the majority of cases,
however, the organisms isolated from
these acid soils grew rather feebly on
culture media and had a low nitrogen¬
fixing power. These results seem to in¬
dicate that if these bacteria occur in
soils more acid than pH 6.00, they are
likely to be rather inactive and probably
do not fix as much nitrogen as those
organisms living in soils with a more
favorable reaction.

There is much evidence, therefore, that
if enough lime is added to an acid soil
to bring the reaction to near the neutral
point, and if other soil conditions are
favorable, an Azotobacter flora can be
established without artificial inoculation.
These organisms appear to be rather
widely distributed, and if soil conditions
are made favorable they will probably
find their way into the soil by natural
means.

In addition to soil reaction there are
apparently many other factors which in¬
fluence the occurrence and activity of
Azotobacter in soils. Many research
workers have found that the soil minerals
are necessary for nitrogen fixation by the
aerobic non-symbiotic nitrogen-fixers.
The bacteria of this group are said to be
particularly sensitive to a deficiency of
phosphates. There is, however, some
difference of opinion relative to the type
and quantity of phosphate needed. Many
investigators have reported that the ad¬
dition of phosphate fertilizers to soil had
no influence on Azotobacter, while others
have observed a marked stimulation fol¬
lowing the application of such materials.
In the work reported here the addition of
superphosphate, in addition to lime and
manure, did not apparently increase the
nitrogen-fixing power of the soil. None
of the soils were, however, very low in

Agriculture — 1941 Meeting

57

available phosphorus. If smaller amounts
of soluble phosphorus had been present
in these soils, different results might
have been secured. The soils which con¬
tained Azotobacter had a higher average
quantity of soluble phosphorus than the
soils in which the presence of these or¬
ganisms was not established. From these
data and from many other reports it ap¬
pears that if farmers followed the soil
management methods recommended by
their experiment stations, they would, in
the majority of cases, provide soil condi¬
tions favorable for the aerobic non-sym-
biotic nitrogen-fixing organisms. In the
work reported here sixteen percent of the
untreated soils contained Azotobacter,
while sixty-four percent of the fertilized
soils showed the presence of these bac¬
teria. Furthermore, the untreated soils
fixed much less nitrogen on silica gel
and in solution than did the fertilized
soils. It should be pointed out, however,
that many of the soils which had a high
crop-producing power and possessed con¬
ditions which are generally considered

favorable for these bacteria, either failed
to show the presence of these organisms,
or had a low nitrogen-fixing power.

We must admit, therefore, that our
knowledge of the conditions necessary for
maximum growth of Azotobacter is far
from complete. Quite recently, many
substances have been found which stimu¬
late these bacteria. In addition to ordi¬
nary soil minerals, many of the rare
minerals, such as molybdenum and van¬
adium, have been found to stimulate this
group of bacteria. In addition to the
minerals many organic compounds seem
to have a beneficial effect. There is also
some evidence that some materials con¬
tain accessory growth factors which in¬
fluence this group of organisms. It is not
known just how these materials influence
the growth of Azotobacter and the nitro¬
gen fixation by this group of organisms,
nor is it known what quantities
are needed for best results. The answers
to many of these questions will have to
await further investigation.

THE ROLE OF HYBRIDIZATION IN THE IMPROVEMENT

OF THE SOYBEAN

C. M. Woodworth

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Most of the varieties of soybeans grown
in the corn belt states at the present
time have been introduced from the
Orient or are selections from such intro¬
ductions. In the early days of the soy¬
bean in this country, thousands of varie¬
ties were brought over from Japan,
China, and Korea, and subjected to tests
in various states to determine their
adaptability. The varieties were so nu¬
merous and variations so abundant that
there was no lack of material for these
adaptation trials. Manchu, Dunfield,
Morse, Mansoy, Mukden, and many other
varieties were thus discovered and in¬
creased for commercial planting. This
represents the first phase of soybean im¬
provement in this country.

When the introductions and selections
had been tested and it appeared that little
further improvement could be expected
from that procedure, the breeder turned

his attention to crossing varieties. In
order for any further improvement to be
effected, there must be genetic variation
for selection to work upon. This is not
available in varieties that have come
from other varieties by pure line selec¬
tion. Hence; crossing must be resorted
to provide genetic variation.

Technique of Hybridization. — The soy¬
bean plant is rather difficult to hybridize
due mainly to the small size of the flower.
It is advantageous to use a binocular
magnifier which magnifies the flower
about three times. With the aid of this
instrument the anthers can be easily seen
and then they can be removed by means
of a pair of sharp pointed forceps. Then
pollen is brought, from the male parent
and applied to the stigma of the emascu¬
lated flower. From each flower thus
fertilized one may expect any number of
seeds from none to four provided a pod

58

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

develops. One is fortunate if 25 percent
of the flowers pollinated develop into
pods.

Recently changes have been made in
the technique of crossing which speed
up the process considerably. The flowers
are not emasculated at all but are polli¬
nated without first removing the anthers.
When plants are grown from seeds grown
in this way it may be found that some
of the plants are the result of self-fer¬
tilization and therefore not hybrids, but
in our experience most of them are hy¬
brids. This technique requires that the
parents differ in certain obvious char¬
acters, the mode of inheritance of which
is known, with the dominant member
carried by the male parent so that the
hybrids can be identified. Examples of
such characters are flower color and
pubescence color.

Methods of Handling F2 Plants. — When
the Fi hybrid plants are allowed to self-
pollinate and an F2 population grown,
there are two methods of handling the
material from this point on. One is the
pedigree system whereby each individual
Fo plant is harvested and threshed sep¬
arately, F3 progenies grown separately,
and selections made both within and be¬
tween these and progenies of later gen¬
erations. If yield of seed is one of the
characters in which improvement is
sought perhaps early yield tests are jus¬
tified for the purpose of eliminating many
lines as early in the selection program
as possible. This idea is based on a
study of the combining value of inbred
lines of corn by Dr. M. T. Jenkins (1).
Using the top-cross method, Doctor Jen¬
kins compared the yields of lines self-
fertilized from one to many times and
found that the combining value did not
appreciably change as the line ap¬
proached constancy. Applied to soybeans,
a self-fertilized crop, the implication is
that yield tests of F3 progenies would be
useful in eliminating many strains before
much time and effort were spent on them.
Such yield tests, however, necessarily in¬
volve large numbers of strains. Certain
of the newer field plot designs have been
worked out by statisticians for the ex¬
press purpose of increasing the accuracy
of tests containing more than the usual
number of strains. As an example we
have the 15x15 lattice design which ac¬
commodates 225 strains.

Another method of handling F2 mate¬
rial is known as the bulked hybrid
method. This is based on the principle
that a population of plants derived from
a hybrid and continually propagated by
self-fertilization tends to become a mix¬
ture of pure types with heterozygous
types reduced to a negligible proportion.
The number of such pure types is given
by the expression, 2m, where m is the
number ctf factors for which the was
heterozygous. Thus with 10 heterozyg¬
ous factors, we would expect 1024 pure
types representing all possible combina¬
tions of dominant and recessive members
of these factor pairs. The procedure is
to thresh all F2 plants together, plant the
seed the next year, or as much of it as
is practicable, harvest and thresh all
plants together as before, and continue
the process for 6 to 10 generations. At
the end of that time selections can be
made in the population with fair assur¬
ance that each plant selected will breed
true. During this period natural selec¬
tion will either eliminate many unadap¬
ted types or reduce them to low propor¬
tions. Also, at the start the seed can be
divided into separate lots and sent to
different sections of the state to be sub¬
jected to varying climatic and soil condi¬
tions. After several generations, it would
be expected that the best adapted types
would remain in the population in the
respective sections, and these could then
be isolated, grown in plant rows, and
tested further for yield and other char¬
acteristics. Many hybrid populations can
be carried on in this manner at low cost.

In fact, many hybrids can be put to¬
gether and carried on as one population.

Improvement Through Backcrossing. — I
Experiments are under way at present
to test out the value of backcrossing as
a method of improvement. The objec- jj
tives of this method are (1) to retain
the desirable characters of the recurrent
parent, and (2) to add other desirable
characters from the non-recurrent parent.
For example, Illini possesses several de¬
sirable characters, as good yield, seed
quality, and resistance to shattering; but
it has a tendency to lodge. Illini as re¬
current parent is crossed to T117 as non¬
recurrent parent which stands well. The
hybrid is then crossed to Illini to make
the first backcross. When the progeny
is grown the most erect plants are se-

Agriculture — 1941 Meeting

59

lected and these should be again crossed
to Illini to make the second backcross.
At this point the recurrent parent makes
up 87.5 percent of the gene content, and
if the third backcross is made the per¬
centage of Illini germplasm would in¬
crease to 93.75 percent. Selection for
Illini characters is unnecessary because
continual backcrossing to Illini leads to
the production of a population that ap¬
proaches that variety in homozygous
condition very rapidly. Illini characters
cannot be lost even under non-selection.
Selection then is important only in hold¬
ing the desirable character or characters
from the non-recurrent parent.

Success by the method of backcrossing
is conditioned somewhat by the mode of
inheritance of the characters brought in
by the non-recurrent parent. If the in¬
heritance is simple and the character is
dominant then selection is easy and suc¬
cess is assured. If, however, the char¬
acter is quantitative in nature and deter¬
mined by a large number of genes the
problem is difficult. Furthermore, if the
character desired is recessive, complica¬
tions arise. Under such conditions, there
are two procedures that might be fol¬
lowed :

(1) Alternate crossing to the recur¬
rent parent with selling so that by segre¬
gation the recessive character will be
brought out for selection to lay hold of.
After the first backcross, half the pro¬
geny will be homozygous for the domi¬
nant and half will be heterozygous. These
cannot be distinguished. If allowed to
self-fertilize, they can be distinguished
by the behavior of their progeny, as half
will breed true and half will segregate.
Those that segregate are the plants de¬
sired. The recessive segregates could
then be selected and crossed the next
year to the recurrent parent, making the
second backcross. This procedure could
then be repeated.

(2) Continuing the backcrossing with¬
out interruption as many times as de¬
sired, delaying until the period of back-
crossing is completed the isolation of the
desired type. As in (1) after the first
backcross, half the progeny will be hom¬
ozygous for the dominant and half will
be heterozygous. These of course cannot
be distinguished, but a number of them
can be crossed back to the recurrent
parent again. Theoretically, half of such

crosses would be with the homozygous
dominant and half with the heterozygous
dominant. Hence, the recessive gene can¬
not be lost even though it is impossible
for selection to operate. When the sec¬
ond backcross plants are grown they can
again be crossed if desired with the re¬
current parent with the expectation how¬
ever that three-fourths of the crosses will
be with homozygous and one-fourth with
heterozygous parents. If three back-
crosses are considered sufficient the
plants can be allowed to self-pollinate,
and the next year tested out, plant-to-row,
to determine which are breeding true and
which are segregating. From the segre¬
gating rows, the recessive can be selected
with good assurance that they possess
most of the contribution from the re¬
current parent as well as the desired
character from the non-recurrent parent.

Taking Advantage of Hybrid Vigor. —
Certain soybean varieties when crossed
exhibit hybrid vigor though not nearly to
the same extent as corn hybrids. It is
generally considered that a hybrid ex¬
hibits hybrid vigor if it exceeds both
parents in some particular character as
yield of seed or height or total weight of
dry matter. Corn hybrids made by cross¬
ing inbred lines furnish sensational ex¬
amples of plants that exceed the parent
lines in most characters having to do
with growth or size. Soybean hybrids
do not ordinarily exceed the better par¬
ent very much, though there are a few ex¬
ceptions. A few years ago one of our
students, Dr. Collins Veatch, made a care¬
ful study of 16 soybean hybrids. (2)
Of these, 10 were above the higher parent
variety in yield of seed to an extent rang¬
ing from 1.58 to 71.53 percent. More
recently in a group of 49 hybrids studied
by Dr. L. F. Williams, Bureau of Plant
Industry, U.S.D.A., at the U. S. Regional
Soybean Industrial Products Laboratory,
in cooperation with the Illinois Station,
there were 32 which were above the
higher parent in yield of seed to an ex¬
tent ranging from 0.1 — 97.4 percent.
These soybean hybrids thus exhibited
hybrid vigor just as corn hybrids do, but
the difference is in the extent of its mani¬
festation. Compared with the inbred
parents many corn hybrids yield from
three to five times as much as even the
higher yielding inbred. On a percentage
basis this would represent an increase of
200 to 400 percent.

60

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

There is another very important differ¬
ence between corn hybrids and soybean
hybrids, and that consists in the way
they can be utilized for increased produc¬
tion. Because of the flowering habits of
the corn plant, corn hybrids can be easily
and cheaply produced on a field scale by
interpianting the two parents and detas-
seling the ear parent so that it can be
pollinated only by the pollen parent.
Thus the commercial crop can be grown
from hybrid seed and complete advan¬
tage can be taken of any hybrid vigor
that may be exhibited. Soybean hybrids,
on the other hand, have to be tediously
and painstakingly produced by first re¬
moving the anthers of the flower borne
on the female parent, and then pollinat¬
ing with pollen collected from the flowers
born on the male parent. An expert hy¬
bridizer working every day during the
pollinating season would do well to pro¬
duce a few hundred hybrid seeds in this
way. It is obviously impossible, there¬
fore, to utilize in the same way as with
corn any hybrid vigor soybean hybrids
may exhibit.

Consequently, the soybean breeder has
to try another method. He must try to
hold the increased vigor exhibited by the
hybrid while at the same time he carrries
the hybrid down through the F2, F3, F4
and later generations allowing self-fertili¬
zation to take place each time. The only
way in which he can hope to hold the
vigor is by selection. But in this he is
opposed by the principle of segregation
which distributes the favorable factors
into different lines. Hence, a compromise
results, and the breeder has to be satis¬
fied with whatever vigor he can hold and
still have a true-breeding variety.

Convergent Improvement. — The method
of convergent improvement which has
been suggested (for corn also has a place
in soybean breeding. This differs from
the strict backcross method in that back-

crosses are made to each parent instead
of but one. Thus two recovered lines are
developed which are more nearly alike to
the extent that one or more genes have
been brought in from the respective non¬
recurrent parent, held by selection, and
made homozygous by selfing. The hybrid
between the two recovered lines should
then be homozygous for the new genes
which are common to the recovered par¬
ents. The hybrid would be expected,
theoretically, to exhibit as much hybrid
vigor as the original lines when crossed.
Hence, when selfing occurs there would
be less reduction in vigor because of the
increased homozygosity of the hybrid.
This method should result in holding at
least some of the hybrid vigor which is
unavoidably lost under the regular pro¬
gram of crossing following by selection.

A New Variety the Result of Cross¬
ing. — Last year a new variety named
Chief was introduced to a few growers
for further increase. This variety was
selected from a cross between Illini and
a strain of Manchu. The pedigree system
of handling F2 and later generation plants
was used in producing the new variety.
Chief is not a hybrid soybean, but a
variety which has been selected from a
hybrid and which breeds true for its char¬
acters. It combines certain of the desir¬
able characters of both parents, but it has
lost most of the hybrid vigor exhibited by
the Fj. With this as an example of apply¬
ing the method of hybridization to soy¬
bean improvement, it can be anticipated
that further work applying the principles
and methods above described will lead to
still further improvement.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Jenkins, M. T. The effect of inbreeding and

selection within inbred lines of maize upon
the hybrids made after successive generations
of selfing. Iowa State College Jour, of Sci.,
9:215-236. 1935.

2. Veatch, Collins. Vigor in soybeans as affected

bv hybridity. Jour. Amer. Soc. Argon. 22(4) :
289-310. 1930.

Papers in Anthropology

Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman

The program at Evanston carried six papers and one panel discussion.
Four papers are being published herewith. The titles and authors of the
other two and the discussion were as follows :

Walker, Winslow M., St. Louis Academy of Science, St. Louis, Mis¬
souri — Two Hopewellian Mounds Near Peoria, Illinois. (This is being
published by the Illinois State Museum.)

Deuel, Thorne, Illinois State Museum, Springfield — Archaeological
exploration sponsored by the Museum, 1940-41.

The meeting was attended by a maximum of 26 people, and elected as
chairman for the Urbana meeting in 1942 Donald E. Wray, 604 Caroline St.,
Peoria.

(Signed) F. T. Barloga, Chairman

[61]

62

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

POSSIBLE APPLICATION OF KITE PHOTOGRAPHY TO
ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY

William R. Bascom

Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

The application of aerial photography
to archaeology is no new discovery, but
it has thus far been limited to larger
sites such as those in the Near East,
those of the Maya in Central America,
and Zimbabwe in Africa. The fact that
this technique has not been extended
does not mean that it is not equally use¬
ful in the investigation of the less spec¬
tacular remains. In the case of village
sites, cultivated fields, and even Indian
mounds, indeed, the outlines as seen from
the vertical axis are often the most inter¬
esting and important. The reason is rather
that the expense of hiring an airplane
and trained photographer or, alternative¬
ly, of owning and operating the bulky
equipment for balloon photography is al¬
most prohibitive. It is quite possible,
however, that aerial photographs may be
made from kites with equipment costing
only fifty or seventy-five dollars, which is
well within the reach of the institutions
engaged in archaeological investigations
in the Midwest, and with the cost of
operation limited to the price of film and
development. If such photographs should
prove satisfactory, there is no reason
why aerial records — both before and
during excavation — should not be made
of every site.

The applicability of kite photography
is not limited to archeology; it may be of
considerable importance to ethnology as
well in providing an easy method of map¬
ping dwelling sites both among nomadic
and settled village peoples, and in record¬
ing the layout of farms and garden plots.
Aerial photographs have already been
used in the latter instance in ethnological
work in Africa, but kite photography
would make it possible for each institu¬
tion to have equipment for aerial photo¬
graphs available for the ethnologists it
sends into the field.

In both archaeology and ethnology, fur¬
thermore, the kite has a considerable ad¬
vantage over the airplane in that it can
operate at much lower altitudes. By
mounting the camera at a considerable

distance below the kite, it would be pos¬
sible to photograph from altitudes low
enough to give great detail, and even to
use the camera to cover ceremonial ac¬
tivities from the air.

Nor is the idea of taking aerial photo¬
graphs from kites original either. I
believe that it has a rather long history
in connection with army observation
work. My own acknowledgments, how¬
ever, must be made to W. Sellers of the
Health Department of Nigeria, British
West Africa, who described to me the
type of equipment used by his depart¬
ment in connection with fever control.
Mosquito breeding swamps are photo¬
graphed from kites before sprinkling
them with chemicals.

The camera employed is a light inex¬
pensive folding instrument to which are
attached small dry-cell batteries and a
solenoid which releases the shutter when
the circuit is closed. Actually, since the
distances involved are large, a fixed-
focus camera of the box type would
probably be satisfactory and would be
better adapted to the mounting of the
necessary accessories. The camera itself
is mounted on the cord, some distance
below the kite so that it can be rewound
and reset after each exposure without
having to ground the kite. The switch
for the solenoid circuit is mounted on
the cord somewhat below the camera in
such a way that it can be closed by the
pressure of a parachute which is carried |
up the sting by the wind in the way
children send “messages” up to a flying
kite. Provision is made so that the para¬
chute is disengaged after closing the cir¬
cuit, with the result that the circuit is
then broken and the strength of the bat- j
teries is preserved.

For this work, a folding box kite of the |
type which can be launched easily in
very little wind should be employed. If
a small kite of this type is not sufficient
to carry the camera equipment, it could
be used to aid in launching a larger kite
designed to carry most of the burden.

Anthropology — 1941 Meeting

63

Aside from the advisability of experi¬
menting with different types of kites,
there are two main problems to be solved.
First, will a simple suspension of the
camera be stable enough in the wind, or
can another type of mounting be devised
so that clear photographs can be ob¬
tained? This problem could be partially
solved by using a more expensive camera
with a high speed shutter. Second, how
may the camera be accurately aimed at
a desired objective? This will have to be
done by flying the kite (from a position
from which the wind will carry it over
the site to be photographed, and perhaps
considerable experience will be necessary

before this can be done successfully.

It was my original intention to pre¬
sent this paper only after these problems
had been solved, and to illustrate it with
examples of kite photographs of Indian
mounds. But since academic obligations
have already postponed this project for
three years, I have decided rather to
throw the idea open at these meetings
and to call for cooperation on it. I am
still hoping, however, to do some experi¬
mentation in the near future. The fact
that kite photography has proved practi¬
cable in Nigeria and elsewhere gives
me confidence that these problems can be
solved.

THE CHICAGO PORTAGE

John B. Rtjyle
Champaign , Illinois

In the spring of 1609 near the present
town of Ticonderoga, New York, Samuel
des Champlain and his allies the Hurons
and Algonquin Indians engaged in battle
with a group of Iroquois warriors. This
battle, the reverberations of which, espe¬
cially in the Mississippi Valley, were to
be felt for decades, changed the course of
history.

Champlain with his arquebus was the
deciding (factor in the battle. It was the
first experience of the Iroquois with Eu¬
ropean firearms and the Indians fled in
disorder. As a result of this defeat, how¬
ever, they became implacable foes of the
French at every opportunity. Maps of
the early seventeenth century show the
English along the eastern seaboard, the
Spanish in Florida and on the western
coast, and the French occupying territory
extending in a line from the Great Lakes
eastward along the St. Lawrence.

Due to the geographical location of the
French possessions, and the extent of the
country controlled by the Iroquois, who
were fierce fighters, the French could
travel from the Mississippi Valley north¬
ward only by the Lake Superior and Lake
Michigan routes. Hence the French
often used the Chicago Portage whose
history came to be closely associated with
the exploits of two gallant men, Pere
Marquette and Rene Robert LaSalle.

In May, 1673, Louis Joliet, the son of

a Quebec wagon maker, and Pere Jacques
Marquette, a Jesuit priest, left St. Ignace,
in what is now Michigan, to explore for
Frontenac, the Governor of New France,
and to claim new lands for Louis XIV.
They (followed the west side of Lake
Michigan southward, entered Green Bay,
ultimately reaching the Mississippi River.
Marquette named this river “Immaculate
Conception,” a name later to be changed
to “The Colbert” in honor of a French
minister. The explorers continued south
on the Mississippi to the mouth of the
Arkansas River; then, fearing to proceed
farther lest they be seized by Spaniards,
they retraced their route as far north as
the mouth of the Illinois River, where
upon the advice of friendly Indians, they
headed up this tributary, as far as Kas-
kaskia, the Indian’s principal town lo¬
cated near the present town of Utica.
After a brief visit here with members of
the Illini Confederacy, they returned
home after entering Lake Michigan by
way of the Chicago Portage. *The next
year (1674) Marquette, in company with
two other Frenchmen and ten canoes of
Illinois and Pottawatomie Indians landed
at Grosse Point (near what is now Evan¬
ston), (followed the shore line south to
the mouth of the Chicago River, where
Marquette became ill, and was detained
at the Chicago Portage from December
till March 30th. On the return trip to

64

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Green Bay, he crossed the Kankakee-St.
Joseph Portage but never reached his
destination. He died en route and his
body was interred at the mouth of a
small river near Ludington, Michigan.

At this time, the fur trade was the
most important commercial activity of
the new country, and LaSalle dreamed of
a chain of forts that could be erected on
the principal rivers to control this trade.
With this object in view, he hurried to
Prance, succeeded in obtaining a knight¬
hood there and returned with power to
colonize the vast unknown empire in
America. The first efforts in accomplish¬
ing this were the erection of two forts on
the Illinois River: Fort Crevecoeur

across from the present town of Peoria,
and Fort St. Louis at what is now named
“Starved Rock”. He made three trips
across the Chicago Portage, and, contrary
to the belief of Joliet, felt that a canal
connecting the Des Plaines and Chicago
Rivers would not be a success. All of his
expeditions, however, were attended with
ill luck and finally, due to a miscalcula¬
tion of longitude, he failed in his quest
for the mouth of the Mississippi. He was
assassinated on the Trinity River in
Texas, but seven of his followers returned
to France, again passing over the Chicago
Portage.

From 1700 to 1795, the portage was
virtually closed to white men due to the
danger of attack by Indians. Then, gradu¬
ally, travel increased and, from the es¬
tablishment of Fort Dearborn in 1803
until its extinction in 1812, the portage
was once more an important north-south
avenue of travel. From the fall of the
fort until the close of the Blackhawk
War of 1832, the route was little used
but after the conclusion of hostilities im¬
migrants from the east began to utilize
the Portage. This traffic continued until
the completion of a canal in 1848 afforded

an easier route, and the Chicago Portage ;
was abandoned.

Glacial Lake Chicago which occupied
the present site of Chicago had three
stages. In the first, the Glenwood, the
water was 55 feet higher, and in the Tol-
leston (the last stage) 20 feet above the
present water level. The Des Plaines
River extended then only to Riverside,
flowing directly into Glacial Lake Chi¬
cago. The outlet of this lake was down
the present Des Plaines Valley. When
the water receded and a barrier develop¬
ed near what is now Kedzie Avenue, the
Des Plaines reversed its direction and
flowed through old Glacial Lake Outlet,
leaving a slough a few miles in length
between the Des Plaines and Chicago
rivers, called Mud Lake. This connected
with the Des Plaines by a small stream
called Portage Creek. Travellers coming
north up the Illinois descended the Des
Plaines to Portage Creek, followed this a
mile and a half to Mud Lake which was
five miles long and one or two miles wide,
then skirted its shore for three-quarters
of a mile to the Chicago River, which, in
turn, lead them into Lake Michigan. At
the western extremity of Mud Lake was
a small island, one mile in length and
half a mile wide which divided it into
two channels. The northern channel, the
shallower and straighter of the two, was
generally used except in dry weather
when the deeper, less direct southern
channel was followed. On “Tolleston”
Beach which fringed the lake on the
northern, western and southern sides,
ran four Indian trails. The Green Bay
trail followed the northern shore, and
intercepted two western traces, one of
which led to Fullersburg, Downers Grove
and Naperville, and the other, south¬
westerly down the Des Plaines Valley.
Along the south side was the Eastern
trail which extended eastward and south.

Anthropology — 1941 Meeting

65

CULTURAL OBJECTS OF CLEAR LAKE VILLAGE SITE

E. SCHOENBECK

Peoria Academy of Science , Peoria, Illinois

Clear Lake village site, excavated by
the university of Chicago in 1932 and
reported by Drs. Cole and Deuel1, has
been further excavated by A. Simpson
and G. and E. Schoenbeck, members of
the Peoria Academy of Science. Collec¬
tions have been considerable, mostly from
3- to 7-foot depths. Findings suggest oc¬
cupation over a length of time by Wood¬
land peoples of changing culture as seems
indicated by representative material of
five cultural divisions: Red Ocher,

Black Sand, Central Basin, Hopewell, and
Maples Mills. Cultural continuity might
be suggested. The finds support a classi¬
fication of the Hopewell as an elemental
variant, lacking in some of the higher,
specialized traits.

Most numerous of the cultural objects
unearthed are pottery sherds, which in¬
clude over 1100 rims, all Woodland, Hope-
wellian, or grit-tempered wares. Vessel
fragments sufficient for projection may
number 30 or more, and include Cole and
Deuel’s types 2, 2a, 3, 3a and 5, as well
as a 214-inch miniature. Finer Hopewell
pottery discovered at the site shows
similarities with Wisconsin Trempea¬
leau and Louisiana types. Inferior
variations of the delicate cross-hatched
rim and simulated effects in heavier ware
o cur. Resemblances between types 1 and
2a and southern wares are suggested.
Type 3a is most abundant and occurs
throughout. Additional specimens, in
part Hopewellian, are reported, including

Village Cultural Objects. 1. Shell crescent. 2. Grooved net
Denrtant P bJ?td"may object, purpose problematical. 4. Shale pendant. 5. Bone

o6 ?>nd 7‘ T7° PO/tions clay pipes. 8. Broken shell spoon, hinge removed
?2dFlkg1np?™? canine- .10- Bear canine, split and perforated. 11. Elk eye tooth.

ItUrLk ^cisor, grooved for suspension. 13. Bead of cut, hollowed bone. 14. '

shed bead. 15. River snailshell bead. 16. Cut animal jaw. 17. Shaped,
purpose problematical. 18. Copper pin.

Marine snail-
notched bone object.

1 Oole, F. C., and Deuel, Thome, Rediscovering Illinois, University of Chicago Press, 1937.

66

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

a thickened-lip, red-painted ware and a
concentric trail type.

Bone objects, well preserved, include
111 awls, 23 2-pointed implements of split
cannon bone of deer, beamer, bodkin,
spatula, 2 types of beads, game bones, a
pendant, a chisel-ended tool, a beveled-end
tool, and others. Worked horn items are:
a socketed handle and tips, cut, hollowed
or grooved. Other animal remains are
an elk eye tooth, elk incisors, bear
canines, cut animal jaws, sheepshead
otoliths, a turtle carapace bowl, fish
spines (some polished from use), and
drumfish toothplates. Refuse bones are
abundant. Burials include 2 children, 1
dog, and a bundle burial.

Shell items are: hoes, spoons, marine
and river snailshell beads, a crescent, a
cache of 400 snailshells, hundreds of
opened clamshells, and others.

Stone tools include 5 celts, grooved
sharpening stones, a grooved net weigh-
ter, anchor (?), sandstone knife, 1 pendant

and fragments, rubbing-, hammer-, pitted-
and peckingstones. Limonite tools are:
2 spades, celt, knife, and fragments.

Flint articles found at the Clear Lake
site consist of 42 points, mostly notched;
12 knives (flake, spawl, triangular, and
asymmetric); 53 scrapers (end, spawl
and flake) ; drill fragments, and sphe¬
roidal nodules.

Vegetable material is comprised of a
carbonized corncob fragment, carbonized
hickorynuts arid acorn kernels, with some
charcoal and ash.

Other items are: bits of muscovite, a
copper pin, portions of clay pipes, Y-
shaped baked-clay object of problematical
character, volcanic tuff, red ocher, and
broken slabs of saucer-shaped ground-
basins (?) made of a hardened clay and
sand mixture, smoothed above and
merged with sand below; occasional ac¬
cumulations of stones, one containing
more than 50 stones.

MIDDLE MISSISSIPPIAN

TEMPERED WARE

Donald E. Wray

Peoria, Illinois

I wish to draw attention to a peculiar
type ctf pottery which occurs in certain
Middle Mississippian sites in central and
southern Illinois. This type differs from
the ordinary Mississippi ware in a num¬
ber of significant traits. The vessels are
grit, tempered, intensely fired and have
rough undecorated or cord marked sur¬
faces. They occur in the forms of shal¬
low conical vases with two straight legs
at the base, elongated cylinders and ped¬
estal or boot shapes with flaring lips,
mushroom bases and with narrow in¬
teriors and heavy walls. These vessels
are quite rare but seem to have a wide
distribution. The conical form is known
to the writer by two specimens from the
Kingston Lake site and one from the
Crable site. The cylinder is represented
at Kingston by the sherds of two vessels.
The pedestal has been described by Tit-
terington in his monograph on the Ca-
hokia site.

The conical vessel from Kingston Lake
is 6 V2 inches in diameter, 3 y2 inches tall
and has walls % of an inch thick. It is
brick red and apparently cracked and

sagged before baking. The temper is of
about medium coarseness compared to
other grit tempered pottery in this area.
Since the vessel has only two projections
or legs it can not be stood up by itself.
(Fig. A.) This type is not to be confused

Plate I. — Diagram of Unusual Middle
Mississippian Grit Tempered Ware. A
Conical vessel from Kingston Lake. B
Cylinder from Kingston Lake. C. “Boot
from Cahokia site, vertical perforation, after
Titterington. D. “Boot” from Cahokia site,
transverse perforation, after Titterington.

Anthropology — 1941 Meeting

67

with the three-or four-legged pots which
are fairly common in the Middle Missis¬
sippi culture and have shell tempering
and generally are polished or smoke fin¬
ished. The cylinder from Kingston, as
projected from the sherds, is seven inches
in diameter and at least 14 inches in
length, (fig. B). The rim is square in
cross section but no trace of the base is
present. The surface has been carelessly
finished and tempering is either absent
or very fine grit.

Titterington has described the boot or
“pedestal” in his monograph on the Ca-
hokia Mound Group. Thirteen fragment¬
ary pieces are known from the Cahokia
site, all a well fired crumbly ware, with
coarse grit temper. Seven show coarse
cord marking, and two a rather fine cord
marking. There are two types, both with
a flaring top and two foot-like projections
placed almost at right angles to each
other so that about three-fourths of the
base is roughly circular. Both types
have a deep inverted conical cavity, the
base of the cone being at the top and the
apex extending one-half to two-thirds of
the way down through the object. The
difference in the types is in a hole in the
base of the pieces. In the first type the
hole is an extension of the conical cavity
downward to emerge on the bottom of
the object (fig. C). In the second type
the hole goes through the base horizon¬
tally and has no connection with the
cavity above (fig. D). This specimen is
five and one-fourth inches high, and the
rim diameter is three and three-fourths
inches. The rim varies from five-eighths
to three-fourths of an inch in thickness,
and the hole is three-eighths of an inch
in diameter.

In a letter Titterington adds that simi¬
lar vessels were described in an old jour¬
nal of a society in Kansas City. He says
that all the specimens that he has found
have been on village sites where a very
high percentage of all other materials
was Mississippian rather than Woodland.
However he is not certain that the boots
should be called Mississippian.

Griffin also hesitates about assigning
this type to the Mississippian because of
the presence of cord wrapped paddling on
the boots and the fact that the type has
not been found on many of the sites re¬
lated to Cahokia. He is also not con¬
vinced that the pottery from Kingston
Lake and Crable is the same as Titter-
ington’s boots from Cahokia. I feel, how¬
ever, that the basic pattern of the boots
and the Kingston conical vessel is the
same. Both have a conical interior or
cup with two projections or legs at the
base. The Kingston form might very
well be a simplification of the Cahokia
type.

The case for these objects may be sum¬
marized as follows: They are products
of the Middle Mississippi culture because
they are found only on Middle Mississippi
sites and their form and decoration bear
no resemblance to the pottery of other
cultures so that they can not be explained
as intrusions from a Woodland group;
in tempering, shape, surface treatment
and firing they are widely differentiated
from the typical utilitarian pottery of the
Middle Mississippi; their occurrence is
too rare for them to have had any com¬
mon function (it has been suggested that
the cone might have been a cover for a
pot) ; the unusual quality of the pottery
argues against any common use; the care¬
less execution of the vessels indicates that
they were not intended for continuous
use but for a temporary or occasional use.
It is unlikely that it represents funerary
pottery since all recorded specimens have
come from village deposits and not from
burials. All these considerations would
seem to indicate that this peculiar pot¬
tery type may represent a ceremonial
ware of the Middle Mississippian culture.
No such ware has yet been recognized
but we might suspect its existence from
the presence of the “Pyramid complex”
which indicates an elaborate ritual life.

LITERATURE

Titterington, P. F. — “For Identification”, American
Antiquity Vol. 3, April, 1939, page 354.

The Cahokia Mound and Village Site, p. 13.

Papers in Botany

Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman

The Botany Section carried 25 papers, 20 of which are herewith pub¬
lished. The others were :

King, Lawrence J., University of Chicago, Chicago — Preliminary studies
of the effects of growth substances and light intensities on Anacharis
densa.

Olmsted, Charles E., University of Chicago, Chicago — Some aspects of
plant interrelationships in an oak-maple forest.

Romig, John R. and F. Lyle Wynd, University of Illinois, Urbana — The
effect of nitrogenous fertilizer on the vitamin C content of cereal grass
leaves.

Scully, Norbert J., University of Chicago, Chicago — Preliminary in¬
vestigation of root distribution in an oak-maple forest.

Voth, Paul D., University of Chicago, Chicago — Growing Marchantia
polymorpha on glass cloth with controlled inorganic nutrients.

The chairman was re-elected for the Urbana meeting in 1942.

(Signed) Paul D. Voth, Chairman
Dept, of Botany, University of Chicago

[69]

70

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

SEED FORMATION, GERMINATION, AND POST-GERMINA¬
TION DEVELOPMENT IN CERTAIN CICHORIEAE

William Edward Reid Hopper

East Alton — Wood River Community High School , Wood River, Illinois

Part I. Fruit Development — Partheno¬
genesis. Hundreds of flower heads of
Taraxacum officinale Weber, Chichorium
intybus L. and Lactuca ludoviciana
(Nutt.) Riddell were" castrated by means
of a razor blade so as to remove the
anthers and stigmas. Castrations were
made between 6 and 7 A. M. before the
o n e - d a y flowers opened. Removing
stamens and stigmas of Chichorium in¬
tybus with the fingers was the best
method of castration.

Seeds of castrated and normal flowers
were germinated at 26.66°-32.22°C. and
9°C. At 9°C. 25% of the Taraxacum
seeds germinated while 45% germinated
at room temperature. Seeds of castrated
Chichorium intybus and Lactuca ludo¬
viciana did not germinate at room tem¬
perature but normal fertile seeds gave
from 4-18% and 16-56% germination re¬
spectively.

Conclusions: — 1. The results o*f Stork,
Raunkiear, Sears, Ikeno, Osawa, and
others in producing parthenogenesis in
Taraxacum has been confirmed. Partheno¬
genesis is the normal manner of seed
development in many species of Taraxa¬
cum. 2. Parthenogensis apparently does
not exist in Lactuca ludoviciana or
Chichorium intybus.

Part II. Seed Germination. — It has
been found by a number of investigators
that the seeds of different species of cul¬
tivated lettuce are affected in different
ways by light, oxygen, moisture, temper¬
ature, and chemical factors before and
during germination. It was the object of
these experiments to determine the fac¬
tors influencing seed germination and
dormancy in Lactuca scariola L. and Lac¬
tuca ludoviciana (Nutt.) Riddell seeds.
Seeds of various ages were treated by
germinating at various temperatures,
germinating under different moisture
conditions, exposing to Artificial light and
sunlight, mutilating seeds, and soaking

in chemical solutions. Treated seedy
were placed on clay germination blocks
made for this purpose by the Ceramics
Department of the University of Illinois
or between filter paper in Petri dishes.
Air-dry seeds used in these experiments
were 12 months, 10 months, 8 months,
and 2 to 24 days old. Controls were
used for seeds germinated at tempera¬
tures of 7°-8°C., 8°-20°C., 23°-25°C., 26°-
30°C., and 36°-50.5°C. Eight months-old
seeds of L. ludoviciana in water and air-
dry were placed at -7°C. for 2, 5*4, 8, and
24 hours. They were germinated at 15 °-
24°C. The same age seeds were soaked
in the dark for 5, 22, 48, and 77 hours at
3°-7°C. then germinated at 18°-24.5°C.
The same age seed were soaked in the
dark for 5, 15, 24, and 30 hours at tem¬
peratures of 8°-23°C., 15°-20.5°C., 18°-
22 °C., and 42°-51.5°C. then germinated at
18°-24.5°C. The longer the seeds were
soaked at -7°C. the lower the percentage
of germination. The longer the seeds
were soaked at 3°-7°C. the higher the
percentage of germination, increasing
from 30%-65% for the 5 and 77 hours
soaked. Seeds soaked at 8°-23°C. and
germinated at 18°-24.5°C. averaged 66%
for all hours soaked. Eight month old
seeds of L. scariola were soaked 24 hours
at 8°-20°C., 15°-22°C., 23°-24.5°C., and
40.5°-48°C. then germinated at the same
temperature. With the exception of those
germinating at 15°-22°C. all were exposed
to diffused light during soaking and ger¬
mination. The same age seeds were
placed in an oven at a temperature of
36°-50.5°C. for 1, 2, 3, and 5 days, then
germinated at 15°-22°C. The percentage
of germination was inversely propor¬
tional to the temperature. Both dry and
soaked seeds germinated 70% at the low¬
est temperature.

Exposure to sunlight for five minutes
increased the percentage of germination
of 24 day old L. ludoviciana seeds that
had been soaked 2 hours.

Botany — 1941 Meeting

71

Eight months-old seeds of both species
of wild lettuce were exposed in water and
dry to a 75 watt Mazda bulb at a distance
of 3 feet for 5, 10, 20, 40, and 60 minutes.
An aluminum reflector was used above
the bulb and an electric fan was directed
upward on the bulb to dispense with as
much heat as possible. The seeds were
placed on clay blocks for germination
at a temperature of 24°-32°C. The in¬
crease in exposure to light did not seem
to increase the percentage of germination
but germination was increased from
0-30% for L. ludoviciana seeds in water.
L. scariola were not definitely affected
by this treatment.

Ten month-old seeds of L. scariola
were soaked for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 hours.
Forty seeds were placed on a clay block
in the germinator each hour and half of
these were covered with a strip of filter
paper dipping into the water. The germ¬
ination temperature was 23°-25°C. The
same age seeds were soaked 3, 6, 9, and
18 hours, then germinated at the same
temperature. It is evident that the seeds
imbibe enough water for germination
within an hour and additional soaking
decreases the percentage of germination
from 7-3% over a period of 6 hours.

Thirteen day-old, 10 month-old and 12
month-old seeds were soaked a half hour
and the rounded ends cut off. After 12
hours the seed coats were removed from
other seeds and all were placed on sand
depths of 2, 3, 4, and 4% inches in an
apparatus designed by Prof. C. F. Hottes
for maintaining a constant amount of
water in each depth of sand. The per¬
centage of water varied from 7.85-14.05
and was inversely proportional to the
depth of sand as was the percentage of
germination. On two-inch sand sub¬
stratum 85% of the seeds with rounded
ends cut off germinated while 35% of the
seeds with testas removed germinated.

A hundred 10 month-old air-dry seeds
of L. scariola were placed on a clay block
at 23°-25°C. for germination. Only 3%
germinated in 13 days. The seed coats
of 20 of these seeds were removed at the
end of 13 days and returned to the clay
block. At the end of 29 days the Seed
coats of 20 more seeds were removed and
returned to the clay block. None of the
remaining seeds germinated but 80% of
the naked embryos germinated. Fresh
seeds of L. scariola were placed on a clay
block at 23°-25°C. The seed coats of 20

seeds were removed on the 2nd, 4th, 7th,
and 9th days. The same treatment was
given 12 month-old seeds of L. scariola
and L. ludoviciana. 90% of the 12 month-
old L. scariola seeds germinated when
the testas were removed at the end of 2
days on a clay block but only 50% ger¬
minated when the testas were removed
on the 7th day. Only 5% of the control
germinated in the two species. Fresh
L. scariola seeds were soaked in water
for 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 hours.
40 seeds were removed at the end of each
period. Testas were removed from 20
seeds and all were placed at 23°-25°C.
Seeds imbibed enough water for maxi¬
mum germination, 30%, after soaking 4
hours and removing testas. An after¬
ripening period seems necessary before
complete germination occurs. The aver¬
age tfor the controls of this age seed was
11.6%. The rounded ends of 8 month-old
air-dry seeds of both species were cut off
and placed on a clay block at 15°-24°C.
30% of the L. scariola germinated while
10 month-old seeds treated in the same
manner gave a 95% germination at 23 °-
25 °C. 45% of the L. ludoviciana germin¬
ated as compared with 5% for 10 month-
old seeds at the same temperature. Fif¬
teen day-old seeds of L. scariola germi¬
nated 5% and L. ludoviciana 2% at 23 °-
25 °C. after the ends were cut off. It is
evident that 10 month-old L. scariola
seeds are not dormant but that the testas
inhibit germination. It is evident that
the 15 day-old seeds are dormant.

Ten month-old seeds of L. scariola were
soaked from 91/£-18 hours in solutions of
Hormodin varying from .25cc. of Hor-
modin per 100 cc. of water to .046875 cc.
per 100 cc. of water. They were germi¬
nated at 23°-25°C. on clay blocks. Seeds
soaked for 9% hours in .09375 cc. of Hor¬
modin per 100 cc. of water gave the high¬
est percentage of germination, 25%. In
general the percentage of germination
was inversely proportional to the hours
soaked. Fourteen tests resulted in no
germination in 18 days.

Five month-old seeds of L. scariola
and 7 month-old seeds of L. ludoviciana
were shaken in a vial with Rootone then
placed on a clay block at 19.5 °C. The
average germination for L. scariola was
11% while the controls averaged 22%.
Treated seeds of L. ludoviciana gave a
10% germination while the control
showed a 5% germination. Hormodin

72

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

and Rootone decrease germination of wild
lettuce seed rather than increasing it as
some investigators have found for vari¬
ous seeds.

Conclusions. — 1. Freshly harvested
seeds of Lactuca scariola are dormant.
The removal of seed coats does not alter
their dormancy. The embryos evidently
must experience a period of after-ripen¬
ing before they can germinate. 2. The
embryos of L. scariola seeds lose their
dormancy within 8 to 12 months after the
seeds are produced and are then capable
of germination. 3. Eight month-old L.
scariola seeds give a higher percentage
of germination than older or freshly har¬
vested seeds at the same temperature.
4. Prechilling at 3°-10°C. causes an in¬
crease in the rate and percentage of ger¬
mination of L. ludoviciana and L. scari¬
ola seeds at higher temperatures, 20 °-
30 °C. Freezing temperatures caused a
decrease in the percentage of germina¬
tion of L. ludoviciana seeds. 5. Temper¬
atures between 10°-20°C. are more favor¬
able for germination of air-dry L. scari¬
ola and L. ludoviciana seeds of various
ages. 6. Probably moist fresh L. ludo¬
viciana seeds are affected more by ex¬
posure to light than older seeds. 7. Moist
and dry seeds of L. scariola are evidently
not influenced by exposure to light. 8. The
growth promoting substances, Hormodin
and Rootone, did not show evidence of
increasing the rate or percentage of ger¬
mination of seeds of L. ludoviciana and
L. scariola.

Part III. Photoperiodism. — On Febru¬
ary 25, seeds of L. scariola with the ends
opposite the radicle cut off were placed in
each of 12 pots of earth. Four c»f these
pots were placed on a clinostat under
electric lights of 3000 watts, providing
continuous light. The second group of
four pots were allowed only 7 hours of
daylight. The other four pots were used

as a control under the same conditions
but allowed normal daylight. The tem¬
perature averaged 20 °C. during the win¬
ter and never went above 35 °C. during
the spring and summer.

Two months after the seeds were plant¬
ed the continuous-light plants ranged in
height from 8-26% inches and had 4-10
well developed leaves. Short-day plants
did not have stems but merely a rosette
of leaves that varied from l%-3 inches
in length. The normal-day plants had
larger rosettes with leaves 3%-5 inches
long but no stems. All of the short-day
plants died within 4% months. The con¬
tinuous-light plants grew to a height of
34-50 inches, flowering 3 months after
planting, with seeds maturing 15 days
later. Normal-day plants ranged from
8-20 inches in height in 5 months, with
flowers 10 days later and seeds matured
in 15 days. The internodes of the con¬
tinuous-light plants averaged 2 y2 inches
while those of the normal-day plants av¬
eraged % inch in length. The continu¬
ous-light plants did not form a rosette as
was the case in short and normal-day
plants.

Conclusions: — 1. Lactuca scariola ma¬
tures and produces seeds in a shorter
time under continuous light than under
normal daylight in a greenhouse. 2. Un¬
der normal light L. scariola remains in a
vegetative condition longer than under
continuous light. 3. L. scariola is a
long-day plant.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Crocker, W. Mechanics of Dormancy in Seeds.

Am. Jour. Bot. 3 : 99-120. 1916.

2. Flint, L. H. and McAlister, E. D. Wave

Lengths of Radiation in the Visible Spectrum
Inhibiting the Germination of Light-Sensitive
Lettuce Seed. Smithsonian Misc, Colls. 94
(5) : 1-11. 1935.

3. Goodspeed, T. H. Parthenogenesis, Parthen-

ocrapy, and Phenospermy in Nicotiana. Calif.
Univ., Pub. in Bot. 5(8) : 249-272. 1915.

4. Mumeek, A. E. Biochemical Studies of Photo¬

periodism in Plants. Univ. Mo. Res. Bull.
268. 1937.

Botany — 1941 Meeting

73

GERMINATION AND SEEDLING GROWTH-FORM OF TWO

HUNDRED WEEDS

Anna Pedersen Kummer

University of Chicago and Waller High School, Chicago

The selection of plants in this study
is based wholly upon the 683 dicotyledon¬
ous herbaceous weeds listed by the follow¬
ing authors: Georgia3, Muenscher4, Clark
and Fletcher2, Runnels and Schaffner6
Beal1, and Pammel5. Seeds of 233 species
were gathered in the field to insure their
freshness and maturity.

Seeds were planted in flats out-of-doors
during the winter. Replants were made
in summer either after the seeds had
had a week of refrigeration or with no
previous treatment. Of the 233 species
planted, the following 11 failed to ger¬
minate: Teucrium canadense, Ellisia

Nyctelea, Heracleum lanatum, Prenanthes
racemosa, Stachys sp., Triosteum sp.,
Eupatorium purpureum, and Solidago
graminifolia. Lithospermum canescens
failed to sprout even after refrigeration
and treatment with concentrated acid.
Germination percentage in Convolvulus
sepium was negligible. Galium asprellum
and G. aparine repeatedly tfailed of ger¬
mination in winter plantings although a
late summer planting of the latter (after
a week of refrigeration) sprouted.

Two species of the genus Urtica ger¬
minated feebly and the seedlings were so
delicate that, although tended carefully,
the tops were only 1.5 centimeters high
in September. Salsola Kali var. tenui-
folia, Mollugo verticillata, and Portulaca
oleracea germinate tardily.

There is apparently no one seedling
character that distinguishes an entire
family; in fact, there is often lack of
constancy within a genus. However, in
8 genera of Labiates investigated, all
cotyledonary leaves have narrow basal
lobes directed toward the petiole. The
characteristic obreniform cotyledons of
the genus Brassica are not duplicated
in 10 other genera of Crucifers. Of the
Legumes studied only Vicia and Lathyrus
have hypogeal cotyledons.

The petiolar portions of the cotyledons
of many seedlings are connate to a de¬
gree that results in a structure that
ranges from a shallow rim to a 2.5 centi¬

meter tube. This character may be prev¬
alent in a family or genus but not con¬
stant. Twelve out of thirteen species of
Polygonaceae have this feature. It is
scattered through various families having
its greatest frequency and size in the
Tribe Heliantheae of the Compositae.

Commonly the cotyledons wither and
cling to the seedling until its growth
dislodges them. In some species abscis¬
sion is sharply defined. In five Solanace-
ous species the cotyledons absciss leaving
a neat, somewhat elevated semilunar
scar. In 11 species of Legumes with
epigeal cotyledons, only Amorpha and
Melilotus abscissed with a clean-cut scar.
Or the blade may absciss leaving a per¬
sistent petiolar stub. Of the seven species
with this characteristic, 3 were in the
Figwort family.

The above ground cotyledons of Lu-
pinus, Amorpha , Tephrosia, Desmodium,
and Galium maintain their fleshy condi¬
tion and become foliaceous. Gaura parvi-
flora has a large and fleshy peg in ger¬
mination. Doubtlessly this structure is
present in at least one other related
species but has been overlooked.

Leaf folding in vernation may be loose
and indefinite. In the Polygonaceae the
halves of the leaf are tightly revolute,
the two rolls in close apposition on the
abaxial face of the leaf. Leaves of Soli¬
dago, Aster, and Silphium are strongly
convolute in vernation. When the juve¬
nile leaves are simple or lobed as pre¬
cursors of the mature divided or com¬
pound leaves, the earliest leaves antici¬
pate the later ones in their habits of
folding. The principal veins are most
distant from the axis, the intervening
parenchyma, lobe, or leaflet edges proxi¬
mal to the axial line.

The seedling leaves presage the nature
of the adult leaves. In Trifolium, Meli¬
lotus, and Medicago the first lea»f is uni-
foliate, the succeeding leaves trifoliate.
In Amorpha, Tephrosia, and Desmodium
at least the first five leaves are unifoliate.
In these Legumes the unifoliate leaf blade

74

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

is articulated upon the petiole. The first
leaf of Oxalis has three leaflets. In ten
Ranunculaceous and Rosaceous species of
five genera the first leaves are crenate or
scarcely lobed. In succession the pro¬
gressively deepening divisions lead to
the adult form. In three genera of Um-
bellifers the first leaf is compound, in
three others merely lobed or parted.
There is a common pattern of develop¬
ment in Achillea, 3 species of Anthemis,
Matricaria, and two species of Artemisia
that progresses from tridentate to pin-
nately divided leaves.

Seedling leaves are often interpreted
as paired when later leaves are alternate.
In five genera c»f Cruciferae there are
species in which the first and second
internodes are so shortened as to appear
non-existent. In five genera of Chenopo-
diaceae the second, fourth, and sixth in¬
ternodes are more or less obsolete. The
resulting two members of such a “pair”
of leaves are not connected by a nodal
line or rim and ridges or striations of the
stem are continuous between the leaf in¬
sertions. By the same criterion, the
lower leaves of Portulaca, Polanisia,
Desmodium, Xanthium, and some species
of Helianthus are not paired. In three
species of the genus Euphorbia the lower
pairs of leaves are united by nodal rims
although later leaves are alternate. The
first two leaves of Matricaria suaveolans
diverge from a common node and the
petioles are connate for an appreciable
distance. All later leaves are alternate.

The seedling growth-habit may be ex¬
pected to foreshadow the adult form.
The lifetform of a caulescent plant with
a basal rosette of leaves is often deter¬
mined independently of environmental
conditions as in Verbascum, Ranunculus ,
and the Umbelliferae in general. Veron¬

ica peregrina, Lappula echinata, Lactuca
scariola, silene antirrhina, and 8. nocti-
flora are rosette-form in late summer
germinations and caulescent in spring.
This plasticity in growth-form is excelled
by certain Cruciferae. Thlaspi arvense
and two species of Lepidium germinating
in spring manifest reduced or lengthened
internodes depending upon whether or
not they are growing in competition.

If the tap-root of the mature plant is
not dominant, its dwindling significance
may be observed in the seedling. Of the
19 rosette-form seedlings in which ad¬
ventitious roots emerge from the stem
and soon outstrip the tap-root, 17 were
plants of damp habitats. In contrast,
Galium Aparine with a vigorous four-
centimeter tap-root at the time ctf the
appearance of the cotyledons, has a frail
and tenuous root at maturity.

Contraction of the hypocotyl is usual
in rosette plants with strong tap-roots.
Similar telescoping takes place in caules¬
cent Phytolacca decandra and Oxybaphus
nyctagineus.

Summary

The time and manner of germination
of 222 species of weed seeds was observed.
Another 11 species failed to germinate.
Growth-forms of the developing seedlings
were recorded.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Beal, W. J. Michigan Weeds. Mich. Agr.

Exp. Sta. Bull. 267. 1915.

2. Clark, G. H., and J. Fletcher. Farm Weeds of
Canada. Ottawa. 1906.

3. Georgia, A. A. Manual of Weeds. Macmillan,
New York. 1914.

4. Muenscher, W. C. Weeds. Macmillan, New
York. 1936.

5. Pammel, L. H., and C. M. King. The Weed

Flora of Iowa. Bull. 4. 1913.

6. Runnels, H. A., and J. H. Schaffner. Manual

of Ohio Weeds. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull.
475. 1931.

Botany — 1941 Meeting

75

RELATION- OF THE EFFECTS OF SEED WEIGHT TO ROOTS
AND TOPS OF TWO VARIETIES OF SOYBEANS

Stanley William Oexemann
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

A survey of the literature gives evi¬
dence that considerable work has been
done on the relation of seed weight to
various phases of vegetative and repro¬
ductive plant growth. Little or nothing,
however, has been done concerning the
effects of seed weight on the relation
between tops and roots. Also the effects
of variation in seed weights to dry weight
of tops and dry weight of roots has not
been studied in detail.

The object of the present experiment
was to investigate the relation between:

1. Seed weight, and dry weight of

tops and dry weight of roots when varia¬
tion in seed weight is small.

2. Seed weight, and dry weight of

tops and dry weights of roots when varia¬
tion in seed weight is greater.

3. The dry weight of tops and the dry
weight of roots of plants, when the plants
are grown from seeds of different weight
groups.

Seeds of each of the two varieties of
soybeans, Soja max. Piper var. Biloxi and
Mandarin, were separated into three
groups designated by the letters A, B,
and C. The seed coats were removed in
all cases because they are not available

as a source of food for plant growth and
play no part in photosynthetic activity.
In the seeds designated by the letter A
none of the food storage tissue was re¬
moved; in those seeds designated by the
letter B approximately half of one cotyle¬
don was severed; and in those seeds des¬
ignated by the letter C one whole cotyle¬
don was cut off. The seeds were then
weighed accurately to one-tenth of a
milligram.

The seeds were planted in sterilized,
well mixed loam soil in 4^ inch pots.
The pots containing the seeds were wa¬
tered daily with sterile tap water until
the epicotyls had appeared above the sur¬
face of the soil, after which time they
were watered with unsterilized tap water.
Watering of all plants was controlled
and equalized as far as possible.

Fifty plants were used for each of the
three sets, making one hundred fifty
plants for each variety. The plants were
taken down at the time the first flowers
appeared; they were then cut at the col¬
lar and the tops and the root systems
were individually reduced to oven dry
weight and weighed to one-tenth of a
milligram.

Table 1. — Weights and Correlation Coefficients

Av. Dry Wt.

Biloxi Soybeans

Mandarin Soybeans

Grams

A

B

C

ABC

A

B

C

ABC

Seed Weight . . .
(Standard

0.2466

0.1859

0.1247

0.1835

0 . 1472

0.1246

0.0956

0.1296

Deviations) . .

+ 0.0262

+ 0.0211

+ 0.0185

+ 0.0546

±0.0127

+ 0.0108

+ 0.0100

+ 0.0259

Top Weight. . . .

1.8901

2.0001

1.5499

1.7980

0.7286

0.5519

0.3160

0 . 5322

Root Weight. . .
Growth Period

0.1732

0.1962

0 . 1422

0.1710

0.1240

0.0945

0.0587

0.0924

(Days) .

Correlation
Coefficients
Seed Wt. with
Dry Wt. of

35

35

35

35

30

30

30

30

Tops .

Seed Wt. with
Dry Wt. of

0 . 2466

—0.0156

—0.0676

0.3337

0.0687

—0 . 2482

—0.1186

0.6578

Roots .

Dry Wt. of Tops
with Dry Wt.

—0.0757

—0.1686

0.0401

0.1287

—0.0301

—0.0013

—0.2950

0.4709

k of Roots .

0.2583

0.4732

0.3125

0 . 4879

0.4157

0.7713

0 . 6944

0.8082

76

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Correlation coefficients were deter¬
mined from the formula:

Sxy

C= -

VTs^) (Sy*) '

in which C represents the correlation co¬
efficient, x the deviations of the seed
weights from the average, and y the
deviations c*f the plant (top and root)
weights from the average. A coefficient
between 0 and plus 1 indicates a positive
correlation; a value between 0 and minus
1 indicates a negative correlation. In
this paper a negative correlation is in¬
dicated by a minus sign, a positive corre¬
lation by no sign. Table I gives the re¬
sults.

The results of this experiment may be
summarized as follows:

1. There is generally a higher corre¬
lation value between seed weight and dry

weight of tops than between seed weight
and dry weight of roots.

2. The value of the correlation co¬
efficients between seed weight and the
dry weight of tops or between seed
weight and the dry weight of roots ap¬
pears to be greater with a larger varia¬
tion in weights among the seeds of a
group. (Standard deviations from the
mean seed weight and correlation co¬
efficients of groups ABC as compared to
standard deviations and correlation co¬
efficients of groups A, B, and C. See
table I).

3. The correlation value between the
dry weight of tops and the dry weight
of roots is higher when the plants are
grown from lighter weight seeds (C or
B as compared to A). The highest corre¬
lation values, however, exist when the
plants from groups A, B, and C are con¬
sidered as one group, i.e., group ABC.

EFFECT OF LENGTH OF DAY AND TEMPERATURE ON
THE OPENING OF BUDS OF DORMANT TWIGS

John Skok

University of Chicago , Chicago . Illinois

There have been a number of theories
advanced as to the causes c€ dormancy
in perennial plants. It was at one time
supposed that dormancy in winter and
growth in spring and summer were regu¬
lated by an inherent rhythm in the plant,
but it is now well established that the
expression of this cycle is subject to
environmental factors as well as to in¬
herited ones. Length of day (6, 9) has
been found to be an important factor
both in the initiation and in the break¬
ing of dormancy, in which cases a short
photoperiod hastens the initiation of dor¬
mancy and a long photoperiod hastens
the breaking of dormancy. In some cases
(7) high temperatures are sufficient to
break dormancy in woody species. Many
woody plants will remain dormant long
after favorable growing conditions have
begun unless they have been subjected to
a cold treatment during their dormant
period (2, 5, 8). Several chemicals (as
ethylene chlorhydrin, ethylene dichloride,
chloroform, ether, ethyl bromide, and
ethyl iodide) have been successfully em¬
ployed in breaking dormancy in advance
of the usual time (1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10).

In these experiments a study was made
of the effect of day-length and tempera¬
ture on the opening of buds of dormant

woody stems. Uniform cuttings of Lilac,
( Syringa hybrida) ; Red-Osier Dogwood,
(Cornus stolonifera) ; Snowball, (Vibur¬
num opulus) ; and Hawthorn, (Crataegus
sp .) were collected February 3 and
brought into the greenhouse. They were
placed in sand which was kept moist
by adding tap water and were subjected
to four different conditions of tempera¬
tures and length of daily illumination:
(1) long-day, high temperature, (2)
short-day, high temperature, (3) long-
day, low temperature, and (4) short-day,
low temperature. The short-day period
was that of the normal day length of
February which was about 8 y2 hours.
The long-day plants received 16 hours of
daily illumination. They were given ad¬
ditional light by means of. 2000 watt
electric flood-lamps. The high tempera¬
ture plants were placed in rooms regu¬
lated at about 21° C and the low temper¬
ature rooms were regulated at about 10°
C. The temperatures varied somewhat
depending on the amount of sunshine, but
not more than about 3° C. Daily ob¬
servations were made and the data on
the opening of the buds and the unfolding
and growth of the leaves are given in
Table 1.

Botany — 1941 Meeting

77

Both day-length and temperature had
an effect in breaking dormancy and on
growth of cuttings of Lilac, Dogwood
and Snowball. Hawthorn responded only
to temperature and not to length of day.
Temperature in all cases had a greater
effect than did day-length. At the same
temperature the buds under long-day
conditions opened from 1 to 4 days sooner
than those under short-day conditions.
Under the same day-length conditions
however, those at high temperatures
opened from 5 to 9 days earlier than
those at low temperatures. Lilac and
Snowball at high temperatures opened
their buds 1 day earlier under long-day
conditions than under short-day condi¬
tions, and Lilac started to unsold leaves
3 days earlier under long-day conditions.
Lilac, Dogwood, and Snowball all had
larger leaves under long-day conditions.
At low temperatures Lilac, Dogwood, and
Snowball opened their buds from 2 to 4
days earlier under long-day conditions
than under short-day conditions. Under
long-day low temperature conditions all
three species unfolded their leaves after

12 to 17 days, but under short day low
temperature conditions none of the twigs
put out leaves.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Bramble, W. C. Breaking the dormancy of

tree seedlings bv chemical treatment. Science
75:193-194. 1932.

2. Coville, F. V. The influence of cold in

stimulating the growth of plants. Jour. Agr.
Res. 20:151-160. 1920.

3. Denny, F. E. and Stanton, E. N. Chemical

treatments for shortening the rest period of
pot-grown woody plants. Am. Jour. Bot. 15:-
327-336. 1928.

4. Deuber, C. G. and Bowen, P. R. Chemical

treatment to shorten the rest period of sugar
maple trees. Science 70 :102. 1929.

5. Gardner, F. E., Composition and growth initia¬
tion of dormant pear shoots as influenced by
temperatures. Plant Physiol. 4 :405-434. 1929.

6. Garner, W. W. and Allard, H. A. Further

studies in photoperiodism, the responce of the
plant to relative length of day and night. Jour.
Agr. Res. 23:871-921. 1923.

7. Howard, W. L. An experimental study of the
rest period in plants. The winter rest. Mo.
Agr. Expt. Sta. Res. Bull. 1, 1910.

8. Kramer, Paul, J. Methods of breaking dor¬

mancy in certain forest trees. Jour. Forestry
32:734-741. 1934.

9 . , Effect of variation in length of

day on growth and dormancy of trees. Plant
Physiol. 11:127-137. 1936.

10. Stuart, W. The role of anesthetics and other
agents in plant forcing. Vt. Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bull. 150, 1910.

Table 1.

Condition

Plant

Number of
days required
for buds
to open

Number of
days when
leaves first
emerged

Number of
days when
leaves were
fully emerged

Length of
leaves

22 days after
experiment
was started
(cm.)

Long-Day

Lilac .

3

5

8

2.0-2. 5

High

Dogwood . .

8

9

11

1. 5-2.0

Temperature

Snowball. .

5

8

10

2. 5-3.0

Hawthorn .

10

14

17

0. 5-1.0

Short-Day

Lilac .

4

8

9

1.0-1. 3

High

Dogwood. .

8

10

13

1.0-1. 5

Temperature

Snowball. .

6

8

11

1. 5-2.0

Hawthorn .

10

15

17

0. 5-1.0

Lilac .

8

12

17

0 . 7-1 . 0

Long-Day

Dogwood. .

14

17

18

0.5-0. 9

Low

Snowball. .

10

16

19

0.5-0. 7

Temperature

Hawthorn .

No

Leaves not

Leaves not

response

emerged

emerged

Lilac .

10

Leaves not

Leaves not

Short-Day

emerged

emerged

Low

Dogwood. .

17

))

n

Temperature

Snowball . .

14

J)

))

Hawthorn .

No

response

78

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

SOME MINERAL DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS IN PLANTS

John Skok

University of Chicago , Chicago, Illinois

In addition to carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, plants need a number of mineral
elements for normal growth and develop¬
ment. If any of these essential elements
are not available to the plant, certain
disturbances and usually characteristic
deficiency symptoms result (1, 2, 4, 5, 7,
9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 19). These essential
elements are applied in the form of
nutrient solutions made up of various
salts (3, 6, 8, 12, 13, 16, 18). By choosing
various combinations of salts any one of
the elements may be absent in these
solutions and such solutions are used to
study deficiency symptoms.

In these experiments some mineral de¬
ficiency symptoms of three flowering
plants were studied. The following plants
were used: Petunia hyhridia, var. Rosy
Morn; Salvia splendens, var. Scarlet
Dragoon; and Phlox drummondii. The
plants were grown in clean quartz sand
in two-gallon glazed earthenware pots.
Nine series of each of the ifour plants
were grown, consisting of one series
which received a complete nutrient and
eight series each lacking a different ele¬
ment. The eight deficiencies were: nitro¬

gen, calcium, potassium, phosphorus,
magnesium, sulphur, boron, and iron.
The nutrient solutions were made up
with distilled water and Merck’s reagent
quality chemicals as indicated in Table 1.

Deficiency Symptoms

The Complete Nutrient Plants. — The

plants in this series were green, vigorous,
and made good growth in general. All
produced many flowers.

Nitrogen Deficiency. — The minus nitro
gen plants were all stunted, spindling,
pale in color, and very hard rather than
succulent. The lower leaves particularly
were yellow and finally dried and fell off.
All the leaves were much reduced in both
size and number. One Petunia plant in
the nitrogen deficient series produced
a flower and it bloomed eight days earlier
than did the plants of the complete nu¬
trient series. The top-root ratio of the
minus nitrogen plants was much smaller
than that of the complete nutrient plants.

Calcium Deficiency. — The calcium de¬
ficiency symptoms were the most severe
of all the deficiency symptoms. Petunia

Table 1. — Composition of Nutrient Solutions

Constituents of Solutions

Complete Nutrient

Ca(N03)2 . 0.006 molar

KH2P04 . 0.0045 molar

MgS04 . 0.045 molar

B . 0.5 p.p.m. added as H3B03

Fe . 0.5 p.p.m. added as ferric citrate

Mn . 0.5 p.p.m. added as MnCl2

Minus Nitrogen .

OaCl2 Substituted for Ca(N03)2

NaNOs Substituted for Ca(N03)2

NaH.PCb Substituted for KH„P04

KC1 Substituted for KH2P04

Na2S04 Substituted for MgS04

MgCl2 Substituted for MgS04

H3B03 Omitted

Ferric Citrate Omitted

Minus Calcium .

Minus Potassium .

Minus Phosphorus .

Minus Magnesium .

Minus Sulphur .

Minus Boron .

Minus Iron .

Botany — 1941 Meeting

79

and Phlox showed definite symptoms five
days after calcium was withheld and
Salvia a few days later. The plants
were stunted and pale and made no addi¬
tional growth after the symptoms became
evident. The top portions of the plants
were affected first. The upper leaves be¬
came grayish-yellow in color and the
veins turned brown. Later the veins
and portions of the stems at the leaf
axes became dark brown and black, and
the growing tips died. Finally the entire
plant including the lower leaves turned
grayish-yellow and unless small amounts
of calcium were added the plants died
very soon. None of the minus calcium
plants produced flowers unless calcium
was finally added. The roots of the
minus calcium plants were very dark
brown in color and poorly developed.

Potassium Deficiency. — The potassium
deficiency symptoms appeared about ten
to twelve days after potassium was with¬
held. The plants were stunted and pale.
The lower leaves of Petunia were wilted
and some had cream colored spots which
became dry giving the leaves a mottled
appearance. Later all the leaves became
very chlorotic and wilted. The dry leaves
were light brown in color. The leaves
of Salvia did not become extremely chlo¬
rotic but they were wrinkled and curled
and severely scorched. The lower leaves
were affected first and finally most of
them fell off. The dry leaves of Salvia
were also light brown in color. The
leaves of Phlox were rather chlorotic
and the tips of particularly the lower
leaves were yellow and brown.

Phosphorus Deficiency. — All the phos¬
phorus deficient plants were spindling,
stiff, and had a very characteristic dull
bluish-green color. As the deficiency
symptoms progressed the leaves turned
to a dull yellowish-green color. In Pe¬
tunia only the first or second lower leaves
became dry and fell, but in Salvia all
the leaves were burned at the tips and all
the lower leaves up to the fourth or fifth
nodes from the bottom had dried and
fallen off. The leaves were not wrinkled
as they were in potassium deficient
plants. The dry leaves of both Petunia
and Salvia deficient in phosphorus were
very dark brown in color.

Magnesium Deficiency. — Magnesium
deficiency symptoms were evident within
ten days after magnesium was withheld.
At first the plants were only slightly
stunted but the leaves were very chlo¬
rotic. The leaf discolorations varied from
pale green to almost white. The veins
and the areas just next to the veins
usually retained a light green color. The
Petunias were the most chlorotic ctf the
magnesium deficient plants. The leaves
of Salvia became dry rather than ex¬
tremely chlorotic and finally all but the
very uppermost leaves dropped.

Sulphur Deficiency. — The sulphur de¬
ficiency symptoms, although apparent,
were not as pronounced as the others
described. The sulphur deficient plants
were less vigorous and bushy than the
control plants and were lighter in color.
The leaves were pale in general but no
pronounced chlorosis or drying took
place. In Petunia the lower leaves were

Table 2. — Petunia

Average for one plant,

Grams

% Dry

Wet

Dry

top-

root

ratio

Wet

top

weight

Wet

root

weight

Dry

top

weight

Dry

root

weight

weight

entire

plant

% Dry
weight
tops

% Dry
weight
roots

top-

root

ratio

c

233.00

3.54

21.56

0.53

9.33

9.25

14.97

65.81

40.67

— N
— Ca

0.47

0.23

0.12

0.61

0.06

0.12

25.71

25.53

26.08

2.04

2.00
5 08

— K

3.15

0.39

0.71

0.06

21.75

22.54

15.38

8.07

11.83

— P
-Mg
— S

2.77

0.58

0.50

0.38

0.10

0.07

17.91

18.01

17.24

4.77

5.00
5 43

124.00

17.75

10.63

3.05

9.65

8.57

17.18

6.98

3.48

— B

4.60

0.57

0.44

0.07

9.86

9.56

12.28

8.07

6.28

-Fe

232.00

7.98

22.83

1.31

10.05

9.83

16.41

29.07

17.42

80

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Table 3. — Salvia

Average for one plant,

Grams

% Dry
weight
entire
plant

% Dry
weight
tops

% Dry
weight
roots

Wet

top-

root

ratio

Dry

top-

root

ratio

Wet

top

weight

Wet

root

weight

Dry

top

weight

Dry

root

weight

c

176.00

61.00

28.81

6.47

14.04

15.23

10.60

2.88

4.14

— N

0.64

0.39

0.06

0.07

12.62

9.37

17.94

1.64

0.85

— Ca

6.79

4.95

1.07

0.60

14.22

15.75

12.12

1.37

1.78

— K

3.08

2.75

0.31

0.26

9.77

10.06

9.45

1.12

1.19

— P

1.02

1.90

0.17

0.16

11.30

16.66

8.42

0.53

1.06

-Mg

0.78

1.17

0.12

0.14

13.33

15.38

11.96

0.66

0.85

— S

67.00

30.00

9.47

2.66

12.50

14.13

8.86

2.25

3.56

— B

21.80

8.35

3.06

0.97

13.36

14.03

11.61

2.61

3.15

— Fe

105.00

47.00

6.94

5.60

8.25

6.60

11.91

2.23

1.23

affected more than the upper ones. Sev¬
eral flowers were produced by all plants.
The total dry weight of the top portion
of the sulphur deficient Petunia plants
was about half that of the control plants,
but the total root weight was almost six
times greater than that of the control
plants. The root weight of the sulphur
deficient Salvia plants was less than half
that of the control plants.

Boron Deficiency. — The symptoms
caused by boron deficiency were very
striking in all the plants. They were evi¬

dent from eight to ten days after boron
was withheld. Petunia and Phlox grew
only 3 to 8 cm. in height, and produced
no flower buds. In a very short time the
central leaves and the growing tip be¬
came yellowish-brown to bronze in color
and terminal growth stopped. Several
lateral buds appeared, but before long
they were similarly affected and also
stopped growing. This resulted in a
short greatly fasciated plant. Several
boron deficient Petunia and Phlox plants
died before the experiment was finished.

A.

Fig. 1. — Photograph showing mineral deficiences in phlox series.

Botany — 1941 Meeting

81

The leaves of the Petunia plants were
small but thick and very brittle. They
were very deformed often being curled,
rolled, and stubby, and had an oily or
greasy appearance. The leaves of Phlox
and Salvia did not have this oily ap¬
pearance. The Salvia plants had small
discolored leaves but did not develop the
fasciated condition as was found in Pe¬
tunia and Phlox. The growing tips in
all Salvia plants died, but the lateral
shoots usually made considerable growth
before they stopped growing. Several
flower buds were produced by these lat¬
eral shoots, but the flowers were very
small and poorly developed. The roots of
both Petunia and Salvia were very poorly
developed, coarse, and dark in color. The
extremities of the roots were blunt or
bulbous rather than fibrous.

Iron Deficiency. — Petunia and Salvia
showed only very slight iron deficiency
symptoms. Petunia was not affected in
growth or general vigorousness but had
a few chlorotic leaves. Salvia made less
total growth when deficient in iron but
the plants were not chlorotic. The sand
used in these experiments contained im¬
purities of iron which apparently was
available to the plants. The iron de¬
ficient Phlox plants were grown in sand
from which the iron had been removed
by several treatments with hydrochloric
and nitric acid. The acid treated sand
was carefully leached with distilled water
to remove all traces of soluble iron and
acid. Phlox grown in this iron free sand
were stunted and very chlorotic. The
chlorotic leaves were in some cases mot¬
tled and in others very light in general.
The newer leaves were particularly light.
The veins of even the more chlorotic
leaves usually retained their green color.
No drying or leaf destruction took place
in these plants.

Fresh and dry weights of the top- and
root-portions of Petunia and Salvia were

taken at the time of harvest. These
with other data are shown in tables 2
and 3. A photograph of the Phlox series
is shown in fig. 1.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Brenchley, Winifred, E. The essential nature

of certain minor elements for plant nutrition.
Bot. Rev. 2 :173-196. 1936.

2. Gregory, F. G., Mineral nutrition of plants.

Ann. Rev. Biochem. 6:557-578. 1937.

3. Hoagland, D. R. and Arnon, D. I., The water-

culture method for growing plants without soil.
Cal. Agr. Expt. Sta. Circular 347. 1939.

4. Jacks, G. V. and Scherbatoff, H., Soil deficien¬

cies and plant diseases. Imperial Bureau of
Soil Sci. Tech. Com. No. 31. 1934.

5. Laurie, Alex, and Wagner, Arnold., Deficiency

symptoms of greenhouse flowering crops. Ohio
Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 611. 1940.

6. Livingston, B. E. and Tottingham, W. E., A

new three salt nutrient solution for plant cul¬
ture.^ Am. Jour. Bot. 5:337-346. 1918.

7. Maze, P., The role of special elements (boron,

copper, zinc, mangonese, etc.) in plant nutri¬
tion. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 5 :525-538. 1936.

8. McCall, A. G., Physiological balance of nutrient

solutions for plants in sand cultures. Soil Sci.
2 :205-253. 1916.

9. McMurtrey, J. E. Jr., Distinctive effects of

deficiency of certain essential elements on the
growth of tobacco plants in solution cultures.
U. S. D. A. Tech. Bull. 340. 1933.

10 . , Distinctive plant symptoms

caused by any one of the chemical elements
essential for normal development. Bot. Rev.
4 :183-203. 1938.

11. Post, Kenneth, Effects of mineral-nutrient de¬

ficiencies and excesses upon the vegetative
growth and flowering of sweet peas. Cornell
Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 745. 1940.

12. Shive, J. W., A study of pnysiological balance

in nutrient media. Physiol. Res. 1 :327-399.

1915.

13 . , and Robbins, W. R., Methods of

growing plants in solution and sand cultures.
N. J. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 636. 1938.

14 . , and Robbins, W. R. Mineral

nutrition of plants. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 8 :-
503-520. 1939.

15. Stewart, F. C., Mineral nutrition in plants.

Ann. Rev. Biochem. 4 :519-544. 1935.

16. Tottingham, W. E., A quantitative chemical

and physiological study of nutrient solutions
for plant cultures. Physiol. Res. 1 :133-245.

1914.

17. Willis, L. G., Bibliography of references to the
literature on the minor elements and their rela¬
tion to plant and animal nutrition. 3rd ed.
Chilean Nitrate Education Bureau, New York.
1939.

18. Withrow, R. B. and Biebel, J. P., Nutrient

solution methods of greenhouse crop produc¬
tion. Purdue Agr. Expt. Sta. Circular 232.
1938.

19. Young, R. S., Certain rarer elements in soils

and fertilizers, and their role in plant growth.
Cornell Agr. Expt. Sta. Mem. 174. 1935.

82

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THE USE OF FLUORESCENT LIGHT IN EXPERIMENTAL

WORK

Aubrey W. Naylor

University of Chicago , Chicago, Illinois

Light is one of the most important en¬
vironmental factors. One of the most
difficult problems confronting the plant
physiologist in his effort to control the
environment has been the finding of a
suitable artificial light source. Obviously
the ideal light source for physiological
work depends entirely upon the type of
experiment being performed. If light,
however, is not a variable the best type
of light would be one approaching day¬
light in both visible and invisible radia¬
tions. Therefore, the most important
criterion which might be used in select¬
ing an efficient light source is concerned
with the nature of the spectral distribu¬
tion. Of primary importance also is the
determination of whether the spectral
distribution follows the photosynthetic
curve. In addition it should be remem¬
bered, that radiations other than those
efficiently involved in photosynthesis may
exert considerable effect upon the forma¬
tion of hormones and other substances
which influence the general growth form
of the plant.

There have been many objections to
the light sources used in the past; some
of these were on the basis of quality or
intensity or both, and others were on the
basis of cost of installation and mainte¬
nance of equipment. Until recently the
best source of artificial light from the
standpoint of quality was carbon-arc light.
Light from this source approximates that
of sunlight except that its radiations are
higher in ultra-violet and the blue. Other
than that it is of excellent quality. One
of the more important objections to its
use, however, is that the units are heavy
and relatively non-portable; thereby prac¬
tically forcing one to use them in the
rooms where they are installed. Also
such units are both costly to install and
to maintain.

Comparatively recently lamps emitting
fluorescent light have become available.
Some experimentation has been done with
arrangement, spacing, color and wattage
of tubes, and with various reflecting sur¬
faces in order to ascertain the usefulness

of fluorescent light in various types of
experimental work. As a further test
the lamps have been used as the sole
source of illumination in light tight com¬
partments and supplemental to the nor¬
mal daylight period.

Good results have been obtained from
reflectors built to hold six 36-inch tubes,
the reflecting surface being painted with
a water soluble white casein paint (fig.
1A). These reflectors have been used
successfully as a source of supplementary
illumination when suspended over the
greenhouse benches, where during the
day they can be raised by means of pul-

Plate I. — A. Reflectors arranged on scaffold¬
ing in light-tight basement with double thick¬
ness black sateen cloth curtains around flanges
to exclude light from adjacent sources. B.
Flat type reflector mounted over a greenhouse
bench for use as a supplementary light source.
One side can be tilted to prevent shading dur¬
ing the day either by using a chain suspended
from the ceiling or by props.

Botany — 1941 Meeting

83

leys to such a height that their shadows
will not be cast over the plants. Such a
suspension system may also be conveni¬
ently used to adjust intensities to the de¬
sired level. Best results, however, have
been obtained with flat reflecting surfaces
to which were attached twelve 48-inch
tubes spaced 1 % inches apart at the
center of the electrodes. The suspension
system has been satisfactorily used with
this type of reflector; and another way
in which it may he used to advantage is
to provide it with legs which may be
readily replaced as the plants grow (fig.
IB). Such a reflector may he used for
supplementary illumination during the
night. During the daylight hours it may
be tilted at such an angle that shadows
are not produced either on the bench
which it covers or the adjacent one.

In terms of foot-candles of light obtain¬
able, it is found, within limits, that the
higher the wattage and the closer the
tubes are spaced the higher the obtain¬
able intensity. Because of the difference
in surface illumination of the different
colored tubes the height at which a given
intensity may be obtained by a given
bank of lights is variable. The highest
intensity obtained with the 36-inch (30-
watt) white fluorescent tubes has been
1200 foot-candles; while a bank of twelve
48-inch (40-watt) tubes will give 2000 foot-
candles at a distance of from 4-5 inches
below their surface. But a similar num¬
ber of daylight type tubes of the same
wattage give lower intensity readings.

The quality of light obtainable from
fluorescent tubes varies with the kind of
phosphore which is used to coat the in¬
ner surface of the tube. Inasmuch as
these phosphores may be mixed, a variety
of colors can be obtained. The spectral
distribution curves for the different
colored tubes, when compared with the
photosynthetic curve given by Hoover(l)
indicate that the daylight type would be
the most efficient because the two maxima
for both curves occur in the same regions.
It should be noted, however, that the
highest maximum reached in the two
curves is exactly reversed, the highest
peak being in the red end of the photo¬
synthetic curve while the highest energy
level obtained from the fluorescent tube
is in the blue region. Distribution curves
for all the other tubes, with the excep¬
tion of the white tube seemingly indicate

that they would be comparatively in¬
efficient in plant growth.

When used as the sole source of illumi¬
nation both the white and daylight tubes
have proved to be exceptionally efficient
in the growth of a number of plants.
Those most successfully grown under
them include cabbage, corn, a variety of
annual beet, red kidney bean, Biloxi, soy¬
bean, dill, tobacco and tomato (2, 3). All
of these have been grown in soil, while
tomato and bean have also been grown in
sand culture. Those plants tried — dill,
annual beet, red kidney bean, and to¬
mato — have flowered as rapidly or almost
as rapidly when the intensity was suf¬
ficiently high as those grown under the
best greenhouse conditions at Chicago.

Tubes of the 30-watt type emitting gold,
green, and blue light hav.e been used for
growing beans and tomatoes. Although
these lamps are far from supplying
monochromatic light their radiations are
confined to certain regions of the spec¬
trum and because they do cover a fairly
large spectral range can be successfully
used in a variety of preliminary experi¬
ments designed to determine the effects
on growth of variables such as mineral
nutrition and temperature within certain
portions of the spectrum. More refined
techniques can then be used to determine
effects produced by spectral lines within
any given band.

An illustration of this point may be
found in one of the bean experiments.
Two series of beans were given similar
environmental conditions under different
reflectors supplying gold, green, blue, day¬
light, white, and a mixture of all these
plus red. Half the plants received am¬
monium sulphate as a source of nitrogen
while the other was supplied with cal¬
cium nitrate. Those plants supplied with
nitrate as a source of nitrogen have in¬
variably grown more vigorously than
those supplied with ammonium. Yet
with ammonium there were distinc¬
tive differences in the growth rate
depending upon the color of light
used. The plants which first showed ad¬
verse effects of ammonium were those
grown under blue light while retardation
in growth appeared last in those grown
under gold light. Within the nitrate
series there have also been striking dif¬
ferences. One outstanding difference

84

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

which might not be expected on the basis
of the efficiency curve for photosynthesis
was that the size of leaves and height of
plants growing under the blue lamps was
much greater than under the gold lamps.
This obviously indicates that factors of a
photochemical nature other than photo¬
synthesis are involved.

An effect which was noted in both
series was that under gold light leaves
of bean assumed the position of “sleep
movement,” while normal leaf position
was evident under all the others. Blue
light seemingly induces the leaves to
stand out more rigidly. This same re¬
sponse has also been noted in Oxalis
violacea. Evidently then light quality as
well as intensity is related to sleep move¬

ment. More exact experiments could be
designed to determine the effects of nar¬
row bands of yellow, orange, and red.

In conclusion it may be said that with
the aid of fluorescent lamps it is possible
to control satisfactorily the quality and
quantity of light in experimental work,
whether the lamps are used as the sole
source of illumination or for supple¬
mentary illumination.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Hoover, W. H., The dependence of carbon

dioxide assimilation in a higher plant on waVe
length of radiation. Smithsonian Misc. Coll
Vol. 95, No. 21. 1937.

2. Naylor, A. W., Effects of some environmental

factors on photoperiodic induction of beet and
dill. Bot. Gaz. 102:557-575. 1941.

3. Naylor, A. W., and Gerner, G., Fluorescent

lamps as a source of light for growing plants.
Bot. Gaz. 101 :717-718. 1940.

TRACE ELEMENTS IN OATS AND SUDAN GRASS

Glenn Ray Noggle
University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois

There has been a considerable interest
in the last several years among agronom¬
ists and plant physiologists as to the role
of the trace elements in plant metabolism.
These elements have been called by vari¬
ous workers “rare”, “secondary”, or
“minor” elements. Such terms are used
because the elements in question are
found in small amounts in the plant tis¬
sue and appear to be necessary to the
plant in very low concentrations. As an
indication of the interest in this phase of
physiological research, Willis in 1935 pub¬
lished a bibliography of 1805 abstracts
and references to the trace elements. In
1937 a second edition appeared contain¬
ing 2766 abstracts and a third edition ap¬
peared in 1939 containing 4628 references.
Since 1939 several thousand additional
papers have been published.

Between 1860 and 1890 such plant phys¬
iologists as Sachs, Knop, Nobbe and
Pfeffer had developed the almost classi¬
cal precept that carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, sulphur and iron were the
only elements essential for the existence
of the green plant. With the develop¬
ment of chemical methods of analysis it
became apparent that the experimental
methods of the early workers did not
justify the exclusion of other chemical
elements from the list of essential ele¬
ments.

Maze between 1914-1919 and more re¬
cently others have shown that normal
plant metabolism requires a number of
other elements. Careful research with
especially purified reagents has suggested
that boron, manganese, zinc, and copper
are essential for green plants. McHargue
considered that plants obtain such factors
as are necessary for their growth from
the soil, taking up small amounts of iron,
manganese, copper, zinc, boron, nickel
and others. With the aid of these ele¬
ments the plant synthesizes complex
organic compounds. He further consid¬
ered that these organic compounds func¬
tion as enzymes, catalysts and vitamins
and that when they are consumed by
animals they are resynthesized into
catalase, oxidase, hormones, and animal
vitamins.

During the course of some vitamin re¬
search on cereal grass a number of
samples of oats and Sudan grass were
received from the vicinity of Browns¬
ville, Texas. One of these grass samples
was definitely green in color and another
definitely yellow while a third appeared
to be somewhat intermediate in color. It
was decided to run a series of analyses
on the grass tissue to determine whether
the cause of the chlorosis was due to a
nutritional difficulty. From the outward
appearance of the plants it could not be
determined whether the chlorotic condi-

Botany — 1941 Meeting

85

tion was due to a lack of certain elements
or whether due to excess amounts of cer¬
tain elements resulting in a toxicity con¬
dition. There are numerous colored
photographs in the literature to show
that chlorosis can result from either a
deficiency or toxicity of chemical ele¬
ments. Because of the small amount of
tissue available for study spectrographic
methods of analyses were utilized* The
grass was ashed and concentrated and a
5 mgm. sample used in the determina¬
tion. The spectrum of the grass was
recorded on a photographic plate for
study.

The absolute amounts of the different
elements present were not determined.
The first determination consisted simply
of photographing the arc-produced spec¬
trum of the grass sample and then iden¬
tifying the principal lines present. This
gave an idea of the elements present. A
second determination was made by photo¬
graphing the spectrum of the three sam¬
ples on the same plate. By the use of a
densitometer it was possible to obtain

some idea of the relative amounts of the
various elements present in the three
samples studied.

In addition to the major elements cal¬
cium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and
phosphorus, the trace elements manga¬
nese, copper, iron, aluminum, boron, and
silicon were identified. Zinc was not
found on all of the plates and it was not
certain whether it was present at all.
Many workers believe that zinc, like cop¬
per, will prove to be an essential element
for the higher plants.

In this preliminary study no attempt
was made to determine quantitatively the
amounts of the elements present. The
purpose of the study was to find whether
or not any of the trace elements were
absent, or whether any elements were
present in excessive amounts. An evalua¬
tion of the relative amounts present was
attempted by comparing densitometer
readings of the various elements. These
relative amounts are shown in the ac¬
companying table:

Sample

Ca

Mg

K

P

Fe

Na

Mn

Cu

B

Si

Al

Zn

Definitely green .

X

X

X

X

1

X

1

1

X

X

X

X

Intermediate .

X

X

X

X

3

X

3

3

X

X

X

X?

Definitely chlorotic .

X

X

X

X

2

X

2

2

X

X

X

?

x — element present

1 — highest amount of element as shown by densitometer values

2 — intermediate amount of element

3 — lowest amount of elements as shown by densitometer values

The comparison of densitometer read¬
ings showed that there was a gradation
in the relative amounts of iron, manga¬
nese and copper present in the samples.
One of the interesting features of this
preliminary study was the fact that the
grass sample intermediate in color be¬
tween the normal and chlorotic samples
was not intermediate in mineral content
as determined by comparing the line
density values with a densitometer. In
most cases the relative amounts of the
trace elements in this intermediate sam¬
ple were less than those amounts indi-
_ _ „ _

* 1 am indebted to K. R. Majors, formerly of the
the spectrographic work.

cated to be present in the chlorotic
sample.

The results do not indicate whether the
yellowing of the grass leaves was due to
a deficiency of some essential element or
due to a toxicity reaction caused by ex¬
cessive amounts of some element being
present. Soil studies made did not offer
much help in explaining the chlorosis.
It is known that the soil in the vicinity
where the grass was sampled is decidedly
alkaline in reaction. This suggests the
possibility of iron being immobilized by
the alkaline soil reaction and thus be¬
coming unavailable to the plant.

U. S. Soybean Lab. for his advice and assistance on

86

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

SOME QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF PHOTOTPOPISM

Harry J. Puller and Adelard W. Thuente
University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois

The Bunsen-Roscoe law, which states
that a given magnitude of stimulus al¬
ways calls forth the same response, re¬
gardless of its distribution in time, and
the Weber-Fechner law, which states that
the increase in intensity of stimulus
necessary to produce an appreciable re¬
sponse is always a constant fraction of
the intensity of stimulus to which a sen¬
sitive organ is already exposed, have
been shown to apply to the responses of
certain species of plants. Investigations
upon the applicability of these laws to
plant reactions have been infrequent,
however, and the present work was un¬
dertaken to determine whether or not

intensity and the average phototropic
presentation time was determined for
each intensity by observations upon 10
to 18 plants. The light intensity in
foot-candles was then multiplied by the
phototropdc presentation time for the
seedlings exposed to that intensity. If
the Bunsen-Roscoe law is valid for photo¬
tropic responses, then the values of the
various intensities used, multiplied by
their respective presentation times,
should be approximately constant. The
results of typical experiments are pre¬
sented in table I.

B. Weber-Fechner Law. — In these ex¬
periments, the experimental set-up pic-

these laws hold in the phototropic re¬
sponses of seedlings of corn (Reid’s Yel¬
low Dent), perennial rye grass ( Lolium
perenne L.). Alaska peas, radish (Scarlet
Globe), and sunflower.

The experiments were carried out in
a constant-temperature room completely
darkened, except for a spectrally-tested,
phototropically-inactive, red lamp, which
was turned on only during readings. The
light stimulus was obtained by the use
of standard 7% watt, 60 watt, and 100
watt frosted-glass electric lamps. A se¬
ries of intensities was obtained by expos¬
ing the experimental plants at varying
distances from the light source. All in¬
tensities were determined at the plants
by a Macbeth Illuminometer.

A. Bunsen-Roscoe Law. — In the ex¬
periments involving this law, the plants
were exposed to light sources of varying

tured in fig. 1 was used. The box, which
was 10 feet long by 1 foot high by 1 foot
wide was left open on one side and at
the ends, and was painted black. The
plane mirrors employed were 4 by 6
inches and were supported opposite the
open ends of the box, as indicated. The
source of light was placed approximately
2 feet above the center of the box and
the seedlings, grown in darkness, were
placed at measured points as indicated
in the figure— one pot at the midpoint
(0) of the box, then a series to the left
of the midpoint at 3 inches, 9 inches, 15
inches, and 21 inches respectively from
the midpoint. In each experiment, the
plants were exposed for three hours to
the light reflected to them by the mirrors.
By varying the distance of the mirrors
from the light source and point 0 it was
possible to obtain different light inten-

Botany — 1941 Meeting

87

TABLE I

Peas

Corn

Radish

Rye Grass

Sunflower

Intensities

PT

I x PT

PT

I x PT

PT

lx PT

PT

I x PT

i

lx PT

2. 70 FC _

X

1.35

1/25

.108

1

2.70

1/5

.540

IX

4. 05

. 635 _

1

.635

1/5

.123

3

1.91

1

.635

6

3.81

.203 _

2H

.508

x

.107

10

2. 03

2

.406

15

3. 03

.166 . .

3

.498

1

.166

11

1.72

3

.498

22

2. 65

.056 _

10

.560

3

.168

40

2.24

8

.448

52

2.91

.039 _

12

.468

4

.156

50

1.95

10

.390

59

3. 30

. 014 _

35

.490

10

.140

150

2. 10

40

.560

189

2. 64

.0035 _

140

.490

Av. . 502FCS

36

.126

Av. . 137FCS

600

2. 10

Av. 2.18FCS

140

.490

Av. . 499FCS

895

2.98

Av. 3.78FCS

I = intensity in foot-candles

PT = presentation time (in seconds)

I x PT = product of intensity and presentation time
FCS = foot-candle-seconds

TABLE II. (100 WATT LAMP).— CORN

a

feet

b

inches

i'

3

6

9

12

15

18

21

24

26 _ _

X

X

X

X

X

1. 166

19.5 _ _

X

X

X

X

X

X

1. 166

13 _

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

1.166

Intensity at 0 when LM + MO is 13 feet = .254 FC

TABLE III. (60 WATT LAMP).— CORN

a

feet

b

inches

l '

3

6

9

12

15

18

21

24

X

1.361

10 _ _

X

X

X

1. 361

X

X

X

X

X

1.361

Intensity at 0 when LM + MO is 13 feet — .142 FC

sities on the plants; the distances used
(from light source to mirror to mid¬
point) were 13, 19.5, and 26 feet. The
sources of light were standard, frosted
60-watt and 100-watt light electric lamps.
Intensity measurements were made with
the Macbeth Illuminometer.

In each of the experiments, the seed¬
ling closest to the midpoint 0 showing
the slightest phototropic bending was
determined, and calculations were made
according to the law of inverse squares.
Since the intensity of light is inversely
proportional to the square of the dis¬
tance, it is easy to calculate how much
more one side of a seedling must be
illuminated than the other in order to

produce a phototropic bending. Calcu¬
lations were made according to the
formula

i' (a + b)2

i (a — b)2

where a is the distance LM-fMO (and
also L1M1-f-M10), 6 is the distance from
0 to the first curved seedling from the
midpoint i1 is the intensity of the
light to the left, and i is the intensity of
light to the right. If i is arbitrarily
designated as I, then
Tables II and III indicate the results
(a + b)2

i' = -

(a — b)2

obtained from experiments on corn seed-

88

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

TABLE IV. (100 WATT LAMP) —RYE GRASS

a

feet

b

inches

i'

3

6

9

12

15

18

21

24

26 - - - _

X

X

X

X

1. 21

19.5 ------- _

X

X

X

X

X

1. 22

13 _

X

X

X

X

X

X

1.25

Intensity same as in Table II

lings with coleoptiles approximately 3 y2-
4 cm. tall. In the tables x indicates a
definite curvature, absence of an x indi¬
cates no curvature. In a similar experi¬
ment upon rye grass seedlings, the re¬
sults presented in table IV were obtained.

The constancy of i' within these experi¬
ments indicates that the Weber-Fechner
law is applicable, at least roughly within
the limits of the light intensities used,
to phototropic curvatures in coleoptiles
of corn and perennial rye grass seedlings.
Within the limits of each experiment, a
definite fairly constant proportionality
between the light intensities received on
opposite sides of the seedlings must ob¬
tain before the seedlings is able to curve

in the direction of the more intense light.

C. Summary. — 1. The phototropic
curvatures of young stems of peas, sun¬
flower, and radish, and of coleoptiles otf
corn and perennial rye grass, show ap¬
proximate correspondence with the Bun-
sen-Roscoe law, within the limits of the
experiments.

2. The phototropic curvatures of cole¬
optiles of corn and of perennial rye grass
show approximate correspondence with
the Weber-Fechner law, within the limits
of the experiments.

The authors express their appreciation
to the Graduate Research Board of the
University of Illinois for use of the Mac¬
beth Illuminometer.

THE TISSUE CULTURE TECHNIQUE AS A MEANS OF
STUDYING CORRELATION

Richard B. Stephenson and Kathryn Johns
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

For many years the tissue culture tech¬
nique has been utilized as a means of
studying the growth requirements of
isolated parts of the plant body, especial¬
ly those of roots (1, 2). In recent years
its scope has been extended by many
workers to study the role which vitamins
and hormones, and related substances,
may play in root growth. We have been
interested more especially in adapting
the technique to the observation of the
effects which different organs of the
plant exert upon one another during the
growth of the plant. The technique in¬
volves growing excised parts ctf the plant
body together in the same flask and also
in separate flasks. This permits the ob¬
servation of any effects which may be
due to the cutting of the living tissue,
and the separation of the excised parts
from one another, which may he com¬
plete, as when they are isolated, or in¬

complete, as when they remain in the
same flask and the diffusion of sub¬
stances from one part to the other may
still occur.

The plant most extensively studied has
been lettuce, ctf the Grand Rapids tip-burn
resistant variety. The seeds are ster¬
ilized and then germinated on water-
soaked filter paper in previously autp-
claved Petri dishes. When the seedlings
are two days old, the parts are excised
and transferred to the culture flasks. The
medium is usually a modification of
White’s formula. The most widely stud¬
ied group of cultures contained four ser¬
ies, (1) excised roots alone, (2) excised
shoots alone, (3) excised roots and shoots
in the same flask, and (4) the whole
seedling. By the shoot is meant the
entire young stem, including the cotyle¬
dons and part of the hypocotyl. Figure
1 is the histogram which results when

Botany — 1941 Meeting

89

the total root growth on each of the
parts of this series is compared. It
shows clearly that while attached intact
to the seedling, the root and its branches
receive growth promoting materials from
the shoot which are not available to it
immediately from the medium, but that
the root when present on the seedling
greatly inhibits the growth ctf lateral
and adventitious roots.

This same grouping of cultures has
been used to study many growth-regulat¬
ing substances, and when the root
growths are diagrammed in the same
way as are those in Figure 1, the fact is
evident immediately that the different
series of cultures differ widely in their
response to the same substance. Thus,
an over all increase or decrease in the
magnitude of this type-figure does not
take place, but rather a change in the
shape occurs. The conclusion from this
is obvious: that deductions which may
be drawn from observations of the ac¬
tivity of any substance on excised roots
alone must be seriously limited in their
scope.

Other plants which we have cultured
in this way are peas, canteloupe, and
grass. The heterogeneity of response
which peas show makes it difficult to use
the technique to advantage. The import¬
ance of aeration in the development of
some plants is shown by the canteloupe.
The young stems, when cultured as de¬
scribed above for lettuce, elongate and the
cotyledons grow to considerable size, but
no differentiation takes place. The shoots
and adventitious roots do not develop,
but when a mat of glass wool is placed
in the flask to support the young stem in
the medium, growth is normal and very
rapid. This suggests the results of White
(3) with callus tissue. That the problem

Fig 1. — Total root growth in correlation
groups.

is at least partly one of aeration is fur¬
ther substantiated by the fact than when
only a small portion of the stem is sup¬
ported above the liquid surface, numerous
adventitious roots make their appearance
on that portion. On the other hand, young
grass plants develop as well when sub¬
merged in the liquid medium as when on
agar, and moreover, this growth com¬
pares favorably over periods of three or
four weeks with that taking place in sand
culture.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Robbins, W. J. 1922. Cultivation of excised
root tips and stem tips under sterile conditions.
Bot. Gaz. 73:376-390.

2. White, P. R. 1936. Plant Tissue Cultures.
Bot. Gaz. 73:376-390.

3 . . 1938. Potentially unlimited

growth of excised plant callus in an artificial
nutrient. Amer. Jour. Bot. 25:18s.

90

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

AN EVALUATION OF GENERAL METHODS OF
“DEOXYGENATION” OF WATER

Richard D. Wood

Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

The recent interest in the physiology
of aquatic plants and animals has stimu¬
lated the application of a technique em¬
ploying “oxygen deficient” water (Kosty-
chev and Soldatenkow, 1926; Gessner,
1938). One phase which has not received
adequate attention is the methods of prep¬
aration of this medium.

Three mechanical methods for reduc¬
tion of the gaseous content of water are
in general use: (1) heating, (2) displace¬
ment by another gas, and (3) application
of partial vacuum. Perhaps to date heat¬
ing has been the most popular, but is
found to disturb chemical and organic
factors of natural water. Data are given
which indicate the effectiveness of each
method.

Heating. — One liter quantities of dis¬
tilled water were heated in a 2 liter Erlen-
meyer flask over a Fisher burner which
increased the temperature of the water
at the rate of about 7°C. per minute.
Samples were siphoned off before and
after treatment of each quantity into
200ml. flasks. Determinations of dissolved
oxygen content were made by the Winkler
method. Data are given in table I.
Nitrogen Substitution. — One liter quanti¬
ties of distilled water were placed in a
one liter Buchner flask, and nitrogen was
bubbled through the water from the bot¬
tom. The rate of 0.1 cubic feet per min¬
ute was chosen, because preliminary tests
indicated that at this rate nearly maxi¬
mum deoxygenation seemed to be affected
per unit time. Samples of water were
drawn, and the dissolved oxygen concen¬
tration determined as outlined above.

Partial Vacuum. — One liter quantities
of distilled water were added to a 1 liter
Buchner filtering flask which was at¬
tached to a mercury manometer by one
lateral tube and to an aspirator by a
second. Maximum water flow through
the pump was used in all experiments,
and reduced the air pressure in the flask
from 756.1 mm. Hg. to 16.1 mm. Hg.
Samples of water were drawn and the
dissolved oxygen concentration deter¬
mined as outlined above.

TABLE I.— DEOXYGENATION OF WATER
WITH HEAT

Length of
treatment
min.

Temperature

°C.

Oxygen

concentration

mg./L.

Percent of
original oxygen
concentration

0

29.0

6.8

100.0

2

38.5

6.8

100.0

4

55.0

6.0

88.2

6

75.0

5.4

79.4

8

91.0

3.8

55.8

10

100.0

0.8

11.8

TABLE II.— DEOXYGENATION OF WATER WITH
NITROGEN GAS BUBBLED THROUGH AT
THE RATE OF 0.1 CUBIC FEET
PER MINUTE

Length of
treatment
min.

Total
nitrogen
bubbled
through
cu. ft.

Oxygen

concentration

mg./L.

Percent of
original oxygen
concentration

0

0.0

9.2

100.0

1

0. 1

7.4

80.5

2

0.2

5.0

54.5

4

0.4

2.8

30.5

6

0.6

1.7

18.6

8

0.8

1.2

13.1

10

1.0

0.9

9.3

TABLE III.— DEOXYGENATION OF WATER
UNDER REDUCED PRESSURE
(16.1 mm. Hg.)

Length of treatment
min.

Oxygen

concentration

mg./L.

Percent of
original oxygen
concentration

0.0

9.8

100.0

5.0

7.8

79.6

10.0

7.6

77.6

TABLE IV.— DEOXYGENATION OF WATER
UNDER REDUCED PRESSURE (16.1 mm.
Hg.) WITH VIGOROUS SHAKING BY
HAND DURING TREATMENT

Length of treatment
min.

Oxygen

concentration

mg./L.

Percent of
original oxygen
concentration

0. 00

9.8

100.0

0. 75

1.8

23.7

1.00

1.2

12.2

2.00

0.6

7.9

2.50

0.4

4.1

5. 00

0.4

4.1

Botany — 1941 Meeting

91

To accelerate oxygen reduction, the
preceding experiment was repeated with
the one exception that the flask was
shaken vigorously by hand in absence of
an automatic oscillator.

The accompanying graph (Fig. 1) sum¬
marizes the data above in terms of rela¬
tive rate of deoxygenation of water per
unit time.

Discussion. — The aspiration technique
for the deaeration of water has proved
of such interest to men in the field of
chemistry and zoology at Northwestern
University that I have attempted to make
these data of a general nature. The ap-

Fig. 1. — Graph of reduction in dissolved
oxygen concentration of distilled water by
(A) partial vacuum, (B) heating, (C) dis¬
placement by nitrogen, and (D) partial
vacuum with oscillation.

paratus and techniques are not elaborated
beyond mere duplication of the proced¬

ures in general use, for the purpose was
to evaluate the methods as actually em¬
ployed. Each method, however, has pe¬
culiar advantages which should be recog¬
nized. By merely heating a given quan¬
tity of water to a particular temperature
one can approximate a desired oxygen
saturation, whereas without an automatic
oscillator the aspiration method is diffi¬
cult to standardize. The nitrogen meth¬
od, by displacing the oxygen with nitro¬
gen, has the advantage of more closely
approximating true oxygen deficient
rather than deaerated water. Aspiration
has the advantage of rapidity of action
and simplicity of method in accomplish¬
ing the same effect as boiling, hut with¬
out disturbing the physio-chemical fac¬
tors.

I am indebted to Dr. B. S. Meyer under
whom this work was begun, to Dr. R. 0.
Freeland for many valuable suggestions,
and to Dr. P. Haensel for the excellent
facilities of the High Pressure and Cata¬
lytic Laboratories at Northwestern Uni¬
versity.

REFERENCES

Gessner, F. 1937. Untersuchungen iiber Assimila¬
tion und Atmung submerser Wasserpflanzen.
Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 85:267-328.

. . . . 1938. Die Beziehung zwischen Lich-

tintensitat und Assimilation bei submersen
Wasserpflanzen. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 86:491-526.
Kostychev, S. und S. Soldatenkow. 1926. Der
tagliche Verlauf und die Specifische Intensity t
der Photosynthese bei Wasserpflanzen. Planta.
2:1-9.

Meyer, B. S. 1939. The daily cycle of apparent
photosynthesis in a submerged aquatic. Amer.
Jour. Bot. 26:755-760.

American Public Health Association. 1933. Stand¬
ard methods of water analysis.

92

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

PHYSIOLOGICAL DISTURBANCES IN TOBACCO PLANTS
ACCOMPANYING MOSAIC INFECTION

P. Lyle Wynd

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Seeds of Burley tobacco plants were
germinated in the greenhouse and the
seedlings transplanted into two-inch pots
as soon as they were large enough to
handle. As growth proceeded, the plants
were repotted successively into four and
eight inch pots. When the plants had
five well developed leaves, the lower two
were removed, and the lowest remaining
leaf was designated as number one and
the higher leaves numbered consecutively.
Several new leaves appeared during the
course of the study and they were desig¬
nated by consecutively higher numbers
as soon as they were large enough to be
included in the experimental material.

Leaf number one was inoculated with
the mosaic virus by rubbing a small area
with a piece of cheesecloth soaked with
press juice of plants in an advanced stage
of the disease.

At intervals of two or three days, the
leaves of similar age (from normal and
inoculated plants were studied in the

laboratory to observe changes in respira¬
tory rate, and in the activities of peroxid¬
ase, oxygenase, catalase and invertase.

The purpose of making the above ob¬
servations was to discover if there was a
significant difference in the time required
for the plant to show a physiological dis¬
turbance and that required to attain an
infectious concentration of newly formed
virus.

The rate of oxygen used by the leaves
of mosaic infected plants was greatly in¬
creased by the fourth day after the lower
leaf was inoculated. This period of
stimulated metabolism preceded by ap¬
proximately ten days the general appear¬
ance of the virus in infectious concentra¬
tions. The enzymes also showed a dis¬
turbed activity very soon after infection.
These data show that the appearance of
newly formed virus in infectious concen¬
tration occurs approximately ten days
after the tobacco plant has undergone
profound physiological changes. This

TABLE 1. — The Physiological Activities op Leaves From Mosaic Infected Tobacco Plants
Expressed as Percentages of the Activities of Leaves of Similar Age From Normal Plants.

Oxygen use

Oxygenase

Peroxidase

Leaf

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Value

Day

Value

Day

Value

Day

Value

Day

Value

Day

Value

Day

Leaf 1 _

137.0

4

83.7

18

200

14

49

6

143

11

74

4

Leaf 2 _

119.8

2

82.3

. 18

250

14

66

4j

108

14

95

. 8

Leaf 3 _

111.3

4

94.9

6

165

6

81

4

100

14

94

4

Leaf 4 _

125

11

80

4

120

14

98

4

Leaf 5. . . .....

200

14

72

g

100

16

87

14

Leaf 6 _

99.7

18

77.7

21

125

16

100

14

131

16

91

14

Catalase

Invertase

Leaf

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Value

Day

Value

Day

Value

Day

Value

Day

Leaf 1 _

210

11

69

2

273

16

78

6

Leaf 2 _

315

8

92

2

143

18

72

8

Leaf 3 _

223

8

86

2

110

11

77

8

Leaf 4 _

169

18

67

8

106

11

85

6

Leaf 5 _

354

18

76

6

103

11

74

18

Leaf 6 . _

146

18

47

8

117

11

65

16

Botany — 1941 Meeting

93

indicates that it is not impossible for the
virus substance to be a product of this
abnormal metabolism. If the observed
physiological changes were due to a di¬
rect effect of the virus itself, one would
expect the disturbances to parallel or fol¬
low the appearance of the virus, but ac¬

tual observations show that the amount
of virus present at any time has no re¬
lation whatever to the magnitude ctf the
disturbed metabolism of the plant.

A detailed discussion of the data will
be published at a later date.

A DEVICE FOR VISUALIZING THE SOLUTION OF
GENETICS PROBLEMS

J. W. Hudson

Loyola University,

Last year a paper was presented to
the Academy in which the project method
developed in the Biology Department at
Loyola University was outlined. This
year one of these projects will be pre¬
sented in detail. This particular project
involved the building of a device for
visualizing the solution of genetics prob¬
lems.

The construction of this device is sim¬
ple, as the accompanying diagrams indi¬
cate. It consists essentially of a box
15 % "square. (See fig. 1.) This is made
of one inch white pine fastened together
with screws. The box is 6" deep. It has
a solid back of one inch pine, recessed
y2". This half inch space contains the
wiring. There is a second, removable
back of three-ply wood which con¬
ceals the wiring. Attached to the solid
back on the front side are sixteen sockets

Chicago, Illinois

containing sixteen watt bulbs. Partitions
of 14" ply wood separate these bulbs and
form square inclosures, the dimensions
ctf which are given in the diagram. This
size was chosen because we use a
31/i"x4i4" camera to make the trans¬
parencies.

The open front of these compartments
is covered with a piece of ground glass
14%" square. This slides in grooves cut
into the sides of the box as shown. A
piece of clear glass 13 y2" square fits into
four brass guides bent into shape to re¬
ceive it. There is a space of about 3/16"
between the two glasses into which the
transparencies about to be described fit.

A smaller box is hinged to the top of
the larger one. Dimensions of this are
given in fig. 1. It contains the sixteen
switches used to control each individual
light. The wiring is somewhat tedious,

! C7=

\

— < £>r

— 6r

■3

—6

!>

J

!>

!>

1

\ _ ^ _ Y_

\

j—

r-^

b

j— e

1

1 ^=3

\

pi

1)

r~€
' LJ ' - 1

1 rrM

N

Ilr€)l

11^)1

0/-

Fig 2.

94

Illinois State Academy of Science -Transactions

but not very complicated. As the dia¬
gram (fig. 2) shows, four switches across
the top of the box control one side of the
lamps in groups of four. When these
switches are closed, the sixteen switches
in the upper box each control one side
of a single lamp. The four switches on
the left side of the box are four pole
switches. Considerable difficulty was ex¬
perienced in obtaining this type of
switch, so they were constructed in the
laboratory. They consist of a brass cy¬
linder attached to a wooden knob. This
cylinder slides in and out of a hole in
the box. A wire from the line is soldered
to the cylinder. Brass strips are soldered
to each of four wires coming from a row
of four lights. These strips are bent and
screwed into place so that the cylinder,
when pushed in, makes contact with all
four at once. This type of switch is
necessary to prevent current feeding
back through the lamps, thus throwing
several into series.

The transparencies are made of two
pieces of x-ray film from which the emul¬
sion has been removed by soaking in a
dilute warm solution of sodium hydrox¬
ide. Such films may be obtained gratis
from any hospital. They are cut into
13V2" squares. On one, letters represent¬
ing genes are printed as indicated in the
example. We found that India ink has
a tendency to crack off, so the type of
opaque used by photographers in retouch¬
ing was used. Appropriate drawings
are made with India ink and copied on
process film. From the negatives the de¬
sired number of positives are made on
process film. These are colored with East¬
man water colors. They are then lined
up on the x-ray film and held in place by
small bits of scotch tape. Finally, eight
strips of scotch tape (the opaque type
used to bind lantern slides) are arranged
as shown in the diagram. The squares
so formed correspond to those formed in¬
side the box by the plywood partitions.
The second x-ray film is placed over the
positives, and the whole bound together
with scotch tape.

A door covers the open front of the box.
This was not shown in the drawing, in
order to save space. It is hinged on the
right, and fastens to the left side with a
snap catch. The top also folds down and
fastens to the door by another snap catch.
A handle attached to the top permits easy
carrying. The electric cord for power
supply comes in near the bottom on the
right side.

This project as such was very success¬
ful. It required the combining of in¬
formation of very diverse kinds. A
knowledge of genetics, physics, photog¬
raphy, and some practical carpentry
were required. Not only were those ac¬
tively working on it interested, but many
others displayed a keen interest.

Besides the routine solution of prob¬
lems, it is possible to demonstrate vari¬
ous other points. For instance, students
often are unable to understand why a
double recessive is used in test crossing.
If a transparency is put into place, and
the four egg switches closed, it is pos¬
sible to demonstrate the utility of the
recessive. If the switch controlling the
sperm carrying both recessives is closed,
four phenotypes appear. If any egg
switch is opened, the ratios are changed,
proving that only one possible female
can give such results. If any other
sperm switch is closed, then two, or even
three egg switches may be opened with¬
out changing the ratio. This dem¬
onstrates that only the double recessive
will reveal an unknown genotype. We
have not had an opportunity to use the
machine sufficiently to determine its use¬
fulness. It is hoped, however, that it will
arouse the curiosity of the students and
thus lead them to an interest in a subject
which is ordinarily considered abstruse.
It is planned to demonstrate in lecture,
and then allow the students to work out
problems during laboratory periods or at
other times.

One of the projects for several years to
come will be the addition of various
transparencies to those we already have.

Botany — 1941 Meeting

95

A COLLECTION OF MYXOMYCETES FROM EASTERN

ILLINOIS

E. L. Stover

Eastern Illinois State Teachers College , Charleston, Illinois

This collection of the saprophytic
Myxomycetes was started by a student,
the late Miss Helen Ruck. It has been
added to by the writer, Mr. H. F. Thut
and students. This collection is main¬
tained as a unit for use in a course of
study of the non-green plants. It is pre¬
sented to the botany section of the Acade¬
my as an interesting and useful collec¬
tion demonstrating this group of plants
and as a group useful in teaching the use
of keys for the identification of plants.
The collection contains nineteen or
twenty genera and from forty to fifty
species. The following list is a record
of these species collected in Coles and
Clark Counties in Illinois. Specimens
are available to anyone who wants to ex¬
amine them in the botany laboratories
of the Eastern Illinois State Teachers
College.

The identifications were made from the
keys in the book by Macbride and Martin,
The Myxomycetes. A part ctf the identifi¬
cations have been checked by Professor
Martin.

Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa (Muell.) Macbr.
Fuligo septica (L.) Weber
Badhamia Versicolor Lister
Badhamia foliicola Lister
Physarum compressum Alb. and Schw.
Physarum notabile Macbr.

Physarum polycephalum Schw.

Physarum viride (Bull.) Pers.

Physarum spp.

Diderma crustaceum Peck.

Diachea leucopodia (Bull.) Rost.
Stemonitis fusca Roth.

Stemonitis virginiensis Rex.

Stemonitis fenestrata Macbr.

Stemonitis splendens Rost.

Stemonitis axifera (Bull.) Macbr.
Comatricha longa Peck
Comatricha irregularis Rex
Comatricha typhoides (Bull.) Rost.
Comatricha pulchella (Bab.) Rost
Comatricha sp.

Lamproderma arcyrionema Rost.

Cribaria dictydiodes Cook and Ball.
Dictydium cancellatum (Batsch) Macbr.
Licea tenera John
Licea fimicola Dearness and Bisby.
Tubifera casparyi (Rost) Macbr.

Tubifera ferruginosa (Batsch) Gmel.
Reticularia lycoperdon Bull.

Lycogola epidendrum (L) Fr.

Perichaena quadrata Macbride
Arcyria cinerea (Bull) Pers.

Arcyria digitata (Schw.) Rost.

Arcyria denudata (L) Wettstein
Oligonema nitens (Lib.) Rost.
Hemitrichia serpula (Schop.) Rost.
Hemitrichia stipata (Schw.) Macbr.
Hemitrichia vesparium (Batsch) Macbr.
Hemitrichia clavata (Pers.) Rost.

96

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

BRYOPHYTES OF ROCKY BRANCH REGION OF CLARK

COUNTY, ILLINOIS

R. Harold Vaughan

Sullivan Township High School, Sullivan, Illinois

In the northern part of Clark County
there is a small creek called Rocky
Branch which joins Big Creek about two
miles northeast of the village of Dolson
(Clarksville). This stream runs for al¬
most a mile in its lower course through
a gorge cut in sandstone. Botanists and
zoologists of east central Illinois have
long known Rocky Branch to be an inter¬
esting place. The author believes, how¬
ever, that no one has ever made extensive
collections of Bryophytes there.

The area explored for this study in¬
cludes Rocky Branch gorge, some ravines
which enter the gorge, and the rocky
cliffs on Big Creek near the junction of
the two streams. All together the region
includes less than one square mile of
land. Woods, streams, and moist rocky
banks and cliffs furnish a wide variety of
habitats where Bryophytes flourish. Col¬
lections were made during the late sum¬
mer and autumn of 1940 and the spring
of 1941. Time did not permit a thorough
exploration of all the promising parts of
this region and it is quite probable that
several other species of Bryophytes may
be collected there later.

Duplicate samples of this collection
have been sent to Dr. Stella M. Hague
for the Illinois Collection at the Uni¬
versity of Illinois and to Dr. W. C. Steere
for the Herbarium of the University of
Michigan. Samples of the Hepaticae
have been sent to Dr. Margaret Fulford
for the Hepatic Herbarium of the Sulli-
vant Moss Society at the University of
Cincinnati. The author is greatly in¬
debted to Dr. Steere, Dr. Hague, Dr. Ful¬
ford and Dr. A. J. Grout for the assist¬
ance given in the identification of the
Bryophytes collected.

HEPATICAE

Calypogeiaceae

Calypogeia Trichomanis (L.) Corda

Cepahloziaceae

Cephalozia media Lindb*

Harpanthaceae

LOPHOCOLEA HETEROPHYLLA ( SCHRAD. )

Dumort.

Jungermanniaceae

Plectocolea crenuliformis (Aust.)

Mitt.*

Plectocolea hyalina (Lyell) Mitt.
Plagiochilaceae

Plagiochila asplenioides (L.) Dumort.

Scapaniaceae

Scapania nemorosa (L.) Dumort.
Porellaceae

Porella platyphylloidea( Schwein.jLindb*

Frullaniaceae

Frullania eboracensis Gottsche

Blasiaceae

Blasia pusilla L.

Marchantiaceae

Marchantia polymorpha L.
Conocephalum conicum (L.) Dumort.

Rebouliaceae

Reboulia hemisphaerica (L.) Raddi

Anthocerotaceae

Anthoceros laevis L.

MUSCI

Sphagnaceae

Sphagnum sp.

T etraphidaceae

TETR APHIS PELLUCID A HedW.

Fissidentaceae

Fissidens cristatus Wils.

Fissidens osmundioides Hedw.

Fissidens subbasilaris Hedw.

Fissidens taxifolius Hedw.

Fissidens viridulus (Web. & Mohr)

Wahlenb.

Botany— 1941 Meeting

97

Ditrichaceae

Ceratodon purpureus (Hedw.) Brid.
Ditrichum pallidum (Schreb., Hedw.)

Hampe.

Dicranaceae

Dicranella Heteromalla va. ortho-
carpa (Hedw.)

Dicranella varia (Hedw.) Schimp.
Dicranum scoparium (L.) Hedw.

Leucobryaceae

Leucobryum glaucum (Hedw.) Schimp.

Polytrichaceae

Atrichum angustatum (Brid.) Bry. Eur.
Atrichum undulatum (Hedw.) Beauv.
POGONATUM PENSILVANICUM (Hedw.)
POLYTRICHUM COMMUNE Hedw.
POLYTRICHUM JUNIPERINUM Hedw.
Polytrichum ohioense Ren. & Card.

Buxbaumiaceae

Diphyscium foliosum (Hedw.) Mohr

Pottiaceae

Barbula fallax Hedw.

Desmatodon obtusifolius (Schwaegr.)
Gymnostomum calcareum Nees. &

Hornsch.

Weisia viridula Hedw.

Grimmiaceae

Grimmia apocarpa (L. ) Hedw.

Hedwigia ciliata (Ehrh) Hedw.

Funariaceae

Funaria hygrometrica (L.) Hedw.
Physcomitrium turbinatum (Mx.) Brid.

Orthotrichaceae

Drummondia prorepens (Hedw.) Jennings
Orthotrichum pumilum Dicks.

Aulacomniaceae

Aulacomnium heterostichum (Hedw.)

Bry. Eur.

Bartramiaceae

Bartramia pomiformis (L.) Hedw.

Bryaceae

Bryum argentum L.

Pohlia nutans (Schreb.) Lindb.

Pohlia Wahlenbergii (Web. & Mohr.)
Rhodobryum roseum (Weis.) Limpr.

Mniaceae

Mnium affine Bland.

Mnium cuspidatum Hedw.

Mnium punctatum (L.) Hedw.

Mnium spinulosum (Br. & Sch.)Bry. Eur.

Hypnaceae

Amblystegium varium (Hedw.) Lindb.
Brachythecium acutum (Mitt.) Sull.
Braciiythecium oxycladon va. dentatum
(Lesq. & James) Grout
Brachythecium plumosum (Sw.) Br. &

Sch.*

Brachythecium rivulare Bry. Eur.
Brachythecium salebrosum (Hoffm.)

Br. & Sch.

Bryhnia gramnicolor (Brid.) Grout
Calliergonella Schreberi (Willd., Br. &

Sch.) Grout

Campylium chrysophyllum

(Brid.) Bryhn

Campylium hispidulum (Brid.) Mitt.
Cirriphyllum Boscn (Schwaegr.) Grout.
Climacium americanum Brid.

Entodon cladorrhizans (Hedw.)C. Muell.
Entodon seductrix (Hedw.) C. Muell.
Eurinchium serrulatum (Hedw.) Kindb.
Homomallium adnatum (Hedw.) Broth.
Hygroamblystegium fluviatile (Hedw.)

Loeske

Hypnum curvifolium Hedw.
Plagiothecium denticulatum (L. Hedw.)

Bry. Eur.

Plagiothecium geophilum (Aust.) Grout
Plagiothecium Roseanum (Hampe) Bry.

Eur.*

Platygyrium repens (Brid.) Bry. Eur.
Sematophyllum carolinianum (C. Muell)

E. G. Britton*

Leskeaceae

Anomodon attenuatus (Hedw.) Huben
Anomodon minor (P. B.) Lindb.
Anomodon rostratus (Hedw.) Schimp.
Lesicea polycarpa (Hedw.)

Thelia asprella Sull.

Thuidium delicatulum (L. Hedw.) Mitt.
Thuidium pygmaeum Bry. Eur.

Hookeriaceae

Hookeria acutifolia (Hook.) Schwaegr.*

Leucodontaceae

Leucodon julaceus (Hedw.) Sull.

NOTE: The author believes that this
is the first time the italicized species
have been reported from Illinois.
P. platyphylloidea has been collected of¬
ten, but, according to Dr. Steere, has been
called P. platyphylla. Dr. Hague states
that S. carolinianum has been collected
but not reported. Dr. Steere states that
this report on H. acutifolia marks a con¬
siderable extension of the range of this
moss as it has not previously been re¬
ported west of Ohio.

98

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THE TREES OF ADAMS COUNTY, ILLINOIS

Robert A. Evers

Quincy Junior High School, Quincy, Illinois

Since there are a number of people in
the state who are interested in the dis¬
tribution of plants in Illinois, perhaps it
would be well to publish a list of trees
found in Adams County in order to bring
the distribution record up to date.

This list of arborescent plants was
compiled from herbarium specimens in
the University of Illinois, the Natural
History Survey Herbarium; and from
the card index in the Natural History
Survey which lists Illinois plants found
in the herbaria of Field Museum, North¬
western University, and the Missouri
Botanical Garden. Only seven different
species were found in these herbaria, the
remainder of the species in this list re¬
sulted from the author’s collection made
in Adams County since the autumn of
1939. The nomenclature used is chiefly
that of Rehder’s “Manual of Cultivated
Trees and Shrubs”, second edition, 1940.

No initial after the name of the plant
in the following list indicates that the
specimens are in the author’s collection
now in the herbarium of the University
of Illinois and in other herbaria. An ini¬
tial in parentheses indicates an herba¬
rium specimen other than the author’s
in some herbarium: (F), Field Museum;
(NHS), Natural History Survey; (UI),
University of Illinois. The collector’s
name follows the herbarium abbreviation.
If the initial is preceded by the amper¬
sand (&), the author also collected this
species.

Pinaceae

Juniperus virginiana L.

Salicaceae

Populus alba L. Escaped cultivation.
Populus deltoides Marsh.

Salix alba L (An escape)

Salix amygdaloides Anders.

Salix nigra Marsh.

Salix interior Rowlee

& '(F). Beckwith, 1916.

Juglandaceae
Juglans nigra L.

Juglans cinerea L.

Carya Pecan Engl. & Graebn.

Carya cordiformis (Wangh.) K. Koch
& (UI). Seymour
Carya glabra (Mill.) Sweet
Carya laciniosa (Michx. f.) Loud
Carya ovata (Mill.) K. Koch
Carya tomentosa Nutt.

Betulaceae

Betula nigra L.

& (NHS). Pepoon & Barrett, 1932.
Carpinus caroliniana Walt.

Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch

Fagaceae

Quercus imbricaria Michx.

Quercus marilandica Muenchh.

Quercus velutina Lam.

Quercus palustris Muenchh.

Quercus borealis var. maxima Ashe
Quercus alba L.

Quercus stellata Wangh.

Quercus macrocarpa Michx.

Quercus muhlenbergii Engelm.

Ulmaceae

Ulmus americana L.

Ulmus fulva Michx.

Celtis laevigata Willd.

Celtis occidentalis L.

Celtis occidentalis var. crassifolia

(Lam.) Gray

Moraceae

Morus alba L. Escaped cultivation.

Morus rubra L.

Maclura pomifera (Raf.) Schneider

Anonaceae

Asimina triloba Dunal & (UI). Gates,

1916.

Lauraceae

Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees

Platanapeae

Platanus occidentalis L. & (NHS).

Pepoon & Barrett, 1932.

Rosaceae

Crataegus mollis Scheele

Crataegus viridis L. & (UI). Davis, 1912.

Crataegus Crus-galli L.

Crataegus punctata Jacq. (UI). Sey¬
mour, 1878.

Botany — 1941 Meeting

99

Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic.
Malus ioensis (Wood) Bailey-
Promts hortulana Bailey
Prunus serotina Ehrh.

Prunus lanata (Sudw.) Mack & Bush

Leguminosae

Cercis canadensis L.

Gleditsia triacanthos L.

Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) K. Koch
Robinia pseudoacacia L.

Rutaceae

Ptelea trifoliata L.

Simaroubaceae

Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle
Aquifoliaceae
Ilex decidua Walt.

Celastraceae

Euonymus atropurpurea Jacq.

Aceraceae

Acer saccharinum L.

Acer saccharum Marsh.

Acer Negundo L.

Hippocastanaceae

Aesculus glabra Willd.

Tiliaceae

Tilia americana L.

Cornaceae

Cornus alternifolia L. f. (NHS).

Pepoon & Barrett, 1932.

Ebenaceae

Diospyros virginiana L.

Oleaceae

Fraxinus americana L.

Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.

Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. lanceolata

(Borkh.) Sarg.

Fraxinus quadrangulata Michx.
Forestiera acuminata (Michx.) Poir.

Bignoniaceae

Catalpa speciosa Warder.

Escaped cultivation.

Caprifoliaceae

Viburnum prunifolium L.

MULTI-SEEDED ACORNS

J. T. Buchholz, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

At Conway, Arkansas is a large native
tree of Southern red oak Quercus falcata
Michx* which is very unusual in that it
bears acorns that contain several seeds
each. This tree stands on a corner lot
bordered by Bruce Street on the north
and by Davis Street on the east. It was
originally located in the fall of 1917 as
a result of a survey of the acorns falling
from hundreds of trees in this section of
Conway. Only very rarely was an acorn
found elsewhere with more than a single
seed. Under this tree and one other, a
great majority of the fruits were multi-
seeded. The other tree, a much smaller
one, was located in a grove about a block
or more north and a similar distance
west not far from the east bank of a
brook, and may have been cut down in
the development of this area as a Residen¬
tial section.

The tree at Bruce and Davis streets
differs in no obvious particulars from
hundreds of other native trees of this
variable species. It differs only in the
structure of its fruit. The acorns are
abnormal in containing several seeds
that are crowded into the space usually
occupied by a single seed. When these
acorns are planted several seedlings
emerge from the nut instead of the usual
single seedling. I suspect that there are
other differences that no one has ob¬
served. One may be in its physiological
vigor of growth, especially of the acorns.
However no claim is advanced that this
tree is another species or even a variety.
Like several of the synonyms given for
the species*, this tree may be a sub-
variety or form, and is very likely to
represent a mutation, but before the term
mutation may be applied, the inheritance

(1 itlGpe^i Soa\CUS KUbra L- I? tlie writer’s pocket manual of the Common Forest Trees op Arkansas
NomenclS?.2 S' °f „chan?es and clarification of the International Rules of Botanical

a^C- atUre (1930* 1&35) the name Q. rubra L. does not remain as the legitimate name of anv North
nnT11 nipeciesii iTce ™ v?e S' falc?ta, Michx. remains the legitimate botanical name of the Southern
n Spanish oak, and the following are synonyms: Q. rubra L. not DuRoi., Q. triloba

J; a ' 2; digitata Sudw., Q. cuneata Rehd. and Q. pagodaefolia Ashe. At least the last named is recognized
as a variety . Q . falcata var pagodaefolia Elliott and it is likely that other varieties should be recognized
ihe names of other oaks given by Buchholz and Mattoon (1) remain unchanged by the rules.

100

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

1 2 3 4 5

Diagrams Showing Cross Sections of Normal and Multi-seeded Acorns x2
1. Normal acorn with single seed. 2. A 3-seeded acorn. 3. A 4-seeded acorn. 4 and 5.
2-seeded acorns. Pairs of cotyledons belonging to same embryo are connected by a “z”.

of this multi-seeded condition would have
to be demonstrated.

The structure of flowers in the oak
and the development of the fruit was de¬
scribed nearly a century ago by the Ger¬
man botanist Theodor Hartig (5). The
subject is treated more briefly by M.
Marshall Ward (7) in The Oak, one of
the Modern Science Series edited by Sir
John Lubbock (Lord Avebury). Every
female oak flower contains 6 ovules with¬
in its compound tricarpellate pistil.
Though the ovary has a single cavity
these ovules are attached to 3 marginal
placentae in pairs, and become, for a
time, so crowded and pushed together
that it gives the impression of a 3-celled
ovary. At the time of pollination the
ovules are still very rudimentary and un¬
developed, but they become well organ¬
ized during the first season. In the
summer of the second year (for it re¬
quires 2 seasons to mature the acorns of
oaks belonging to the red oak group)
the pistil enlarges very greatly to form
the acorn. Usually only one of the six
ovules enlarges and matures to form a
seed; the embryo which it contains
stretches its seed coat out thin as it fills
the entire space within the pericarp. The
other five ovules become aborted and are
carried upward by the intercalary growth
of the shell of the nut so that they may
be observed only under magnification
inside of the shell at the tip of the ma¬
ture acorn or they may be seen clinging
to the apex of the enlarged seed when
this is removed from the shell. For
some reason this Conway tree matures
seeds from more than one of its ovules —
as many as five out of a possible six
seeds have been found.

The conditions shown by the acorns
may be illustrated by the accompany¬
ing diagrams of the cross sections.
Fig. 1 shows the cross section of the

normal acorn in which only two coty¬
ledons belonging to a single embryo may
be seen. The heavy outer layer is the
woody pericarp or shell of the acorn.
This contains a seed which consists of a
dicotyledonous embryo without endo¬
sperm, surrounded by a very thin papery
seed coat. In fig. 2 there are three em¬
bryos, each of which is surrounded by a
similar thin seed coat and the embryo of
each seed has two cotyledons. Fig. 3
shows the section of an acorn with four
seeds. Figs. 4 and 5 each show acorns
having two seeds with embryos, with the
lines of separation between the pair of
cotyledons placed in various positions,
indicating that there is no regularity in
the radial orientation of the embryos.
Sometimes the cotyledons are very un¬
equally developed so that only one of a
pair shows in a section cut through the
base of the acorn. Several instances j
were found in which a cross section cut j
below the middle of the nut showed
only two cotyledons, which upon further
dissection proved to have additional seeds
with embryos, very much smaller and
crowded up toward the apex of the nut. j
All embryos are oriented with the radicle j
brought close to the apex of the acorn.
When the shell of the acorn is completely !
removed the individual seeds usually fall !
apart and show how each embryo is sur¬
rounded by an individual seed coat.

77 acorns of the 1940 seed crop col¬
lected from beneath this tree were care¬
fully examined during the past winter.

40 of these were normal while 37 con¬
tained two or more seeds each. As I
recall, in 1917 there were more acorns
with abnormal seeds. However if only
the larger nuts were sampled in 1917,
the proportion of abnormal seeds
would have been higher, as I shall show
presently. Among the 37 acorns with
more than one seed, 14 had 2, 10 had 3, 11

Botany — 1941 Meeting

101

had 4 and 2 had 5 seeds. The 37 ab¬
normal acorns in the 1940 sample con¬
tained an average of 3 seeds.

In the summer of 1918, after leaving
Conway, the writer received at intervals
of 2 weeks during June and July, collec¬
tions of twigs hearing developing acorns
from this tree along with collections
made from another red oak tree of simi¬
lar size nearby and known to bear only
normal fruit. These were dissected and
compared in similar stages of develop¬
ment. It was obvious from these investi¬
gations that in the tree with abnormal
acorns more than one of the ovules en¬
larges and develops to maturity. In
the tree with normal fruits the develop¬
ment of five of the six ovules was checked
very early in the second season. Another
difference was noted: the fruits of the
abnormal tree were usually larger at any
of these mid-season dates than in the
tree that had been chosen as a control.
However the mature acorns were not
noticeably larger than those of other
trees of Quercus falcata. Possibly this
more precocious growth of the (fruit has
something to do with the development of
several seeds per acorn, in furnishing
more room at a critical stage for the en¬
largement of several ovules to form seeds.

Mr. J. H. Gist who collected the sam¬
ples of seeds of the 1940 crop informed
me that the tree, now nearly 3 feet in
diameter, had been pollarded in recent
years. All of the 1940 crop of fruits was
produced on a dense new growth of
slender branches arising from the stubs
of large limbs. The acorns were on the
whole smaller than the average size for
acorns ctf Quercus falcata, as I remember
them, and were quite variable in size.
Their diameters ranged from 8.5 mm to
12.5 mm; their mean diameter was 10.5
mm. Among 33-acorns which measured
more than 10.5 mm indiameter there
were 24 (77%) with 2 or more seeds;
among 44 acorns 10.5 mm in diameter or
less, only 13 (30%) had 2 or more seeds.
In the larger group of acorns the mean
number of seeds per fruit was 2.5; in the
smaller group of. 44 the mean was 1.5
seeds per fruit. It is possible, therefore,
that the impression gained in 1917 of a

greater prevalence of the multi-seeded
condition was correct, but was based on
seed samples which included larger seeds.

There are some records in the litera¬
ture of this condition, based upon ob¬
servations of the germination of more
than a single seedling from an acorn.
Harvey (6) mentioned an example in the
white oak ( Quercus alba L.), which he
appears to have misinterpreted as an in¬
stance of polyembryony. Similar ob¬
servations have been reported for other
species and described as polyembryony;
even Coulter (4) appears to have ac¬
cepted this interpretation. However,
polyembryony, which involves several
embryos which are formed within the
same seed, would be very difficult to
prove tfor the oak. It could certainly not
be proved in the later stages represented
by germinating acorns. Many years ago
Coker (2, 3) recognized and described
this condition on the basis of germinat¬
ing acorns. He mentioned a tree of basket
oak, Q. prinus L., near Baltimore, and a
tree of white oak, Q. alba L., at Chapel
Hill, North Carolina, in both of which
many acorns give rise to several seed¬
lings each. He also found a single in¬
stance of a multi-seeded acorn in the
black oak, Q. velutina Lam.

The condition found in the tree at Con¬
way might occur sporadically in any spe¬
cies of oak, for they all have six ovules
in the pistil. The explanation that ab¬
normalities similar to the one reported by
Harvey are due to multi-seeded acorns is
more logical and more natural. The in¬
teresting feature which concerns the
tree at Conway is the fact that this con¬
dition has persisted over a period of 23
years, even after severe pruning of the
upper branches.

1. Buchholz, J. T. and W. R. Mattoon. Common
Forest Trees of Arkansas. Little Rock. 1924.

2. Coker, W. C. Multi-seeded acorns. Bot. Gaz.

37:61-62. 1904.

3. Coker, W. C. The seedling's of the live oak

and the white oak. Jour. Elisha Mitchell Sci.
Soc. 28:34-41. 1912.

4. Coulter, J. M. Polyembryony. Bot. Gaz. 64:184.
191S.

Hartig,
stlichen
1851.

Harvey,
alba.

(1917.)

Ward, II. Marshall.

Theodor. Naturgeschichte der for-
Kultur-Pflanzen Deutschlands. Berlin.

LeRoy H. Polyembryony in Quercus
Mich. Acad. Sci. Rept. 19:329-331.

The Oak. New York. 1900.

102

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

GEMMAE OF FUN ARIA HYGROMETRICA

E. Elizabeth Barkley

J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero, Illinois

Although the gametophyte and the
sporophyte of Funaria hygrometrica have
been studied as much, or more, than any
other moss, little attention has been
given to the development, structure and
regeneration of the gemmae. Janzen
(5), Correns (2), Goebel (3), and Schim-
per (6) have observed, mentioned and/or
illustrated what they termed “Brut-
korper” or “Brutknollen.” “Brutknollen”
of Funaria, illustrated by Schimper, do
not resemble those observed in this
study. (1) “Brutkorper,” similar to those
of Funaria, have been observed in other
mosses (2, 3, 6, 7).

Capsules of Funaria hygrometrica were
collected one-half mile west of Burn’s
Ditch Bridge on route U. S. 12 on the
south side of the highway during June,
1937. The spores of these capsules were
sown on damp, sterilized soil in 5 inch
deep, 9-inch flower pots, and covered with
specially made celluloid lids which per¬
mitted adequate ventilation. All cultures
were watered from below with a weak
potassium permanganate solution.

The average size of a protonemal cell
from a soil culture is 18 microns in
width by 73 microns in length. On or
near the 28th day after the spores were
sown many of the terminal cells of the
protonema had developed gemmae. While
the cells of the protonema vary greatly
in length, it is apparent that from one
to several of these cells may have par¬
ticipated in the development of gemmae
(figs. 1-2). Cross walls were laid down
at rather regular intervals cutting the
original cell, or cells, into short ones
which, when elongated, were about 51
microns. These short cells grew in width
to 44 microns. Thus those newly formed
were nearly isodiametric. Frequently,
very short ones occurred separating sev¬
eral short cells in the branch from others.
These shorter cells were sometimes well
supplied with chloroplasts and at other
times hyaline. When hyaline the branch
easily broke away from the remaining
cells. Within a few hours after walls
had been formed at right angles to the
axis, other walls parallel to the axis

were laid down. Often a single short
cell divided twice longitudinally. Other
cells divided diagonally. Eventually,
many of these newly formed cells became
almost spherical or hemi-spherical. Cells
remaining rectangular in outline were
thicker through the center than on the
edge.

Division continued until a column or
a grape-like cluster was developed (figs.
3-5). These columns and clusters varied
greatly in length, but some of the long¬
est were not more than 250 microns to
300 microns. When young the cells were
thin-walled and contained many chloro¬
plasts. These columns and clusters were
often branched and eventually were cut
from the plant by a hyaline cell which,
being brittle, separated the cluster from
the plant at the slightest touch. Gurlitt
(4) observed short hyaline cells in
Funaria hygrometrica, which she called
Trennzellen, since they separated a short
living portion (from another living por¬
tion of the protonema.

When transplanted to agar each thin
walled cell of a gemmae regenerated a
protonema within 28 days during the
short cloudy days of winter. In the sum¬
mer such cells taken from the apex of a
leafy plant were mounted in water on a
slide and kept in a moist chamber. With¬
in 20 hours after mounting, the terminal
cell of many of these groups had regen¬
erated a protonema. By the time leafy
plants were well established these struc¬
tures and the remainder of the protonema
had disappeared.

During an interval when the work was
discontinued, ten 9-inch flower pots con¬
taining soil cultures of Funaria were
stacked in a column in a corner of a
room in the University of Chicago green¬
houses. In May all but one of these
appeared dead and were discarded. The
one showing some life was watered and
placed in the room exposed to the sun¬
light. This culture soon appeared to be
dead and the pot was pushed under a low
greenhouse table and left unattended
until July 21, when it was again watered
and placed in a cool room of the green-

Botany — 1941 Meeting

103

house under diffused light. Four days
later signs of life were evident. Micro¬
scopic examination disclosed gemmae
similar to those described above. They
differed in several respects from those
previously observed (figs. 1-4). They
were dark brown in color, without chloro-
plasts, and possessed thick cell walls in
contrast to the thin walls of the cells
well supplied with chlorophyll which ap¬
peared early in the life history of the
plant (Figs. 6-8). The apparent rejuvena¬
tion of this culture was the result of the

germination of these structures (fig. 10).
A few chloroplasts had by this time ap¬
peared in the old cells of the germinating
gemmae.

In the summer of 1940 plants bearing
mature gemmae were placed on agar and
covered with the Petri dish cover. A day
later young leafy plants had developed
directly from these gemmae. Observa¬
tions indicate that protonemata develop
from either young or mature gemmae of
few cells, but leafy plants develop direct¬
ly from the more complex mature gem-

104

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

mae, that is, from those clusters com¬
posed of a number of thick walled, brown
cells, (fig. 11). Such gemmae have been
known to be viable for as long as eight
months.

Gemmae play an important role in the
life of Funaria. Examination of moss
tufts preserved during late winter re¬
vealed a dense thicket of young gemmae
growing from the main axis of each
plant. The culture from which this ma¬
terial was taken had been unattended
for more than a month. In the fall of
the same year a healthy, covered culture
was left unwatered. A month later gem¬
mae were again established on the axis
of the plants. This same culture was left
in a school laboratory during the year
and watered occasionally. The culture
grew brown and in June the plants ap¬
peared dead. In June this pot was again
placed under favorable conditions in the
University of Chicago greenhouses. The
brown, dried apices of the much

branched plants turned green and grew
a new crown of leaves. In cases where
most of the old apex had been destroyed
a multitude of gemmae developed (fig.
9). Thus in a favorable environment
Funaria hygrometrica may continue to
thrive indefinitely even without the aid
of spores.

LITERATURE CITED

Barkley, E. E., The influence of environmental
factors on the growth, development, and struc¬
ture of the gametophyte of Funaria hygrome¬
trica. Unpublished. S. M. thesis, Univ. of Chi¬
cago. 1940.

2. Correns, O., Untersuchungen liber die Vermeh-
rung der Laubmoose durch Brutorgane und
Stecklinge. 1899.

3. Goebel, K., Organographie der Pflanzen. Zweiter

Teil, pp. 983-984. 1929.

4. Gurlitt, L., Uber den Einfluss der Konzentra-

tion der Nahrlosung auf einige Pflanzen. Beih,
Bot. Centbl. 35:279-341. 1918.

5. Janzen, P., Ein Mooseleben in Wort und Bild.

Schr. der Naturforsch. Gesell, in Danzig
12:1-44. 1909.

6. Schimper, W. P., Recherches anatomiques et
morphologiques sur les mousses. 1848.

7. Wamstorf, C., Uber die vegetative Vermehrung

des Pterygynandrum filiforme (Timm) Hedw.
Hedwigia. 55:378-380. 1914.

Botany — 1941 Meeting

105

A LIST OF DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERISTICS FOR
DESCRIPTIONS OF DICOTYLEDONOUS WOODS

Oswald Tippo, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

During the course of investigations of
the wood anatomy of a number of di¬
cotyledonous families (23, 24), the writer
has had occasion to compile an extensive
list of the important diagnostic features
of wood. In the belief that this compila¬
tion may be of use to beginners, and
perhaps of some interest to professional
wood anatomists, the writer has prepared
it for publication. This catalogue in¬
cludes the important phylogenetic fea¬
tures (5, 14, 15, 16, 17, 23) as well as
those whose phyletic value is not yet
established, but yet which have proven
to be of taxonomic import.

As far as the writer knows, but two
other lists of this character have been
published. Clarke (11) has designed a
short list for a card sorting device and
Record and Chattaway (19) have pub¬
lished a more extensive list for the same
purpose.

Frequent citations of the more impor¬
tant, especially the more recent, papers
have been made throughout the present
list. Particular attention should be
drawn to the important “Glossary of
terms used in describing woods” (12)
prepared by the Committee on Nomen¬
clature of the International Association
of Wood Anatomists and to the books by
Record (18) and Brown and Panshin (3).

LIST OF DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES.

Name of plant (indicate if young or mature by

Y or M).

Number of wood.

Geographical distribution.

Growth rings — present or absent.

Width in n (measure 10 or more).

Range ^ Example: 30-40 n

Most frequent range 35-38 /x

Mean 37 ^

Tracheids and fibers.

Tracheids — (See 2).

Ordinary type.

Vasicentric tracheids.

Vascular tracheids.

Fiber-tracheids.

Septate fiber-tracheids.

Libriform wood fibers.

Septate wood fibers.

Gelatinous fibers. — (See 20).

Wall thickness (radial wall) — (See 9).

Very thin — lumen much greater than thickness
of walls.

Thin — lumen greater than thickness of walls.

Thick — lumen less than thickness of walls.

Very thick — lumen almost completely closed.

Size of pits — measure at least 10.

Minute.

Small.

Large.

Length — measure 100 from macerations (Record
No. of measurements) (See 13, 21, 22).
Range.

Most frequent range.

Mean, with standard error.

Standard deviation, with standard error.

Spiral thickenings, present or absent.

Vessels

Number per sq. mm. (in X-section) — count 10
or more fields.

Range.

Most frequent range.

Mean.

Pore distribution.

Solitary pores, 'i Record % in each category
Pore multiples. I and no. of pores in the group-
Pore clusters. (ings. (Ex. clusters 90%2-4).
Pore chains. / Sample 10 or more fields.
Diffuse-porous.

Semi-ring-porous.

Ring-porous.

Angular or circular in X-section.

Thin or thick wall — measure a few walls.
Diameters — measure 100 in X-section (tangential
diameter) .

Record no. of measurements. (See 9, 13, 21,
(22). If ring-porous, take 50 in the early
wood and 50 in the late wood.

Range.

Most frequent range.

Mean, with standard error.

Standard deviation, with standard error.
Tyloses, present or absent.

Few or many in sections.

Few or many in individual vessels.

Thin or thick walls (sclerotic).

Contents.

Pits.

Perforation plates — (See 14).

Exclusively scalariform.

Scalariform and simple.

Simple and vestiges of scalariform.

Simple.

Reticulate — (See 4).

Foraminate

Number of bars (in scalariform perforation plates).
Range.

Most frequent range.

Width of perforations (if scalariform).

Range.

Mostly.

Perforations bordered or not (if scalariform) —
(See 15).

Complete border.

Border to middle.

Border at ends.

Non-bordered.

End walls.

Oblique — express as angle. (Ex. 50° -80°).
Transverse.

Intervascular pitting — (See 16).

Scalariform.

Transitional.

Opposite.

Alternate.

Sparse or crowded.

Size of pits — (See 19).

Minute — less than 4 fi
Small — less than 7 /l
Medium — 7-10 fi
Large — over 10 it
Very large — over 15 /t
Shape of pits.

Circular.

Square.

Pentagonal, etc.

Gum deposits in vessels.

Color, abundance, location.

Striations on vessels.

106

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Vessel-parenchyma pitting.

Scalariform.

Transitional.

Opposite.

Alternate.

Size — (See 19).

Fine — not more than 7 /a
Medium — 7 to 10 /a
Coarse — more than 10 /a
Shape.

Circular, oval, elongated.

Unilaterally compound.

Length of vessel elements (total body length) —
(Measure 100 from macerations). Record No.
of measurements. (See 7, 13, 21, 22).
Range.

Most frequent range.

Mean, with standard error.

Standard deviation, with standard error.

Spiral thickenings.

Vascular rays.

Abundance — No. per mm. (tangential section).
Type— (See 17).

Heterogeneous I.

Heterogeneous 1 1 A.

Heterogeneous IIB.

Heterogeneous III.

Homogeneous I.

Homogeneous II.

Homogeneous III.

Width (No. of cells wide).

Range.

Most frequent range.

Height.

Uniseriate rays.

Range.

Most frequent range.

Multiseriate rays.

Range.

Most frequent range.

Pitting (between ray cells and other parenchyma
cells).

Size.

Number — few, many, clustered.

Lignified, or not.

Perforated ray cells — (See 6).

Intercellular canals.

Latex tubes.

Oil cells.

Crystals-type, etc.

Aggregate rays.

Sheath cells.

Tile cells.

Sclerotic ray cells.

Xylem parenchyma
Abundance.

Sparse, abundant, or absent.

Distribution — -(See 12).

Diffuse.

Terminal.

Initial — (See 10).

Metatracheal — record No. of cells wide.
Vasicentric.

Aliform.

Confluent.

Pitting (between xylem parenchyma cells.).

Size.

Number — few, many, or clustered.

Fusiform parenchyma cells.

Septate parenchyma cells.

Chambered parenchyma cells.

Crystals — type, etc.

Lignified.

Sclerotic parenchyma cells.

Other Features.

Storied structure — state which elements.

Crystals present.

Location, type, etc.

Pith flecks.

Intercellular canals (gum, resin, or oil).

Vertical or horizontal, or both.

Normal or traumatic.

Included phloem — (See 8).

Vestured pits (in vessel elements, tracheids, or
fiber tracheids) — (See 1).

Fibriform vessel members — (See 25).

Disjunctive tracheids.

Disjunctive parenchyma cells.
Photographs.

Indicate slide and location on slide.

LITERATURE CITED

1.

3.

5.

7.

8.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Bailey, I. W., The cambium and its derivative
tissues. VIII. Structure, distribution, and diag¬
nostic significance of vestured pits in dicotyle¬
dons. Journ. Arnold Arb. 14:259-273. 1933.

. , The problem of differentiating and

classifying tracheids, fiber-tracheids, and libri-
form wood fibers. Tropical Woods, 45:18-23.
1936.

Brown, H. P., and A. J. Panshin, Commercial
timbers of the United States. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York. 1940.

Chalk, L., Multiperforate plates in vessels, with
special reference to the Bignoniaceae. Forestry
(Jour. Soc. of Foresters of Gr. Br.) 7:16-25.
1933.

. . . . . , The phylogenetic value of certain

anatomical features of dicotyledonous woods.
Annals Bot. N. S. 1:409-428. 1937.

. , and M. M. Chattaway, Perforated

ray cells. Proc. Royal Soc. London B 113 :82-92.
1933.

. and . , Measuring the

length of vessel members. Tropical Woods
40:19-26. 1934.

. and . . Identification of

woods with included phloem. Tropical Woods
50 :1-31. 1937.

Chattaway, M. M., Proposed standards for nu¬
merical values used in describing woods. Tropi¬
cal Woods 29:20-29. 1932.

Chowdhury, K. A., Terminal and initial paren¬
chyma cells in the wood of Terminalia tomen-
tosa W. and A. New Phytol. 35:351-358. 1936.
Clarke, S. H., A multiple-entry perforated-card
key with special reference to the indentification
of hardwoods. New Phytol. 37 :369-374. 1938.

Committee on Nomenclature. International As¬
sociation of Wood Anatomists., Glossary of
terms used in describing woods. Tropical
Woods 36:1-12. 1933.

Desch, H. E., Significance of numerical values
for cell dimensions. Tropical Woods 29:14-20.
1932.

14. Frost, F. H., Specialization in secondary xylem
of dicotyledons. I. Origin of vessel. Bot.

Gaz. 89 :67-94. 1930.

15 . , Specialization in secondary xylem

of dicotyledons. II. Evolution of end wall of
vessel segment. Bot. Gaz. 90:198-212. 1930.

16 . , Specialization in secondary xylem

of dicotyledons. III. Specialization of lateral

wall of vessel segment. Bot. Gaz. 91 :88-96.
1931.

17. Kribs, D. A., Salient lines of structural speciali¬

zation in the wood rays of dicotyledons. Bot.
Gaz. 96:547-557. 1935.

18. Record, S. J., Identification of the timbers of
temperate North America. Wiley & Sons, New
York. 1934.

19 . , and M. M. Chattaway, List of

anatomical features used in classifying dicotyle¬
donous woods. Tropical Woods 57 :11-16. 1939.

20. Rendle, B. J., Gelatinous wood fibers. Tropical
Woods 52 :11-19. 1937.

21 . , and S. H. Clarke, The problem of

variation in the structure of wood. Tropical
Woods 38:1-8. 1934.

22 . . and . , The diagnostic

value of measurements in wood anatomy. Tropi¬
cal Woods 40:27-37. 1934.

23. Tippo, O., Comparative anatomy of the Mora-
cease and their presumed allies. Bot. Gaz.
100:1-99. 1938.

24 . , The comparative anatomy of the

secondary xylem and the phylogeny of the
Eucommiaceae. Amer. Jour. Bot. 27:832-838.
1940.

25. Woodworth, R. H., Fibriform vessel members
in the Passifloraceae. Tropical Woods 41 :8-16.
1935.

Botany — 1941 Meeting

107

TECHNIQUES USEFUL IN THE STUDY OF FOSSIL PLANTS

J. Hobart Hoskins and Aureal T. Cross
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio

ABSTRACT

Many techniques have been worked out
after long hours of experimentation in
the various paleobotanical laboratories
throughout the world. Oftentimes the
new methods are never published nor
passed on to other workers. It is our
purpose here to bring to light or revive
some of those techniques which we have
found most valuable in recent years in
our laboratories. A few of the old tech¬
niques have been greatly modified, later
ones have been elaborated upon and new
ones have been discovered.

It is often advisable to prepare casts
and molds to preserve a record of the
original condition of the material if it is
found necessary to section the specimens
for proper study. Air drying liquid rub¬
ber has recently been developed which
may be applied to the specimen as a
paint. After the desired thickness has
been attained, a backing of cheesecloth
is imbedded in an additional coat of rub¬
ber to make the mold hold its shape per¬
manently. The rubber mold may then be
removed by lifting a corner and stripping
it off. This mold preserves even the most
minute details of the surface configura¬
tion including overhangs, and will never
lose its shape. It is often advisable to
make a plaster cast of the back of the
rubber mold in which it may be placed to
facilitate making positive casts later.

The rubber mold should be dampened
just before pouring the plaster into it in
order that the plaster will not be with¬
held from minute surface markings by
air bubbles. (Dip the mold in water and
then remove all fr6e water with a gentle
stream of air.) A fine grade of plaster
should be used. The rate of setting of
the plaster may be slowed by using ice
cold water. A strong solution of salt
water will slow it even more. Gum arabic
or glue may be added to the solution to
make the cast stronger. Water soluble
paints of the desired color, i.e. the one
most nearly simulating the matrix, may
be suspended in the water before mixing
it with the plaster. The plaster, when
poured, should have the consistency otf
molasses, i.e. thick but not stiff.

A method of enlarging casts of speci¬
mens bearing definite surface configura¬

tions or of definite shape has been worked
out. The rubber molds are made of the
original specimen in the same way as
those already described except that the
cheesecloth backing must be omitted.
The molds are then placed in kerosene
and allowed to remain until they have
expanded to about one and one-half times
their original size. The mold is then
carefully lifted out, the excess kerosene
is taken up with a blotter and it is placed
in a sand mold. This sand backing is
almost necessary, for the rubber has lost
much of its tensile strength and would
break down under the weight of the
plaster if unsupported. A plaster cast
is then made of the rubber mold. From
this enlargement another rubber mold
may be made and the step repeated a
number of times. Expansion is quite
uniform throughout the rubber so that
distortion in the enlargements is almost
non-existent. If the first mold is taken
from a plaster cast which has been col¬
ored as described above, part of the color
will be transferred accurately to succeed¬
ing enlargements for about three or four
steps.

Photographing original specimens is
sometimes difficult due to surface mark¬
ings or mineral coloration. If the rubber
mold of the original specimen is colored
uniformly white by the precipitate of
the fumes given off when ammonium
chloride is heated in an ammonium chlor¬
ide tube, a picture may be made of the
mold and these difficulties are overcome.
It is best to overexpose and underdevelop
both the negative and the prints. This
increases the shadow and the contrast.

Friable or wet impressions or casts of
fossils may be preserved in the field in
several ways. Rubber molds may be
made of large casts or material which
may not be moved either because of size
or condition. Smaller specimens may be
completely imbedded in Duco Cement to
hold them together. This may be dis¬
solved off later with amyl acetate when
preparing the material for study. Collo¬
dion and nitro-cellulose may be used to
great advantage in imbedding dry ma¬
terial which is very friable. Nitro-cellu-

108

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

lose may be cheaply made by substituting
movie film for parlodian or guncotton.
The gelatin must be removed from the
film with hot water before dissolving it
in amyl acetate. Nitro-cellulose so made
is equally as good as any other. A super¬
saturated solution of gum sandarac in
water may be used to preserve material
either wet or dry. This is the best pre¬
servative we have found for all around
use and it is simple to make as well as
inexpensive. It dries on the specimen
into a clear, shiny film that is impervious
to most acid fumes, water and dust. It
does not shrink when put on a wet speci¬
men as does nitro-cellulose.

Cutting and grinding specimens may
be done in a number of ways. One re¬
cently improved upon in our laboratories
is the use of fine wire with Aloxite or
Carborundum powder as the abrasive. A
board has been fitted to a vise in the fol¬
lowing manner. Holes were bored into

it to correlate with the position of the
shaft of an ordinary commercial vise.
The vise is then taken apart and the
board inserted over the shaft which is
then reassembled. At each end of the
board, which extends about six inches on
either side of the vise, a pulley is mount¬
ed rigidly upside down. The base of the
pulley frame is cut out exposing the base
of the pulley. The specimen to be cut is
partially imbedded in sealing wax which
may be clamped in the vise or fastened
to the board. The wire is then drawn
over one pulley, across the specimen and
over the other pulley. These pulleys act
as guides to insure a straight cut. Num¬
ber 36 gauge steel or tinned wire is found
to be quite suitable along with number
400 grade of grinding powder. With
this simple device perfectly straight, al¬
most polished cuts may be made with
the loss of only about 175 microns of the
material.

COMPOSITION OF THE GENUS CAREX IN ILLINOIS

L. R. Tehon, Illinois Natural

By specimens deposited in permanent
herbaria and by reports in botanical liter¬
ature, no fewer than 162 species of Carex
have been credited to Illinois. A portion
of these species, as is to be expected, have
been erroneously recorded for the state,
partly because of wrong determinations
in a notoriously difficult genus and partly
because, earlier, the species conceptions
within the genus were highly imperfect.
Nevertheless, there still are recorded for
Illinois, quite reliably, a total of 130
species. This number is approximately
24.4 per cent of all species recognized by
Mackenzie1 for the entire North American
Continent and exceeds by 23 species the
number attributed by Deam2 to the neigh¬
boring state of Indiana.

With its more than 2000 species the
world over, Carex has been divided into
a large number of subgenera. On the
North American Continent 71 of its sub¬
genera are represented, and in Illinois 40
are represented. In Illinois no single
subgenus predominates: the best repre¬
sented subgenus is the Ovales , with 14
species; next is the Bracteosae, with 13
species; and third is the Laxiflorae, with
10 species. There are 4 subgenera repre-

History Survey, TJrbana, Illinois

sented by 6 species each, 2 by 5 species
each, 3 by 4 species each, 6 by 3 species
each, 7 by 2 species each, and 15 by 1
species each.

Of species and varieties at present rec¬
ognized as valid, Carex gravida Bailey,
C. Bebbii Olney, C. tribuloides var. sanga-
monensis Clokey, C. Meadii Dewey, C.
rectior Mack., and C. subimpressa Clokey
were originally named and described from
specimens collected in Illinois. C. Ty-
phina Michx., the name and description
of which dates back to 1803, is recorded
as having been found “in regione Illi-
noensi.”

No single species of Carex is confined
in range to the state of Illinois. How¬
ever, one species, C. subimpressa Clokey,
is at present known only *from Illinois
and Indiana.

The majority of species are of wide
range and reach into or pass through
Illinois from other regions which can
be deemed their principal ranges. Of 109
such species, Fig. 1, 35 extend into or
through Illinois from the north, 25 from
the northeast, 24 from the east, 5 from
the southeast, 9 from the south, 2 from
the southwest, 6 from the west, and 3

19311 ^Kfk1935e’ Kennetk Kent- Oyperaceae. In North American Flora, vol. 18, parts 1-7, pp. 1-478.

2 Deam, Charles C. Flora of Indiana. Indiana State Department of Conservation, Indianapolis. 1940.

Botany — 1941 Meeting

109

from the northwest. The obvious pre¬
ponderance of northern, northeastern and
eastern species in Illinois could be ex¬

plained as being due to the situation of
the state near the western edge of the
deciduous forest formation.

Fig. 1. — General ranges of 109 of the species of Carex composing the

genus in Illinois.

Papers in Chemistry

Extract From the Report op the Section Chairman

The Evanston meeting carried 13 papers, 10 of which are herewith pub¬
lished. The others were :

Egloff, Gustav, and P. M. Arsdell, Universal Oil Products Co., Chicago
— Some modern products of the oil industry.

Seiler, Frank J., Galesburg High School, Galesburg — Dehydration of
hydrated CdBr2 • 4H20.

Schmeing, G. M., Loyola University and Mundelein College, Chicago —
The connotation of the word “Chance” as employed in elementary
physical chemistry and precautions urged to prevent misconceptions.

Maximum attendance was 71. Chairman elected for the Urbana meeting
in 1942 was N. D. Cheronis, 5556 Ardmore Ave., Chicago.

(Signed) George H. Reed, Chairman

112

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

HYDROGEN FLUORIDE AS A CONDENSING AGENT

Sydney Archer

Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

The structures, H2F2 H6F6 and HF.
which have at various times been as¬
signed to gaseous hydrogen fluoride have
been shown by recent electron diffraction
measurements to be incorrect and incom¬
plete. The new data indicate that the
gas consists of polymers of indefinite
length arranged in zig-zag fashion.

The use of hydrogen fluoride has been
exploited mainly in connection with cata¬
lysis. It has been found that the cata¬
lytic alkylation of benzene can be effected
in its presence. A great variety of alkyl¬
ating agents can be used including olefins,
alcohols, halides, ethers and esters. With
the latter, acylation can also be accom¬
plished simultaneously. As a rule ter¬
tiary and secondary halides, acohols and
ethers will react at room temperature,
whereas with the compounds of the pri¬
mary type elevated temperatures are
necessary.

It has also been observed that acyla¬
tions occur in the presence of this cata¬
lyst. For example, acetophenone was
produced from the interaction of acetic
anhydride with benzene at 100° in the

presence of hydrogen fluoride. Some acy¬
lations may proceed at ordinary tempera¬
tures. Generally polycyclic rings must
be present before reaction will take place
under the milder procedure. The simpler
aromatic rings are acylated at 100°. Acid
chlorides, anhydrides or carboxylic acids
themselves are all equally capable of
undergoing this reaction.

The mechanism of the alkylation re¬
action is as yet unknown. On the basis
of present evidence it is fairly certain
that neither olefins nor fluorides may act
as the active intermediates in the con¬
densation. It is proposed that a carbon-
ium ion resulting from the ionization of
the alkylating agent is the one that so
far most satisfactorily accounts for all
the observations. The ionization may
proceed in the following manner;

RX+HF R — X-» H — F«=±R+ + X-» H — F-

R+ + CbH6 — > R — C6H5 + H+

Existing evidence seems to indicate
that to a large extent the stability of the
X->H — F- ion determines the ease with
which the reaction proceeds.

THE SURFACE TENSION OF STRONG ELECTROLYTES

Malcolm Dole

Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

The surface tension of any interface
must be interpreted first with respect to
the Gibbs absorption equation which, in
the general case, is

= —2, r, d^, (1)

For a simple binary system containing
water and one solute, (1) can be written
dy = — T dfi (2)

where r is the adsorption of the solute
at the interface, and ^ is the chemical
potential of the solute. The adsorption
is defined by the equation

r = (Cs — C.) t

- > (3)

1000

C8 and Ct being the concentrations in
moles per liter in the surface layer and
the interior of the solution, respectively,

and t the thickness of the surface layer.
The adsorption is expressed, therefore,
in units of moles per sq. cm. of surface.

The chemical potential of the solute,
fi, is defined by the equation

^/to + RTlnCo-f, (4)

f being the activity coefficient and ^ a
constant. Equation (2) follows from (1)
by measuring the surface layer from a
point such that

r =0

H20 (5)

In more familiar terms (2) can be writ¬
ten as

d7 RT

- = — r - (6)

d (Ci f) C,f

Equation (6) tells us that if the solute

Chemistry — 1941 Meeting

113

accumulates at the surface, r positive,
the surface tension will fall with rising
concentration, as is the case with solu¬
tions of the fatty acids such as acetic,
propionic, etc. On the other hand if r
is negative as it will be when the solute
is repelled from the surface toward the
interior of the solution, equation (6)
predicts that the surface tension will rise
with rising concentration.

When equilibrium has been attained,
we may write the law of mass action
equation, letting A represent the solute
A (solution) A (interfacial layer), (7)

or

A

C.

— = K (8)

A

C,

where K is the equilibrium constant of
(7). From the principles of thermody¬
namics it also follows that

A — AG°

C8 -

- = e RT (9)

A

C,

where A G° is the free energy increase
of (7) for the reactants and products in
their standard states. (The surface
standard state is thus seen to be different
from the standard state in the interior
of the liquid). Omitting the unnecessary
superscript A, and combining (9) and
(3) we see that
— AG°

- t

T = C, (e RT — 1) - (10)

1000

If the work required to bring the solute
to the surface is large, A G° positive and
large, r will be negative and the surface
tension will rise with rising concentra¬
tion as it does in the case of sucrose
solutions; conversely a negative value
for a G means free energy evolved on
adsorption, r will be positive and the sur¬
face tension should fall with rising con¬
centration, as it does for most solutions
of organic substances.

What may we expect the surface ten¬
sion of ionic solutions to be? Consider
an ion suspended in the vapor phase over
a flat surface of water. It will be strongly
attracted to the water because of the ion-
dipole forces; in fact estimates show that
the energy evolved when one mole of an
ion passes from a vacuum to the interior
of water is relatively enormous, from 50
to 100 kilocalories per gram ion. Most

of the energy has probably been liberated
by the time the ion has reached the sur¬
face layer, but there is still enough ion-
dipole attraction to pull the ion toward
the interior of the solution. For a point
size ion, the attractive force is readily
shown to be given by the equation

where q is the charge on the ion and x
is the distance from the interface. Equa¬
tion (11) tells us that only when x be¬
comes infinite, does the force on the ion
pulling it toward the interior become
equal to zero; however, this can be shown
to he an absurd conclusion because it
means that all the ions in a solution
would be repelled an infinite distance
from the interface with a consequent in¬
finite value to the slope of the surface
tension concentration curve. Actually,
ions are not repelled an infinite distance
from the interface and the surface ten¬
sion does not rise infinitely greatly as the
concentration increases.

It is interesting to note that the Debye-
Huckel theory of solutions provides us
with the explanation of this apparent
anomaly. As the solution becomes more
concentrated, an ionic atmosphere is set
up about each ion which in effect tends
to screen the ion from the dipole attrac¬
tions. The dipole attraction can be con¬
sidered as a repulsion from the interface;
the repulsion being between the ion in
question and its “mirror image” in the
vacuum at an equal distance above the
water surface. The ionic atmosphere
about the ion limits the thickness of the
surface layer, the layer in which the ion
concentration is depleted, to a distance of
the same order of magnitude of the thick¬
ness of the ionic atmosphere, 1/K) where
K is the well known parameter of the
Debye equation.

Making use of the Boltzmann distribu¬
tion law, of Equations (11) and (10) and
of the general equations of the Debye
theory, Onsager and Samaras1 have been
able to compute the course of the surface
tension concentration curve for sym¬
metrical strong electrolytes. For uni¬
univalent electrolytes the equation is
7 79.517 1.143 x 10-13 (DT)»

— = 1 + - C log -

To D7o C (12)

As the logarithm term of Equation (12)
is positive in the concentration range of

114

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

validity of the equation, the Onsager
theory means a rise in the surface ten¬
sion as the concentration increases. The
first experimental measurements of sur¬
face tension in very dilute solutions were
those of Jones and Ray2 who found, most
surprisingly, a decrease in surface ten¬
sion as a function of the concentration
up to a concentration of 0.001 N; above
this concentration the surface tension
rose in a manner suggestive of Equation
(12). The significance of Jones and Ray’s
data in the light of the fundamental
Gibbs equation was discussed at length
by Dole3 who developed a statistical
theory of surface tension leading to the
equation

7 RT t • C RT

— = 1 H - — — a - In

7o 7o 1000 7o

C • t /1000

1 + -

W /RT
ae

where a is the number of surface loca¬
tions per sq. cm. available for adsorp¬
tion, and W is the adsorption potential.
If the adsorption potential is high and
positive, Equation (13) reduces to
7 RT t • C

— = 1 + - • - , (14)

7o 7o 1000

an equation which satisfactorily repro¬
duces Jones and Ray’s data for sucrose
solutions. If W is negative, the logarithm
term (at low concentrations) may far
outweigh the second term of Equation
(13) yielding the equation
7 aRT

— = - In

7o

7o

|- C • t /1000-,

L1 + J

(15)

W/RT
ae

valid for solutions of fatty acids.

By proper choice of the parameters a
and W, Equation (13) can be fitted nicely
to Jones and Ray’s data, but the treat¬
ment seems unreasonable for the follow¬
ing reasons: First, the value for a, the

number of adsorption positions per sq.
cm., is only 1/100,000 the number of
water molecules on the surface. There
is no good reason to believe that the
water surface would become saturated
with ions with so few adsorbed on the
surface. Second, there is no known me¬
chanism to account for any attractive
force.

Langmuir4 has attempted to explain
Jones and Ray’s data on the basis of a
water film held to the quartz surface of
the capillarimeter by ^-potential forces,
the thickness of the film as a function of
height being given by the equation

% (16)

When salts are added to the pure water,

the film disappears producing an effective
increase in the radius of the capillary
tube with a corresponding drop in the
height of rise and an apparent fall in
the surface tension. Langmuir’s explana¬
tion was held to be doubtful by Dole
and Swartout5 who confirmed Jones and
Ray’s results using a differential twin¬

ring surface tensiometer. In this case
there is, apparently, no vertical film of
the type postulated by Langmuir.

However, we cannot yet assume that
Jones and Ray’s observations and the
observations of Dole and Swartout rep¬
resent true surface tension values. This
is particularly true in as much as Long
and coworkers6 at Cornell University find
that the surface tension of potassium
chloride solutions as measured by a dif¬
ferential maximum-bubble pressure meth¬
od follows along the Onsager and Samaras
curve without the minimum of the Jones-
Ray effect.

REFERENCES

1. Onsager and Samaras, J. Chem. Phys., 2,

528 (1934). * ’ '

2. Grinnell Jones and W. A. Ray, J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 59, 187 (1937).

3. M. Dole, ibid., 60, 904 (1938).

4. Langmuir, Science, 88, 430 (1938).

5. Dole and Swartout, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 62,
3039 (1940).

6. Private communication of F. A. Long.

Chemistry — 1941 Meeting

115

INVESTIGATIONS ON 3-HYDROXY-5-CHOLENIC ACID

Melvin F. W. Dunker and Byron Riegel
Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

The ready availability of the bile acids
makes them convenient starting materials
for numerous conversions and syntheses.
In the work reported in this paper, 3-
hydroxy-5-cholenic acid resulting from the
oxidation of cholesterol has been used.
It is our purpose to study various means
of building up natural compounds and
of improving methods for the degrada¬
tion of hydroxy bile acids to substances
having possible androgenic, progestational
and cortical hormone activity. 3-hydroxy-
5-cholenic acid has a nuclear double bond
and a secondary alcohol group that must
be protected during the course of de-
gradative or synthetic reactions on the
aliphatic chain. It was thought that labile
ethers, that, is, ethers which could
readily be removed when desired, would
be the ideal means of protecting the hy¬
droxyl group on C atom No. 3.

One of the first ethers chosen for this
purpose was the trityl (triphenylmethyl)
ether. The compounds were reported to
be stable to alkaline reagents but easily
hydrolyzed by mineral acids. This study
has shown that the trityl group is re¬
placed by the acetoxy group when the
compounds are refluxed in glacial acetic
acid or removed upon treatment with a
Grignard reagent under even the mildest
conditions.

In this work, it was found convenient
to use the methyl ester since the free bile
acid is highly insoluble. The methyl
ester was prepared in nearly quantitative
yields (averaging above 90%) upon re¬
fluxing a solution of the acid in anhy¬
drous methanol containing 3% HC1. The
trityl ether was prepared in 85-88%
yields when perfectly dry methyl 3-hy-
droxy-5-cholenate was heated on a steam
cone for 8 hours with trityl chloride in
absolutely anhydrous pyridine.

The direct benzylation of hydroxylated
steriods has proven difficult. When methyl
3-hydroxy-5-cholenate was treated with
benzyl chloride and pyridine under the
rigorous anhydrous conditions employed
in the tritylation, no benzyl ether was
obtained. Likewise, the preparation of

the benzyl ether by variations of William¬
son’s synthesis did not prove successful.
The method employed by Stoll for the
preparation of the benzyl ether of choles¬
terol was applied to methyl 3-hydroxy-5-
cholenate. Attempts to prepare the p-
toluene-sulfonate of 3-hydroxy-5-cholenic
acid were unsuccessful. Therefore, the
methyl ester was employed. When the
methyl 3-p-toluenesulfonoxy-5-cholenate,
prepared from the methyl ester, p-toluene
sulfonyl chloride and pyridine at room
temperature in 90-93% yields, was heated
with benzyl alcohol on a steam cone for
5 hours, there were obtained 55-61%
yields of

CH3

I H2 Ha ,0

HC-C-C-C-0 - CH2C*H5

This compound exists in dimorphic forms
melting 87-88° and 108.5-109.5°. The
lower form can be converted to the higher
melting form. This ether is stable to
treatment with Grignard reagent and
stable to 2 hours refluxing with glacial
acetic acid.

In recent years the elucidation of the
structure of the dextro or i-ethers by
Stoll makes it seem that these compounds
may prove useful in this work.

CH3

1 JP

HC - CHa - CHa - C - 0CH3

I

I

J och3

The 3-hydroxyl and the double bond are
blocked eliminating the necessity of
bromination and later debromination. The
i-linkage can be broken up by refluxing
with acetic acid, yielding the normal
acetate which can then be saponified to
liberate the hydroxyl group.

116

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THE SYNTHESIS OF CANCEROGENIC HYDROCARBONS
CLOSELY RELATED TO THE STEROIDS

Marvin H. Gold and Byron Riegel
Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

Studies of the carcinogenic activity of
methylcholanthrene and cholanthrene
have shown that they surpass in potency
all other hydrocarbons previously investi¬
gated. From these results it might be
inferred that cancerogenic hydrocarbons
may arise in the living organism by the
abnormal metabolism of steroids. To
further elucidate this hypothesis, investi¬
gations have been planned to extend the
studies of aromatic hydrocarbons related
to the sterol nucleus.

At the present we are chiefly concerned
in the synthesis of a number of deriva¬
tives of S^substituted-l^-cyclopenteno-
phenanthrenes (I), 3-substituted (II),
and 3,3'-disubstituted-l,2-cyclopenteno-
phenanthrenes (III).

propionyl-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene or its
ether derivatives lead to decomposition
and polymerization, probably due to re¬
activity of /3-substitution. Such an at¬
tack was, of necessity, finally abandoned.

At the present time two other methods
of synthesis are being explored; which
appear to be of a more promising nature.
By the nitration of 9, 10-dihydrophenan-
threne a good yield of the 2-nitro deriva¬
tive can be obtained.4 This is readily
reduced to the amine either catalytically
or with stannous chloride and hydro¬
chloric acid. The resulting amine has
been dehydrogenated with sulfur at 250-
300° in good yield to give 2-amino-phe-
nanthrene. An alternative method of
preparation of this amine is thru the

Previous syntheses of other molecules of
this type have not been found practical,
mainly because it is difficult to obtain
the final product in sufficient quantity for
complete biological assay. Therefore, it
was necessary to find a good, general
method which could be used for a whole
series of compounds. An important in¬
termediate for such a process is SMieto-
1, 2-cyclopentenophenanthrene.

Catalytic reduction of phenanthrene,
using copper-chromium oxide catalyst
gives practically pure 9,10-dihydrophen-
anthrene.1 This is readily acylated in the
2-position by means of an acid chloride
with aluminum chloride.2 In this way a
/3-bromopropionyl group was introduced
into the 2-position. However, cyclyzation
has been shown to go almost completely
to the 3-position,3 whereas the unhydro¬
genated phenanthrene nucleus, directs
cyclyzation to the desired 1-position. All
attempts to dehydrogenate the 2 (w-bromo)

Beckmann rearrangement of the oxime
of 2-acetylphenanthrene, which has been
prepared in good yield by sulfur dehy¬
drogenation of the 9, 10-dihydro deriva¬
tive. The amine was then converted to
the 2-bromophenanthrene by Bachman’s5
procedure. At the present time experi¬
ments are under way to prepare the
2 ( w-bromo ) -propionyl phenanthrene b y
condensation of /3-bromo-propionyl chlo¬
ride with either the magnesium or cad¬
mium derivative of 2-bromophenanthrene.
This product, when obtained, will be cy-
clysized with sulfuric acid to prepare the
desired 31-keto-l, 2-cyclopentenophenan¬
threne. The keto compound can then be
condensed with various Grignard re¬
agents to give compounds of type I, above.

The second series of reactions now
being studied lends itself to the prepara¬
tion of compounds of type II and III.
Here the starting material is a-naphthyl-
nitrile, which is caused to condense with

Chemistry — 1941 Meeting

117

COCH^R

JST

COCHBrR

- p.

R

Cft-CMCQH
CO

00

[HJ

YL '

R

A

(\cOu£t

V

C//2 COj £t

err

UU

aliphatic Grignard reagents to give com¬
pounds like IV. These are then treated
with bromine to give a-bromo ketones
(V), which are then condensed with
sodio-malonic ester to give j3-(l-naph-
thoyl ) -/3-alkyl propionic acids (VI). Sub¬
sequent Clemmensen reduction and ring
closure gives l-keto-3-alkyl-l,2,3,4-tetrahy-
drophenanthrenes6 (VII). Condensation
of VII with oxalic ester places a carbe-
thoxy group in the 2 position and this is
then followed by condensation of the
ketone group with /3-bromopropionic ester
to give, after dehydration, the compound
VIII. A Dieckmann ring closure, fol¬

lowed by decarboxylation should give a
compound which could be readily dehy¬
drogenated to the desired S-alkyl^-keto-
1,2-cyclopentenephenanthrene.

REFERENCES

1. Burger and Mossetig, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 57,
2731 (1935)

Fieser and Johnson, ibid., 61, 168 (1939).

2. Burger and Mossetig, ibid., 58, 1857 (1936).

3. Burger and Mossetig, ibid., 59, 1302 (1937).

4. Kreuger and Mossetig, J. Org. Chem., 3,
340 (1938-39).

5. Bachman and Boatner, J. Am. Chem. Soc.
58, 857, 2097 (1936).

6. Haworth and Mavin, J. Chem. Soc., 1932,
2720.

Haworth and Mavin and Musgrave, ibid.,
193k, 454.

118

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

ACYLALS1 2

Frank O. Green, Greenville, Illinois

Hurd and Cantors have suggested the name ‘Acylal’ for the product formed when
the hydroxyls in the aldehydrol form of an aldehyde are replaced by ester groups.
Therefore when one hydroxyl is replaced by an ester group and one by an alcohol
group, the product may be called a mixed acetal-acylal.

When a sodium salt of an organic acid is shaken with a hemiacetal chloride, an
exothermic reaction takes place whereby the acetal-acylal and sodium chloride are
produced.3 It is necessary to use an excess of the salt or rapid decomposition sets
in, with the resultant production of a red tar-like material. The reaction appears to
be general.

H 0

//

R - C - 0 - CHaR* + Na - 0 - C - R"
l

Cl

H

R - C - 0 - CHaR1 + NaCl+heat
‘ *0
0 -C - R»

The hemiacetal chloride may be produced by the action of dry HC1 gas on a cold,
equimolecular mixture of alcohol and aldehyde. The procedure is a modification,
similar to that due to Shoemaker and Boord,4 of the Henry method.

H H

I

R - C = 0 + R' CHaOH + HC1 - > R - C-0 - CHaR* + Ha0

Cl

The yields of acetal-acylal based upon crude hemiacetal chloride vary from forty
to sixty percent of the theoretical, with an indication of better yields as based upon
pure chloride. The densities of the compounds prepared vary from ninety-seven
hundredths to eighty-nine hundredths, with increasing molecular weight. The
molecular refractivities agree with theory. At twenty-five millimeters pressure the
boiling points increase approximately ten degrees for each CH2 unit added, regardless
of its relative position in the molecule. If, pure, dry, and free from acid, the com¬
pounds are stable for some months.

/O-

The R — C linkage in the compounds is apparently more of the acetal than

\o

the ester type. The compounds are somewhat resistant to alkali hydrolysis and are
very responsive to acid hydrolysis.

At the present it seems quite likely that Grignard’s reagent reacts with the com¬
pounds just as would be predicted, to produce a primary, a secondary, and a tertiary
alcohol.

r_C - 0 - CHaR* t I . I .

\ ^0 + 3 d) Mgx H^Q R - C - 4 + R« CHaOH + R" - C - <P

0 - C'- R" T I I

OH OH

The compounds appear to produce the titanium chloride complexes analogous to
those prepared by Pacsu5 from similar structures in glycosides. The reaction takes
place with great ease at room temperature, becoming violent unless a diluent is used.
Approximately twenty new compounds have been prepared this year.

1 This work is a continuation of work begun at Northwestern University. The author is
indebted to the Illinois Academy of Science for a Research Grant ; and to Dr. Lauder of the
Pet Milk Laboratories for the use of a Carbon-Hydrogen Combustion Apparatus.

2 Hurd and Cantor, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 60, 2678, footnote 8 (1938).

3 Shoemaker and Boord, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 53, 1505 (1931).

4 A similar procedure was used by Farren, Fife, Clark and Garland, J. Am. Chem. Soc., Jft ;
2421 (1925) for the preparation of formylals.

5 Pacsu, Ber., 61, 1508 (1928).

Chemistry — 1941 Meeting

119

A STUDY OF THE OXIDATION OF TRIVALENT
MOLYBDENUM

Sister Mary Martinette, B.V.M., Mundelein College, Chicago
L. F. Yntema, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, Missouri

That the oxidation of trivalent molyb¬
denum may be carried out with consider¬
able ease is evidenced by the fact that
certain trivalent molybdenum compounds
in solution are readily oxidized by at¬
mospheric oxygen. Since trivalent mo¬
lybdenum is oxidized from a valence of
positive 3 to a valence of positive 6 and
MoIV and Mov are known, it is to be ex¬
pected that the oxidation proceeds in the
following manner —

Mo111 ->MoIV-^ Mov -> Movl
In this work, the oxidation of molybde¬
num was followed very closely by means
of potentiometric titrations, with bime¬
tallic electrode pairs and an electron tube
used in the circuit. Various oxidizing
agents, addition agents, and acid concen¬
trations were employed. The resulting
data were plotted to give the titration
curves for the oxidation of molybdenum.

The results, while not so complete and
satisfactory as we had hoped they would
be, have opened a field for further re¬
search. The work is being continued at
Saint Louis University, where this project
was begun. In the past, several articles
on the oxidation of trivalent molybdenum
have appeared. In most cases there was
question of the oxidation MoIV -» Mov.
However, Jakob and Michalewicz1 con¬
cluded from their experiments that the
potential of a Mov solution was not nearly
so great as that of a MoIV solution and
consequently when the MoIn-»MoIV oxida¬
tion appeared the MoIV -* Mov oxidation
would not appear, and when the MoIV-*
Mov oxidation appeared the Mo111 ->
MoIV oxidation would not.

These investigations led us to carry
out oxidation experiments on reduced
potassium molybdate solutions and on
potassium chloromolybdate solutions un¬
der varying conditions, in an effort to
explain further the oxidation steps. The
measurement of amplified potential dif¬
ferences between bimetallic electrodes ap¬

peared to offer good results so we as¬
sembled the apparatus shown in fig. 1.
This set-up was a modification of that of
Goode2 3. Since it is not possible to obtain
accurate results by means of potentio¬
metric measurements when an extremely
small amount of current is being drawn
from the cell under investigation or when
the cell resistance is abnormally high, a
five-electrode tube was introduced into
the ordinary potentiometric circuit. Our
particular tube was an RCA 6K7.

Among the electrode pairs used were:

Platinum-Chromel

Platinum-Nickel

Platinum-Polarized platinum

Nickel-Chromel

The platinum-chromel pair gave by far
the best results in the preliminary titra¬
tions and consequently was used through¬
out. Both the oxidizing and the reduced
solutions were approximately N /10 but
the strength of the acid mediums was
much greater. The K2Mo04 solution was
standardized by the accepted method4.
This same technique was used through¬
out to reduce the molybdenum, but the
Mo111 was run from the Jones reductor
into a reaction vessel filled with C02.
The C02 atmosphere was necessary to
prevent oxidation by the air.

The oxidizing agents used were:

1. Ceric sulfate,

2. Potassium permanganate,

3. Ferric salts,

4. Potassium dichromate.

The various reaction mediums were:

1. H2S04 (N, 0.4N, 0.6N)

2. HC1 (2N, N, 0.4N)

3. Zimmermann-Reinhardt solution
(20-25°C. and 60-70°C.)

4. H3P04 (1.5 N.)

The addition reagents were:

1. MnS04

2. NH4F

3. MnS04 and NH4F

4. Ce (S04)2

1.Takob and Michalewicz, Rozeniki Chcm., 12, 576-588 (1932).

2 Goode, .T. Am. Chem. Soc., J,lh 26 (1922).

3 Willard and Fenwick, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2516-2529 (1922).

120

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Ceric sulfate has advantages over potas¬
sium permanganate as an oxidizing agent
because it may be used in chloride solu¬
tions, is stable over long periods of time
and has a potential close to that of the
permanganate.

The curve shown in fig. 2 is that of
Mo111 in H2S04, titrated with Ce (S04)2.
The theoretical and actual end-points do
not coincide, and there is no evidence of
the oxidation MoIV — * Mov. Using Mo111
in HC1, we obtained a curve in which
the end-points again fell short of the
theoretical end-point, and there was a
break which corresponded to the Moiy
— * Mov end-point, fig. 3. Addition agents
did not improve these results. In gen¬
eral, the ceric sulfate titrations proved
unsatisfactory. If a Mo111 — >MoIV oxida¬
tion occurred, there was no evidence of
a MoIV — »Mov oxidation, and vice versa.
An important contributing factor might
be the inability to regulate the pH of the
molybdenum solution when the oxidizing
agent was added. The ceric sulfate itself
is strongly acid, and the potentials of
oxidants will vary with pH.

Titrating the Mo111 with KMn04 in
H2S04 solution did not produce the de¬
sired curve, so the potassium chloro-
molybdate solution was used in a Zim-

mermann-Reinhardt solution, fig. 4. While
this titration proceeded rather smoothly,
the MoIV — »Mov reaction was not indi¬
cated. When the titration of K3MoC16
was repeated, this time in a sulfuric acid
solution, a curve, fig. 5, was obtained, in
which the break MoIV — >Mov was evident
but not the Mo111 — >MoIV end-point. The
titration of Mo111 in H2S04 with KMn04
in the presence of Ce(S04)2 gave a very
strange curve, fig. 6. The drop in poten¬
tial difference might indicate that the
potential for MoIV — »Mov is lower than
that for Mo111 — >MoIV, as suggested by
Jakob and Michalewicz. The titration of
reduced K2Mo04 in Zimmermann-Rein-
hardt solution with KMn04 gave a very
nice break in the curve for the oxidation
MoIV — ^Mo7, fig. 7.

Since at no time did we obtain a curve
in which three steps in the oxidation
were clearly indicated, it seemed advis¬
able at this point to try oxidizing agents
which would carry the oxidation only
from Mo111 to Mov, as there was no ques¬
tion of the possibility of oxidation to
MoTI. Ferric salts were chosen for this
purpose. In the case of Mo111 in H2S04
titrated with ferric sulfate, the oxidation
proceeded nicely, giving us both the Mo111
— »MoIV and the MoIV — * Mov breaks in

2

6

3

4

8

4 Hillebrand and Lundell, Applied Inorganic Analysis, p. 250-252.

Chemistry — 1941 Meeting

121

the curve, fig. 8, though, again, the theo¬
retical and actual end-points were not
the same.

In conclusion, it is evident from these
data that the oxidation of molybdenum is
not so simple as one might expect. It
presents several complications which are
not readily explainable. Why the oxida¬
tion from Mom to MoIV takes place in
H3PO4 and not in HC1 and H2S04 solu¬
tions when titrated with KMn04, in the
absence of addition reagents, is a matter
for further investigation. One possible
explanation is based on the assumption
of the formation of stable complexes
which are not readily attacked by KMn04.

Careful experiments have shown that
the possibility of air oxidation in these
titrations did not exist. However, in any
one of the titrations when the total time
of titration was longer than two hours,
the amount of oxidizing agent required

fell far below the theoretical amount.

The appearance of the MoIV — >Mov end¬
point too early in the oxidation and the
subsequent oxidation of MoVI, giving a
complete oxidation long before it is to be
expected, is not to be explained by any
ordinary chemical means. There appears
to be an oxidant other than KMn04 pres¬
ent, yet what it might be is not known.
Spectrographic examination of the solu¬
tion as the oxidation is being carried out
might lead to a solution of the problem.
Such analysis might show the presence
of the complex ions which we feel may be
present in the solutions.

REFERENCES

1. Jakob and Michalewicz, Roczniki, Chemj.
12, 576-588 (1932).

2. Goode, K. H., J. Am. Chem. Soc., U, 26-29

( 1922) . '

3. Willard, H. H. and Fenwick, F., J. Am.
Chem. Soc., U, 2516-2529 (1922).

4. Hillebrand, W. F. and Lundell, G. E. F.,
Applied Inorganic Analysis, John Wiley and
Sons, N. Y., (1929).

SEPARATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF SUGARS
FROM MIXTURES

R. W. Liggett, K. M. Gordon and Charles D. Hurd
Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

In the attempt to develop methods for
the separation and identification of sugars
in mixtures several derivatives have been
studied. The indirect methylation pro¬
cedure (1938) is suitable for analytical
separation by vacuum distillation of mix¬
tures of mono-, di-, and trisaccharides but
has not been found capable of develop¬
ment for further separation within these
groups. Study of procedures involving
crystallization of osazones, triphenyl-
methyl ethers, acetyl derivatives, and
others has not proven satisfactory. Crys¬
tallization of the derivatives made from
carbohydrate mixtures does not result in
a smooth separation of the components.
Trixenylmethyl ethers of xylose, glucose,
galactose, maltose, lactose, trehalose were
prepared. All are crystalline solids but
these derivatives also were ineffective in
helping to separate mixtures.

Satisfactory separations have been
achieved by means of completely pro-
pionylated derivatives of sugars, prepared
by action of propionic anhydride and
pyridine on the sugar. Several of these

propionates (maltose, gentiobiose, tre¬
halose, sucrose, xylose, arabinose) are
readily crystalline. All are distillable at
low pressures (0.01 to 0.0001 mm.) in a
special apparatus, even raffinose hende-
capropionate. Since the propionyl group
can be cleaved, after distillation, into ap¬
propriate fractions without rupture of the
glycoside linkages, it is possible to con¬
vert non-crystalline propionates into other
crystalline derivatives. Investigations of
such mixtures as acid-hydrolysed corn
sirup, hydrol, malt extract, etc., have al¬
ready given fruitful results with this
method. Gentiobiose has been isolated in
ten percent yields as crystalline gentio¬
biose octapropionate from the disaccharide
portion of hydrol. Maltose has been iso¬
lated similarly as crystalline maltose
octapropionate from both non-diastatic
malt extract and acid-hydrolyzed corn
sirup. In addition, a convenient analysis
of sugar mixtures has been developed,
the essential features of which are pro-
pionylation and subsequent distillation of
the sugar propionates at low pressures.

122

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THE STRUCTURE OF MIXED HYDROGENATION
CATALYSTS

Humbert Morris

'Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

Benzene can be reduced to cyclohexane
by hydrogen only in the presence of a
catalyst. Ipatieff, Corson and Kurbatov1
have shown that pure copper is ineffec¬
tive as a catalyst, producing measurable
reduction only at high temperatures and
pressures. They have also shown that
small amounts of nickel in the copper
make it active as a catalyst. Where there
is as little as 50 parts per million of
nickel, in 90 seconds contact time at
225° C., they obtain 4% hydrogenation.
Ipatieff, Corson and Kurbatov also found
that these nickel-activated copper catal¬
ysts experienced an irreversible deactiva¬
tion when they underwent prolonged
heating at 400° C.

Nickel is ferromagnetic, but it is readily
soluble in copper, and dilute solutions of
nickel in copper are not ferromagnetic.2
Thus, magnetic measurements can show
whether a copper-nickel system consists
of mixed crystals or of a solid solution
of nickel in copper, or of both a solution
and mixed crystals. Dr. P. W. Selwood
and the writer have therefore made par¬
allel measurements of ferromagnetism
and catalytic activity in an effort to de¬
termine the nature of the change that
reduced the activity of the catalyst.

The first samples of purified copper
tested were strongly ferromagnetic owing
to ten parts per million of iron. It was
necessary further to purify this copper
because the ferromagnetic effects due to
any activating nickel would have been
obscured by the iron. Copper containing
less than one part per million of iron was
finally obtained by electrolysis. This cop¬
per was made by electrolysis from c.p.
copper sulfate. The deposit was dissolved
in redistilled nitric acid and again elec¬
trolyzed. Copper purified in this way
was found to be inactive in the hydro¬
genation of benzene, confirming the re¬
sults of Ipatieff and Corson, and contra¬
dicting those of Pease and Purdum3, who
claimed that copper prepared from c.p.
copper oxide was an active hydrogenation
catalyst. This purified copper was activ¬
ated with 1% of nickel. Nickel nitrate
solution was stirred into a slurry of cop¬

per hydroxide. It was dried, decomposed
by heating, and reduced by hydrogen at
200° C. This catalyst effected 60% re¬
duction of benzene in 30 seconds at 175°.
This active catalyst was strongly ferro¬
magnetic. The ferromagnetism of the
catalyst shows that the nickel is not in
solution in the copper. The catalyst must
consist of mixed crystals of copper and
nickel.

The catalyst was then heated at 350°
for two hours, and again tested for ca¬
talytic activity and ferromagnetism. It
was found to be only one third catalyti-
cally effective as before, and only one
third as ferromagnetic.

It may be concluded from these results
that the catalyst loses its activity because
it forms a solid solution of nickel and
copper. That is, that thermal deactiva¬
tion consists of a process of diffusion of
the nickel into the copper.

The catalytic activity was measured by
an apparatus designed and built by Ipa¬
tieff and Corson. Hydrogen gas was puri¬
fied by passing it successively over (1)
copper gauze at 550 °C. in a quartz tube;
(2) through lead acetate solution; (3)
potassium hydroxide; and (4) drying
tubes. It was then passed into benzene
at 25°C. in a thermostat, and finally over
the catalyst. The gas was then passed
through traps cooled in dry ice to catch
the benzene and cyclohexane.

The magnetic susceptibility was meas¬
ured by the Gouy method.4 The sample
tube was hung from one pan of a micro
balance above an electromagnet, so sus¬
pended that the middle partition was in
the center of the magnetic field. One end
of the tube was evacuated and the cata¬
lyst packed into the other end. The
tube was weighed with no magnetic field.
Then the magnet was turned on and the
tube weighed again. The apparent
change in weight was proportional to the
magnetic susceptibility.

REFERENCES

1. Ipatieff, Corson and Kurbatov, J. Phys.

Chem., Jf3, 589 (1939).

2. W. H. Ross, Phys. Rev., 1,6, 46 (1934).

3. Pease and Purdum, J. Am. Chem. Soc., lft,

1435 (1925).

4. Selwood, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 61, 3168

(1939).

Chemistry — 1941 Meeting

123

THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY AS APPLIED TO
PHOTOGRAPHY

J. H. Sammis
Peoria, Illinois

The history of photography and the
history of chemistry are, naturally, close¬
ly parallel. The relationship is much
closer than between physics and photo¬
graphy. With the exception of the inven¬
tion of a new glass or two, the devising
of a few new lens combinations, and more
recently, the introduction of new polariz¬
ing screens and a glass-coating, reflec¬
tion-reducing technique (in themselves,
partly chemical), most of the advances
in the art-science of photography have
been made as almost direct offshoots of
the discoveries of the chemists.

In fact, the alacrity with which these
discoveries have been incorporated into
the body of photographic theory and
usage has been little short of amazing.
Iodine, isolated in 1811 was used by
Daguerre some time before 1835 and
bromine discovered in 1828 was put to
photographic use in 1840 by Goddard to
increase the sensitivity of Daguerreotype
plates. In 1819 Herschel pointed out the
action of sodium thiosulfate upon silver
salts and in 1839 he urged Talbot to use
the same salt for fixing photographic
images. That salt is still by far the most
commonly used fixing agent today. For
this contribution it would seem that
Herschel deserves a much more promi¬
nent place in the annals of photography
than he is usually allotted.

To fully appreciate the importance of
chemical discoveries in the history of
photography, let us list what would seem
the major advances made in the latter
field and note how many of them are an
outgrowth of chemical advances.

First, there was the noting of the effect
of light and the differential effect of light
of different colors upon silver compounds
by the Swedish chemist, Scheele.
Schulte, Wedgewood, Davy and others
made use of these facts in securing
printed silhouettes. These they did not
know how to fix. This major contribu¬
tion (though it was on entirely different
chemicals) was made by Niepce. Her-
schel’s contribution, already mentioned,
made fixation possible on silver salts
which were and have always, been the
most commonly used metallic constitu¬

ents of the light sensitive materials used
in photography. Then came the profound
and revoluntionary contribution of Da¬
guerre; namely, the concept of a latent
image capable of later intensification or
development as it is now called. Prior to
that idea, the notion of obtaining a posi¬
tive image directly in the camera had
obsessed the minds of investigators to
the point where no other solution of the
difficulties encountered seemed possible.

Thus the most fundamental discoveries
were made; a light sensitive medium, de¬
velopment, and fixation. Later came
many contributions. Important among
these were the negative-positive tech¬
nique of Talbot’s calotype process making
possible images that were not mirror-im¬
ages and also the possibility of many
positive prints from one negative; a long
series of improvements in the sensitivity
of photographic emulsions, both as to
speed and to orthochromatics, outstand¬
ing of which were the contributions of
Schonbein (discovery of collodion) and
Scott- Archer (use of collodion in the
form in which it is still used photo¬
graphically), Vogel’s work on sensitizing
films to green light (as a natural after-
math to the discoveries of Hofmann and
Perkin), Rev. Goodwin’s perfection of the
gelatino-bromide film base (more com¬
monly credited to Eastman), and the
publication of the work of the Lumiere’s
on the chemical properties which make
organic substances photographic develop¬
ers. Kekule’s prior contributions con¬
cerning the benzene ring structure (the
basis for nearly all the photographic re¬
ducing agents) must not be overlooked.

The whole story of reduction, intensifi¬
cation, sensitization, toning, color pro¬
cesses (exception must be made here to
the pioneering work of the physicist
Clerk Maxwell), image reversal, and the
use of magnesium for lighting is the
story of chemical progress, out of phase
with photographic history by only a few
years.

To paraphrase a political adage, one
might say “As chemistry goes, so goes
photography.”

124

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

CATION EXCHANGE IN A CARBONACEOUS ION
EXCHANGER

Harold Frederic Walton*

Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

Introduction. — The distribution of a
pair of cations between a solution and a
solid ion exchanging body such as a
zeolite has been studied by many inves¬
tigators and for different materials. Gen¬
erally speaking, true equilibrium has not
been reached in these studies, for the
distribution has been different according
to the direction from which it was ap¬
proached, but the rather definite pseudo¬
equilibrium can be represented empiri¬
cally by the equation

C, \p

— ) . (1)

C2 / solution

where K and p are constants, p being
less than one (Rothmund and Kornfeld,
Z. Anorg., 103, 129, 1918).

In one or two cases (e.g., Moller, Roll.
Beih., 46, 1, 1937), true equilibrium was
reached, and, at the same time, the mass
action law was obeyed, p in the above
equation being one. This raises the ques¬
tion whether p will not always be unity
for a true equilibrium. To answer this
question was one of the aims of the pres¬
ent investigation.

A new type of exchanger made from
bituminous coal by treatment with sul¬
furic acid or sulfur trioxide has come
into use in recent years. Such a material
is “Zeo-Karb”, manufactured by the Per-
mutit Company. This was chosen for
investigation because the great speed of
its ion exchange reactions would favor
approach to equilibrium and also because
of its technical importance and the fact
that exchanges involving the hydrogen
ion can be performed with it. The ex¬
changes first studied were calcium-sodium
and sodium-hydrogen.

Experimental Method. — The Zeo-Karb
was first ground to 40-80 mesh. Portions
were saturated with calcium, sodium, and
hydrogen ions by passing solutions of
calcium and sodium chlorides and of hy¬
drochloric acid, and were then washed

and air-dried. Weighed samples were
shaken with 50-200 cc portions of solu¬
tions containing the chloride of the other
cation which was to participate in the
exchange. Control experiments showed
that no observable change occurred be¬
tween 6 and 72 hours of shaking, so that
after 12 hours the supernatant solution
was withdrawn and analyzed.

It was necessary to know the satura¬
tion capacity or “ultimate exchange” of
the Zeo-Karb. This was found for the
calcium Zeo-Karb by digestion with con¬
centrated sulfuric acid and analysis of
the resulting solution, also by leaching
out the calcium by dilute acid. The
sodium Zeo-Karb was first saturated with
hydrogen ions, and these displaced by
potassium ions and titrated.

It was also desirable to know whether
the extent of swelling of the material in
water would change with ionic exchange,
since Graf (Koll. Beih., 46, 229, 1937)
showed that the swelling of casein had a
marked effect on the ion exchange. Tests
showed that the volume of the Zeo-Karb
varied by one to two per cent at the most
during the ion exchanges studied.

Results

(a) The Calcium- Sodium Exchange. —
The data obtained by agitating pure sodi¬
um Zeo-Karb with calcium chloride solu¬
tion, and pure calcium Zeo-Karb with
sodium chloride solution, are given in
fig.l. The data are plotted according to
the equation

/A

/ Ca++

= K I -

Solid 1 A2

' Na+

A being the activity calculated by the
simple Debye-Hiickel theory.

The index p for exchanges in the N/25
solution was 0.82-0.84. The distance
apart of the two curves, however, shows
that true equilibrium was not attained.

/ (Ca++) \
\ (Na yf

)

P

. (2)

solution.

* Former Research Chemist, The Permutit Company.

Chemistry — 1941 Meeting

125

Fig. 1. — Units : Activities in solution mil-
liequivalents per liter. Concentrations in
Zeo-Karb, milliequivalents per gram air dried
weight.

even though ample time had been allowed
in the experiments for the exchange to
reach a steady state. To allow a better
chance for equilibrium to be approached,
some tests were made where samples of
Zeo-Karb which had been used in the
main series of tests, and so already con¬
tained some of the second cation, were
shaken with fresh quantities of salt
solutions. The points so obtained are
shown by crosses in fig. 2. The data
obtained starting with sodium Zeo-Karb
showed some inclination to approach the
mean of the two curves, but the data for
calcium Zeo-Karb stuck closely to the
original Ca-Zeo-Karb and NaCl curve.

The calcium and sodium Zeo-Karb
stocks had been prepared a year previous
to making these tests, and might have
acquired a permanent set so that they
were in reality two different exchange
materials. Therefore, a quantity of
sodium Zeo-Karb stock was saturated
with calcium ions and three tests were
immediately made by shaking samples
of this material with N/25 sodium chlor¬
ide solution. The points obtained are
shown as circles in fig. 2 and lie very close
to the regular Ca-Zeo-Karb+NaCl curve.
The conclusion is that the exchange
characteristics of Zeo-Karb are condition¬
ed by the ion with which the material
was last saturated and do not change un¬
til the material is saturated or nearly
saturated with another ion. A similar
conclusion was reached by Renold (Koll.
Beih., Jf3, 1, 1935) from his work on syn¬
thetic aluminosilicates.

Fig. 1. — Units : Activities \n solution mil¬
liequivalents per liter. Concentrations in
Zeo-Karb, milliequivalents per gram air
dried weight.

The effect of concentration of the solu¬
tion is seen from fig. 1, the circles refer¬
ring to N/10 NaCl + Ca-Zeo-Karb. For
a given ratio Ca:Na in the exchanger,
the simple Ca:Na ratio in the solution
is greater in the more concentrated solu¬
tion, but by plotting activities according
to the equation given, a relation is ob¬
tained which is independent of the total
salt concentration.

(b) The Sodium-Hydrogen Exchange.
— These results are given in fig. 3. The
simple ionic concentration ratios were
plotted, these being assumed equal to the
acitvity ratios in solution. The curves
for Na-Zeo-Karb -f HC1 and H-Zeo-Karb
+ NaCl almost coincide, showing a close
approach to equilibrium. The index p
in Equation 1 is about 0.6, which shows
that the mass action law (p = l) is not
necessarily obeyed for a true equilibrium.

126

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

These graphs are, however, definitely
not linear. It may easily be that Equa¬
tion 1 is not valid for exchanges involv¬
ing the hydrogen ion; this will be seen
more clearly when data for the sodium-
potassium exchange in Zeo-Karb are
available for comparison.

The effect of total concentration is seen
from fig. 3; the crosses refer to N/25
solution, the circles to N/10. As was
expected for a pair of ions of the same

valency, concentration has no effect on
the distribution.

Acknowledgments

The work described developed out of
researches carried on in the laboratories
of The Permutit Company, Birmingham,
New Jersey. The writer is indebted to
The Permutit Company for the gift of
Zeo-Karb and also for permission to pub¬
lish these results.

Papers in Geography

Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman

The Evanston program carried 11 papers, all of which are herewith pub¬
lished.

The chairman for the Urbana meeting in 1942 as elected by the 28 attend¬
ing was: Joseph Van Riper, Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale.

(Signed) Arthur B. Cozzens, Chairman

[127]

128

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

U. S. AIRWAY WEATHER STATION, CARBONDALE,

ILLINOIS

Erselia M. and Thomas F. Barton
Southern Illinois Normal University , Carbondale, Illinois

More than ever before does the present
World War show the importance and
need for a thorough knowledge and un¬
derstanding of weather and climatic con¬
ditions. For a people to prosper and
defend itself adequately today such a
knowledge is essential. Although weather
data are commonly used when planting
crops; buying and selling goods; plan¬
ning road itineraries; or properly heat¬
ing a house, it took the present war to
make all men really weather conscious.
During the last decade through com¬
mercial and military aviation the “weath¬
er eye” public has increased with an ac¬
celerated tempo.

Wishing to help with this movement
to understand weather, the writers will
describe the operation of an Airway
Weather Station, and show how such a
station can contribute to the educational
curriculum.

In April, 1940, a second class Airway
Weather Station was established on the
Southern Illinois Normal University
campus at Carbondale under the super¬
vision of the Geography Department.
The Federal Government provided all the
technical equipment and supplies while
the Geography Department provided of¬
fice facilities and personnel.

The station contains the following tech¬
nical equipment: Mercurial barometer,
barograph, anemometer and wind vane,
wind velocity and direction indicator,
maximum and minimum thermometers
and holder, whirling apparatus for wet
and dry bulb psychrometer, rain and
snow gauge, weather shelter.

Before being permitted to take authori¬
tative readings, the three observers se¬
lected to take readings had to pass a
Civil Service examination and secure
Certificates of Authority to take Airway
Weather Observations. Two of these ob¬
servers, Harry Chester and James Chand¬
ler are college geography majors, and the
third, Thomas F. Barton, Chairman of
the Geography and Geology Department,
is sponsor of the station.

Every day, between 6:10 and 6:30 A.
M. and P. M. and between 12:10 and 12:30
A. M. and P. M., weather observations
are taken. Weather recordings are made,
computed, coded, and telegraphed to Chi¬
cago in twenty minutes. From Chicago
this information is made available by
teletype for commercial and military air¬
ports throughout the United States.

For example at 12:29 P. M. on April
19, 1941 the following message was wired
to Chicago in code:

43387 19403 08172 65502 66065 69217 67

The first three digits of the first group
of numbers describes the location of the
station as to latitude and longitude. The
fourth number of the primary group
shows that the sky was completely cov¬
ered with clouds and the last number
indicates that at the time of reading
visibility was between six and twelve
miles. In the same way the numbers in
each of the following groups give a quan¬
titative description of weather.

The following weather phenomena are
observed, computed, and recorded at each
six-hour reading:

1. Total amount of cloud

2. Visibility in miles or feet

3. Wind direction and velocity

4. Present weather (of which there
are ninety-nine kinds)

5. Station and sea level pressure

6. Dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures

7. Dew point

8. Three hour station pressure change j
and pressure characteristic

9. Kinds of low, middle and high
clouds

10. Cloud height and direction of |
cloud movement

11. Character, time and amount of ;
precipitation or character and time of
thunderstorm

12. Maximum and minimum tempera- j
tures.

At the end of each month four copies
of the monthly weather summary are |
made. Of these, three are sent to Kansas
City where one is filed, one is sent to the

Geography — 1941 Meeting

129

Weather Bureau at Springfield, Illinois,
and the other goes to the Weather Bu¬
reau in Washington, D. C. The fourth
copy is filed for reference work in the
Geography Department.

Use of Weather Data. — One of the most
important elements of Physical Geogra¬
phy is weather. Almost everybody is in¬
terested in local weather conditions but
most people believe with Mark Twain
that nothing is ever done about the
weather. However, at Southern the Geog¬
raphy staff members who use Finch and
Trewartha’s Elements of Geography as a
text in the introductory course, are at¬
tempting to teach students how to de¬
scribe, interpret and predict weather
conditions. Consequently, by having
weather readings every six hours, the
Geography instructors have accurate
local data to use in classroom presenta¬
tions.

This information is also used in the
college geography laboratory classes hav¬
ing as their objective the understanding
of weather and weather instruments.
Most students are interested in timely
and local statistics that explain the
weather drama as it is enacted. From
local description and interpretation one
can go on to broader generalizations on
the subject. From the standpoint of
weather instruments, in the laboratory
or workshop there are various weather

r, ., T". “Why Not Build an Inexpensive

Ibxd. Establishing an Inexpensive Weather Station:

instruments similar to those used in the
station but differing somewhat in that
they may be demonstrated from time to
time.

Although not completely equipped at
present the workshop contains the follow¬
ing instruments: mercurial and aneroid
barometers, barograph, thermograph, hy-
grograph, humidaguide, hand sling psy-
chrometer, maximum and minimum
thermometers, an indoor-outdoor ther¬
mometer, and a rain and snow gauge.
Students are taught the mechanism and
uses of each instrument as well as how
to read it. After an understanding of
the instruments is achieved practical
functional problems connected with
weather elements are studied.

The use of these daily reports not only
stimulates interest in weather, but actual
observation of the station itself also
awakens in pupils a keen interest in
weather problems in general. The sta¬
tion has been shown to rural, intermedi¬
ate grade, junior and senior high school
pupils, to college students and to “in-
service” teachers. From past experience,
one can safely say that most of these
students, regardless of grade level, were
impressed and stimulated by these trips.
In fact, many have set up their own in¬
expensive weather stations, either at
home or at school.1

Weather Station at Your School?” Illinois Education,

An Abstract,” Journal of Geography.

130

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES OF THE SUDBURY AREA,

ONTARIO1

Thomas F. Barton

Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale, Illinois

Two distinct agricultural landscapes
are developing within a few miles of each
other in the Sudbury Area of Ontario,
Canada, namely the “Agricultural Land¬
scape of the Sudbury Pocket”2 and the
“Disseminated Agricultural Landscape
Among the Ice-scoured Hills.” These
landscapes represent the two types of
agriculture most prevalent on the Lauren-
tian Highlands.

As it is true elsewhere in the Canadian
Shield the best agricultural land of the
Sudbury Area is confined to pockets. The
Sudbury pocket is the middle one of “five
areas more or less fit for settlement”3
which are located in the portion of the
Shield contiguous to the north shore of
Lake Huron and Lake Superior. These
pocket areas, as briefly described by
Lower,4 are from east to west: North
Bay, Lake Nipissing, Sudbury, Sault Ste.
Marie, and Fort Williams and Port Ar¬
thur.

The Disseminated Agricultural Land¬
scape Among the Ice-scoured Hills re¬
sulted from the scattered and often per¬
sistent attempts of pioneers to hew farms
among the glaciated hills of the Canadian
Shield.

Although both of these agricultural
landscapes developed under the same
climate and produce crops for the saxi-
cultural markets, differences in land-
forms, soil, and stage of development re¬
sult in a different cultural landscape.
Because of physical and cultural dissim¬
ilarities these two landscapes will be
treated separately, although they do have
many characteristics in common.

Agricultural, Landscape of the
Sudbury Pocket

By driving seven miles northwest of
Sudbury through a cut-over forest land¬

scape, one enters an agricultural pocket
by means of a water gap at Azilda (fig.
1). Here agricultural features, patterns
and associations are superimposed upon a
lacustrine plain of an abandoned glacial
lake. This pocket, about twenty-three
miles long and eight wide, is roughly
boat-shaped with a prow at the west end
of Vermilion Lake and the stern about
five miles southwest of Wanopetei Lake.
This area represents roughly an old
glacial lake bed in the central portion of
the Sudbury basin.

All of the land in the Sudbury pocket
is not in farms, and rather large tracts
have never been cultivated. Near the
center of the lake bed are several sand¬
stone ridges, remnants of former anti¬
clines. Parts of these ridges have never
been cultivated and account for much of
the wooded land in the pocket. Most of
the few farms located on the sandstone
ridges have been abandoned.

The islands of cultivated land in the
northern part of this boat-shaped area
are separated from the larger area of
farm land to the south by cut-over for¬
ests. Clearing and settling have not been
rapid in the northern part of the plain
because the soil is too sandy, gravelly,
and often too wet for agriculture. More¬
over, in spite of a long period of develop¬
ment, there still exists near the center of
the pocket islands of timber surrounded
by cultivated land. These timber islands
occupy the gravelly, rocky, poorly
drained or most inaccessible parts. The
reader should keep in mind, however,
that this agricultural pocket contains
more cultivated land and more farms
than all the rest of the Sudbury Area.

On this plain the roads, although fol¬
lowing a rectangular pattern, are not
laid out in perfect square mile intervals.

1 For practical purposes at present the writer uses the term “The Sudbury Area” when writing1 of that
portion of Ontario included on the Sudbury Topogaphical Sheet which is published by the Department of
Interior. The area is forty-eight miles long from east to west; thirty-four miles wide, and is named after
its largest city, Sudbury.

Information in this paper is based upon six weeks’ field work in the summer of 1939 and library research.

2 The term pocket is used to designate small areas of arable land located in depressions in the
Laurentian Upland.

3 Lower, A. R., “Settlement and the Forest Frontier in Eastern Canada,” Canadian Frontiers of Settle¬
ment , Vol. IX, p. 12.

4 Ibid.

Geography — 1941 Meeting

131

Often two parallel east-west roads one
mile apart will only be connected by
north-south roads at intervals of two
miles. The dispersed rural dwellings
are usually found along the principal
east-west roads but seldom on the north-
south connecting roads (fig. 2).

The rural homes are concentrated along
the main gravel roads with usually six
to twelve houses to a mile. There are
about five hundred families with an av¬
erage of four or five to a family in the
pocket.5 The farms have the elongated
strip shape of typical French Canadian
land holdings. Often there are two
houses in the same farmyard — the older
dwelling may be occupied by the parents
and the newer one by a son.

The farms are small, usually compris¬
ing sixty to eighty acres with many small

fields devoted to potatoes, barley, truck
crops, and hay. For example Rodolphe
Paquette owns an eighty-acre farm on
the southeast corner of the crossroads at
Boninville. During the summer of 1939
he had thirty acres of potatoes, ten acres
of hay, eight acres of oats, four and a
half of truck garden, and the rest of the
farm was in yards and pasture. Instead
of having each cultivated crop in one
field, the crops were planted in several
small fields giving a patchwork field pat¬
tern. However, on most farms mixed
hay occupies more of the land than any
other crop, and on many farms it occu¬
pies more land than all the other crops
combined. Farms, pastures and farm¬
yards are usually enclosed with wire,
rails, or poles, but cultivated fields with¬
in a farm are often not enclosed.

8 Data given by Romeo Leroux, agricultural representative of the Sudbury District, in an interview on
A.ugust 8, 1939.

132

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Fig. 2. — Agglomerated Agricultural Settlement in Sudbury Pocket, Sudbury Area, Ontario.

A representative farmyard contains a
house, garage, combined barn and crib,
potato cellar, and woodpile (fig. 3).
Houses are usually c<f the one or two-
story square wooden type but log houses
are not uncommon. Most of the once
white houses are badly in need of paint.
The grain crib and barn are usually com¬
bined in order to facilitate the feeding
of livestock during the long cold winters
and deep snows. This structure is either
large and well made, or small, crude and
made of rough lumber. If large, it in¬
dicates the farmer is in the commercial
dairy business; if small, he only keeps a
cow or two for his own domestic use.
Protruding through the roof of the larger
barns are the windmills. The water tank
and part of the windmill machinery are
thus protected from the deep snows and
freezing temperatures.

Going through the country in early
August one sees checkerboard fields of
green and yellow. Late potatoes, peas,
hayland, pastureland, and some corn pro¬
duce various shades of green; while the
yellow is due to the ripening fields of
oats, barley, and fall rye. In December
the fields are covered with a deep blanket
of snow (The city of Sudbury receives
an average of 63.2 inches of snowfall a
year).

The variety of crops grown and the
production per acre are closely related |
to climate, soil, landforms, markets, and
transportation facilities.

Climate imposes harsh limits upon ag¬
riculture. The late springs, cold and
wet, retard the planting season. June J
with 2.91 inches receives more rainfall
than July with 2.54 inches.8 Not only ;
do heavy rains interfere with the plant- !
ing in spring, but sometimes they come
during the harvest season spoiling hay,
causing oats to sprout in the shock and
potatoes to rot in the ground. August
with 2.85 inches of rainfall is one of the
wettest months of the year, and Septem¬
ber is the wettest month with 3.1 inches.
The three principal growing months of
June, July, and August receive an aver¬
age of 8.3 inches of rainfall. However
the rainfall is not dependable. Droughts
are frequent and may come any time dur¬
ing the summer. June and July are the
only months having a monthly average
of normal daily mean temperatures above
fifty degrees.* 7

The average growing season is ninety
days or less. Moreover, many nights
have very low temperature although
frosts do not occur. Often frosts occur
late in spring or early in fall with a
possibility of frost any time during the

8 Conner, A. .T., “Meteorological Tables” reprinted from the Canada Year Book, 1931, p. 21.

7 Ibid., pp. 12-13.

133

Geography — 1941 Meeting

■ Fig. 3. — View of farmstead in August,
i Notice dwindling wood piles, and entrances
and ventilators to earthen potato cellars,
j Jacked up hind wheel of old-modeled car
furnishes power for potato grader.

j year. June, July, August, and September
are the only months free of snowfall.
Thus, it is not surprising to find crops
that are adapted to a high latitude in¬
terior continental climate. Buckwheat,
barley, and potatoes are suited to a short
season, and oats, hay and pasture to cool
temperatures.

Soil presents both physical and chemi¬
cal handicaps. Much of it is too sandy,
gravelly and rocky. The better drained
loam soils are underlain with fine sand to
a depth of six to twelve feet.* 8 However,
where clays predominate, the soil retains
its moisture long after the heavy blanket
of snow has disappeared. Thus an al¬
ready dangerously short growing season
is further handicapped by wet soils, de¬
laying the planting period. Typical of
the podsols these soils are high in humus
content. Being friable and well drained,
they make good potato land if properly
fertilized. The soils are high in potass¬
ium and magnesium, but low in lime and
nitrogen.9 Crop yields soon decline where
cultivation is carried on year after year
without adequate fertilization. Clover is
grown to restore vegetable matter and
nitrogen to the soils. Limestone and
nitrogen fertilizers are shipped into the
area from Niagara Falls.10

Because of the irregularity of the land
surface in the Sudbury pocket, much of
the total area is unfit for cultivation. In

trppl9finl’ BJefard Valley Looking north, note large barn, silo, wooded

tree line, and profile of the sandstone hills which occupy the center of the Sudbury pocket.

’ Interview with Romeo Leroux on August 8, 1939

8 Ibid.

10 Interview with Romeo Leroux on August 8, 1939.

134

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

the southeastern portion the lake plain
gives way to moraines and small pitted
outwash plains. Sand and gravel ter¬
races are located in the southwestern part
of the pocket along the margin of the
lacustrine plain. The flood plain of the
Vermilion River with its numerous ox¬
bow lakes is too wet for cultivation. The
sandstone ridges near the center of the
pocket, although partially cleared and
farmed in the past, have now been mostly
abandoned. The undesirable landforms
and associated soils prevent the agricul¬
tural pocket from developing a more per¬
fect boat-shaped area.

In addition to the physical factors of
climate, soil and landforms, markets also
influence agricultural development. The
demand for fresh milk and vegetables
created by the mining towns and Sudbury
help explain why dairying and truck
farming predominate in the area. Milk,
potatoes, and baled hay are the principal
cash products.

Potatoes lead the list as a cash crop
with about a quarter of a million bushels
produced annually on about two thousand
acres.11 The early crop is harvested the
first part of August and the second crop
about the middle of September. In 1939
potatoes were selling for $1.25 to $1.50
per bag in Sudbury where the bulk of the
crop is consumed.12 In addition to cli¬
matic handicaps, the potato crop, if not
treated in time may sometimes be dam¬
aged by the potato leaf hopper or blight.

In addition to potatoes a large variety
of fresh vegetables are grown for the
mining population. The importance of
truck marketing is reflected in the urban
landscape. Covered markets are main¬
tained in Sudbury and Copper Cliff.
Buggies, light wagons, and antiquated
automobiles loaded with vegetables are
common daily sights in the town and city
streets.

The second most important cash prod¬
uct is milk. It is the dairy cow that
changes the bulky grain, hay and grass
into milk which can be more readily
marketed. (Fig. 4.) Farmers from the
northern and northwestern part of the
pocket move milk into Sudbury by truck.

Fresh milk does not reach Sudbury from
the central part of this area around Bon-
inville for two reasons. Here the potato
is the chief product. Moreover what milk
is produced for sale goes to a small
cheese factory at the Boninville cross¬
roads. This factory gets most of its
milk within a five mile radius. About
three to four large Canadian Cheddar
cheeses are made daily throughout the
year with a maximum production in
spring. The minimum production is in
August when only about a dozen farmers
bring in milk once a day.13

Experimentation with corn and silos
is associated with the dairy industry.
During the summer of 1939 a new quick
maturing variety of corn known as Do-
rinny was introduced.14 Planting was
delayed by rains and the experiment
could not be called a success. The area
will likely continue to be used for ex¬
perimentation with quick maturing va¬
rieties of corn. Silage would undoubtedly
be of great aid to dairying if corn pro¬
duction were feasible.

In 1939 there were about 4,000 head of
dairy cattle in this agricultural pocket.
Most of the cows are Ayrshires. A cattle
carload of Ayrshire cows was shipped in
from Glengairy county in eastern Ontario
in the fall of 1939 which would indicate
that the dairy business continues to ex¬
pand.15

In spite of the expansion of dairying
within the Sudbury pocket and the dis¬
persed agricultural settlements in the
Sudbury Area, milk production is still
insufficient to meet the demand created
by the mining population. Consequently
Sudbury dairies send their trucks as far
as Bruce Mines, 160 miles west of Sud¬
bury, and as far as Sturgeon Falls,18 60
miles east of Sudbury, for milk and
cream.

Not only does the Sudbury Area depend
upon outside sources for milk but also
for all food supplies. No phase of agri¬
culture has developed to the extent where
it meets the needs of the Sudbury Area.
The growing mining population produces
only a negligible part of its own food.

11 Ibid.

12 The Sudbury Star, August 18, 1939.

1! Interview with Arthur Legauit, manager of the factory, August 18, 1939.

14 Sudbuiy Star, August 18, 1939, p. 11.

15 Sudbury Star, August 18, 1939.

16 Interview with O. L. Bingham of the Palm Dairy on August 23, 1939.

Geography — 1941 Meeting

135

In spite of excellent markets nearby
and improved roads connecting this
agricultural pocket with the agglomera¬
tions of population in the Sudbury Area,
most of the farms and farmsteads do not
look prosperous and give ample evidence
that the owners are having a hard time
to eke out a living. In fact, there are
few farms which have always been eco¬
nomically independent. The present de¬
velopment and economic status of many

I

farms is understood when one realizes
that money made in mining, lumbering,
or trapping has been invested in these
farms. It is a common, practice for one
or more members of a family to work
in the mines for a few years. This is
especially true when crops fail or the
mines are booming and wages high. It
is also true that what prosperity exists is
primarily explained by the markets the
mining industry has provided.

Disseminated Agricultural Landscape Among the Ice-scoured Hills

*

Two primary districts of dispersed ag¬
ricultural settlement in the Sudbury
i Area create a distinctive landscape. The
writer has named this landscape the Dis¬
seminated Agricultural Landscape among
’ the Ice-scoured Hills. Of the two dis¬
tricts in this landscape, one is the Kelley
. Lake-Long Lake district, east of the
Whitefish Lake Indian Reserve No. 6 and
just south of Sudbury and Copper Cliff
in Waters and Broder Townships. The
other is the Beaver Lake-Vermilion River
I district west of the Whitefish Lake In¬
dian Reserve No. 6 and south of Worth-
. ington and Whitefish in Lome and Louise
j townships. The two districts are sep-
. arated from each other by the Whitefish

Lake Indian Reserve No. 6 on which
white settlement cannot take place.

These two districts differ from the Sud¬
bury pocket in many ways. A melange
of road types weaving in and out among
the hills, lakes and swamps results in a
serpentine road pattern in contrast with
the rectangular one of the Sudbury
pocket. (Compare figs. 5 and 6). Ferries
and fords are numerous here; they are
seldom found in the Sudbury basin.
Fourth class roads (local roads slightly
traveled) are more prevalent in the Dis¬
seminated Agricultural Landscape Among
the Ice-scoured Hills than in the Agri¬
cultural Landscape of the Sudbury Pocket.
The population pattern is also irregular

i

3

[

[

I

[

81*00'

J CLEAREO LAND
> 6UB-0WQS

J WOODS ;-

■ RIVERS AND LAKES L

MARSH, BOO OR OPEN MUSKEG
WELL TRAVELED ROAD
SLIGHTLY TRAVELED ROAD

iaaMMMi scale of miles

Fig. 5. — Dispersed Agricultural Settlement, Kelley Lake-Long Lake District,
Sudbury Area, Ontario.

136

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

and the population density is not as great
as that in the Sudbury pocket. There
are only three or four houses to the
square mile.

There are many evidences of pioneer
farming in these districts, such as
patches of cultivated crops interspersed
in the second growth forest. A predom¬
inance of hay fields in which rock piles
and stumps may still be seen. Whereas
many of the farms in the Sudbury basin
have been four-fifths or completely
cleared, here the amount of cleared land
is very small. These clearings appear
like small islands in a sea of cut-over
forest land. The cultivated fields of one
farm often do not join the fields of the
adjacent one. Sometimes a second growth
forest of jack pine, birch and yellow
poplar may completely hide one farm
from another. Buildings are small and
crude, and are constructed from poles,
logs, and rough lumber obtained in clear¬
ing the land.

In these districts much of the land and

forests pass through three stages of de¬
velopment. Between 1900-1920 the large
lumber companies removed the red and
white pine. Then followed the French
Canadian “wood chopper” or “bush
farmer” who was more interested in cut¬
ting the jack pines for mine timbers and
ties, the yellow poplar for pulp wood,
and the birch tfor fuel, than he was in
clearing the land for cultivation. The
bush-farmer stage is followed by the Fin¬
nish farmer whose persistent efforts and
frugal living made cultivation of the
land possible (in these two districts the
Finnish farmers outnumber the French
Canadians).17

In contrast with the commercial agri¬
culture of the Sudbury pocket, farming
in these districts is chiefly one of sub¬
sistence agriculture with few cash prod¬
ucts. Some milk and vegetables are mar¬
keted in Sudbury and the mining towns.
Dairying is becoming more important as
shown by an increase in the number of
Ayrshire cows. In 1939 a carload of

Fig. 6. — Dispersed Agricultural Settlement, Beaver Lakes-Vermilion
River District, Sudbury Area, Ontario.

17 Interview with Tom Thorpe, assistant forester in Sudbury, on August 14, 1939.

Geography — 1941 Meeting

137

Ayrshire cows were shipped from lower
Ontario to Worthington for the Beaver
Lake-Vermilion River district.18 Money is
also secured by the sale of baled hay,
and both pulp and fuel wood. The money
from these small sales is used to pur¬
chase meager necessities that cannot be
produced on the farm.

Settlement gradually goes on in these
two districts. New roads are cut through
the forest and old roads improved. The
number of families and farms increase
and the areas of farm land become larger
and more continuous. Rapid agricultural
expansion is not likely, however, and
boom periods only occur in the mining
industry of the Sudbury Area.

Although the climate is the same and
about the same kind of crops are grown
in both agricultural landscapes, farming

18 Sudbury Star, August 18, 1939, p. 6.

in the Disseminated Agricultural Land¬
scape among the Ice-scoured Hills is a
battle against rougher land, poorer soil,
and poorer drainage than in the Agri¬
cultural Landscape of the Sudbury Pocket.

Summary

Two distinct agricultural landscapes
are found in the Sudbury Area primarily
because of a difference in landforms and
soil. Associated with the differences in
physical features are the differences in
cultural forms such as road types and
patterns, distribution and density of pop¬
ulation, acreage of cleared and cultivated
land per farm, crop production, and stage
of economic development. Both of the
agricultural lanscapes are primarily de¬
pendent for their existence upon the saxi-
cultural development of the Sudbury
Area.

THE SOIL FACTOR AND LAND USE IN BARBOUR
COUNTY, ALABAMA

Alfred W. Booth

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Barbour County in east-central Ala¬
bama lies within two regions of the
Upper Coastal Plain of Southeastern
United States, the Clay Hills and the
Southern Red Hills. In the Clay Hills
or northern portion of Barbour County
are found soils belonging to the Susque¬
hanna series. In the Southern Red Hills
portion, are found soils belonging to the
Ruston and related series. Numerous
cultural contrasts exist between the
northern and southern portions of the
county, many of which can be explained
in terms of this soils difference.

The highest summit level of the cuesta
produced by the Clayton formation which
almost bisects the county is generally
considered to be the line of demarcation
between the Clay Hills and Southern Red
Hills. The Clay Hills section is under¬
lain by the Ripley formation which con¬
sists of gray to greenish-gray sands and
clays. The southern portion is underlain
by the Naheola formation which consists
mainly of reddish sands, and which rests
upon the white limestone of the Clayton
formation.1

Northern Barbour County lies on the
lower portion of the dip slope of the
cuesta produced by the Ripley formation,
and as a result, is maturely dissected.
Its surface configuration is featured by
broad, open valleys and some rather con¬
spicuous narrow, steep-sided ridges. On
the other hand, Southern Barbour County
lies mainly on the upper portion of the
dip slope of the cuesta produced by the
Clayton formation. Hence its dissection
has just begun and its surface configura¬
tion is featured by rather broad, open
ridges and shallow, rather narrow val¬
leys.

Despite these contrasts in surface con¬
figuration, the topographic factor is not
the significant one in explaining differ¬
ences in land use. For both areas have
approximately the same amount of land
in which, topographically speaking, agri¬
culture is possible, even though in one
case it is in valley bottoms and in the
other on ridge tops.

The original vegetation o*f the two
areas was similar, consisting of mixed
deciduous and coniferous trees, including

1 Lithic descriptions from “6eological Map of Alabama”, Geological Survey of Alabama, 1926.

138

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

among others long-leaf and Short-leaf
pines and various species of oak, hickory,
and gum. In both areas hardwoods were
most common either on the ridges or
poorly-drained lowlands, while pine was
most common on slopes and on sandy
areas. Coniferous trees were slightly
more numerous in the southern area,
comprising about 47 per cent of the total
stand as compared to 38 per cent of the
total stand in the northern area.2

More important than any other single
physical elements in explaining contrasts
in land use within the county is the soil
factor. The Susquehanna soils of the
northern portion have developed from
the clayey Ripley formation and hence
are rich in clays. The Susquehanna
soils, which belong to the Red Podzolic
group of soils, usually have a thin, yel¬
lowish A-horizon, lack a B-horizon, and
are underlain by tough, compact clay
subsoils. These clay soils, although
richer in minerals than most sandy soils,
have the disadvantage of being cold,
wet, and difficult to fertilize. If they lose
their A-horizon, and this has happened
in this area because of careless culti¬
vation and continuous cropping in clean-
tilled crops, they become almost too stiff
to cultivate by ordinary methods. The
soils of the southern portion of the coun¬
ty belong mainly to the Ruston series,
though the Norfolk and Orangeburg are
also represented. The Ruston soils, de¬
veloped in the sandy Naheola formation,
are light gray to grayish-brown sands,
loamy sands, and sandy clays with fri¬
able sandy clay or sand subsoils. They
are slightly acid and rather low in min¬
eral content, but have the advantage of
being well-drained, easy to cultivate, and
very responsive to fertilization.3

Not only present land use, but also
past land use in Barbour County is
closely related to the character of these
contrasted soils series. When the coun¬
ty was first settled (between 1830 and
1840) the Susquehanna areas attracted
the large-scale cotton producers, since its
richer soils encouraged the large capital
investment necessary to buy land and
slaves. The Ruston areas were thus left
to the small-scale pioneering farmers.

2 Harper, R. M., “Economic Botany of Alabama,
No. 8, p. 92 and p. 102.

“Soil descriptions from: “Soils and Men”, U.S.D.
States”, Atlas of American Agriculture, Part III.

4 Sturkie, D. G., “Peanuts”, Alabama Experiment

This contrast between the plantation
economy of the north and the self-suf¬
ficient pioneering economy of the south
continued even after the Civil War. It
was not until commercial fertilizers came
into common use that the yeoman
farmers were able to compete with the
white-owned, negro-operated plantations
in cotton production. With this shift
from a self-sufficient economy to a cotton
economy, the amount of land in cultiva¬
tion in the southern area increased
rapidly, and accompanying this was a
great increase in population. The present
status of the southern area in these re¬
spects was reached about 1910.

The coming of the boll weevil in 1914-
1915 had more serious repercussions in
the northern than in the southern area.
The best method of overcoming the rav¬
ages of the weevil is to plant early-ma¬
turing varieties of cotton. However,
such varieties of cotton require light,
well-drained soils, fertilization to pro¬
mote growth, and thorough tillage before
and after planting. It can be seen that
the heavy clay soils of the northern area
prevented all these measures from being
carried on effectively. Also, by this time
the farmers of the northern area were
faced with a new problem. Because of
continuous cropping in clean-tilled crops,
the thin top soils of the area had been
removed, leaving the tough clay subsoils
exposed at the surface.

In contrast, the economy of the south¬
ern area was not seriously shaken by
the boll weevil, although some efforts
were made to diversify. Chief amongst
the crops which were added was the
peanut. Peanuts are utilized both as
a cash crop and as a forage crop in hog
production. They do best in sandy soils,
since dark-colored soils discolor the
hulls and thereby reduce their commer¬
cial value.4 It is also true that when
peanuts mature, they are apt to sprout
and become rancid in wet, clayey soils.
For these reasons, peanuts, which have
proved so beneficial in bolstering the
economy of the southern area, have never
become a significant crop in the north¬
ern. Other crops which proved success¬
ful in the southern, but not in the

Part I”, Geological Survey of Alabama, Monograph
V Yearbook, 1938; Marbut, C. F., “Soils of United
Station, Leaflet No. 5.

Geography — 1941 Meeting

139

; northern area, are cowpeas, soy beans,
velvet beans and pecans.

The one bright spot in the future of
the northern area lay in the fact that
several types of good native and im¬
ported pasture and forage grasses do
well on its clayey soils, a condition not
common in sandy areas. So about 1920,
encouraged by this fact, white planta¬
tion owners began consolidating their
farm units and turning cultivated land
into pasture land. As can be realized,
this process was a painful one, since it
resulted in the dispossession of many al¬
ready very poor tenant farmers. De¬
spite numerous mistakes and handicaps,
a farm economy based on cattle-raising
as well as cotton production is now fairly
well established in the northern area.

Thus, at the present time, mainly be¬
cause of soil differences, numerous cul¬
tural contrasts exist between the north¬
ern portion and the southern portion of
Barbour County. The northern portion
is an area of decreasing population, of
land abandonment, of large, white-owned
farms operated by negro tenants, an area
where pasture land is supplanting culti¬
vated land, and where an economy based
upon cattle and cotton is being substi¬
tuted for one based on cotton alone. The

southern portion is an area of static
population, of small farms usually oper¬
ated by their white owners, an area
where rather intensive cultivation of
cotton, corn, peanuts and other crops is
supporting a cotton, peanuts, and hogs
agricultural economy. Some of the pres¬
ent contrasts between the two areas
are shown statistically in Table I, in
which Spring Hill Township represents
the northern portion of the county, and
Reeders Mill Township, the southern
portion.

TABLE I. COMPARATIVE STATISTICS*

Item

Spring Hill
Twp.

Reeders Mill
Twp.

Population per sq. mile-..
Per cent population de¬

18.0

36.4

crease 1920-30 _

Per cent population negro

21

4

(est.) _

90

35

Per cent total area in farms
Per cent total area in crops

33

76

harvested. _

Average size of farms

15

41

(acres)

Per cent farm land culti¬

96

63

vated - _ -

Per cent farm land in pas¬

39

55

ture —

44

15

* Bureau of Census: 1930.

THE FACTOR OF POSITION IN HEMISPHERE DEFENSE

Clarence L. Brown

Northwestern University , Evanston , Illinois

A study of the geography of western
hemisphere defense must, by the very
nature of the subject, include the con¬
sideration of a multitude of factors.
Many statements have been offered re¬
garding our national needs for materials
— strategic, critical, and essential — for
defense.1 Other statements deal largely
with such topics as naval bases2, the
merchant marine3, conservation of fuel
resources4 the Pan-American policy5, the
extension of the Monroe Doctrine6, the
foreign policy in relation to the establish¬
ment of a favorable exchange of goods7,
the possibility of invasion8, and the Rus-
sian-Japanese-American Far Eastern
policy0. Some, but by no means many, of
these publications concern themselves to
a degree with the factors of position.
None, however, analyze the problem of

United States defense entirely from the
positional factor point of view. It is the
purpose of this paper to present a dis¬
cussion on this subject — the factor of
position in hemisphere defense.

REFERENCES

1 Roush, G. A., Strategic Mineral Supplies, Mc¬
Graw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1939.
Wallace, B. B., and Edminster, L. R., International
Control of Minerals, Brookings Institution, 1930.
Voskuil, W. H., Minerals in Modern Industry,
Wiley, New York, 1930.

Requa, H. L., The Relation of Government to In¬
dustry, Macmillan, New York, 1925.

Leith, C. K., World Minerals and World Politics,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1931.
Smith, G. O., The Strategy of Minerals, Appleton
and Company, New York, 1919.

Emeny, B., The Strategy of Raw Materials, Mac¬
millan, New York, 1934.

Holland, T. H., The Mineral Sanction as an Aid to
International Security. Van Nostrand, 1935.
Furness, J. W., Jones, M. L., and Blumenthal, F.
H., “Mineral Raw Materials,” U. S. Bureau of
Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Trade Promo¬
tion Series 76, 1929.

140

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Leith, C. K., “International Control of Minerals,”
Mineral Resources of the United States, Part 1,
1917, U. S. G. S., Washington, D. C., 1917.
Leith, C. K., and Liddell, D. M., “The Mineral
Reserves of the United States, and Its Capacity
for Production,” Planning Committee for Min¬
eral Policy, National Resources Committee, Wash¬
ington, D. C., 1936.

Leith, C. K., “Political Control of Mineral Re¬
sources,” Foreign Affairs, 3, 541-555, 1925.
Hobley, A. H., “Strategic Minerals”, Mining Con¬
gress Journal, October, 1928.

Staley, E., Raw Materials in Peace and War, Coun¬
cil on Foreign Relations, Washington, D. C., 1937.
Leith, C. K., Strategic Minerals in War and Peace,
The Geological Society of America, Washington,
D. C., 1940.

2 Burpee, L. J., “A Road to Alaska,” Canadian

Geographical Journal, November, 1940, pp. 257-
267.

Mills, E. W., “Newfoundland,” Canadian Geographi¬
cal Journal, February, 1941, pp. 59-69.

Nichols, D. A., “Greenland, Our Northeastern Neigh¬
bor,” Canadian Geographical Journal, January,
1941, pp. 41-52.

Shaw, E. B., “Our New Atlantic Defenses,” The
Journal of Geography, Yol. XL, Feb. 1941, No.
2, pp. 41-56.

Jones, S. B., and Mehnert, K., “Hawaii and the
Pacific,” Geographical Review, July 1940, pp.
358-375.

3 Warton, D., “Our New Merchant Navy,” The

Readers Digest, Jan. 1941.

Bidwell, P. W., Tariff Policy of the United States,
Council on Foreign Relations, New York, 1933.
Dewey, R. L., “Merchant Marine Act of 1936,”
American Economic Review, June, 1937.

Upgren, A. R., “Triangular Trade,” Journal of
Political Economy, October, 1935.

Wright, P. G., The American Tariff and Oriental
Trade, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1931.

4 Strain, W., “The Aluminum Industry,” Journal

of Geography, Oct., 1940, pp. 257-268.

Bartle, Ehblau, Hilken, “Conservation of our Fuel
Resources,” Journal of Geography, Oct., 1940,
pp. 274-280.

Culbertson, W. S., “Raw Materials and Foodstuffs in
the Commercial Policies of Nations,” Annals of
the American Academy of Political and Social
Sciences, March, 1924.

Roush, G. A., Op. cit.

Emeny, B., op. cit.

Hobley, A. H., op. cit.

Staley, E., op. cit.

Leith, C. K., and Liddell, D. M., op. cit.

5 Sanders, W., “Pan-Americanism or the New World’s

‘New Order’,” Pan American Union, Feb., 1941,
pp. 117-124.

Macgowan, H. P., “Latin America as a Source of
Strategic Materials,” Pan American Union Feb
1941, pp. 94-108.

Gillin, John, “Emergent Races and Cultures in
South America,” Scientific Monthly, March, 1941
pp. 268-273.

Winkler, M., and Cumberland, W. W., “Investments
and National Policy of the United States in
Latin America,” American Economic Review, Sup¬
plement, March, 1932.

Fetter, F. W., The New Deal and Tariff Policy, Uni¬
versity of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1933.

Wright, P. G., “Bearing of Recent Tariff Legis¬
lation on International Relations,” American
Economic Review, March, 1933.

8 Martin, L., “The Geography of the Monroe Doc¬
trine and the Limits of the Western Hemisphere,”
Geographical Review, July, 1940, pp. 525-528.
Miller, G. F., “Some Problems in Western Hemis¬
phere Solidarity,” Journal of Geography, March,
1941, pp. 109-115.

Madden, J. T., and Nadler, M., and Souvain, H. 0.,
America’s Experience as a Creditor Nation,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, 1937.

Zier, J. G., “United States Trade with Latin America
in 1938,” Pan American Union, Washington, D.
C., April, 1939, pp. 225-236.

Tercero, J., “Practical Pan Americanism,” Pan
American Union, Washington, D. C., March, 1939,
pp. 137-150.

“American Solidarity,” Pan American Union, Wash¬
ington, D. C., March 1939, pp. 129-134.

Leddy, J. M., “Commercial Relations between Latin
America and the United States,” Pan American
Union, Washington, D. C., Sept., 1939, pp. 510-
518.

“Nicaragua,” Foreign Trade Series No. 172, Pan
American Union, Washington, D. C., 1939.
“Costa Rica,” Foreign Trade Series No. 174, Pan
American Union, Washington, D. C., 1939.

7 Angell, J. W., Financial Foreign Policy of the

United States, Council on F'oreign Relations, New
York, 1933.

Commission of Inquiry into National Policy in Inter¬
national Relations, International Economic Rela¬
tions, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis,
1934.

Williams, B. H., The Economic Foreign Policy of
the United States, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
New York, 1929.

Howland, C. P., Survey of American Foreign Rela¬
tions, Oxford Press, London, 1930.

“Foreign Policy of the United States,” Proceedings
of the Academy of Political Science, May, 1937.
Lippmann, Walter, and Scrogge, W. O., The United
States in World Affairs, annual, Harper & Brothers,
New York.

Sajrre, F. B., “The Question of Self-Sufficiency,”
Annals of the American Academy of Political and
Social Science, July, 1936.

8 Cole, D. H., Imperial Military Geography, London,

1926.

Flynn, J. T., “Can Hitler Invade America,” The
Readers’ Digest, April, 1941.

9 Janewaj', E., “Pacific Showdown Approaches,”

Asm, April, 1941, p. 156.

Lattimore, O., “America Has No Time to Lose,”
Asia, April, 1941, pp. 157-162.

Kiralfy, A., “Japan Creeping Southward,” Asia,
April, 1941, pp. 163-165.

Utley, F., “Will Russia Betray China,” Asia,
April, 1941, pp. 170-173.

Walsh, J. R., “Japan Talks Much of Peace,” Asia,
April, 1941, pp. 154-155.

Sternberg, F., “Japan Alone is No Threat,” Asia,
May, 1941, pp. 233-235.

Helden, P. F., “Hitler’s Game in the Pacific,” Asia,
May, 1941, pp. 247-251.

Dennis, A. L. P., The Foreign Policy of Soviet
Russia, E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., New York, 1924.
Haensel, P., The Economic Policy of Soviet Russia,
P. S. King & Son, LTD., London, 1930.

Orchard, J. E., Japan’s Economic Position, The
Progress of Industrialization, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., Inc., New York, 1930.

Clyde, P. H., Japan’s Pacific Mandate, Macmillan
Company, New York, 1935.

Orchard, J. E., “Economic Cohsequences of Japan’s
Asiatic Policy,” Foreign Affairs, October, 1933.

Geography — 1941 Meeting

141

Current events of a world-wide scope
make this program of hemisphere defense
as necessary as any other governmental
function. In order to fully realize this
critical international situation, we as
! geographers cannot over-emphasize geo¬
graphic positions. Napoleon once said,
“War is a business of positions,” it is a
question directly in terms of areas de-
fendable and indirectly in terms of areas
to be defended. The question of areas
may also be considered directly in terms
of items now produced and indirectly in
terms of items that could be produced if
the source of supply were lost.

The problem of areas and their posi¬
tional relationships is a reality. Armies
and navies do not move around ideas or
concepts of ideology. Nor do naval and
air bases rest on immaterial concepts of
political theory. They exist and move
in place. An area, plus other features,
has position and time. Position and time
constitute a reality. Therefore, a con¬
sideration of areas and their positional
relationships constitutes a study in geo¬
graphic reality.

There seems to be virtual agreement
that our defense is concerned primarily
with the Three Power Pact of Germany,
Italy, and Japan with perhaps more than
passing consideration to Russia. Defense
is largely in terms of possible attack
from the position of military, economic,
and political aggression. In discussing
the positional factor of defense, only at¬
tack of a military nature is considered
here.

Two points are significant at this junc¬
ture. In the first place, in what form
will attack come? Obviously the initial
form would be by sea or by air. The
nature of our defense must, therefore,
base itself upon that point. In the sec¬
ond place, what are we as a nation de¬
fending? There are several points of
view current, but the position taken here
is that our first concern is the defense
c*f the United States and her possessions.
With these points in mind, let us look
to the vital areas that require special
attention. These areas are: (1) the
Panama Canal and the Central Lowlands
of the United States, (2) the eastern
seaboard, (3) the St. Lawrence Lowland,
(4) Alaska, (5) the Pacific possessions,
and (6) the western seaboard.

Unquestionably our first interest to the
south is security of the Panama Canal

and the Central Lowlands. With our
bases in the Caribbean region, we should
be able to prevent the establishment of
enemy bases on the Caribbean coast of
South America, Central America, and on
the islands of the Caribbean. Our second
interest in southern defense is the pre¬
vention of enemy operating bases on the
east coast of South America, particularly
the sector south of the Brazilian bulge.
It is 3600 miles from our base at Norfolk,
Virginia, to Pernambuco at the tip of
South America’s eastern bulge. It is
3100 miles from Lisbon, the nearest
European port, to Pernambuco. Europe
is closer than the United States to this
eastern coast of South America by ap¬
proximately 500 miles. The cruising
radius of our flee? is 2500 miles. Our
bombers can cover 1500 miles. (To these
figures the navy adds 10% and the air
corps 20% to account for adverse weather
conditions.) With our base at Puerto
Rico, which will bring our influence 500
miles nearer Pernambuco than Lisbon,
our fleet’s effective cruising radius will
cover the eastern bulge.

Shifting our point of view to Africa
we notice that Dakar is 1700 miles from
the eastern bulge of Brazil. The Ger¬
mans have been very active in Dakar,
whereas the rest of the French possession
has been left relatively alone. Holding
Dakar brings Pernambuco within range
of active German influence. Rio de
Janeiro is 2500 miles from Dakar. The
Nazis in Dakar are closer to the whole
eastern coast of South America below
the bulge than are our bases in the Car¬
ibbean. The possibility of the establish¬
ment of enemy bases south of the bulge
is apparent. Firmly based in this south¬
ern area, northward advance could fol¬
low.

Our third interest in southern defense
focuses on the west coast of South Amer¬
ica. Here the United States has a clear
advantage, for the east coast of the
United States lies vertically above the
west coast otf South America. This means
that the whole of the United States is
nearer to the west coast of South Amer¬
ica than is Europe. The Panama Canal
is 2600 miles from Valparaiso, Chile.
(Practically within the 2500 mile cruis¬
ing radius of our fleet.) The nearest
European port is 8000 miles from Val¬
paraiso. The nearest port in South Af¬
rica, Capetown, is 4000 miles away. There

142

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

are many islands in the Pacific, like
Galapagos and Easter Island, that lie but
a few hundred miles off the west coast
and could be used as enemy bases. The
United States, however, has naval and air
outposts in the Pacific between these
islands and Japanese island outposts.

Let us now consider our eastern sea¬
board and the St. Lawrence Lowland.
Here is the financial, commercial and in¬
dustrial heart of Canada and the United
States. The St. Lawrence Lowland leads
into the Great Lakes region, and the Lake
Champlain-Hudson River trough. Here
is produced 75% of our “heavy” indus¬
tries — armaments, automobiles, iron,
steel, and coal. Here is produced 75%
of our wheat, 65% of our corn, 40% of
our copper, 74% of our zinc, 46% of our
lead, and 100% of our flax. In this heart
area are found our largest cities, the
center of population, and the focus of
railroad transportation and hydro-electric
power. To guard this area we depend
upon the bases of Iceland, Newfoundland,
and the Azores. German military bases
in Norway and Africa are only 2000 miles
from Newfoundland, 1600 miles from
Iceland, and 1500 miles from the Azores.
The Azores are situated 2100 miles from
New York, Iceland 1300 miles northeast
of Newfoundland, and Newfoundland
only 1000 miles from New York. The
best defense for both Canada and the
United States is control of the Atlantic.

The situation in relation to the defense
of the western seaboard, at once, de¬
mands the discussion of the defense of
Alaska and our Pacific possessions. The
question also must include Japanese and
Russian far eastern military activity.

Our island in Bering Straits, Little Dio¬
mede, is only two miles from Russian
owned Big Diomede. Here the Russians
are building air bases. The difficulty of
maintaining Big Diomede is impossible
for it is 2500 miles to the nearest point
on the Trans-Siberian Railroad ,and there
are no other roads. Alaska is rapidly
becoming a powerful military base, both
coastal and internal. The real value of
Alaska lies in the southern extension —
the Aleutian Islands. This string of
islands extend from Alaska toward Japan.
Dutch Harbor, in the Aleutians, is 2500
miles from Yokahama and Tokyo, the
heart of the Japanese Empire, while it is
4300 miles from Yokahamo to Seattle.
Japan, then, is within the 2500 mile
range of our bases — the southernmost tip
of the Aleutian Islands, and not the west
coasts of continental United States. If
we reverse the situation we find the very
heart of Japan within striking distance
of Uncle Sam.

Japan has also the Pacific possessions
to contend with. Chief of these posses¬
sions is Hawaii. It is 2000 miles from
the Hawaiian Islands to the west coasts
of the United States — too far for an air
force attack. With the fortification of
Galapagos, no fleet could operate between
Alaska, the Hawaiian Islands, Galapagos,
and the Panama Canal. Japanese fleets
are built to operate in Japanese waters
with frequent supply bases. The Jap¬
anese navy cannot carry fuel enough to
attack the west coasts of continental
United States.

The factor of position in hemisphere
defense is truly a study in geographic
reality.

Geography — 1941 Meeting

143

GOPHER-HOLE BARITE MINING IN WASHINGTON
COUNTY, MISSOURI

A

Arthur B. Cozzens
University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois

One of the most critical problems of
human readjustment in the Ozark Prov¬
ince is that associated with gopher-hole
barite mining in Washington County,
Missouri. Barite, or “tiff,” as the natives
call it, is a soft, heavy, white mineral
used principally in the manufacture of
paint and as a “heavy mud” in the drill¬
ing of oil wells. In Washington County
the tiff occurs in a thick layer of mantle
rock from which it is easily extracted.
Most of the mines are small hand oper¬
ated workings, but stripping operations
have expanded considerably since their
introduction in 1924. The hand mines,
which belong to a type known as gopher-
holes because of their small size, con¬
sist of shafts approximately five feet in
diameter and usually 20 feet or less in
depth. As the work proceeds, the lower
part of the shaft is enlarged in the shape
of a jug, the extent of the excavation
being limited by the danger of collapse
of the loose mantle rock. Equipment con¬
sists of a log windlass, a bucket made
from half an oil barrel and a “rattle
box,” or shaker for separating the barite
from clay and other surficial impurities.
For more thorough cleaning, a small
handmade pick-hatchet called a “picka-
wee” is used to chip off incrustations of
iron oxide. The mine crew consists of
two men each of whom may earn, under
favorable circumstances, $2.00 or more
per day. However, if the price of barite
is low, the worker lazy or the deposit
poor, earnings may be as little as $2.00
per week.

Most of the hand-operated mines are
located on old Spanish grants about 60
miles south of St. Louis between the
towns of Desoto, Jefferson County, and
Potosi, Washington County. From Span¬
ish times is inherited the paternalistic
system under which operations are con¬
ducted. Land owners build on their prop¬
erty small cabins which are offered, rent
free, to miners as an inducement to settle
and produce barite. Barite dug on the

land is sold either to the owner or to
buyers who pay the miners for the min¬
eral and credit the owner with a royalty
based on tonnage. Despite increasing
competition of lower cost areas using
machinery, hand mining proved satisfac¬
tory to both miner and land owner until
the Depression. At this time, when busi¬
ness began to slacken, large numbers of
men thrown out of other employment in
neighboring areas went to Washington
County, because barite digging offered an
easy means of making a bare living. As
a result of this influx of migrant work¬
ers, a great increase in barite production
occurred. The owners felt morally obli¬
gated to buy from the miners on their
land, but, in absence of a favorable mar¬
ket, could not also receive tiff from out¬
siders. Hence, they discontinued pur¬
chases of the mineral from land other
than their own and labor troubles follow¬
ed. These disagreements have largely
been settled, but the problems of the
native barite miner are still unsolved.

The indigenous hand miner is com¬
peting with machinery, and the demand
for his product has decreased due to ex¬
panding production of high grade, low
cost barite in Tennessee and elsewhere.
Furthermore, because of the practice of
mining the richest material available, the
deposits are becoming progressively
leaner and the output per man lower.
At present, much of the land has been
worked several times in a rather hap¬
hazard manner; hence, it is now difficult
to find virgin ground. Ultimately, this
condition, together with increased local
mechanical mining, will eliminate many
of the native hand miners. This consti¬
tutes a serious problem, for most of the
miners are unable to adapt themselves
to new tasks. Unfortunately, these peo¬
ple of the tiff district are almost com¬
pletely uneducated, and those who are
more than 20 or 30 years c»f age are, as a
rule, too fixed in their ways to learn new
methods of making a living. A consid-

144

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Fig. 1. — Higher type native miners, shaft head, windlass, and rattle box.

erable part of the group, therefore, is
too old to learn, but too young to receive
government pensions.

Inbreeding through many generations
and diet deficiencies have seriously re¬
duced the ability and aptitude of the tiff-
miners. Most of them are members of
French families who settled in what is
now Washington County in the eighteenth
century and who have remained in the
same neighborhood, rarely marrying out¬
side the group. Diet inadequacies are
due partly to poverty, partly to the
miners’ aversion to agriculture. Only a
few barite diggers raise gardens, and, be¬
cause of steep hills and stony soil, farms
are few. As a result, fresh vegetables
must be shipped from other areas at
prices which place them beyond the reach
of the miners. Fresh meat, likewise, is
not available in sufficient quantities.
Some miners raise a few chickens or
perhaps one or two pigs; however, the
dangers presented by gopher-holes ex¬
clude cows from the area. Consequently,
subsistence depends almost entirely upon
bacon, dried beans, potatoes, flour and
canned goods. Diet deficiency is aggra¬
vated also by the ownership of one or
more old cars by each family. Money
needed for food is spent for transporta¬

tion, which, although convenient, is usu¬
ally not necessary.

For the future, it is essential that
plans be made to prevent increasing num¬
bers of unemployed tiff miners from be¬
coming public charges. Improved em¬
ployment conditions elsewhere will at¬
tract most of the migrant tiff diggers, but
the native miners will remain to consti¬
tute a major local problem. Probably
the best solution lies in the education of
the young people for new occupations. A
few may engage in crop raising, despite
unfavorable soil and land slopes, and
some may learn stock raising, although
this occupation requires considerable
capital and employs only a few workers.
Larger numbers may learn various hand¬
crafts, and, if electric power were made
available, small local factories could be
established to utilize the cheap labor.
With proper forest management, it is
probable also that a few will find employ¬
ment in lumbering.

Older miners who are incapable c*f
learning new skills can continue hand
mining at a fair profit by working small
rich deposits in the pits made by me¬
chanical mining. This employment will
be available until the barite deposits be¬
come exhausted possibly fifty years
hence.

Geography — 1941 Meeting

145

GROWTH OF ROBINSON, ILLINOIS

Alden Cut shall

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Robinson is only one of the many small
cities of southern Illinois that has ex¬
perienced a somewhat uniform growth
over a period of years. Although located
on the undulating terrain of the Illinois
till plain and only a few miles from the
fertile alluvial lands of the Wabash
River, it is not essentially an agricultural
community. More so, it is a community
whose economy has resulted from a com¬
bination of manufacturing, agriculture,
transportation, and human initiative.

Early Development. — Palestine, six
miles east of Robinson, was the first
settlement in this section of the state and
became the county seat of Crawford
County when the latter was organized
in 1818. As new communities developed
in the western portions of the county the
necessity of removing the county seat to
a more central and convenient location
became more and more apparent. In 1843
the present site was chosen by popular
vote, although Hebron and Hutsonville
were also contestants for the honor and
offers of land were received from many
other points.

Early growth was slow, the estimated
population in 1865 being placed at 400
persons. Prior to the Civil War, there
was little money in circulation. Many of
the merchants sold goods on a year’s
credit and were paid in crops or livestock
during the summer and fall. In some
cases they fattened this livestock on their
own farms, owned packing houses on the
Wabash River, the principal commercial
artery, and shipped pork, beef, and grain
to New Orleans. These conditions re¬
mained relatively unchanged until the
Paris and Danville Narrow-gage Railroad
was extended to Robinson in 1875. The
railroad gave Robinson a decided advant¬
age over its competitors on the Wabash,
namely, Palestine and Hutsonville, these
two having more-or-less overshadowed
their upland neighbor prior to that date.
Five years later an east-west line
(Springfield, Effingham, and Southwest¬
ern) gave the village added commercial
advantages and helped to place the trade

on a firmer basis. Manufacturing came
gradually: saw mills and grist mills

first, then an ice plant, and finally a glass
factory.

Development as an oil Center. — The
discovery of petroleum in southeastern
Illinois caused Robinson to experience
a rapid growth in population and all
lines of activity, the development in
Crawford county reaching a peak about
1907. By this time the two railroads
had become a part of the Big Four
and Illinois Central Systems respectively
and machine shops, tank factories and a
small refinery were attracted by 1908.

Fig. 1. — Robinson’s industries are located
along the railroads and the principal ones
are on the urban periphery. (R indicates
Robinson Casket Company.)

Since that time the growth cl the com¬
munity has been closely associated with
the petroleum industry. The population
increased 100 per cent between 1900 and
1910, then declined slightly, but has in¬
creased again within the last fifteen
years. This can be attributed in part to
the growth of the refinery.

The locally owned refinery was pur¬
chased by the Ohio Oil company in 1924
and the plant capacity was increased
more than 500 per cent within a period of
about two years, and subsequently en¬
larged on two other occasions. This plant
is handicapped by the absence of a near¬
by metropolitan market, so most of the

146

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

products are marketed within the local
area. Only lubricating oils, road oils, and
fuel oils offering competition in Chicago,
St. Louis, and Cincinnati markets.

More Recent Industrial Growth. —
The second important manufacturing
plant is W. I. Case and Company locally
called the “pottery”, which manufactures
a complete line of bathroom fixtures.
It had its origin about 20 years ago
and in 1924 was manufacturing only
three items. Other products have been
added to meet competition and the
company now serves a national mar¬
ket, and has a small export business to
South America. This plant, employing
300 persons during the peak season, has
not grown because of any natural ad¬
vantages of the region, although adequate
labor and transportation facilities have
permitted it to develop unhampered.
Forty per cent of the clay is imported
from England and the rest comes from
Indiana, Kentucky and Tennessee, while
other materials arrive from Illinois and
the Dakotas. Local oil products are
used, but their price is based upon Tulsa
freight rates so this results in no loca¬
tional advantage.

A combination dairy-candy-beverage
plant, has also added to the industrial
diversity within the last quarter of a
century. It began in a small way and
supplementary items were added and the
plant capacity increased at intervals as
the need arose. It, however, is more de¬
pendent upon local materials and local
markets, as only the candy is sold beyond
a limited area in southeastern Illinois
and adjacent Indiana.

Other types of manufacturing are a
casket factory and two oil well supply
concerns. The origin of the latter dates
to the previous oil development, but their
present status is indicative of the recent
growth of the industry in southern Illi¬
nois.

The Recent Oil Boom in Southern
Illinois. — In February, 1937 Pure Oil’s
test well at Clay City, about 50 miles
southwest of Robinson, ushered in a new
era of oil speculation and development in
southern Illinois. Although this new ac¬

tivity has been almost entirely outside
the limits of the earlier oil field, the
older cities to the east, Robinson and
Lawrenceville especially, have been the
indirect recipients of renewed growth
and increased prosperity. The refineries
have expanded their capacity and are
connected by both rail and pipe line with
many of the new fields. The drilling and
oil well supply companies, as already
mentioned, have experienced a suddenly
increased demand for their products and
services. In fact, the Bradford Supply
Company moved its main offices from
West Virginia to Robinson early in 1938.

Conclusion. — In conclusion, Robinson’s
development has undergone many
changes. Settlement was retarded until
the present century because the village
was only one of several small market
centers that served the agricultural popu¬
lation of the nearby countryside. Then
the discovery of oil caused an im¬
mediate increase in population, which
was accentuated by the construction of
the Wabash Refinery in 1915. The refin¬
ery has remained the major supporting
industry, but other manufacturing estab¬
lishments were built by local men or
were attracted by the cheap land, low
taxes, convenient transportation facilities,
or the abundance of labor. The labor sup¬
ply can be attributed to at least two
factors. (1) Many families moved to
Robinson during the oil boom and then
remained after peak production had been
reached. (2) The greater mechanization
of agricultural practices produced a sur¬
plus of farm labor that was eager to ac¬
cept other types of employment.

Residential expansion has progressed
consistantly, but not rapidly. At present
there is a shortage of housing facilities
and rents are abnormally high. This can
be attributed to the greater demands of
the last few years which have paralleled
the current industrial expansion. In
brief, Robinson no longer has the charac¬
ter of a one industry town. Manufactur¬
ing is sufficiently diversified that the
community life and prosperity are only
partially dependent upon the petroleum
industry.

Geography — 1941 Meeting

147

ORIGINAL FOREST VEGETATION IN A GLACIATED AREA

Paul W. Icke, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

The Northern Lakes Region of Wiscon¬
sin may be considered as an area repre¬
sentative of the glaciated portions of the
Upper Lakes States Region. Approxi¬
mately sixty percent of the surface of
this sub-region is composed of outwash
materials, parts of which are extremely
level while other portions are broken
or choppy. These latter irregular sur¬
faces are due to the presence of numer¬
ous kettle holes or post-glacially eroded
channels. The remaining forty percent
of the region, primarily found in the
peripheral sections, has a surface of till
material. The surface configuration of
the ice deposited debris ranges from
rolling through choppy to rough. In all
portions of the region lakes, marshes and
swamps are to be found located in kettle
holes, post glacial channels or blocked
pre-glacial valleys.

The natural dynamics of forest ecology
in this region of youthful landforms was
abruptly terminated with the advent of
lumbering activity during the late 39th
and early 20th centuries. Since the last
ice retreat many adjustments of vegeta¬
tion to the numerous environmental con¬
ditions had been made, while others were
in progress when the disruption by man
occurred. One of the chief adjustments
of vegetation to habitat was found to be
between forest species and glacial mate¬
rial, for as can be seen from a compari¬
son of the two accompanying maps, vege-
tational types in the core of the area,
which is composed of glacio-fluvial mate¬
rial, contrast with those in the peripheral
sections where till materials are found.
In general, the exclusively softwood, pre¬
dominantly softwood and the mixed for¬
est associations prevailed on the more
sandy and droughty outwash while the
predominantly and exclusively hardwood
(including hemlock) associations were
limited to the heavier morainic materials.

The close correlation between glacial
surfaces and vegetation can readily be
shown by representative survey sections
in the contrasting glacial types and
noting the forest species which were
found there by the surveyors of the
original land survey. On the section
lines bounding section 33 in T. 42 N., R.

10 E., an area of Plainfield Sand soil
developed on a flat, sandy outwash sur¬
face, softwoods were found exclusively.
Red pine ( Pinus resinosa) , white spruce
(Picea glauca), black spruce (Picea mari-
ana), tamarack (Larix laricina) and bal¬
sam fir (Abies balsmea) were the soft¬
wood species supported. In contrast, a
survey section (Sec. 32, T. 42 N., R. 12
E.) in rolling morainic material (Ken-
man Silt Loam) revealed yellow birch
(Betula lutea), sugar maple (Acer sac-
charum) and hemlock (Tsuga canadensis)
on the well drained sites with some white
cedar (Thuya occidentalis ) and tamarack
in the swamps. Many portions of the
outwash plain contain varying amounts
of reworked till of earlier origin, allow¬
ing for the presence of a greater com¬
ponent of fine soil particles in such areas.
(Example: Sec. 9, T. 41 N., R. 8 E.; Vilas
Sandy Loam). Likewise, sections of
ground moraine in the eastern marginal
areas contain a fair percentage of sand
particles in the glacial till. (Example:
Sec. 30, T. 41 N., R. 11 E.; Kennan Fine
Sandy Loam). In both instances the
vegetational cover consisted of mixed
forest species.1

The representative, contrasting, forest
associations were found almost exclusive-

1 See Wilde, S. A. The Relation of Soils and Forest Vegetation of the Lake States Region, Ecology Vol.
14, No. 2, 1933, pp. 94-105 for a detailed treatment of relation of forest vegetation to soil texture, structure,
moisture content and parent material.

148

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

— REGIONAL BOUNDARY

ly on sites where root perietration was
entirely above the ground water level.
Surfaces intermediate in height between
swamp and upland levels where roots
were periodically influenced by the
ground water level had different admix¬
tures of soft and hardwood trees. Swamp
lands supported still other forest asso¬
ciations, the particular type dependent
upon the variety of peat present and the
percentage of mineral matter contained
in the “soil”.

The distribution of original forests in
this geographical area was of great signi¬
ficance in determining the present cul¬
tural patterns. The highly coveted pine
timber of the outwash plains was respon¬
sible for the extension of railroads into
and through those sections. A few of
these routes remain as rail lines while
others have been converted for use as
automobile roads or fire lanes. Likewise,

many of the settlements of the pineries,
originally functioning as lumber towns,
are now flourishing recreational settle¬
ments. The hardwood lands, on the
other hand, having been lumbered later,
contain fewer cultural phenomena, as
portable sawing equipment in use later
and the trucking of logs to previously es¬
tablished settlements lessened the neces¬
sity of town and railway construction in
the morainic sections. The apparent
anomoly of greater concentration of agri¬
cultural development on the light, drough¬
ty outwash instead of on the heavier
more fertile till material is primarily due
to the fact that the latter areas are often
excessively bouldery or extremely irregu¬
lar in surface. Furthermore, by the time
most of the hardwood lands were logged
over few additional acres were being
cleared owing to the occurence of the
nation-wide agricultural depression.

Geography — 1941 Meeting

149

WATER IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS

Annemarie Krause

Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois

The portion of the State of Illinois
south of the Baltimore and Ohio Rail¬
road, or south of a line drawn eastward
across the State from St. Louis, will be
called Southern Illinois in this paper.
As a cultural feature this boundary line
exerts no influence on Southern Illinois,
but as a physical feature, it marks the
southern limit ctf thick glacial drift.

In two-thirds of the state, ground water
is tapped for 80% of the public water
supplies. In the southern third 75% of
the public water supplies are of surface
origin. (Fig. 1).

The problem of this paper is two-fold:

(A) to analyze the factors responsible
for the large number of surface supplies,

(B) to understand the problems of rural
dwellers and communities dependent on
these supplies.

A study of environmental factors is of
primary importance.

1. The character of the bedrock. —
Most of the bedrock of Southern Illinois
(fig. 2) is Pennsylvanian. About four-
fifths of this series consists of impervious
shale, with alternating seams of coal,
dense limestones and sandstones. The
thicker sandstone formations occurring
in the lower portion of the series contain
salt water. Other sandstones yield small
supplies of fresh water to shallow wells,

Fig. 1. — Seventy-five per cent of the public
water supplies of Southern Illinois are of
surface origin. (Drift is used in welldrillers’
sense: unconsolidated material.)

but even here the degree of mineraliza¬
tion is considerable.

The compact Devonian (fig. 2) lime¬
stone in Union and Alexander counties
are unimportant as aquifers. In the Mis-
sissippian series, (fig. 2) limestones with
solution cavities and sink holes are the
best water bearers. Farm wells in it are
only relatively successful, since a sharply
defined water channel must be tapped for
a supply.

The Tertiary gravels on the southern
border of the state are good aquifers.

2. The character of the mantle rock
and soil. — Pleistocene glaciation has left
its indirect mark in the water laid sand,
silt, and gravel on the large floodplains.
On the upland, the thickness of the drift
varies from thirty feet to ten feet near
the southern limit of glaciation. The
sand and gravel lenses of the drift con¬
tain sufficient water for small consumers.
The northeastern quarter however, is un¬
derlain by considerable areas of imper¬
meable drift. The loess or loess like
material originating from the floodplains
of the larger streams decreases in thick¬
ness with distance from the source. The
proportion of clay, however, seems to in¬
crease, resulting in heavier and less por¬
ous soils in the eastern than in the west¬
ern part of the state.

Fig. 2. — The Pennsylvanian, consisting
of impervious shale, seams of coal, and dense
limestones and sandstones, dominates South¬
ern Illinois.

150

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

The upland soils, derived from these
parent materials are modified Gray
Brown Podzolic soils without normal pro¬
files. Characterized by claypan, they are
acidic, low in organic matter and in all
elements of plant ifood. Thus, their
water absorbing capacity is low, yet their
water holding capacity for surface sup¬
plies is great.

3. The relief and drainage. — The

greater relief of Southern Illinois is evi¬
dent on the map of the State showing
major contours. The unglaciated Ozark
ridge, classified as rough plain, is at an
average altitude of 600-700 feet and above
the adjacent area by 200-300 feet. The
glaciated zone, only thinly mantled with
drift, shows preglacial lines only slightly
changed. In contrast to the rest of the
State in which glaciation was rela¬
tively recent, the normal cycle of erosion
has advanced farther.

Bounded by the Wabash, Ohio and Mis¬
sissippi systems; the Kaskaskia, Big
Muddy, Little Wabash, Embarrass, Saline
and Cache are well developed systems
within the State. Distinctly flat inter¬
fluves are limited, and runoff and seep¬
age to the drainage channels is rapid,
limiting ground water storage but facili¬
tating surface collection in the dammed
valleys of small streams and creeks.

4. The character and distribution of
precipitation. — Located in the transition
zone between the humid continental and
humid subtropical climates, Southern
Illinois has a slight tendency toward a
spring and early summer maximum of
precipitation. The average precipitation
of 42.38 inches (50 year period) is well
distributed with 3 y2 inches or more re¬
corded for each ctf seven months. Two
months have over four inches and only
one month less than three inches. Aver¬
ages, however can be very misleading;
this past year the average was about 32
inches, and the distribution unsatisfac¬
tory from the standpoint of surface water
supply.

The rainfall is largely of thunderstorm
origin. Thus variability from season to
season is pronounced and within a short
distance there is a wide range. The run¬
off resulting from the summer downpours
is rapid, much of it is evaporated or used
by vegetation, and only the cyclonic
storms of winter bring the maximum
opportunity for the replenishment of
ground water resources.

5. Cultural factors affecting ground
water. — In the coal mining district,
water which enters the mines must be
pumped out to facilitate mining opera¬
tions. This under-pumping lowers the
water table.

Clean cultivation, the removal of forest
and sod, and the drainage of wet lands
hasten runoff. Again, subsequent re¬
charge of ground waters is restricted.
Thus the environmental factors of rough
plains, impermeable soil, well developed
drainage systems, and character and dis¬
tribution of rainfall which are hamper¬
ing ground water storage, favor man in
surface water storage.

Three traverses were made to sample
water supplies of rural areas.

The floodplains. — The Mississippi flood-
plain in the vicinity of Fountain Bluff
demonstrates the ease with which ground
water is obtained. A pipe with a screen¬
ed point is driven down from 20-50 feet.
A pump is attached to the upper end of
the pipe. This locally is not a “well”,
but a “pump”.

In Gorham, most water is hard. It has
to be “broken” for washing and drinking.
Cistern facilities seem to be limited to
the wealthier class, for there are but ten
cisterns in a population of 600. The
Missouri Pacific Railroad has a ten-inch
well bored to a 90-foot depth. The water
must be treated with lime and soda-ash
for locomotive use.

Sand Ridge, nearer the Big Muddy than
the Mississippi, taps soft water at about
33 feet. Fortunately, for the sand pre¬
cludes the construction of cisterns, this
water is adaptable to all household uses.

The ease with which water is obtained
is duplicated on the Wabash, Ohio, and
the larger tributary floodplains of South¬
ern Illinois.

The Uplands. — The upland traverses
were in two genetically different regions.
The unglaciated Ozark ridge of consider¬
able local relief contrasts markedly with
the flat interfluve of impermeable drift
overlain by thin loess or loess-like mate¬
rial.

In the seven mile traverse of the Ozark
Ridge on U. S. 51 between Cobden and
Carbondale on 31 farms there are only
8 wells, dug to 35-40 foot depth. The
yield is undependable, the water hard.

Cisterns are used almost exclusively
for household and stock purposes, sup¬
plemented by ponds for stock and spray

Geography — 1941 Meeting

151

mixtures. The ponds are in part dammed
up draws, in part excavations ctf five or
six-foot depth located strategically to
catch runoff. With normal rainfall many
ponds last through the summer, while
in years of rainfall deficiency as 1935 and
1939, wells, cisterns and ponds were dry
and water was purchased from Carbon-
dale. On a number of farms additional
water could have been collected in cis¬
terns but either man takes a chance or
the cost of putting in an emergency cis¬
tern is too great. Assuming that this
sample is typical, one concludes that the
unglaciated Ozark Ridge depends on sur¬
face water supplies almost exclusively.

The ten mile upland traverse south
ward from Pyramid (Junction Illinois 15
on U. S. 51) lies on the interfluve between
tributaries of the Big Muddy and the
Kaskaskia system. The data are from
a smaller number of cases (18), as the
farms are of the general farming type
in contrast with the fruit farms of the
Ozark Ridge. The dependability of the
wells fluctuates with precipitation. Dur¬
ing a period of cumulative rainfall de¬
ficiency in 1934 and 1935, some of these
wells went dry. A few farmers bored
two-inch holes from 5-18 feet into the bed¬
rock to tap lower aquifers, but their
water has not been as palatable since
that time. Since the hardness of the
water varies, cisterns are supplemental
for general household use or laundrying.
Noteworthy exceptions were the two
rural schools which had cisterns only.
As wells and cisterns on one-half the
farms were of the “old oaken bucket”
type, stock ponds were considered essen¬
tial labor saving devices.

The uplands wells thus far discussed
have been relatively shallow. Their yield,
however, suffices the village household or
average farm demand. Stock or dairy
farmers have of necessity sunk their
wells to one of the water bearing rock
strata which assures them of a perma¬
nent supply. Thus one may conclude
that the relatively shallow upland wells
vary with topography and soils, and on
the basis of these traverses the Ozark
Ridge is poor in ground water and the
northeastern quarter underlain by im¬
permeable drift depends on wells supple¬
mented by surface waters.

Municipal Water Supplies. — In the
northern third of the State, wells of vary¬
ing depth tap the copious sandstone

aquifers. In the Central and Northern
thirds drift wells also yield abundant
water of good quality. Good and abund¬
ant water is available at low cost to
municipalities. At Champaign-Urbana,
the minimum domestic rate is $1.67 per
quarter for 4500 gallons or 36c per 1000
gal. per quarter. In the Southern third
of the State there is neither adequate
glacial drift nor bed rock to yield good
water in large quantities (the drift wells
on map use “drift” in well-drillers sense
as unconsolidated material.)

The Coal Measures (fig. 2) which are
meager in ground water have in places
sufficient supplies for towns ctf 900-1200
population (as New Baden, Steeleville,
Trenton, Red Bud, etc.) Cities over 7,000
however, such as Marion, Williamson
County, and Carbondale, Jackson County,
had wells at depths varying from 400-960
feet. The water contained considerable
mineral matter of which sodium chloride
was the most objectionable, and since the
maximum pumpage was not enough to
furnish the domestic users with an ade¬
quate supply, surface supplies were pro¬
vided.

The karst limestones furnish water to
several towns, the largest Anna (3500).
During the 1934 drought the Anna city
wells supplied the domestic needs of the
town, the State Hospital for the Insane
(2210-2400 population) and the industrial
needs of the Illinois Central Railroad.
The total capacity of all wells was needed
for this emergency. Whether the wells
could supply this amount indefinitely is
not known. Residential consumers pay
62.5c per 1000 gallons per quarter. (These
rates includes the new filtering plant
costs installed 1937.)

As indicated in fig. 1 surface waters
from rivers, and impounding reservoirs
supply 63 communities. (The map omits
municipalities who buy treated water
from neighboring communities, [East St.
Louis alone serves 11 municipalities]
nor is any attempt made to show the dis¬
tribution of railway, mine or industrial
reservoirs).

The Mississippi, Ohio, Wabash, Kaskas¬
kia, Big Muddy and some of their tribu¬
taries provide municipal supplies. But
neither the cost ctf developing a source
nor the provision of an adequate supply
in drought years is a pressing problem.

Communities without an adequate sup¬
ply from streams must impound water.

152

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Their problems include: selection of a
reservoir site, buying land for the reser¬
voir, constructing a dam, and in common
with river supplies there is the cost of
laying supply pipes, and erecting a filter
plant. It is self-evident that the financial
obligations of such an undertaking are
considerable, not to mention the continu¬
ous cost of treating water. Usually little
more than the actual reservoir site is
owned by the water company. Since

City A Drainage basin 2560 A, Storage
full 145 A.

City B Drainage’ basin 2816 A, Storage
full 85 A.

City C Drainage basin 5862 A, Storage
full 128 A.

City A seems to be at a disadvantage in
reservoir surface as regards evaporation,
and shallowness may cause the water to
be excessively warm in summer.

Domestic water rates vary. Some
municipalities which tap the almost un¬
limited river resources pay as little as
33 l/3c per 1000 gallons quarterly, most
other surface water users have much
higher rates, varying from 33 l/3c to
$1.16 + per 1000 gallons per month. This
high cost of water, in part a result of
the large investment necessary for im¬
pounding reservoirs, practically bars
water systems in communities of less
than 2000. Under W.P.A. aid one system
was installed in a town of 1,100, but a
previously existing lake was utilized,
thus not charged against the cost of the
system. A unified water plan would do
much to reduce water costs for munici¬
palities, mines and industries.

So far we have assumed an unfailing

there is no control over the use of the
watershed cultivation may at times cause
the “solids” content of water to be high
and sedimentation of reservoirs necessi¬
tates some dredging. Relatively small
watersheds may furnish an abundance of
water provided adequate storage is pos¬
sible. Reservoir surface must be in pro¬
portion to storage capacity to reduce
evaporation. Data for the following cities
illustrates the point.

392 million gallons, Lake surface when
225 million gallons, Lake surface when
760 million gallons, Lake surface when

supply of water. However, variability
in annual and seasonal precipitation
causes much concern to the Southern part
of the state. Cumulative rainfall defici¬
ency the past year caused the cyclonic
drizzles of winter to be absorbed by the
parched ground. The early spring rains,
the most important source of reservoir
replenishment, have beqn below normal
in amount. Although several million
gallons of runoff were added to reservoirs
in early April the cumulative precipita¬
tion deficiency January 1 to April 30 is
5.11 inches (Carbondale data).

The dependence of surface water sup¬
plies on rainfall, especially on rainfall
that furnishes runoff is clear. Of course,
an actual shortage of water need never
occur if sufficient storage is available,
however the cost of providing that addi¬
tional storage is, at present, too high for
most communities.

Geography — 1941 Meeting

153

THE URBANIZATION OF SOUTHERN ILLINOIS AND ITS
RELATION TO NATIONAL DEFENSE

Joseph E. Van Riper

Southern Illinois Normal University , Carbondale, Illinois

The growing crescendo of national de¬
fense is being felt more and more in the
everyday life of the people of Southern
Illinois, but probably to an even greater
degree than in most other portions of the
United States. There have been whisper¬
ings in the wind that new defense indus¬
tries may enter the area. These may be
only whisperings, but they are producing
new hopes for thousands of Southern
Illinois residents. These people need a
new source of regional income, and need
it desperately. This portion of the state
is due for some kind of pronounced
change in its general welfare. Whether
or not this change will be to the good,
remains to be seen, but to geographers,
any change in the economy of an area
should be of special interest, and there¬
fore a brief summary of present condi¬
tions is presented here.

A glance at a map showing the dis¬
tribution of urban agglomerations in Illi¬
nois reveals a compact cluster of urban
aggregates in the southern part of the
state exceeded only in the Chicago and
East St. Louis metropolitan areas. (See
Fig. 1.) ‘The population center of this
“scattered big city” is located a short
distance northeast of Herrin, and approx¬
imately 200,000 people live within a
radius of 25 miles of this center.1 An
unusual (feature of this area is the small
size of its cities. West Frankfort is the
largest of them, and has a population
only slightly more than 12,000. Most of
the towns have between 1,000 and 5,000
residents. A closer view of this area
shows that the pattern of these towns
and cities has an even texture, only the
small agglomerations showing a tendency
toward grouping. (See Fig. 2.)

Mining is the basic economy of this
urbanized area, and most of the agglomer¬
ations are, or were, mining towns. The
saxicultural function however, is most
dominant in the smaller centers. They
have a much lower percentage of com-

THE URBAN ZONE OF
SOUTHERN ILLINOIS

Fig. 2.

mercial establishments to total popula¬
tion than the larger towns, and this per¬
centage has steadily declined with the
advent of paved roads and the auto¬
mobile. To a stranger, these small towns
seem much smaller than they actually
are because their business districts are
so undeveloped. West Frankfort, Herrin,
Marion, and others are important region¬
al marketing and residential centers, and
many of them have large coal mines near
their borders. The most remarkable fact
concerning these urban centers is their
lack of manufacturing, other than the lo¬
cal type such as bakeries and ice plants.
The regional service function is closely
linked with mining, since it serves the
small mining towns and the rural popu¬
lation, a large proportion of whom are
part-time miners when employment is
possible.

The inter-urban areas show a density
of population much higher than in most
other portions of the state. Many of the
farms are part-time in character, and
are small in size. In a survey made of
three townships in the center of the area
under discussion, it was found that 40

1 Parrish, John ; “ Labor Supply in the Southern Illinois Industrial Area” ; Report prepared for the
Construction Division of the National Defense Commission; 1941.

154

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

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50 000

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Geography — 1941 Meeting

155

RURAL SETTLEMENT

SIX MILE TWR

to 60 acres is approximately the average
size of farms. Fig. 3 shows the rural
settlement pattern of one of these town¬
ships. In this example, a fairly dense
pattern is observed, particularly along
the paved roads, although this township
is the one having the least number of
rural residences of the three. Most of
the urban agglomerations have well de¬
veloped urban-rural ecotones spread
along the paved roads near their borders.

Any area so wholly dominated by one
type of occupation must exhibit uniform
qualities in its entire social and economic
position. This fact is strikingly illus¬
trated in this mining district. Unfor¬
tunately this uniformity conforms to a
very low economic level. One of the best
indicators of this regional poverty at the
present time is the incidence of welfare
relief. Williamson and Franklin coun¬
ties are the two most important coal
mining counties in Illinois. According
to the January, 1941 report of the Illinois
Emergency Relief Commission, 44.4% of
the people in Williamson County, and
35% of those in Franklin County were
dependent upon welfare relief of some
kind. The figure for Williamson County
was the highest in the state.

In order to determine more precisely
the distribution of low income families,
and to make certain that this distribu¬
tion was not concentrated in either the
urban agglomerations or the rural dis¬
tricts, the writer undertook a quality

rating survey of the rural districts in
three townships and one of the smaller
urban communities. Each rural resi¬
dence was plotted on a base map, and
was given a quality rating of 1 to 5; 1
representing highly superior farms and
residences, and 5 the lowest quality. The
ratings were not based upon regional
averages, but upon experience in such
rating surveys made in widely separated
areas in the United States. The average
rating No. 3 therefore, is more of a na¬
tional norm than a regional norm. It is
not merely a housing survey, since many
additional factors besides quality of
houses are taken into consideration. Figs.
4 and 5 show the distribution of the
quality ratings in Six Mile Township,
Franklin County. The maps are self
explanatory, and indicate the low stand¬
ard of living in the rural areas. Fig. 6
shows a series of patterns in one of the
smaller urban agglomerations. Note the
correlation between welfare relief and
the low quality ratings; also the extreme¬
ly high incidence of relief, despite the
fact that this small population center has
an operating mine near its border. Most
of these smaller centers today are not so
fortunate. They are in pitiful economic
condition for many reasons, among
which are the following:

(1) These centers had fewer mines,
hence when many of the mines ceas¬
ed operations, such towns were left
with little or no income.

156

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

(2) Economic opportunities are less
varied than in the larger centers.

(3) Welfare relief has tended to prevent
migration.

(4) While the labor supply in this area
is highly mobile, the residence of
labor is extremely stable. In other
words, while the miner is willing to
drive as much as 20 to 30 miles to
work he is hesitant to move his
family from the home community.
(This may be the result of mixed
blood lines, or a characteristic com¬
munal feeling.)

The low standard of living over the
area is almost entirely the result of
economic conditions in the coal mining
industry. The increased use of machin¬
ery in mining operations, the competition
of other producing areas, the bad reputa¬
tion of local labor organizations (in turn
the result of prejudiced newspaper propa¬
ganda), and strip mine operations are
among many factors contributing to the
local industrial depression. Scattered
throughout the area are the skeletons of
mining enterprises: giant smokestacks
rising solemnly from the rubble of
crumbled surface buildings, or merely
the insidious march of weeds up the
flanks of an old rockpile.

The mines that are operating are either
very large, or very small, and few of the
larger mines are still in operation. It
is a significant fact that each evening,
local radio broadcasting stations in a

half minute or so between commercial
programs announce the 10 or 12 Franklin
County mines that will be operating the
following day. The small ‘scavenger”
mines are newcomers to this area, as in
other large coal mining regions. They
cater mostly to local consumption, and
represent the pitifully futile attempts
of the region to pull itself out of a hole
by its own bootstraps.

This is only a brief summary of the
needs of the area for a new regional in¬
come; the evidence is conclusive. Now
let us examine the possibilities for such
new income. While agricultural prac¬
tices and marketing in the area can be
greatly improved, the region will never
become another Corn Belt, and the urban
clusters will still remain. Manufactur¬
ing seems to be the principal hope. What
then can the area offer in the way of
manufacturing advantages? Most assured¬
ly, they are many and varied, and most
of them can be sumarized as follows:

(1) A large supply of semi-skilled
labor.

(2) Cheap power — cheap enough to
compete with any industrial area in the
Middle West.

(3) A central location with respect to
Mid-West markets.

(4) A wholly adequate network of
transportation lines.

(5) An adequate water supply, now

Geography — 1941 Meeting

157

that the Federal Government Crab Or¬
chard project is nearing completion.

The industries best suited for the area
probably belong to the chemical group,
such as coal distillates, and cellulose de¬
rivatives. Powder plants for the national
defense program fall under this category,
and in recognition of this fact, the U. S.
Army has placed the area in a first
priority grouping in the program for
future plant establishment. In peacetime
these munitions plants could be fairly
easily altered to produce such products
as plastics or synthetic fibers.

The reputation received as the result

of the Herrin strikes has been one of the
most insidious factors preventing the in¬
flux of industry. The labor groups in
Southern Illinois only want the chance
to correct that reputation, and since that
opportunity has not been offered by pri¬
vate industry, they are clamouring for
Federal intervention.

Geographic factors of site and situation
indicate that the abject poverty of the
region is entirely unwarranted. The
people of the area are praying that per¬
haps in a new type of service for their
country, they may find a better and a
happier future.

Papers in Geology

Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman

The Evanston program in Geology carried 25 papers, 13 of which are
herewith published. The others were :

Behre, C. H., Jr., Northwestern University, Evanston. — Analagous struc¬
ture in lead-zinc deposits of the Upper Mississippi Valley type.

Cohee, G. V., State Geological Survey, Urbana. — Trenton production in
Illinois. (Being published by the Survey as Illinois Petroleum No. 39.)

Ekblaw, George E., State Geological Survey, Urbana. — Stages of Lake
Chicago and development of the Great Lakes region.

Fisher, D. J., University of Chicago, Chicago. — Stereoscopic pairs pro¬
jected in polarized light.

Fisher, R. F., State Geological Survey, Urbana. — Preglacial drainage of
the Great Lakes region.

Bushman, E. F., University of Illinois, Urbana. — Insoluble residue
studies of Middle and Upper Devonian limestone of southwestern
Illinois.

Kesling, R. V., University of Illinois, Urbana. — Foraminiferal zoning
of the Upper Cretaceous in western Alabama.

Osment, F. C., University of Illinois, Urbana. — Heavy mineral studies
of the Selma, Ripley, and Prairie Bluff formations of western Alabama.

Parks, C. B. and G. W. Land, State Geological Survey, Urbana. — Fusain
determination in coal by chemical analysis and microscopic count.
(Being published in Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed.)

Schopf, State Geological Survey, Urbana. — Constituent plant particles
in coal and their significance in the study of coal type variation.

Spotti, A. E. and J. N. Payne, State Geological Survey, Urbana. — Roof
irregularities of Coal No. 6 in the Staunton-Gillespie region.

Sutton, A. H., University of Illinois, Urbana. — Age of the dolomite ex¬
posed at Momence, Illinois.

Maximum attendance was about 80. A. II. Sutton, University of Illinois,
Urbana, was elected chairman of the Urbana meeting in 1942.

(Signed) Marvin Weller, Chairman

[159]

160

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP OF THE PRE-PENNSYL¬
VANIAN SURFACE IN ILLINOIS*

Maurice H. Smith

State Geological Survey, ZJrbana, Illinois

Uplift, warping, and peneplanation of
the surface previous to the deposition of
Pennsylvanian sediments in Illinois
caused truncation of the Mississippian,
Devonian, Silurian, and upper and middle
Ordovician systems on the margins of
the basin and truncation of local struc¬
tures. The pre-Pennsylvanian surface
was not reduced to a flat peneplain. In
places features of local erosional relief
are evident. In the Beardstown area,
western Illinois, a pre-Pennsylvanian hill
stands about 50 feet high with four
Pennsylvanian cyclothems wedging out
on its flanks on or against the Salem
and St. Louis formations of the Mississip¬
pian system. It is difficult to locate these
erosional features merely from subsur¬
face information, but geologic conditions
in the outcrop areas indicate that isolated
shallow basins were first filled with Penn¬
sylvanian sediments which later accumu¬
lated to such a depth that they covered
the hills leaving a flattish surface.

The LaSalle anticline (Fig. 1) extends
in a northwest-southeast direction for
more than 250 miles, from northern Illi¬
nois north of the Pennsylvanian bound¬
ary to the Indiana border of northern
Wabash County in southeastern Illinois.
This structure in northern Illinois is a
very asymmetrical anticline with a west
flank dipping more than 25° in pre-
Pennsylvanian rocks and an east flank
dipping less than 1°. South of LaSalle
County, the structure is imperfectly out¬
lined in Livingston and McLean counties
due to lack of drill data. It is better
known in Champaign, Douglas, Coles,
Clark, Crawford, Lawrence, and Wabash
counties where it has been extensively
tested by drilling for oil and gas. In
this southern portion it is asymmetrical,
as in northern Illinois, but generally has
a somewhat less steep western flank.

Along the Illinois River near LaSalle,
the minimum differential uplift along
the anticline was 900 feet, near Tuscola

in Douglas County it is about 1400 feet,
in Lawrence County about 400 feet and
in Wabash County only 250 feet. This
suggests a maximum movement near
Tuscola with a gradual dying out of the
structure in each direction. The area
of maximum deformation moved pro¬
gressively southward tfrom the LaSalle
area, with the maximum differential eleva¬
tion in pre-Pennsylvanian times occur¬
ring in Douglas County, and, after Penn¬
sylvanian deposition had begun, in Law¬
rence and Wabash counties.

The most notable structure in the area
east of the LaSalle anticline is the Oak¬
land anticline1 which trends nearly north
and south through Champaign, Vermil¬
ion, Douglas, Coles and Clark counties
and a synclinal basin between this anti¬
cline and the Indiana line, also with a
north-south trend. The east flank of the
Oakland anticline appears to be some¬
what steeper than the west. The struc¬
tural relief is between 600 and 700 feet
in southwestern Edgar County. Two
eastward-pitching noses extend from the
Oakland anticline toward the syncline in
Edgar County. A narrow anticlinal fold
trending northeast-southwest is shown in
northeastern Clark County terminating
the syncline at its southern end. The
Oakland anticline intersects the trend of
the LaSalle anticline near Casey, Clark ;
County.

The western portion of the Illinois
basin is characterized by a gentle east¬
ward dip toward the basin amounting to
5 to 20 feet per mile. Just west of the
Pennsylvanian margin are situated the
Media, Warsaw, Colmar-Plymouth, Pitts-
field-Hadley, Cap Au Gres, Valmeyer, and
Dupo-Waterloo structures which influence
the trend of the Pennsylvanian boundary I
but are not well shown by the structure
contour map. A weak anticlinal zone
extends from central Henry County
southeast across northeast Knox, Stark
and Peoria counties, dying out in central

i Published with permission of the Chief, State Geological Survey.

„ Mylius, L. A., Oil and Gas Development and Possibilities in East-Central Illinois, Maps and Tables
of Well Data: Ill. State Geol. Survey, Bull. 54, plate 21, 1927.

Geology — 1941 Meeting

161

FIG. 1

162

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Tazewell County. An eastward-pitching
anticlinal zone extends from Mason
County eastward across Cass, Menard,
Logan and northern Sangamon counties
dying out in DeWitt and Macon counties.
A shorter southeast-pitching anticline
extends from northern Macoupin County
across southeast Montgomery, and north¬
ern Bond County, dying out in south¬
western Fayette County corresponding
with the Sorento structure.* 2 A little far¬
ther south another parallel structure ex¬
tends from western Bond County south¬
east to Centralia. An eastward pitching
anticline extends across southern Clinton
County including the Bartelso and Hoff¬
man oil structures. An anticline pitch¬
ing slightly north of east extends from
northern Randolph County across south¬
ern Washington County including the
Nashville oil pool. The Ava-Campbell
Hill anticline3 pitches a little north of
east across northern Jackson and south¬
ern Perry counties.

The deeper part of the basin is sepa¬
rated from the structurally flatter area
.of western Illinois just described, by a
markedly asymmetrical anticline with a
nearly north-south trend extending from
southern Fayette or northern Marion
County southward across Marion County
through the Patoka, Sandoval, and Cen¬
tralia oil fields and western Jefferson
and eastern Perry counties. It has been
named the DuQuoin anticline from a
town of that name in southeastern Perry
County. It has been considered a mono-
clinal flexure by some geologists because
of the very slight westward dip from its
crest. Although somewhat interrupted
by eastward pitching anticlines and syn¬
clines, the east flank of the fold has
structural relief of 500 or 600 feet with
a general eastward dip amounting to as
much as 100 feet per mile.

The DuQuoin anticline also has a
marked effect on the westward thinning
of the Pennsylvania system,4 especially in
Perry and Washington counties. This
indicates that movement along the fold
occurred during Pennsylvanian sedimen¬
tation. The Illinois basin extends east¬
ward from the edge of the DuQuoin anti¬
cline with the lower portion filled with
Caseyville and Tradewater sediments.

The pre-Pennsylvanian surface originally
consisted of an upland area in the west
half and a basin in the east half of the
region and the DuQuoin anticline repre¬
sents the western margin of the basin.
After the filling of this basin by Casey¬
ville and lower Tradewater sediments,
the strand line moved westward with
general extension of the basin, the upper
Tradewater and Carbondale formations
were deposited in the broader basin to
the west.

The most complicated structures in the
Eastern Interior basin occur along its
southern border. These include the Alto
Pass fault zone trending northwest-south¬
east in Jackson and Union counties,
which determines the southwest boundary
of the Pennsylvanian area, and the Rough
Creek-Shawneetown zone which enters
Illinois at Shawneetown, Gallatin County,
and extends directly west about 15 miles
in Gold, Wildcat, and Cave hills, then
turns sharply southwestward through
Saline and Pope counties extending be¬
yond the border of the Pennsylvania
about 20 miles before disappearing be¬
neath the Cretaceous sediments of the
embayment area. South of the east-west
segment of this fault is the deep east¬
ward pitching Eagle Valley syncline in
southern Gallatin County which extends
eastward into Kentucky to form a basin
nearly as deep as that in Edward and
adjacent counties, Illinois. South of this
basin is the Hicks Dome uplift with
nearly 4000 feet of structural relief.

The map accompanying this paper
shows only the broader general features
of this complex area. There are no im¬
portant differences in thickness or com¬
position of the Pennsylvanian section in
several fault blocks of this region, indi¬
cating that the structures are largely
post-Pennsylvanian in age.

The deeper part of the basin in Shelby,
Effingham, Cumberland, Jasper, Craw¬
ford, Lawrence, Wabash, Richland, Clay,
Marion, Jefferson, Wayne, Edwards,
White, Hamilton, and Franklin counties
is bounded on the south by a monoclinal
slope with dip of as much as 200 feet per
mile associated with the Rough Creek-
Shawneetown fault zone and other struc¬
tures. On the west it is bounded by the

^ Bell, Alfred H., The Sorento Dome: Ill. State Geol. Survey, Ill. Pet. No. 6, Fig. 2, sec. 4, 1926.

Root, T. V., The Oil and Gas Resources of the Ava-Campbell Hill Area, Ill. State Geol. Survey: Rept

Inv. No. 16, Fig. 2, 1928.

4 Henbest, L. G., Pre-Pennsylvanian Surface West of the DuQuoin Anticline. Trans. Ill. Acad, of Sci.,

90 nn 1 Q9'7 ’

Geology — 1941 Meeting

163

steep east flank of the DuQuoin anticline,
and on the north, from Cumberland Coun¬
ty to Wabash County, by the steep west
flank of the LaSalle anticline. Between
Wabash and Gallatin counties, the deeper
part of the basin extends beyond Illinois
into southwest Indiana and western Ken¬
tucky. The structural relief of the basin
from the base of the various surrounding
slopes to its deepest part is 1000 feet to
1100 feet. The average dip is 10 to 50
feet per mile toward the deepest part of
the basin, which consists of a narrow
trough trending south across central
Richland and western Edwards counties
curving southwest across eastern Wayne
County to northern Hamilton and White
counties. Recent intensive drilling in
this region has disclosed several anti¬
clinal or domal structures within the
deeper part of the basin or as pitching
anticlines extending out into the basin
from its flanks. Among these are the
Loudon structure in Fayette County near
the northwest margin of the basin;5 the
Salem structure, in Marion County6; a
southeast-dipping monocline extending
northeast in Jefferson County to south¬
western Wayne County; an anticline
trending northeast across southern Ham¬
ilton County and including the Hoodville

oil field; an anticline extending north¬
east from northwest Gallatin County
across central White County, including
the Omaha oil structure; an anticline
trending north in eastern White County,
including the New Haven, Stroms, and
Calvin oil structures; two westward
pitching anticlines in Wabash County
including the Keensburg and Mt. Carmel
oil structures; an anticline pitching south
in west-central Cumberland and north¬
west Jasper counties; and a southwest
pitching anticline in southwest Coles and
eastern Shelby counties. Within the
deeper part of the basin a prominent
domal structure in southeast Clay and
northern Wayne counties includes the
Clay City oil structure. The anticlines
around the borders of the deeper part of
the basin tend to pitch toward the basin
from all margins. The total relief from
the center of the basin in Richland,
Wayne, and Edwards counties to the
margin of the Pennsylvanian sediments
in western Illinois is near 2000 feet.

The writer is grateful to Dr. H. R.
Wanless, of the University of Illinois,
and Mr. L. E. Workman of the State
Geological Survey for helpful suggestions
and criticisms in the preparation of the
manuscript.

5 Randall, D. C., Geology and Development of the Loudon Pool, Fayette County, Illinois: 25th Annual
Meeting of the A.A.P.G., p. 16, 1940.

6 Arnold, H. H., Jr., Salem Oil Field Marion County, Illinois: Bull., A.A.P.G., Vol. 23, p. 1352-73,
Figs. 4, 5, and 6, 1939.

DEVONIAN FORMATIONS IN NEW MEXICO

Frank V. Stevenson*

University of Chicago , Chicago, Illinois

Until 1941 it has generally been con¬
sidered that only one Devonian formation
was present in the state of New Mexico.
The writer during the past five years
has definitely established the occurrence
of three Devonian formations, one of
middle and two of upper Devonian age.
There is a possibility of an existing
fourth Devonian formation, but sufficient
evidence for establishing this conclusion
has not yet been obtained. The Canutillo
formation, limited to the Franklin Moun¬
tains, Texas, does not extend into New
Mexico. This formation has been desig¬
nated by other workers as being middle
Devonian in age and shows no relation¬
ship to middle Devonian sediments in
New Mexico. The Sly Gap formation
crops out in the Sierra Caballo, San

* Now with the Ark. Geol. Survey, Little Rock, Ark.

Andres, and Sacramento mountains. The
Sly Gap is tentatively correlated with the
Hackberry of Iowa, with some affinities
with the Snyder Creek formation of Mis¬
souri, and bears definite relationship to
the Martin limestone of Arizona, and the
Devils Gate formation of Nevada. Over-
lying the Sly Gap formation is the Percha
shale, which has long been established as
being correlative with the Ouray lime¬
stone in Colorado and in Arizona. This
formation crops out only in the south¬
western portion of New Mexico, west of
the Rio Grande, whereas the Canutillo
formation and the Sly Gap are found only
east of the Rio Grande. There is no
known section in which the actual strati¬
graphic relationship of the Sly Gap and
the Percha shale is shown.

164

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

NIAGARAN OSTRACODS FROM BURLINGTON, WISCONSIN

R. C. Gutschick

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Introduction. — The Niagaran ostracods
reported were discovered in the insoluble
residues in connection with a sedimentary-
study of the rock succession exposed in
the quarry at Burlington, Wisconsin. At
the Illinois State Academy of Science
Annual Meeting held at Galesburg, May,
1940, Dr. J. R. Ball presented a paper
on the Burlington quarry.1 In his article
he describes the location of the quarry,
lithology, fauna, and other characteristics
of the strata. In brief, the quarry is
located one mile west of Burlington
along state highway 11; the rocks are
extremely well-bedded, argillaceous dolo¬
mites which are mottled greenish gray
and deep red. Mr. L. E. Workman refers
this section to the lower part of the Joliet
formation which he considers to be equiv¬
alent to the Osgood. Several years ago
when the quarry workings were at a
level now covered by water, the rocks of
this lower part consisted of fairly thick-
bedded dolomite of solid deep maroon
color containing concretion-like masses
of spongy, maroon rock.

Method of Obtaining Residue. — A solu¬
tion of hydrochloric acid diluted 9 parts
of water to 1 part of concentrated acid
was used to obtain the residues. It was
found that this strong concentration gave
more satisfactory results with regard to
the extraction of the ostracods than the
use of a very dilute acid solution applied
over a relatively long period of time.
With the latter method the specimens
came out with frayed margins despite the
precautions taken in handling. Further¬
more, the formation of fine particles
which coated the other grains caused a
retardation in the activity of the process
due to the lack of penetration of the
weak acid.

Character of Residue. — The percentage
of residue ranges from about 10% to 45%
of which only a fraction of one per cent
is greater than 200 mesh. The very
high amount of material less than 200
mesh consisting chiefly of clay and silt

suggests the argillaceous character of the
rock. The staining technique of adding
potassium ferrocyanide [K4FE(CN)6] to
an acid solution (HC1) in which the
rock sample is immersed, yields a solid,
deep, blue stain except for the calcitic
vugs. This indicates the dolomitic char¬
acter of the rock. The material greater
than 200 mesh is mainly secondary silica.
A graphical analysis of the quantity of
insoluble material indicates a very irreg¬
ular vertical distribution. This is typical
of the lower part of the Joliet formation
thus confirming Mr. Workman’s correla¬
tion.2

The fauna of the residues includes the
following: arenaceous foraminifera which
seem to be abundant throughout most of
the section, internal molds of small
brachiopods, fragments of small gastro¬
pods, abundant bryozoa remains, a few
hexaxial sponge spicules, and an abund¬
ant ostracod fauna. The ostracod fauna
is an interesting one. The specimens ob¬
tained are preserved as internal molds
of siliceous filling, hence their presence
in the residues. Of course, these speci¬
mens exhibit the internal characters of
the animal’s shell. An attempt was made
to determine whether the external char¬
acters are preserved anywhere in the
rock. Samples of rock were crushed and
sieved. Each grade size was separated,
washed, and examined. Surprisingly
enough there was very little or prac¬
tically no suggestion of a microfauna.
It seems very doubtful whether the ex¬
ternal characters exist in the present
rocks. Along certain zones of fine mot¬
tling, there is an abundance of ostracod
material.

Ostracod Fauna. — There is quite a di¬
versity of forms represented by approx¬
imately 15 species which includes 9 or
10 genera. Most of the internal charac¬
teristics are clear except in a few cases
where overlap is difficult to determine.
Although the complete identification of
the fauna has not yet been made due to

i

, * k., Typical Lower Mississippi Valley Silurian Lithology in Southeastern Wisconsin, Trans,

of the Ill. Acad. Sci., Vol. 33, No. 2, Dec., 1940, pp. 152-154.

2 Workman, L. E., Contributions to Correlations of Silurian Systems in Northeastern Illinois through Study
of Insoluble Residues: Bull. G. S. A., Vol. 50, No. 12, Part 2, p. 2015, 1939. (Abstract.)

Geology — 1941 Meeting

165

the fact that many of these are new
forms, a few of the genera represented
are: Kloedenella, Tubulibairdia, Leper-
ditia, and Bairdia.

Some of the forms are highly orna¬
mented. One of them is a clear example
of dimorphism. The female has two
large, bulbous, brood pouches postero-
ventral. There are perforations along
the line of juncture between the brood
pouch and the main part of the shell.
These brood pouches become detached
from the animal and are found separate.
It is common to find that the brood
pouches are much more abundant in the
residues than entire individual speci¬
mens. Where perhaps 5 or 6 entire speci¬
mens could be found, it is possible to
find 50 to 100 l>rood pouches. The male
has the general shape and characters sim¬
ilar to the female without the swellings.

Among the other types are those that
contain smooth surface shells.

Conclusions. — Many of the workers on
the Silurian rocks of the Middle West
such as Workman, Ball, Dunn, Edwards,
Priddy, and others have pursued different
lines of attack in order to get a better

understanding of the correlation of the
rocks of this system. Lithological stud¬
ies, insoluble residues, mineralogical
studies, foraminifera3 and other fossil
forms have been used in the attempt.
Dr. P. H. Dunn has completed a study
of the arenaceous foraminifera of the
Silurian rocks of several of the mid-
western states. This is in the process of
publication.4 He has indicated that os-
tracods are abundant in many of the
samples he has used for the extraction
of foraminifera. The study of the ostra-
cods, their diversity and distribution
might supplement other methods. Ulrich
and Bassler have done a classical piece
of work in using ostracods to correlate
the Silurian rocks of Maryland5 and ad¬
jacent states. Perhaps that same ap¬
proach can be used in the Middle West.
The foraminiferal zones will be estab¬
lished by Dunn; the ostracods might
lend themselves to the same analysis.

Finally the fossil forms and the high
content of argillaceous material suggest
proximity to shore line conditions of
sedimentation. Cumings and Shrock have
indicated this in their paleogeographic
map.8

3 Dunn, P. H., Microfaunal Technique in the Study of Older Paleozoic, Trans, of the Ill. Acad. Sci.,
Vol. 25, No. 4, June, 1933, pp. 140-141.

4 Dunn, P. H., personal communication.

5 Ulrich, E. O. and Bassler, R., Paleozoic Ostracoda: Their Morphology, Classification, and Occurrence,
Maryland Geol. Survey, Silurian, 1923.

6 Cumings, E. R. and Shrock, R. R., The Geology of the Silurian Rocks of Northern Indiana, The
Dept, of Conservation State of Indiana, Publication No. 75, 1928, p. 165.

THE CHEMISTRY OF LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITION AND THE

PROBLEM OF ZONING

Robert Garrels

Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

ABSTRACT

The problem of the relative positions
of galena and sphalerite (Pbs and ZnS)
in the “Mississippi Valley” and other
types of lead-zinc deposits is attacked
from the point of view of a magmatic
origin. Evidence has been generally cited
to show that, on the basis of solubility
determinations, sphalerite should occur
nearer the surface and later parageneti-
cally than galena. The reverse order
holds in nature.

Arguments based upon available data
show that this unexplained order of de¬
position is probably due to (1) super¬
saturation phenomena, or (2) the forma¬

tion of complexes.

Detailed experimental work, subjected
to careful chemical control, shows that
neutral chlorides are effective in (forming
complexes with lead; thus increasing its
solubility. At the conditions of deposi¬
tion of the Mississippi Valley deposits
(ca. 100° C. and 60 at.) 2.0 normal
CaCl2 would be effective in producing
the observed mineral relations. This con¬
centration is in accord with that found
by Newhouse in fluid inclusions in the
galena. It appears probable that the so¬
lutions were relatively concentrated yet
generally neutral in composition.

166

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

A NEW EDRIOASTER FROM THE UPPER ORDOVICIAN OF

NORTHERN ILLINOIS

C. C. Branson

Northwestern University , Evanston, Illinois

An excellently preserved specimen of
an edrioaster was collected by the writer
from a shale seam in a small limestone
quarry one and one-half miles east of
Garden Prairie, McHenry County, Illi¬
nois. A considerable brachiopod and
bryozoan faunule is associated with the
specimen, but the bryozoan specimens
lack internal structure. M. E. Chappars
of Walker Museum, University of Chi¬
cago, has been kind enough to examine
the associated fauna and he has estab¬
lished the age as Middle Richmond
( Liberty-Whitewater ) .

The edrioaster belongs to that rare
group of Edrioasteroidea in which all the
ambulacra curve in the same direction.
In the genera Lebetodiscus and Ulrichi-
discus all ambulacra curve to the left, in
Cooperidiscus and Foerstediscus all curve
to the right. The ambulacra of the pres¬
ent specimen curve to the right and the
interambulacral plates are arranged in
mosaic as in Foerstediscus , rather than
in imbricate pattern as in Cooperidiscus.

The genus Foerstediscus was estab¬
lished by Bassler in 1935 upon the species
F. grandis Bassler from the Trenton of
Woodford County, Kentucky. Two addi¬
tional species were described by Bassler

in 1936, F. splendens from the Decorah
at St. Paul, Minnesota, and F. parvus
from the Hull formation (Trenton) of
Kirkfield, Ontario. The present specimen
is distinguished from these species by
its wider and less prominent ambulacra
and by its narrower disc of attachment.

The particular value of the McHenry
County specimen lies in the fact that the
aboral surface and part of the interior
of the theca are preserved. The aboral
side of Foerstediscus has not been de¬
scribed. The frame consists of an outer
row of small plates and an inner row of
much larger plates which form an even
border to the large tegmental area. The
mouth is surrounded on the interior of
the theca by five prominent plates, simi¬
lar in appearance to the perignathic
girdle of some echinoids. This circumoral
ring is here recognized for the first time.
Bather figured edrioaster specimens
which exhibit five lobes on the inner part
of the tegmen, but this is an entirely
different structure.

R. E. Bassler has seen the specimen
and has advised the writer concerning
its structure and affinities. The specimen
will be deposited in the United States
National Museum.

Geology — 1941 Meeting

167

THE SEDIMENTOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY OF
WISCONSIN GLACIAL OUTWASH ALONG
THE CHIPPEWA RIVER

Lyman Huff

University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois*

The Chippewa River flows across Wis¬
consin in a southwesterly direction to
empty into the Mississippi at Lake Pepin.
During the Wisconsin glacial epoch the
Chippewa ice lobe occupied the upper
part of the Chippewa valley. Meltwater
from the ice built a large outwash plain
in front of the terminal moraine. Down¬
stream, this outwash grades into a valley
train along the Chippewa River and ex¬
tends all the way to the Mississippi
River. The melt water carried so much

glacial till to the aqueous sediments of
the outwash plain and the valley train,
they were deemed worthy of a sedimen¬
tary study. Channel samples were taken
at approximately five mile intervals for
the sixty mile distance along the valley.
Most of the samples were taken at road
cuts because they offered the best ex¬
posures.

The results of the size analysis of these
samples are given in the table below.

The average size shows a marked in-

Outwash

Sample

Till

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Geometric mean size in mm .

.21

3.11

1.54

1.05

1.04

.44

.95

.65

.37

.44

.43

Standard deviation in Wentworth
grade units .

4.18

2.66

2.57

2.42

2.24

1.09

1.81

1.67

.71

.74

.67

sediment that a deltaic fan was built in
the Mississippi Valley, damming the river
to form the predecessor of Lake Pepin.

The Chippewa River at that time was
overloaded, depositing sediments instead
of eroding them as it is doing today.
Like present day aggrading streams, it
occupied a number of small, anastomos¬
ing channels, traces of which still per¬
sist. Aerial photographs of a large rem¬
nant of the glacial flood plain southwest
of Durand show a network of dark bands
that mark the position of the former
stream channels. They are not shown
by the topographic map and even field
examination failed to disclose them.

After the recession of the glacial mar¬
gin the overloading of the Chippewa
River ceased. Deposition gave way to
erosion. The river became one single
meandering stream which cut its modern
valley to a depth of from eighty to one
hundred feet below the level of the gla¬
cial flood plain, and formed a complicated
series of lower terraces.

Since the glacial deposits along this
valley offer a complete gradation from

crease with the change from till to out¬
wash and from there on it decreases with
fluctuations. The initial increase is best
explained by the selective action of run¬
ning water; the tendency to deposit the
coarser portions of the load and carry
the finer ones on. The successive de¬
crease in size of the particles may be
explained by continued selective trans¬
portation. The lack of marked rounding
of the fragments indicates that abrasion
was not important. The standard devia¬
tion, or “spread” of the size range, shows
a continual decrease downstream. Evi¬
dently the longer the water worked on
the sediments, the better sorted they be¬
came.

Other properties of these sediments,
such as shape, orientation, and composi¬
tion, will be studied quantitatively in the
future. At present it is safe to say that
the sediments and their environment of
deposition have had a marked effect upon
each other. The properties of the sedi¬
ments change progressively downstream;
the physiography was altered wherever
they were deposited.

At the time of presentation of this paper. Present address: Geological Survey, Portland, Oregon.

168

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE ON THE ORIGIN OF CONODONTS

Ernest Paul Du Bois
University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

Samples collected near LaSalle, Illinois,
from black shales of Pennsylvanian Mc-
Leansboro age have yielded, in addition
to an associated fauna of Lingula, Or-
Iticuloidea, and fragmentary vertebrate
remains, a number of excellent conodont
assemblages.

Study shows that without doubt a typi¬
cal assemblage consists of an anterior
pair of Polygnathids, a pair of Bryan-
todids, and a posterior group of several
pairs of Hindeodellids, arranged in a
linear series. In addition to this rela¬
tively common type, one specimen shows
the presence of three Polygnathids, and
two others, the presence of individuals
belonging to the “genera” Distacodus,
Lonchodina, and Hiblar della or Euprion-
iodina.

The evidence afforded by the assem¬
blages regarding the zoological affinities
of the conodonts is not wholly positive.
From their general aspect it seems un¬
likely that they are representatives of
any known group of vertebrates, and
equally improbable that they represent
the radular teeth of gastropods or cephal-
opods. Rather they seem to be a part of
the pharyngeal aparatus of some Paleo¬
zoic annelid.

The group is apparently not homogen¬
eous. This is attested to by the fact

that one of the many assemblages pos¬
sesses three Polygnathids, and two other
assemblages posess teeth of a radically
different nature.

The taxonomic problem raised is one
of no mean dimensions. Inasmuch as a
system of taxonomy should be so con¬
structed as to represent the evolutionary
relationships of the animals involved, and
because the evidence presented in this
material shows that structures which
have been referred to different families
may in reality belong to the same indi¬
vidual, considerable revision of the tax¬
onomic treatment of the group seems nec¬
essary. To correct the present termin¬
ology by orthodox means would be ex¬
tremely difficult and would require years
to execute.

The solution which seems most feasi¬
ble is the complete transfer of the present
nomenclature to the “Ordo militaris” ad¬
vocated by Carey Croneis for use in just
such cases. This scheme would remove
the necessity of a complete revision of
the present classification, would allow the
further study of conodonts as tools for
the stratigrapher, and, at the same time,
would permit the separate development
of another classification based upon bio¬
logical relationships.

A SHAPE-ROUNDNESS STUDY OF BEACH SANDS FROM

CEDAR POINT, OHIO

A. C. Lundahl

University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

ABSTRACT

Seven samples of beach sand, collected
at one mile intervals from Cedar Point
spit built across Sandusky Bay, Lake
Erie, were treated with acid, sieved, and
split into “lights” and “heavies” by
means of acetylene tetrabromide.

The “lights”, mainly quartz, from each
sieve separate, were mounted and pro¬
jected, and shape (sphericity) and round¬
ness determinations were made. It was
statistically observed that the roundness

showed a definite decrease in the direc¬
tion of transport. Sphericity values of
the grains decreased also, but much less
markedly.

The decreases in roundness and spher¬
icity do not appear to be due to abrasion
but either to a selective sorting by the
littoral currents or to some cracking or
splitting of grains during transport.
Many of the finer grade separates do
show evidence of fracturing.

Geology — 1941 Meeting

169

USE OF STEREOSCOPE WITH AERIAL PHOTOS
IN ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY

Charles G. Johnson
University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

Recently the Department of Geology
at the University of Chicago has adopted
the study of aerial photographs by means
otf the stereoscope as an aid to the study
of topographic maps in beginning geol¬
ogy classes. Aerial photographs are being
employed more and more by the govern¬
mental surveys and private companies,
and it is well that future geologists be¬
come familiar with them early in their
careers.

The photos are taken looking vertically
downward, with a single lens camera.
Contact prints made from the negatives
are 7x9 inches or 9x9 inches, and have a
scale of approximately 1:20,000 or about
three inches to the mile. Consecutive
photos overlap about sixty percent, mak¬
ing them well adapted for use under the
stereoscope.

The great advantage of viewing the
photographs through a stereoscope lies
in the fact that the features on the photo
are made to appear as a three-dimen¬
sional or spacial model. This is helpful
to students who are using topographic
maps for the first time. By using topo¬
graphic maps and aerial photos together,
he can soon learn the meaning of con¬
tours and be able to read them critically.

A method of teaching the significance
of contour lines is to introduce an exer¬
cise whereby the student makes a contour
map from a stereoscopic pair of aerial
photographs. Select a pair of photos that
show well developed valleys and rounded
hillsides with relief not over two hundred
feet. Using drafting tape, fasten a clear
piece of celluloid on one of the photos
over the area that is to be mapped. Mark
elevations of various points in ink on
the celluloid, not over a half mile apart.
Place the two photographs under the
stereoscope and adjust them in fusion to
suit the eyes. While viewing the photos
through the stereoscope, draw in the con¬
tours with a wax pencil on the celluloid
at their adjudged elevations along the
hillsides.

Physiographic forms are well shown
on aerial photos, but are much more im¬
pressive when viewed through a stereo¬
scope. Such forms as dunes, drumlins,
moraines, sinkholes, etc. are illustrated
on topographic maps, but the beginning
student can gain little or no idea as to
how they actually appear in the field
from the map alone. This difficulty is
easily solved by stereoscopic observation
of aerial photographs. Relative sizes of
the different features are conveyed to the
student through comparison to houses,
trees, or other familiar objects present
in nearly every photograph.

By the use of topographic maps and
aerial photos together many problems in
structural geology can be worked out in
the laboratory. Where conditions are
favorable, outcrops can be seen on the
photos and the direction of dip of the
beds detected. However, it must be re¬
membered that slopes of hills and beds
are in general, greatly exaggerated.
Faults are often visible where none
would be suspected from a study of the
topographic sheet. Through the use of
both topographic maps and aerial photos
the student becomes aware of the under¬
lying structural control which is respon¬
sible for many physiographic features.

No list of selected aerial photographs
suitable for stereoscopic study of geologic
features has been compiled. An attempt
is now being made at the University of
Chicago to make such a list, and it is
hoped that a preliminary report may be
ready soon.

The cost of supplying a laboratory with
an adequate number of stereoscopes and
aerial photographs need not be great.
Photographs can be purchased from the
Department of Agriculture for twenty
cents per print when ordered in lots of
one hundred or more, or twenty-five cents
per print when ordered in smaller quan¬
tities. The Department of Agriculture
is the only national governmental agency
authorized to sell aerial photographs. It

170

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

publishes and distributes, free of charge,
a monthly index map of the United States
which shows the extent of aerial photog¬
raphy completed or in the process of
completion. This map does not include
areas photographed by agencies other
than the Department of Agriculture.

Commercial stereoscopes suitable for
study of aerial photographs sell for
thirty-three dollars and more. However,
a simple stereoscope constructed from
four small mirrors and other readily
available material, costing about a dollar,
can be made as follows:

The frame is made of y2 inch lumber
screwed together, and mounted on legs of
1/2X1/i xy8 inch channel iron. Each leg is
held by two studs screwed into a %x%
inch strap-iron strip fastened to the end
surfaces of the frame. (See fig. A)
Extra holes may be drilled in the legs
to make the height adjustable. The top
of the frame is covered with sheet tin
in which are cut eye holes 1 y2 inches in
diameter on 2 y2 inch centers, and a tri¬
angular hole for the nose. (See fig. A.)

All of the mirrors are inclined 45 de¬
grees as shown in fig. C. The two inner
mirrors measure 2x2 inches and are plac¬
ed with the centers of their reflecting sur¬
faces 2 y2 inches apart (E-E', fig. C). To
allow room for the nose, a corner is cut
from each of the inner mirrors as in
fig. D, and from the inside edges of the
wooden *frame holding them. The two
outer mirrors are 4x5 inches and placed
with the long dimension horizontal.
Their reflecting surfaces are 3 y2 inches,
measured horizontally, from the reflect¬
ing surfaces of the inner pair. The tops
of the outer mirrors are % of an inch
vertically above the tops of the inner
mirrors. Each mirror is held in place
by small copper cleats. Light is provided
by two 110 volt bulbs with C-7 candelabra
bases. Each is in a bakelite combination
plug having a switch and a shade. The
plugs are held in a double wall socket
mounted under the two inner mirrors. To
shut out extraneous light, tin flaps 7x2%
inches are hung by small hinges at each
end of the stereoscope (fig. C). Dull
black enamel is used for the finish.

STEREOSCOPE TOR VIEWING
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

Geology — 1941 Meeting

171

THE APPLICATION OF PROBABILITY THEORY TO
SEDIMENT SAMPLING

William J. Plumley
University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

ABSTRACT

The question of how large a sample
should be collected to determine the aver¬
age sphericity or roundness of a sedi¬
mentary deposit has long been unan¬
swered. Tentative answers to this ques¬
tion have ranged from 50 pebbles or sand
grains to 150. An attempt is made in
this paper to develop a method of samp¬
ling which will answer this question
from a rigorous mathematical standpoint.

The theory of sampling which is ap¬
plied in this paper is based on the equa¬
tion of the standard error of the mean.
This equation states that the standard
error of the mean of a sample is directly
proportional to the standard error of any
one observation and inversely propor¬
tional to the square root of the number
of observations in the sample. From this
fundamental expression, it is shown that
the number of sedimentary particles re¬
quired to obtain a tolerated per cent error
of the mean of a sample is dependent on
two quantities, (a) the true average or
mean of the sampled population, and
(b) the spread or standard deviation of
the population’s frequency distribution.
The foregoing relations are only true if
the sphericity and roundness distribu¬
tions of the population follow the bell¬
shaped distribution of a normal curve.

To test this prime requisite, 500 pebbles
were collected at random from a glacial
outwash deposit. The resulting frequency
distributions of roundness and sphericity
were found to be essentially normal. The

Fig. 1.— Graph illustrating the inverse re¬
lationship between sample size and per cent
error of the mean.

choice of glacial outwash assured a large
spread of the frequency distributions.
This is desirable because results obtained
from this type of deposit may now be
applied to most other types of sediments.
Fig. 1 is based on the equation for the
standard error of the mean. It illus¬
trates the inverse relationship between
sample size and per cent error of the
mean. A method of approximation, based
on graphs similar to Fig. 1, has been de¬
vised by which the true mean of the
sampled population is estimated. From
this value the sample size is then deter¬
mined for any tolerated error of the
mean.

In general, a sample of 50 particles is
more than adequate for roundness and
sphericity determinations.

172

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

MISSISSIPPIAN STRATIGRAPHY OF OHIO

Fred T. Holden

University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

The Mississippian rocks of Ohio con¬
sist of six formations: Maxville lime¬
stone, Logan formation, Cuyahoga forma¬
tion, Sunbury shale, Berea sandstone,
Bedford shale.

The Bedford shale is a chocolate-brown,
red and blue-black, argillaceous shale.
It crops out along the western and north¬
ern margins of the Mississippian outcrop
zone in Ohio. Its thickness varies from
40 to 110 tfeet. Only in the basal few
feet are there fossil remains. A slight
disconformity exists at the base of the
Bedford. Nearly everywhere there is a
sharp contact between it and the under¬
lying Ohio shale, but rarely is there evi¬
dence of the existence of erosional con¬
ditions between the deposition of the
Ohio shale and of the Bedford shale.

The Berea sandstone consists essen¬
tially of a light tan or light gray, well
sorted, fine-grained sandstone or silt-
stone. In southern Ohio it is composed
of several thin layers of siltstone, each
layer from 8 to 15 inches thick. In cen¬
tral Ohio thin, argillaceous and arenace¬
ous shale layers to a total thickness of
about 7 feet occur near the base of the
Berea. Above are fine-grained, rather
massive sandstone layers, each 2 to 8 feet
thick. In northern Ohio the maximum
thickness of the Berea exceeds 200 feet.

The contact between the Berea and the
underlying Bedford shale is marked by
a well-defined erosional surface.

Overlying the Berea along the western
margin of the Mississippian outcrop in
Ohio is the Sunbury shale. This is a
black, fissile, carbonaceous shale litho¬
logically very similar to the Ohio shale
In northern Ohio the Sunbury shale is
indistinguishable from the black shales
of the Orangeville member of the Cuya¬
hoga formation. Hence the Sunbury is
not recognized as a distinct formation in
this area, all of the black shales immedi¬
ately overlying the Berea sandstone being
included in the Orangeville member.

Seven lithologic facies, each subdivided
into a varying number of members and
submembers are recognized in the Cuya¬
hoga formation:

Tinkers Creek shale facies
Meadville shale member
Sharpsville sandstone member
Orangeville shale member
Aurora sandstone submember

River Styx conglomerate facies
Black Hand conglomerate member
Armstrong sandstone member
Rittman conglomerate submember

Killbuck shale facies

Black Hand shale member
Armstrong sandstone member
Burbank member

Toboso conglomerate facies

Black Hand conglomerate member
Pleasant Valley member

Granville shale facies
Black Hand siltstone member
Raccoon shale member

Hocking Valley conglomerate facies
Black Hand conglomerate member
Fairfield sandstone member
Lithopolis siltstone member

Henley shale facies
Henley shale member

These facies have been named in pro¬
gressive order from northeastern Ohio
to south-central Ohio.

The axes of the conglomerate facies
trend northwest-southeast. It is probable
that the conglomerate facies represent
deltas formed by deposition of coarse
materials derived from lands to the
southeast. Intervening shale facies are
areas where fine sands, silts and clays
accumulated.

The Logan formation directly overlies
the Cuyahoga formation. From south
central Ohio the Logan outcrops extend
northward with varying thickness to
Holmes and Wayne counties, where it
thins rapidly due to erosional beveling.

Three lithologic facies are distin¬
guished in the Logan formation:

Pretty Run sandstone facies
Rushville shale member
Vinton sandstone member

Geology — 1941 Meeting

173

Allensville conglomerate member
Byer sandstone member
Berne conglomerate member

Scioto Valley shale 'facies
Vinton sandstone member
Portsmouth shale member
Buena Vista sandstone member

Vanceburg siltstone facies
Vinton sandstone member
Churn Creek member

Vanceburg siltstone member
Rarden shale member
Buena Vista sandstone member

The material composing these deposits
was probably derived from the southeast.

The Maxville limestone overlies the
Logan formation in southeastern Ohio.
It is rarely exposed, being nearly every¬
where covered by Pennsylvanian deposits
which overlap on to the Logan formation.

THE OCCURRENCE OF COMMERCIAL MUSCOVITE IN

PEGMATITES

F. W. Hinrichs

Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

Descriptions of most mica-pegmatite
districts are available, but due to a gen¬
eral lack of attention to precise descrip¬
tion of mineral relationships, much of
the earlier literature is of little signifi¬
cance. The purpose of this paper is to
emphasize certain general truths which
appear to govern the formation of large
muscovite crystals of commercial value.
Discussion will be limited to occurrences
of the greatest economic importance; ap¬
parently most of the world’s production
of sheet mica has come from the Madras
Presidency and the Province of Bihar
and Orissa, India, and the states of North
Carolina, New Hampshire, and South
Dakota.

The development of the concept of re¬
placement in metallic ore-bodies was fol¬
lowed by the concept of the replacement
origin of many pegmatites. The prin¬
ciples of ore-body zoning around an in¬
trusion is likewise paralleled by the
zonal distribution of pegmatites, best es¬
tablished by Maurice1 in the Spruce Pine
district, North Carolina, on the basis of
the composition of the plagioclase c*f the
pegmatites. Close study of other pegma¬
tite areas should reveal more instances
of such zoning.

As a basis, the writer proposes to ac¬
cept a modified two-stage, aqueo-igneous
theory for the formation of pegmatites
containing commercial sheet mica. It
appears reasonable, as Landes2 suggests,

that the two stages, the first of primary
introduction and the second of open sys¬
tem replacement by hydrothermal solu¬
tions, may be merely one long-continued
stage, in which the components which
modify the original mineralogy were de¬
rived directly from portions of the same
pegmatite closer to the source. Replace¬
ment relations in pegmatites are often
difficult to interpret, and without strict
definition of terms the boundary between
the minerals of the magmatic stage and
those of the hydrothermal stage is in¬
distinct.

Field relations and the literature show
that commercial muscovite is apparently
of late magmatic and early hydrothermal
origin. Much of the evidence for late
formation lies in the continuity of dis¬
tribution of the mica books along coun¬
try-rock contacts, along interior struc¬
tural features, along seams, and in shoots
wandering irregularly about in the peg¬
matite. The definite continuity for sev¬
eral hundred feet of commercial musco¬
vite shoots in large pegmatites has been
often observed. Two or more such mica
shoots, of different colors and with dis¬
tinct differences in perfection of crystal¬
lization, are occasionally met in the same
pegmatite, indicating different times of
formation.

Plagioclase feldspar and quartz are the
two most persistent mineral associates
of muscovite. From a compositional

1 Maurice, C. S., The pegmatitiea of the Spruce Pine district, North Carolina: Econ. Geology, Vol. 35,

pp. 49-78, 158- 185, 1940. .

2 Landes, K. K., The origin and classification of pegmatites: Am. Mineralogist, vol. 18, pp. 33-56,
95-103, 1933.

174

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

viewpoint, the three largest mica districts
of the world yield the best and most
mica from pegmatites containing plagio-
clase considerably more calcic than albite,
with microcline absent or present only
in small amount. Of the Kodarma dis¬
trict, the largest in India, Roy3 writes,
“Workable quantities of mica occur only
in those pegmatites in which albite-oligo-
clase is the dominant or the only feld¬
spar present.” Of the Spruce Pine mica
pegmatites, Maurice4 says, “The predom¬
inating mineral is plagioclase, generally
calcic-oligoclase.” In the Nellore district,
the second largest in India, Biswas5 em¬
phasizes the abundance of plagioclase
ranging from albite to andesine. Oligo-
clase is present in the mica pegmatites
of New Hampshire and South Dakota,
but no correlations similar to the above
have been drawn.

Perfection of crystallization in the
muscovite crystals is of first importance
commercially; much mica is inclined to
crystallographic irregularities due either
to post-pegmatite earth movement or to
the influence of unfavorable conditions
during formation. The principal crystal¬
lographic variety is the type known as
“A” or “wedge” mica, in which the mica
books are shaped much like an arrow¬
head, and commonly taper toward the
point, sometimes as much as 30°. The
literature contains references to this
variety in every mica district in the
country, and foreign references further
show its frequent presence.

Hess8 attributed the formation of A
mica to “cooling and stoppage of solu¬
tions,” and suggests that, with continued
flow of solutions the A mica may re¬
crystallize into clear, smooth books. From
the large size, over three feet, reached
by some A mica crystals, and from defi¬
nite differences in occurrence between A
and flat mica, the writer believes that
continued flow of solutions merely makes
the A books larger, and that, at lower
temperature, coupled with other less defi¬
nite factors, A mica is formed rather
than flat.

Of the spatial relationships of musco¬
vite shoots and pockets to the country
rock contacts and internal structures no
strong generalizations can be made, ex¬
cept that in many pegmatites the mica-
rich portions lie along the country rock
contacts and along the margins of barren
quartz masses, if present. It is not
unusual for the mica shoot to occur
along the hanging wall alone, or to leave
the contact and wander through the main
pegmatite mass. In some bodies the mica
occurs in segregation pockets of almost
solid mica, but this type is rare. Of the
continuity of mica shoots, Roy7 describes
an Indian mine which has been worked
for 1000 feet along the strike and for
400 feet down dip; 700 to 800 feet is
probably about the length of the longest
shoots worked in North Carolina.

The source of the muscovite of pegma¬
tites has been held in question. The
frequent occurrences of mica pegmatites
in the muscovite schists and gneisses of
the pre-Cambrian and Paleozoic, coupled
with the rarity of commercial mica in
pegmatites in the source batholiths and
in mica-free rocks, led several observers,
such as Holland3 and Smith9 in India, to
attribute the muscovite to recrystalliza¬
tion of material assimilated from the
country rock by pegmatitic action. Even
when the pegmatites occur in mica-poor
country rock, they may at reasonable
depth traverse micaceous formations. If
the concept of the pegmatite as an open
system is accepted, it should be possible
for the pegmatitic liquor to assimilate
any constituents of mica which might
be lacking, later to precipitate the mica
where conditions were favorable, no mat¬
ter what the wall rock might be.

To oppose this view, several estimates
of muscovite content of pegmatites by
Mohr10 show that the average mica mine
yields only from 2.5 to 4% of mica by
weight; block mica contents of 4 to 7%
are not uncommon, but they characterize
shoots especially rich in mica. Bearing
in mind the nature of the pegmatite dif¬
ferentiation process, there appears to be

Geoh MTg.,SVolK‘ 76h ppmai4f-i64‘’ 1^39 °hattapodh3rah» G- The mica-pegmatites of Kodarma, India:
4 op. cit., p. 68.’ ’

vol. 7? ppM13ll47, vMn 01 the mica P<*matitcs ot Nellore: Quart. Jour. Geol. Min. Met. Soc. India,

volumeKSppP-526.5JrAm'XfSin0tMrte °" °' ^ (Lind^

7 op. cit., p. 151. 8*’

»ShndiTMHM?Iica deposits of India: Mem. India Geol. Survey, vol. 34, pp. 11-121, 1902.

10 Mnhr ’w * nT Ml+a mining in Bengal, India: Mineral Industry, vol. 7, pp. 512-513 1899
Mohr, H., Der nutzglimmer, pp. 151-153, Berlin, Gebruder Bomtraeger, 1930.

Geology — 1941 Meeting

175

little need to go beyond the original
granitic source for most of the muscovite
of pegmatites. Although pegmatites
yielding commercial sheet mica are only
rarely found in the original batholithic
source, several of the New Hampshire
mica mines are in members of the New
Hampshire magma series, which is appar¬
ently their source, and scattered refer¬
ences to similar occurrences may be
found.

According to Bowen,11 the pegmatitic
liquor is by the very nature of its origin
essentially saturated, and its reaction
with the wall rock will be chiefly in the

nature of the formation of what may be
termed addition compounds. Of over two
hundred mica pegmatites visited by the
writer, there were many in which field
evidence showed no such possible amount
of assimilation as could possibly produce
the tonnage of mica which had been ex¬
tracted, and the conclusion supporting
that of previous investigators is that,
while limited assimilation of muscovite
or alumina necessary for its formation
may take place, the source of the large
muscovite books of commercial value is
in the magmatic intrustion.

Bowen, N. L., The broader story of magmatic differentiation, briefly told: Ore deposits of the western
states, (Lindgren volume), pp. 106-128, Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1933.

STATUS OF THE CARBON-RATIO THEORY IN ILLINOIS

By Alfred H. Bell, State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois

In a paper entitled “Some Relations in
Origin between Coal and Petroleum” pub¬
lished in 1915, David White made some
generalizations that have been called col¬
lectively the “carbon-ratio theory.” Dur¬
ing the ensuing 20 years many authors
have discussed the carbon-ratio theory
and some have questioned its validity
with respect to specific areas. The pur¬
pose of the present paper is to review the
pertinent data on coal and petroleum for
the State of Illinois and to consider their
bearing on the various parts of the car¬
bon-ratio theory.

The fundamental concept of the carbon-
ratio theory is that dynamic metamor¬
phism, acting upon rock strata through
past geologic ages, has caused progressive
increase in the fixed carbon content of
coal and in the Baume gravity of petro¬
leum. From proximate analyses of coal,
giving the percentages of four constitu¬
ents, namely, moisture, volatile combust¬
ible matter, fixed carbon and ash, the
“carbon-ratio” or per cent fixed carbon
in moisture and ash free coal can be
calculated. The carbon-ratio of a coal in
any locality according to the theory, is
an index to the degree of dynamic meta¬
morphism to which the coal and its asso¬
ciated strata have been subjected in that
locality. Commercial oil fields, it was
found, are confined to areas in which
carbon-ratios are not over about 65 (pure
coal basis). Some gas fields are located

in areas of somewhat higher carbon-ratios
but not over 70. No commercial gas or oil
are found in areas of carbon-ratio above
70. In some regions a progressive in¬
crease in the Baume gravity of oil (de¬
crease in specific gravity) was noted in
going from areas of low carbon-ratio to
areas of high carbon-ratio, or from areas
of little structural disturbance to those
highly disturbed. From these observa¬
tions it is inferred that dynamic meta¬
morphism acts on oil to change it chem¬
ically, making it lighter in gravity until
a point is reached at which it is no longer
liquid at ordinary temperature and pres¬
sure. The boundary between an area in
which oil pools occur and an area of
higher carbon-ratios in which there are
no oil pools is called the “extinction
zone.” In a recent paper by David White,
the extinction zone is placed between
carbon-ratios of 61 and 63 (pure coal
basis).

If all coals were formed in the same
manner from the same original material,
and if all determinations of carbon-ratio
were made by the same procedure, the
variations in carbon-ratio found might
be ascribed entirely to varying degrees
of subsequent metamorphism. However,
it is well known that coals differ greatly
in respect to the original material from
which they were formed. Methods of
sampling coal and of making proximate
analyses of coal have differed at different

•Here published in full for the first time; abstract appeared in Transaction , Ill. Acad. Sci., 1936.
Published with permission of the Chief, State Geological Survey.

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

176

times and in different laboratories. A
number of different methods have been
used to calculate “carbon-ratios.” Con¬
sequently much caution must be used in
any attempt to use carbon-ratios as an
index to the degree of dynamic meta¬
morphism.

A discussion by W. T. Thom of sources
of error and of limitations to the use of
carbon-ratios has been published. After
considering the probable maximum varia¬
tion of carbon-ratios from the “true norm
for the metamorphism which such coal
samples have suffered,” due to initial dif¬
ferences in coal-forming vegetation at
time of burial and to errors in sampling,
analysis and computation, Thom says
“Carbon-ratios appear to provide a fair
qualitative index of local metamorphic
intensity, but do not give quantitative
measures which can be relied on in draw¬
ing isocarb contours of less than 5 per
cent (average) differences, even when
derived with all possible care.”

The relative merits of the various
methods of computing “carbon-ratio”

were also discussed by Thom in the same
paper. According to the usage of David
White and of most writers on the subject,
carbon-ratio is the percentage of fixed
carbon in dry ash-free coal computed
from the proximate analysis. Thom, on
the other hand, advocates the definition
of carbon-ratio as the percentage of fixed
carbon in moist or “as received” ash-free
or mineral-matter-free coal because “the
moisture reported in the ordinary proxi¬
mate analysis must be regarded as an
actual constituent of the coal, particularly
if the fixed carbon content is to be used
broadly as a rough index to the intensity
of metamorphic action.” An additional
but minor point in favor of using the
carbon-ratio of the moist coal is that
one less experimental determination is
involved and hence there is one less
chance for error.

Table 1 shows four methods of defin¬
ing and calculating carbon-ratio. An
actual coal analysis is taken for an ex¬
ample and carbon-ratio calculated by each
of the four methods. It may be noted

TABLE I.— CALCULATION OF CARBON-RATIO FROM PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF
“AS-RECEIVED" SAMPLE GIVEN THE FOLLOWING ANALYSIS

Moisture . Mr

Volatile Combustible Matter . VCr

Fixed Carbon . FQr

Ash . Ar

As received" Basis

15.9 per cent

Moisture Free Basis

32.6 per cent
42.5 per cent
9.0 per cent

VCf =

VC,

= 38.8

100-Mi
FCr

FCf = - == 50.5

Af =

100-Mr

Ar

Sulfur . g,

100.0

3.05 per cent

Sf =

100-M,

St

= 10.7

Carbon -Ratio I = Per cent fixed carbon in "pure coal" or dry ash free coal
FCr X 100 42.5 X 100

100-M,

= 3.62

= 56.6

100 — (Mr + Ar) 100 — (15.9 + 9.0)

Carbon- Ratio II m Per cent fixed carbon in “unit coal" or dry mineral matter free coal
100 (FCf — .15 Sf) 100 (50.5 — .15 X 3.62)

= 57.

100 — (1.08 Af + .55 Sf) 100 — (1.08 X 10.7 + .55 X 3.62)

Carbon-ratio III = Per cent fixed carbon in “as-received, ash-free, or moist, ash free” coal
FCr X 100 42.5 X 100

100 — Ar

100 — 9.0

= 46.7

carbon. Ratio IV - «raf ^-received, mineral matter free, or moist

100 (FCr — .15 Sr)

100 (42.5 — .15 X 3.05)

100

(1.08 Ar + .55 Sr)

100

(1.08 X 9.0 + .55 X 3.05)

= 47.5

Geology — 1941 Meeting

177

that carbon-ratios on the dry coal basis
are considerably higher numerically than
those on the moist coal basis but the
numerical differences resulting from the
use of mineral-matter-free instead of ash¬
free coal are comparatively small and of
the order of 1 per cent. Hence in mak¬
ing use of carbon-ratios from different
sources, those for moist coal must not be
compared directly with those on dry coal
although it is permissible when studying
large regions to use mineral-matter-free
and ash-free carbon-ratios on the same
map.

In the present study of Illinois carbon-
ratios isocarb maps were made for both
dry and moist carbon-ratios. Although
both maps showed the same broad fea¬
tures, the map of moist carbon-ratios was
more consistent and the variations in
carbon-ratio were less abrupt in some
areas than in the map of dry carbon-
ratios.

Figure 1 includes two maps, one show¬
ing structure and the other showing car¬
bon-ratios. The structural key horizon in
all but eastern Illinois is the top of coal
No. 6, and the contour interval 100 feet.
In the area of the LaSalle anticline in
eastern Illinois, the key horizon is the
base of the Sweetland Creek and top of
the Devonian limestone. The principal
structural features shown are the large
basin which includes all of the Pennsyl¬
vanian area in Illinois and extends be¬
yond the state border into Indiana and
Kentucky, the LaSalle anticline and the
Duquoin “anticline” or, more appropri¬
ately, monocline. Areas of abundant
faults in the southern part of the State
are outlined by dotted lines.

The carbon-ratios shown are the per¬
centages of fixed carbon in moist mineral-
matter-free coal (No. IV, Table 1). Datum
points are not shown. Each datum point
represents one mine and in most cases is
an average of the analyses of several face
samples. The great majority of the anal¬
yses were of coal No. 6. Those in the
northern part of the area were of coal
No. 5, No. 2 and No. 1. According to
Hilt’s law, carbon-ratios increase with
depth of burial and with geologic age
for different coals at the same loca¬
tion. Therefore, if carbon-ratios of
different coals are to be used in draw¬
ing isocarbs, they should all be referred
to a single horizon by adding or subtract¬
ing an amount which is the average dif¬

ference in carbon-ratio of the given coal
and the coal at the reference horizon
over an area in which both coals occur.
This is difficult, however, because in most
districts only one coal is mined, and data
are insufficient to obtain a reliable value
for the average difference in carbon-ratio
between any two coals in the same area.
Moreover, there are some instances where
an upper coal has a higher carbon-ratio
than a lower coal at the same locality.
In such cases it is evident that other
factors such as original constitution of
the coal-forming material had more in¬
fluence in determining carbon-ratio than
did depth of burial. Available data show
that average differences in carbon-ratio
of the various coals used in this study
are considerably less than the isocarb
contour interval of 5 per cent. Accord¬
ingly it was decided not to use a correc¬
tion to a single reference horizon.

The isocarb map shows progressive in¬
crease in carbon-ratio in going from north
to south toward the faulted area in
southern Illinois. Data are lacking in
the central part of the basin and in
most of the LaSalle anticline area but
the isocarbs have been tentatively drawn
to show a high in this area, and a low
in the basin area to the west. A pro¬
nounced carbon-ratio high extends north¬
ward from the southern part of William¬
son County a few miles east of the
Duquoin anticline. This coincides in lo¬
cation with a belt of faulting which ex¬
tends northward into Franklin County.
Some of the smaller carbon-ratio highs,
however, are not connected with known
structural features. Attention is here
called to the fact that a majority of the
oil and gas pools of the State are located
on or near carbon-ratio highs. Those
that are not so located as shown by the
present map are nearly all in areas where
carbon-ratio data are scarce or lacking,
as for example the Jacksonville gas field,
the Colman-Plymouth oil field, the Water¬
loo and Dupo oil fields. There is a sug¬
gestion that the carbon-ratio highs were
caused by forces of structural deforma¬
tion which at the same time favored the
accumulation of oil and gas.

Figure 2 is a carbon-ratio and structure
map of the southern part of Illinois. It
is on a larger scale and is more detailed
than Fig. 1. Instead of the boundaries
of faulted areas, the location of the faults
themselves is shown. In addition to the

178

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

oil and gas fields which are named, the
location of important oil shows are in¬
dicated. One of these, which was a 2-bar¬
rel show in the Ste. Genevieve lime¬
stone (Lower Mississippian) is located on
a carbon-ratio high.

Variations in oil gravity in Illinois are
greater in different stratigraphic horizons
in one locality than they are for oil from
one stratigraphic horizon in different lo¬
cations. There is no recognizable rela¬
tionship between areal variations in oil
gravity in Illinois and areal variations
in either carbon-ratios or degree of struc¬
tural disturbance. This lack of correla¬
tion may be due largely to the fact that
the known oil and gas fields of the State
are confined to areas in which the range
of carbon-ratio variation and in degree of
structural disturbance is considerably
less than the total range for the whole
State.

The data presented above on carbon-

ratios and structure in Illinois definitely
indicate a relationship between regional
variations in carbon-ratio and degree of
structural disturbance. However, the
greatest degree of structural disturbance
in the coal basin of Illinois, which occurs
in the Illinois Ozarks, falls far short of
that in the intensely folded anthracite
region of Pennsylvania, and therefore
conditions in Illinois are not suited for
a complete investigation of the carbon-
ratio theory.

Carbon-ratio data may be of some as¬
sistance in future prospecting for new
oil and gas fields in Illinois by suggesting
territory in which probabilities appear
greater than in neighboring territory.
They cannot be expected to provide as
good a basis for recommending definite
locations for drilling as detailed struc¬
tural data. Nor can any part of Illinois
be eliminated from consideration as pros¬
pective oil territory on the basis of car¬
bon-ratio data.

Fig. 2. To accompany “Status of Carbon-Ratio Theory in Illinois

by A. H. Bell.

Papers in Physics

Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman

The Evanston program carried 20 papers, 12 of which are herewith pub¬
lished. The others were :

Eaton, D. H., Northern Illinois State Teachers College , DeKalb. — In¬
ternal resistance of polarized cells.

Hinch, W. H., Central Scientific Co., Chicago.— The lift and drag forces
in a model airplane wing.

Krans, D. H., University of Illinois, Urbana. — Experimental investiga¬
tion of the flow-energy equation.

Long, V. A., Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria. — Fluctuational effects
in cosmic-ray ionization.

Peck, E. R., University of Chicago, Chicago.— High dispersion pho¬
tometry of ultra violet absorption spectra using Geiger counters.

Smith, Roland, Jr., Northwestern University, Evanston. — The electro-
magnetically driven tuning fork.

Spence, B. G., Northwestern University, Evanston. — General plan and
equipment of the new Northwestern University physics laboratory.

Steinhaus, David, Lake Forest College, Lake Forest. — Some experiments
with a flicker photometer.

Frank L. Verwiebe, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston,
was elected chairman for the Urbana meeting.

(Signed) Ph. A. Constantinides, Chairman

[ 179 J

180

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

PROGRESS IN THEORY AND USE OF CONCAVE GRATINGS

H. Beutler

University of Chicago , Chicago , Illinois

In 1882, Rowland invented the concave
grating and thus created a simple and
very powerful instrument for obtaining
spectra of high resolution and dispersion.
Since then, some changes in the mount¬
ing of the grating have been introduced,
and grazing incidence has been used for
exploring short wave-lengths in vacuum
spectroscopy.

The investigation of the spectra of
polyatomic molecules necessitates the ap¬
plication of the highest possible resolving
power over extended regions of the spec¬
trum, excluding thereby interferometers
and requiring the extension of the limits
in resolution that can be obtained by
gratings. A more general treatment of
the theory of image formation by the
concave grating was therefore started, ex¬
tending the calculations into three dimen¬
sions.

A grating is defined by its radius of
curvature, R, and by the spacing of the
grooves, d; in addition, by the area on
which grooves of length, 1, are ruled over
a width, w. We can describe then every
point P on the grating’s surface by Carte¬
sian coordinates 1, w and £, with origin
at the center 0 of the grating. In front of
the grating lies a point light source A,
with the cylindrical coordinates (origin
at 0) r, a and z, and an image point B
with r>, p and z-. The coordinates 1, z
and z- are then parallel.

For the paths of the light diffracted on
the grooves the following function holds:

F = AP + BP + m . \ ,

. d

where \ is the wavelength and m the
spectral order of the light appearing at
B. The function F is a complicated power

series in R, 1, R-1, R-2 . . containing as

factors a,p, w and 1 in ascending powers.
To have the light from A focused at B,
the function F has to fulfill Fermat’s
conditions:

3 F 0 F

- = 0 ; - = 0.

3 w 01

Mercury line 2537A, showing the five hyper-
finestructure components. The separation of
tne middle components requires a resolving
power of 300,000.

The first condition yields in first ap¬
proximation the formula for the plane
grating, \ as function of « and p, that
holds also for the Rowland circle. Fur¬
ther, it defines in higher approximation
the Rowland circle as the locus for slit
and image. The second condition does
not hold for the Rowland circle, but gives
rise to astigmatism by drawing each
point light source out to a line. But this
elongation occurs strictly in the direction
of the slit and does not impair the defini¬
tion of the spectral lines, only their in¬
tensity. This astigmatism for all angles
a and p is graphically represented in
three diagrams, one showing the length
Z’ to which the image of a point is elon¬
gated; the second gives the length of the
luminous slit necessary to obtain a spec¬
tral line that has the maximum intensity
over 5 mm along its center; the third
graph shows the position in front of the
slit that a light source should have in
order to be focused on the Rowland circle.

The focusing conditions for Wads¬
worth’s mounting are to be found by
setting r= oo (parallel light). The as¬
tigmatism for points outside of the
normal has been calculated.

Physics — 1941 Meeting

181

3F

But the partial differential - can-

d w

not be kept exactly equal to zero. The

X

maximum value allowed is — , lest extinc-

4

tion of the image occur by spherical aber¬
ration. The latter limits the allowed
length 1 and width w of the grating
simultaneously, and thus limits the maxi¬
mum resolving power. A graph repre¬
sents the allowed areas for all angles a
and p.

There are some cross terms contained
in the series development of F, involving
w. I2 . f (a, p, R). They indicate the pres¬
ence of coma in the image formation.
The magnitude is represented in a graph.
In practice it is necessary to limit its
amount by restricting the length of the
grooves.

The same cross term causes the curva¬
ture of the spectral lines, the calculation
of which has been carried through. This
information is often necessary to insure
the highest accuracy in the measurement
of the plates, or to utilize the grating as
a monochromator with a straight or
curved exit slit.

These derivations of the imperfections
in the image formation enable one to
distinguish between the defects in the ad¬

justment and the errors in the grating
itself. They allow a safe quantitative
judgment about the maximum resolving
power obtainable by a given grating.

In addition they allow one to compen¬
sate for errors in the grating by slight
changes in the mounting. Thus, the
sperical aberration can be utilized to com¬
pensate for the error run of the ruling of
the grating, by setting not the geometri¬
cal center but another point of the grat¬
ing (along its “equator”) tangent to the
Rowland circle. Thereby, the exact circle
is retained as focal curve. By this means,
three big gratings have been adjusted on
the same Rowland circle of 30 feet diam¬
eter. Each of these gratings yields a
resolving power up to 300,000 and 400,000.
The advantage of having multiple grat¬
ings is that a high intensity can be pro¬
cured over a wide wavelength range,
since each grating has a maximum re¬
flectivity over a small angular range only.

Some reproductions of spectral lines of
mercury are shown in the figure, which
indicate in the resolved hyperfine struct¬
ure a resolution of more than 300,000 ob¬
tained with our gratings.

I take pleasure in acknowledging the
cooperation of Dr. Mark Fred, N. Me¬
tropolis, and A. T. Wager in the work
leading to these results.

TWO SIMPLE PIECES OF APPARATUS FOR LECTURE
DEMONSTRATION IN GENERAL PHYSICS

M. Alden Countryman

Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois

Two simple pieces of lecture demon¬
stration apparatus are presented : one
an electromagnet made from the field
structure from an old ‘Edison’ type D. C.
generator with suitable accessory parts to
conveniently demonstrate the Faraday
disc or Homopolar Generator, Barlow’s
wheel, the action of a D’Arsonval gal¬
vanometer, electromagnetic damping, and
the moving element oscillograph, and the
other a modification of the usual device
for demonstrating the addition of colored
lights. This latter device consists of
three small lamp houses each equipped
with one of the three color-separation
filters supplied by the Eastman Kodak
Company, and so mounted as to swing
in a vertical arc about a central white

circular plane having at its center an
equilateral triangular pyramid also white.
When the lights and pyramid are adjust¬
ed so that each light shines on a sep¬
arate face of the pyramid each primary
color is separately visible. As the pyramid
is rotated, any pair of colored lights are
additively combined in variable propor¬
tions on a single face of the pyramid, and
when the three lights are swung down
they all three combine on a single face
of the pyramid and thus demonstrate
rather strikingly that if the three colors
are the three primary colors, their addi¬
tive combination must necessarily — and
does actually — produce the sensation of
white.

182

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THE METERING OF PROJECTION PRINTING

Roscoe E. Harris

Lake Forest College, Lake Forest, Illinois

A simple photometer for accurately
metering the intensity of various parts
of the negative image is a very useful
dark room adjunct in making projection
prints from miniature negatives. The
one shown in the orthographic projection
has proved to be accurate to .01 candle
meter.

This drawing (fig. 1) shows the eleva¬
tions with front and side removed and
the top view with the top partially cut
away. There is a small room containing
a 5-watt lamp and switch, light shielded
from the rest of the case except for a
small window in the side wall (shown
shaded in the drawing). This window
is covered with white paper as a diffusing
matt, and is shuttered by a variable disc
(A) turned by a knob graduated in
candle meters on the right hand side of
the case. The light may be varied from
zero to the upper limit, which may be
varied by changing the size of the win¬
dow or by changing the baffling on the
sides of the case (not shown in the fig¬
ure). These baffles are simply pieces of
black, white, and blue paper on the inner
walls to change the amount and color
value of the light that illuminates the
plate B that covers half of the field of
view. Ususally 1 candle meter is suffi¬
cient range for amateur photographic
enlargement. The intensity of B may thus
be varied from zero to 1 candle meter
without changing the color of the light. A
rheostat control is not practicable be¬
cause of color change and lack of con¬
stancy of the rheostat with temperature
changes. The sight tube directs the
vision thru an aperture stop C, which is
adjustable as indicated, onto a field of
view one-half of which is covered by the
plate B, and the other half covers a por¬
tion of the negative image being metered.
This limitation of the field of view is
essential in visual comparisons of bright¬
ness. A blue filter placed over this
aperture makes its possible to work with
a bright red light on all the time, and
completely corrects any color differences.

In use, it is necessary to have a fair
notion of the sensitometry of the paper.

Fig. 1.

For example, a contrast grade of bromide
paper has a lower threshold at about 0.5
candle meter second (c.m.s.), a middle
grey exposure of 1 V2 to 2 c.m.s., and an
upper threshold of 7 c.m.s. Suppose that
the negative is projected and a portion
selected in the middle grey, that in the
artist’s judgment requires 1.5 c.m.s. ex¬
posure. The photometer may be set at
.10 candle meter and the projector dia¬
phragm adjusted until this portion
matches in the photometer field. Then
15 seconds exposure should be correct for
the entire negative.

Differently exposed negatives will re¬
quire other photometer settings. It is
interesting to meter other spots in the
shadows and highlights and calculate the
exposure these portions will receive. Thus
a grade of paper may be selected that
would bring out the full merits of the
negative.

The photometer has been used for
measuring brightness of dimly lighted
rooms, absorption of wall papers, etc.

Sufficient detail is included in the fig¬
ure so that any one may construct the
apparatus for his own dark room.

Physics — 1941 Meeting

183

DIFFERENCES OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL IN THE
LEAVES OF PLANTS

A. Frances Johnson
Rockford College. Rockford, Illinois

Differences of electric potential appear
to exist in all living organisms. Physiolo¬
gists and biophysicists are studying these
differences of potential in an attempt to
discover their origin, and to determine
whether they are, as some investigators
think, mere indicators of processes going
on in the organism or whether they exert
some control over these processes. Knowl¬
edge of the factors which influence these
differences of potential, not only assists in
arriving at a solution of the problem of
their origin1’ 2- 3 but also makes it pos¬
sible in some cases to use them to indi¬
cate changes going on within an organ¬
ism without probing within that organ¬
ism or injuring it in any way. Since
these differences in electric potential in
plants and animals are affected by num¬
erous physical conditions, many of which
undoubtedly are yet unknown, experi¬
ments are difficult to control and it is
well to have similar experiments repeated
by several investigators. One of the fac¬
tors most studied has been the influence
of light on the potential differences be¬
tween two points on the leaves of
plants.4- 5 I am presenting data which I
have obtained on changes in potential
difference produced between a point near
the basal end of a leaf and another point
near the apical end when an area between
these points is irradiated by visible light.

Poinsettia leaves growing on the plant
have been used throughout these experi¬
ments. The differences of potential are
measured by a Compton quadrant electro¬
meter. The electrometer is housed in an
earthed electrostatic shield near which
is placed another earthed metallic box
containing the plant whose leaf is to be
used in the experiment. The pot in
which the plant is growing is insulated
on a paraffined wooden block. The leaf
is encased in a transparent plastic box
in such a manner that the leaf is sup¬
ported in a horizontal position on the bot¬
tom of the box. L-shaped electrodes of
silver wire pass through slots in the sides
of the box. One end of each electrode

has been chloridinized and dips into a
drop of tap water placed upon the leaf.
The electrode near the basal end is con¬
nected by means of a switch to the in¬
sulated quadrants of the electrometer.
The metal box which contains the plant
is painted black inside. An adjustable
opening on top admits light from an in¬
candescent lamp directly above it. A
water filter is used to absorb much of
the infra-red radiation from the lamp. A

184

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

piece of heavy black paper with a rec¬
tangular opening placed on top of the
plastic box is used to admit the light to
the desired area between the electrodes.
The intensity of the light which falls on
the leaf is determined by removing the
leaf and putting in its place a thermopile.

The type of response obtained is shown
in figs. 1 and 2. The curve gives in each
case the variation with time of the poten¬
tial of the basal electrode with respect to
the apical electrode which in turn is
earthed. The arrows indicate the in¬
tensity of the light used and the duration
of the exposure. Curve a of fig. 1 repre¬
sents the condition in which the plant
had been kept in a dimly lighted room
for several hours before the application
of the electrodes. Readings of the poten¬
tial were started as soon as the electrodes
were applied. The initial variations can
be ascribed to the disturbance caused by
mechanical manipulation in setting the
plant up for the experiment. In this case
an appreciable change in potential was
produced by the illumination. Curve b
(fig. 1) shows the response of the same
leaf on the following morning. The plant
had been left over night entirely undis¬
turbed in the light tight box. In both of
these sets of determinations the light
was allowed to fall over the whole of the
plant.

Curves c and d show the response of a
leaf irradiated on two different occasions
with light of the same intensity, for the
same length of time, and over the same
area between the electrodes. An interval
of an hour’s time during which the plant
was left undisturbed in the dark, elapsed
between the two series of observations.
The two responses were nearly indentical.
Pig. 2 shows the effect on the potential
difference of successive irradiations of
the same area of a leaf by light of in¬
creasing intensity. It will be noted that
the magnitude of the response in general
decreases with the increase in intensity
of light, but the response takes place
more rapidly. The plants represented by
curves c and d of fig. 1 and by those of
fig. 2 were kept over night in the light
tight box before observations were
started.

The variation in potential difference
observed in Poinsettia leaves with ir¬
radiation by visible light is similar to
that obtained by other observers for the
same6 and for different leaves7 using
somewhat different procedures. The re¬
sults under the conditions represented by
fig. 2 are not inconsistent with those of
Marsh8 working with Valonia, but many
more observations must be made before
a definite conclusion can be reached.

It should be remarked that the mangni-
tude of the response to irradiation varies
greatly. Many times it is so small as to
make the change indecisive. Keeping the
plant in the dark for several hours will
often increase the response, but some¬
times two days in the dark will not be
sufficient to make the response appre¬
ciable. Small responses seem to be found
more often in summer than in winter.
Whether the season, the condition of the
plant, its environment, or the conditions
under which it was grown are responsible
for this lack of change is still to be de¬
termined.

I should like to express my apprecia¬
tion of the interest and assistance given
to this work by Dr. Charles Sheard of
the Mayo Foundation, and to the Illinois
State Academy of Science for a grant of
money which has made it possible to con¬
tinue the work at Rockford College.

REFERENCES

1. Lund, E. J. Relation between continuous bio¬
electric currents and cell respiration. II. Jour
Exp. Zool., vol. 51, pp. 265-290, 1928.

. . 7 t wie oux equiuDrium rela¬

tion. Plant Physiol., vol. 12, pp. 861-867, 1937.

3. Blinks, L. R., Darsie, M. L., Jr., and Skow,
K'« Bloelectric potentials in Halicystis, VII:
The effects of low oxygen tension. Jour. Gen
Physiol., vol. 22, pp. 255-279, 1938.

4. Waller, J. 0. Plant Electricity. II: Towards
an interpretation of the photoelectric currents of
leaves. New Phytol., vol. 28, pp. 291-302, 1929.

5. Sheard, O. and Johnson, A. F. The effects of
infra-red, visible, and ultra-violet irradiation on
changes in electric potentials and currents in plants
Science, n.s., vol. 71, pp. 246-248, 1930.

6. Sheard, G. Unpublished data, 1929.

7. Brown, S. O. Relation between light and the

electric polarity of Ohara. Plant Physiol., vol. 13
pp. 713-736, 1938. ’ ’

P' The effect of light on the inherent
E.M.F. of Valonia ventricosa. I : Intensity and
time relations. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No 517
Papers from Tortugas Lab., vol. 32, paper 4 pp!

R.A.R4 1QQO > v v 9 w

Physics — 1941 Meeting

185

RADIOACTIVE TIPS FOR THE LECTURE TABLE

Chas. T. Knipp

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

A number of years ago the author1 de¬
scribed a radioactive tip consisting of a
solid cane of Pyrex glass about 2 mm in
diameter and 5 cm long carrying on one
end a minute quantity of a radioactive
salt of high activity for furnishing the
source of positive rays (alpha particles)
in a simple Wilson cloud chamber.

To prevent the radioactive material
from flooding the chamber with emana¬
tion, and also to guard against the active
salt being washed off by coming in con¬
tact with the water within the apparatus
when in use, the tip carrying the salt
was (and still is) covered with a very
thin film of glass (Pyrex) to keep back
the emanation but which allows the alpha
particles to pass freely.

The tip while being fabricated is tested
by placing it temporarily in a cloud
chamber. If less than 5 alpha ray tracks
result on each expansion it is rejected.
An occasional one may give 10 to 15
tracks. For purposes however of showing
the phenomenon to a class the number of
resulting tracks should be between 5 and
10. More than 10 is like watching a four
ring circus.

These tips are being used at the present
time for other purposes in the physical
sciences, notably for showing the dis¬
charge of electroscopes on the lecture
table. For this purpose stronger tips are
desired. The stronger the tip, i.e., the
more radioactive material that it carries,
the more rapid the discharging effect, and
also the farther away this effect may be
noticed.

Tips that are used in the open should
be handled with care. The active end
with its covering of thin mocroscopic
glass is easily injured by touching with
the finger or by rough handling. Tips
for lecture table demonstrations should
each produce from 25 to 50 alpha ray
tracks on expansion. It is impracticable
to make each larger or stronger because
of constructional difficulties. Hence if
sources of radioactivity of greater
strength than 50 alpha ray tracks (on
the scale cited above) are desired, as in

the case of discharging an electroscope
at a distance, two or more tips may be
assembled in bundles as shown in fig.l.

In the figure, a represents a single
finished unmounted tip. It is in this
form that they have their greatest use.

To prevent the active ends from
being touched in handling, or injury in
use, it is recommended that these bundles
be mounted in glass envelopes the open
end of each to project about 2 mm beyond
the ends of the tips encased. The mount¬
ing of a single cane is shown at b in fig.
1; and for a bundle of 3 canes, at c.
The corresponding end views are also
shown. The mount is entirely of glass

a o
1

Fig.l

and with handle is about 15 cm long.
To prevent it from rolling off the table
each envelope has 3 equally spaced glass
nibs fused on it (only two are shown)
as indicated at b and c. The end views
of these larger bundles containing 7, 12,
and 19 tips respectively, mounted within
glass envelopes, are shown at d, e, and /.

Obviously, for a given distance from an
electroscope, the rate of discharging it is
directly proportional to the number of
tips, providing of course that all emit
approximately the same number of alpha
particles. This condition is approached
as nearly as possible in their manufac¬
ture. A strong radioactive deposit will
fail to produce tracks (when tested as
above indicated) if a thick film of glass is
used for a cover. Hence great care must
be exercised in their fabrication, and,
further, radioactive salt of suitable in¬
tensity is expensive.

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

FORMS OF DISCHARGE IN MICRO-GAPS

Richard W. Jones and Walter S. Huxford
Central Y. M. C. A. College , Northwestern University , Evanston, III.

The potential required to produce a dis¬
ruptive discharge between two electrodes
immersed in a gas has been studied by a
large number of workers. At gas pres¬
sures of 150 cm and less the breakdown
potential follows Paschen’s Law, that is
Vs = f (p x d). The curve of breakdown
potential versus electrode separation in
this pressure range is characterized by a
pronounced minimum potential, below
which it is impossible to obtain a spark
breakdown.

Hobbs1 and others have shown that at
atmospheric pressure there is a signifi¬
cant departure from Paschen’s Law, in
that the breakdown characteristic does
not exhibit a minimum value. Instead,
the potential at very small gaps decreases
linearly to zero, which suggests a field
dependent discharge. All the fields re¬
ported in the literature are of the order
of 106 volts per cm. Although this is the
order of field strength within which field
currents have been obtained in vacuum,
it was not until a recent paper by Pear¬
son2 that any measurements of field cur¬
rents at atmospheric pressure were re¬
ported.

The discharge or breakdown at gaps
of the order of 10-4 cm takes several dif¬
ferent forms. At gaps somewhat smaller
than this value, it has been generally ob¬
served that the breakdown results in co¬
hesion or short circuit of the contacts.
This cohesion has been shown to consist
of a bridge of electrode metal. At gaps
somewhat greater than 10~4 cm, it is found
that breakdown results in a more or less
stable discharge of the nature of an arc.
It should be pointed out that the break¬
down described above may occur at po¬
tentials less than the minimum sparking
potential as given by the Paschen curve.
Eskin3 previously suggested that this
type of breakdown might well explain the
reignition of AC arcs.

The authors, working with polished
silver electrodes, have observed that the
breakdown potential for these micro-gaps
is dependent upon their history. This is
perhaps best seen by reference to table I,
which shows the manner in which the

breakdown voltage changes with the
magnitude of the initial applied potential.
In the case of electrodes 1 to 4 the ini¬
tially applied potential of 10 volts was
increased in steps of 10 volts, each step
being held for 5 seconds, until breakdown
occurred at the voltage indicated. For
electrodes 5 to 12, in all except one case.

Table I. Effect of Initial Voltage on
Breakdown

Electrode

number

Initial

voltage

Breakdown

voltage

Gap

(Cm)

1 .

10

320

.000052

2 .

10

320

))

3 .

10

290

”

4 .

10

260

)>

5 .

120

120

»

6 .

120

))

7 .

120

120

»

8 .

120

120

))

9 .

130

130

10 .

130

130

yy

11 .

130

130

yy

12 .

130

130

yy

breakdown was observed at the initial
potential.

Previous observations of the break¬
down of these micro-gaps were made with
the use of a voltmeter connected across
the electrodes. Series resistance was
used with the contacts, and the decrease
in potential across the electrodes was
taken as indication of a discharge. In
the present study it has been found that
transient discharges occur between
polished silver electrodes before a break¬
down (either cohesion or a stable dis¬
charge) takes place. These discharges
are faintly audible, and luminous when
observed in a darkened room, although
it was found impossible to detect them
on a voltmeter connected across the con¬
tacts. These discharges were character¬
ized, however, by a variety of markings
left upon the electrode surfaces. These
markings are entirely different from
those observed following a complete
breakdown.

The markings observed were of two

4G. M. Hobbs, Phil. Mag-. (6) 10, 617, 1905.
, G. L. Pearson, Phys. Rev. 56, 471, 1939.

S. G. Eskin, J. App. Phys. 10, 631, 1939.

Physics — 1941 Meeting

187

distinct varieties. In fig. 1 is shown a so-
called “bird shot” pattern. The markings
were somewhat less than 1 mm in diam¬
eter, and the cathode marking was al¬
ways found to be more extensive than the
one on the anode. In general, this type
of marking occurred with a low series
resistance (76 ohms) and at a voltage of
less than about 250 volts.

Fig. 2 shows a ring pattern, which
consists of a number of concentric col¬
ored rings. This type of marking was
observed in general with relatively high
series resistance (1000 ohms) and at po¬
tentials above 270 volts. In some in¬
stances the rings completely filled the
area, leaving no clear central region as
shown in fig. 2. In other cases, a bird
shot pattern has been observed within

CATHODE

Plate I. — Electrode surface markings
“bird-shot” 2.

the central area of a ring pattern.

Using an extremely high series resist¬
ance (1010 ohms) and a galvanometer in
series with the electrodes, current pulses
were observed within this range of gaps
and voltages. At a given gap setting, these
current pulses appear quite at random
for voltages below 320 volts, but above
this value, however, the pulses appear at
more or less regular intervals until at
350 volts or so, the pulses are quite regu¬
larly spaced, having frequencies of the
order of 30 per minute. A further in¬
crease in voltage greatly increases the
frequency, until finally cohesion results.
Each pulse is accompanied by a luminous
discharge in the gap, but no markings
such as described above have been ob¬
served on the elctrodes.

2 ANODE

following a transient discharge. 1. Shows
Shows ring pattern.

188

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

OBSERVING AND MEASURING SWAY IN A TALL BUILDING

Sister Mary Therese, B.V.M.

Mundelein College , Chicago, Illinois

A very comprehensive study of wind
forces extending over a five year period
of observation on the Empire State Build¬
ing is reported in the Proceedings of the
American Society of Civil Engineers,
September, 1938. It seemed of interest to
compare the results of a similar study on
a fifteen story building with those on one
hundred and two stories. Although our
study was begun only two months ago
the data collected lead to several inter¬
esting and confirming results.

The building in which the observations
reported were made is Mundelein College
for Women, located on Sheridan Road at
Devon Avenue in Chicago. The total
height above the street level is 208 feet.
Above the fourth floor there is symmetry
along one axis extending north and south.
Structurally this building consists of re¬
inforced concrete construction, the outer
walls of which are covered with lime¬
stone. The partitions are of tile and
plaster and the floors of concrete, pan
construction. Much of this material is
not elastic and does not follow Hooke’s
law. As a result when it is subjected to
loads, the building shows a slight amount
of plastic action; that is, when it is de¬
flected by a horizontal force it will not
return exactly to a definite fixed position.

The story height, the length of the re¬
sisting walls, the number of windows, the
type of masonry, the sequence in which
the different stories were built and the
temperature— all affect the damping re¬
sistance, and these variables make it im¬
possible to predict what the ratios of re¬
sistance will be in any given building.
After many high winds the wall resist¬
ance probably diminishes.

For these reasons engineers design for
elastic resistance only. Even there the
variables are so many, and so many ap¬
proximate assumptions are necessary that
their best design figures are plus or
minus ten per-cent. Their -aim is to so
frame the building that under the maxi¬
mum “twenty-year-wind” in the most ef¬
fective direction the yield point of the
elastic materials will not be exceeded.

The buildings in the vicinity of the

structure are of varying heights ranging
from low two story residences to seven¬
teen story apartment buildings. A study
of the character of the obstructions
which, it was easily seen, were of the
type that would disturb the air currents,
was undertaken for a radius of four
blocks. North and northwest, south and
southwest are the directions of greatest
obstruction. The entire east side is ex¬
posed to the Lake and the west side has
but one building as tall as seven stories.

Two methods of taking observations
were used. In one the dial on the four-cup
anemometer and the direction of the wind
were read just before and just after the
deflection readings. The average velocity
was taken and not the maximum. In the
other half hour deflection readings were
automatically recorded on a single record¬
ing sheet for a period of eight hours each
day. These cluster points were inter¬
preted on the basis of average deflection
and average anemometer readings which
were taken hourly during the correspond¬
ing day.

A pendulum hanging from a point be¬
tween the eighth and ninth floors with a
110 lb. bob poised over a recording table
was adjusted to a chosen zero point at the
centre of a graduated circle directed to¬
ward the compass points. A sheet of polar
coordinate paper was placed between
the tungsten point on the lower surface
of the bob and a copper plate on the re¬
cording table. For one type of observa¬
tion the automatic timing device closed
the circuit every half hour, and a perfora¬
tion was made in the polar coordinate
paper. For the other, a new sheet of
polar co-ordinate paper was slipped into
the gap and properly orientated, the
switch manipulated manually, and the
reading taken.

By either method the deflection for
wind velocity up to 20 miles per hour
did not exceed 0.15 inches with the lower
limit at 0.08 inches. At no time did the
deflection reading return to the chosen
zero point. The data reported herein are
those of the movement of the ninth floor
relative to a point 120 feet below, the

Physics — 1941 Meeting

189

lateral movement of which is doubtless
small and may be neglected.

In effect, the building has two distinct
movements. It deflects from the vertical
and it vibrates with a definite period,
similar to the prongs of a tuning fork
when struck. A steady wind causes de¬
flections only, whereas a gusty wind will
set up vibrations with amplitudes that
vary with the strength and character of
the storm.

To study the vibration of the building
a transit instrument was set up in the
pendulum shaft and sighted on a target
on the top of the shaft. Up to the present
the amplitude of vibration has been too
small to be detected. As the pendulum
did not record movements of its support
that are not of greater duration than the
period of its swing, which is 11.92 sec¬
onds, the building vibrations are not re¬
corded by the bob, but their mean posi¬
tion is determined by it.

Observation of the air currents around

the structure were made on April 25, at
3 o’clock in the afternoon during a seven
mile per hour wind blowing from the
east. A rubber balloon was tied to a
long thread and sent out from several pre¬
determined points near corners on the
4th, 8th, and 14th stories. These data
show that the flow of air is greatly dis¬
turbed by the building in a manner far
from simple.

The following conclusions directly con¬
firm those of the study made on the Em¬
pire State Building:

(1) The distribution of the wind pres¬
sure on a tall building is very compli¬
cated and irregular; the air currents
having broken up by the surrounding
structures and by the building itself.

(2) The action of the building under
horizontal loads is plastic as well as elas¬
tic, with the result that strains and de¬
flections are not proportional to the
forces that produce them.

THE USE OF THE PERIODOGRAM IN ESTABLISHING THE
REALITY OF HIDDEN OR SUSPECTED PERIODICITIES

Theodore G. Phillips, Wright Junior College, Chicago, Illinois

The investigation for the evidence as
to the realtity of a periodic change in the
intensity of cosmic rays with respect to
sidereal time is rendered unusually diffi¬
cult for three reasons:

1. The sidereal diurnal period is only
four minutes shorter than the solar
diurnal period, or about 1/365 of a
solar day.

2. In addition to this very minute dif¬
ference in the periods, the sidereal
variation is much smaller than the
solar variation.

3. The amount of data available is lim¬
ited and does not extend in most
projects beyond three or four years.

The appearance of a sidereal variation
upon mathematical analysis by no means
establishes the reality of the sidereal
variation, for with a seasonal change
there is introduced by formal analysis a
variation which is spurious at a fre¬
quency corresponding to the sidereal day.
The appearance of such a spurious fre¬
quency further complicates the problem.

If a function f(t) be periodic with two
periods Tx and Ta, and if
2

a = - J0T f.(t) cos kt dt

Tn

2

b = - Jo Tf(t) sin kt dt

Tn

c3 = a2 + b3

then c2 which depends upon T, the period,
n, the number of observations, and the
amplitudes of the variations will have
values other than zero at points corres¬
ponding to the two periods. The values
between the points corresponding to the
periods and T2 may not be zero if the
amplitudes are large and the observations
few in number. The curve obtained by
plotting c2 against T is called the periodo-
gram. Beyond the abscissae Tx and T2
the value of c2 falls off to zero very
rapidly.

The ordinates of the two peaks (at Tt
and T2) will depend upon the amplitudes
of the two variations. Here again, be-

190

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

of the finite limits of the Fourier Inte¬
grals spurious periodicities are intro¬
duced giving secondary maxima on either
side of the principal maximum, but these
spurious maxima may be distinguished
from the real (fig.la), since with increas¬
ing data these secondary peaks move to¬
ward their respective principal maxima
(fig.lb and lc).

The calculation of amplitudes corre¬
sponding to different periods may be per¬
formed by Fourier analysis; however,
this involves a great deal of work, and
since in the present problem the periods
are close, this work can be greatly simpli¬
fied as outlined in the following para¬
graphs.

The Fourier analysis was made for the
period of one solar day with groups of
days averaging about fifteen. Amplitudes

corresponding to periods slightly smaller
and larger than one solar day and extend¬
ing beyond the period equal to the side¬
real day may be obtained by reference to
the harmonic dial. If the maximum
value of the function

2nt 2nt

f(t) = a cos - -}■ b sin -

T T

2 n t

= c sin - (- $

T

where T is one solar day

is represented on a twenty-four hour
clock dial by a vector, its length will in¬
dicate the amplitude, and its direction,
the time of maximum. On the other hand,
if this be done for a cloud of days, then
the vector will indicate the mean ampli¬
tude and the mean time of maximum.

If the function f(t) is to be investi¬
gated for a period other than that repre¬
sented on the face of the harmonic dial,
then the vector for each partial cloud
must be rotated through an angle depend¬
ing upon the trial period. The amplitude
c corresponding to the trial period T' is
given by the following set of equations:

Is n “

a' = — 2 (nm— nml) am cos «m —

n8 m=l bm sin am

b'

1 s

— 2 (nm — nm J

n„ m=l

( Om-i -j- nm)

am sin «m +

bm COS am

n T — T '

T '

where ns is the total number of days
analyzed (nm — n^) is the weighing
factor and is the number of days in the
mth group, and s is the number of
groups.

After a suitable number of trial periods
have been calculated the amplitudes may
be plotted against the corresponding pe¬
riods and this resultant curve is the
periodogram. If peaks appear at the sus¬
pected periods these may be investigated
as regards their reality by statistical
tests of significance. Since the seasonal
variation introduced a spurious sidereal
period, this variation may be subtracted
from the periodogram and the remaining
portion may be investigated for a true
sidereal variation.

One advantage of this method of anal¬
ysis is that it is possible to obtain the

Physics — 1941 Meeting

191

background of amplitudes. If the back¬
ground of amplitudes about the periods
investigated is of the same magnitude
as that of the sidereal periodicity, no
valid conclusion can very well be drawn
concerning the realtiy of the suspected

period. In the investigation which is be¬
ing carried on in connection with the
variation in intensity of cosmic rays, it is
hoped that this method will give some
positive evidence about the sidereal
period.

THE EMISSION SPECTRA OF PLANETARY NEBULAE

Thornton Page, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

Abstract

Photometrically standardized and cali¬
brated wide slit spectra of 48 planetary
nebulae have been obtained with the
quartz Cassegrain spectrograph attached
to the 82-inch reflecting telescope at the
McDonald Observatory in Texas. The
spectra on panchromatic emulsions
are in good definition from X 6563 to
\3133. Accurate intensities of the emis¬
sion lines of H, He I, He II, [0 III], 10 II],
0 III, [Ne III], [He V], and of the con¬
tinuous emission will be reduced from
the spectra. From a preliminary examin¬
ation of the material it has been possible
to classify the nebulae of normal surface
brightness (about 7 mag. per square min¬
ute of arc) according to the excitation
shown by their spectra. High-excitation
spectra show strong He II, stronger [0
III] than [0 II], and relatively strong
continuous emission. There is a continu¬
ous sequence down to the low excitation
spectra showing no He II, no con¬
tinuous emission, and stronger [Oil]
than [0 III], This is a temperature se¬
quence involving both the temperature of
the nuclear star and the electron tempera¬
ture in the nebula. The low-surface-
brightness nebulae (about 11 mag. per
square minute of arc) have strong [0 II]
as well as strong He II and do not fit
into the sequence. Fig. 1 shows this
effect on a 20-fold enlargement of one
hour’s exposure of the spectrum of NGC
6853 (the “Dumbell Nebulae”, 12.7 mag.
per square minute of arc) compared with
a 4 minute exposure of the spectrum of
NGC 6818 (7.3 mag. per square minute of
arc). Pecularities are noted in the mono¬
chromatic images of several nebulae: in
particular the \3727 image of [0 II] often
shows quite a different structure of the
nebula from the other line images.

NGC6818 NGC6853

>6563 m- m

■ m

' . •

... , ■■

'

xsooi tom]
A Wf* [oHlJ
A */$&Z Hp

H'TT

'"w" fi ' '

X*3fe3 [Onf]
\Hi¥t

a 3069 [Mw] n

\2%6>3[A/eW] W

\3727 [oir]

\3W$ onr

192

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

A SATISFACTORY METHOD FOR MEASURING THE
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION BETWEEN RUBBER
TIRES AND ROAD MATERIALS

V. F. Swaim, Bradley Polytechnic Institute , Peoria, Illinois

A short time ago Professor R. F. Paton
of the University of Illinois presented a
paper before the Illinois State Physics
Teachers Association on a proposed “Fric¬
tion Spool Experiment”. It was sug¬
gested in that discussion that the friction
spool could be used to determine the co¬
efficient of friction between the spool and
any material placed under the spool. It
occurred to the writer immediately that
the friction spool could be so constructed
that one could determine the coefficient
of friction between rubber tires and road
materials. Two rubber tires, eight inches
in diameter, were purchased and a wood¬
en cylinder was turned to such a diam¬
eter that the tires would fit securely over
the ends. One end of a strip of canvas
was tacked to the cylinder, while the
other end was attached to a wire hook so
that a cord could pass from the hook
under a pulley and be attached to a pair
of spring scales hanging in a vertical
position, as shown in fig. la. It was

shown in Professor Paton’s paper that
there was an angle e at which the ten¬
sion T in the canvas could be applied so
that the spool would slide on the surface
under it instead of rolling. It was shown
further that the condition of equilibrium
when the spool was sliding required that
the force of friction between the spool

W e

1740 61.3°

2793 61.4°

3837 61.1°

4906 61.1°

5945 61.2°

6998 61.3°

1740 61.3°

2793 61.3°

3837 61.1°

4906 61.3°

5945 61.5°

6998 61.4°

1740 61.3°

2793 61.6°

3837 61.6°

4906 61.2°

5945 61.5°

6998 61.0°

and the surface under it, the weight
of the spool W, and the tension T in the
canvas must intersect in a point when
represented by vectors, as shown in fig.
lb. It is easily seen from the diagram
that the force of friction f is given by
T cos e, while the pressure of the spool
on the road is given by W — T sin e.
Therefore, the coefficient of friction ^ is
given by

T Cos e

(* —

w

Since it was

— T Sin e
desirable in this

u;

experi-

ment

to apply

different weights

to the

road

surface, a

l round hole was

made

along the axis of the wooden cylinder so

that cylindrical weights of approximately

T

T Cos i

0 T Sin e

1350

648

1183

1.163

2150

1029

1888

1.138

3100

1508

2717

1.343

3900

1895

3420

1.277

4900

2369

4295

1.435

5750

2780

5041

1.420

1350

648

1183

1.163

2150

1033

1889

1.142

3000

1448

2627

1.195

3800

1827

3330

1.159

4600

2190

4040

1.151

5400

2586

4742

1.148

1250

601

1097

.934

2000*

950

1757

.916

2750

1308

2416

.920

3500

1684

3067

.915

4250

2027

3734

.915

5000

2423

4373

.923

Glass

Wood

Concrete

Physics — 1941 Meeting

193

1000 grams each could be placed along
the axis of the spool.

It was also found desirable to place the
road materials on a small truck provided
with rollers so the road could be moved
in a horizontal direction under the spool,
as shown in fig. la.

Since the tires may flatten as the load
is increased, the angle e may not be
quite the same for all loads and should
therefore be measured in each case.

The readings and calculations for a few
road materials are shown in the following
table.

THE PRODUCTION OF GEIGER-MULLER TUBES

Francis R. Shonka

Be Paul University and W. M. Welch Manufacturing Co., Chicago, Illinois

Geiger-Muller counting tubes are used
so extensively today that everyone is
more or less familiar with them. How¬
ever, there have been so many differing
points of view on the actual operation of
a counter, that we will discuss the dis¬
charge mechanism with a view to deter¬
mine what comprises a good counting
tube. The bibliography for the various
ideas presented here would be too lengthy
and hence no reference will be given.

Although the counting and recording
circuits and even scaling circuits, where
high speed counting is employed, have
been developed to an entirely satisfactory
degree, there still remains much to be de¬
sired in improving the technique for the
production of tubes with good character¬
istics, and it is just this very difficulty
that has limited their use.

The things that are definitely known
about the action of a Geiger-Muller tube
are that when a ray produces at least one
pair of ions inside of the tube, a dis¬
charge will take place, and this discharge
must in turn be stopped. The time of
this discharge, together with the time
required for the tube to recover suffi¬
ciently to register the next ray should be
as short as possible.

Let us try to analyze the action taking
place while a count is being recorded. It
is only necessary for the ray traversing
the tube to produce a single ion pair. The
electron from this first ionization comes
into the region of the central wire, which
is at a high potential with respect to the
cylinder. When the electron reaches this
strong field it produces both positive and
negative ions by collision with the atoms
of the gas. The electrons are quite cer¬
tainly the chief ionizing agent since the
field in the neighborhood of the central
wire is sufficient for the electrons to ion¬

ize by collision. Due to the fact that the
mobility of the positive ions is much less
than that of the electrons, the positive
ions do not play an important part in
this process. Each new electron will in
turn create new ion pairs, so that the
region of the central wire will become
heavily ionized.

If this heavy ionization actually takes
place, it must be accompanied by the pro¬
duction of photons. This can be visually
confirmed by the fact that if one observes
the tube in a darkened room while it is
operating, a flash of light covering the
central wire will be seen every time a dis¬
charge takes place. These photons at the
center of the counter may again eject
photoelectrons by absorption in the gas
or the cathode of the tube. Many have
considered these ejected electrons to play
a most important part in the character¬
istics of a counter, and so they have at¬
tempted to reduce the effect of these
ejected electrons by increasing the work
function of the cathode or by coating the
cathode with a high resistance material.

It seems reasonable that since the posi¬
tive ions are less mobile than the elec¬
trons, there will be an accumulation of
positive charges around the central wire.
This will reduce the potential gradient
until no further ionization even by the
electrons can take place. The positive
cloud then moves outwardly and reaches
the cathode in about 10-6 seconds. On
reaching the cathode these positive ions
may or may not produce new electrons.

It seems that the so-called “self quench¬
ing” counters are those in which no new
electrons are produced. Tubes in this
class are those containing vapors, and
tubes that have special coatings on the
cathode. If, on the other hand, new elec¬
trons were produced at the surface of the

194

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

cylinder, the entire action might be re¬
peated if the potential difference across
the electrodes was at least equal to the
threshhold voltage. The voltage across
the tube will have been reduced by the
migration of these ions by an amount de¬
pending on the quantity of charge trans¬
ferred; the constants of the circuit; and
on the amount of charge that leaked back
to the electrode through the external high
resistance. If the initial surge of ions
reduces the voltage across the tube suffi¬
ciently then the discharge will be stopped
even though new electrons be formed at
the cathode. On the other hand, if this
surge does not reduce the potential
difference sufficiently a new surge
of ions takes place, and each surge would
reduce the potential difference and the
action finally ceases when the difference
of potential is reduced to a value below
threshold voltage.

There have been many other ideas put
forth concerning the discharge mech¬
anism of a counter, but the ones which
have been presented above seem to be the
most reasonable ones. They also have
been verified by experience to a large ex¬
tent.

Thus to build a fast counter it is ob¬
vious that the whole discharge process
should be completed with a single surge
of the charges inside of the tube. This
will be the case provided no electrons
will be produced at the cathode when the
positive ions strike the wall, as is the
case in the “self quenching” type of
counter. In this type of tube the vapor
filled ones seem to be the most successful.
The methods of filling these tubes are
not critical, and it is possible to obtain
practically one hundred per cent produc¬
tion efficiency. A good technique consists
of evacuating the tubes with a force
pump; filling them to a pressure of about
a centimeter of mercury with some or*
ganic vapor, such as ethyl alcohol; add
ing about nine centimeters of mercury
pressure of argon; and finally sealing
them off. The way in which these vapor
tubes are generally used is by connecting
them to the source of potential difference
through a resistance of the order of 105
ohms.

Another type of fast counter is one in
which the potential difference would be
reduced to a value below threshold volt¬

age by a single surge of the ions. The
technique that we have employed for a
tube of this kind involves a thorough
cleansing before assembling the parts of
the tube. After the parts are assembled
the tube is filled with cleaning solution
for several hours, and then washed with
distilled water. The tube is then pumped
on a high vacuum system from ten to
twenty hours at a temperature of over
500 °C. This removes impurities especi¬
ally from the surface of the glass. The
copper cylinder is then oxidized and the
oxide coat is removed with a dilute solu¬
tion of nitric acid, in order to get the
copper cylinder in as clean a condition as
possible. After a thorough flushing with
distilled water, the tubes are again put on
the pumping system and baked for sever¬
al hours. Commercial hydrogen is then
admitted while the tube remains at the
high temperature. This reduction is con¬
tinued for about two hours, after which
time they are evacuated and refilled with
hydrogen through a palladium valve to
about ten centimeters of mercury pres¬
sure. With this technique we have ob¬
tained tubes with plateaus of over a
thousand volts having very good all-
around performance. Due to the long
plateau no stabilized source of high volt¬
age is necessary. These tubes can be used
at a very high over voltage, thus increas¬
ing the speed with which the ions
multiply.

The tube is generally used with a
Neher-Harper or a Neher-Pickering am¬
plifying circuit which reduces the time
required for recovery. We have found
these hydrogen tubes to stay constant
over indefinitely long periods of time.
Some of our tubes, which were built five
years ago, still function as well as when
they were made. I do not know of any
vapor tubes than can quite measure up to
this performance. The chief drawback to
this tedious technique for the hydrogen
tubes is that the production mortality is
very high.

There are other techniques used by in¬
vestigators for building Geiger-Mulier
tubes, but in many cases these magic
formulae seem to work only for the per¬
sons who devised them. The two tech¬
niques which have been considered in this
paper are probably the most widely used.

Physics — 1941 Meeting

195

THE ANALYSIS OF AN A. C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING

R, L, and C

Frank L. Verwiebe

Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Illinois

The usage of the term, power factor,
referring to alternating currents, is be¬
coming increasingly common. Not only
are motors recommended in terms of
their power factor, hut now the advertise¬
ments of certain brands of the newly
popularized fluorescent lamps also refer
to their high power factor. It was this
latter fact that suggested a demonstra¬
tion experiment in the beginning course
of physics to make the analysis of an
A. C. circuit as simple and clear as pos¬
sible.

Fig. 1 shows the circuit used. The
values of R, L, and C are so chosen that
the current may be made exactly 1 am¬
pere by adjusting R, a slide wire rheo¬
stat. This greatly reduces the later com¬
putations. The voltage leads of the watt¬
meter and the voltmeter leads are left
free to be placed across the different
parts of the circuit, as well as across the
circuit as a whole. By joining these leads
in pairs the manipulation of the experi¬
ment is facilitated.

Typical data are indicated below the
figure. They include the power in watts,
the voltage, and the current for R, L, C,
and the entire circuit.

Fig. 2 shows the computations per¬
formed on the data. From the relation

W = VI cos 0 — VI x power factor,
cos e, the power factor, is first calculated,
then sin e is found from trigonometric
tables. The values of V cos 0 and Vsin 0
are next computed. The vector diagram
shown in the lower half of the figure is
drawn to scale. A check of the work is
provided by summing the appropriate
vectors to find the resultant voltage. Its
magnitude and phase angle in respect of
the current should match within the
limits of experimental error the values
observed and computed for the circuit
taken as a whole.

WATTS

VOLTS

AMPERES

RESISTOR

102

102

1

COIL

7

53

1

CONDENSER

5

39

1

WHOLE CIRCUIT

114

• 115

1

COMPUTATIONS

W

V

z

cos 6
w/vi

sinO

1/cosO

R

/sinO

X

RESISTOR

102

102

102

1.000

0

102

O

COIL

7

53

53

.132

.991

7

52

CONPENSER

5

39

39

.154

.988

6

38

whole

CIRCUIT

114

115

115

.991

.133

114

15

If desired these data can also be used
to analyze the impedence of L and C into
reactance and resistance, so that the in¬
ductance and capacitance and power
factors can be computed.

This experiment is followed by an in¬
dividual experiment performed by each
student, in which he measures the D. C.
resistance and the A. C. impedance of an
inductance coil. From these he computes
the reactance, inductance and power fac¬
tor of the coil.

Papers in Social Science

Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman

The first meeting of this new section in the Illinois Academy of Science
was attended by about 20 and had four papers on this initial program. Two
of these are herewith published. The others were :

Lathrop, H. 0., Illinois State Normal University, Normal — The end of
our public domain.

Wirth, Louis, University of Chicago, Chicago — Sociological research in

Illinois.

It was decided to continue this section in future, and C. W. Schroeder,
Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, consented to act as chairman for the
1942 meeting.

(Signed) D. E. Lindstrom, Chairman

[197]

198

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THE SOCIOLOGIST IN A TIME OF CRISIS

Arthur J. Todd

Northwestern University, Evanston , Illinois

My feelings in undertaking a discus¬
sion of this topic are, to say the least,
highly mixed. On the one hand I feel
like the traditional fool venturing to
rush in where angels fear to tread. On
the other hand I feel like the pedestrian
starting on a supposed voyage of dis¬
covery along a dusty highway, beaten
down by centuries of earlier travelers.
However, as good soldiers and good mem¬
bers of our craft, I am glad to join with
my fellow social scientists in this dis¬
cussion.

In the first place let us state that we
are not unaware that other social scien¬
tists are studying this same problem.
Only a week ago on this campus repre¬
sentatives of the National Social Science
Research Council and of local councils
from Massachusetts to California spent
two whole days threshing out this very
question. You will all remember Profes¬
sor Maclver’s presidential address to the
American Sociological Society last De¬
cember. The whole tenor of his talk
was on this very subject of what the
sociologist should do at such a critical
period in our history. He referred to
a committee of the American Sociologi¬
cal Society which was studying the
problems of the nation in process of
arming itself against crisis. You will
recall also the report of the Sub-commit¬
tee of the Executive Committee on Par¬
ticipation of Sociologists in the National
Emergency Program, dated December 29,
1940. As a result of that report appar¬
ently a policy was adopted by the Ex¬
ecutive Committee establishing a regular
standing committee of the Society to
work with the United States Civil Serv¬
ice Commission. Also, undoubtedly as a
result of these same considerations, a
committee drafted a very intensive ques¬
tionnaire which was sent to all members
of the Sociological Society asking them
to list their qualifications and specific
technical abilities which might be avail¬
able to government in this particular
emergency. Many of us filled out those
questionnaires and returned them. The

American Economic Association followed
suit with somewhat similar question¬
naires.

Partly as a measure of self defense
the universities and colleges have be¬
come interested almost to the point of
alarm over this attempt to mobolize ac¬
tively sociological and other scientific
talent for governmental service. And
with good reason, because while, of
course, it is understood that many soci¬
ologists have administrative and other
abilities which could serve governmental
purposes extremely well, nevertheless
there are certain other functions of the
sociologist which must be maintained on
the college and university level if we
are not to be caught in the swirl of
emotional disturbance and forget the
duty right at hand in the thrill of a con¬
tingent heroism on a distant horizon.

That brings me specifically to the
point that I think the first duty of the
sociologist. That is to maintain, right
where he is, the spirit of sociological
science above the clamant pressure of
propaganda and prejudiced testimony.
He must sustain the claims of disci- ,
plined intelligence in the field of social !
problems as against emotionalism. He
must continue to nurture and to teach
the necessity and power of convictions
based on evidence.

It is essential that the teaching func¬
tion be maintained during this period of
crisis as an insurance against heat with¬
out light and the destructive passions
which would engulf education and the
nation itself unless properly safeguarded.
Youth at our colleges and universities is
a very tangible reality and demand, not
a contingent but a very present realistic
claim for public service. It is essential
that students be taught now more than
ever before the basic ideas of how to live
with their fellow men. Remember Pro¬
fessor Maclver’s challenge in his ad¬
dress last December —

“Men seem to learn every other lesson
more quickly than how to deal intelli¬
gently, on the larger political scale, with

199

Social Science-

their fellowmen. I am not dreaming of
any utopia in which conflict will cease.

I am merely suggesting that much of the
actual conflict is misguided and ruinous,
because of a lack of foresight, a lack of
understanding, such as men do not
display in the conduct of their other af¬
fairs. And the understanding that is
most lacking is the understanding that
sociology should and can provide. For
it is the understanding of social rela¬
tionships, of the social values men cher¬
ish, of their tribal gods and idols, of
their responses to controls, of their long-
run reactions to indoctrinations, of the
tides of opinion, of the constancy and
fickleness of mass emotions, of the con¬
sequences to the ingroup of treating the
outgroup thus and thus.”

As a part of our academic responsi¬
bility and our citizen’s duty it is essential
that sociologists work for the mainte¬
nance of freedom of the mind, freedom
of speech, academic freedom, and all
other civic and constitutional rights. But
in this struggle for maintaining these
rights we must be intelligent, tolerant,
discreet, and not provocative. We must
be realistic as sociologists in recognizing
the presence of the mores, of mental sets
and traditional attitudes. We must avoid
gratuitous offense and opinionated self
righteousness if we are going to serve
these rights and exemplify the spirit of
tolerance. We have to remember both
in our teaching and in our practice that
rights are not absolutes, but relative
privileges sanctified by experience. I
have known intolerant defenders of toler¬
ance just as I have known extremely
militant pacificists. There is a big dif¬
ference between the sincere and effective
defender of constitutional rights and
liberties and the mere fuss-budget.

Most departments of sociology are
being urged to emphasize the training
of students in practical administration,
whether directly themselves or through
cooperation with departments of political
science and economics. These courses
may be coordinated even in the absence
of a definite social service or social work
division. Short courses also may be
organized particularly in recreation. Dur¬
ing the first World War I operated two
successive summers what we called
Social Service Plattsburgs which included
a series of two week intensive units of
work in certain fields of social welfare

■1941 Meeting

effort. I also conducted special courses
in Red Cross home service administra¬
tion. To a certain extent the multiplica¬
tion of social workers and the profession¬
alization of social work in the last twen¬
ty years has perhaps rendered obsolete
some of this type of educational work;
but undoubtedly if the war crisis is
actually precipitated and continues for
several years as some observers predict,
the strain on our various professional
services will be greater than the present
ranks of professional workers can sus¬
tain. It will be necessary to give inten¬
sive training of a sort to people who do
not expect to be professionals, but who
would, with the return of normal times,
return to their voluntary status capacity.

From the standpoint of research, soci¬
ologists should be in a position to derive
much worthwhile data to carry forward
the practical significance of their science.
For instance it should be possible to
study more effectively than ever the ties
that bind, the factors that make for social
solidarity on the one hand, and on the
other, to grade and rate more accurately
the forces that produce tension and
breakdown; to study the sources and
workings of conflict as projected into
army and navy, defense production, and
the thought processes in local communi¬
ties. There has been an occasional study
of the effects of war upon the family, but
not to the same degree that we have ob¬
served in the case of the depression.
This is only one simple example of a
field of research which, so to speak, is
hot and will continue hot for the dura¬
tion of this emergency. But I should also
urge continuation of what might be
called normal or non-emergency-inspired
research, on condition of course that it
is really significant and knows where it
is going. This is no time for academic
‘‘busy work.”

It goes without saying that sociologists,
like other scientists and good citizens,
stand ready to put their talents at the
service of their communities as they have
done in preceding emergencies. In order
to offset the centrifugal tendencies o*f the
national questionnaire to which I have
already referred, local community au¬
thorities and the local colleges and uni¬
versities need not only to mobilize the
technical abilities of their faculties, but
also see to it that defense and preventive
projects right in their own areas are de-

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

veloped and made available for the
sociologists of their faculties. There is
much to be done in the field of recreation,
in visitation of the families of draftees,
in supplying the places of technical ex¬
perts called away, in combating juvenile
delinquency, in vocational guidance, in
public health work, in the campaign
against venereal diseases.

Finally, this is the time of all times
when sociologists ought to be consider¬
ing realistically the terms and conditions
of a rational peace adjustment and the
repairing of breaches in the social text¬
ure caused by war. Last week one night
after going to bed I was suddenly
stricken almost with panic over what I
should do if by some chance called upon
to work out a new pattern of living to¬
gether in Europe and Africa or Asia.
And I suspect that many of my socio¬
logical brethren would be in no less of a
cold sweat than I was at the possible
prospect. Yet they should prepare to

figure at the council tables along with
historians, politicians, economists, and
military leaders. Their understanding of
population problems, ethnic issues, social
psychology and techniques of social con¬
trol, the objective measurements and
conditions for social progress, and the
whole historical cycle of efforts at social
improvement should entitle them to a
hearing not only during the progress of
hostilities but after overt hostilities are
ended.

In short, the sociologists have the op¬
portunity and the obligation to continue
on an improved scale their teaching, their
research, their participation in communi¬
ty betterment, and to make their science
an effective element in what I may ven¬
ture to hope will be a somewhat more
rational arrangement of the world’s con¬
tours and organization after this night¬
mare of world chaos and depression has
become a thing of the past.

REPORT ON RESEARCH PROJECTS “IN PROCESS” IN
SOCIOLOGY AND RURAL SOCIOLOGY AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, 1941

D. E. Lindstrom

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Ahrens, E. A.:

Study on Social Categories

(The problem is to work out the
basic social categories for the whole
realm of human nature. The pur¬
pose is to achieve integration of parts
now completely severed from one an¬
other and to lay the ground in terms
of which social phenomena may be
made intelligible.)

Albig, William:

The Content of Radio Programs,
1925-1940

(A comparative study of various
American and English stations.
1925-35 published. 1935-40 ready to
publish.)

— A Study of the Trends in Cartoon
Symbols, 1900-35.

—Trends in Content and Symbols of
the Newspaper Comic Strips, 1900-
35.

— Science as Reported in the News¬
papers, 1910-35.

Fox, Sherwood D.:

Charisma and the Social Structure

Hiller, E. T. :

— Mid-Western Regional Organization
as Disclosed by the Patterning of
the Population (The manuscript is
in process and is nearing comple¬
tion.)

— Community Studies:

1. Process of Moving a Small Town
(This study is in abeyance for
the present. It is to be resumed
at a later date.)

2. Value Orientation of a Rural Cul¬
ture-Community (The manuscript
is being prepared.)

3. Social Organization of a Pietistic
Group (The manuscript is being
prepared.)

4. Reorganization of a Community
After the Closing of the Mining
Industry (The research is a thesis
subject of a graduate student.)

5. The Value Orientation in an Agri¬
cultural Village (The research is
being performed by a graduate
student.)

Social Science — 1941 Meeting

201

Hulett, J. E., Jr.:

The Comparison of Widely Separated
Rural Groups by Means of an Atti¬
tude Scale Constructed by the Crite¬
rion of Internal Consistency.

Janes, Robt. W.:

A Study of the Moving of Shawnee-
town, Illinois:

An analysis of the sociological as¬
pects of an attempt to move a town
to a new site to escape dangers of
flood.

Klein, E. E.:

— Community Resources for Social Wel¬
fare in Champaign County (A hand¬
book especially for Social Adminis¬
tration students)

— Objective Examinations in Public
Welfare

Mulvaney, Rev. B. G.:

Correlation Between “Catholicity” and
Birth Rates in Germany and the
United States (Doctoral Dissertation)
Powell, Martha:

The School as an Organization of Social
Roles (Master’s Thesis)

Price, Maurice T.:

Cultural Hybridism and Revolutionary
Attitudes in the Modern Chinese
Student Prior to 1925
Timmons, B. F.:

— Laws of the 48 States Directed to¬
ward Definite Economic Encourage¬
ment of Family Life (conducted by
NYA students)

— Comparative Cost of Living for
Young People Before Marriage and
After Marriage (NYA students)

— Intra-family Relationships in Fami¬
lies of Step-parents (Conducted as a
project among regular students of
Sociology 5)

Tylor, W. Russell:

A thorough study of the nature and
content of courses in Sociology, as
being offered by the high school
throughout the state, as these are
developing in juxtaposition to other
social science courses, exclusive of
history, and as they may evidence
certain social adjustments in the
curricula and personnel of the insti¬
tutions in question.

Williams, Helen:

Introvert Autobiographies in Different
Cultures

(Graduate student, Sociology)

Yeatman, T. P.:

The Youth Group of the Southeast
Region of the United States:

An Analysis of Population Trends in
Relation to the Youth Problem.

Znaniecki, Florian:

The Social Role ctf the University
Student

(Collective project:

a. Graduate Students: Brenton
Brewer, Sherwood D. Fox, Bar¬
bara Klose, Ellen Nudd, Irene
Pierson, Martha J. Powell,
Lore U. Rasmussen,
b. 34 undergraduate students —
(Juniors and seniors.)

In Rural Sociology

Lindstrom, D. E. :

— Indices of Human Welfare
— Human Element in Land Use
— Inventory of Rural Organizations
— How Rural Organizations Function
— Participation of Farm People in
Rural Organizations
— Opportunities for Rural Youth
— Community and Neighboring Map¬
ping

202

IUinois State Academy of Science Transactions

WORKERS’ EDUCATION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR
VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE

Robert L. Cooke

Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois

Not all of those engaged in public-
school education are well informed as to
a very significant movement in recent
educational history, that known as
Workers’ Education. By this we do not
mean vocational or industrial education
as such; rather it is an attempt on the
part of the labor group in this country,
particularly the labor unions, to develop
a program whereby the workers them¬
selves and their children may be educated
in a way planned by, dominated by, and
sympathetic to labor, and distinctly apart
from the public-school educational pro¬
gram.

As a brief historical sketch, we may
say that the movement began in this
country soon after the turn of the cen¬
tury. In 1911, the National Women’s
Trade Union League initiated a labor
school in Chicago, and in 1915 the Inter¬
national Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union
launched the first of their Unity Centers,
of which there are now about fifteen in
as many cities, with upwards of six hun¬
dred study groups and with about 30,000
attending.

In the early 1920’s the American Feder¬
ation of Labor adopted the movement,
and brought it into their own organiza¬
tion by means of a “Workers’ Education
Bureau.” Under this impetus, a develop¬
ment took place which has now resulted
in more than fifty city labor colleges,
many summer schools, as well as some
elementary and high schools. Some of
the newer labor unions are also seeing
the possibilities in Workers’ Education,
and have established further schools on
their own account. A recent large in¬
crease has taken place under the unify¬
ing program of the Affiliated Schools for
Workers, which group has at least eighty
local committees conducting schools
throughout the country. It should he
noted that though the curriculum and the
offerings in the workers’ classes are
frequently similar in title to those in our
public schools, they are usually vastly
different in teaching method and in point
of view.

It is true that public education has
made some efforts at rapport with the
workers, with a considerable measure of
success in some instances. Witness the
School for Workers in Industry at the
University of Wisconsin and their Sum¬
mer School for office workers, the Bryn
Mawr Summer School, and the Pacific
Coast School for Workers in connection
with the University of California. Also i
the Federal Government through its |
Emergency Education Program, and us¬
ing unemployed teachers, has at times
had as many as 40,000 office, store and
factory workers in classes.

But the workers themselves claim not I
to be satisfied with this help, nor to feel j
that these programs, good as they may I
be, meet the basic need. As one of their
leaders said: “Labor is undertaking to
educate itself, thus refusing to have edu¬
cation handed out to it by those who
neither understand nor sympathize with
its problems and points of view.”

Although the labor forces, at the time
of the agitation which resulted in the
passage of the Smith-Hughes Act and the
development of the vocational program
in our secondary schools, took a promi¬
nent part in that effort which resulted in
the establishment of industrial educa¬
tion in high schools, they have since be¬
come cold and in many cases antagonistic
to it. The reason for this antagonism j
and in fact for their insistence upon the
maintenance of a separate and complete
workers’ educational program has been i
explained by one of themselves thus:

“It is unreasonable . to expect the !

teachers in the lower and higher schools I
to understand or admit the special edu¬
cational needs of the workers as a class.
The nearest approach to such an under¬
standing has occurred in vocational edu¬
cation with well recognized results.
Here the recognition of the special edu¬
cational needs of the workers as an eco¬
nomic class is so complete that the curri¬
culum fails to consider the possibility of
a removal from that class.... The public
schools fail to grasp the idea that true

Social Science — 1941 Meeting

203

education means, first, training to earn
a living; second, preparation for promo¬
tion; finally, and more important, in¬
struction in the possibilities and methods
of participation of all workers in the
management and forming of financial
policies of the industries in which they
work.” In brief, the worker, in his own
words wants “not education for culture,
but education for control”.

A very significant development of re¬
cent years has been the rather general
introduction of communistic elements
into the management and the curriculum
of a large number of the schools. Many
of these schools have recently been dis¬
owned by the more conservative labor
leaders, which has tended rather to ex¬
aggerate than to reduce this trend, in the
thinking of many concerned.

Now what are we to say of the signifi¬
cance c<f such a movement as this, even
granted that it has not been as success¬
ful and as widespread as its early pro¬
moters had hoped? Surely it is impor¬
tant for the educational and vocational
counselor to see the implications of a
development like this. Is not such a
counselor remiss who undertakes to at¬
tempt to make vocational and educational
adjustments for the children of the labor¬

ing group, and who is at the same time
ignorant of the fact that the parents of
these children may be all the while im¬
buing them with an outright if not con¬
temptuous disapproval of the whole
present public-school system? For we
must face the fact that a considerable
number of those who comprise in total
more than half the school’s population —
the industrial workers of America— sub¬
scribe to an educational philosophy dia¬
metrically opposed to the thinking of the
educators now in control of our public
schools. Would it not be wise tfor those
of us interested in vocational guidance,
in fact for all of us in education, to take
into account this undercurrent of disap¬
proval, this striving toward something
not satisfied by our present school sys¬
tem? Is it not time, in fact, to take stock
of our complete educational system and
its philosophical bases, to learn whether
the present program is one which we can
with perfect confidence claim to be a sat¬
isfactory offering for all the children of
all the people? If this be done, and it
has been done,* we may perchance find
valid criticism of the basic philosophy of
present-day education much more far-
reaching than that given by Workers’
Education.

See Robert L. Cooke, Philosophy, Education and Certainty. Zondervan (Grand Rapids), 1940.

Papers in Education and Psychology

Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman

The Evanston program carried nine papers and a symposium led by
Robert C. Woellner, University of Chicago. Six papers are herewith pub¬
lished. The others were:

Cavan, Jordan T., Rockford College , Rockford— Some roots of vocational
education.

Cloud, Daniel T., Illinois School for the Deaf, Jacksonville — Vocational
guidance for deaf pupils.

Melrose, J. A., James Millikin University, Decatur — Factual maps to
guide personnel guidance.

Eighteen attended, and elected as chairman of the 1942 meeting J. M.
Hughes, Northwestern University, Evanston.

(Signed) 0. Irving Jacobsen, Chairman

[205]

206

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

ATTITUDES IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION

J. M. Hughes

Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

In recent years, social psychologists
have given attitudes a most significant
place in their attempts to develop a more
acceptable understanding of human con¬
duct. Some of them, the more renowned,
in fact, such as Mead and Allport, have
used attitudes as a sort of central theme
to their sciences. That they have enabled
us better to understand the processes of
human behavior, there can be no ques¬
tion. On the other hand, there is little
evidence that the knowledges developed
by them have penetrated as far as they
deserve and as rapidly as they merit into
other fields. Especially would it seem
that their materials have wide applica¬
tion to school administration, because
school administration is itself, a social
field. While it is impossible to dwell
long upon the general applicability of a
theory of attitudes to school administra¬
tion in a brief article, one can present
the point of view of the social psycholo¬
gist and can then analyze some of the
problems of school administration in
terms of it.

It is the contention of the social psy¬
chologist that an understanding of atti¬
tudes seems essential to an understand¬
ing of human behavior, since they form
the background out of which a given in¬
dividual or social act emerges. Naturally,
the most satisfying way of explaining an
act would be to do so by directly identi¬
fying it with the physiological process
in which it originates and out of which
it develops. Obviously, in the present
state of knowledge, this is impossible.
We can closely approach this method,
however, by identifying the act as atti¬
tude. An attitude may represent various
organizations of parts of the nervous
system which are going to be responsible
for acts. These hypothetical organiza¬
tions we recognize under the appellation
of attitudes. In this way of looking at
behavior, attitudes constitute a tform of
behavior potential which will be influ¬
ential, at least, in shaping the character
of the individual act in its initiatory
stages.

School administrative theory as it has
been developed in this country seems to
have lived apart from these knowledges
and interests of the social psychologists
with respect to behavior. Much of it has
been channeled in a course which runs
counter at many points to the beliefs of
the social psychologists in general and
runs counter almost at every point, in
particular, to which social psychologists
believe to be true of attitudes and of the
significant part they play in problems of
human relations.

If attitude is as potent a factor in
shaping the character of the social and
individual act as social psychologists be¬
lieve it to be then it would seem that
school administration must become more
concerned in the future than has been
true in the past with taking it into ac¬
count when problems of human relations
are being dealt with. Not only must
administrators be able to identify atti¬
tudes but they must be able to effect de¬
sirable changes in them. This holds for
their own attitudes as well as for the at¬
titudes of others.

Probably the most effective way to
study attitudes is by the method of direct
observation by a skilled observer of each
individual person. It seems doubtful
that they can ever be satisfactorily meas¬
ured. Assuming that they could, the |
problem of predicting the bearing each j
would have upon an individual act would
still not be a simple one. Obviously, I
mass study by self identification of atti- !
tudes has serious weaknesses. On the
other hand, the method possesses at least
one good feature. It permits the render¬
ing of a generalized judgment by a group
of people with respect to what they con¬
ceive their attitudes to be toward certain j
specified items. This thereby makes pos-
sible certain general conclusions with re-
spect to how conditions should be changed
if we wish to eradicate or to intensify
such attitudes. Thus, it directs attention
toward factors which operate to build
or destroy attitudes in people.

The way in which an understanding of

207

Education and Psychology — 1941 Meeting

attitudes could affect school administra¬
tion was impressed upon the writer by
several studies he has made in the past
in the field of supervision, particularly by
the results of one of the studies1 pub¬
lished two years ago.

The method was that of mass, self-
identification. We may draw upon some
of the findings of that study for examples
of administrative practice which make
for good and had attitudes. Let us first
list practices which, for most people but
not for all, result in attitudes which have
an antagonistic quality. They might be
itemized as follows:

1. The practice of having superior of¬
ficers rate teachers.

2. The practice of superior officers of
giving negative criticisms after seeing a
teacher teach.

3. The practice of helping a teacher
to employ a particular method of teach¬
ing.

4. The practice of having teachers
plan without in some way providing an
organization which will enable plans defi¬
nitely to become action.

5. The practice of having schools or¬
ganized into departments and having
each department administered by a head.

6. The practice of organizing the
school around numerous functionaries.

7. The practices of class-room visita¬
tion, and visitation followed by confer¬
ence.

8. The practice of having regular
classroom teachers do demonstration for
their colleagues.

9. The practice of holding regularly
scheduled faculty meetings.

The attitudes toward these practices
as held by most teachers and administra¬
tors included in the study were distinctly
antagonistic. Yet these practices are
among the commonest employed in the
whole field of administration.

Certain practices, in the main, arouse
favorable attitudes. Among these are
the following:

1. The practice of giving constructive
suggestions to teachers which lead to im¬
provement in teaching.

2. The practice of giving active aid
to groups of teachers who are planning
or carrying out some joint endeavor the
results of which promise to bring general

professional improvement to those par¬
ticipating.

3. The practice of allocating the super¬
visory function to one person in a school,
to one person alone and with the under¬
standing that supervision is to be his sole
function.

4. The practice of having teachers act
as chairmen of subject matter groups, (as
opposed to having superior officers act as
heads).

5. The practice of having planning
done by small groups and of having meet¬
ings held by small groups, the groups to
be formed on the basis of homogeneous
interests.

6. Practices such as:

a. helping a subject group to plan
some group study or project as a result
of which the teachers will be able to
proceed more intelligently.

b. providing groups with educational
data and information, the need for which
has grown out of the work for the group.

c. making available certain profes¬
sional articles and studies which bear
upon educational topics being discussed
by teachers.

If, as we said at the beginning, atti¬
tudes form the soil out of which an in¬
dividual or social act emerges and in
terms of which the complete act is de¬
veloped, a mass study of attitudes, de¬
spite the admitted weaknesses of the
method, leads to the feeling that a num¬
ber of points in school administration
are needful of serious consideration.
Three of these seem to stand out more
prominently than some of the others.

The first of these is that certain of our
administrative methods will need to un¬
dergo change and some of the devices
now in common use may well be dis¬
carded. Thus, everyone knows that in¬
spection of individuals or of institutions
is almost always resented. No one would
inspect an institution unless he were
paid to do so — fifty dollars a day and ex¬
penses. Like the judge in traffic court,
the inspector works for the fees he gets.
It could readily be shown that the in¬
spection function if we only cared to do
so could be handled with different results.
As to rating devices, their use is now on
the decline. The effect of their use in
terms of the attitudes they caused to be

1 J. M. Hughes. The Attitudes and Preferences of Teachers and Administrators for School Supervision.
Northwestern University Contributions to Education, School of Education. Series No. 12. Evanston,

Ill., 48 pp.

208

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

built was definitely bad. Careful selec¬
tion of teachers, indefinite tenure, auto¬
matic salary scales, stimulating teaching
environments can completely abolish the
need for rating scales.

The second is, that our methods of
handling problems of human relations
will need to be more consistent in the
future with those knowledges and in¬
sights of social psychology which dictate
the methods to be used. For example,
many of the methods now used ignore
almost completely the knowledge about
emotion and its relation to adjustment
and development. Some of the methods
simply ignore the harm done when by
their use, irrelevant or strong emotions
are aroused or worry and strain are
introduced.

The third is that organizational pat¬
terns will have to be set up which are
less, much less, static than those which

obtain at present. The principle need
of organization, at present, seems to be
the incorporation of factors and elements
which make change in organization a
natural characteristic of organization it- j
self. This, too, is possible as is shown !
by the successful operation of a number
of present day organizations.

It would seem, then, that administra¬
tive theorists should not continue to ad¬
vocate that administrators act in a direc¬
tion which opposes the movement of the
social forces observable within a staff.
Attitudes furnish good cues to the direc¬
tion and the magnitude of these forces, j
and enable one to know toward what the \
forces are directed. It is not easy to
brave the forces of a torrential stream.
Such knowledge, however, should aid us
to act more intelligently, provided of
course, we seek to act in ways consistent |
with such knowledge.

GUIDANCE TESTING

O. Irving Jacobsen
Shurtle ff College , Alton , Illinois

This field has grown to such propor¬
tions that it is impossible in a short
paper to include the great scope which
it embraces. There are a few important
problems which should be considered,
even though some of them have not as
yet been solved. Progress is being made
rapidly, and the prospects point toward
a scientific and efficient development in
this phase of administrative work in high
schools and colleges.

Many educational institutions have,
over a period of years, developed guid¬
ance clinics, which have become Gut¬
standing in their work, and have gained
a reputation of efficiency and achieve¬
ment. Some clinicians have compiled
and devised their own tests to serve their
special purposes. Experimentation is
still going on, which is likewise an indi¬
cation of progress.

The first question arising when a guid¬
ance clinic is about to be. established by
an educational institution, is that of the
specific tests which should be given to
students. Is it possible to give too many
tests? Is it possible to obtain too much
information about the students? It cer¬

tainly is possible to give too few tests,
and to have too little information about (
students, in order to give capable guid- 1
ance. The questions seem, therefore, not j
to limit the amount of information de- I
sirable, but rather, the use made of such 1
information when it is available. .

A cumulative record, which includes a j
case study of each student, seems neces¬
sary. The misinterpretation of test re¬
sults and other information can become I
a danger to the guidance program. This
indicates the demand for a qualified
specialist to head the guidance clinic, so j
that there will not be the danger of the
program being “lost in a haze of tests.”

It would be a definite advantage if the
clinician is well-informed in the field of
mental hygiene, in addition to other reg¬
ular qualifications.

The guidance program is all-inclusive
so far as the faculty members are con¬
cerned. Although the clinician has di¬
rect control of the program, responsibil¬
ity for its fulfillment rests with the en¬
tire teaching staff. Cooperation is neces¬
sary, since much information concerning

Education and Psychology — 1941 Meeting

209

students is obtainable only from individ¬
ual teachers.

Perhaps one of the first tests to be con¬
sidered in a guidance program is the
intelligence test. On the basis of a re¬
liable test, essential advice can be given
as to the education of the student. Per¬
haps the student should be encouraged
to attend college, or discouraged. It may
be that the student should be discouraged
to complete high school, and to study
some trade in a special school. Many
cases can be cited in which parents have
insisted that their child study for a pro¬
fessional career, against the advice of a
guidance counselor, only to fail com¬
pletely in his studies, and be forced to
choose another vocation, after having
needlessly wasted two or three years. It
must always be remembered, however,
that intelligence tests are not infallible,
and also that they cannot measure effort
nor ambition.

Achievement battery tests, or individ¬
ual achievement tests in specific subjects,
have a place in most guidance programs.
On the basis of ability shown by these
tests, educational, as well as vocational
guidance can be given. These tests may
also be used for prognostic or diagnostic
purposes, depending on their contents.

The tests which are of prognostic na¬
ture are increasing continuously. While
these tests are often given before college
entrance, some of them can be given to
advantage at any time. These specific
tests include the fields of music, art, home
economics, and general vocational apti¬
tudes.

Nearly every clinic gives at least one
test of character or personality. Certain
vocations demand a special type of per¬
sonality. It may be that a certain per¬
sonality type would mean failure in a
specific vocation. Therefore guidance in
vocational choice is aided by knowledge
of the results of a personality test.

The diagnostic tests are usually con¬
sidered as belonging to the elementary
school only. However, recently such
tests have proven to be a great advantage
in guidance. This has been true in the
field of reading, where diagnosis may in¬
dicate a lack in earlier training, and
through proper remedial training, it may
be possible for a student to attain skill,
and perhaps even surpass the average
college or high school student in reading
ability.

Some institutions have established spe¬
cial reading clinics, because of the need
among students. In one college, it was
discovered, by means of a reading test,
that over fifty per cent of the first-year
students had only eighth grade reading
ability. Training to overcome this lack
might end further difficulty for certain
students, especially when they show no
lack in other fields. There are some
authorities, however, who question the
duty of guidance work in the field of
remedial training.

Since reading is essential for most high
school and college work, faulty habits are
a distinct hindrance to progress. A com¬
mon fault found among students, is that
of using oral reading habits in silent
reading, that is, pronouncing each word
“mentally.” This procedure retards read¬
ing and hence it hinders a student from
obtaining a higher score in any test in
which reading is required. The author
correlated the reading test scores of one
hundred Freshmen with their English
Placement test scores, and obtained a co¬
efficient of correlation of +.96, P. E. .02.
Reading and intelligence scores for this
same group gave a correlation of +.95,
P. E. .03.

Vocational aptitude tests are sometimes
considered the most important, or the
only tests with which guidance counsel¬
ors should be concerned. Some of the
tests in this field are still very much in
the experimental stage, that is, their re¬
liability has not yet been proven. Among
the vocational tests now available are:
dexterity tests, specific interest inven¬
tories, occupational questionnaires, and
clerical and mechanical aptitude tests.
The personal history rating chart is list¬
ed also as a vocational test.

Results of these tests can be used as a
guide in advising students to enter or to
avoid certain vocations. This makes fur¬
ther demands on the guidance clinician,
that is, a thorough knowledge of what
is required in the various vocations. The
interest inventories are seldom reliable,
since interest is often fleeting with stu¬
dents, and again, the test may be taken
with student intention to check all that
he knows belongs with a certain vocation
which he intends to enter. However,
since his knowledge is limited, his voca¬
tional choice may not coincide with inter¬
ests of the choice.

210

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

In addition to the tests mentioned for
guidance, educational and family history
are of aid to the clinician. Knowledge
of the student’s health also is of aid in
vocational guidance. Emotional adjust¬
ment likewise should be known. Some¬
times the personality test includes both
health and emotional adjustment.

The field of guidance testing is very

wide, and since there are so very many
tests available in this field, there may
be the danger of including tests which
are not valid measures of what they
claim to measure. The guidance cli¬
nician must therefore have a thorough
knowledge of tests, of testing techniques,
and of test interpretation, and he must
be on the alert for any new ideas and
tests which can be of use in his field.

A VOCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE

George B. Lake
Waukegan, Illinois

What do people want from life?

That is a basic, vitally important, in¬
tensely intimate, and wholly individual
question, which shockingly few people
have ever taken the time and thought to
answer clearly and intelligently; and the
ignorance, shortsightedness, and mental
inertia which are to blame for this de¬
plorable condition make up one of the
main things the matter with us today.

The average person is a good bit like
the man who wandered up to the ticket
window in a railway station and mur¬
mured, “I’d like a ticket, please.”

“What station?” barked the busy clerk.

“Well, what stations have you?” in¬
quired the undecided one.

If you think that’s a funny story, try
asking ten or twenty young people, and
an equal number of those who are not so
young, without any preamble, “Just what
are you planning to do with your life?
What do you think you are here for?”
and note their reactions carefully and
thoughtfully.

I will venture to say that, if you will
carry out that experiment, as outlined,
that story will not seem funny to you
any more, for you will see it as a tragic
allegory of millions of pointless lives,
which are so because they are not based
upon a sound philosophy.

Science asks but one question of the
universe— “How?” And all our labora¬
tories and research institutes, through all
the years, have answered only a tiny
fraction of that question; but as fast as
they have formulated their fragmentary
answers, philosophy has seized upon them
and propounded the truly fundamental

question, “Why?” Without the answer
to that interrogation, the findings of
science are hollow and ephemeral, for
they do not go back to the place where
things begin.

A poet, who was also a philosopher,
once said, “Only the intangibles are
sure.”

Don’t take his word for it. Test it by
the standard of your own experience,
and then you’ll know whether he was
right. What lasts?

The money a man earns in any skilled
trade or profession may be lost or wasted
in a wide variety of ways; but the skill
that earned it lasts as long as his physi¬
cal body holds together — and long after
that, for skill is a manifestation of en¬
ergy, and energy is indestructible, though
it may change its form.

A house may burn to the ground and
cease entirely to be a house, though its
physical elements are not destroyed; but
the dream of that house, in the archi¬
tect’s mind, is not lost. He can reproduce
it, every beam and window and brick.
That lasts!

Follow through along this line, with
your own illustrations, and when you are
convinced, out of your own knowledge,
that the poet-philosopher was right, you
will recognize that no vocational study,
or any other activity in life, can be of
any real and permanent value unless it
is based upon intangibles. Of course all
purely physical activities are absolutely
conditioned by those universal intangi¬
bles that we call “the Laws of Nature.”

The only “original sin,” and the ob¬
stacle that man has been striving, for

Education and Psychology — 1941 Meeting

211

millions of years, to overcome, is ignor¬
ance. We have made some headway, but
not nearly so much as most people like
to believe. The road ahead of us is far
longer than the rough little stretch that
is behind.

But that need not discourage us, for
an exceedingly small number of us pos¬
sess more than a minute fraction of the
intangible (but utterly real ) knowledge
that is now available, so that we can
profitably employ several lifetimes in
catching up with what is now known,
without considering any new additions
that may be made to the total in tha
meantime.

The first foundation-stone of a rational
and workable life philosophy is the recog¬
nition and acceptance of the idea that,
behind all of the facts that we know
about this completely law-governed (and
therefore intelligently operating) uni¬
verse, and all its manifestations that we
can observe (though we may not under¬
stand them), there must be an incalcul¬
ably vast storehouse of power and knowl¬
edge which we have not yet tapped, and
an inconceivably fertile and forseeing
Intelligence directing it all, which we
may call God, or by any other name that
suits us best.

Many seem to feel that, along this line,
intelligently directed study is impossible
or would be futile. Time does not permit
me to go into this matter at length, but
I assure you, of my personal knowledge,
that such an idea is erroneous. The con¬
stantly growing literature in this field
is already large and varied, and the op¬
portunities for personal experimentation
are practically limitless. The thoroughly
scientific investigations of extrasensory
perceptions, which Dr. J. B. Rhine, of
Duke University, has been making during
the past few years, are only the first
short step, under “Orthodox” auspices,
but sincere and industrious individuals
have gone much further.

There is an old tale about an interested
and curious traveler who came upon a
group of men busily shaping masses of
stone into regular blocks. He accosted
one of them with the question, “What
are you doing, friend?” The man looked
at him blankly, wiped the sweat from
his forehead, and growled, “Earnin’ a
measely six dollars a day.” To the same
question another replied, scarcely raising
his eyes from his work, “I’m cutting nice,

square blocks of stone for the masons.”

A third, similarly interrogated, raised his
eyes to the clouds sailing over and whis¬
pered, “I’m building a cathedral, sir.”

There, if you will study it a bit, you
will find sketched the entire intangible
(and therefore enduring) philosophy of
all vocational effort, and it is on this
foundation that we must build the voca¬
tional structure of the future.

The first question that one must ask,
in connection with a vocation (and an¬
swer, clearly, directly, and with intelli¬
gence) is, “What do I truly want to do,
above all other things?” The second is,
“Just what equipment, tangible and in¬
tangible, will be required for doing this
work?” And the third is, “Do I now
possess such equipment, or am I ready
and eager to spend the time, effort, and
money to acquire it?

The answer to the first question is in¬
tangible (involving ideals) and basic.
and unless it is sharply formulated, in
detail, the others cannot be answered.
If it is so formulated (which is pitiably
rare), the answers to the two others will
determine whether the individual will
pursue his first choice, or will be content
with a second, third, or twentieth, and
this is a matter involving character (an¬
other intangible).

The individual wholly without ideals
is or becomes a hobo, a “bum”; from
those whose ideals are few and easily
attained are recruited the millions of
W.P.A. workers and satisfied recipients
of government doles. No amount or type
of vocational guidance or training will
“take” on a person who has no ambition,
no standards, none of that divine and in¬
tangible afflatus which makes featherless
bipeds men.

Among those who appear to be in this
unpromising category there are some
who will work out of it if the intangible
and wholly subjective quality or condi¬
tion called interest can be stimulated by
some internal or external circumstance,
over which outsiders have but slight, re¬
mote, and indirect control. The change
in outlook, if it is to be permanent, must
be self-generated.

This change has been brought about,
in many, by “exposing” them to the ideas
that the laws of evolution and of cause
and effect operate throughout the uni¬
verse, at all levels of consciousness, and
eternally, so that every man, at any par-

212

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

ticular moment, is the mathematically
exact product of his own activities dur¬
ing his cosmic and finite past, and there
are no such things as punishment or
reward, but merely the impersonal and
inexorable results of causes set in mo¬
tion, at some time, by the man, himself.

On this basis it is evident that, not
only must every one of us pay, in one
way or another, for all he gets out of
life, but also that we can have out of
life anything for which we are willing to
pay in the medium of exchange suitable
to the nature of our ideals, which is
rarely money, but far more often time,
unremitting effort, physical self-denial,
and other intangible units of value.

We are here in life for the intangible
purpose of growing or evolving, as human
souls, by developing such rudimentary
faculties and powers as we possess
through exercise; by gaining knowledge
and transmuting it into wisdom by put¬
ting it to work and studying the results;
and by learning to understand other
people, so that sympathy may grow into
impersonal or divine compassion, as we
become able to function at higher levels
of the universe, which is inseparably one,
in all of the four dimensions in which
we are now working, and so far beyond
that that we are now totally unable to
conceive of it.

Sketched thus briefly, this sounds like
a decidedly tenuous and unsubstantial
doctrine, but any one who is willing to
pay, in time and effort, for more detailed
information, can get it. The fact that
it is worth what it costs is shown, prag¬
matically, by its tangible results in the
material world.

If our present system of loaves tfor
loafers, which permits idlers to subsist
on a low level, at the expense of indus¬
trious citizens, were to be abolished next
week, its supposed beneficiaries would
discover that they had paid an exces¬
sively high price for eating without work,
in the loss of the ability to work pro¬
ductively.

Among the voluntary workers, the low¬
est wages are paid to those who work
with their bodies only, and the scale of
remuneration rises in direct proportion
as they add to their working machinery
the intangible emotional, mental, and
intuitional faculties, so that the highest
financial returns of all go to the men
who, transcending even intellect, rise to

those rarefied heights where only gen¬
iuses, in industry, commerce, the profes¬
sions, and all other fields, can breathe.
And all the way up, the progress is
steady, regular, orderly, and step by step.

When a sufficient measure of this phil¬
osophic viewpoint has been attained
(consciously or unconsciously) to permit
a man or woman to dream the dreams
that are the necessary precursors of all
accomplishment, such an individual will
be eager to learn how his dreams can be
objectified, and at this point, but not be¬
fore, vocational guidance and training
•can begin to perform their beneficient
functions, the first of which is to stimu¬
late and assist the candidate for self-
motivated advancement in formulating
his aspirations in clear-cut detail, which
is, by far, the hardest part of the steady
progress on an uphill road, which is edu¬
cation, in its largest sense.

With the goal clearly in sight, the
climber, with such assistance as we can
give him, must make as objective and
impersonal an inventory as is possible
of his physical, emotional, intellectual,
and spiritual assets and liabilities, so
that he can determine what excess bag¬
gage of habits, prejudices, superstitions,
and the like must be jettisoned, and what
supplies and equipment for the journey
before him he lacks, so that he may set
about procuring them.

Here intelligent, experienced, and deep¬
ly sympathetic helpers can give invalu¬
able assistance, if they can divest them¬
selves of an obvious sense of superiority
and of the urge to preach, and bring into
play that near-divine faculty which the
psychologists call empathy.

The elements of a sound vocational
philosophy of life may be outlined as:

1. The vital realization that every
human soul is a part of an inescapable
evolutionary scheme that will carry him
forward; but that he can increase the
speed and ease of his progress by learn¬
ing how it operates and then cooperating
with it, consciously.

2. The clear perception and definite
formulation of an individual objective
for this lifetime.

3. An eagerness to attain that objec¬
tive which will make any labors and
trials involved in the process seem in¬
consequential.

4. A cool and impersonal inventory of
one’s total assets and liabilities, followed

Education and Psychology — 1941 Meeting

213

by intelligent and considered action upon
its results.

5. The acquirement of wisdom through
employed knowledge; of faculties and
powers through disciplined and continu¬
ous exercise; and of loving sympathy

through observing, understanding, and
helping other people.

6. Recognition of the fact that the
index of any man’s value to society (and
therefore to himself) is the degree of
his ability to cooperate and contribute.

STUDENT PREFERENCES IN DIVISIONAL STUDIES AND
THEIR PREFERENTIAL ACTIVITIES

K. S. Yum

University of Chicago , Chicago, Illinois

What are the relationships between
what college students prefer to do and
their divisional choices in study? Are
there any divisional differences in the
activities which they prefer? Are men
and women alike in these respects? These
are questions which college deans, pro¬
fessors, and student counselors, as well
as students themselves, would be inter¬
ested in knowing. The present investi¬
gation attempts to answer some of these
questions by means of the Preference
Record of Dr. G. Frederic Kuder (6).
The Preference Record lists seven major
types of activities, namely, scientific,
computational, musical, artistic, literary,
social service, and persuasive. The lists
of occupations for each of the seven
major types are quite extensive (5). The
characteristics of these preference items
have also been evaluated (7).

The test was given to 193 juniors in
the University of Chicago, and their
preferential choices in the divisional
studies have been investigated. The re¬
sults are presented in Tables I to VII, in
terms of sigma units.

Conclusions

1. The mean profile of the total group,
presented in Table I, is significantly
higher in the order of the social service,
scientific, artistic, and musical activities,
and significantly lower in persuasive ac¬
tivities, as compared to the norms. We
might look upon this profile as a sample
of university life on the motivational
level.

2. Divisional differences seem to exist.
The significant differences in the mean
profiles of the Biological and Social Sci¬
ences are in the scientific and literary
activities, as shown in Table II. Com¬
parison of the three divisions of Physical,
Biological, and Social Sciences, in respect
to men, and comparison of the two di¬
visions of Biological and Social Sciences
in respect to women, bring out these
differences more clearly and consistently
as presented in Tables III and IV.

3. Tables V, VI, and VII in our data,
show rather marked differences between
men and women in some major types of
their preferential activities, and indicate

Table I. — Mean Profile of the Total Group
Number Computa- Social

Group of Cases Scientific tional Musical Artistic Literary Service Persuasive

Total Group _ 193 .248 —.002 .196 .203 .038 .564 —.215

Table II. — Comparison of the Mean Profiles of the Divisions of Biological and
Social Sciences (Men and Women Combined)

Number Computa-

Divisions of Cases Scientific tional

Biological..- . . 59 .813 .308

Social . . 87 —.226 .244

Social

Musical

Artistic

Literary

Service

Persuasive

. 144

.366

— . 521

.687

— . 434

.041

—.014

.439

.531

— . 060

Table III. — Comparison of the Mean Profiles of the Divisions of Physical,
Biological, and Social Sciences (Men)

Number Computa-

Divisions of Cases Scientific tional

Physical . 18 1.517 .281

Biological . 32 1.203 —.323

Social... . . 54 —.206 . 324

Social

Musical

Artistic

Literary

Service

Persuasive

.703

.164

— . 469

. 056

—.603

.133

— . 080

— . 628

.434

—.275

— . 069

— . 290

.426

.301

.200

214

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Table IV. — Comparison of the Mean Profiles of the Divisions of Biological

AND

Social Sciences

(Women)

Number
Divisions of Cases

Biological _ 27

Social _ 33

Scientific
.350
— . 259

Computa¬

tional

—.291

.114

Musical

.157

.223

Artistic

.894

.438

Literary
— . 394
.461

Social

Service

.987

.908

Persuasive

—.622

—.486

Table V. — Comparison

OF THE

Mean Profiles of

Men and

Women

Number
Sex of Cases

Men _ 111

Women . . 82

Scientific
.479
— . 064

Computa¬

tional

.110

—.152

Musical
. 139
.273

Artistic
— . 131
.656

Literary

—.035

.137

Social

Service

.256

.958

Persuasive
—.007
— . 496

Table VI. — Comparison of the Mean Profiles of Men and Women in the

Biological Sciences

Number Computa- Social

Sex of Cases Scientific tional Musical Artistic Literary Service Persuasive

Men - - 32 1.203 -.323 .133 -.080 -.628 .434 - 275

Women... . . 27 .350 —.291 .157 .894 —.394 .987 —.622

Table VII. — Comparison of the Mean Profiles of Men and Women in the

Social Sciences

Number Computa-

Sex of Cases Scientific tional

Men . . . 54 —.206 .324

Women.. . . 33 —.259 .114

that these differences are quite consistent.
Women are significantly higher than men
in artistic and social service activities;
men are significantly higher than women
in scientific activities. It is interesting
to observe that women are more definite¬
ly uninterested in persuasive activities
than men.

4. These profiles of motivation ob¬
tained here are not measures of ability
but are meant to give some index of the
extent to which an individual will be
motivated in various areas along with
the abilities at his disposal. Hence, they
should be useful to those educators who
are confronted with the problems of
handling student counseling more efli-
ciently.

Social

Musical Artistic Literary Service Persuasive
— . 069 — . 290 . 426 . 301 . 200

• 223 . 438 . 461 . 908 — . 486

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Adkins, Dorothy O. and Kuder, G. Frederic.
The Relation of Primary Mental Abilities to
Activity Preferences. Psychometrika, 1940, 5,
251-262.

2. Carter, H. D. and Strong, E. K. Jr., Sex Dif¬
ferences in Occupational Interests of High
School Students. Person, J., 1933, 12, 166-175.

3. Darley, John G. Counseling on the Basis of
Interest Measurement. Ed. and Psychol. Meas¬
urement, 1941, 1, 35-42.

4. Fryer, D. The Measurement of Interests. New
York: Holt, 1931.

5. Kuder, Gu Frederic. Manual For the Prefer¬
ence Record. 1700 Prairie Ave., Chicago, Illi¬
nois: Science Research Associates, 1939.

6. Kuder, G. Frederic. Preference Record. 1700
Prairie Ave., Chicago, Illinois: Science Research
Associates, 1939.

7. Kuder, G. Frederic. The Stability of Prefer¬

ence Items. J. Soc. Psychol., 1939, 10, 41-50.

8. Stead, W. H., Shartle, C. L., and Others. Oc- i
cupational Counseling Techniques, Their De¬
velopment and Application. New York: Ameri- !
can Book Company, 1940.

Papers in Zoology

Extract From the Report of the Section Chairman

The Evanston program carried 18 papers, and two symposia with three
papers each : one symposium on ‘ ‘ Animal Geography of Illinois, ’ ’ and one on
“Endocrinology.” Of all the papers read, 15 are being published in this
issue, and three were published in the September issue by invitation. The
others were :

Barden, A. A., Northwestern University, Evamston — Analysis of activity
of the lizard.

Calhoun J. B., Northwestern University, Evanston — Analysis of banding
of the chimney swift at Charlottesville, Virginia, and Distribution
and food habits of the mammals of Reelfoot Lake region.

Carpenter, Charles K., Baileyville, Illinois — The family life of the
Least Bittern.

Furrow, Clarence L., Knox College, Galesburg — Abortive ovogenesis
in Valvata tricarinata.

Hawkins, Arthur S., State Natural History Survey, Urbana — Water
fowl.

St. Amant, Lyle, Northwestern University , Evanston — The effect of
castration and treatment with ethinyl testosterone on the development
of the gonopodium of Gambusa affinis.

Thompson, David H., State Natural History Survey, Urbana — Fishes.

Wright, Bertrand A., Oak Park, Illinois — A quantitative sampler for
aquatic vegetation.

About 120 attended the two sections and elected as chairman of the 1942
meeting Orlando Park, Northwestern University.

(Signed) W. V. Balduf, Chairman

[215]

216

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THE INTRODUCTION OF WILD LIFE INTO SOUTHERN

ILLINOIS

Clarence Bonnell

Township High School, Harrisburg, Illinois
ABSTRACT

Wild life in Illinois as our fathers and
grandfathers knew it has almost van¬
ished. Passenger pigeons, prairie chick¬
ens, wild turkeys, deer, buffalo, and the
countless nests of song birds that one
found in every hedge and apple tree are
gone or remain only as remnants. Wild
life in Illinois is a shadow compared
with conditions fifty years ago and a tra¬
dition as compared with 1841. Compara¬
tively recent attempts have been made
to replenish this waste of our natural
resources.

Two government agencies have under¬
taken replacements of the losses in South¬
ern Illinois, beginning with State action
many years ago. Illinois distributed
51,000,000 fish in 1939, 46,000 quail and
57,000 pheasants. The State Department
of Conservation, according to its 1940
report, has produced 108,082,125 game
fish of seven species distributed from
1935 to 1939 in bodies of water number¬
ing up to 1107 in 1939.

Twenty-five years ago, prairie chickens
were frequently seen from the railroad
trains in passing through Hamilton
County which is in the third tier of
counties north. I have been over that
county frequently in the past ten years
and I have noted but a half dozen pheas¬
ants and one prairie chicken.

The Illinois Division of Conservation
had $483,493 on deposit in its Game and
Fish Fund December 31, 1939. I cannot
agree with the statement in its 1940 re¬
port that, “This fund belongs to the
sportsmen of Illinois,” although the total
sale of licenses for the biennium 1937-
1938 amounted to $1,451,497. The sale
of 751,381 such licenses in 1939 does not
necessarily mean that wild life is increas¬
ing as the report seems- to imply. The
report says, “This artificial production of
wild life by the department materially
aids natural propagation and insures
more game for those who enjoy the sport
of hunting.” This is true. Without ar¬

tificial production the game might be re¬
duced to extinction if the present rate of
slaughter were continued. It is apparent
that wild life in Southern Illinois grows
less in spite of artificial production. In
our efforts to increase game resources
are we not thwarted by our eagerness
to obtain more revenue by destroying it?

The Shawnee Federal Forestry Unit
has introduced into its territory twenty
deer about seven of which are thought
to survive, twenty beavers which have
increased to about seventy, and seventy
turkeys about thirty-five of which are
thought to be alive and wild. More than
30,000 fish have been planted in the area
of 185,000 acres which were controlled
by the Unit in 1940.

The following estimates of wild life
populations in the Unit as recorded by
their numerous official observers give
some idea of the struggle which goes on.
The figures are estimated populations:

Of Quail, 87,900, 6,300 hunters, 1,600 |
killed; Pheasants, 48, 12 hunters, 2 j

killed; Woodcock 5, 4 hunters, 0 killed; I
Mourning Dove 41,000, 8,000 hunters,
2,200 killed; Mink 620, trappers 125,
killed 235; Otter 20, trappers 80, killed
5; Muskrat 3,800, trappers 210, killed
1,000; Skunk 8,700; trappers 430, killed I
2,200; Raccoon 3,100; hunters 970, killed j
500; O’possum 9,600, hunters 2,400 killed }
3,100; Red Fox 1,500, hunters 500, killed |
270; Gray Fox 6,270, hunters 1,100, killed
700; and ten Wolves and Coyotes were
counted in the Jonesboro unit.

It is estimated that there is a perma- |
nent waterfowl population of 30 mallards,

30 blue winged teal, 15 green winged
teal, 840 wood duck, 80 coots, 50 black i
duck, 90 lesser scaup, 35 pin tails, 10
canvasback ducks, 15 geese. It is also
estimated that 380 mallards, 90 blue
winged teal, 15 green winged teal, and
20 coots were killed in the area. The
Federal Forestry Unit has no control
over the game in its territory.

Zoology — 1941 Meeting

217

In addition to planting many thousands
of trees in the Shawnee Unit the most
important game conserving practice has
been the construction of many small
lakes, feeding grounds, and shelters to
supply food and shelter for the game that
already exists. They number 233 and are
located as follows: 24% in open fields,
8% in brush, 31% in cultivated areas and
37% in timber. Their average size is
less than one fourth acre. Two larger
areas of 82 and 33 acres each and three
of three each have been constructed.
Gravel, moss, etc. have been used in 33
places to improve conditions for aquatic
life over an area of 68 acres. Cypress,
dogwood, plum, red cedar, and similar
growths have been used in five to ten
acre shelter patches. Lespedeza, rye,
broom grass, etc. have been sown over
400 acres about the ponds and erosion
areas. Aquatic plantings such as wild
rice, cat tails, smart weed, and sweet
flag have been made.

Much of the efforts of state and federal
authorities will come to naught if drastic
steps are not taken to stop the killing
of wild life. Larger areas should be set
aside where no hunting or trapping
would be permitted. The open season for
more kinds of game should be closed for
a term of years and then under severe
restrictions. Since rabbit fever became a
menace to hunters, the number of rabbits
has increased perceptibly. It is esti¬
mated that there are 238 rabbits per
square mile in the Shawnee Unit. It is

true that diseases of domestic turkeys
may have attacked the wild ones and
that severe winters and drought have
resulted in the death of many quails;
but the greatest menace to wild life in¬
crease has been hunters both legitimate
and otherwise.

Releasing game in areas where there
is lack of protection and where it will
mean that the total number grows less
each year, is only postponing the time of
their practical extermination. Limited
reservations which attract large numbers
of waterfowl should be surrounded by
large areas of cultivated or forest land
which could not be especially attractive
to water fowl but would give them pro¬
tection in coming or leaving the water
refuges.

A water refuge which is so hemmed
in that it can be surrounded by a multi¬
tude of hunters in rented shelters every
day of the open season appears to be
more of a trap than a conservation
project.

With due respect to the good efforts
of authorities and the many really faith¬
ful game wardens, it should be urged
that game wardens be selected and con¬
tinued in office upon their merit only,
that they should be assigned to territory
where their political friends are absent.
Poachers and those who hunt out of
season under any pretext should feel
safer when the game warden is absent
than when he is present.

UNIQUE FLIGHT FORMATION OF BLACKBIRDS

Clarence L. Brown

Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

It is common knowledge that the con¬
stant decline of the bird population of
North America would result in a critical
situation. The alarming reports of the
Departments of Conservation and the pub¬
lications of the Audubon Societies add
an atmosphere of realism that is any¬
thing but encouraging. Early American
literature abounds in narratives of birds
filling the air so as to blot out the sun,
of birds crowding so thickly on trees as
to break the branches, and of birds cover¬
ing the sky from one horizon to the other.
We generally think of such facts as being
true only of the past, not as a feature
of our time. It would seem to be a rare

experience to observe any such phenom¬
enon today.

The purpose of this paper is to report
and describe such a flight formation of
red-wing blackbirds, now almost a fea¬
ture of the past, as observed a few
months ago.

The formations were observed in the
vicinity of Reelfoot Lake, situated in the
extreme northwestern corner of Tennes¬
see. While driving south on the Jeffer¬
son Davis Highway just outside the
limits of Union City on December 21,
1940, at 4:25 P. M., I saw a long, black
column of flying birds coming from the
east. As the column passed overhead it

218

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

was possible to see the individual birds.
The formation bent and swayed as it
passed through the air. The birds were
about one hundred feet above the ground
and flew so closely together that the
column was only about fifteen feet in
width. I watched the passing birds for
twenty minutes and yet the end of the
column was not in sight. Within the
next four miles, two more such forma¬
tions were seen, stretching from horizon
to horizon. The flight direction was
toward the west.

Near Troy, Tennessee, sixteen miles
south, two more of these long, snake-like,
swaying columns of birds passed over¬
head. These birds were also about one
hundred feet above the ground and the
columns about fifteen feet in width.
Flight direction had shifted, as the birds
were now coming from the southeast;
the columns extended from one horizon
to the other.

On December 30, at 4:20 P. M., while
driving north on the Jefferson Davis
Highway between Troy and Union City,

I sighted six columns of these birds,
similar in every respect to those reported

on December 21. From the residents of
this section I learned that these flights
are a common sight each morning after
dawn and each evening a short time be¬
fore sundown. The birds head toward
Reelfoot Lake. According to my compass
observations, the birds would reach the
central portion of the lake. Hunters who
know this region verified my observations
by stating that the birds settle in the
central portion of the lake to feed and
rest.

I conclude, therefore, it is still pos¬
sible to witness one of these rare bird
flights which are recorded in the litera¬
ture of years ago. It is an unusual ex¬
perience to observe these swaying col¬
umns of red-wing blackbirds whose
formations stretch from horizon to hori¬
zon. A complete record of these flight
formations of the Reelfoot Lake region
would be extremely valuable. It would be
advantageous to know, among many
other facts, if such flights encompassed
the entire lake, where and how the forma¬
tion disseminates as well as the methods
of growth, the range of the birds, and the
daily and seasonal variation of these
“regular” blackbird flights.

THE EFFECTS OF CARBON DIOXIDE ON DAPHNIA

H. E. Ederstrom

Northwestern University , Evanston, Illinois
Abstract

In all permanent bodies of water there
is a group of minute free-swimming or¬
ganisms known collectively as the plank¬
ton. This includes plants (phytoplank¬
ton) and animals (zooplankton). Small
fish depend entirely upon the plankton
for food, as also do the whalebone whales,
the largest living animals. Economically
the plankton is of vast importance, the
fishing industries being directly depend¬
ent upon its abundance.

To the biologist this assemblage of or¬
ganisms presents a number of interesting
problems, one of the most puzzling of
which is the diurnal vertical migration
observed in the group as a whole. These
movements are correlated with night and
day, so that at noon the majority are
found in the deeper water, and at mid¬
night they are nearer the surface. Super¬
ficially it appears that the movements
are caused directly by light, the organ¬

isms perhaps migrating in search for a
constant intensity. This explanation may
be correct for the phytoplankton, but
has not been substantiated for the zoo¬
plankton. Laboratory observations on
the fresh-water crustacean, Daphnia, by
von Frisch and Kupelwieser (1913),
Clarke (1930, 1932) and others have not
disclosed the role of light in the diurnal
migrations of this form. Loeb (1904)
found that carbon dioxide in water made
Daphnia strongly photopositive to light
from the side, and on this evidence sug¬
gested that diurnal variations in the
carbon dioxide content of natural waters,
brought about by the periodic photo¬
synthetic activity of plants, were respon¬
sible for diurnal vertical migrations. This
theory has been criticised as not having
sufficient experimental proof.

The Daphnia pulex used in my experi¬
ments were tested for phototropic re-

Zoology — 1941 Meeting

219

sponse by placing them in a trough 46
cm. long illuminated through one end by
a 100-watt lamp. The bottom was mark¬
ed off in centimeters so that when ani¬
mals were dropped into the middle of the
trough (zero on the centimeter scale)
their movement toward or away from the
light could be recorded as plus or minus
centimeters, respectively. Filtered Lake
Michigan water at about 20 °C., was used
for the experimental solutions and also
in the culture medium in which the ani¬
mals were kept.

In the first series of experiments, which
were for the purpose of finding the nor¬
mal phototropic response, 2244 Daphnia
were given one-minute trials in the
trough. For the most part these were
photopositive to the light source used.
When similar trials were extended over a
three-hour period, and the positions re¬
corded every six minutes, the average
response was much the same. The re¬
sults are summarized in the tables below.
A series of trials similar to those above,
but using lake water charged with carbon
dioxide in the trough, were next under¬
taken. Altogether 11 different concentra¬
tions of carbon dioxide were used, the
solutions ranging from pH 5.7 with 450
parts/million free carbon dioxide to pH
7.8 with 10 parts/million. In each con-

TABLE I— PHOTOTROPIC RESPONSE IN LAKE
WATER. 1-MINUTE EXPOSURE

Positive Negative

No. of Animals Distance No. of Animals Distance
2055 25918 cm. 189 1077 cm.

Average: 12.6 cm. Average: 5.7 cm.

2244 Daphnia tested.

TABLE II— PHOTOTROPIC RESPONSE IN LAKE
WATER. 3-HOUR EXPOSURE

Positive Recordings Negative Recordings

429 21
Average Positions: 18.6 cm. Average Position: 11 cm.

15 Daphnia tested.

centration 100 Daphnia were tried with
the result that most became strongly
photopositive, many reaching the end of
the trough nearest the light in less than
one minute. The time necessary to travel
this distance (23 cm.) was then recorded
by a stopwatch, and the swimming rate
in centimeters per second calculated.
Each group of 100 Daphnia was also
given one-minute control trials in lake
water, either one hour before or after the
carbon dioxide trials. The difference in
swimming rate between control and ex¬
perimental trials was then considered to
be indicative of the effect of carbon di¬
oxide on the phototropic response. This
difference was significant in all trials.
Figure 1 shows the results.

When trials were extended to 3 hours,
as described earlier, it was found that the
carbon dioxide effect persisted for about
90 minutes.

In another series of experiments the
phototropic response was tested in a 46
cm. long vertical tube illuminated from
above. During the trials 4 or 5 Daphnia
were placed in the tube and their height
in the solution recorded by means of a
centimeter scale (0 at bottom, 46 cm. at
top) at intervals of 1 hour. The animals
were tested in this way for 8 hours in
lake water, and the next day again tested
in a carbon dioxide solution of pH 6.0.
In the lake water the Daphnia were at an
average position of 26.1 cm. for the 8-
hour period. In the Carbon dioxide solu¬
tion the same animals averaged 33.2 cm.
and the animals did not become adapted
as in the horizontal illumination. Table
III shows the average hourly positions of
the Daphnia.

The same kinds of observations were
then made with the light source placed to
one side of the vertical tube so that it was
uniformly illuminated throughout. In

220

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

lake water the Daphnia then remained
at about the same level (average — 23.6
cm.) as when the light was from above.
In the carbon dioxide solution, however,
the situation was reversed, the Daphnia
being nearer the bottom of the tube
(average— 8.9 cm.).

The experimental results described are
interesting in view of the fact that nat¬
ural bodies of water usually contain a
considerable amount of free carbon diox¬
ide, the amount being greater in the
deeper strata of water. Philip (1927)
has shown that the carbon dioxide con¬
tent of a lake studied was subject to ap¬
preciable diurnal variation. At night the
respiratory activities of plants and ani-

TASLS Ilk— average positions of daphnia

IN A VERTICAL TUBE ILLUMINATED FROM
ABOVE

Height

Hours Lake Water

0 21.9 cm

1 26.5

2 27.7

3 26.4

4 33.0

5 26.9

6 27.7

7 23.3

8 22.0

Av. of 36 Daphnia
26.1 cm.

in Tube

C02 solution of pH 6.0

37.1 cm.

35.5

30.6

30.7
33.0
32.4
31.0
32.3
37.0

Av. of 35 Daphnia

33.2 cm.

mals acted to increase the carbon diox¬
ide content, while during the day carbon
dioxide was used up in photosynthesis.
If one considers a Daphnia to be at equili¬
brium point with regard to carbon diox¬
ide and light intensity, any increase in
carbon dioxide would tend to cause an
upward movement toward the brighter
surface waters, while a decrease in car¬
bon dioxide would induce sinking to a
lower level. This hypothesis, which is
similar to that of Loeb, is suggested as a
partial explanation. Undoubtedly there
are many other factors involved and
these may vary in effect in different ani¬
mals, thereby making any ultimate ex¬
planation of diurnal migration a very
complex one.

LITERATURE CITED

Clarke, G. L. 1930. Change of phototropic and
geotropic signs m Daphnia induced by changes of
light intensity. Jour. Exp. Biol., 7:109-131.

• • • . . > 1?32. Quantitative aspects of’ the

change of phototropic sign in Daphnia. Jour
Exp. Biol., 9:180-211.

Frisch, Karl von and Hans Kupelwieser. 1913. Uber
den Einfluss der Lichtfarbe auf die Phototak-
oo Reaktlonen niederer Krebse. Biol. Zent.,
oo 1517-552.

Loeb, J, 1904. The control of heliotropic reactions
in fresh-water crustaceans by chemicals, especially
carbon dioxide. Univ. Calif. Pub. Physiol. 2:1-3.

Philip, C. B. 1927. Diurnal fluctuations in the
q -Jono«actmty of a Minnesota lake. Ecology,

o l7o-o9.

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF ILLINOIS

H. K. Gloyd

Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago, Illinois

Knowledge of the amphibians and rep¬
tiles of Illinois is inadequate for a satis¬
factory discussion of the status of these
groups in the state at the present time.
According to available data, about one
hundred species and subspecies are
known to occur within the boundaries of
the state. The number of forms repre¬
senting the orders of Amphibia and Rep-
tilia are as follows: Caudata 19; Salien-
tia 14; Squamata 46 (lizards 6, snakes
40) ; Testudinata 21. Some of these must
be regarded as doubtful until their pres¬
ence is verified by carefully determined
specimens. There are no endemic forms.

The portions of the state best known
herpetologically are the southern and
northeastern. The central and northwest¬
ern areas are poorly represented by speci¬
mens in collections and published reports.

As would be expected from the geo¬
graphic position of Illinois and the

nature of its natural vegetation (chiefly
grassland-deciduous forest transition)
there is a mingling of prairie and wood¬
land species, the former with affinities
toward the west and the latter toward
the east and south.

Of special interest are a few western
species (of which Heterodon nasicus is a
notable example) which are regarded as
relicts of a population formerly more
widely distributed, and associated with a
probable postglacial eastward extension
of the steppe in North America (Schmidt,
1938, Ecology, 19:396-407).

A cooperative study of the herpeto-
fauna of Illinois is being initiated by the
State Natural History Survey Division
and the Chicago Academy of Sciences.
Anyone interested in giving assistance in
the form of specimens or records is in¬
vited to correspond with one or the other
of these organizations.

Zoology — 1941 Meeting

221

INDUCED OVULATION IN RAN A PIPIENS II.

Henry C. Hill, Jr., and True W. Robinson
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

The relation of pituitary injection to
ovulation in amphibia has been investi¬
gated for several years. Rugh (1937)
showed that there is a quantitative re¬
lationship between the anterior pituitary
hormone and the number of eggs ovu¬
lated. He expressed the percentage
ovulation in terms of the ratio of the
weight of eggs found in body cavity and
uteri to the weight of the eggs remaining
in the ovary plus the weight of the eggs
released. The writers (1940) were able
to determine directly the number of eggs
ovulated by removing the ovary to frog
Ringer’s solution before ovulation com¬
menced. When the ovaries were removed
as early as 22 minutes after injection
with a standard dose of pituitary hor¬
mone, some ovulation occurred in the
Ringer’s solution. As the time between
injection of the frog and removal of the
ovaries was increased the number of
eggs subsequently released also increased.
These experiments suggested that if the
time during which the ovaries remained
in the body were held constant and if the
amount of hormone injected were varied,
a quantitative relation between the hor¬
mone and ovulation would be obtained.
That this quantitative relationship exists
is shown by the following experiments.

Method. — Frogs received during the
winter from Vermont and in the spring
from Wisconsin: were soaked in cold
water and then placed in a refrigerator
at 5°C. until used. Host females were
selected and weighed in order to obtain
some index of their ability to ovulate,
since Rugh has found a correlation be¬
tween body size and potency of the fe¬
male. Pituitary glands for injection were
removed from females, placed in distilled
water, and broken up into a fine suspen¬
sion. The various concentrations of the
hormone for each experiment were pre¬
pared from such a pituitary suspension.
Hypodermic injection was made into the
mid-coelomic cavity with a No. 20 needle.
After injection the host females were
placed in a bell jar in *4 inch of chlorine-
free tap water and kept in the darkroom

at 24°C. Six hours after injection the
host females were single-pithed down
the spinal cord and the ventral surface
of the body cavity opened. The ovaries
were removed and suspended below the
surface of frog Ringer’s solution. Ovula¬
tion occurred in this solution and by
periodic counts until ovulation ceased the
rate and total amount of ovulation was
determined.

Experiments. — On December 22, 1940 a
volume of the pituitary hormone suspen¬
sion was prepared with a concentration
of ten pituitaries per ml. In different
volumes, doses of 0.3, 0.9, 1.8, 3.8 pitui¬
taries per female were injected. The
maximum amount of ovulation occurred
with 0.9 pituitary. An increase of the
volume by four times (3.8 pituitaries)
did not induce a greater amount of ovula¬
tion. (See fig. 1 open circles.)

In subsequent experiments the volume
of the injection was kept at one ml and
the concentration varied from 0.1 to 8.0
pituitaries per ml of suspension. The
total amount of ovulation induced by
these concentrations is shown in fig. 1.

On February 2, we obtained a typical
ovulation curve with pituitary gland
equivalent doses of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0,
and 3.5 pituitaries per ml. (See fig. 1
solid circles.) In the concentration range
between 0.4 and 0.8 pituitaries per ml
the points fell along a straight line in¬
dicating that a direct proportionality ex¬
isted between the concentration of the
hormone and the total number of eggs
ovulated. Such a proportionality sug¬
gests that the method followed in these
experiments may be of use as a biological
assay for the amount of pituitary ovula¬
tion hormone in various tissues and solu¬
tions. On March 22 this relationship was
confirmed within this same concentration
range. (See fig. 1 inverted triangles.)
That the curve had a different slope was
probably due to the variability between
different shipments of frogs. Ovulation
reached a maximum at about 1.0 pitu¬
itary. This was shown to hold in the
previous experiment and was also borne

222

Illinois State Academy of Science Tvansactions

Fig. 1.

out in later ones. It is significant that
further increases in the dose even to
eight pituitaries induced no greater
ovulation. In the lower concentrations,

i.e., from 0.1 to 0.4 pituitaries per ml,
the points from five experiments all fell
close to the typical curve indicating that
the response is reproducible in this range.

During March and April frogs showed
increased variability in their response
to hormone stimulation. Ovulation at
this time did not follow closely the curve
which was found to be typical in Febru¬
ary, the month considered by Rugh best
for induced ovulation. Variation of re¬
sponse is caused at least in part by the
following factors, more or less difficult
to control : The maturity and size of
the host female and of the ovary itse’f
(Rugh found larger ovaries more suscep¬
tible to hormone stimulation); the
amount of available moisture; the storage
temperature; the approach of the normal
breeding season at which time frogs are
less responsive to artificial hormone
stimulation. We attempted to control
the second and third factors, i.e., the
amount of moisture and temperature, by
periodically soaking the frogs and by
maintaining them at 5°C.

Conclusions. — Using the method of
ovulation in Ringer’s solution, the effect
of pituitary concentrations on ovulation
were studied. The results were as fol¬
lows:

1. In the lower concentrations from
0.1 to 0.4 pituitaries per ml the
ovulation response was consistent
and increased rapidly with concen¬
tration.

2. In the concentration range from
0.4 to 0.8 pituitaries per ml, the
total ovulation was directly pro¬
portional to the concentration of
the hormone. This proportionality
suggests that, within this concen¬
tration range, a direct biological
assay of the pituitary hormone can
be made.

3. The maximum amount of ovulation
occurred at about 1.0 pituitaries
per ml concentration of hormone.
Increased concentrations did not
induce significantly greater ovula¬
tion.

REFERENCES

Robinson, T. W. and H. C. Hill, Jr. 1940. Induced
ovulation in Rana pipiens. Trans. Ill State
Acad. Sc. Vol. 33, No. 2, 223-224.

Rugh, R. 1937. A quantitative analysis of the
pituitary-ovulation relation in the frog (Rana
pipiens). Physiol. Zool., 10, 84-100

Zoology — 1941 Meeting

223

THE EFFECTS OF FORMALIN UPON DEVELOPMENT IN
THE BAR-EYED RACE OF DROSOPHILA MEL AN OG ASTER

Margaret Bernice Hinshaw
Carrollton , Illinois

On June 18, 1936, fresh banana-agar-
yeast food to which 5 c.c. of sorghum had
been added was made and placed in 8
dram homeopathic vials. Fleishman’s
yeast was used. On the following day
flies from Dr. Zeleny’s stock H357B of the
bar-eyed race of Drosophila melanogaster
at the University of Illinois were trans¬
ferred to it for egg-laying. On June 25
twelve virgins were secured from these
vials. They were mated, one pair being
placed in each of twelve vials. They
were examined to see that they did not
vary in somatic characteristics to any
great extent from normal for this species.
When imagoes emerged from these mat¬
ings on July 6, 7, and 8, they were re¬
moved every 24 hours, those of the same
age being put together in a vial.

When the flies were five days old, they
were put in one-half pint urinalysis bot¬
tles covered with milk bottle caps on
which food had been placed 48 hours be¬
fore. Fifteen pairs were placed in each
bottle. One teaspoonful of powdered
lamp black was added to the food for the
purpose of facilitating egg transfer. A
few drops of acetic acid were added also
to stimulate egg laying. The flies were
placed in an incubator of type 2 made by
the Chicago Surgical and Electric Com¬
pany in a room in which the temperature
is kept constant by steam coils and brine
coils. The room temperature maintained
was 25°C., varying not more than .5°C.
at any time. The incubator temperature
was 27 °C. The flies were kept in the in¬
cubator two hours for egg laying. Two
more egg laying periods of two hours
length were conducted similarly.

Preliminary experiments indicated that
the lethal amount of formalin for eggs is
in the vicinity of 1.5 c.c. of formalin to
100 c.c. of water, in the food. It was
decided to determine the effects of form¬
alin in the food 80%, 60%, 40%, and 20%
below the lethal amount for eggs on the
somatic characteristics of the adults. Dur¬
ing the periods of egg laying food was
prepared containing the following propor¬
tions of formalin:

1.2 c.c. of formalin to 100 c.c. of water

.9 c.c. of formalin to 100 c.c. of water

.6 c.c. of formalin to 100 c.c. of water

.3 c.c. of formalin to 100 c.c. of water

A control set was also prepared Shell
vials of 20 dram capacity were used. One
set of 5 vials was used for each concentra¬
tion of formalin. Twenty eggs were
transferred to each vial by means of a
dissecting needle, care being taken that
the eggs being transferred to one set of
vials came from one egg laying period.
One hundred eggs were thus transferred
to each set of vials having the same
amount of formalin. These were kept in
the temperature control room at a tem¬
perature of 25°C. The temperature did
not vary more than a degree at any time.

The adults that emerged were preserv¬
ed in 85% alcohol. The mean facet counts
of the flies raised on food containing
these different percentages of formalin
and of those raised in the control set are
given in table I. The eye facets were
counted with a Leitz microscope with a
number 4 ocular and a number 3 ob¬
jective. The facet count of the flies rais¬
ed in 80% of the lethal amount of forma¬
lin for eggs shows a definite drop in the
number of eye facets. The number of
flies that reached the adult stage, twelve,
was too small to give conclusive evidence,
however. The larvae, pupae, and adults
appeared to be increasingly smaller as
the amount of formalin was increased in
the food.

Later the experiment was repeated for
the purpose of determining the effects of
the various amounts of formalin upon the
length of the different stages of the life
cycle. Observations were made hourly
after the eggs were transferred until they
had hatched, and also at the time of
change from larva to pupa, and from
pupa to adult. There seems to be little
correlation between the amount of forma¬
lin in the food and the length of the egg
stage. The lower concentrations of forma¬
lin seem to have more effect on the length
of the egg stage than the higher concen¬
trations. The controls hatched before

224

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Table I.

Percent of
lethal
amount of
formalin
used

Amount

of

formalin
used
(C. C.’s)

Sex

Number

of

flies

Mean

facet Probable

count error

Standard

deviation

80 .

60 .

40 .

20 .

Controls

1.2

Males. . .
Females.

.9

Males. . .
Females.

.6

Males. . .
Females.

.3

Males. . .
Females.

None

Males. . .
Females.

4

8

28

40

22

28

26

45

24

22

60.25

52.00

65.78

62.62

71.95

60.89

68.50
66.00

70.50
65.18

.20

8.28

.13

7.85

.35

11.70

.25

10.59

.26

10.20

.11

7.38

.63

22.36

.21

6.90

any of those in food containing formalin.

The mean length of the larval period
of flies in the control set was 84.82 hours,
while the mean length of the larval pe¬
riod of those in food containing .3 cc. of
formalin was 11.64 hours shorter. The
mean length of the larva period of those
in food containing .6 cc., .9 cc., and 1.2
cc. of formalin had larval periods 40.54
hours, 169.2 hours, and 192.45 hours
longer than that of the control set, re¬
spectively.

The mean number of hours in the
pupal stage was increased 2.47 hours in

food containing .6 cc. of formalin, and
1.99 hours in food containing .9 cc. of
formalin. Higher amounts of formalin
killed the pupae.

The length of ten pupae which develop¬
ed in each percent of the lethal amount of
formalin was measured by means of an
ocular micrometer, and the average
length was computed. Table II shows
the average length of the pupae measur¬
ed. There was a definite decrease in the
length of the pupae with a corresponding
increase in the amount of formalin in the
food.

Table II.

20.

40.

60.

80.

100.

Percent of lethal
amount of formalin
in food

Amount of
formalin in food
(C. C.’s)

Average length
of pupa cases
in millimeters

Controls

None

q

3.42

. U

a

3 . 05

. o

Q

2.68
o on

. y

1 9

2 . o9

O OA

1.5

1

2.50

2.24

The conclusions drawn from these ex¬
periments are summarized as follows:

1. The lethal amount of formalin for
eggs of this race of Drosophila is in the
vicinity of 1.5 cc. to 100 cc. of water in
the food.

2. The eye facet number is increased
slightly by 20% of the lethal amount of
formalin, and definitely decreased by 60%
or more of the lethal amount of formalin.

3. The length of the egg stage is in¬
creased by 20% and by 40% of the lethal
amount of formalin in the food.

4. The lengths of the larval and pupal
periods are increased by 40% or more of
the lethal amount of formalin in the food
on account of retarded development.

5. The size of larvae, pupae, and
adults is reduced in direct proportion to
the percent of the lethal amount of forma¬
lin in the food.

Zoology — 1941 Meeting

225

DISTRIBUTION OF UPLAND BIRDS IN ILLINOIS

S. Charles Kendeigh
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

According to the life-zone concept of
Merriam and others, distribution of birds
falls into natural units consisting of
great trans-continental belts. Seven of
these zones have been described for
North America, each bounded on the
north and south by isotherms of tem¬
perature. With the recognition that dif¬
ferent species occurred in the west as
compared with the east, certain zones
were subdivided at about the 100° merid¬
ian on the basis of differences in humid¬
ity and rainfall. If one follows this con¬
cept the state of Illinois falls mostly in
the eastern Carolinian Faunal Area of
the Upper Austral Zone. The Transition
Zone enters the state on the north and
the Lower Austral Zone on the south,
but the extent of penetration appears to
be a matter of personal judgment. Such
a concept is unsatisfactory for analyzing
the distribution of the three hundred or
so species of birds that occur, as it pre¬
supposes a uniform occurrence of a dif¬
ferent group of species in each section of
the state with their distributional bound¬
aries determined only by temperature.

Doubtlessly temperature does affect the
distribution of birds. For instance the
chuck-wills-widow, Carolina chickadee,
Bewick wren, mockingbird, sycamore
warbler, Kentucky warbler, hooded war¬
bler, summer tanager, Bachman’s spar¬
row and others are found more commonly
during the breeding season in the south¬
ern portions of the state, and the black-
capped chickadee, swamp sparrow, bobo¬
link, clay-colored sparrow, and savannah
sparrow are mostly confined to the north¬
ern portion. Very likely all species have
limits of tolerance to extreme tempera¬
tures, but these limits vary widely be¬
tween species. When temperature con¬
trols distribution there is little agree¬
ment between different species in exact
limits of distribution. Likewise correla¬
tion between distributional boundaries
and isotherms does not prove that tem¬
perature is the controlling factor without
supporting experimental evidence. For
instance, the northward dispersal of the

Bewick wren appears limited by competi¬
tion with the house wren, rather than by
the direct influence of any physical en¬
vironmental factor.

In seeking units of significance for the
analysis of distributional phenomena, it
is best to utilize the organisms them¬
selves rather than any combination of
environmental factors. Unless distribu¬
tion limits show some harmony and cor¬
relation, then distributional units, as
such, do not exist in nature. Actually,
plants and animals do exhibit fundamen¬
tal distributional interrelations in the
form of biotic communities. These com¬
munities give the most substantial basis
for interpreting distribution. Exclusive
of aquatic areas, two major communities
or biomes are represented in Illinois:
the forest and the prairie. Their occur¬
rence in the state is shown in fig. 1 which
was prepared originally by the Illinois
State Natural History Survey1. The
limits of the constituent avian species are
controlled by a complex of environmental
conditions, in which moisture, light, and
vegetation are especially important.

In addition to these climax communi¬
ties, there are numerous disturbed areas
and subclimax or developmental com¬
munities. Most of the prairie has been
destroyed for purposes of agriculture or
has been greatly modified. Forests have
been lumbered or grazing has been per¬
mitted so that they no longer repre¬
sent original conditions. Marshes, lakes,
and rivers are subclimax, but if left alone,
the smaller lakes and ponds will gradu¬
ally become choked with vegetation and
transformed into communities similar to
those now on the upland. Meanwhile
they have a varied and characteristic
bird fauna of ducks, grebes, coots, rails,
gallinules, bitterns, herons, and several
species of song birds.

From studies carried out in Trelease
Woods at the University of Illinois, a
typical list of species occurring in an up¬
land forest in approximate order of their
abundance is as follows: indigo bunting,
starling, red-eyed vireo, crested flycatch-

1 Telford, O. J., Bull. Ill. Sta. Nat. Hist. Surv., 16, 1926: I- VI, 1-102.

226

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

er, downy woodpecker, tufted titmouse,
wood pewee, red-headed woodpecker, wood
thrush, cardinal, yellow-throat, yellow¬
billed cuckoo, white-breasted nuthatch,
barred owl, and Carolina wren. In addi¬
tion other species occur in irregular num¬
bers. Total abundance of all species
averages between two and three birds
per acre (Twomey, Hyde, MS).

Extensive tracts of original prairie are
difficult to find. Abandoned fields and
railroad rights-of-way sometime resemble
prairie both in appearance and composi¬

tion. Representative prairie species that
both feed and nest in grassy habitats in¬
clude marsh hawk, ring-necked pheasant,
prairie chicken, upland plover, horned
lark, meadowlark, bobolink, dickcissel,
and grasshopper sparrow. These are not
listed in the order of their abundance.
Total abundance of all species may lie
between one and one and a half birds per
acre2 which is considerably less than in
the forest. In disturbed farmland, pas¬
tures, plowed ground, and crops, abund¬
ance may drop to one bird per two acres.

Greatest numbers of birds may be
found in the forest-edge, or ecotone where
forest and open field meet and interdigi-
tate, for here there is a greater variety
of habitats, and birds may take advan¬
tage of favorable features in more than
one. Many of our towns and villages, or¬
chards, cemeteries, shrubby fields, and
woodlots are essentially forest-edge habi¬
tats. Abundance commonly averages
three or more birds per acre and includes,
in addition to some species listed for the
forest and prairie, the sparrow hawk, bob-
white, mourning-dove, flicker, red-headed
woodpecker, kingbird, blue jay, house j
wren, catbird, brown thrasher, robin, j
bluebird, English sparrow, bronzed
grackle, Baltimore and orchard orioles,
goldfinch, and field sparrow.

The presence of extensive forest-edges
was characteristic of early Illinois. Birds I
were probably always numerous as a con- l
sequence, and except for the starling,
English sparrow, and ring-necked pheas- |i
ant, were probably of the species above
enumerated. The present paper is in¬
tended merely to introduce the ecological
approach to the study of bird distribu¬
tion in the state. There are needed many
more intensive studies in all habitats to i
determine the occurrence of species, their
actual abundance, fluctuations from year
to year, interrelations for territory and
food, nesting habits, rates of reproduc¬
tion and mortality, migration phenomena,
and relations to man.

2 Forbes and Gross, Bull., Ill. Sta. Nat. Hist. Surv., 14, 1922, 187-218.

Zoology — 1941 Meeting

227

NOTEWORTHY RECORDS OF OCCURRENCE OF MAMMALS
IN CENTRAL ILLINOIS*

E. J. Koestner

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

A revived interest, on the part of sev¬
eral zoologists, in the mammals of Illi¬
nois prompts me to place on published
record the following selected information.
This information comprises mainly rec¬
ords of occurrence which better indicate
the geographic ranges of several species.
The catalogue numbers given refer to
those of the writer’s private collection.

I am grateful to M. J. Soran and James
Francis for assistance in the trapping
which yielded some of the information
given below, and to E. Raymond Hall,
University of California, Berkeley, for
suggestions and advice.

Myotis lucifugus lucifugus (Le Conte),
Little brown bat. — One was taken on
July 21, 1939 flying on the east edge of
Brownfield Woods (R. 9 E., T. 20 N., Sec.
34) in Champaign County (No. 250). The
species has hitherto not been recorded for
this county although Wood (1910) men¬
tions specimens in the State Natural His¬
tory Survey Collections with data want¬
ing. The identification has been verified
by C. C. Sanborn of the Field Museum.

Lasionycteris noctivagans (Le Conte),
Silver-haired bat. — One was received
from M. J. Soran, who obtained it in a
tree in the day time in Piper City (R. 9
E., T. 27 N., Sec. 4). This provides the
first record for Ford County (No. 258).
The writer shot others at Brownfield
Woods in Champaign County on Septem¬
ber 18, 1940, and later. Collections of
bats were made there at other times
during the summer, but September 18
was the first date on which the species
was found. Probably these individuals
were migrating (Nos. 353, 354, 358, 359).

Pipistrellus subflavus (F. Cuvier),
Georgian bat. — Of this species, Wood
(1910:596) writes, “If it occurs in the
northern part of Illinois it must usually
be rare. Either the species is often over¬
looked or its distribution is very uneven
over most of its range.” Only one speci¬
men of the Georgian bat was taken in a
summer’s collecting at Brownfield Woods,

Champaign County. This one was shot fly¬
ing on September 16, 1940. It is the first
record for the county and is the northern¬
most for Illinois, although it has been
taken in more northern states (No. 349).

Lasiurus borealis (Muller), Red bat. —
The red bat is the species most often
seen flying in towns in residential dis¬
tricts where there are a considerable
number of trees. It is one of the first
to appear in the evening. Often it
emerges when there is still enough light
for a person to see its color easily. I
took one specimen in Piper City, Ford
County, flying and feeding at 3 A. M.,
and many others were seen flying about
street lights at this time. This is the
most common species in Champaign-Ur-
bana, while in Brownfield Woods, a red
oak-maple virgin forest, it is much less
abundant (No. 256).

M. J. Soran and I collected fifteen of
these bats which were trapped in the
fresh oil on a road in Piper City, Ford
County (Nos. 338-348). The bats, to¬
gether with birds of several species,
were picked up in midafternoon from the
heavily oiled road which was well shaded
by trees. Most of the bats were taken
within a distance of 500 feet and when
washed with gasoline all proved to be
this species. Probably the bats mistook
the oil for water and were flying to dip
into it. The majority of the bats were
alive although they were completely cov¬
ered with oil, which coated also the lin¬
ing of the mouth. Those exposed to the
direct rays of the sun were dead.

Lasiurus cinereus (Beauvois), Hoary
bat. — Wood (1910) assumed this species
was present in Champaign County, but
mentions no specimens. The writer shot
one along the edge of Brownfield Woods,
Champaign County (No. 335).

Nycticeius humeralis (Rafinesque),
Rafinesque’s bat. — This species was in¬
cluded in Wood’s list although he made
no mention of specimens, and Sanborn
(1930) Records the first one from Cham-

Oontribution from the Zoological Laboratories of the University of Illinois, No. 593.

228

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

paign County. The writer collected speci¬
mens in Brownfield Woods. There, it was
the most abundant species and was found
throughout the summer. The presence
of large numbers of both adults and
young indicates that the species breeds
there (Nos. 251-253, 322, 327, 329-331, 333,
335, 357).

Procyon lotor lotor (Linnaeus), Rac¬
coon. — Three skulls of young females
were obtained for me by M. H. Goodrich
about six miles north of Piper City in
Ford County (R. 9 E., T. 27 N., Sec. 2)
near a brush pile along a stream. In
Ford County suitable cover for raccoons
is scarce (Nos. 393-395).

Mustela rixosa allegheniensis(Rhoads),
Least weasel. — The least weasel is not
often taken in Illinois although it is
probably more generally distributed
than records indicate. Fur-trappers
frequently tell of taking small or young
weasels which they rarely, if ever, save
because of the slight fur value. The
writer was privileged to examine the
skull of a male least weasel taken in a
sunken basement window in La Grange,
Cook County, Illinois in the autumn of
1939. The skull and the mounted skin
are in the possession of Glenn Ulrich of
Western Springs, Illinois. The identifica¬
tion was verified by E. Raymond Hall.

Synaptomys cooperi gossii (Coues),
Goss lemming mouse. — Howell (1927:1)
writes: “Synaptomys is not common in
collections, but it is by no means certain
that it is not more numerous in nature
than is generally supposed. Except in a
very few places, or in years of unusual
abundance, lemming mice have proved
exceedingly difficult to obtain in num¬
bers.” Wood (1910:559) says “this
species seems to be the rarest of the
small mammals— or, at least, the one
most seldom trapped.” He further states
that the only specimens he had were two
(one without head) found dead near
Urbana. He was unable to get additional
individuals by trapping in the same area.

The writer collected four specimens of
this species in December two miles west
of Seymour, Champaign County (R. 7 E.,
T. 19 N., Sec. 18) within a few hundred
feet of the Champaign-Piatt county line.
The exact place was in a quadrat that
had been trapped over in the previous
year by the same method, without indica¬
tion of the presence of this species. The
same general area had been trapped

yearly for short periods by ecology
classes from the University for ten or
more years and no other specimens were
ever reported.

The first specimen, a half grown male,
was taken on December 10, 1940, on the
fifth day of trapping in a quantitative
plot. It was dead when found although,
it was caught in a live trap. Large num¬
bers of Microtus ochrogaster (Wagner),
Peromyscus leucopus novel) oracensis
(Fischer), Cryptotis parva (Say), Mus
musculus (Linnaeus), and a few indi¬
viduals of some other species of small
mammals were taken here in the four
days preceding. A female was taken on
December 15 on the second day of trap¬
ping in a second plot, located about 100
feet west of the first. A lactating female
was taken on December 20, and an adult
male on the following day. The food in
the stomachs and intestines of this spe¬
cies was uniformly green-colored, indicat¬
ing that the animals feed largely on
green vegetation even at this time of
the year. The green vegetation present
was mostly blue grass ( Poa pratensis L.).
The specimens were identified by Donald
M. Hatfield of the Chicago Academy of
Sciences (Nos. 364, 371, 374, 375).

The trapping which provided the rec¬
ords mentioned above for Ford County
has naturally yielded species of com¬
moner occurrence and more general dis¬
tribution. Those of which the writer has
specimens (*), or has handled fresh
specimens are as follows:

♦Didelphis virginiana Kerr
♦Scalopus aquaticus machrinus (Raf-
inesque)

♦Blarina brevicauda (Say)
♦Lasionycteris noctivagans (Le Conte)
♦Lasiurus borealis (Muller)

♦Procyon lotor lotor (Linnaeus)
♦Mustela frenata noveboracensis (Em¬
mons)

♦Mustela vison mink (Peale and Beau-
vois)

Mephitis mephitis avia Bangs
♦Vulpes fulva (Desmarest)

♦Citellus tridecemlineatus tridecemli-
neatus (Mitchill)

♦Citellus franklinii (Sabine)

Sciurus niger rufiventer (Geoffroy)
♦Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii (Hoy
and Kennicott)

♦Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis
(Fischer)

y

Zoology — 1941 Meetmg

229

Ondatra zibethica (Linnaeus)

Rattus norvegicus (Erxleben)

*Mus musculus (Linnaeus)

♦Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii( Allen)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Howell, A. Brazier. 1927. Revision of the Ameri¬
can lemming mice. North American Fauna,
50 :l-37.

DISTRIBUTION OF ILLINOIS MAMMALS

Carl O. Mohr

Illinois natural History Survey , JJrbana, Illinois

At least 53, and possibly 55, species of be found in most counties (table 2), al-

mammals are know to occur wild in Illi- though several bats occur there only

nois, and at least two dozen can be found during part of a year when migrating,

in any community. Thirty-two species Most mammals, including the furbearers,

are either known to be present in every occur within sight of the limits of every

county (table 1) or are very likely to city, even of Chicago.

Koestner, E. J. 1941. Some recent records of
central Illinois mammals. Jour. Tenn. Acad.
Sci., 16:46-47, and Report of the Reelfoot Lake
Biol. Sta., 5:46-47.

Sanborn, G. C. 1930. Notes from northern and
central Illinois. Jour. Mamm., 11 :222-223.

Wood, Frank Elmer. 1910. A study of the mam¬
mals of Champaign County, Illinois. Bull. Ill.
State Lab. Nat. Hist., 8:501-613.

Table I. — Mammals Known

Possum, Didelphis virginiana Kerr

Coon, Procyon lotor (Linn.)

Long-tailed weasel, Mustela frenata Licht.

Mink, Mustela vison Schr.

Skunk, Mephitis mephitis Schr.

Red fox, Vulpes fulva Desm.

Fox squirrel, Sciurus niger Linn.

Table II. — Mammals Known to Occur

!

Prairie mole, Scalopus aquations (Linn.)

Old-field shrew, Gryptotis parva (Say)

Mole-shrew, Blarina brevicauda (Say)

Little long-eared bat, Myotis heenii
(Merr.)

Twilight bat, Nycticeius humeralis
(Raf.)

Gray fox, Urocyon cinereoargenteus
(Schr.)

Woodchuck or groundhog, Marmota
monax (Linn.)

Chipmumk, Tamias striatus (Linn.)

Gray squirrel, Sciurus carolinensis Gmel.

Flying, squirrel, Glaucomys volans
(Linn.)

Prairie deermouse, Peromyscus mani-
culatus (Wagn.)

to Occur in Every County

Muskrat, Ondatra zibethica Linn.

House rat, Rattus norvegicus Erx.

House mouse, Mus musculus Linn.

Cottontail rabbit, Sylvilagus floridanus
Allen

Little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus
(LeC.)

All But a Few Scattered Counties

Silver-haired bat, Lasionycteris noctiva-
gans (LeC.)

Deep-cave bat, Pipistrellus subflavus
(Cuv.)

Big brown bat, Eptesicus fuscus
(Beauv.)

Red bat, Nycteris borealis (Mull.)

Hoary bat, Nycteris cinerea (Beauv.)

Woodland deermouse, Peromyscus leu-
copus (Raf.)

Lemming mouse, Synaptomys cooperi
Baird.

Mole mouse or pine mouse, Pitymys
pinetorum (LeC.)

Prairie meadowmouse, Microtus ochro-
gaster (Wagn.)

Jumping mouse or kangaroo mouse,

Zapus hudsonius (Zimm.)

I

230

Illinois State Academy

Generally speaking, our mammals are
confined either to woodlands and their
associated brushy margins, or to prairies
and fields, and are accordingly most
abundant where there are extensive habi¬
tats suitable to them. Squirrels, for ex¬
ample, are most common in our extensive¬
ly wooded southern, western and south¬
western counties while muskrats are
most common in prairie areas (fig. 1,
muskrat). Each species, however, is a
law unto itself in the matter of distribu¬

te/ Science Transactions

tion because no two select exactly the
same type of habitat. This is illustrated
by the bag and distribution of squirrels.
In the extensively wooded southern coun¬
ties, squirrel hunters average from ten to
twenty times more each year than those
in the lightly wooded prairie counties
according to hunter’s reports (Fig. 1,
squirrels).*

Fox squirrels, which prefer thin
stands of woods, outnumber gray squir¬
rels in the northern half of Illinois where

Table III.-Mammals Which Occur Widely Only in Counties in the Nobthebn

Two-thirds of Illinois

Coyote, Canis latrans Say

Striped ground squirrel,

Citellus tredecimlineatus (Mitch.)

Franklin’s ground squirrel,

Citellus franklinii (Sabine)

Pennsylvania meadowmouse,

Microtus pennsylvanicus (Ord)

to Occur Only in a Few Tiers op Counties in
Southern Illinois

Table IV. — Mammals Known

Bachman’s shrew,

Sorex longirostris Bach.

Gray bat,

Myotis grisescens Howell
Pink bat,

Myotis sodalis M. & A.

Otter,

Lutra canadensis Schr.

Bobcat,

Lynx rufus (Schr.)

Beaver,

Castor canadensis Kuhl.

Cotton mouse,

Peromyscus gossypinus (LeC.)

Golden mouse,

Peromyscus nuttalli (Harl.)

Rice rat,

Oryzomys palustris (Harl.)
Woodrat,

Neotoma floridana (Ord)

Swamp rabbit,

Sylvilagus aquaticus Linn.

Big-eared bat,

Corynorhinus rafinesquii (Less)

Table V. — Mammals of Pecular

Masked shrew,

Sorex cinereus Kerr. Chicago region.

and Restricted Distribution

south and east of the Illinois-Kankakee
rivers.

Least weasel,

Mustela rixosa Bangs, so far found only
in northeastern counties.

Badger,

Taxidea taxus Schr., common in coun¬
ties in the northern third of Illinois.

Pocket gopher,

Ceomys illinoensis K. & S. Present in
a few counties in the heart of Illinois,

Jack rabbit,

Lepus townsendii Bach. Present in
half a dozen counties in the northwest
corner of Illinois.

White-tailed deer,

Odocoileus virginianus (Bodd.). Chiefly
in extreme northern and extreme south¬
ern Illinois.

of the T Ltenartmen Livingston Osborne, Mr. Lewis G. Martin and Mr. J. V. Maloney
based the mans amt o-ArSafiV^^1011 t°r i°.?n .°* both biinters’ and trappers’ reports upon which are
these reports P the average about distribution of the bag- of game mammals and furbearers. From
sueche —Is b^ed was calculated and transferred to maps as dots in

such a way that counties having the largest bag would also have the greatest concentration of dots.

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

extensive cutting and heavy pasturing
have spoiled the woods for the latter.
During the writer’s extensive travels on
biological surveys of Illinois, for ex¬
ample, he has observed fox squirrels at
157 localities, (fig. 1, fox squirrel), 73
per cent of them in the northern half of
the state while observing gray squirrels
at 48 localities (fig. 1, gray squirrel) only
54 per cent of which were in the north¬
ern half of Illinois.

The bulk of the fox squirrel popula¬
tion lies north of a relatively sharp line
of demarcation running east and west,
just south of the middle of the state and
approximately separating the best black
soil area from the poorer yellowish soils.
Only 40 per cent of the squirrels observed
south of this line were fox squirrels
while 60 per cent were gray squirrels
which require heavy stands of timber.

Conversely only 30 per cent of the squir¬
rels observed north of this line were gray
squirrels while 70 per cent were fox
squirrels.

Each of the predatory furbearing spe¬
cies also shows similar striking prefer¬
ence for some special area, no two species
having exactly the same distribution pat¬
tern although all occur in greatest abund¬
ance in wooded or brushy counties.

The margins of the ranges of less
widely distributed species are very poor¬
ly known at present, but it is possible to
give a rough idea of the general distribu¬
tion of each. Future collecting and ob¬
servation, particularly in marginal coun¬
ties, will contribute much toward more
exact knowledge about the exact pattern.

Star-nosed moles have not been collect¬
ed in many years and may now be ex¬
tinct.

BACTERIAL RESPONSE TO GROWTH STIMULANTS

Seward E. Owen

Cancer Research Unit, Veterans'

This report presents the results of
a study on growth rates and fermentative
power of bacteria as influenced by car-
cinogenics and by tissue growth promot¬
ing substances.

The effects of the carcinogenics on bac¬
terial growth has been little studied, al¬
though Goldstein (1) suggested accelera¬
tion of bacterial reproduction as a pos¬
sible microbiological test for the carcin¬
ogenic hydrocarbons. The intermediate
life forms as yeast, Cook et al (2), ma¬
rine hydroids, Hammett and Reimann
(3), the planarians and plant rootlets,
Owen et al (4) have been utilized and
growth was enhanced by the carcino¬
genics in all instances.

Growth and regeneration stimulation
are not specific properties of the carcino¬
genics. The mechanisms of tissue growth
are altered by the carcinogenics. Cook
et al (5) noted a reversal of the respira¬
tion effect on yeast, from that of stimula¬
tion to inhibition in the carcinogenic con¬
centration range most effective for
growth promotion. Wright Rnd Ander¬
son (3) found a soluble oxidation product
of 1:2: 5: 6 dibenzanthracene to stimulate
growth of Fusarium lini and also to cause

Administration , Hines, Illinois.

a more rapid utilization of glucose. The
same carcinogen has been noted as de¬
pressing the respiration rate of brain,
spleen and liver by Pourbaix (6).

Allantoin is mentioned by Macalister
(7) as effective in the promotion of heal¬
ing with rapid granulation in chronic
ulcers. Urea was employed in treating
wounds by Syrners and Kirk (8). Pre¬
viously urea had been shown to be a
bactericide, Ramsden (9) and Peju and
Rajat (10). Various explanations for the
apparent growth stimulating effects of
urea and allantoin have been offered.
Aside from the bacteriostatic action as
shown here a most plausible explanation
exists in the fact that urea releases free
sulphydryl from tissue proteins, Owen
(11). Allantoin through its slow re¬
lease of urea apparently acts similarly
as Greenstein (12) has shown guanidine
and its derivatives to do.

With reference to larval preparations
of the blow fly (Lucilia sericata) Rob¬
inson (13) believes the wound healing
action to be due to the allantoin content.
The urea content of larval preparations
is not the sole bacteriostatic agent as
removal of this agent by hot alcoholic

Published under R & P. 6727, Veterans’ Administration.

233

Zoology — 1941 Meeting

extraction does not eliminate all of the
bacteriostatic action of the larval resi¬
due.

It seems that simple organisms as bac¬
teria might provide suitable life forms
on which to study and possibly standard¬
ize growth stimulating agents and the
carcinogenics.

Experimental. — For the study a culture
of Bacillus coli communior was utilized
as this organism displays fermentative
powers on the mono and disaccharides.
The basic media consisted of three grams
of beef extract, five grams of peptone and
eight grams of sodium chloride per liter.
The sugar medias were made by adding
one per cent of the wanted sugar to the
above media before final sterilization.
Ten tubes of each media comprised each
test and the tests were run in duplicate.
The concentrations of the substances
tested were as follows: urea .5%, allan-
toin .25%, larval filtrates 1%, ether and
alcohol extracts of dessicated larvae— the
extractive from two grams placed in
thirty c. c. of water, well shaken and
filtered. Cysteine hydrochloride, gluta¬
thione, indole acetic acid stock solutions
were 1:100,000. From .1 to 1 c. c. of the
above solutions were added to five c. c.
of media. The carcinogenics were added
directly to the media in solid form so as
to give saturated solutions. Steriliza¬
tion was done by filtration and by auto¬
clave, each method giving similar re¬
sults.

The test inoculations consisted of .01
c. c. of a twenty-four hour culture in
nutrient broth. To determine the amount
of bacteria in the resulting twenty-four
hour cultures resort was had to Hopkins
tubes. These were centrifuged for thirty
minutes at 2030 revolutions per minute.

The results obtained (table A) are
given as the quotient of experimental
test volume of bacteria over the bacterial
volume in the control tubes. Average
bacterial volumes from ten tubes for each
substance were used in constructing the
table.

By the use of the ordinary fermenta¬
tion tubes the carbohydrate usage ap¬
peared not significantly altered by the
presence of the carcinogens or growth
stimulating agents when these were cor¬
related with final volumes or amounts of
bacteria.

The ether and alcohol extracts as well
as the residues of dessicated larvae gave
positive tests for free sulphydryl by the
phosphotungstate procedure.

Discussion. — A bacteriostatic action is
displayed by urea, allantoin and by lar¬
val preparations. This action is suffi¬
cient to overshadow any bacterial growth
stimulating properties inherent in these
substances. Urea and possibly also al¬
lantoin and larval preparations release
free sulphydryl on contact with suitable
proteins. The carcinogenics do not do
this. These growth stimulants and car¬
cinogens do give lowered potentials in

Table A. — Showing the effects of growth stimulants and of carcinogenics on bac¬
terial growth rates. Figures represent quotient obtained from test bacterial
volume over control bacterial volume. 24 hour cultures and Hopkins tube

volumes.

Media used

Substance tested in the culture

Nutr. Broth.

Dextr. Broth.

Sacchr. Broth.

Urea .

.645

.710

.690

Allantoin .

.614

.661

.620

Larva dessicated, autoclaved .

.560

.580

.630

Larva dessicated extract .

.700

.755

.610

Larva dessicated ether ext. of .

1.07

.925

.950

Larva hot alcohol extract of .

.632

.685

.730

Cysteine HCl .

1.16

1.12

1.00

Glutathione S-S .

1.00

.98

1.05

Benzpyrene .

.975

1.00

1.23

Pibenzanthrp fpnp .

.994

1.26

1.32

Tri phenyl henz<vn<i .

.42

.49

.52

Indole acetic acid .

.58

.60

.44

...

234

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

solutions as compared to buffer controls
Owen (14). The carcinogens 1:2: 5:6
dibenzanthracene and benzpyrene display
no bactericidal nor bacteriostatic action
in nutrient broth but both accelerate
bacterial growth rates in media contain¬
ing saccharose.

Tissue growth and wound healing in
the instances of urea, allantoin and lar¬
val preparations is most likely a com¬
bination of the bacteriostatic and sulphy-
dryl releasing properties of these when
placed on open wounds. In contrast the
tissue growth promoting properties of
the carcinogens cannot be similarly ex¬
plained. These results would indicate
that urea, allantoin and larval prepara¬
tions might safely be used in dressings
of chronic wounds including the malig¬
nancies.

Summary

1. Urea, allantoin and larval prepara¬
tions exhibit a bacteriostatic action in
concentrations non-toxic to tissues.

2. The carcinogens do not show a
bacteriostatic action and in saccharose
containing media, stimulate bacterial
growth rates.

3. The mechanism of tissue growth
stimulation of urea, allantoin and larval
extracts appears to differ chemically from
that of the carcinogenics.

Note: Thanks are expressed to Dr.
Max Cutler for his kind encouragement
and for aid in the preparation of this
paper.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

5,

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

. Goldstein, S., A microbiological test for car-
0?okeFC $yd™ca.rb^s- T Science 86: 176, 1937.
’ +» E; ?•’ Hart> M- J-> and Joly, R. A., The

Growth °flnV 2: S dibenzanthracene on the

rwii oSd respiration of yeast. Am. Jour.
Cancer.^35. 543, 1939. See also Science 87:

Hammett, F. S., and Reimann, S. P. The
proliferation stimulating* action of 1 : 2 : 5 • 6
dibenzanthracene on Obelia geniculata. Am

(Zcer^TslV: Ills19*5- ^ 8,80 Am' J°Ur-

Owen, S. E., Weiss, H. A., and Prince, L. H„
Carcinogens and planarian tissue regeneration.
Am. Jour. Cancer 35: 424, 1939. See also
Science 87: 261, 1938,

Wright, L D. and Anderson, A. K., Effect of
: o5 : 6 dibenzanthracene on Fusarium lini.
Proc Soc. Exp. Biol and Med. 38: 370, 1938
Pourbaix, Y Influence du 1-2 benzene pyrene
matabolisme cellulaire des hydrates de
carbone. Compt. rend. Soc. de biol. 115: 1738,

Macalister, C. J., A new cell proliferant. Its
aPPThcatlon in the treatment of ulcers.
Brit. Med. Jour. 1: 10, 1912
Symmers, W. St. C., and Kirk, T. S Urea as
a bactencide and its applications in the treat¬
ment of wounds. Lancet 2 : 1237, 1915.

Tm^Sd£2’ Some new properties ' of urea.

Jour. Physiol. 28: 23, 1902.

Peju, G., and Rajat, H., Note sur le poly-
morphisme des bacteries dans 1’ uree. Compt.
rend. Soc. de biol. 61 : 477, 1906. p

Owen, S. E., The action of growth stimulants
on proteins. In press.

Greenstein, J. P Sulphydryl groups in pro¬
teins. Proc. Soc. Biol. Ohem. 33 : 25, 1939
Robinson, W Stimulations of healing in 'non-
healing wounds by allantoin, occurring in mag¬
got secretions and of wide biological distribu-
1935 dour’ Bone and Joint Surg., 17: 267,
Owen, S. E., Unpublished data.

relative /bundance of cyclocephala immacu-

LATA AND C. BOREALIS AT URBANA

Garland T. Riegel

State Natural History Survey, TJrlana, Illinois

Damage to crops and lawns by “annual
white grubs” or “false June beetles” of
the genus Cyclocephala has been reported
at various times from North and South
America and the West Indies. Injury is
similar to that of ordinary June beetles
of the genus Phyllophaga and other re¬
lated Scarabaeids. Valuable plants at¬
tacked by the grubs are corn, wheat, oats,
barley, sugar cane, sunflowers, straw¬
berries, and the grasses of pastures,
lawns and golf courses. As early as 1887
these beetles had been studied under Illi¬
nois conditions by Dr. S. A. Forbes.

At Urbana during the summers of 1937

and 1938, while engaged on a light trap
project under the direction of Mr. W. P.
Flint of the Natural History Survey, I
became interested in the genus Cyclo¬
cephala and saved some of the specimens
obtained the first year for a morphologi¬
cal study. It soon became apparent that
two species were involved. Consequently
in 1938 all specimens taken in the traps
were preserved in order that something
might be learned of the relative abund¬
ance of the two species. This informa¬
tion is desirable since there has been
some confusion of the species in the
economic literature.

235

Zoology — 1941 Meeting

The paper by the latter author is of
especial interest to us in Illinois because
of the species discussed. Hayes (1918),
in Kansas, reporting on the life history
of Cyclocephala immaculata (Oliv.)
(misidentified as C. villosa Burm.), re¬
viewed the economic literature up to that
time. More recently Neiswander (1938)
has discussed villosa (now called bore*
alis Arrow) as it occurs in Ohio. Be¬
tween 1918 and 1938 scattered notices
have appeared on the economic status of
the grubs in various regions.

Forbes (1891) stated that our only
species of Cyclocephala in Illinois is im¬
maculata, and this idea seems to have
persisted until quite recently. It is true
that immaculata is the more abundant
species in the region of Urbana, but
borealis is also present in considerable
numbers.

During the season of 1938, 4,124 adult
Cyclocephala were taken in 10 light
traps located in the University of Illi¬
nois orchards not far from blue grass
areas. Since the traps were of the elec¬
trocuting type, a few specimens were
burned so that they could not be deter¬

mined even as to sex, but they were
counted in the daily totals, fig. 1. Neis¬
wander in his Ohio light trap studies in

1937 found that these insects were at¬
tracted to the traps in the ratio of 7
males to 1 female. Yet at Urbana in

1938 the ratio was 10.3 females to 1 male.
This difference has no apparent explana¬
tion. The curve of seasonal abundance
for both species of female Cyclocephala
is shown in fig. 1.

The two species, immaculata and bo¬
realis, are evidently very closely related
and the females, especially specimens
from electrocuting light traps, are often
difficult to tell apart. So, for the sake
of accuracy, our figures on relative abund¬
ance are based entirely on the males,
fig. 2. . , v .

Errors involved in light trap work have
been competently discussed by Williams
(1939, 1940) and others. While these
are freely admitted, I do not believe they
seriously affect a study of this type, be¬
cause these two species are so closely
related and each has a one year life
cycle. The same factors would appar¬
ently affect equally the light trap catch
of both. Although a comparison based
upon the catch of several years would
undoubtedly be better, some idea of the
relative abundance of the two species
can be obtained from one year’s catch.
However, it should be pointed out that
these beetles have cycles of extreme
abundance alternating with years when
the population is relatively low as in
1938, and the ratio between immaculata
and borealis probably varies slightly
from year to year.

Of the male Cyclocephala taken in 10
light traps at Urbana in 1938 immaculata
outnumbered borealis in the ratio of 9.3
to 1. It is interesting to note that the
first male immaculata was taken on May
23, and the last on August 21, while all
the borealis appeared between June 21
and July 10.

LITERATURE CITED

Forbes, S. A. 1891. Rept. Ill. Sta. Ent. 17:30-53.
Hayes, W. P. 1918. Jour. Econ. Ent. 11(1) :136-
44.

Neiswander, C. R. 1938. Jour. Econ. Ent. 31 (3) :
340-44.

Sanderson, M. W. 1940. Ann. Ent. Soc. Am. 33
(2) :377-84.

Saylor, L. W. 1937. Jour. Ent. Zool. 29 (3) :

Williams, C. B. 1939. Trans. R. Ent. Soc. Lond.
89 (6) :79-131. ,

. 1940. Trans. R. Ent. Soc. Lond. 90

”(8) :227-306.

236

UUnois State Academy of Science Transactions

DISTRIBUTION OF ILLINOIS INSECTS

Hekbekt H. Ross

8tate Natural History Survey, Urbana, Illinois
The insect fauna of Illinois, estimated
at approximately 20,000 species, brings
out interesting generalities regarding the
place of Illinois in the continental dis¬
tribution of species, the types of abode
of insects within the State, seasonal suc¬
cession of species and their horizontal
stratification.

Within the State itself insect distribu¬
tion is influenced primarily by differ¬
ences in vegetation. This is a result of
the close dependence upon specific host
plants of a large number of insect species.

Many species occur principally in open
prairie; these same ones often frequent
weed patches around cultivated land. An¬
other large set of species inhabits the
forest, many of them actually feeding on
various kinds of trees. Still a third large
set prefers the forest edge region which
occurs between the prairie and forest
areas wherever these two are side by side,
and which contains a wide variety of
trees and shrubs, each harboring differ¬
ent insect species.

A wide variety of insects range over
the entire State in whichever general

category they frequent. This includes
many in which Illinois is in the heart of
the species range, as in the case of the
housefly and periodical cicada.

Other species are more restricted and
occupy small areas which are of a more
special type. A few areas of unusual
interest are (1) White Pines Forest State
Park and Starved Rock State Park,
unique in Illinois in having insects re¬
stricted to white pine; (2) glacial lakes,
swales and marshes in extreme north¬
eastern Illinois, including many north¬
ern species which intrude into the Illi¬
nois fauna only in this area, fig. 1; (3)
tamarack bogs in this same section with
insect species restricted to this small
area by either host preference or other
limiting factors; (4) cypress swamps
found in extreme southern Illinois, con¬
taining many insects intruding from the
south, fig. l, including species of crickets,
plant bugs, and others which feed only
upon cypress; and (5) the most diverse
faunal feature of extreme southern Illi¬
nois, the Ozarkian Uplift. This has a
wide variety of rock, hill, and meadow

Fig. 1.

Zoology — 1941 Meeting

237

situations, in addition to unique streams
in which are many species of insects
found nowhere else in the State. Many
of these species are eastern or typically
Ozarkian in general distribution. An ex¬
ample is the alder fly, Sialis joppa , whose
known range is shown in fig. 1. In vari¬
ous parts of Illinois occur extensive
tracts of blow sand and dunes; most not¬
able are those at Zion, along the shores
of Lake Michigan, others near St. Anne,
Savanna, Rock Island, Amboy and Ha¬
vana. These areas sustain a typical sand
flora and fauna and account for the pres¬
ence in this State of many unique in¬
sect species. Most of these have a range
centering in the western prairie, fig. 1.

The place of Illinois in the continental
range of its insect species is varied. In
the case of a large proportion of its spe¬
cies Illinois is in the central part of the
range, which may be wide or limited.
In many other cases the species intrude
into the State from ranges which center
to the east, south, west or north. Ex¬
amples are given in fig. 1. So many in¬
trusive species of many diverse groups
have been taken in the State that it is

apparent that Illinois has an axial posi¬
tion in regard to many faunal regions
of North America.

Seasonal distribution of the insects
within the State is tremendously com¬
plicated. Since Illinois has severe win¬
ters and hot summers, there is a very
marked seasonal succession of species
throughout the year. Hordes of insects
are active during spring, summer, and
fall. Others including springtails, stone-
flies, and a few other aquatic insects, are
active also during the winter months.
Due to the difference in climate between
northern and southern Illinois, this sea¬
sonal succession is very different in the
two ends of the State.

Equally complex is the distribution of
Illinois insects among the various strata.
Certain forms are adapted to spend their
entire life cycle in the soil, others in
the herbs, others in the shrubs and trees.
Most insects, however, may be found in
more than one stratum, frequently
spending the larval stage in one, the
pupal stage in another, and the adult
stage in several.

MODIFICATION OF A TROPISM IN LUMBRICUS
TERRESTRIS

Robert J. Wherry, University of North Carolina,

AND

James M. Sanders, Chicago Teachers College, Chicago, Illinois

The present experiment deals with an
attempt to produce modification of re¬
sponse in the night crawler. It is well
established that earthworms react nega¬
tively to intense illumination and to gal¬
vanic shock. An earthworm introduced
into a T maze of which one side is lighted
and one side darkened might be ex¬
pected to enter the darker compartment.
If, however, the worm received a shock
while in the dark and the shock were re¬
peated as the worm progressed further or
remained quiescent it might eventually
leave the dark. This was found to be
the case.

The subjects were large sized Lumhri-
cus terrestris (10-12 inches). The maze
was a T shaped box, each arm of which
was 15 inches long. The bottom was
covered with thick blotting paper which

was soaked with water before each trial
run. The source of light was a 40 watt
frosted bulb with a white reflector. The
lamp was suspended 3 inches from the
floor. A partition extended down to
within three-eighths inches of the floor
between the illuminated arm and the
darkened arm. The starting arm was
open. Each worm was kept in a sepa¬
rate container, was taken out, washed,
placed in the starting arm, given a light
shock and the time recorded. The shocks
were administered by electrodes on the
floor.

A worm was shocked further only if
it advanced nine inches into the dark¬
ened chamber. Trial runs were made at
the same time daily. Records were kept
of elapsed time, number of shocks, and
directions of movement both initially and

238 Illinois State Academy

throughout the trip. Near the conclusion
of the experiments the maze was reversed
in an attempt to determine whether there
had been learning or merely lateral
muscle training.

The earthworms learned to avoid the
dark and seek the light. This was indi¬
cated by the decrease in time required
for the trial, decrease in number of
shocks, an increase in the number of
initial turns to the light, and finally by
the behaviour in the maze. There were
17 worms used in the experiments at the
start but some were killed by overshock¬
ing, and other accidents, before the trials
were finished.

After 15 trips on successive days the
average trip time was 2.5 minutes as
compared with 5.2 minutes the first day.
There are 98 chances out of a hundred
that this difference was due to learning.
The average number of shocks required
to force the worms to the light decreased
from 9 to 4 during 15 days. There are
99 chances out of a hundred that this is
not fortuitous. On the first day no worm
made an initial turn to the light without
the compulsion of shock and the per¬
centage of initial turns to the light for
the first 6 days was 5.6 while from 15-19
days inclusive the initial turns to light
averaged 44.3%.

After the fifth day the worms were
more likely to leave the dark upon re¬
ceiving a shock but as they drew near
to the light they turned and re-entered

of Science Transactions

the dark where another shock was ad¬
ministered. This process was repeated
until the worm went under the light.
On the seventh day oscillating move¬
ments sometimes referred to as “selec¬
tion by random movement" were noticed.
Light and dark were equally repellent.

The individual record of worm No. 10
seems to substantiate the value of our
criteria. The first trip required 20 min¬
utes and 15 shocks while the 15th trip
required 1 minute and 1 shock. For the
first five trips the initial choice was dark
and for the following 18 trips the initial
choice of dark occurred only 4 times.

To avoid the criticism that the worms
learned a direction or followed a slime
trail the experimental set was reversed
on the 20th day. The record of number
10 after the reversal showed an increased
trip time. Trips had been consuming
from one-half to one minute but the first
day after reversal 3.5 minutes were
needed and 8 shocks. On the 21st day the
same trip was made in one-half minute
and no shock was given. The initial turn
to the light was voluntary.

Conclusions

1. Negative phototropism of Lum-
bricus is subject to modification and
possible elimination under experimental
conditions.

2. This would indicate that tropisms
may be partially acquired rather than
entirely inherent.

A C??t^E™^I0N between the rate of heart beat

AND THE STATE OF CERTAIN CHROMATOPHORES
IN THE SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES

Harold H. Scudamore

Northwestern University , Evanston , Illinois
and the

Marine Biological Laboratory , Woods Hole , Massachusetts
An Abstract

The first suggestion of a relationship
between the state of the chromatophores
and the rate of heart beat was made by
Gamble and Keeble (1900). These in¬
vestigators found that the nocturnal
phase (pigment concentrated) of the
shrimp, Hippolyte varians, was accom¬

panied by a higher rate of heart beat
than the day phase (pigment dispersed).
It is now well established that the mi¬
gration of the pigment in certain chro¬
matophores of crustaceans, which re¬
sults in color changes, is controlled by
hormones produced in the eye-stalks.

239

Zoology — 1941 Meeting

TIME IN MINUTES

Pig. i. — The rate of red pigment migration
and the changes in the rate of heart beat in
Palaemonetes when placed on black and
white backgrounds.

Recently, Welsh (1937) presented evi¬
dence to suggest that the rate of heart
beat, at least in the crayfish, is also
controlled by substances present in the
eye-stalk. However, in later experiments
(1939) he pointed out that the accelera¬
tion of the heart rate was due to acetyl¬
choline, present in the eye-stalk and other
nervous tissue, rather than to the eye-
stalk hormones which controlled the pig¬
ment migration. Brown (1940) demon¬
strated that the source of the chromato-
phore-activating substance was actually
the sinus gland, located within the eye-
stalks.

The purpose of the experiments re¬
ported here was to ascertain whether the
sinus gland has an effect on the heart
rate, by determining whether or not
there is a correlation between the rate
of heart beat and the state of certain
chromatophores in the marine shrimp,
Palaemonetes vulgaris. The animals
were placed in small dishes containing
sea water, which was kept at a constant
temperature (20° ± .5°C.), and observed
with a dissecting microscope. The rate
of heart beat was determined with the
aid of a stop watch. The state of the
chromatophores was measured by the
Chromatophore Index method, which
consisted of assigning values ranging
from 1 (pigment fully concentrated
within the chromatophore) to 5 (pig¬
ment fully dispersed) (Brown and Scud¬
amore, 1940). Only the red chromato¬
phores showed a definite correlation with
the rate of heart beat. This is an inter¬
esting observation since only the concen¬
tration of the red pigment seems to be
entirely controlled by the sinus gland
(Brown, 1940).

Experimental Results.— To correlate
the rate of heart beat and the state of
the red chromatophores, observations
were made with the animals placed on
different colored backgrounds. In one
group of experiments, animals were
“black-adapted” by placing them in black
dishes for four hours; these “black-
adapted” animals were then transferred
to white dishes and observed periodi¬
cally. The results of experiments on ten
animals are illustrated in fig. 1. In the
“black-adapted” animals, at the begin¬
ning of the experiment, the red pigment
was fully dispersed (average Index 4.8)
and the rate of heart beat low (209 beats
per minute). On the white background,
the pigment (curve A) gradually con¬
centrated into the center of the chroma¬
tophore (average Index 1.1), while the
rate of heart beat (curve B) increased to
295 beats per minute. The slopes of the
two curves for the rates of change are
similar.

In another group of experiments, ten
animals that had been “white-adapted”
for four hours were transferred to black
dishes and observed periodically. In this
case the red pigment (curve C, fig. D,
which was concentrated at the beginning
of the experiment (average Index 1.2),
gradually dispersed to average Index 4.8;
and the heart rate (curve D), which was
high at first (291 beats per minute),
gradually decreased to 206 beats per
minute over a period of four hours. Here
again parallel curves were found for the
average rates of change.

The rate of pigment migration in each
case agrees with that reported by Brown
(1935). In explaining these color
changes, it has been suggested, that on
a white background the red-pigment¬
concentrating hormone is liberated into
the blood stream; this causes a concen¬
tration of the red pigment, and, as shown
here, an increase in the rate of heart
beat. On a black background this hor¬
mone is absent from the blood stream;
the red pigment then disperses, and is
accompanied by a decrease in the rate
of heart beat.

The relationship of the sinus gland
to these parallel changes was further
established by the results of extirpation
and injection experiments. Following bi¬
lateral extirpation of the eye-stalks of
eight “white-adapted” animals (average
Index 1.2; heart rate, 289 beats per min-

240

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Table I.-

-Analysis of the Relationship Between the Chromatophore Index
and the Rate of Heart Beat

Red Chromatophore
index

Rate of Heart Beat

Average beats
per minute

Standard

deviation

Standard

error

Number of
observations

1.

293

265

249

225

203

i 1 A 70

+ 2.36
±2.97

40

2 .

± . /Z
, I *7 or

3 .

± 1 / . OO

_l 1 A AK

35

4 .

± ID . DO
i IQ opr

± 2 . 60

42

5 .

i lo . Zo

. IQ A7

±1.84

±1.78

53

± 1Z . U/

47

ute), the red pigment dispersed to aver¬
age Index 5.0 and the heart rate de¬
creased to 201 beats per minute. Graphs
of the rate of change in each case closely
followed curves C and D (fig. 1.) This
low rate of heart beat and dispersion of
red pigment in blinded animals persisted
for several days.

In one series of experiments .02 cc.
of a sinus gland extract (of a concen¬
tration corresponding to 20 sinus glands
to 1 cc. of filtered sea water) was in¬
jected into each of five blinded animals.
In the blinded animals the average In¬
dex was 4.8 and heart rate was 206 beats
per minute; fifteen minutes after injec¬
tion, the red pigment had concentrated
to average Index 1.0 and the heart rate
increased to 292 beats per minute. This
was followed by a dispersion of the pig¬
ment and a decrease in the heart rate
similar to that indicated in curves C and
D (fig. 1). An alcohol extract of Car-
cinus sinus glands showed a similar con¬
centration of pigment and at the same
time an acceleration of heart rate. Sea
water extracts of muscle tissue had no
appreciable effect on the heart rate or
chromatophores. Acetylcholine and a sea
water extract of nervous tissue acceler¬
ated the heart rate but did not affect the
chromatophores.

The results of an analysis of the rate
of heart beat associated with each chro¬
matophore index in the four to seven
readings made on each of the 33 animals
reported here are shown in table I.

The average rate of heart beat is high

when the pigment is concentrated; low
when the pigment is dispersed. The
coefficient of correlation of these results
is —0.91, which indicates a definite nega¬
tive correlation. Thus as the red pig¬
ment concentrates, the heart rate in¬
creases; and as the pigment disperses,
the heart rate decreases. The main sig¬
nificance of such statistical analysis is to
emphasize the parallel changes.

Summary

A definite correlation was shown to
exist between the rate of heart beat and
the state of dispersion of the red chro¬
matophores in Palaemonetes. The evi¬
dence suggests that this is influenced by
the red-pigment-concentrating hormone
of the sinus gland. Thus, in addition to
causing a concentration of red pigment
when present in the blood stream, the
hormone also appears to cause an accel¬
eration of the rate of heart beat.

literature cited

crown.

Palaemonetes.

Color changes in

J. Morph., 57:317-333.
............. 1940. The crustacean sinus gland

and . chromatophore activation. Physiol. Zool.,
13 :343-355.

A*’ dr. a°d H. H. Scudamore. 1940.
Uinerentiation of two principles from the crusta-

?!^aoS1AUS ffland J- C^1- and Comp. Physiol.,
lo :103-119.

Gamble, F. W. and F. W. Keeble, 1900. Hippolvte
vanans : a study in color-change. Quart. J. Micr
Sci., 43:589-698.

Welsh, J. H. 1937. The eye-stalk hormone and
rate of heart beat in crustaceans. Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci., Wash., 23:458-460.

. » 1939. Chemical mediation in crusta¬
ceans: I. The occurence of acetylcholine in nerv¬
ous tissues and its action on the decapod heart
J. Exp. Biol., 16:198-219.

Zoology — 1941 Meeting

241

OBSERVATIONS FROM A STUDY OF THE COMPARATIVE
ANATOMY OF THE EXTRAHEPATIC BILIARY TRACT

Stewart C. Thomson

Loyola University School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois

Abstract

For the student in zoology who is
looking forward to a medical career, a
study of the comparative anatomy of the
biliary tract should prove an aid to the
fuller comprehension of anomalies he will
later observe in the dissection laboratory,
in the operating room and at the autopsy
table.

Historical Survey— & brief survey of
some of the contributions to the knowl¬
edge of the comparative anatomy of the
extrahepatic biliary tract, although very
incomplete, shows that interest in the
extrahepatic biliary tract has been evi¬
denced since earliest times. Some of
these contributions are considered in the
full length manuscript.

Summary of Observations. — In the
studies which are summarized in this
paper, observations were made as com¬
pletely as the condition of the specimen
or the amount of the material allowed.
Almost all of the specimens were ob¬
tained through the courtesy of the staff
of the Field Museum of Natural History
and the many kindnesses of the staff are
gratefully acknowledged. A full report
which includes most of these dissections
has been published by the Field Museum
of Natural History (1).

Altogether, 111 animals were studied.
These represented twelve orders and
fifty-two species. The data obtained are
summarized under seven distinct but re¬
lated topics.

1. The presence or absence of the gall
bladder. — In fifty-two species of Mamma¬
lia, a gall bladder was absent in only
eight — the whale ( Balaenoptera physa-
lus), the zebra ( Equus burchelli), the
horse ( Equus caballus), the dassie ( Pro -
cavia sp.), the white-tailed deer ( Odocoil -
eus virginianus) , the brown rat ( Rattus
norvegicus), the pocket-gopher ( Geomys
bursarius ) and the rice-rat ( Oryzomys
meridensis) .

In Hyracoidea, Perissodactyla and Ce¬
tacea the gall bladder was absent. In

Rodentia, as in Artiodactyla, there was
variability among the species. In Mar-
supialia, Primates, Edentata, Carnivora,
Insectivora and Chiroptera, a gall blad¬
der was present in all specimens studied.
In the one specimen of Sirenia ( Triche -
chus latirostris) , there was a gall blad¬
der. The variability among the Rodentia
was of particular interest.

2. The character of the wall of the
gall bladder was determined only by its
opacity and by palpation of the structure.
It showed much variability. In Chirop¬
tera and in Insectivora the wall was thin;
it was firm in Marsupialia and Artio¬
dactyla; it was strong and thick in Car¬
nivora and the Primates. In Rodentia it
was variable, e.g., thin in the guinea-
pig ( Cavia porcellus) and the house
mouse ( Mus musculus), but firm and
thick in the African porcupine ( Hystrix
cristata).

3. The relationship of the gall bladder

to the liver varied between and within
orders. In Marsupialia, with the excep¬
tion of the opossum ( didelphis mesameri-
cana) it was loosely adherent to the liver.
In the flying phalanger ( Petaurus nor-
folcensis), the viscus was loosely lodged
in its fossa; in the Tasmanian devil
( Sarcophilus harrisii ) the gall bladder
was loosely attached to the liver by a
peritoneal fold for two-thirds of its
length. A short peritoneal fold which
connected the gall bladder to the liver
was seen in the Chiroptera studied. The
loose attachment to the liver was ob¬
served in Primates. In the Carnivora,
particularly deep fossae were seen in the
binturong ( Arctitis binturong ) and the
dog ( Canis familiaris). In the black
bear ( Ursus americanus), the gall blad¬
der was loosely attached to the liver. In
Rodentia, the variability was again
marked.

4. The duodenal papilla showed varia¬
bility, not only as to its presence or ab-
scence, but also as to its size. It was

242

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Table I. Relation of Pancreatic and Bile Ducts*

Species

Tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei) . .

Wallaby (Macropus sp.) .

Flying phalanger ( Petaurus norfolcensis) . . . . . . . . .

Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrissii) .

Mexican opossum ( Didelphis mesamericana ) .

Orangutan ( Pongo pygmaeus) .

Chimpanzee (Pan satyrus ) . ’ ‘ [ * ’ .

Macaque (Macaca mulatta ) . .

Marmoset (Tamarin ursulus) .

Red Uakari (Cacajao rubicundus) . . .

Dog ( Canis familiaris ) . ...!.*

Cat (Felis domestica) .

Little panda ( Ailurus fulgens ) .

Binturong (Arctitis binturong) . **]**’’’’“'

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus ) .

Sheep ( Ovis aries ) .

Cow (Bos taurus) . .

Pig (Sws scrofa domestica) .

Florida Manatee (Trichechus latirostris) . . . . . . . . . .

Dassie (Procavia sp.) . . .

Zebra (Equus burchelli) .

Horse ( Equus caballus ) . !!'.!!!!!!

African porcupine (Hystrix cristata) _ .... . .

Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus ) .

Striped ground squirrel (Citellus tridecemiineatus)

House mouse (Mus musculus) .

Brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) .

Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) .

Rice-rat ( Oryzomys meridensis ) .

Type A
■ +

• +

• +

• +

• +

• +

• +

• +

• +

• +

• +

■ +

+

Type B Type C

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Gall¬

bladder

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

4*

o

o

0

+

+

+

+

0

+

0

prominent in the black bear ( Ursus
americanus ) in which a gall bladder was
present. It was equally prominent in the
zebra ( Equus burchelli) in which there
was no gall bladder. It was not present
in the binturong ( Arctitis binturong)
which had a gall bladder, nor in the das¬
sie ( Procavia sp.) in which there was
no gall bladder. The duodenal papilla
varied within an order as to its presence
and size, e.g., in the bear ( Ursus amer¬
icanus) and the dog ( Canis familiaris)',
it was absent in the binturong ( Arctitis
binturong) .

5. The distance of the opening of the
bile duct from the pylorus was markedly
variable. In two species of Rodentia, the
African porcupine ( Hystrix cristata) and
the guinea pig ( Cavia porcellus) it was
nearest to the pylorus. Both of these spe¬
cies possessed gall bladders. In two
species of Artiodactyla in which the gall
bladder was present, a marked difference
was observed. In the domestic cow ( Bos
taurus) the opening was 62 cm. caudad
to the pylorus, but in the pig (Sus
scrofa domestica) it was 3.4 cm. Natur¬

ally the question arises as to the com¬
parative length of the small intestine in
these species. The ratio of the length of
the small intestine of the former to that
of the latter is approximately 3 to 1.

6. The relationship of the common
bile duct or the common hepatic duct
(when there is no gall bladder) with the
pancreatic duct was of great interest to
Mann and his co-workers (2) and they
made studies of this relationship in lab¬
oratory and common domestic animals.
These relationships in the specimens ex¬
amined in the series here reported are
summarized in table 1.

It was observed that the type of re¬
lationship did not correspond with the
presence or absence of the gall bladder.
Again there was particular variability
among the Rodentia, e.g., the guinea pig
( Cavia porcellus) was in type B; the
brown rat ( Rattus norvegicus) was in
Type C. It should be noted that in the
seven species in which the ducts entered
the duodenum separately at variable dis¬
tances from each other (type B), a gall
bladder was present in each species.

243

Zoology — 1941 Meeting

7. Other observations. Hepato - cystic
ducts which drain from the liver into the
side of the gall bladder or into the cystic
duct along its course have been observed
in various vertebrates. In this series
they were particularly observed in the
cow ( Bos taurus). They were injected
with gelatin and dissected carefully in
order definitely to establish their exist¬
ence. The surgical importance of hepato¬
cystic ducts, when present in man, lends
added significance to these structures
when encountered in zoological studies.

One of the interesting observations
which were made in this study concerned

the dassie or hyrax. The author has pre¬
viously reviewed several reports of in¬
vestigations on the viscera of hyrax and
reported his findings (3).

REFERENCES

1. Thomson, S. C. 1940. Studies of the anatomy
of the extrahepatic biliary tract in mammalia.
Zool. Ser., Field Mus. Nat Hist., vol. 22. pp.
415-430.

2. Mann, F. O., J. P. Foster and S. D. Brimhall.
1920. The relation of the common bile duct
to the pancreatic duct in common domestic and
laboratory animals. J. Lab. and Clin. Med.,
vol. 5, pp. 203-206.

3. Thomson, S. C. 1938. The extrahepatic biliary
tract of the hyrax. Anat. Rec., vol. 72, pp.
445-449.

’

■

vo

niinii i ■numnr

STATE OF ILLINOIS
DWIGHT H. GREEN, Governor

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ILLINOIS STATE
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 34

MARCH, 1942

NUMBER 3

PRELIMINARY PROGRAM

Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting

Friday and Saturday, May 8 and 9, 1942
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA

Published by the Academy
Affiliated With the Illinois State Museum Division
Department of Registration and Education
Centennial Building, Springfield, Illinois.

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY

Entered as second-class matter December 6, 1930, at the post office at
Springfield, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, 1912.

►xiiniimum unmiiu u

ANNOUNCEMENTS

Authors submitting manuscripts for
consideration by the publications com¬
mittee of the 1942 Transactions must
leave them with Section Chairmen on or
before May 8th. These scripts must be in
final form. They must be typed (double
spaced) in dark ribbon, and should not
exceed 1200 words in length (including
tables and not more than one illustration)
unless special arrangements are made.
(This amount makes 2 printed pages, and
holds down for author the cost of reprints
and extra pages.) Beneath title should
appear author s name and in a separate

line his school and /or town. At the end
of article should appear address io which
proof is lo be sent next November. Inas¬
much as the Academy does not have funds
for preparing illustrations, all drawings,
charts, and special formulae must be sub¬
mitted by the author in India ink, and all
photographs in gloss print (no photostats
can be used), with each figure mounted
on a separate sheet with title typed below.
Any author whose paper is published
must be a member of the Senior Academy
($1.00 annual dues) and must pay an edi¬
torial fee of $1.00 to help defray expenses
of publication.

lately 01 their Nicies, ™med-

31st and recipients announced aT th^MaybrneeUM^/the^Acad^ each .year UP t0 March
current year is William C. Rose, Dept of Chemls ty UnWersItv of Ihinn for the

the ensuing year will be announced in the June issue of ^the TrtLacitom'. "m3n £or

^ptfe R'cun'college groups* hat^been »
seedppe25n5 6e hUSlaStlC 3 Pr°gr3m °f 36 papers * being^en at its firsTmeettog

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P„ „ . A'ecture-demonsiraiion by Dr. Phillips Thomas, Westinghouse Electric and Mfe
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a breakfSi9tmoatD7e^a 1^!!.?' a" °rganiZation o£ graduate women in science, will sponsor
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onFrlday morntag! May^StR® l° indiC3t6 thelr Ch°iCe 3t the time o£ registration

—246—

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64 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING J-I2I
40 AGRONOMY GREENHOU5E H-12
61 ANIMAL PATHOLOGY LAB. l-lli

54 ARCHITECTURE Ml

45 ARMORY H-IO

42 AUDITORIUM H-12

46 BAND H-ll

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35 CHEMISTRY G-12

37 CHEMISTRY ANNEX G-12

55 COMMERCE HI

65 DAIRY MANUFACTURES J-12

4 EDUCATION E-12

20 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY F - 12

21 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ANNEX F - 12

24 ENGINEERING HALL F-12

29 ENTOMOLOGY G-12

9 EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY

LABORATORY E-U

7 FILTRATION PLANT E-12

58 FLORICULTURE GREENHOUSES M3
10 GARAGE AND SHOPS F- 13
57 GENETICS 1-12

70 GREGORY U ALL H-H

3 GYMNASIUM ANNEX E-12

52 GYMNASIUM. GEORGE HUFF I -10
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50 GYMNASIUM. WOMAN'S HM3
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68 HORTICULTURE FIELD LAB. L-15
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32 ILLINI UNION P-12

28 LAW E "

47 LIBRARV H-ll

39 LINCOLN HALL H-ll

14 LOCOMOTIVE TESTING LAB. E- 13

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31 MATHEMATICS G-

60 MCKINLEY HOSPITAL 1-4

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62 MILITARY BARNS J-IO

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50 NATURAL HISTORY f

69 NATURAL RESOURCES
19 NORTH GREENHOUSE I

43 OBSERVATORY I

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17 PHYSIOLOGICAL

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33 DAVENPORT HOUSE G-H

49 LAURA D. EVANS HALL H-13

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66 STADIUM

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CEMETERY!

GOLT COURSE

R

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OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES OF THE ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF

SCIENCE 1941-1942

President: T. H. Frison, Natural History Survey, Urbana.

First Vice President: F. M. Fryxell, Augustana College, Rock Island.

Second Vice President: George E. Ekblaw, Geological Survey, Urbana.

Wretarv R F. Paton, Physics Department, University of Illinois.

Treasurer: John Voss, Manual Training High School, Peoria.

Librarian: Thorne Deuel, Illinois State Museum, Springfield.

Fditor • Grace Needham Oliver, Geological Survey, Urbana.

Junior Academy Representative: Mrs. Mary Creager, Chester High School, Chester.
iu™or Academy Assistant Representative: Allen R. Moore, Cicero.

Committee on Conservation: H. J. van Cleave,
Chairman, University of Illinois.

M M. Leighton, Ill. Geological Survey.

W. H. Haas, Northwestern University,
w! M. Gersbacher, Carbondale.

David D. Lansden, Cairo.

Paul Houdek, Robinson.

Geo. Bennett, Natural History Survey.

R. S. Smith, University of Illinois.

W. C. Allee, University of Chicago.

E. L. Stover, Charleston.

Rev. Geo. M. Link, Grafton.

Committee on Legislation and Finance : H. B.

Ward, Chairman, Univ. of Illinois.
Fay-Cooper Cole, Univ. of Chicago.

F W Aldrich, 1506 E. Washington St., Blooming-

tun. .

E. S. Bastin, Univ. of Chicago.
B. S. Hopkins, Univ. of Illinois.

Committee on Conservation of Archeological and
Historic Sites: Fay-Cooper Cole, Chairman,
Univ. of Chicago.

F. W. Aldrich, Bloomington.

M J. Herskovits, Northwestern Univ.

M. M. Leighton, Ill. Geological Survey.

Bruce W. Merwin, Carbondale.

J. B. Ruyle, Champaign.

H. B. Ward, Univ. of Illinois.

Committee on Research Grants From A.A.A.S.:
W. C. Rose, University of Illinois.

L. Hanford Tiffany, Northwestern Univ.

H. J. Van Cleave, Univ. of Illinois.

H. E. Way, Knox College.

R. S. Smith, Univ. of Illinois.

Committee on Budget:

C. L. Furrow, Knox College, Galesburg.

John Voss, Manual Training High School, Peoria.
W. H. Voskuil, State Geological Survey, Urbana.

Committee on Affiliations: Ildrem Daniel, Chair¬
man, Chicago Schools.

Paul E. Klopsteg, Cent. Scientific Co., Chicago.
V. F. Swaim, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Pe-

una.

Clarence Bonnell, Harrisburg.

Glenn Warner, Wilson Jr. College, Chicago.

H. K. Gloyd, Chicago Acad, of Science, Chicago.

Committee on Publications :

T. H. Frison, ex-officio.

R. F. Paton, ex-officio.

Neil E. Stevens, Univ. of Illinois.

H. J. Van Cleave, Univ. of Illinois.

Committee on Ecological Bibliography : A. G.
Vestal, Univ. of Illinois.

Committee on Membership: J. E. Coe, Chairman,
Chicago. .

J. H. Reedy, Univ. of Illinois. .

L J. Bockstahler, Northwestern Univ.

N D. Cheronis, 5556 Ardmore Ave., Chicago.

J F Stanfield, Chicago Normal School, Chicago.
George E. Ekblaw, Natural Resources Bldg.,
Urbana.

Floyd Barloga, Peoria.

G. N. Hufford, Joliet.

W. B. Welsh, Carbondale.

]). L. Eaton, DeKalb. ,

K. G. Larson, Augustana College, Rock Island.

Delegate to A.A.A.S. : R. F. Paton, University
of Illinois Physics Dept., Urbana.

Delegate to Conservation Council: V. O. Graham,
4028 Grace Street, Chicago.

Publicity Director: J. S. Ayars, Natural History
Survey, Urbana.

General Chairman Local Arrangements for 1942
meeting at University of Illinois : George E.
Ekblaw, Geological Survey, Urbana.

Junior Academy Arrangements Chairman, 1942
Meeting: Louis A. Astell, University H. S.,
Urbana.

Committee on High School Science and Clubs:

Chairman: Mrs. Mary Creager, Chester.

Assistant Chairman : Allen R. Moore, Cicero
Chairman of Exhibits: John C. Ayres, Chem.

Dept., Univ. of Ill. _ _

Assistant Chairman of Exhibits: Dwight L. Barr,

Co-Chairmen of Judging: John Chiddix, Normal,
and Harry Givens, Joliet. . . , ,,

Editor, “Science Club Service —Louis A. Astell,
University High School, Urbana.
Correspondent: Blanche McEvoy, Normal.
Contributing Editor: Audry Hill, Carbondale.
Rodin Chairman : Rosalie M. Parr, Urbana.

Advisory Committee:

Lyell J. Thomas, Univ. of Illinois.
S. Aleta McAvoy, Rockford.

C. W. Whitten, Chicago.

Ji. W\ Neckers, Carbondale.

L. W. Miller, Normal.

Mrs. Dorothy Phipps, Chicago.

O. L. Railsback, Charleston.

II. Waldo Horrabin, Macomb.

C.' E. Montgomery, DeKalb.

—247—

8:00

8:45

ALL ADDRESSES AND SEOTON^EETINGS^PEN TO THE PUBLIC
University of Illinois Campus, Urbana
May 7-8-9, 1942

THURSDAY, MAY 7

6 :00 p. m. Council Meeting and Dinner. Colonial Room
Illini Union Bldg., Green St.

FRIDAY, MAY 8

%,VW ' T StraUon a11 members and guests. Securing of Final Programs

1 ^obby°r annUa banquet> registration for Saturday Visits. Lincoln Hall

u. m. Preliminary business meeting of the Academy for all members. Appoint-
Theatre n°minatIOns’ resolutions and auditing committees. Lincoln Hall

9 :30 a. m. General Session. Lincoln Hall Theatre.

Welcome by Arthur Cults Willard, President of the University of Illinois
Academy Presidential Address and Motion Picture in Color : “Conservation
Research Program of the Illinois Natural History Survey ” Theodore H
Frison, Chief of the Natural History Survey, Urbina Y’

Illustrated Lecture : “The Design, Construction and Operation of a Cyclo-

10 no r P- Geraid Kruger, Professor of Physics, University of Illinois Urbana

12 :00 Luncheon, Third Floor, Illini Union Bldg., Green St 65 cents ’

Mail reservations to George E. Ekblaw, Geological Survey, Urbana by

1 :00-4 :30 Junior Academy Science Club Exhibits on display for judging, and open
i an a J°r.pub ic mspection. Lower Gym, Woman’s Bldg., Wright St
:.-W-4:dO Section meetings : Senior, Collegiate, and Junior. University of Illinois
classrooms and lecture rooms. All papers, to be considered for publication
must be given to Section Chairmen by the end of this session. See An-
nouncements page for specifications.

5 :00-5 :30 Business Meeting for all members Senior Academy. Will be streamlined
Please come. Lincoln Hall Theatre.

6:0° p. m. Annual Banquet for Senior Academy, Collegiate Section, and guests.

Illini Union Bldg. $1.00 Informal. Announcements of A.A.A.S. re¬
search awards. Mail reseruatitons to George E. Ekblaw, Geological Survey
Urbana, III., by May 1 si. Call for tickets by 10:30 on Friday May 8th
at registration desk. 7 5

8:15/i. m. Annual Lecture for everyone attending Academy sessions, and for the
general public. “A Naturalist in the South Seas,” illustrated, by Karl P.
Schmidt, Chief Curator, Dept, of Zoology, Field Museum of Natural
History, Chicago. University of Illinois Auditorium. Special section will
be reserved for those attending Academy banquets.

SATURDAY, MAY 9

8 :45 a. m. Meeting of the Council for 1942-43. Dr. Frison’s office, 135 Natural Re-

sources Bldg., South Campus.

9 :30 a. m. Annual Trips. Important museums and the Junior Academy exhibits will

be visited, and trips conducted to inspect research facilities of the University
and of the scientific surveys located on the campus. Details will be given
in the Final Program.

—248—

SECTION MEETINGS

FRIDAY, MAY 8, 1942

a.

1 :30-4 :30

AGRICULTURE, C. H. Oatliout, Chairman, Macomb, Ill.

103 New Agriculture Bldg.

Election of Chairman for 1942-43.

1. Germination studies of brome grass.

R. F. Fuelleman, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana.

What are we doing with castor beans? W. L. Burlison and R. I. Fuellema ,

Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. „ , , , , f Linj«

Relative photosynthetic capacity of stalks, leaf sheaths, and leaf blades in
maize as measured by the contribution each makes to the development of
the grain.

Geo. H. Dungan, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana.

Using slope of land as a basis for farm planning.

Burdette Graham, Prairie City Community H. S.

The chemical composition of farm crops as affected by soil type and treat-

ment.

2.

3.

4.

H. J. Snider, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana.

5. The practical side of the nitrogen cycle.

E. R. Spencer, McKendree College, Lebanon.

6. Results of experiments in improvement of pastures for dairy cattle.

W. B. Nevens, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana.

7. War production and soil conservation in Illinois.

Oren L. Whalin, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana.

8. The out-of-school education for rural youth.

D. E. Lindstrom, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana.

9. The use of genetics in solving the variety problem for peach growers.

M. J. Dorsey, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana.

10. Cross-breeding in swine.

E. Roberts, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana.

Leave manuscripts with Chairman by end of meeting

ANTHROPOLOGY, Donald E. Wray, Chairman, 604 Caroline St., Peoria

120 Architecture Bldg.

Election of Chairman for 1942-43.

1 . Indian trail markers.

Floyd L. Barloga, Peoria.

2. Report on the Archaeology of Pcre Marquette state Park.

George M. Link, Grafton.

3. Additional Clear Lake Village materials.

Mrs. E. Schoenbeck, Peoria.

4. Tree ring dating in the middle west.

John W. Griffin, Daytona Beach, Fla.

5. Analysis of archaeological sites.

Donald E. Wray, Peoria.

6. Archaeological horizons in southern Illinois.

Moreau Maxwell & John Bennett, Univ. of Chicago.

7. Panel discussion : Middle Mississippian Culture.

Turn papers in to Chairman before leaving.

—249—

3.

4.

5.

6.

/.

BOTANY, J. Fislier Stanfield, Chairman, Chicago Teachers College.

. 217 Noyes Chemistry Lab.

Election of Chairman for 1942-43.

1. Leaves in ontogeny and phylogeny.

Sister Mary Ellen O’Hanlon, Rosary College, River Forest.

4. A pemcillium “disease” of ink.

Robert A. Conover & Neil E. Stevens, Univ. of Ill.

The white-bracted Hymenopappus still grows in Illinois.

Leo R. Tehon, Natural History Survey, Urbana.

Nitrogen content of oat chloroplasts.

Arthur W. Galston, University of Illinois.

Plant sanctuaria.

Jens Jensen, Ellison Bay, Wisconsin.

Ratl]evelstranSPlratl0n ^ tW° °at Varieties grown under varying soil moisture

Glenn Ray Noggle, University of Illinois.

Notes on the distribution of some rarely reported species of Oedogonium.

Max E. Britton, Northwestern University, Evanston.

Preliminary studies on the riboflavin (vitamin B2) content of plant materials.

Stanley A. Watson, University of Illinois.

A study of the phytoplankton of Crab Orchard Lake.

Walter B. Welch, Carbondale.

A checklist of the vascular plants in the University of Illinois woodlands.
Neville Jones, University of Illinois.

Naphthalene acetic acid and the growth and composition of cereal grasses.

K. E. Stephenson, University of Illinois.

A revision of the Illinois species of Rumex.

Sidney Glassman, University of Illinois.

Island groves in Illinois prairies.

A. G. Vestal, University of Illinois.

The Illinois species of Solidago.

Dorothy Croker, University of Illinois.

Trees and shrubs of Champaign County, Illinois.

Albert Feldman, University of Illinois.

Some growth responses of Soja and Vinca to vitamins.

J. Stanfield Fisher, Chicago Teachers College.

New interpretations of Sphenophyllostachys based on a petrified specimen from
an Iowa coal ball, A. T. Cross, Univ. of Cincinnati.

Turn manuscripts in before leaving.

CHEMISTRY, N. D. Cheronis, Chairman, 5556 Ardmore Ave., Chicago.

_. r . 112 Chemistry Annex

Election of Chairman for 1942-43.

The role of the chemistry teacher in national defense.

C. E. Ronneberg, Herzl Junior College, Chicago.

What the colleges are doing for national defense.

H. W. Gould, Northern Ill. State Tchrs. College, DeKalb.

Review of 1940-41 movies useful in the teaching of physical science.

L. V. Peterson, Supervisor Vis. Aids, Univ. of Ill.

Review of 1940-41 chemistry texts for use in the teaching of chemistry at the

high school level.

S. A. Chester, Bloomington H. S.

Review of 1940-41 texts for teaching of chemistry in first two years of college,

M. H. McLain, Wilson Junior College, Chicago.

— 250—

9.

10.

11.

12.

13

14.

15.

16.

17.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Chemistry (continued)

6. Suitable curricula for courses in high school chemistry.

Sister M. Joan, College of St. Francis, Joliet.

7. Introducing new acid base terminology.

C. W. Bennett, Western Ill. State Tchrs. College, Macomb.

8. Demonstration of unstable anionic complex formation by the method of elec¬

trometric titration with specific reference to indium salt solutions.

T. Moeller, University of Illinois.

9. New sources of mineral elements in animal nutrition.

W. P. Elmslie, Quincy.

10. Semi-micro methods in the teaching of chemistry : a review.

N. D. Cheronis & P. G. Arvan, Wright Junior College, Chicago.

Turn manuscripts in before leaving

GEOGRAPHY, Joseph Van Riper, Chairman, Southern Ill. Normal U.,
Carbondale.

161 Noyes Chemistry Lab.

Election of Chairman for 1942-43.

1 . The Black Sea and its borderlands. ( Illustrated )

W. O. Blanchard, University of Illinois.

2. Regional reality from the concept of space-time.

Clarence L. Brown.

3. The colonial question.

Flemin Cox, Southern Ill. Normal Univ., Carbondale.

4. Soils and rural population trends in Decatur County, Georgia.

Alfred Booth, Univ. of Illinois.

5. The Murngin : an example of human geography.

Edna M. Gueffroy, Bloomington.

6. Clay Products manufacture in the lower Wabash Valley.

Alden Cutshall, Univ. of Illinois.

7. The uses and production of tung oil.

Geo. C. DeLong.

8. The saxicultural landscape of the Sudbury area. (By title.)

Thomas C. Barton, Southern Ill. Normal Univ., Carbondale.

9. The relations of geographic factors to some diseases.

Geo. R. Wells, Senior High School, Decatur.

Give manuscripts to Chairman before leaving

GEOLOGY, A. H. Sutton, Chairman, University of Illinois, Urbana.

202 Entomology Bldg.

Election of Chairman for 1942-43.

1. Bituminous matter in Warsaw geodes.

Percival Robertson, Principia College, Elsah.

2. Chester index ostracodes.

C. L. Cooper, Illinois Geol. Survey, Urbana.

3. Devonian stromatoporoids.

Allen F. Agnew, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana.

4. The morphology and distribution of Tasmanites (“Sporangites”) ; problematic

fossils of the Devonian-Mississippian.

J. M. Schopf, Illinois Geol. Survey, Urbana.

5. Niagara cherts from northern Illinois and southeastern Indiana.

H. A. Lowenstam, Illinois State Museum, Springfield.

6. Rhythms in Upper Pennsylvanian cyclothems.

J. M. Weller, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

—251—

Geology (contained)

7. The “Trenton” near Morris, Illinois.

C. L. Bieber, North Central College, Naperville.

* Subsurface cross-sections near type Chester localities in western Illinois.

E. Tippie, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

9. Use of the Glen Dean limestone as a structural key horizon in the Illinois basin.
'J* V. Cohee, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

10. Upper Pennsylvanian fossiliferous zones of Vermilion and Edgar counties.

George M. Wilson, University of Illinois, Urbana.

11. Thickness of the glacial drift in DuPage County.

A. C. Mason, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

12. Incompetent sediments in the Illinois basin.

W. H. Easton, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

13. Future importance of strip mining in Illinois.

G. H. Cady, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

14. Small spores from Illinois No. 5 coal.

^ A. L. Brokaw, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana

15. Shape variation of some Lake Superior beach pebbles.

R. M. Grogan, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

16. Thermal analysis of pyritic clays.

R. A. Rowland, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

17. Redwall limestone of north-central Arizona.

R. C. Gutschick, University of Illinois, Urbana.

18. The Pleistocene geology of Garrison quadrangle, North Dakota.

Edward Simpson, University of Illinois, Urbana.

Turn papers in to Chairman by end of meeting.

PHYSICS, F. . L. ^ VerWiebe, Chairman, Univ. of Chicago, (On leave from
E. Ill. St. Tchrs. Coll., Charleston.)

T,1 119 Physics Bldg.

Election of Chairman for 1942-43.

1.

3.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11

The inverted pendulum.

C. N. Wall, North Central College, Naperville.

Meteorology. A new method of long range weather forecasting.

W. E. Ewert, Chicago.

Normal daily temperatures for Aurora by comparison with Chicago.

Clarence R. Smith, Aurora College, Aurora.

A demonstration power supply.

O. L. Railsback, Eastern Ill. State Tchrs Coll., Charleston.

Color vision.

V. Kibort, University of Chicago.

A demonstration radio set.

A. F. Inglis, University of Chicago.

An outline of a physics course related to the C. A. A. program.

Theodore Phillips, Wright Junior College, Chicago.

Falling bodies and the cause of gravity.

W. C. Ewert, Chicago.

Why not express the horsepower in foot-poundals?

C. E. Ronneberg, Herzl Junior College, Chicago.

X-Ray diffraction studies on physiological changes in bone.

C. I. Reed and B. P. Reed, Univ. of Ill. Coll, of Medicine, Chicago.
The betatron, by D. W. Kerst, Univ. of Illinois.

Leave manuscripts with Chairman before going.

—252—

[

PSYCHOLOGY and EDUCATION, J. M. Hughes, Chairman, North¬
western University, Evanston, Ill.

319 Gregory Hall

Election of Chairman for 1942-43.

1 The problem of college student morale during war.

Frances W. Hibler, Ill. State Normal Univ., Normal.

2. The war between human nature factions.

Coleman R. Griffith, Univ. of Illinois.

3. Mental hygiene effects of war upon children.

Paul A. Witty, Northwestern Univ., Evanston.

4. Financing public education in Illinois with specific reference to the war period.

C. A. DeYoung, Ill. State Normal Univ., Normal.

5. Hand writing as a factor in credit rating.

William R. Laughlin, Loyola Univ., Chicago.

6. What can the elementary school do to prepare for winning the peace .

Edwin H. Reeder, Univ. of Illinois.

Hand manuscripts

before leaving.

SOCIAL SCIENCE, C. W. Schroeder, Chairman, Bradley Polytechnic
Institute, Peoria, Ill.

1. Luncheon meeting. University Y.M.C.A., Wright St. . .

Paper by Florian Znaniecki; The Social Scientist in Time of Crisis.

2. Afternoon meeting.

214 New Agriculture Bldg.

Election of Chairman for 1942-43.

Federal regulation of business enterprise. V. Dake Jolley, Wheaton College.
The village population of Illinois. Samuel C. Ratcliff e, Illinois Wesleyan.
Chicago and the down state. William B. Philip, Bradley College.
(Thirty-minute discussion of above led by Albert Lepawsky, Univ. of Chicago.)
Symposium on “The Fate of the Family.”

Ernest R. Mowrer, Northwestern.

B. F. Timmons, Univ. of Illinois.

Clarence W. Schroeder, Bradley College.

Ruth Shonle Cavan, Rockford.

Ernest W. Burgess, Univ. of Chicago.

(Discussion of points brought out in above symposium, by Evelyn Millis Duvall,
Assoc, for Family Living, Chicago.)

Hand manuscripts to Chairman by end of meeting.

ZOOLOGY, Orlando Park, Chairman, Northwestern University,
Evanston, Ill. . „

“Interrelations of Insects with Other Organisms.

Section A. Symposium
228 Natural History Bldg,

Election of Chairman for 1942-43.

1. Insects in relation to plants.

a. Vectors of pathogenic organisms. L. R. Tehon, Ill. Nat. Hist. Survey.

b. Other relations with plants. Harry Hoogstraal, Univ. of Ill.

2. Insects in relation with other insects.

a. Entomophagy of solitary forms. W. V. Baldul, Univ. of Ill.

b. Social life. A. E. Emerson, Univ. of Chicago.

3. Insect relations with animals other than insects.

a. Parasites and vectors of pathogens, C. L. Metcalf, Univ. of Ill.

b. Insects as food of vertebrates. H. H. Ross. Ill. Nat. Hist. Survey.

—253—

Zoology (continued)

Section B. General
229 Natural History Bldg.

F. A. Brown, Jr., Chairman, Northwestern University

1. Zoological courses in the early days of the University of Illinois.

H. J. Van Cleave, Univ. of Illinois.

2. Stimulating an interest in the history of natural science.

S. C. Thomson, Chicago.

3. Wildlife conservation as a part of soil conservation.

H. E. Gearhart, Edwardsville.

4. Work and endeavors of the Hoogstraal Mexican biological expeditions.

Harry Hoogstraal, Univ. of Illinois.

J. Pre-caval anomalies of the cat.

J. M. Sanders, Chicago.

h. Comparative pharmacology of myogenic and neurogenic hearts.

C. L. Prosser, Univ. of Illinois.

7. Induced ovulation in Rana Pipiens, III.

T. W. Robinson, Univ. of Illinois.

8. Pseudo-cleavage of the frog’s egg.

H. C. Hill, Jr. and T. W. Robinson, Univ. of Illinois.

J. Effect of testosterone propionate on territoriality in flocks of ring doves
Mary A. Bennett, Macomb.

10. Color discrimination in canaries.

H. H. Shoemaker, Univ. of Illinois.

11. Distribution pattern of pheasants and quails in Illinois.

C. O. Mohr and R. E. Yeatter, Ill. Nat. Hist. Survey.

12. A southern Illinois heronry.

Collan Hill, Southern Ill. Normal Univ., Carbondale.

13. A preliminary report on a herpetological survey of Illinois.

H. K. Gloyd, Chicago Acad, of Sciences.

14. Bass and bluegill feeding experiments.

D. H. Thompson and Bruno von Limbach, Ill. Nat. Hist. Survey,
la. Results of a creel census at Chautauqua Lake.

FF F . Hansen, Illinois Natural History Survey.

16. Cyclocephala Abrupta in Illinois.

9* T* RieSeI> Illinois Natural History Survey.

17. Distribution of two Illinoian Orthoptera.

W. V. Balduf, University of Illinois.

18. Locality records of some Hydracarina from Illinois.

C. C. Hoff, Quincy College.

19. Distribution of Spiders in the Indiana dunes associes.

D. C. Lowrie, Chicago Academy of Sciences.

Hand manuscripts to Chairman before leaving.

— 254—

COLLEGIATE SECTION

Papers and demonstrations by undergraduate college and university
students. For information about this Section, write Harold R. Wanless,
Dept, of Geology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.

FRIDAY, MAY 8, 1942

Morning Session coincides with Senior Academy program on page 248.

1 : 00 p. m. Preliminary General Meeting. 100 Gregory Hall.

1 :30 p. m. Presentation of papers in Sections A, B, and C.

4:30 p. m. Business meeting for delegates of science clubs or groups in the colleges
and universities of Illinois. 100 Gregory Flail.

Banquet and evening program same as Senior Academy. Sec p. 248.
SATURDAY, MAY 9

Collegiate Section A,

BOTANY, ZOOLOGY, ENTOMOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY and HYGIENE

100 Gregory Hall

1. Flowering plants collected in Wauconda county.

Mary Jane Poranski, Northwestern University, Evanston.

2. Some extremes in the algae.

Marian E. Westgate, Rosary College, River Forest.

3. The taxonomic significance of leaf epidermal hairs.

Patricia Borgstrom, Rosary College, River Forest.

4. The herpetological distribution of a southern Mexican mountain and valley

transect.

Fred Shannon, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana.

5. Tundra bird studies.

Oscar Hawkesly, Principia College, Elsah.

6. A preliminary ecological study of Slim Island.

H. Merritt Paulson, Principia College, Elsah.

7. Collecting insects in winter.

Chas. L. Remington, Principia College, Elsah.

8. The distribution of butterflies in a southern Mexican mountain-valley transect.

Ralph Haag, University of Illinois, Urbana.

9. The ethnography of the Ibo, Nigeria, West Africa, with special reference to

problems of primitive education.

Julius Okala, Northwestern Univ., Evanston.

10. Scientific observations on flavors.

Lee Froetscher, Elmhurst College, Elmhurst.

11. Identification of visual patterns protracted in time.

Henry Pachowicz, Ill. Inst, of Technology, Chicago.

12. Students as school nurses.

Thelma Newgard, Elmhurst College, Elmhurst.

1 3. The Effect of the descaling of winter buds on their growth in cast central Illinois.

John Voigt, E. Ill. State Tchrs. Coll., Charleston.

—255—

Collegiate Section B.

PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY and BACTERIOLOGY
213 Gregory Hall

1. Studies of cardiac frequency in the embryonic chick.

Orlando A. Ponzio, Loyola Univ., Chicago.

2. Adventures with a new tissue illuminator.

Alex Lutzow, Elmhurst College.

3. The microscopic anatomy of lebistes reticulatus.

Warren Clohisy, Loyola Univ., Chicago.

4. Bleaching and mounting pig skeletons.

Arthur Borucki, Loyola Univ., Chicago.

5. Effects of anterior pituitary extracts on certain organs in the white rat.

PART I. Lorraine Pawlan; PART II, Dorothy Rodwell, Rockford College,
Rockford.

6. The influence of forced exercise upon the guinea pig.

Howard Raiser, Illinois Inst, of Technology, Chicago.

7. A study of placental extracts.

C. M. Fordis, University of Illinois, Urbana.

8. Chlorophyll in treatment of athlete’s foot.

Frances Foster, University of Illinois, Urbana.

9. Zapatera spoilage of olives.

V. Del Giudice, University of Illinois, Urbana.

10. Methods of preserving cultures.

A. R. English, University of Illinois, Urbana.

11. Anatomy of His-Tawara.

Larry Sanford, Wheaton College, Wheaton.

Collegiate Section C

PHYSICAL SCIENCE (Chemistry and Geology)

223 Gregory Hall

1. Electric well logs.

James Pearson, University of Illinois, Urbana.

2. Chemical analysis of petroleum found in geodes.

Albert Gruenewald, Kohn Kneeland, and Dan Lynch, Principia College,
Elsah.

3. Ecological evidences of fluctuations in Alaskan glaciers.

George P. Brown, University of Illinois, Urbana.

4. Fauna and probable correlation of the Arrowhead member of the Monte

Cristo limestone; Nevada.

Betty Teetor, University of Illinois, Urbana.

5. Structural control of ore deposition in the Arkansas cinnabar area.

P. H. Dodd, Northwestern University, Evanston.

6. Festooned facies of the casper sandstone.

Mary Tullgren, Northwestern University, Evanston.

7. A study of hydrogen ion concentration.

Edith Godar, Rosary College, River Forest.

8. Radio activity with reference to the periodic table.

Florence Schmisseur, College of St. Francis, Joliet.

9. Certain pH Determinations.

Edna May Lewis, Rosary College, River Forest.

10. and 11. Papers in chemistry from Wright Junior College, Chicago.

12. Building a geology museum.

Joseph Hoare, Augustana College, Rock Island.

—256—

JUNIOR ACADEMY MEETINGS.

Louis A. Astell, Local Arrangements Chairman, University H. S., Urbana

MAY 8-9,1942

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS CAMPUS, URBANA
FRIDAY, MAY 8

8 :00 a. m. Registration, Lower (East) Parlors, Woman’s Bldg., Wright Street.

Setting up of exhibits. Lower Gym, Woman’s Bldg.

Junior Academy members noi otherwise occupied are cordially invited
to attend the general morning session of the Academy in Lincoln Hall
Theatre beginning at 9:30. There will be two main talks, one on Natural
History in Illinois and the other on the Cyclotron.

12:00 Luncheon. University Place Christian Church, Wright Street. 45 cents.

1 :00-4:30 Inspection and judging of exhibits. Lower Gym, Woman’s Bldg.

2 :00 General Session. 1 12 Gregory Hall.

Remarks by President Jack Frenzen, J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero.
Presentation of Junior Academy officers.

Roll call of clubs and presentation of membership certificates.

Report of A.A.A.S. honorary members Mary Catherine Rowley, Canton
H. S., and Bill Hahn, East Rockford H. S.

Illustrated talk, “Geologic history of the Grand Canyon,” by Kenneth
Gutschick, J. Sterling Morton H. S., Cicero.

Kenneth has a first hand knowledge of the Grand Canyon. He spends
his summers there with his brother who is an instructor in Geology
at University of Illinois.

Movie : “High speed motion pictures.” Allen R. Moore, J. Sterling Morton
H. S., Cicero.

Annual Afternoon Lecture: “Phosphorescence and Fluorescence”

L. W. Phillips, Physics Dept., University of Illinois

6 :00 Annual Banquet. University Place Christian Church. 60 cents.

8:15 Annual Lecture for Junior, Collegiate, and Senior Academies.

A Naturalist in the South Seas (illustrated), by Karl P. Schmidt, Chiet
Curator, Dept, of Zoology, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
University of Illinois Auditorium. Special section will be reserved for
those attending Academy banquets.

Junior Academy Awards will be announced immediately after lecture.
SATURDAY, MAY 9

9-30 Visits to museums and Junior Academy exhibits, and inspection of research
facilities of the University of Illinois and the scientific surveys located on
the campus.

Details will be given in the Final Program.

N. B. Exhibits may remain in place for general public inspection
Saturday, but must be removed by 6:00 p. m. Saturday.

—257—

-258-

GENERAL INFORMATION

Headquarters

Messages sent to be received in Urbana prior to registration may be ad-
lressed in care of George E. Ekblaw, 216 Natural Resources Bldg., Urbana. On
Tiday and Saturday, May 8 and 9, they should be addressed in care of Mr. Ekblaw,
llini Union Bldg.

Headquarters for the Academy Friday forenoon will be in Lincoln Hall
"oyer. Junior Academy headquarters will be in Lower (East) Parlors, Womans

31dg‘ * u !

Long distance telephone messages on Friday may be placed through
Champaign 7-4044, except Junior Academy registrants may be reached through
Champaign 7-2115.

Room Accommodations

Those who desire hotel accommodations should communicate directly
vith the hotels, which are as follows :

URBANA: Urbana-Lincoln. With bath, single $2.75 and $3.30; double
54 00 and $4.50; twin beds $5.50. With lavatory and toilet, single $1.90; double
53*00. Without bath, single $1.65; double $2.75. Suites and large rooms with
,ath, for 3 or more, $2.00 to $2.75 per person.

Plaza. With bath, single $2.00 and $2.25 ; double $3.00 and $3.25. With-
>ut bath, single $1.25 and $1.50; double $2.00 and $2.25.

CHAMPAIGN: Inman. With bath, single $2.50, $2.75, and $3.30;
louble $3.50, $5.00, and $5.50; twin beds $5.00, $5.50, and $6.60 With lavatory
md toilet, single $2.00; double $3.00. Without bath, single $165 and $2.00;
double $3.00; twin beds $3.30. Connecting rooms with bath, $5 00 for 2 persons
j>6.00 for 3 or 4 persons. Rooms with 2 double beds, with bath, $6./ 5 for 3, $o.UU
for 4 persons ; without bath, $4.00 for 4 persons.

Tilden-Hall. With bath, single $2.20 and $2.75; double $3.85 and $4.40.
Without bath, single $1.65 ; double $2.75.

Hamilton. With bath, single $2.00 and $2.50 ; double $3.00, $3.50 and
$4.00. Without bath, single $1.50; double $2.50 and $3.00.

Accommodations for those who prefer not to stay at hotels will be pro¬
vided in private rooming-houses in the University district, at rates ranging from
50 cents to $1.00 per person per night. These accommodations will be arranged in
cooperation with the University Housing Division. Reservations should be made
by May 1, on the enclosed form.

Meals

Luncheon and banquet tickets for the Academy and for the Junior Sec¬
tion will be obtained at their respective registration desks Friday forenoon May 8.
However, reservations should be made on the enclosed form by May .

Inspection Trips

Inspection trips Saturday forenoon will start from the Illini Union Bldg,
promptly at 9 :30. Those who plan to go on these trips should so indicate at time
of registration.

—259—

THE LIBRARY UE IHk

JUN 13 1942

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

STATE OF ILLINOIS
Dwight H. Green, Governor

Transactions

of the

ILLINOIS STATE
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Volume 34

June, 1942

Number 4

Reports Concerning the Thirty-fifth Annual
Meeting, Urbana, Illinois
May, 1942

Memoirs

Printed by the Illinois State Academy of Science
Affiliated with the

Illinois State Museum Division, Centennial Building
SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vols. 23 and following are free to members, except for mailing
costs. Non-members may obtain copies if proper arrangements
can be made with the Librarian, Illinois State Museum, Spring-
field, Illinois.

Note: Each member is entitled to only one copy of each issue.
Extra separates if desired should be ordered by author at the time
proof is returned; if extra copies of the entire volume are desired,
special arrangements must be made with the Librarian before the
issue goes to press.

SECTION CHAIRMEN FOR 1942-1943

Agriculture O. L. Whai.in, 1 1 1 New Agr., Urbana.

Anthropology Ben Nussbaum, Fairbury.

Botany K. Richard Johnson, National College of Educa¬

tion, Evanston.

Chemistry H. W. Gould, Northern Illinois State Teachers
College, De Kalb.

Geography L. A. Holmes, State Normal University, Normal.

Geology W. E. Powers, Dept, of Geology, Northwestern

University, Evanston.

Physics F. W. Cooke, Illinois College, Jacksonville.

Psychology

and Education L. A. Pennington, Physiological Psych. Lab., U. of
I., Urbana.

Social Science V. Dake Jolley, Wheaton College.

Zoology H. H. Ross, Illinois State National History Survey,

Urbana.

1943 MEETING: JACKSONVILLE, MAY 7-8

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Volume 34

June, 1942

Number 4

CONTENTS

Minutes of the Meetings of the 1941-1942 Council .

Reports of 1941-1942 officers:

Secretary. Minutes of the thirty-fifth annual business meeting, Urbana .

Local Arrangements Chairman .

Publicity Chairman .

Collegiate Section .

Editor .

Librarian .

Treasurer .

Auditing Committee’s Report .

Reports of committees and delegates for 1941-1942:

Conservation . .

A. A. A. S. Conference Delegate .

Chicago Conservation Council

Nominations Committee .

Publications . .

Research Grants .

Resolutions .

Junior Academy Reports:

Southern Division .

Science Aids Service .

High School Science Clubs Committee Reports .

List of High School Science Clubs .

Results of Science Exhibits .

The index to Volume 34 will accompany the September number of Volume 35

259

262

262

263

264

265

266
266
267

267

267

268
268

269

270

270

271
271
271

273

274

257

STATE OF ILLINOIS
Dwight H. Green, Governor

DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION
Frank M. Thompson, Director

ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM DIVISION
Thorne Deuel, Chief

ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Affiliated with the
ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM

OFFICERS FOR 1942-1943

President: F. M. Fryxell
Augustana College, Rock Island

First Vice President: L. J. Thomas
University of Illinois, Urbana

Second Vice-President: Willis DeRyke
Illinois College, Jacksonville

Secretary: R. F. Paton
University of Illinois, Urbana

Treasurer: John Voss
Manual Training High School, Peoria

Librarian: Gilbert Wright
Illinois State Museum, Springfield

Junior Academy Representative: Allen R. Moore, Cicero
Junior Academy Representative ( Southern Division ): Mary Creager, Chester

Editor: Grace Needham Oliver
Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana

In addition to current officers, the Academy Council for 1942-3
includes the two most recent past presidents: V. O. Graham,

4028 Grace St., Chicago, and T. H. Frison, Illinois Natural History
Survey, Urbana.

1943 MEETING AT JACKSONVILLE MAY 7-8

Publicity Chairman: Grace Tickle, MacMurray College, Jacksonville
Chairman Local Arrangements: Willis DeRyke, Illinois College, Jacksonville
Collegiate Section Local Arrangements: W. F. Bailey, MacMurray College, Jacksonville
Junior Section Local Arrangements: Helen Kamm, Jacksonville H. S.

Printed June, 1942

REPORTS of COUNCIL MEET¬
INGS, 1941-1942

The first meeting was called to order by
President Frison in the lobby of Cahn Audi¬
torium, Northwestern University, Evanston,
at 8:00 a.m. May 2, 1941. Eight members of
the council were present.

Business for the new year was outlined
briefly. The committee on Budget (Furrow,
Voskuil, Voss) was reappointed. The possibility
of forming a committee to promote the form¬
ation of a collegiate division in the State
Academy was discussed. President Frison
asked for suggestions as to personnel for this
committee and the names of Wanless, Fern-
aid, Ditman, Gersbacher, Welch, McEvoy at
Normal, Carlson at Northwestern, Richard¬
son at Rockford, Walter at Knox, Nelson at
Wilson, Gilmore at Wright, Andrews at
Herzl were suggested among others. President
Frison said he would study the situation and
appoint a committee later. The Secretary was
instructed to furnish him with a report from
the A.A.A.S. on the same subject.

Meeting adjourned at 8:45 a.m. after agree¬
ing that the next council meeting would be
held in Urbana in the fall at the time of the
High School Conference.

(Signed) R. F. Paton, Secretary.

The second council meeting was held
at Urbana, Illinois, November 8, 1941 and was
called to order at 10:00 a.m. President Frison
presided and the others in attendance were
Mrs. M. D. Creager, A. R. Moore, F. M. Fryx-
ell, G. E. Ekblaw, Mrs. G. N. Oliver, T. Deuel,
R.’F. Paton, J. Voss, Miss E. Fernald, J. S.
Ayars, and H. R. Wanless.

The minutes were read by the Secretary
and approved. Two bills were presented by
the Secretary for approval, one in connection
with new membership blanks and the other in
regard to secretarial expenses. The council
approved payment of both bills. The Secretary
was instructed to urge section chairmen to be
sure that all those presenting papers at the
annual meeting should be members or intro¬
duced by members of the Academy and that
publication in the Transactions is available
only to Academy members.

The Council approved of using one page of
each Academy publication for announcements
of scientific meetings of affiliated societies.

It was agreed that the secretary should
draft a letter to all sustaining members urging
them to maintain their membership in the
Academy.

The report of the activities of the Junior
Academy was read by Mrs. Creager. Mr. Astell

is to act as chairman of Local Arrangements
and the possibility of making use of WPA
assistance in putting up exhibits, etc., was
considered.

President Frison was empowered to appoint
a committee to design an official seal for the
State Academy to be designed to fit the needs
of the Junior Academy also. He named Miss
Meredith Calkins, Carl Mohr, and Miss
Audry Hill.

It was also reported that “Science Clubs of
America’’ was being supported by Science
News Service and the American I'nstitute of the
City of New York but that the Western
Electric Company has withdrawn its support
from the movement. It was decided that the
Junior Academy will not affiliate with “Science
Clubs of America” without further investi¬
gation. The Council instructed Mrs. Creager
to investigate and contact delegate to A.A.
A.S. and report back to the Senior Academy.

It was voted that President should appoint
one (or two) delegates to the annual A.A.A.S.
meeting at Dallas in December.

The date of the next annual meeting of the
Academy was officially approved and set for
May 7-8-9, 1942. Dr. George Ekblaw, general
chairman in charge of arrangements for the
1942 annual meeting, presented a letter from
President Willard inviting the Academy to
make use of the Union Building and its facili¬
ties at that time.

Dr. Thorne Deuel offered to put a notice of
the Junior Academy meeting in the forthcom¬
ing issue of the Living Museum which goes to
5600 individuals interested in science each
month. Mr. Astell pointed out that the Uni¬
versity Extension Service might be able to
help in publicizing the activities for the next
meeting of the Junior Academy also. Mr. Allen
R. Moore was appointed to visit the State
Principals’ Meeting at Springfield to be held
during the holidays, with the purpose of in¬
forming them about the activities of the
Junior Academy.

A recess of the Council meeting was called
at 11:50 and at the luncheon which followed
the possibilities of a meeting place for 194J
were discussed. It was also suggested that the
medical section of the Academy might meet
again in May if a suitable sponsor could be
found.

Professor Wanless discussed the possibility
of organizing a collegiate section of the : St; ate
Academy as several other academies had done
and President Frison appointed a committee
to work out plans. Members named for the
committee were H. R. Wanless F. M. Fryx-
ell A. R. Moore, J. W. Neckers, Miss D.
Richardson. L. W. Miller and R. W. Lefler.

The meeting adjourned at 12:50 p.m.

259

260

Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science

The third council meeting was held at
Urbana, Illinois, February 21. The meeting
was called to order at 10:1 5 a.m. with President
Frison presiding. The others in attendance
were Mrs. M. D. Creager, A. R. Moore, F. M.
Fryxell, G. E. Ekblaw, Mrs. G. N. Oliver, R.
F. Paton, J. Voss, J. S. Ayars, H. R. Wanless,
J. E. Coe, L. J. Thomas, and L. Astell.

The minutes of the last meeting were read
by the secretary and approved.

The Treasurer reported that finances were
in unusually good shape for this time of the
year. There seemed to be every indication that
the usefulness of the Academy could be ex¬
tended.

The Editor reported that the No. 3, Vol. 34,
of Transactions, which is about to come out,
was in the hands of the printer.

Mrs. Creager and Mr. Moore reported on
the affairs of the Junior Academy. Plans for
this work are progressing very favorably and
both expressed gratification for the support
from the High School Principals’ Organization
and the various groups who are maintaining
their sustaining memberships. In connection
with the affairs of the Junior Academy, Dr.
Thomas reported on the meeting held at Dal¬
las, Texas, as part of the program of the A.A.
A.S. Considerable discussion had gone on at
this meeting concerning possible cooperation
between “Science Clubs of America” and the
junior clubs of the Illinois Academy. A more
detailed report on this situation was promised
for the annual meeting. The council decided
that the Illinois Academy would be glad to
cooperate in any manner possible, subject to
the approval of the committee set up to study
such cooperation by the A.A.A.S. Mrs.
Creager reported that the Southern Division
of the Illinois Academy of Science expected
to hold a sectional meeting on the 11th of
April at Carbondale. It was hoped that groups
winning special recognition at this sectional
meeting would attend the state-wide meeting
to be held at Urbana May 8 and 9.

Mrs. Creager was instructed to write the
“Science Clubs of America” in Illinois, invit¬
ing them to join with the Junior Academy at
our annual meeting.

The committee to design a seal to be used
by all branches of the Academy including the
Junior Academy, consisting of Miss Meredith
Calkins of Illinois Geological Survey, Miss
Audry Hill of Carbondale, and Mr. Carl Mohr
of Natural History Survey suggested a design
which was submitted and discussed. The
Council felt that the design was appropriate
in idea but could well be simplified in detail,
and a plain seal with ribbons to be put on the
Junior Academy certificates of Award could
be used for this year’s meeting. Mr. Ayars and
Mrs. Oliver were instructed to attend to this.

Dr. Wanless reported on his work in form¬
ing the collegiate section. Many favorable re¬
plies had already been received from the col¬
leges of the State and the Council was pleased
to note that the collegiate division would un¬
doubtedly be a success. Thirty-three papers
had already been reported as available and
these fitted logically into three divisions; one
on biological sciences, one on earth sciences,
and one on physical sciences. Dr. Ekblaw’
moved and it was seconded that the council
authorize the formation of a collegiate section
which should be open to all undergraduates
interested in science in all of the colleges of the
State. The motion after careful discussion was
carried unanimously.

The plan for the current year was to invite
evtry undergraduate organization to take part
in this meeting and send one voting delegate
for the purpose of setting up the organization
for future years. It was agreed that the number
of persons from any college or group attending
the spring meeting should not be limited, and
any college where no organized science club
existed could send a representative to this
meeting. It was not felt that membership in
the Academy was essential to take part in this
meeting, but that science clubs should be en¬
couraged to affiliate and it was pointed out by
the secretary that it would be possible for them
to receive the publications of the Academy if
interested groups paid the minimum fee of
$1.00.

The Council adjourned at 11:55 a.m. and
reconvened at a luncheon at 12:15 at the Illini
Union. At the luncheon meeting there was
some further discussion on the organization of
the collegiate division. Subjects also discussed
were possible meeting places for next year, and
details of the spring meeting and publicity
for it. Arrangements seemed to be well under
way.

President Frison reported that plans for the
general program and evening lectures were
being made and that he hoped to arrange for
a separate lecture for the Junior and Senior
Academies on Friday evening. The banquets
for the Junior and Senior Academies were also
approved for Friday evening. Due to the
difficulty of obtaining satisfactory transpor¬
tation and the expense connected with such
plans, it was agreed that the Saturday morn¬
ing program might well be given over to open-
house programs and inspection trips of various
laboratories and museums on the local cam¬
pus. President Frison was instructed to in¬
vestigate the possibility of getting cooperation
from the University departments.

In discussing the possibility of a place of
meeting for 1943, the secretary was advised to
get in touch with interested people at Harris¬
burg, Jacksonville and Carbondale. The secre¬
tary reported that due to the present national
emergency, plans for reorganization of the

Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting

261

medical section which had been considered for
this year were postponed.

A. request for support of publication expense
from the research funds of the Academy sub¬
mitted by Malcolm Reid was denied, as the
funds available are supplied entirely by the
A.A.A.S. and the local academies are not per¬
mitted to grant them for such projects.

Proper time for the annual business meeting
was discussed but no final decision was made.

The Secretary was instructed to investigate
the possibility ' of getting reduced rates for
railroad fares by people attending this meet¬
ing, although it was not thought that such
would be possible.

The meeting adjourned at 2:00 p.m.

The fourth council meeting convened at
dinner at 6:30 p.m., May 7, 1942, at the Ilhm
Union Building, Urbana, and present were
Ur. E. Fernald, H. R. Wanless, George E.
Ekblaw, G. Wright, F. M. Fryxell, T. H.
Frison, L. J. Thomas, Mrs. Mary Creager,
John Voss, E. L. Stover. Mrs. G. N. Oliver,

J. Ayars, and R. F. Paton.

The business of the council was transacted
in the private dining room immediately after
dinner. Minutes of the third council meeting
were read and approved. The report on the
arrangements tor the annual meeting which
was scheduled to begin Friday was given by
Dr. George Ekblaw, chairman of the com¬
mittee on local arrangements, who stated that
all the arrangements seemed to be in excellent
order and expressed great appreciation for the
cooperation rendered by C. W . Lyon, assistant
director of the Physical Plant, University of
Illinois.

The resignation of our Academy librarian,
Dr. Thorne Deuel, was received and accepted
with regret. Dr. Deuel stated that he had re¬
ceived orders to report for duty in the Army.
A previous communication from Dr. Deuel
on the importance of keeping the publications
of the Academy prompt on account of the
possibility of losing our mailing permit was
read. The editor was instructed to do every¬
thing necessary to insure this promptness. Mr.
Gilbert Wright was elected as successor to
Dr. Deuel.

The Treasurer gave a brief report which
indicated that the Academy affairs were on a
very sound financial basis and acceptance
and approval of the report was very enthus¬
iastic.

The Editor gave a brief report seconding the
need for prompt publication of the various
numbers of the Academy Transactions.

Mrs. Creager reported briefly on the plans
and activities of the Junior Academy during

the current year and nature of the program
which seemed to be indicated for next year.

Dr. L. J. Thomas, Chairman on the A.A.A.

S. special committee on relations with Science
Clubs of America, gave a brief report on a
meeting of this committee held on March 28,
at Indianapolis.

Several invitations to hold the 1943 meeting
were read and discussed. It was finally voted
to accept the invitation from Jacksonville as
being the most appropriate, although several
of the council felt it would be nice if the
Academy could meet in all of the places since
the invitations from other towns were very
cordial. The time of the 1943 meeting was
voted upon and is to be May 7 and 8, 1943. It
is felt that every effort should be made to go
ahead with the meeting as a portion of the
activities the Academy could carry out helping
to fill the present need for people trained in
science.

Dr. Wanless reported on the successful plans
for the new Collegiate Section. Following this
report it was moved and seconded that the
relationship between the Collegiate Section
and the Academy be administered by an ad¬
visory committee, consisting of one repre¬
sentative from the faculty of each college co¬
operating with the group. To be eligible for
membership on this council the representative
must be a member of the Academy. After a
brief discussion the motion was carried. There
was also some discussion of the possibility of
inviting members of the Collegiate Section to
submit papers for publication in the Trans¬
actions and it was felt that this would be
highly desirable if the research reported was
original. It was pointed out, however that
anyone who wished to avail himself of this
privilege, would have to be a member of the
Academy.

A letter from the former chairman of the
membership committee, Major L. C. McCabe,
was read. Major McCabe called the attention
of the council to the fact that it was difficult
for members of the Academy in the national
service to maintain a suitable address to which
copies of Transactions could be mailed, and
suggested that these people be relieved of the
responsibility of paying membership dues. The
council felt that in view of the practice of
keeping all members on the roll until they were
delinquent at least three years, the waiving of
dues was unnecessary. It was also felt that
some of the members might want to maintain
their files of Transactions but that the Acad¬
emy could not well afford to furnish these to
non-paying members. After some further dis¬
cussion, it was moved that no one in the nat¬
ional service should be dropped from the Acad¬
emy rolls for non-payment of dues, but that
Transactions be mailed only to those who kept
the Academy informed of their address. I his

262

Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science

motion was seconded and during the discussion
the fact was also brought out that any member
could always complete bis files of Transactions
by notifying the secretary of his address but
that the Academy could furnish these only
after the past dues had been paid; also, follow¬
ing the usual custom, a member could always
re-instate himself simply by renewing his
payments. It was felt that continuing this
custom would work out satisfactorily to all
concerned in the present case. There being no
further discussion, the motion was voted.

A letter from former president V. O. Gra¬

ham with a very interesting map which he had
prepared showing the distribution of member¬
ship of the Academy in the State, was sub¬
mitted. This map showed that th: Academy
members were located largely in a few areas
of the State. The Council agreed that every
effort should be made by the Academy to ex¬
tend its services more broadly to the people of
the State. The discussion of the possibility
of this was referred to the secretary to pass on
to the committee on membership. There being
no further business, the Academy adjourned
at 9:30 p.m.

(Signed) R. F. Paton, Secretary.

REPORTS of the 35TH ANNUAL MEETING
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

BUSINESS MEETINGS, FRIDAY,
MAY 8, 1942

The preliminary business meeting of the

Illinois State Academy of Science was called
to order by President Frison at 9:00 a.m. in
Lincoln Hall Theatre. Business of the meeting
consisted in the appointment of three of the
committees for the day. These were: Com¬
mittee on Resolutions, Committee on Nomi¬
nations, and Auditing Committee. The per¬
sonnel of these committees was instructed to
report of the general business meeting in the
afternoon. The following committees and mem¬
bers were appointed:

Nominating Committee: E. L. Stover, Dr.

E. Fernald, Dr. V. O. Graham, Dr. H. R. Wan-
less, Dr. J. Neckers, Dr. Clarence Bonnell.

Committee on resolutions: H. J. Van Cleve,

F. M. Fryxell, C. A. Bonnell.

Auditing Committee: Walter W. Thomas,
John Q. Sapp, Gray Adamson.

There being no further business for this ses¬
sion, the meeting adjourned until 5:00 p.m.

The final business meeting was called to
order by President Frison at 5:00 p.m. in
Lincoln Hall Theatre. The minutes of the
preliminary meeting were read and approved
and the remaining business consisted of reports
of officers and committees.

The Treasurer’s report was read and ap¬
proved. The report of the Auditing Com¬
mittee submitted by W. W. Thomas was also
read to the Council and approved.

Dr. Stover reported for the nominating
committee. Following a short discussion in
which further nominations were called for the
committee’s selections were elected.

Dr. H. J. Van Cleve reported for the Reso¬
lutions Committee and the committee’s work
was read and approved.

The Secretary pointed out that reports of
all the other committees will be published in
the next number of Transactions and that
reading of them could be omitted to save time.
This suggestion was approved.

Outgoing Preident Frison then turned over
the seals of office, so to speak, to incoming
President Fryxell, who responded with brevity,
concision, and sincerity to the request for a
speech. There being no further business, the
meeting adjourned at 5:30 p.m.

(Signed) R. F. Paton, Secretary.

LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS

Most of the work and duties of a committee
on local arrangements for a convention are so
obvious that they merit no special report, but
certain features of the 35th annual meeting of
the Illinois Academy of Science seem to merit
special mention for record.

First, the various sessions of the Academy
required four large meeting halls — one for the
Friday morning general session and the Friday
afternoon business session of the Academy,
one for the general meetings of the newly or¬
ganized Collegiate Section, one for the regular
meeting of the Junior Academy, and one for
the public lecture Friday evening — all equip¬
ped with projection facilities; a large hall for
the Junior Academy exhibits; rooms for regis¬
tration; three rooms for special meetings Fri¬
day afternoon; and fourteen rooms, with pro¬
jection facilities, for the Friday afternoon
sectional meetings. The University of Illinois
made all these necessary accomodations avail¬
able, they provided projection equipment and
operators to the limit of their availability,
they provided furniture and other equipment,
and they provided all the necessary labor to

Thirty -fifth Annual Meeting

263

transport the furniture back and forth and to
put it in place— all without any expense to the
Academy.

Second, five group meals were required the
regular Academy luncheon, with tables special¬
ly reserved for the physicists and for the geog¬
raphers; the regular Academy banquet the
Junior Academy luncheon; the Junior Academy
banquet; and the Social Science luncheon. Ihe
first two were provided by the I Him Union on
the University campus; the Junior Academy
meals were provided by the University Place
Christian Church, adjacent to the campus; and
the Social Science luncheon was provided by
the University Y.M.C.A., also adjacent to the
campus. Thus ultra-convenience was served.

Third, local representatives were delegated
to be prepared to render each of the sectional
chairmen any assistance necessary during the
sectional meetings, to assure satisfactory and
efficient conduct of the meetings. These repre¬
sentatives also assumed the responsibility or
providing projection equipment and operators
at such sectional meetings as the University
could not provide.

Fourth, the idea of having Saturday in¬
spections of University and State Survey
laboratories, museums, etc., instead of field
trips was an innovation, but it was received
enthusiastically by the Deans of the various
colleges, the Heads of the various depart¬
ments, and the Curators of the various mu¬
seums of the University and the Chiefs of the
State Surveys, all of whom made the necessary
arrangements and provided the necessary
guides for the 22 trips that they scheduled.

Fifth, concerning attendance, about 250
people registered at the regular Academy ses¬
sion- many more attended without registering;
a total of about 300 attended the afternoon
sectional meetings; 138 were served at the
regular Academy luncheon; 173 were served
at the Academy banquet; about 1000 people
attended the public lecture Friday evening;
and almost 500 people attended the inspection
trips Saturday forenoon, composing groups
ranging in number from 3 to more than 60.

It should be evident from the above listings
what a host of people contributed to the suc¬
cess of the 35th annual meeting of the State
Academy of Science. They are too numerous to
mention individually, but their assistance and
willing cooperation is nevertheless greatly ap¬
preciated. However, individual credit must be
given to Mr. C. W. Lyon of the University of
Illinois Physical Plant, whose cordial co¬
operation in making arrangements immeasur¬
ably lightened the task of the committee; to
Mr. S. E. Griffith, also of the University
Physical Plant, who superintended the ar¬
rangements; and to Mr. Louis A. Astell, who
assumed responsibility for the arrangements
for the Junior Academy. The special assistance

of the State Natural History Survey and State
Geological Survey in providing stenographic
and clerical help for registration and other
services and that of the Champaign Chamber
of Commerce in providing badges for regis¬
trants of the Academy is also gratefully
acknowledged.

Respectfully submitted,
(Signed) George E. Ekblaw, Chairman.

PUBLICITY

Following is a brief report on the publicity
prepared and issued by the Publicity Director
for the thirty-fifth annual meeting of the
Illinois State Academy of Science held at the
University of Illinois, May 7, 8, and 9, 1942,
Urbana, Illinois.

Little effort was made to acquaint the pub¬
lic with the 1942 meeting until the February
Council Meeting had been held. A local news¬
paper strike in February somewhat curtailed
the publicity efforts at that time. Formation of
a new collegiate section gave opportunity for
the first general release, February 23.

A chronological listing of the releases fol¬
lows:

1. Mimeographed release— “Formation of a
collegiate section”— 250 words, to 95 Illinois
dailies, 9 out-of-state dailies, 39 collegiate
papers, 3 press associations, Science News
Letter, 113 Illinois weeklies.

2 Typed release— “War will mingle con¬
spicuously”- April 12, 1942, 492 words to 5
press services, Science Service, 5 radio stations
or systems, 14 Illinois and out-of-state dailies.
(Programs sent to most of these.)

3 Typed release— Karl P. Schmidt story
and mat — April 16, 1942, 294 words, to 4 press
services, 23 Illinois and out-of-state dailies.

4. Typed releases to specific cities dealing
with their local residents taking part in meet¬
ing— 37 cities, 5 publicity directors of uni¬
versities, 77 newspapers, including college
publications, 3 individuals— April 23, 1942.
Also mats of President of Academy, 24 mats
and 12 photos with this story or previously. A
different lead in each of 26 stories, approxi¬
mately 450 words in each story.

5 Mimeographed release— “Over 700 high
school students”- May 2, 1942, 336 words, to
6 press services, 104 Illinois and out-of-state
dailies, 21 radio stations, 33 Illinois college
papers, 109 county seat weeklies, 219 weeklies
other than county seat, 16 individuals, 3
magazines.

6. Mimeographed release— “Leading scient¬
ists of the state” — May 3, 1942, 378 words,
to 104 Illinois and out-of-state dailies, 6 press

264

Transactions of. the Illinois State Academy of Science

services, 21 radio stations, 33 Illinois college
papers, 109 county seat weeklies, 219 weeklies
other than county seat, 16 individuals, 3
magazines.

7. Typed release — “University of Illinois
scientists”— May 6, 1942, 980 words, to 4
Illinois dailies.

8. Collegiate supplement to program story
above— May 7, 1942, to local dailies— Courier,
News Gazette, and Illini.

9. Typed release— “Dr. T. H. Frison, Chief”
—May 6, 1942, 298 words, to 3 local dailies.

10. Typed release “Scientists from all
parts of the state” — May 7, 1942, 455 words,
to 3 press associations, 9 Illinois and out-of-
state dailies.

Abstracts or copies of 40 of the papers were
supplied upon request to Science Service and
44 to the University of Illinois publicity office
for ready reference by reporters. The numbers
represent all the papers of possible news value
received in time to make copies for distribu¬
tion before the meeting. About a dozen of the
more important papers or abstracts were sent
upon request to the Associated Press in Chicago
and the United Press in Springfield.

Copies of the President’s speech and ex¬
cerpts from Mr. Schmidt’s speech were supplied
to three press associations, to the three local
papers, and to the University’s publicity
office.

Material was furnished to a reporter sent
by the Chicago Daily News to cover the
meeting.

At the time of the meeting, information on
attendance, awards, and election of officers
was furnished to local representatives of both
the Associated Press and the United Press for
transmission by wire, as well as to the three
local papers. No mail releases were prepared on
these subjects, as they would have reached
papers too late to be of use.

Although no clipping service was employed,
clippings collected informally indicate that
the releases, particularly the release of April
23, were widely used.

Respectfully submitted,

(Signed) James S. Ayars,

Publicity Director.

REPORT CONCERNING THE
ESTABLISHMENT OF A COL-
GIATE SECTION

After authorization by President Frison at
the Council Meeting in November, 1941,
preliminary conferences were held with mem¬
bers of the faculties of science departments and

representatives of the organized student
science clubs and fraternities at the University
of Illinois. The projected Collegiate Section
was intended to fill the gap between the junior
and senior divisions of the Academy and to
provide an outlet for reporting the results of
researches by undergraduate students of the
Colleges and Universities of the state. A
circular letter was sent early in January to one
representative of the science faculty at each of
50 colleges or universities in Illinois to inquire
into the feasibility of establishing such an
organization, to gather information about
organized science clubs or societies, and to
learn the names of students carrying on re¬
searches which might be reported at an in¬
augural meeting.

About 30 replies were received to this letter,
manifesting considerable interest in the organi¬
zation. Some wrote that the Academy could
serve the interest of the smaller colleges of the
state better through a Collegiate Section than
through any of its existing divisions. Some
suggested that although no student science
organization existed in the colleges this inquiry
had provided impetus toward the establish¬
ment of a science club. On February 21, 1942,
these preliminary findings were reported to’
President Frison and the Council, and positive
authorization was given at that time for the
inauguration of a Collegiate Section at the
Urbana meeting May 8 and 9, 1942. A second
circular letter was sent reporting the interest
manifested in replies to the first letter and re¬
questing definite information about papers or
projects which were to be presented at the
Urbana meeting. Eventually there were re¬
ceived 37 titles of papers by students from 15
colleges or universities on such widely diverse
subjects as I he New Chicago Subway and
Chicago Soil,” “Mounting Pig Skeletons,”
Building a Geological Museum,” “Ibo Eth¬
nography and Primitive West African Edu¬
cation,” “Electric Well Logs,” and “A Work¬
ing Model Demonstrating the Cyclotron
Principle.” The program was divided into
three sections in order that each speaker might
have as much as 10 minutes for presenting his
or her paper. Papers in related fields were com¬
bined into the same section.

The inaugural meeting was held Friday, May
8 in Rooms 100, 213, and 223 Gregory Hall
at the University of Illinois. Prof. B. S. Hop¬
kins, a former president of the State Academy
delivered an introductory talk on “Research
Opportunities tor the Undergraduate Student
in Science.” Prof. Hopkins suggested the pos¬
sibility of a competitive study of the same
problem by students at different colleges as an
incentive toward the achievement of greater
excellence in research results. The three section
meetings were run under the chairmanship of
the following representatives of science clubs
or groups at the University of Illinois:

Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting

265

Mrs. Martha Leavenworth, Botany De¬
partment.

Mr. Frank Hasbrouck, Hexapoecia Club,
Entomology Department.

Mr. Roy Barber, Physiology Department.

Miss Jenny Bonnett, Bacteriology Club.

Mr. William Oesterling, Cyclothem Club,
Geology.

Miss Eleanor Hutchison, Iota Sigma Pi,
Chemistry.

All but three of the 37 papers were presented.
The attendance at the individual section meet¬
ings ranged from about 20 to 40. There would
have been a larger attendance except that the
meetings were held at the same time as the
sectional meetings of the Senior Section of the
Academy.

Following the sectional program an organi¬
zation business meeting was held attended by
about 30 students representing 10 colleges or
universities. There was much discussion of the
program of the Collegiate Section and the
methods of selecting student officers and an
executive committee. A committee of 10 con¬
sisting of one student from each of the colleges
or universities represented was selected to
draft a constitution and report this at the next
annual business meeting, and to serve as an
executive committee for the coming year. The
following were selected:

Ida Wright, Morton Junior College, Cicero.

Anna Mae Jordan, St. Francis College,
Joliet.

Patricia Borgstrom, Rosary College, River
Forest.

Virginia MacWethy, Rockford College,
Rockford.

Amy Jones, Southern Illinois State Normal,
Carbondale.

Mr. Stringer, Illinois State Normal, Normal.

Mrs. Martha Leavenworth, University of
Illinois, Urbana.

Carter Christie, Illinois Wesleyan, Bloom¬
ington.

Orland A. Ponzio, Loyola University,
Loyola.

Eugene Grassel, Blackburn College, Carlin-
ville.

This committee chose Mrs. Martha Leaven¬
worth, Department of Botany, University of
Illinois, as chairman. The committee met at
once and drafted a considerable part of the
constitution, modeling it in part after the con¬
stitution of the Collegiate Section of the Texas
Academy of Science, which has been in oper¬
ation for about five years. The Council of the
Academy at its meeting May 7 authorized the
selection of an advisory committee of the Col¬
legiate Section to consist of one representative
of the science faculty of each college or uni¬
versity in the State of Illinois.

Many of those attending the Collegiate
Sections participated in the annual dinner of
the Academy Friday evening and attended
the evening public lecture and some of the con¬
ducted trips through the scientific laboratories
at the University Saturday morning.

REPORT OF THE EDITOR

Quarterly issues of the Transactions were
published during the past year as follows:

Vol. 33, No. 4, June, 1941, 24 pages. Con-
tains a record of minutes of the four Council
meetings held during the year; business trans¬
acted at the annual meeting at Evanston in
May 1941; reports of committees and dele¬
gates; and results of Junior Academy com¬
petition of exhibits at Evanston. Cost of pub¬
lication: $144.80.

Vol. 34, No. 1, September, 1941, 38 pages.
Contains the address of the outgoing presi¬
dent, that of a past president, and special
papers presented at the May meeting. Is ac¬
companied by the Index for Volume 33. Cost
of publication: $236.59.

Vol. 34, No. 2, December, 1941. 200 pages.
Contains 96 papers ,in full or in abstract form,
which were given at the May meeting at
Evanston, and lists 46 by title. 56 illustrations.
Cost of publication: $1129.96.

Vol. 34, No. 3, March, 1942, 15 pages. Com¬
prises the preliminary and final forms of the
program for the annual meeting held this year
in Urbana on May 8 and 9. Cost of publi¬
cation: $114.55.

State funds, which are available to the
Academy through the budget allotted to the
Illinois State Museum for publication, paid
for the September and December issues,
Academy funds for the other two

Respectfully submitted,
(Signed) Grace Needham Oliver, Editor.

266

Transactions of the Illinois

REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN

During the year the Librarian has attended
to the distribution of Transactions Volumes 33
number 4 to Volume 34 number 3 inclusive. Of
these numbers, the following surplus copies
are now on hand :

Volume 33 number 4 . 248

Volume 34 number 1 . 248

Volume 34 number 2 . 249

Volume 34 number 3 . 125

A total of 181 copies of the Transactions
were sent out in response to special requests.
Many of these requests came from new mem¬
bers and from institutions on the exchange list.

The mailing list has been kept up-to-date
with many additions and corrections during
the year. Names of members whose Trans¬

State Academy of Science

actions were returned to the Librarian have
been temporarily dropped from the mailing
list. Members are urged to send prompt notice
to the Librarian of any change of address.

The status of out-of-print issues and of
publications received in exchange remains
essentially the same as indicated in the 1941
report of the Librarian, hence a listing of these
publications is not included at this time.

Due to the fact that I am soon to be enrolled
in the Army, my resignation as Librarian of
the Academy was submitted to the council on
April 1 1 th of this year. Needless to say, I much
regret that I must sever my connections with
the Academy at this time. It is my hope that I
may sometime renew what has always been a
pleasant association with this organization.

Respectfully submitted,
(Signed) Thorne Deuel, Librarian .

REPORT OF TREASURER
For the fiscal year May 1, 1941 to April 30, 1942

Receipts

Balance on hand April 30, 1941 .

Dues and initiation fees:

Annual members .

Life member .

Affiliated societies .

Sale of Transactions .

Editorial and excess pages fees .

Research grants by the A.A.A.S. ......

Luncheon tickets — Evanston .

Junior Academy:

Dues and initiation fees .

Sustaining memberships .

$805.90

25.00

17.00

59.60

233.00

$ 815.62

847.90

3.00

138.50

200.00

206.00

292.40

$2,503.42

Expenditures

Expenses of the Annual Meeting — Evanston , 1941:

Banquet, buses, motion pictures, etc .

Officers’ expenses .

Section Chairmen, expenses .

Expenses of Treasurer .

Postage and Transportation of Transactions .

Printing of Transactions .

Expenses of Secretary .

Printing of Membership Blanks . . ’

Secretary, honorarium .

Editor, honorarium .

Conservation Council .

Returned checks and bank charges . ’

329.29

98.49

33.85

461.63

27.82

22.30

144.80

27.13

14.75

150.00

150.00

2.00

6.47

Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting

267

Research grants:

P. H. Kinsell .

C. L. Furrow .

C. Clayton Hoff . .
J. Fisher Stanfield

50.00

50.00

50.00

50.00

Junior Academy:

Officers’ expenses .

Trophies . . .

Exhibit expenses .

Printing . .

Science Aids . . • • ■ • • • ■ ■ ■ ■ • • ■ ■ • ■ . . c

Balacne in Commercial Merchants National Bank and Trust Company of

Peoria .

61.26

46.56

36.52

58.64

25.00

Statement of Resources, April 30, 1942

Balance in Commercial Merchants National Bank and Trust Company,

Peons . * . ** .

Certificate of Deposit No. 760 for Meyer Block Bonds (Chicago) .

Certificate of Interest No. 13 for Forbes Building (Chicago) .

200.00

227.98

1,068.54

$2,503.42

1,068.54

150.00

150.00

$1,368.54

The membership of the Academy consists
of 64 life members, 107 new members, 12 sus¬
taining members, 523 members paid up to and
including the year 1942, 118 members one year
in arrears, 78 members two years in arrears,
and 46 members three years in arrears.

The total membership not including the
members who are three years in arrears is 992.

During the year 15 members have resigned,

7 have died, and 45 have removed leaving no
forwarding address.

The Academy has added 7 new Junior
Academies, 24 are fully paid up, 15 are one
year in arrears, 8 two years in arrears, and 7
three years in arrears.

The present financial status is the best in the
history of the Academy. The sustaining mem-

REPORTS of

Your Committee on Conservation has

attempted to bring before the Senators of
Illinois a realization of what the reduced budget
passed by the House of Representatives for
the work of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
would mean as an obstacle to the program in
national conservation.

Particular attention has been called to the
complete elimination of the program on the
food of birds and mammals and the Senators
have been respectfully requested to use their
influence in seeing that the bill, when it comes
before the Senate, should not include provisions
that would seriously cripple the program of
conservation as a continuing aspect of the work
of the Fish and Wildlife Service.

(Signed) H. J. Van Cleave,

Chairman.

berships and especially the one from the
Illinois High School Association have greatly
benefited the Junior Section.

Respectfully submitted,
(Signed) John Voss, Treasurer.

This is to certify that we have examined the
accounts of John Voss, Treasurer of the Illinois
State Academy of Science, for the year May 1,
1941 to April 30, 1942 and find them correct.
The balance of $1068.54 is on deposit with the
Commercial Merchants National Bank and
Trust Company of Peoria, Illinois.

(Signed) Walter W. Thomas

Chairman , Auditing Committee
A. G. Adamson
John Q. Sapp

COMMITTEES

The A.cademy Conference of the A. A.
A.S. held its fifteenth annual session in the
Baker Hotel in Dallas, Texas, on the afternoon
of December 29, 1941.

The formal program consisted of two papers,
one by Dr. E. C. Faust, (New Orleans Acade¬
my) on “A Resume of A.A.A.S. Research
-Grants,” and the other by Dr. J. C. Godbey,
(Texas Academy) on ‘‘The Organization of a
Collegiate Division of the Texas Academy of
Science.”

Dr. Faust’s paper presented the following
recommendations:

1. Serious consideration should be given to
allotment of rewards with reference to re¬
sponsibility of grantees to provide annual (or
semi-annual) progress reports to Research

268

Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science

Grant Committee or Secretary of Academy.
(This in respect to very little evidence that
research projects reach the publication stage
except as abstracts in Academy Transactions.;
the Secretaries have great difficulty in obtain¬
ing such reports from Grants Committees or
directly from grantees; in some instances utter
disregard on the part of grantees for requested
information.)

2. Closer cooperation is needed between
Research Grant Committee and Secretary of
Academy. The Committee and Secretary
should have readily available up-to-date dupli¬
cate files of status of each grant from 1935.

3. In the future Mr. Woodley’s office of the
A.A.A.S. should be the clearing office for all
such reports to the Academy Conference.

A Committee to study the Junior Academy
situation was selected as follows: Lyell J.
Thomas, Chairman (Illinois Academy); G. W.
Prescott (Michigan Academy); William G.
Camp (Maryland Academy); G. L. Cross
(Oklahoma Academy); R. C. Smith (Kansas
Academy); Mrs. E. Barry Walker (Commerce,
Texas); H. E. Enders (Indiana Academy); E.

C. L. Miller (Virginia Academy); D. B. Law¬
rence (Minnesota Academy); and Anna A.
Achneib (Kentucky Academy). A preliminary
meeting of this committee was held in Indian¬
apolis.

(Signed) Lyell J. Thomas,

Delegate.

Chicago Conservation Council. The past
year has encountered changing ideas for work
in conservation, one type of observer takes the
position that all must be set aside, that all
our progress across the years must be forgotten
for the duration of the war, another observer
looks far beyond to a time when wars are
over, when people must have preserved for
character building enjoyment, for vacation
life, the surroundings which are most needed.
We sincerely hope that the majority of the
people of Illinois have this latter viewpoint
for much can be done even in war time to im¬
prove conservation areas. Illinois must indeed
have the Waukegan dunes, an increased area
of Apple River, additions to Starved Rock,
strip-mine areas, and an increasingly large
National Forest area to afford recreational
area for the people. May the thinking people
of Illinois never forget to project their thinking
beyond the time of war that we may never fail
to have ready large production area of National
forest.

(Signed) Verne O. Graham,
Chairman.

The nominating committee begs to submit
the following names* for officers and committee
members of the Academy for 1942-1943:

President: F. M. Fryxell, Augustana College,
Rock Island.

First Vice-President: L. J. Thomas, Uni¬
versity of Ill., Urbana.

Second Vice-President: Willis DeRyke, Illi¬
nois College, Jacksonville.

Secretary: R. F. Paton, University of Ill.,
Urbana.

Treasurer: John Voss, Manual Training
H. S., Peoria.

Librarian: Gilbert Wright, Ill. State Mu¬
seum, Springfield.

Editor: Grace Needham Oliver, State
Geological Survey, Urbana.

Delegate to A.A.A.S.: L. J. Thomas, Uni¬
versity of Ill., Urbana.

Delegate to Conservation Council: V. O.
Graham, 4028 Grace St., Chicago.

Junior Academy Representatives;
General Chairman: Allen R. Moore, Cicero.
Southern Division: Mrs. Mary Creager,
Chester.

1943 Meeting at Jacksonville
Publicity Director: Grace Tickle, Mac-
Murray College.

General Chairman , Local Arrangements:
Willis DeRyke, Illinois College.

Collegiate Section Local Arrangements: W. F.
Bailey, MacMurray College.

Junior Section Local Arrangements:
Helen Kamm, Jacksonville, H. S.

Committees

Conservation:

M. M. Leighton, State Geological Survey,
Urbana, Chairman.

W. H. Haas, Northwestern University,
Evanston.

N. M. Gersbacher, Carbondale.

D. D. Lansden, Cairo.

Paul Houdek, Robinson.

George Bennett, State Natural History
Survey, Urbana.

R. S. Smith, University of Ill., Urbana.

W. C. Allee, University of Chicago.

E. L. Stover, Charleston.

Rev. Geo. M. Link, Grafton.

Legislation & Finance:

Fay-Cooper Cole, University of Chicago,
Chairman.

H. B. Ward, University of Ill., Urbana.

F. W. Aldrich, 1506 E. Washington St.,
Bloomington.

E. S. Bastin, University of Chicago.
Affiliations:

H. R. Wanless, University of Ill., Chairman.

! Report adopted as read , and slate considered elected without change.

Thirty -fifth Annual Meeting

269

Ildrem Daniel, Chicago Schools.

V. F. Swaim, Bradley Polytechnic Institute,
Peoria.

Glen Warner.

H. K. Gloyd.

Mrs. Geraldine Nilson.

Percival Robertson, Principia College, El-
sah.

Membership:

J. E. Coe, 2024 Sunnyside, Chicago, Chair¬
man.

J. H. Reedy, University of Ill., Urbana.

N. D. Cheronis, 5556 Ardmore Ave., Chi¬
cago.

J. F. Stanfield, Chicago Normal.

George E. Ekblaw, State Geological Survey,
Urbana.

Floyd Barloga, Peoria.

G. W. Hufford. Joliet.

W. B. Welsh, Carbondale.

D. L. Eaton, De Kalb.

K. G. Larson, Augustana College, Rock
Island.

Orlando Park, Northwestern University,
Evanston.

G. N. Jones, University of Ill., Urbana.

Fred R. Cagle, Carbondale.

Carl Ekblad, Moline.

Conservation of Archaeological and
Historic Sites:

Fay-Cooper Cole, University of Chicago,
Chairman.

F. W. Aldrich, Bloomington.

M. J. Herskovits, Northwestern University,
Evanston.

M. M. Leighton, State Geological Survey,
Urbana.

J. B. Ruyle, Champaign.

H. B.Ward, University of Ill., Urbana.
Bruce W. Merwin, Carbondale.

Research Grants from A.A.A.S.:

L. H. Tiffany, Northwestern University,
Evanston, Chairman.

Carl G. Hartman, University of 1 11., Urbana.
H. E. Way, Knox College, Galesburg.

O. L. Railsback, Charleston.

B. S. Hopkins, University of Ill., Urbana.

R. L. Beyer, Carbondale.

Budget:

C. L. Furrow, Knox College, Galesburg.

John Voss, Peoria.

W. H. Voskuil, State Geological Survey,
Urbana.

Publications:

The President.

The Secretary.

Neil E. Stevens, University of Ill., Urbana.
H. J. Van Cleave, University of Ill., Urbana.

Ecological Bibliography:

A. G. Vestal, University of Ill., Urbana.

High School Science and Clubs (Junior
Academy):

General Chairman: Allen R. Moore, Cicero.
Assistant: Miss Aleta S. McEvoy, Rock¬
ford H. S.

Chairman of Exhibits: Dwight L. Barr, Chi¬
cago.

Assistant: Miss Nellie Bates, Champaign
H. S.

Chairman of Judging: Robt. L. Smith,
Herron Twp. H. S.

Assistant: Dale McNeal, Normal Com¬
munity H. S.

Radio Service: Rosalie M. Parr, University
of Ill., Urbana.

Correspondent: Audry Hill, University H.
S., Carbondale.

Southern Division, Junior Academy:

General Chairman: Mary Creager, Chester.
General Science Chairman: Audry Hill,
University H. S., Carbondale.

Biology Chairman: Elizabeth Buell, Anna-
Jonesboro, H. S.

Physics Chairman: Eldon Walter, Galatia
H S

Respectfully submitted,
(Signed) E. L. Stover, Chairman.

Committee on Publications: It is thought
best to continue the editorial fee in connection
with publication of papers, and a careful
checkup of authors should be made each year
to be sure they are members in good standing
before their papers are sent to the editor.
There has been very fine cooperation on the
part of the authors in reading their proof
promptly— better than in previous years. Also,
more authors ordered reprints this year. /2
of the total number publishing, as against /3
last year. Blanks were sent all authors who
might wish to publish abstracts in Biological

270

Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science

Abstracts. Fifteen such abstracts came through
the editor’s hands, and probably some more
were sent directly to Philadelphia.

Respectfully submitted,
(Signed) T. H. Frison
R. F. Paton
Neil E. Stevens
H. J. Van Cleave

The Committee on Research Grants of the

Illinois State Academy of Science recommend¬
ed that grants-in-aid be provided for the follow¬
ing individuals in the amounts indicated:

To Dr. W. M. Reid of Monmouth
College for the purchase of a centri¬
fuge, and of certain additional items
of equipment, to be used in investi¬
gating the Glycogen Content of In¬
testinal Parasites, with particular ref¬
erence to the influence of the nutritive
status of the host . $ 75.00

To Dr. W. W. Crawford of Black¬
burn College to cover the cost of trans¬
portation, and of materials required
in a study of the life history of tre-

rqatodes . 50.00

To Dr. C. C. Hoff of Quincy College
to purchase supplies necessary to en¬
able him to extend his researches on
ostracods . 50.00

To Dr. M. E. Britton of Northwest¬
ern University for supplies required in
an investigation of environmental con¬
ditions which permit the persistence of

bog communities . 51.50

Total . $226.50

Attention should be called to the fact that
the number of applications received during the
current year was not so large as one might
have anticipated. Although the grants are
always small, one would expect them to be
sought by a considerable number of individuals.
Possibly the fact that a research fund exists
is not appreciated by many of the members of
the scientific faculties in the smaller institu¬
tions of the state. It is hoped that each member
of the Academy will give as much publicity
to this matter as possible, so that greater in¬
terest may be manifested in the future.

(Signed) W. C. Rose, Chairman.

The Committee on Resolutions begs leave
to submit the following report:

Whereas: Our nation now finds itself con¬
fronted with an unprecedented emergency, the
outcome of which threatens as never before
the democratic principles which this country
holds dear

Be it resolved: that the Illinois State Academy
of Science pledge its whole-hearted endeavors,
collectively and individually, to make itself
useful in whatsoever manner it may be called
upon to act.

Whereas: The success and the future de¬
velopment of this Academy depends upon its
influence upon the citizens and the scientific
programs in this State, The Academy ex¬
presses its gratification on the successful
organization of a new group in its midst — the
Collegiate Section. The Academy looks for¬
ward to this section for the support of its
ideals and objectives.

Whereas: the modern scientific develop¬
ments in the field of health conservation have
assumed great importance in society and the
material conservation of human health and
welfare represents one of the crowning aims of
society, and

Whereas: both students and teachers of
medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy have come
to question the suitability of certain phases of
pre-professional training for these fields,

Be it resolved: that the proper authorities
be instructed to take appropriate steps for the
incorporation into the program for the annual
meeting of the Academy in 1943, of a Sym¬
posium on pre-professional education leading
to the fields of medicine, dentistry, and phar¬
macy, with representation from the teaching
faculties at both levels of training.

Whereas: The following have contributed
toward making these meetings an outstanding
success:

The officers of the Academy
The Administration of the University of
Illinois

The various Departments of the University
The Physical Plant of the University
The Lectures Committee of the University
The Housing Division of the University
The Illini Union Management
The State Scientific Surveys
The Champaign Chamber of Commerce, and

Whereas: the following individuals have
aided much in the success of the meetings:
President A. C. Willard
Dr. George E. Ekblaw
Mr. C. W. Lyon
Mr. S. E. Griffith
Mr. James Ayars
Mr. Louis Astell

Be it resolved: that the Academy express its
appreciation to these and to all others who by
their efforts have helped in arrangements for
these meetings.

Whereas: In the times of National stress and
emergency there is often a tendency to curtail
the support of scientific research and activity

Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting

271

Be it resolved: That the Academy go on
record as favoring the maintenance of these
activities at as high a level as feasible with
existing conditions.

Whereas: The Illinois State Academy of
Science has lost, by death, the following es¬
teemed members during theipast year:

Dr. M. J. Andrade, Chicago.

Mr. Frank C. Baker, Urbana.

Dr. Eugene Davenport, Woodland, Michi¬
gan.

Dr. L. F. Gruber, Maywood.

Mr. A. Malinovszky, South Gate, Cali¬
fornia.

Dr. James A. Melrose, Decatur.

Dr. Herman S. Pepoon, Chicago.

Dr. Frank Smith, Hillsdale, Michigan.

Be it resolved that the Academy spread on
its records a note of appreciation of the services
of these members to science and to society and
that the Secretary be instructed to express the
sentiments of the Academy to the families of
the deceased.

(Signed) H. J. Van Cleave

Clarence Bonnell,

F. M. Fryxell,

Committee on Resolutions.

JUNIOR ACADEMY REPORTS

JUNIOR ACADEMY of SCIENCE
SOUTHERN DIVISION, APRIL
11, 1942

On April 11, the various science depart¬
ments of Southern Illinois Normal University
were hosts to the Southern Illinois Junior
Academy of Science which is now a division of
the State Junior Academy of Science. 200
students from 12 schools of Southern Illinois
registered and brought with them 100 different
science exhibits.

cooperation in overcoming whatever difficulties
that we may be faced with at the time.

I am enclosing the programs for the day , a
list of the winners in the high school exhibits
division, a list of the exhibits, and the judge’s
scoring sheet.*

Sincerely,

(Signed) Audry Hill,

General Chairman ,

Southern Division.

SCIENCE AIDS SERVICE,

1CUL1 A.1

The features of the day’s program were:

1. Exhibits by the high school students.

2. Exhibits and demonstrations by the
college science majors.

3. A General Morning program which had
as its theme “Science and National Defense.

4. Sectional Meetings in biology and general
science, and chemistry.

5. A meeting of high school science teachers
in which suggestions to improve next year s
meeting were made.

Ribbon awards on which the Junior Acad¬
emy of Science Seal was mounted were pre¬
sented to the winners in the various divisions
of the high school exhibits. The exhibits were
judged on their scientific value, accuracy of
information, difficulty, originality, neatness,
and effective presentation.

The 1943 meeting will be held on the second
Saturday of April. It is hoped that next year
even more students will be able to overcome
the transportation dfficulties that we are now
facing and be able to participate in the 1943
meeting.

The science teachers attending this year
unanimously declared their wish that the
meeting be held next year and pledged their

During the current academic year Science
Aids Service , published under the auspices of
the Division of University Extension in the
University of Illinois and with aid of the
Illinois and Indiana Academies of Science for
the benefit of science clubs affiliated with the
Junior Academy of Science wherever located,
has been published in the three issues, repre¬
senting a total of approximately 14,000 words
of information specifically related to the needs
of science clubs, science club sponsors, as well
as officials who are concerned with the possible
values and general welfare of the Junior
Academy of Science movement.

The following facts are of interest in con¬
nection with the publication:

(1) The Indiana Junior Academy of Science
has voluntarily maintained its “Sustaining
Membership” for the eighth consecutive year.

(2) The Illinois State Academy of Science
with the aid of other state Academies of Science
as indicated in the minutes of the Transactions
published heretofore has made possible the
issuance of Science Aids Service and its pre¬
decessor for the past nine years. In that time
approximately 130,000 words of information
designed to aid in the development of the

' Not printed here to save space

272

Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Scienc

science clubs and the Junior Academy move¬
ment have been released in printed form.

As a further aid to science clubs affiliated
with the Illinois Junior Academy of Science,
the following new duties have been assumed
by Science Aids Service as a unit of University
Extension:

(1) The loan of any and all nine Science
Aids Service kits to affiliated clubs with dues
paid for the current academic year. This repre¬
sents a total retail value of $4.50 per club.

(2) The development of statistical inform¬
ation specifically concerned with the Illinois
Junior Academy of Science.

(3) Preparation of radio scripts and articles
for periodicals. One article has been prepared
for The Illinois Interscholastic and another has
been accepted for publication in School Science
and Mathematics.

Other services which have been maintained
include:

(1) Correspondence

The inclusion of Junior Academy inform¬
ation in letters concerned with Science Aids
Service as a unit of the Division of University
Extension. Approximately 4000 such letters
have been mailed during the academic year.

(2) Administrative Needs

Supplies of various needs such as exhibit
entry forms, annual programs, special postes
for the registration, exhibition and other
aspects of local needs.

(3) News-Letter Exchange — as outlined in
the Annual Report of 1940-41.

By way of a concluding statement it will
be noted that the Illinois Junior Academy,
its sponsors and related organizations have
had the benefit of three issues of Science Aids
Service for less than the cost of a single issue
of the leaflet. Further that the postage on the
4,000 items mailed for the benefit of the Junior
Academy is in excess of the total charge made
by Science Aids Service.

(Signed) Louis A. Astell, Supervisor.

COMMITTEE ON HIGH SCHOOL
SCIENCE AND CLUBS

The committee met in Urbana November
6 at 7:30 p.m. in the Natural History Building
at the University of Illinois, Urbana. Present:
Allen R. Moore, John C. Ayres, Mary Creager,
John C. Chiddix, Rosalie M. Parr, Louis A.
Astell, Blanche McAvov, Lyell J. Thomas,

S. Aleta McEvoy, J. W. Neckers, L. W. Miller,

O. L. Railsback, H. Waldo Horrabin, C. E.
Montgomery. Absent: Dwight L. Barr, Audry
Hill, C. W. Whitten, and Dorothy Phipps.
The Chairman reported that Louis Astell had

accepted the office of Local Chairman for the
meeting of May 8. A discussion of plans for the
annual meeting followed.

Allen R. Moore suggested that, inasmuch as
cups will not be awarded this year, the cer¬
tificates of award be “dressed up” with seals
and ribbons. On motion of Dr. Montgomery
the suggestion was adopted.

The Chairman asked for expressions of
opinion regarding cooperation between the
Illinois Junior Academy of Science and Science
Clubs of America. Members of the committee
seemed to be in favor of cooperating with a
national organization when a suitable and
approved organization is set up. Official action
was postponed pending the December meeting
of A.A.A.S., which Dr. Thomas planned to
attend.

The Chairman expressed the hope that every
member present would make a special effort
to increase the enrollment of schools in the
Junior Academy. Mr. Astell promised to cir¬
cularize the larger high schools of the state.
(During the year articles on the Junior Acad¬
emy by Allen R. Moore, Louis A. Astell, L. J.
Thomas and Mary Creager have appeared in
Interscholastic and The Living Museum .)

The participation of college students in a
college section received favorable comment,
but no action was taken by the group.

Mr. Chiddix, Chairman of Judging, was
appointed to investigate some type of rating
scheme for making awards, perhaps plan on
the order of that used in music contests.

The committee adjourned at 10:30 p.m.
(Signed) Mary Creager,

General Chairman
Allen R. Moore

Ass’t. General Chairman

The annual meeting of the Junior Academy
held in conjunction with that of the Senior
Academy at Urbana, May 8-9, was attended by
350 high school students from twenty-one
schools. One hundred thirty-seven exhibits
were on display and were judged during the
meeting. The student president of the Illinois
Junior Academy of Science, Jack Frenzen, and
students winning outstanding awards in each
division were invited to broadcast over Station
WILL on May 9, the program being under the
direction of Dr. Parr.

At the annual business meeting, the follow¬
ing officers were elected for 1942-43:

President: Robert Rost, Bloomington High
School.

First Vice-President: Grover Stevens, J.
Sterling Morton H. S.

Thirty -fifth Annual Meeting

273

Second Vice-President: Clifford Hall, J.
Ster'ing Morton H. S.

Secretary: Frederick Wood, Mt. Carmel

H. S.

The A.A.A.S. Honorary Members are:
Mary Cecil Craig, Chester High School

Robert Kling, Mt. Carmel H. S.

(Signed) Mary Creager,

General Chairman
Allen R. Moore,

Ass't. General Chairman

HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE CLUBS
AFFILIATED WITH THE
ILLINOIS JUNIOR
ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE

Audubon Club
Bloom High School
Chicago Heights, Illinois
Miss Altha Haviland, Sponsor

Biology Club

Galesburg Senior High School

Galesburg, Illinois

Mrs. Velma L. Whipple, Sponsor

Normal Community H. S. Biology Club

Normal Community High School

Normal, Illinois

Dale DeNeal, Sponsor

Blue Island Biology Club

CommunityHigh School

Blue Island, Illinois

Elizabeth White, Sponsor

Chem Club

Taylorville, Illinois

Forest L. DeWeese, Sponsor

Chemistry Club
Galesburg High School
Galesburg, Illinois
Marvin Humke, Sponsor.

Chtm-Mystery Club

Normal Community High School

Normal, Illinois

Mr. J. C. Chiddix, Sponsor

Danville Science Club

High School

Danville, Illinois

C. O. Johnson, Sponsor

East Side Science Club

Senior High School of East St. Louis

East St. Louis, Illinois

J. W. Galbreath, Sponsor

Fenger Science Club

Fenger High School

11220 Wallace Street

Chicago, Illinois

Emil C. Bennett, Sponsor.

The Ferreters Biology Club
High School
Chester, Illinois
Mary Creager, Sponsor
General Science Club
Hitchcock Junior High School
Galesburg, Illinois
Charlotte Wilcox, Sponsor

General Science Club
Ottawa Township High School
Ottawa, Illinois
Mildred Morgan, Sponsor
Lake View Biology Club
4015 N. Ashland Avenue
Chicago, Illinois
J. E. Coe. Sponsor
Lansdowne Science Club
Lansdowne Junior High School
39th Caseyville Avenue
East St. Louis, Illinois
Elsie A. Hoenig, Sponsor

Major Powell Science Club
Normal University High School
Normal, Illinois

Miss Blanche McAvoy, Sponsor

McLeansboro Township High School

Science Club

McLeansboro, Illinois

Miss Edna Woodruff, Sponsor

Morton Biology Club

Morton High School

Cicero, Illinois

Mildred Parizek, Sponsor

Morton Chemistry Club

J. Sterling Morton High School

5910 W. 26th Street

Cicero, Illinois

G. S. Porter, Sponsor

Morton Physics Club
Morton High School
Cicero, Illinois

A. E. Smith, Sponsor
Morton IV eat her Club
Morton High School
Cicero, Illinois

Allen R. Moore, Sponsor

Mt. Carmel Science Club
Mt. Carmel High School
Mt. Carmel, Illinois

B. D. Arrick, Sponsor
Normal Science Club

Illinois State Normal University

Normal, Illinois

George A. Soper, Secy.-Treas.

St. Xavier Science Club
4900 Cottage Grove
Chicago, Illinois
Fita Marie Johnson, Treas.

Vocational Science Club .

Granite City Community High School

Granite City, Illinois

Miss Mable Spencer, Sponsor.

274

Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science

Ready Kilowatt
Galesburg High School
Galesburg, Illinois
John Aitchison, Sponsor.
Bloomington H. S. Geology Club
Bloomington High School
Bloomington, Illinois
H. L. Adams, Sponsor.

Ferreters General Science Club
Chester High School
Chester, Illinois
Mary Creager, Sponsor.

Galatia Science Club
Galatia Community High School
Galatia, Illinois
Eldon Walter, Sponsor.

Geomites

Joliet Township High School

Joliet, Illinois

M. E. Leatsler. Sponsor.

Herrin Biology Club
Herrin High School
Herrin, Illinois
Robert L. Smith, Sponsor.

Maine Science Club
Maine Township High School
Park Ridge , Illinois
Audrey Mount, Secy.

Physicon Club

Champaign Senior High School
Champaign, Illinois
Nellie Bates, Sponsor.

Robinson Science Club
Robinson Township High School
Robinson, Illinois
P. K. Houdek, Sponsor.

Science Club

Rantoul Township High School
Rantoul, Illinois
H. P. Leighly, Sponsor.

Shelby ville Science Club
Shelbyville High School
Shelbyville, Illinois
William Schwab, Jr., Sponsor.
University High School Science Club
Southern Illinois Normal University
Carbondale, Illinois
Audry Hill, Sponsor.

Woodruff Science Club
Woodruff High School
Peoria, Illinois
V. C. Shepard, Sponsor.

Zoo Club

E. Rockford High School
Rockford, Illinois.

RESULTS OF SCIENCE
EXHIBITS

BIOLOGY:

Individual Posters —

1st — Nutrition, Naomi Kuhner, Herrin.

2nd — Imitations, Hazel Denny, Chester.

3rd— Spatter Prints of Leaves, Hazel Denny
Chester.

Group Posters —

1st— Immunization Record of Our School,
Jean Ervin, Jean Jany, Chester.

2nd — Chemical Analysis of Man, Betty
Godair, Gene Shelton, Jim Wright, Grand
Tower.

Individual Notebooks —

1st— Photomicrographs, Gilbert Church,
Anna-J onesboro.

2nd— Dorris Stupplefield, Herrin.

3rd — Marjorie Rolando, Herrin.

Group Projects —

1st— Insect Collection, Carl McVoy, Wilma
Rogers, Dorothy Rendloman, Herrin.

2nd — Models of Developmeut of Frog Egg,
Gene Shelton, Mellio Todd, Betty Godair’
Grand Tower.

3rd Process of photomicrography, Vtrn
Echols, Philip Ervin, Galatia.

Individual Projects —

1st Skull collection, Evis Ramsey, Herrin.

2nd— Embryological Development of Chick’
Joe Hauser, Grand Tower.

3rd— Heredity Rat Project, Naomi Kuhner,
Herrin.

3rd— Clay Model of Head, Gail Willbrand,
Chester.

GENERAL SCIENCE:

Individual Posters —

1st — State Preservations, Freddie Vaughn,
Chester.

2nd — Optical Illusions, Tommy Williams,
Galatia.

Group Posters —

1st — Malaria, Chester.

Notebooks —

1st — Mildred Easterly, Cheser

Individual Projects —

1st— Military Models, Richard Vegler, Uni¬
versity High.

2nd — Medicines and Chemicals that come
from Plants, Walter Michaelis, Chester.

3rd Model of Coalmine, Micky Jackson,
Chesrer.

Group Projects —

1st— Rope Making Machine, Eugene Tato,
Joe Massey, James Gollier, Clarence
Choate, Galatia.

2nd— Collection of Rocks and Minerals,
Jack McGuire, Bob Earlenbough, Chester.’

3rd — Model Garden, Galatia.

PHYSICS:

1st— Electric Motor, Herbert Odle, Galatia.

Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting

275

2nd— Model of Telephone, Herbert Odle,
Bryce Tato, Galatia. .

3rd — Conductivity of Solutions, Wright
Cotter, Galatia.

JUNIOR ACADEMY WINNERS
of AWARDS

OUTSTANDING EXHIBITS

These won special recognition by receiving
Senior Academy Certificates of Awards:

Biology — Climatic Life Zones of N. Central
Arizona.

Kenneth Gutschick, Morton High School,
Cicero.

Chemistry — Some of the Important Products
of Corn.

William Woura and Arthur Skarda, Morton
High School, Cicero.

Geology — Grand Canyon Cross-section and
Rocks.

Kenneth Gutschick, Morton High School,
Cicero.

Junior High School— Model Town.

Marvin Fuller, Lynn Wiese, Edward Wicher-
sham, Marcia Franklin, Bob Crawford, Lee
Overdorf, Jim Craig, Jack Wilds, Tom Bullis,
Bob Sandburg, and George Shirek Hitchcock,
Jr. H. S., Galesburg.

Newsletter — The Zoo.

Chris Garmenger, Editor — East Rockford
High School, Rockford.

Photography — Kodachrome Slides.

Mary Cecil Craig, Chester High School,
Chester.

Physics — The Transmission of Sound Over
a Light Beam.

J. Frederick Wood, Mt. Carmel High School,
Mt. Carmel.

EXHIBIT WINNERS

The Chemistry Club

Galesburg High School, Galesburg

Mr. Marvin Jumke, Sponsor.

Chemistry

Group Commercial Product, The Making of
Rayon

1st — Alan McClelland and Gordon Robert¬
son.

Individual Project, A Dry Cell
2nd — Edgar Luttnell
Chemistry Club

J. Sterling Morton H. S., Cicero
W. L. Muehl, Sponsor.

Chemistry—

Individual Notebook, Fabrics and Their
Properties

1st — Alberta Luebbe.

Group Vitamins, Vitamins
1st — Elinore Zusman and Dorothy Vodak.
Group Model, Still — Sulphuric Acid by
Contact Method

1st — Ray Novy, Russell and Richard
Nesladek.

Individual Notebook, Removing Stains
1st — Lois Voss.

Individual Model, Moving, Brush, Electro¬
plates

1st — Robert Feltgen.

Group Project, H N Os Arc Process
1st — Robert Gaynar and Leo Temsovick.
Newsletter, Phe Chem Ray
1st — Barbara Hopp, Editor.

Individual Poster, Sulphur
2nd — William Seeman.

Individual Commercial Product, Distillation
of Gasoline

2nd — Dick Kacena.

Individual Project, Soil Analysis of Cook
County

1st — Otto Turnovsky, Jr.

Individual Project, Chemical Warfare
2nd — Jean Kahoun.

Major Powell Science Club —

University H. S., Normal
Blanche McAvoy, Sponsor.

Chemistry —

Individual Poster, Anti-Freezes
1st — John Douglas.

Biology — .

Individual Project, Mounted Animals (Taxi¬
dermy)

1st — Wilma Amacher.

Chem-My stery Club

Normal Community H. S., Normal

J. C. Chiddix, Sponsor.

Chemistry—

Individual Project, Testing Vitamins
1st — Elmer Smith.

Group Poster, Vitamins
1st — Lillian Morgan and Frank Netter-
ville.

Science Newsletter, Chemistry Helps De-
fense _ T ,

1st— Marian Gates, Charlotte Norris and
Doris Collins.

Individual Notebook, Paper
1st— Janet Taylor.

Individual Notebook, Rubber, a Vital Ne¬
cessity

2nd — Margaret Hinshaw.

Individual Poster, Synthetic Rubber
2nd — Frank Netterville.

Individual Project, Testing Oil.

2nd — Roy Barclay.

Science Club

Rantoul Township High School
H. P. Leighly, Sponsor.

Science Club

Group Project, Migration of Ions
2nd — Margaret Francisco and Jeanne hit-
ten.

Individual Project, Equillibrum of N02

276

Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science

3rd — Henry Croutti.

Individual Project, Charles Laws’ Appar¬
atus

3rd — C. Ayres.

Zoo Club

East Rockford H. S., Rockford
S. Elata McEvoy, Sponsor.

Photography —

Individual Collection, Photographs of Yo-
semite

1st — Kenneth Anderson.

Biology —

Newsletter, The Zoo

1st — Chris Garmenger, Editor

W oodruff Science Club
Peoria Woodruff H. S., Peoria
V. C. Sheppard, Sponsor.

Geology —

Individuals Project, Flurescent Minerals
2nd— Edward Zeller.

Bloomington H. S. Geology Club

Bloomington H. S., Bloomington
A. L. Adams, Sponsor.

Geology —

Individual Project, Results of Coal Re¬
covery

1st — William Baumgart.

Individual Project, General Notes on Geol¬
ogy

2nd — Bob Solomon.

Individual Project, Electric Weather Vein
2nd — Happy Holton.

Individual Project, Crystal Structure of
Mineral.

1st — Dick Rost.

Group Project. Minerals for National De¬
fense

2nd — Bloomington H. S. Geology Club.

Blue Mound Biology Club
Community H. S., Blue Island
Elizabeth White, Sponsor.

Biology —

Individual Project, Automobile Theft Alarm
2nd — Irvin Tolle.

Group Project, Code Practice Oscillator
3rd Richard Hausel and Hendrik Van
Vliet.

Individual Project, Steam Engine
3rd — Ray D. Camexan.

Group Project, Transmission by Modulated
Light Beam

2nd— Hendrik Van Valiet and Richard
Housel.

The Ferreters

Chester High School, Chester
Mary Creager, Sponsor.

Biology —

Individual Model, Model of Head
1st— Gail Willbrand.

Individual Collection, Bird Eggs
1st— Joan Siegfried

Individual Poster, Inheritance of Finger
Lengths

3rd — Constance Parrish.

Group Project, Animal Blood Slides
„ 2nd— Glodinc Welge, Dorothy De Rousse,
Dons Hall, Dick Davis and Willard Davidson.

Science Notebook, Snakes of Randolph
County.

3rd — Sybil Coffey.

Group Poster, Blood Typing
2nd Lloyd Gibson, Jean Ervin and Jeanne
Jany.

Group Model, Poisonous Snake’s Head
2nd — Opal Choate and Dick Davis.

Chemistry —

Individual Project, Chemicals in Removing
Stains

2nd — Sybil Coffey.

Photography —

Individual Project, Photomicrographs
2nd — Mary Cecil Craig.

Photomicrographs, Kodachrome Micropho¬
tographs

1st — Mary Cecil Craig.

Geology —

Group Project, Mounts of Prehistoric Men
2nd— Leo Ehlers and Elinor Auld.

Individual Project, Temperature Graph
2nd — Vernice Brelig.

Group Project, Rocks and Minerals.

2nd— Margaret Welton and Beaulah Grah.
General Science —

Individual Project, Plant Products
2nd — Walter Michaelis.

Group Project, Malaria
2nd — Mildred Easterly, Jene Best and Fred¬
die Vaughn.

Group Poster, Germs, Our Treacherous Foes
2nd— Norma Hamilton and Ruth Wright.
Individual Collection, Shells
2nd — Kenneth Huffmaster.

Physics Club

J. Sterling Morton H. S., Cicero
A. E. Smith, Sponsor.

Physics —

Individual Project, Grinding Reflecting
Telescope.

1st — Joseph Holly.

Group Project, Resonance Transformer
1st — Cliff Hall Jack Frenzen.

Group Project, Fluorescence and Phos¬
phorescence

1st — Robert Lebdjcka and Robert James
Havlik.

Group Project, Tube Demonstrator.

1st— Steve Erst and Richard Schimpf.
Individua Project, Vibrograph
1st — Frank Holecek.

Individual Project, Talking Over a Beam of
Light

2nd — Dan Swartwant.

Individual Project, Cottrell Precipitation
2nd — Owen Sladek.

Group Project, Newton’s Law of Gravity
2nd— Grover Stephens and Robert Boerke
Individual Commercial Product, P. A.
System and Record Player
2nd — Anton Horn.

Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting

277

Modern Physics, The Principle Behind the
Electron Microscope
2nd — Harold Murry.

The Biology Club

J. Sterling Morton H. S., Cicero

M. Parzek, Sponsor.

fndmdual Project, Victory Garden Poster
1st— Dorothy Long.

Group Project, Plaque of a Flower
3rd — June Jorm and Shirley Klasek.

Group Project, Nutrition Experiment
lst — Nellie Birkjoff, Gladys Kawczynski,
June Keine, Helen Coran and Elaine Voculik.
Individual Notebook, Soils and Gardening
1st— Camillie Placzek.

Group Collection, Spatter Prints .

2nd— Elaine Qila, Dorthea and Muriel

Matson. . _ „ c cr.

Individual Collection, Collection ot Slides
of Molds and Bacteria
1st— Coral Kudrna.

Individual Project, Climatic Zones of N.
Central Arizona.

1st — Kenneth Gutschick.

General Science Club
Hitchcock Jr H. S., Galesburg
Charlotte Wilcox, Sponsor.

Biology — . , „ . n

Individual Commercial Project, bum
2nd — Bob Simmons.

Individual Collection, Leaves
2nd — Helei Bringlesar.

Group Radio Notebook, Radio
lst — Bill Cheesman and Bill Barnes.
Individual Notebook, Food
lst — Gayle Bristol.

Group Poster, Have You a Record?

2nd— Dan Lersh, Betty Hanson, Lee bur¬
row, Kenneth Roberson, and Barbara Laner-

m Individual Radio Notebook, Amateur Radio
lst — Ted Beauchamp.

Group Notebook, This Is War
1st — Edward Wickersham and Marian
Fuller.

Group Project, White Rat Experiment
1st — Lee Furrow, Dick Walton and Don
Rodenhansen.

Photography — „ • ,

Group Commercial Project, Commercial

Photography T , T d

lst -Jim Hoopes, Jack Zeldes and LeRoy

Grabill.

Individual Project, Enlarger
2nd — Jan Bengstan.

Geology —

Individual Model, Oil Refining
lst— Edward Wickersham.

Individual Poster, Explosive Volcano
2nd — Francis Alice Firth.

Group Collection, Rocks
lst — Dean Anderson, Jack Zeldes and Le¬
Roy Grabill.

Weather and Geology Club
J. Sterling Morton H. S., Cicero

A. R. Moore, Sponsor.

Individual Notebook, Grand Canyon Note¬
book

lst — Kenneth Gutschick.

Group Project, Grand Canyon M[odel
1st— Kenneth Gutschick and Oris Holt.
Individual Project, Rat Feeding Experi¬
ment

lst — Jeanne Pahlke.

Individual Project, Wood Poster
2nd — Barbra Searle.

Individual Notebook, Notebook on Garden¬
ing

lst — Thelma Parenti.

Individual Collection, Wildflowers
lst — Eugene Westfall.

General Science Club
Ottawa High School, Ottawa
Mildred Morgan, Sponsor.

Physics —

Individual Project, Heat and Light Arc
Furnace

2nd— Bill Knoll.

Geology —

Individual Model, Side View Oil Well
2nd — Barbra Dunavan.

Individual Model, Model Coal Mine,
lst — Roberta Gurney.

Individual Project, Umbrella Planatarium
2nd — Marcia Crawford

Normal Community Biology Club
Normal Community H. S., Normal
Dale DeNeal, Sponsor.

Biology— . .....

Individual Poster, Vitamins for Victory
3rd— Marietta McArthy.

Individual Project, Structures of the Hu¬
man Body

3rd — Mary Caldwell.

Group Project, Shells
lst — Eileen Garvey and Ruth Baker.
Individual Project, The Human Body
2nd — Helei Booziotes.

Individual Collection, Shells and Indian
Relics.

lst — Bob Halbert.

The Biology Club

Herrin High School, Herrin.

Robert L. Smith, Sponsor.

Individual Project, Biology Laboratory
Notebook

lst— Margie Rolands.

Individual Notebook, Biology Laboratory
Notebook

1st — Doris Stubbefield.

Individual Collection, Shells
1st— Margie Rolands.

Individual Project, Skulls
lst — Elves Ramsey.

and

Group Collection, Insects
2nd— Carl McVey, Wilma Rogers,
Dorothy Rendleman.

Individual Poster, Effects of Diet on Health
as Shown by Hooded Rat Experiments.

278

Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science

2nd — Naomi Kuchner.

Galatia Science Club

Galatia Community H. S., Galatia

Eldon Walter, Sponsor.

Biology —

Individual Model, Adaptation of Birds’
Beaks

1st — Emil Sul ton.

Individual Poster, Snake Superstitions
1st — Louie Kent.

Individual Project, Fish Questionnaire
2nd — Louie Kent.

Individual Poster, Optical Illusions
3rd — Thomas Williams.

General Science —

Group Project, Rope Making Machine
2nd — Eugene Tata, Joe Massey and Thomas
Williams.

Physics —

Individual Model, Electric Motor Showing
Amperage.

3rd — Joe Massey.

Group Model, Telephone
2nd — Eugene Tate, Joe Massey, Thomas
Williams.

Individual Project, Conductivity of Liquids
3rd — Eugene Tata.

Group Project, Modern Physics, Opaque
Projection

2nd — Emil Sutton and Louie Kent.

Photography —

Individual Project, Chemical Stages in the
making of Photographs
2nd — Emil Sutton.

Group Project, Process of Making Micro¬
photographs

2nd — Emil Sutton and Louie Kent.

Biology Club

Galesburg High School, Galesburg
Mrs. Velma Whipple, Sponsor.

Biology —

Individual Project, Lantern Slides

1st— Wayne Swallows.

Individual Project, Experiments with Fer¬
tilizers

3rd — Farrey B. Clary.

Group Project, Victory Garden
2nd— Helen Borrow and Bettie Johnson.
Group Project, Experiments with Plants
2nd— Betty Harler and Edna Mergen thaler.
Geology —

Individual Project, Artificial Formation of
Stalagmites.

3rd — Clark Highlander.

Individual Poster, Processing of Oil
3rd— Bill Graham.

The Biology Club

Park Ridge H. S., Des Plaines— Park Ridge
Mrs. Leila H. Baas, Sponsor.

Biology —

Individual Project, Wood Carving
2nd — Laverne Thomas.

Individual Model, Mitosis and Meosis
1st— Thomas Cunningham, Jr.

Individual Project, Effect of Solar Spectrum
on Plants

3rd — Fred Everhard.

Individual Collection, Shells
2nd — Elinor Banka.

Group Project, Chemical Man.

1st — Fred Everhard, Marilyn Ellinger
Audry Mount, Laverne Thomas and Thomas
Cunningham, Jr.

Newsletter, Biology

2nd — Marge Grieve and Perky Gates.

Ready Kilowatt
Galesburg H. S., Galesburg
John A. Aitchison, Sponsor.

Physics —

Individual Project,

2nd — Richard Pierson.

Individual Project, Reflection of Light
3rd — Edgar Luttrell.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

INDEX TO VOLUME 34

1941-42

(29880)

ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OP SCIENCE
INDEX TO VOLUME 34
1941-1942

Note— Listings are by author and key words in subject. The number preceding
colon^and P^nuW ft

fssue'is not indexed as’it represents only titles of papers to be given at the annual
meeting and other notices pertaining thereto.

A

Academy Business:

A.A.A.S. Research grants for 1942-43.
4-270.

Annual meeting (35th) at Urbana, May,
1942- Council meeting minutes; sec¬
retary’s reports; local arrangements;
publicity; formation of collegiate sec¬
tion; reports of other officers, com¬
mittees and delegates. 4:259-270.

Junior Academy: Southern Division
meeting at Carbondale, April 1942;
general meeting at Urbana, May
1942- Science Aids Service ; list ot
clubs; list of exhibit winners.
4:271-8.

Memoirs

Eugene Richard Dougherty. 1:36.
Rose M. Cassidy. 1:37-8.

Charles Zeleny. 1:35.

Section chairmen’s reports (34th meet¬
ing, Evanston 1941):

Agriculture (C. H. Oathout) 2:45.
Anthropology (F. T. Barloga) 2:61.
Botany (Paul D. Yoth) 2:69.
Chemistry (Geo. H. Reed) 2:111.
Geography (Arthur B. Cozzens)
2:127.

Geology (Marvin Weller) 2:159.
Physics (P. Constantinides) 2:179.
Social Science (D. E. Lindstrom)

2:197- ~T U

Education & Psychology (I. Jacob¬
sen) 2:205.

Zoology (W. V. Balduf) 2:215.

A. C. circuit containing R, L, and C,
Analysis of. Verwiebe. 2:195.

Acid ( 3 - hydroxy - 5 - cholenic) , Investiga¬
tions on. Dunker & Riegel. 2:115.
Acorns, Multi-seeded. Buchholz. 2:99-101.
Acylals. Green. 2:118.

Administration (school), Attitudes m.
Hughes. 2:206-8.

Aerial photos in elementary geology, Use
of stereoscope with. Johnson. 2:169-70.
Agriculture (teaching of) adapted to
needs of the community. Graham.

2:50-1.

Agricultural landscapes of the Sudbury
Area, Ontario. Barton. 2:130-7.

Airway weather station (U. S.) at Car¬
bondale, Illinois. Barton & Barton.
2:128-9.

Alabama, The soil factor and land use m
Barbour County. Booth. 2:137-9.
Amphibians and reptiles of Illinois.

Gloyd. 2:220. .

Anatomy of the extrahepatic biliary
tract, Study of the comparative. Thom¬
son. 2:241-3.

Archaeology and ethnology, Possible ap-
lication of kite photography to. Bas-
com. 2 : 62-3.

Archer (Sydney)— Hydrogen fluoride as
a condensing agent. 2:11-12.

Azotobacter in the soil, Certain factors
affecting the growth of. Sullivan.
2:55-7.

B

Bacterial response to growth stimulants.
Owen. 2:232-4.

Barite mining (gopher-hole) in Washing¬
ton County, Missouri. Cozzens. 2:143-4.
Barkley (E. Elizabeth) — Gemmae of
Funaria hygrometrica. 2 : 102-4.

Barton (Erselia M. & Thomas F.) —
United States Airway weather station,
Carbondale, Illinois. 2:128-9.

Barton (Thomas F.)— Agricultural land¬
scapes of the Sudbury Area, Ontario.
2:130-7.

Bascom (William R.)— Possible applica¬
tion of kite photography to archaeology
and ethnology. 2:62-3.

Bell (Alfred H.)— Status of the carbon-
ratio theory in Illinois. 2:175-9.

Beutler (Hans)— Progress in theory and
use of concave gratings. 2:180-1.

Biliary tract (extrahepatic), Study, of
comparative anatomy of. Thomson.
2:241-3.

Birds (Upland) in Illinois, Distribution
of. Kendeigh. 2:225-6.

Blackbirds, Unique flight formations of.
Brown. 2:217-8.

Bonnell (Clarence) — Introduction of wild
life into southern Illinois. 2:216-7.
Booth (Alfred W.)— The soil factor and
land use in Barbour County, Alabama.
2:137-9.

245

246

Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science

Branson (C. C.) — A new edrioaster from
the upper Ordovician of northern Illi¬
nois. 2:166.

Brokaw (Wilbur C.) & Dungan (George
H.) — Relation between moisture con¬
tent of the soil and the optimum depth
of planting corn. 2:46-7.

Brown (Clarence L.)— 1 The factor of posi¬
tion in hemisphere defense. 2:193-42.

Brown (Clarence L.)— Unique flight for¬
mation of blackbirds. 2:217-8.

Brown (Frank A., Jr.) — A summary of
our knowledge of endocrine mecha¬
nisms in crustaceans. 1:24-8.

Bryophytes of Rocky Branch region of
Clark County, Illinois. Vaughan. 2:96-7.

Buchholz (J. T.) — Multi-seeded acorns.
2:99-101.

Burlison (W. L.) & Fuellemann (R. F.) —
Palatability of pasture plants. 2:51-5.

C

Carbon dioxide on Daphnia, Effects of.
Ederstrom. 2:218-20.

Carbonaceous ion exchanger, Cation ex¬
change in a. Walton. 2:124-6.

Carbon-ratio theory in Illinois. Bell.
2:175-9.

Carex in Illinois, Composition of the
genus. Tehon. 2:108-9.

Cassell (Robert C.) — Preliminary report
on corn and pasture fertilization in
southern Illinois. 2:48-50.

Cation exchange in a carbonaceous ion
exchanger. Walton. 2:124-6.

Chemistry as applied to photography, The
history of. Sammis. 2:123.

Chemistry of lead-zinc deposition and the
problem of zoning. Garrels. 2:165.

Chicago portage. Ruyle. 2:63-4.

Cichorieae, Seed formation, germination,
and post-germination development in
certain. Hopper. 2:70-2.

Concave gratings, Progress in theory and
use of. Beutler. 2:180-1.

Condensing agent, Hydrogen fluoride as
a. Archer. 2:112.

Conodonts, Additional evidence on the
origin of. DuBois. 2:168.

Cooke (Robert L.) — Workers’ education
and its implications for vocational
guidance. 2:202-3.

Corn, Relation between moisture content
of the soil and the optimum depth of
planting. Dungan and Brokaw. 2:46-7.

Countryman (M. Alden) — Two simple
pieces of apparatus for lecture demon¬
stration in general physics. 2:181.

Cozzens (Arthur B.)— Gopher-hole barite
mining in Washington County, Mis¬
souri. 2:143-4.

Cross (Aureal T.) & Hoskins (J. Hobart)
— Techniques useful in the study of
fossil plants. 2:107-8.

Cultural objects of Clear Lake village
site, Peoria, Illinois. Schoenbeck.
2:65-6.

Cutshall (Alden) — Growth of Robinson,
Illinois. 2:145-6.

Cyclocephala immaculata and C. borealis
at Urbana, Illinois, Relative abundance
of. Riegel. 2:234-5.

D

Daphnia, The effects of carbon dioxide on
Ederstrom. 2:218-20.

Defense (hemisphere), The factor of po¬
sition in. Brown. 2:139-42.

Defense (national), The urbanization of
southern Illinois and its relation to.
Van Riper. 2:153-7.

“Deoxygenation” of water, An evaluation
of general methods of. Wood. 2:90-1.

Devonian formations in New Mexico.
Stevenson. 2:163.

Dicotyledonous woods, A list of diagnostic
characteristics for descriptions of.
Tippo. 105-6.

Dole (Malcolm) — Surface tension of
strong electrolytes. 2:112-14.

Drosophila Melanogaster, Effects of for¬
malin upon development in the bar¬
eyed race of. Hinshaw. 2:223-4.

DuBois (Ernest Paul) —Additional evi¬
dence on the origin of conodonts.
2 : 168.

Dungan (George H.) & Brokaw (Wilbur
w — Relation between moisture content
of the soil and the optimum depth of
planting corn. 2:46-7.

Dunker (Melvin F. W.) & Riegel (Byron)
—Investigations on 3-hydroxy-5-cholenic
acid. 2:115.

E-F

Ederstrom (H. E.) — Effects of carbon
dioxide on Daphnia. 2:218-20.

Edrioaster (A new) from the upper
Ordovician of northern Illinois. Bran¬
son. 2:166.

Electric potential in the leaves of plants.
Differences of. Johnson. '2:183-4

Electrolytes (strong), Surface tension of.
Dole. 2:112-14.

Emission spectra of planetary nebulae.
Page. 2:191.

Ethnology and archaeology. Possible ap¬
plication of kite photography to. Bas-
com. 2 : 62-3.

Evers (Robert A.) — Trees of Adams
County, Illinois. 2:98-9.

Extrahepatic biliary tract, Observations
from a study of the comparative anat¬
omy of the. Thomson. 2:241-3.

Fernald (Evelyn I.) — Michael S. Bebb,
Illinois naturalist and letter writer
1 : 12-16.

Fertilization (corn and pasture) in south¬
ern Illinois. Cassell. 2:48-50.

Index to Vol

24 7

Fluorescent light in botanical experi¬
mental work. Naylor. 2:82-4.

Forest vegetation (original) in a glaci¬
ated area— Northern Wisconsin. Icke.
2:147-8.

Formalin, its effects upon development m
the bar-eyed race of Drosophila Melano-
gaster. Hinshaw. 2:223-4.

Fossil plants, Techniques useful in the
study of. Hoskins & Cross. 2:107-8.
Friction between rubber tires and road
materials, A satisfactory method for
measuring the coefficient of. Swaim.

2 ‘ 192-3

Fuellemann (R. F.) & Burlison (W. L.)

— Palatability of pasture plants. 2:51-5.
Fuller (Harry J.) & Thuente (Adelard
W.) — Some quantitative aspects of
phototropism. 2:86-8.

Funaria hygrometrica, Gemmae of. Bark¬
ley. 2:102-4.

G

Garrels (Robert)— Chemistry of lead-zinc
deposition and the problem of zoning.
2:165.

Geiger - Muller tubes, Production of.
Shonka. 2:193-4.

Gemmae of Funaria hygrometrica. Bark¬
ley. 2:102-4. .

Genetics problems, A device for visualiz¬
ing the solution of. Hudson. 2:93-4.
Geology (elementary), Use of stereoscope
with aerial photos in. Johnson.
2:!69-70.

Glacial outwash (Wisconsin), The Sedi-
mentology and physiography of. Huff.
2:167. . x

Glaciated area (northern Wisconsin),
Original forest vegetation in a. Icke.
2:147-8.

Gloyd (H. K.) — Amphibians and reptiles
of Illinois. 2:220.

Gold (Marvin H.) & Riegel (Byron)—
The synthesis of cancerogenic hydrocar¬
bons closely related to the steroids.
2:116-7.

Gordon (K. M.), Liggett (R. W.) &

Hurd (C. D.) — Separation and identifi¬
cation of sugars from mixtures. 2:121.
Graham (Burdette)— Adapting the teach¬
ing of agriculture to the needs of the
community. 2 : 50-1.

Graham (Verne O.) — Fungi and man.
1:5-11.

Green (Frank O.)— Acylals. 2:118.
Growth stimulants, Bacterial response to.
Owen. 2:232-4.

Guidance testing. Jacobsen. 2:208-10.
Gutschick (R. C.) — Niagaran ostracods
from Burlington, Wisconsin. 2:164-5.

H

Harris (Roscoe E.) — The metering of
projection printing. 2 : 182.

Hemisphere defense, The factor of posi¬
tion in. Brown. 2:139-42.

Herskovits ( Melville J. ) — Patterns of
negro music. 1:19-23.

Hill (Henry C„ Jr.) & Robinson (True
W.) — Induced ovulation in Rana
Pipiens II. 2:221-2.

Hinrichs (F. W.) — Occurrence of com¬
mercial muscovite in pegmatites.

2 ' 173-5.

Hinshaw (Margaret Bernice) — Effects of
formalin upon development in the bar¬
eyed race of Drosophila Melanogaster.

2 ' 223-4

Holden (Fred T.)— Mississippi strati¬
graphy of Ohio. 2:172-3.

Hopper (William Edward Reid) — Seed
formation, germination, and post¬
germination development in certain
Cichorieae. 2:70-2.

Hoskins (J. Hobart) & Cross (Aureal T.)

_ Techniques useful in the study of

fossil plants. 2:107-8. .

Hudson (J. W.)— A device for visualizing
the solution of genetics problems.

2 ; 93-4.

Hughes (J. M.)— Attitudes in school ad¬
ministration. 2:206-8.

Huff (Lyman) — Sedimentology and physi¬
ography of Wisconsin glacial outwash
along the Chippewa River. 2:167.

Hurd (Charles D.), Liggett (R. W.) &
Gordon (K. M.)— Separation and iden¬
tification of sugars from mixtures.
2:121. , ,
Huxford (Walter S.) & Jones (Richard
W.) — Forms of discharge in micro¬
gaps. 2:186-7.

Hybridization, its role in the improve¬
ment of the soybean. Woodworth.
2:57-60.

Hydrocarbons (cancerogenic, closely re¬
lated to the steroids), The synthesis of.
Gold & Riegel. 2:116-7.

Hydrogen fluoride as a condensing agent.
Archer. 2:112.

Hydrogenation catalysts, The structure
of mixed. Morris. 2:122.

I-J

Icke (Paul W.)— Original forest vegeta¬
tion in a glaciated area (northern Wis¬
consin). 2:147-8.

Illinois:

Amphibians and reptiles of Illinois.
Gloyd. 2:220.

Birds (upland) in Illinois, Distribution
of. Kendeigh. 2:225-6.

Bryophytes of Rocky Branch region of
Clark County. Vaughan. 2:96-7.
Carbon-ratio theory in Illinois, Status
of. Bell. 2:175-9.

Carex in Illinois, Composition of the
genus. Tehon. 2:108-9.

Corn and pasture fertilization in south¬
ern Illinois. Cassell. 2:48-50.

248

Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science

Cultural objects of Clear Lake village
site, Peoria. Schoenbeck. 2:65-6.
Cyclocephala immaculata and G. bore¬
alis at Urbana, Relative abundance
of. Riegel. 2:234-5.

Insects in Illinois, Distribution of.
Ross. 2:236-7.

Mammals in central Illinois, Note¬
worthy records of occurrence of.
Koestner. 2:227-9.

Mammals of Illinois, Distribution of.
Mohr. 2:229-32.

Middle Mississippian grit tempered
ware in central and southern Illinois.
Wray. 2:66-7.

Myxomycetes, A collection from eastern
Illinois. Stover. 2:95.

Ordovician (upper) of northern Illi¬
nois, A new edrioaster from the.
Branson. 2:166.

Robinson, Illinois, Growth of. Cutshall.
2:145-6.

Trees of Adams County. Evers. 2:98-9.
Urbanization of southern Illinois and
its relation to national defense. Van
Riper 2:153-7.

Water in southern Illinois. Krause.
2:149-52.

Weather station (U. S. Airway), at Car-
bondale. Barton & Barton. 2:128-9.
Wild life, its introduction into southern
Illinois. Bonnell. 2:216-7.

Ion exchanger (carbonaceous), Cation
exchange in. Walton. 2:124-6.

Jacobsen (0. Irving) — Guidance testing.
2:208-10.

Johns (Kathryn) & Stephenson (Richard
B.) — Tissue culture technique as a
means of studying correlation. 2:88-9.
Johnson (A. Frances) — Differences of
electric potential in the leaves of plants.
2:183-4.

Johnson (Charles G.) — Use of stereoscope
with aerial photos in elementary geol¬
ogy. 2:169-70.

Jones (Richard W.) & Huxford (Walter
S.) — Forms of discharge in micro-gaps.
2:186-7.

K-L

Kendeigh (S. Charles) — Distribution of
upland birds in Illinois. 2:225-6.

Knipp (Charles T.) Radioactive tips for
the lecture table. 2:185.

Koestner (E. J.) — Noteworthy records of
occurrence of mammals in central Illi¬
nois. 2:227-9.

Krause (Annemarie) — Water in southern
Illinois. 2:149-52.

Kummer (Anna Pedersen) — Germination
and seedling growth-form of two hun¬
dred weeds. 2:73-4.

Lake (George B.) — A vocational philoso¬
phy of life. 2:210-13.

Land use and the soil factor in Barbour
County, Alabama. Booth. 2:137-9.

Lead-zinc deposition and the problems of
zoning, The chemistry of. Garrels.
2:165.

Liggett (R. W.), Gordon (K. M.) & Hurd
(Charles D.) — Separation and identifi¬
cation of sugars from mixtures. 2:121.

Lindstrom (D. E.) — Research projects

“in process” in sociology and rural so¬
ciology at the University of Illinois,
1941. 2:200-1.

Lumbricus terrestris, Modification of a
tropism in. Wherry & Sanders. 2:237-8.

Lundahl (A. C.) — A shape-roundness

study of beach sands from Cedar Point,
Ohio. 2:168. ‘

M

Mammals in central Illinois, Noteworthy
records of occurrence of. Koestner.
2:227-9.

Mammals (Illinois), Distribution of.
Mohr. 2:229-32.

Martinette (Sister Mary, B. V. M.) &
Yntema (L. F.) — Oxidation of trivalent
molybdenum. 2:119-21.

Memoirs (see Academy business.)

Micro-gaps, Forms of discharge in. Jones
& Huxford. 2:186-7.

Mineral deficiency symptoms in plants.
Skok. 2:78-81.

Mississippian stratigraphy of Ohio.
Holden. 2:172-3.

Mississippian (Middle) grit tempered
ware in central and southern Illinois.
Wray. 2:66-7.

Missouri, Gopher-hole barite mining in
Washington County. Cozzens. 2:143-4.

Mohr (Carl O.) — Distribution of Illinois
mammals. 2:229-32.

Moisture content of the soil and the opti¬
mum depth of planting corn. Relation
between. Dungan & Brokaw. 2:46-7.

Molybdenum (trivalent), A study of the
oxidation of. Martinette & Yntema.
2:119-21.

Morris (Humbert) — Structure of mixed
hydrogenation catalysts. 2:122.

Mosaic infection. Physiological disturb¬
ances in tobacco plants accompanying.
Wynd. 2:92-3.

Muscovite (commercial), its occurrence
in pegmatites. Hinrichs. 2:173-5.

Myxomycetes, a collection from eastern
Illinois. Stover. 2:95.

N-0

Naylor (Aubrey W.) — Use of fluorescent
light in experimental work in botany.
2:82-4.

Nebulae (planetary), Emission spectra of.
Page. 2:191.

New Mexico, Devonian formations in.
Stevenson. 2 : 163.

Niagaran ostracods from Burlington, Wis¬
consin. Gutschick. 2:164-5.

Index to Vol. 84—1U1-19J&

249

Noggle (Glenn Ray)— Trace elements m
oats and sudan grass. 2:84-5.

Oats and sudan grass. Trace elements m.
Noggle. 2:84-5.

Oexemann (Stanley William) Relation
of effects of seed weight to roots and
tops of two varieties of soybeans.
2:75-6.

Ohio (Cedar Point), Shape-roundness
study of beach sands from. Lundahl.
2:168.

Ohio, Mississippian stratigraphy ot.

Holden. 2:172-3. .

Ordovician (upper) of northern Illinois,
A new edrioaster from the. Branson.
2:166.

Ostracods (Niagaran) from Burlington,
Wisconsin. Gutschick. 2:164-5.
Ovulation (induced) in Rana Pipiens II.

Hill & Robinson. 2:221-2.

Owen (Seward) — Bacterial response to
growth stimulants. 2:232-4.

Oxidation of trivalent molybdenum. Mar-
tinette & Yntema. 2:119-21.

P

Page (Thornton) —Emission spectra of
planetary nebulae. 2:191.

Palatability of pasture plants. Fuelle-
mann & Burlison. 2:51-5.

Palaemonetes (the shrimp), Correlation
between rate of heart beat and state of
certain chromatophores in the. Scuda¬
more. 2:238-40. .

Pegmatites, Occurrence of commercial
muscovite in. Hinrichs. 2:173-5.
Periodogram, its use in establishing the
reality of hidden or suspected periodi¬
cities. Phillips. 2:189-91.

Phillips (Theodore G.) — Use of the
periodogram in establishing the reality
of hidden or suspected periodicities.
2*189-91.

Photography (kite), its possible applica¬
tion to archaeology and ethnology.
Bascom. 2:62-3.

Photography, History of chemistry as ap¬
plied to. Sammis. 2:123.

Phototropism, Some quantitative aspects
of. Fuller & Thuente. 2:86-8.

Physics (general), Two simple pieces ot
apparatus for lecture demonstration.
Countryman. 2:181. „

Plumley (William J.) — Application of
probability theory to sediment sam¬
pling. 2:171. .

Pre-Pennsylvanian surface m Illinois,
Structure contour map of the. Smith.
2:160-3.

Projection printing, Metering of. Harris.
2:182.

R

Radioactive tips for the lecture table.
Knipp. 2:185.

Rana Pipiens II, Induced ovulation in.

Hill & Robinson. 2:221-2. .

Reptiles and amphibians of Illinois.
Gloyd. 2:220.

Riegel (Byron) & Dunker (Melvin F.
W.) — Investigations on 3-hydroxy-5-
cholenic acid. 2:115.

Riegel (Byron) & Gold (Marvin H.)
Synthesis of cancerogenic hydrocarbons
closely related to the steroids. 2:116-7.
Riegel (Garland T.)— Relative abundance
of Cyclocephala immaculata and C.
borealis at Urbana, Illinois. 2:234-5.
Robinson (True W.) & Hill (Henry C.,
Jr.)— Induced ovulation m Rana Pir
piens II. 2:221-2. ...... . Tlli

Ross (Herbert H.)— Distribution of Illi¬
nois insects. 2:236-7.

Ruyle (John B.)— The Chicago portage.

2:63-4.

Sammis (J. H.)— History of chemistry as
applied to photography. 2:123.

Sanders (James M.) & Wherry (Robert
j. ) — Modification of a tropism m Lum-
bricus terrestris. 2:237-8.

Sands (beach) from Cedar Point, Ohio,
A shape-roundness study of. Lundahl.

2:168. , .. , »
Schoenbeck (E.)— Cultural objects of
nippr T.flke village site, Peoria, Illinois.

2:65-6. , + .

Scudamore (Harold H.) — A correlation
between rate of heart beat and state ot
certain chromatophores in the shrimp,
Palaemonetes. 2:238-40.

Sediment sampling, Application of the
probability theory to. Plumley. 2:171.

Shonka (Francis R.) — Production of
Geiger-Muller tubes. 2:193-4.

Shrimp ( Palaemonetes ), A correlation
between heart beat and the state of cer¬
tain chromatophores in the. Scuda¬
more. 2:238-40.

Skok (John)— Effect of length of day
and temperature on the opening of buds
of dormant twigs. 2:76-7.

Skok (John)— Some mineral deficiency
symptoms in plants. 2:78-81.

Smith (Maurice H. ) —Contour map of the
pre-Pennsylvanian in Illinois. 2:160-3.

Sociologist in a time of crisis. Todd.
2:198-200. .

Sociology and rural sociology at the Uni¬
versity of Illinois, 1941, Research
projects “in process” in. Lindstrom.

2:200-1. . . ..

Soybean, The role of hybridization in its
improvement. Woodworth. 2:57-60.

Soybeans, Relation of the effects of seed
weight to roots and tops of two varie¬
ties of. Oexemann. 2:75-6.

Stephenson (Richard B.) & Johns (Kath¬
ryn) — Tissue culture technique as a
means of studying correlation. 2:88-9.

250

Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science

Stereoscope, its use with aerial photos in
elementary geology. Johnson. 2:169-70.

Steroids, The synthesis of cancerogenic
hydrocarbons closely related to the
Gold & Riegel. 2:116-7.

Stevenson (Frank V.)— Devonian forma¬
tions in New Mexico. 2:163.

Stover (E. L.)— A collection of Myxomy-
cetes from eastern Illinois. 2:95.

Student preferences in divisional studies
and their preferential activities. Yum.
2:213-14.

Sudan grass and oats, Trace elements in
Noggle. 2:84-5.

Sudbury Area, Ontario, Agricultural land¬
scapes of the. Barton. 2:130-7.

Sugars, their separation and identifica¬
tion from mixtures. Liggett, Gordon &
Hurd. 2:121.

Sullivan (J. L.)— Certain factors affect¬
ing the growth of azotobacter in the
soil. 2:55-7.

Surface tension of strong electolytes
Dole. 2:112-14.

Swaim (Y. F.) — A satisfactory method
for measuring coefficient of friction be¬
tween rubber tires and road materials.
2:192-3.

Sway in a tall building, Observing and
measuring. Therese. 2:188-9.

T

Teaching of agriculture, its adaptation to
the needs of the community. Graham.
2:50-1.

Technique (tissue culture) as a means
of studying correlation. Stephenson &
Johns. 2:88-9.

Techniques useful in study of fossil plants.
Hoskins & Cross. 2-107-8.

Tehon (L. R.) — Composition of the genus
Carex in Illinois. 2:108-9.

Therese (Sister Mary, B. V. M.)— Observ¬
ing and measuring sway in a tall build¬
ing. 2:188-9.

Thomson (Stewart C. )— Observations
from a study of the comparative
anatomy of the extrahepatic biliary
tract. 2:241-3.

Thuente (Adelard W.) & Fuller (Harry
J.) — Some quantitative aspects of pho-
totropism. 2:86-8.

Tippo (Oswald) — A list of diagnostic
characteristics for descriptions of dico¬
tyledonous woods. 2:105-6.

Tissue culture technique as a means of
studying correlation. Stephenson &
Johns. 2:88-9.

Tobacco plants, Physiological disturb¬
ances accompanying mosaic infection
in. Wynd. 2:92-3.

Todd (Arthur J.)— The sociologist in a
time of crisis. 2:198-200.

Trace elements in oats and sudan grass.
Noggle. 2:84-5.

Trees of Adams County, Illinois. Evers
2:98-9.

Tropism in Lumbricus terrestris, Modifi¬
cation of a. Wherry & Sanders. 2 : 237-8.

Turner (C. Donnell) — Endocrine func¬
tions of the mammalian ovary. 1:29-33.

Turner (C. L.) — Hormone control of re¬
production and secondary sexual char¬
acters in fishes. 1:17-18.

Twigs (dormant), Effect of length of day
and temperature on the opening of buds
of. Skok. 2:76-7.

V

Van Riper (Joseph E.) — Urbanization of
southern Illinois and its relation to na¬
tional defense. 2:153-7.

Vaughan (R. Harold) — Bryophytes of
Rocky Branch region of Clark County,
Illinois. 2:96-7.

Verwiebe (Frank L.) —Analysis of an
A. C. circuit containing R, L, and C
2:195.

Vocational guidance, Workers’ education
and its implications for. Cooke. 2 : 202-3.
Vocational philosophy of life. Lake.
2:210-13.

W and Y

Walton (Harold Frederic)— Cation ex¬
change in a carbonaceous ion ex¬
changer. 2:124-6.

Water, An evaluation of general methods
of “deoxygenation” of. Wood. 2:90-1.
Water in southern Illinois. Krause.
2:149-52.

Weather station (U. S. Airway) at Car-
bondale, Illinois. Barton & Barton.
2:128-9.

Weeds, Germination and seedling growth-
form of two hundred. Kummer. 2:73-4.
Wherry (Robert J.) & Sanders (James
M.) — Modification of a tropism in Lnm -
brieus terrestris. 2 : 237-8.

Wild life, its introduction into southern
Illinois. Bonnell. 2:216-7.

Wisconsin (northern), a glaciated area.
Original forest vegetation in. Icke.
2:147-8.

Wisconsin (Burlington), Niagaran ostra-
cods from. Gutschick. 2:164-5.

Wisconsin glacial outwash along the
Chippewa River, Sedimentology and
physiography of. Huff. 2:167.

Wood (Richard D.) — An evaluation of
general methods of “deoxygenation” of
water. 2:90-1.

Woods (dicotyledonous), A list' of diag¬
nostic characteristics for descriptions
of. Tippo. 2:105-6.

Woodworth (C. M.)— The role of hybrid¬
ization in the improvement of the soy¬
bean. 2:57-60.

Index to Vol Sk-lW-im

251

Wray (Donald E.)— Middle Mississippian
grit tempered ware in central and
southern Illinois. 2:66-7.

Wynd (F. Lyle) — Physiological disturb¬
ances accompanying mosaic infection
in tobacco plants. 2:92-3.

Yntema (L. F.) & Martinette (Sister

Mary, B. V. M.)— A study of the oxida¬
tion of trivalent molybdenum. 2:119-21.

Yum (K. S.)— Student preferences in di¬
visional studies and their preferential
activities. 2:213-14.

STATE OF ILLINOIS

Dwight H. Green, Governor

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ILLINOIS STATE
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Volume 35 September, 1942 Number 1

Special Papers Presented at the Thirty-fifth
Annual Meeting
Urbana, Illinois, May, 1942

Memoirs

Edited by Grace Needham Oliver

Department of Registration and Education
Illinois State Museum Division, Centennial Building
SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS
[Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois]

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY

Entered as second-class matter December 6, 1930, at the post office at
Springfield, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, 1912.

STATE OF ILLINOIS

Dwight H. Green, Governor

DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION

Frank G. Thompson, Director

ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM DIVISION
John C. McGregor, Acting Chief

ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Affiliated with the
ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM

OFFICERS FOR 1942-1943

President: F. M. Fryxell
Augustana College, Rock Island

First Vice President: L. J. Thomas
University of Illinois, Urbana

Second Vice President: Willis DeRyke
Illinois College, Jacksonville

Secretary: R. F. Paton
University of Illinois, Urbana

Treasurer : John Voss
Manual Training High School, Peoria

Librarian: Gilbert Wright
Illinois State Museum, Springfield

Collegiate Section Chairman: Martha Leavenworth
University of Illinois, Urbana

Junior Academy Representative: Allen R. Moore, Cicero
Junior Academy Representative (Southern Division): Mary Creager, Chester

Editor: Grace Needham Oliver
Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana

In addition to current officers, the Academy Council for 1942-3
includes the two most recent past presidents: V. 0. Graham,

4028 Grace St., Chicago, and T. H. Frison, Illinois Natural History
Survey, Urbana.

1943 MEETING AT JACKSONVILLE MAY 7-8

Publicity Chairman: Grace Tickle, MacMurray College, Jacksonville
Chairman Local Arrangements : Willis DeRyke, Illinois College, Jacksonville
Collegiate Section Local Arrangements : W. F. Bailey, MacMurray College,

Jacksonville

Junior Section Local Arrangement : Helen Kamm, Jacksonville H. S.

Printed September, 1942

(29880)

7

[2]

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Volume 35 September, 1942 Number 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Announcements, Section Chairmen for 1942-1943, and List of

Sustaining Members . 4

Frison, Theodore H., Conservation Research Program of the Illinois
Natural History Survey. Presidential Address . 5

Kerst, D. W., The Betatron . 13

Schmidt, Karl P., Excerpts from Lecture, “A Naturalist in the

South Seas” . 17

Memoirs

Frank Collins Baker . 20

Eugene Davenport . 22

Frank Smith . 24

[3]

ANNOUNCEMENTS

Attention is directed to the fact that the Committee on Research Grants
of the Illinois State Academy of Science has at its disposal a small sum of
money to be disbursed in support of worthy research projects. Applications
for grants will be accepted up to -and including March 31, 1943. It is cus¬
tomary to give preference to scientists connected with the smaller institutions
of the state.

Requests for grants should be accompanied by a brief statement of the
training and experience of the applicant, the purpose of the investigation,
and the estimated cost. Previous publications should be listed. At least two
letters of recommendation should be transmitted directly by their authors.
Correspondence may be addressed to L. H. Tiffany, Northwestern University,
Evanston, Illinois.

SECTION CHAIRMEN FOR 1942-1943

Agriculture O. L. Whalin, 111 New Agr., U. of I., Urbana.

Anthropology Ben Nussbaum, Fairbury

Botany K. Richard Johnson, National College of Education, Evans¬

ton.

Chemistry H. W. Gould, Northern Illinois State Teachers College,
De Kalb.

Geography

Geology

Physics

Psychology
and Education

Social Science

Zoology

L. A. Holmes, State Normal University, Normal.

W. E. Powers, Dept, of Geology, Northwestern University,
Evanston.

F. W. Cooke, Illinois College, Jacksonville.

L. A. Pennington, Physiological Psych. Lab., U. of I., Urbana.
V. Dake Jolley, Wheaton College.

H. H. Ross, Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana.

SUSTAINING MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY

Atlas Electric Devices Co., 361 Superior St., Chicago.

Central Scientific Co., 1700 Irving Park Rd., Chicago.

Chicago Apparatus Co., 1735 N. Ashland Ave., Chicago.

Chicago Biological Round Table, Lake View H. S., Chicago.

Kenneth R. Coe Biological Co., 2024 Sunnyside, Chicago.

Gaertner Scientific Corp., 1201 Wrightwood Ave., Chicago.

General Biological Supply House, 761 East 69th St., Chicago.

Sigma Xi, University of Illinois Chapter, Urbana.

Morton Geological Club, Cicero.

W. M. Welch, Welch Mfg. Co., 1515 Sedgwick, Chicago.

Illinois Association of Chemistry Teachers, S. A. Chester, Treas., Chicago.

Illinois Mining Institute, B. F. Schonthal, Sec’y., 28 E. Jackson Blvd.,
Chicago.

Rockford Senior High School Zoology Club, Rockford.

1943 MEETING: JACKSONVILLE, MAY 7-8

[4]

THE CONSERVATION RESEARCH PROGRAM OF THE
ILLINOIS NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY

T. H. Frison*

APPLIED programs in the field of
biological science are seldom, if
ever, developed without the aid of
years of patient, so-called unapplied, re¬
searches. If we assume that the present
applied renewable natural resources pro¬
gram of the Illinois Natural History
Survey is a feature of its work during
the past decade, then we must acknowl¬
edge as the foundation of this newer
program a previous half-century of basic,
varied and monumental biological re¬
search by S. A. Forbes, former Chief of
the Survey and past president of this
Academy of Science, and his associates.

The early program of the Natural His¬
tory Survey and its predecessors tends to
separate into two phases of activity. One
of these may best be characterized as a
faunistic and floristic survey of Illinois,
and resulted in such comprehensive re¬
ports as The Ornithology of Illinois by
Robert Ridgway, and The Fishes of Illinois
by S. A. Forbes and R. E. Richardson.
The less inclusive reports are too numer¬
ous to mention specifically. They are
varied in content, ranging in scope from
broad biological surveys of certain local
areas, both land and water, to detailed
studies of species. This basic survey of
the flora and fauna of the state is still in
process of completion, but' the emphasis
rests today on groups of smaller organ¬
isms about which less is known.

Another phase of this earlier program
of the Natural History Survey may be
truly considered as economic biology, and
the threshold of what now is referred to
as wildlife resources management. I
refer here primarily to a series of papers
on the food of birds and fishes, and on
the numbers and distribution of birds in
various sections of the state. This early
work on the food of birds, by S. A.
Forbes, has been referred to by Weed and
Dearborn (1903) in their book entitled
Birds in Their Relations to Man as
furnishing “the basis for the modern de¬

* Chief, Illinois Natural History Survey,
Urbana, Illinois, Retiring President of the
Academy.

velopment of economic ornithology,” and
by McAtee (1917) who states in a more
recent publication that this work, to¬
gether with the work of another early
ornithologist, is the foundation “of the
scientific method of studying the eco¬
nomic value of birds.” The Survey bul¬
letins of Forbes and Gross (1921-1923)
are representative of the present census
technique of today’s game management
studies. A series of reports on forestry
in Illinois from 1910 to 1926 certainly
paved the way to a great extent for the
introduction of public ownership and
management of forested lands in Illinois
and state forestry agencies now in
existence.

Beginning in about 1934, in addition to
a continuation of efforts to complete basic
surveys of the flora and fauna, special
emphasis began to be placed, in the sec¬
tions of the Survey dealing with fish,
game and forests, upon the management
of these resources. Management, whether
of fish, game, fur bearers, or forests, is
the act of making such resources produce
sustained crops. These crops may be for
recreational uses, a combination of recrea¬
tional and utilitarian uses, or complete
utilitarian uses. When we arrive at the
point of complete utilitarian uses of our
wildlife resources, we have entered the
field of animal husbandry.

Although certain aspects of wildlife
management have been practiced in
Eurasia for a long time, the altering in
America of environments or ranges ac¬
cording to biological principles, for
greater productivity of desired renewable
natural resources, is comparatively recent.
This is understandable on the basis that
our culture is young and we* are close to
* generations whose almost total existence
was taken from the woods, waters and
soils of our domain. Even today, in the
midst of a great industrial development,
as individuals we cling to a heritage of
public rights in renewable natural re¬
sources, particularly forests, fish and
game, and through intimate personal con-

[5]

6

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

tact with these resources preserve a cul¬
ture which is peculiarly American.

In a paper presented in the General
Session of this Academy in 1934, I gave
a six-point summary of my ideas held at
that time for a land utilization program
in Illinois for forestry, wildlife and
recreation. It is cheering to note that
there have been worthwhile accomplish¬
ments under each of these points, includ¬
ing the establishment of a National
Forest in southern Illinois, additional
state and county forests, expansion of the
state park system, establishment of up¬
land game and migratory waterfowl
sanctuaries, and the ending of large-
scale promotional and exploitational
schemes detrimental to renewable natural
resources. These developments during
the past decade have been the result of
the activities of many agencies and in¬
dividuals, but I am happy to state that,
within the state, the Natural History
Survey has played an important, often
pivotal, part in each of them.

As previously mentioned, special em¬
phasis upon the management of the
state’s renewable natural resources by
the Natural History Survey dates from
about 1934, the year in which the first
game technician was appointed to the
staff. Although an aquatic biology sec¬
tion was functioning long prior to this
date, its program, too, became subject to
reorientation along management prin¬
ciples about this same time. In 1935 a
Mid-Western Wildlife Conference was or¬
ganized- at Urbana, sponsored by the
Survey, to serve as a clinic and clearing
house for the views and conclusions re¬
garding wildlife resources investigations
in the central states region.

The next big step in organization for
renewable natural resources research
came in 1937, when appropriations were
obtained to increase the staff, construct
field laboratories, and establish experi¬
mental areas. This program was again
augmented in 1938, in cooperation with
the Illinois * State Department of Con¬
servation and the U. S. Fish and Wild¬
life Service under the Federal Aid in
Wildlife Restoration Act.

The preceding statements about past
accomplishments and more recent ad¬
vancements in the organization of the
Natural History Survey for researches in
the field of the renewable natural re¬
sources of Illinois have, perhaps, brought

to mind questions regarding the general
objectives of such a revised program and
also regarding recent results from these
investigations.

One of the phases of any investigation
of valuable renewable natural resources
is the establishment of accurate and im¬
partial data regarding each resource as
a guide to insure its preservation or its
management on a maximum or sustained
yield basis. Seldom do we find the
simplest of the required basic data avail¬
able or in such form that they can be
utilized without reworking. When deal¬
ing with wildlife management problems,
we must have reliable information con¬
cerning a large number of matters. For
instance, in the case of each wildlife
species involved, we need a close approxi¬
mation of its numerical abundance, its
distributional pattern within the state,
what constitutes its most favorable
natural breeding territory; and we need
to know if there are measurable swings
over a period of years from low to high
populations and back again. We need to
know about the breeding seasons of the
species involved; and much other
biological information. It must be un¬
derstood that for best management re¬
sults each species of fish, fur bearer,
migratory waterfowl, upland game bird,
or other renewable natural resource unit,
must be studied separately in respect to
such matters, and then again from the
standpoint of its relation to its total
environment.

Although the sum total of these investi¬
gations is a big and long-time order for
any agency, many of the techniques
necessary to secure the data, as well as
much of the desired information and
needed basic generalizations, are being
obtained at a comparatively rapid rate.
Thus it happens that even in the midst
of a youthful program and the establish¬
ment of necessary preliminary basic data,
the Survey is now actively pursuing some
phases of the ultimate objectives of a
state-supported renewable resources study;
namely, the development of practical
methods and information for resources
preservation and utilization for the bene¬
fit of the general public. In support of
this statement, it is possible to cite many
examples where the results obtained to
date are accomplishing their purposes. I
have time to mention only a few such
instances, selected to show the variety of

7

Fig. 1. — Male of the prairie chicken, once an abundant and
valuable bird in Illinois, now in need of protection and further
study.

ways in which scientifically acquired
renewable natural resources information
can be utilized to attain desirable goals.

Studies of the prairie chicken reveal
that efforts directed toward the manage¬
ment of this splendid bird, so familiar
to the early settlers in Illinois, must of
necessity _ focus almost entirely around
the preservation of a small number of
remnant flocks, and any proposals for the
removal of this game bird from the list
of protected birds under present agricul¬
tural conditions should be opposed.
Furthermore, favorable nesting territory
is such that any grandiose schemes for
the propagation and release of the prairie
chicken in numbers throughout the state,
with the hope of permanently supple¬
menting game birds for hunting purposes,
is foredoomed to dismal failure. Our
studies of prairie chickens, therefore, may
already be confidently used to prevent
undesirable game law legislation and un¬
wise expenditures of conservation monies.

Information in hand concerning rabbits,
which, by the way, are an important item
in the meat diet of many families in cer¬
tain parts of this state, gives us an alto¬
gether different type of conclusion. In
the management of this resource we can
recommend a limited amount of utiliza¬
tion along with preservation. We now
know that great fluctuations exist in the

abundance of this animal from year to
year, and that this rise and fall in num¬
bers, over a period of years, is a normal
expectation. It is sound management,
therefore, to recognize that the cropping
of this resource — an estimated 3,000,000
pounds went to market annually preced¬
ing 1937 — could be considerably increased,
at least in certain peak years, without
permanent impairment of our necessary
basic breeding stock.

For some years there has been a lively
controversy in this state regarding the
soundness of the time of the open season
for the hunting of squirrels; another re¬
source which, without attracting much
public attention, makes a considerable
contribution to the meat diet of many
families, particularly in the central and
southern parts of this state. The settle¬
ment of this argument depends upon the
definite establishment of information per¬
taining to the time and duration of the
breeding season in different game zones.
It would seem to most people, because of
the commonness of squirrels, that trust¬
worthy information about breeding sea¬
sons would be already available, but this
was not so when Natural History Survey
studies, made in cooperation with the
State Department of Conservation and the
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, were
begun. Investigations are now in course

8

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

Fig. 2. — Through the banding of waterfowl, Illinois Natural
History Survey wildlife technicians gather data on migration
habits, travel lanes, kill and survival ratio, and other data that
will lead to recommendations designed to prevent depletion of
these valuable birds that suffered following the first World War.

of completion which will give authorita¬
tive answers to the questions involved,
and thus serve to influence game law
legislation which will insure proper
hunting seasons, and thereby the intelli¬
gent cropping of this resource.

At this time, a detailed report on the
fur resources of Illinois is in preparation.
The fur bearers are now known to con¬
tribute about $1,000,000 annually to the
income of Illinois families, chiefly in the
low income group where it is most

Fig 3. — The place of native waterfowl food plants in relation to the millions of water-
fowl that use the Mississippi-Illinois flyway is being studied by the Illinois Natural History
Survey. Shown here is a bed of rice cut-grass, one of the best of the native plants.

9

Fig. 4. — For effective management of Bmali artifidal heW* if oSe

of ^he^iii^trum^nt^^y6 which °niinofs Natural History Survey technicians study the influence
of temperature on fish production.

needed. If anything is ever to be done
toward a managed increase of this impor¬
tant resource, this report will be basic to
that undertaking.

The data obtained in the course of the
Survey’s fisheries investigations have
been quite revolutionary and counter to
many generally held ideas concerning
ways to improve fishing. This phase of

research management investigations is
gradually approaching the techniques of
a more mature animal husbandry pro¬
gram.

Time will not permit me to go into
further detail concerning the many and
varied projects in the renewable natural
resources field now under investigation
by the Natural History Survey. The re-

— . k Twr» technicians at work in the new Illinois Natural History

lead to recommendations for improved growth rates of fish in small aiunciai

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

suits from this work are rapidly accumu¬
lating, and I am certain that they are
destined to influence profoundly the
preservation and utilization of the state’s
renewable resources; in fact, this scien¬
tific basis for state action is already
taking place.

In an earlier part of this paper, while
broadly reviewing the general objectives
of the Survey’s present applied pro¬
gram, I called attention to the youthful¬
ness of these investigations. This is an
admission that in many instances we are
involved in a long-time program, and
that from many problems now under in¬
vestigation no conclusions can be drawn
for some years to come. Cyclic fluctua¬
tions cannot be determined by a year or
two of observations, nor can game man¬
agement policies for our most intensively
farmed areas be promulgated on the basis
of study areas two or three years old,
with plantings which require some years

for mature growth. Determinations of
balanced fish combinations to be used in
stocking new reservoirs and the best
methods of cropping must be tried in
many localities and under varying condi¬
tions. All such programs demand a
reasonable amount of continuity and time.

Now, just when we are virtually getting
started on a new program of practical
management studies of resources, the
greatest war of all time is thrust upon us.
If it took a major depression to awaken
Americans to the realization that renew¬
able natural resources are important to
our well-being, and that we must initiate
scientifically planned researches to insure
their continued existence and use, I feel
safe in asserting that this war will drive
home to all the absolute necessity of our
varied resources to our standards and
ways of living. Some resources, to be
sure, are more important, at least for the
moment, than others, but it is all of them

Fig. 6.— Properly managed artificial lakes in Illinois can pro-
auce good catches of bass and other desirable fish, as shown by
tins scene at Lake Glendale, in the Shawnee National Forest.

11

together, each in its place, which have
made the United States the envy of the
rest of the world, and the nation which
we cherish today.

Concessions to the war effort must, and
will, be made by all individuals and
every normal program. Already, the Sur¬
vey is reorienting its program to aid the
war effort as best it can. The renewable
resources of both state and nation will
contribute their share in the support of
our cause in the form of food, clothing,
and in many other forms.

As an example of this support, let me
cite the case of one renewable natural re¬
source scarcely mentioned heretofore in

this address; namely, forest products. It
has been stated by Ovid Butler, of the
American Forestry Association, that each
of our forests must give at least five trees
to equip and maintain each man in our
armed forces. These trees are used to
give him his living quarters and training
camp, the wooden crating necessary to
ship him food, clothing, tanks and guns,
for the making of high explosives, bomb¬
ers and battleships; in fact, virtually
every piece of equipment necessary to
wage modern war.

While we must open our resources to
the nation in its time of greatest need,
we must be on guard, also, to prevent

Fig. 7. — Stand of white oak timber in the Shawnee National
Forest southern Illinois. Publicly and privately owned forestry
resources of the state can contribute materially to the war effort,
but exploitation that is unnecessary and permanently injurious
should be studiously avoided.

12

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

exploitation that is unnecessary and
permanently injurious. Many proposals
are apt to be put forward under the guise
of the national war effort which are
valueless, and they must be rigorously
opposed by technical agencies.

Although I will not have time to
elaborate upon this subject, the recrea¬
tional uses of wildlife resources will con¬
tribute greatly during the coming months
to make our war efforts successful. The
benefits from outdoor recreation are ex¬
ceedingly difficult to evaluate in dollars
and cents, but, nevertheless, we know that
mental and physical health is expensive
to rebuild and that some recreation is
essential.

I cannot resist closing' this address
with a prophecy; to wit, that after the
war renewable natural resources pro¬
grams will be sponsored by the state and
nation more than ever before. These pro¬
grams to be worth anything should have
the guidance of experienced scientific or¬
ganizations. Such agencies cannot be
assembled over night. So, let us hope
that while giving everything necessary to
win the war, we will have the vision to
preserve the essentials in scientific en¬
deavors as the spring board for our coun¬
try’s rejuvenescence after the war.

(This talk was followed by a colored
motion picture showing activities of the
Illinois Natural History Survey relating
to research on wildlife resources.)

13

THE BETATRON

D. W. Kerst, University

FROM THE experiments of the past
eleven years and from still earlier
experiments we have learned a great
deal about the phenomena of nuclear dis¬
integration, especially about artificially
produced disintegration, which follows as
a result of nuclear particles being forced
together so that some degree of inter¬
penetration occurs. Since the nuclei of
atoms are positively charged, the great
repulsive forces arising from a very close
approach must be overcome before there
will be penetration. One cannot take a
hold of nuclear particles or push directly
on individual particles; so the method
which has been used with such great suc¬
cess is that of impact. Charged nuclei,
or positive ions, of one variety are ac¬
celerated in a high voltage vacuum tube
in which the electrodes are arranged to
force them toward a target of a substance
containing the other nuclear particles to
be bombarded. It is common in these
artificial disintegration experiments to
reach forces as great as 20 pounds weight
between individual nuclei during the im¬
pact process. This force is far out of the
range of those which occur in the most
intense compression that can be produced
by other means.

It is only in the case of the neutron,
the uncharged nuclear particle, having
approximately the same mass as the
proton, that penetration into other nuclei
occurs easily, and this is because the lack
of charge on the neutron makes electrical
repulsion impossible.

One other reason for giving one of the
nuclear particles a high energy is that
when the two nuclei collide certain re¬
actions will not occur unless the energy
brought to the collision by the high speed
particle is sufficient to supply the energy
required for this reaction. It is mainly
for this reason that if disintegrations are
to be produced by electrons or by the
x-rays which they produce, the electrons
must have very high energy.

* Invited paper presented before the
Physics Section meeting at Urbana, Ill., May
8, 1942.

of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

The nuclear physicists who have be¬
come high voltage experts in order to do
these disintegration experiments make
use of several varieties of high voltage
apparatus to impart large energies to
small particles. Except for disintegra¬
tions produced by particles from naturally
radioactive substances, the equipment
usually used for producing high speed
particles has been either a linear ac¬
celerator or a cyclotron. In the linear
accelerator the charged particles are
pushed from electrode to electrode down
the axis of a long vacuum tube. The
electrodes are generally hollow cylinders
connected to successively higher voltages.
The voltage is supplied either by a large
transformer-rectifier combination or by
the Van de Graaff type of electrostatic
generator which charges a high voltage
electrode by means of long moving belts.
One end of the accelerating tube is con¬
nected to this high voltage electrode, and
the other end is usually at ground po¬
tential. This accelerator has been de¬
veloped to the extent where it produces
about 4.5 million volts when confined in a
tank no larger than 5.5 feet in diameter
and 22 feet long, provided the high air
pressure of about 100 pounds per square
inch is used for insulation of the high
voltage terminal. This type of accelerator
has been used to some extent for the
study of nuclear reactions produced by
electrons and x-rays having energies up
to three million electron volts, but most
of the work of the electrostatic acceler¬
ator has been with positive ions. There
is a large number of nuclear reactions
called photodisintegrations which can
occur by electron or x-ray bombardment,
but these require on an average six to
eight million electron volts of energy be¬
fore the reaction can proceed. For these
experiments energies greater than those
obtained by the electrostatic generator
are necessary.

In the cyclotron the positive ions do
not follow a linear path. Rather they are
bent by a magnetic field into a spiral
path, and they are accelerated back and

14

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

forth between two dee shaped hollow
metal electrodes. The reason this can be
done is that when a group of positive
ions are well shielded within one of the
dees this electrode reverses potential
with the other electrode; and by the time
the positive ions are in position to pass
to the other dee, the potential is such
that they are forced forward to a greater
speed. This requires that the dees be
connected to a high voltage high fre¬
quency oscillating circuit. The final
energy which the positive ions achieve is
the product of the number of transits
from dee to dee and the voltage between
dees. With this apparatus deuterons
have been accelerated to 16.5 million elec¬
tron volts, far more than the voltage
which can at present be produced on a
single insulated electrode such as that
used on the electrostatic machine.

However, the cyclotron cannot apply its
great voltage to electrons. The reason
for this lies in the onset of relativistic
behavior of the electron at very low
energies. Particles behave in a distinctly
relativistic manner when their kinetic
energy approaches or exceeds the energy
equivalent of their rest mass. For ex¬
ample, the rest mass of a proton is
equivalent to about one billion electron
volts. Protons of this energy would show
pronounced relativistic behavior; how¬
ever, the electron with a rest mass
equivalent to only .5 of a million electron
volts will behave relativistically at this
low voltage. At .5 of a million electron
volts the electron is traveling at approxi¬
mately .9 of its speed limit, the velocity
of light. Since one of the requirements in
the operation of a cyclotron is that the
accelerated particle increases its speed in
proportion to the square root of the num¬
ber of revolutions, it is impossible for an
electron near its speed limit to fulfill this
condition. Consequently, a cyclotron
could only be used for electrons at volt¬
ages well below half a million volts.

Fortunately the betatron operates
equally well at classical or relativistic
energies. The energy which the new
betatron gives to electrons is 20 million
electron volts. With this source of high
energy electrons one can create extremely
energetic x-rays, and the nuclear-photo
effects requiring on an average 6 to 8
million volts can be produced. Generally
in the photo effect an x-ray or gamma
ray photon of energy greater than the

binding energy of a neutron within the
target nucleus reacts with that nucleus
and ejects the neutron somewhat like the
electrons are ejected from the cathode in
an ordinary photo-electric cell. The re¬
sulting nucleus is frequently radioactive,
and the binding energy of the nucleus to
be disintegrated can then be easily de¬
termined by finding the energy of the
betatron at which production of radio¬
active material commences. The elec¬
trons themselves can be used to eject the
neutron for the nucleus responds to the
passage of an electron with its associated
electric field in the same way but to a
lesser extent than it responds to high
energy photons.

Since we now have available a source
of highly penetrating x-rays and a source
of electrons of an energy so great that
they can penetrate approximately half
way through the human body, the uses to
which the betatron can be put are not
only experimental but very practical.
X-rays are widely used in numerous prac¬
tical ways industrially, and the radiations
from the betatron are more penetrating
than any others which have been pro¬
duced.

The high energy electrons which escape
from the accelerator by scattering off of
the x-ray target form a very intense but
somewhat divergent beam of electrons.
Such high energy electrons when sent
into the human body would produce a
trail of ionization having the same de¬
structive effect as x-rays which are at
present used for therapy of deep tissue.
One of the disadvantages of x-rays is that
they do not stop somewhere within the
body, but they penetrate completely
through it and produce a biological effect,
not only at the entrance surface and at
the tissue being treated, but also at the
exit side of the body. Various techniques
are used in an attempt to create an
optimum of ionization at the deep malig¬
nant tissue; but the advantage which
penetrating electron rays have is that
their range is finite and proportional to
the energy of the electrons. The 20 mil¬
lion volt electrons from the betatron
would penetrate 10 centimeters into the
body and no more. Dr. Phillip Morrison
estimates that the maximum ionization
produced by these rays would be at about
7 or 8 centimeters below the entrance
surface of the body. This means that the
damage produced by an electron beam

15

pifl 1 _ Thp vacuum doughnut in which the electrons are accelerated. Electrons going

f;rtioinr^

are injected at A, and the orbit is expanded at B in every eye .

can probably be localized fairly well on
the tissue which is irradiated, a smaller
amount of damage being done on the en¬
trance side of the body and no damage
being done beyond the tissue irradiated.
When the beam of electrons in the
betatron can be brought out without being
scattered from a target, it will be more
homogenous and less divergent, which
will make the betatron more applicable to
this very practical problem.

OPERATION OF THE BETATRON

The betatron looks in some respects
like a miniature cyclotron since it is a
magnetic device; but it operates with an
alternating magnetic field instead of a
uni-directional field. The theory of the
betatron shows that relativistic effects
encountered when the speed of light is
approached do not hinder the operation
in any way.1 Electrons from an electron

1T>. W. Kerst, Phys. Rev. 60, 47 (1941).

D. W. Kerst and R. Serber, Phys. Rev.

60, 53 (1941).

gun, called the injector, are shot into a
circular path in a low intensity magnetic
field. As these electrons circulate be¬
tween the poles of the magnet, the mag¬
netic field increases, and the time rate of
change of flux linking the orbit produces
a voltage gain per revolution equal to the
voltage which would be read on a volt¬
meter connected to a one-turn coil placed
at the orbit and reading instantaneous
voltage.

Fig. 1 shows a sketch of the circular
vacuum tube or doughnut in which the
electrons leave the injector, circulate the
magnetic field many times picking up
energy at every revolution, and strike the
back end of the injector, after they have
been accelerated, where they produce
x-rays. The orbit expanding coils are
energized after the electrons have been
accelerated, and they disturb the flux dis¬
tribution near the electron path causing
the electrons to spiral out to the target.
The electrons are injected at the time in¬
dicated by A on the graph of magnetic

16

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

field, and the orbit is expanded to the
target at the time indicated by B when
the energy is at its maximum. These
processes are repeated in each cycle.

The increase in flux linkage supplies
momentum to the electron, and were not
the magnetic field at the orbit of the
electron increasing simultaneously, the
orbit would become larger and larger and
soon strike the outer wall of the acceler¬
ation chamber. To hold the electron in a
fixed orbit it is necessary to make the
magnetic field at the orbit increase in
proportion to the momentum produced by
the increasing flux linkage. The radius
of curvature, r, of the orbit is related to
the momentum of the electron and the
size of the magnetic field, H, as follows:
mv (e/c) Hr. This calls for a special
distribution of magnetic flux density, as
we shall see. By Newton’s second law
the time rate of change of momentum is
equal to the force on the electron; or
d(mv)/dt — f, and the force, f, is the
energy gained per centimeter of path,
which assuming that the electron orbit
has a fixed radius, r, is (e/c) 0/2*rr
where cf> is the flux linking the orbit, e
the charge of the electron, and c the
velocity of light. Integrating the time rate
equations, we get mv= ( e/c ) ( <f> - <f>0 ) /2'rrr,
showing that the momentum is propor¬
tional to the change of flux within the
circular orbit. Equating this momentum
to (e/c) Hr we get <f> - <f>0 = 2!<7rr2H ; which
shows that if 0O is zero when H is zero,
the flux linking the orbit is proportional
to the field at the orbit and must at all
times have the value twice that which
would exist if the field H were uniform
within the orbit.

This result was obtained by making the
assumption or r constant. Naturally the
converse must be established and was
established before the accelerator was
built, that is, given this flux distribution,
then the orbit has a fixed radius.

No mention has been made of the time
dependence of the flux and field. It is
merely necessary that the flux increase
with time and that the field increase pro¬
portionately. This is easily accomplished
by having both H and <f> produced in an
air gap by the same magnetic circuit. In
practice the magnet and its coils cor¬
respond to an inductance in a resonant
circuit. A great number of condensers
are used to produce resonance at the de¬
sired frequency. On the original betatron

made at the University of Illinois a fre¬
quency of 600 cycles per second was used,
and 180 cycles per second is used on the
20 million volt betatron which was made
while on leave of absence at the General
Electric Company.

The requirement for the production of
a beam of electrons in the accelerator is
that stray or scattered particles deviated
from the desired orbit by encounters with
the residual gas molecules in the vacuum
chamber be brought back to the orbit by
focusing forces. The stray electrbn must
oscillate about this orbit, called the
equilibrium orbit, with a decreasing
amplitude of oscillation, or the damping
must be so great that it never crosses the
equilibrium orbit.

By shaping the magnetic field properly
the conditions for oscillation can be ful¬
filled. For axial oscillation the lines of
force must bulge outwardly between the
poles. The electron finds itself in a mag¬
netic field with a slight radial component
if it deviates from the median plane.
This radial component has opposite direc¬
tions on opposite sides of the median
plane, and it forces the electron back
toward this plane no matter which way
the displacement occurs. To make the
field bulge outwardly between the poles it
is merely necessary to have the air gap
increase with increasing radius. In
practice this is done with approximately
conical pole faces except for a slight lip
at the rim of the pole face to correct for
the rapid drop in field intensity which
occurs at this point.

The condition for radial oscillation is
that the magnetic field must not decrease
more rapidly than 1/r. This can be un¬
derstood from Fig. 2 which shows the
curve of required centripetal force to hold
the electron in the radius, r, as a function
of r. This is a hyperbolic curve, since
Fc = m vVr. The magnetic force Fm
which is supplied by the magnetic field is
Fm (e/c) H v. In the betatrons which
have been made, v changes so slightly
during several focusing oscillations that
this change can be ignored for the
present. Consequently, if the radial de¬
pendence of Fm, and hence of H, is as
shown in Fig. 1, it will supply more than
the required centripetal force when r
is greater than rc and less when r is less
than rD. Should an electron be outside the
equilibrium orbit, it would be in a region
where the magnetic field was stronger

17

pjg_ 3. — The new 20 million volt betatron,
poles is from the injector.

The light showing in the doughnut between

than that necessary to cause a circular
path. Its orbit would bend in toward the
equilibrium orbit and, on crossing, the
electron would find itself in a region
where the magnetic field does not quite
supply the required centripetal force; so
the electron goes outwardly. This oscil¬
lation about the equilibrium orbit eventu¬
ally dies out. The decrease in the
amplitude of oscillation is a result of the
increase in the magnetic field during the
period of oscillation. The amplitude is
proportional to H-^. To a certain extent
this is analogous to the stiffening of a
spring which holds an oscillating mass.
The damping properties of the increasing
magnetic field make possible the whole
process of injecting electrons so that they
are trapped in a fixed orbit.

These axial and radial focusing actions
succeed in forming a minute electron
beam which strikes the target at a small
focal spot. The x-rays produced cast
very sharp shadows because the rays
come from practically a point source.

_ _j - - - -

n r

Fig- 2— Fc = mv7r is the centripetal
force required to hold the electron in a
circle of radius, r. Fm = (e/c)Hv is the
magnetic force which is actually supplied
to the electron. The equilibrium orbit is
at r„.

18

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

The target is not melted by this fine beam
because very little current is used. Ap¬
proximately one microampere in the 20
Mev betatron suffices to produce 16 r per
minute at one meter. The total number
of watts in the beam is thus 20 and at
this high energy the efficiency of x-ray
production is so great that about 65
per cent of this beam energy is given off
in x-rays and only the remainder heats
the target.

The photograph in Fig. '3 shows the
new 20 million volt betatron with the
light coming from the injector at the
edge of the doughnut between the poles.
This accelerator has a 19-inch pole face

diameter and an equilibrium orbit of 7.5
inches radius. The magnetic structure is
only three feet high and five feet long;
but it weighs about 3.5 tons. It requires
about 25 kilowatts to operate it at 20
million electron volts at an oscillating
frequency of 180 cycles per second. The
cooling of the magnetic circuit is provided
by the blower in the base of the magnet.

Not only is this accelerator capable of
producing the usual x-ray effects with
rays of greater penetration, but the radio¬
activities produced by photodisintegration
in numerous substances have been ob¬
served, and the energy is sufficient for
some small scale cosmic ray effects.

A NATURALIST IN THE SOUTH SEAS

Excerpts From Lecture By Karl P. Schmidt

Chief Curator , Dept, of Zoology, Field Museum of Natural History,

Chicago , Illinois

THE ROMANTIC interest in museum
expeditions to far-away and exotic
regions in search of collections for
study and display is still greater when
such an expedition is foot-loose in a
beautiful sailing yacht and one is able to
visit out-of-the-way islands and cast

anchor in little visited ports .

Our glimpse of the islands of the Pacific
will take us through the Polynesian
Archipelagos, to the islands of Melanesia,
inhabited by curly-headed black peoples,
and to the great island of New Guinea,
now so familiar and so vitally important
to us in the “daily news.

The Galapagos Islands have formed a
focus of biological interest since the visit
of Charles Darwin in 1835, and have be¬
come familiar to naturalists during the

following century from the visits of suc¬
cessive expeditions and groups of scien¬
tists. It is noteworthy that the scientific
interest of these extraordinary islands is
not yet exhausted, and that they are now
of the utmost political and military in¬
terest to us in the present war.

Far-off islands and ports visited by the
Crane Pacific Expedition have now fallen
into the hands of the Japanese. It is in¬
teresting that one of the services natural¬
ists can offer to the war effort springs
from their knowledge of the geography of
such regions, now suddenly become of the
most vital importance to us and to our
sons.

(This lecture was accompanied by
colored slides.)

MEMOIRS

19

FRANK COLLINS BAKER
DECEMBER 14, 1867, TO MAY 7, 1942

THOUGH he never at any time held a
teaching position, few scientists of the
present day have had greater influence in
directing and stimulating interests of
students than had Frank Collins Baker.
Through his genial personality, his gen¬
erous kindliness, his published researches,
and his displays in museums, unnum¬
bered thousands are included within the
sphere of his scientific influence. Several
prominent younger scientists, in such
diverse fields as geology, anthropology,
entomology, and zoology have acknowl¬
edged Mr. Baker’s kindly and sympa¬
thetic interest as one of the important
factors in their ultimate determination to
devote their lives to scientific pursuits.
But these careers, directly motivated by
contacts with an understanding spirit are
but one item in the evaluation of his
broad influences.

Under his guidance the system of loan
exhibits for the Chicago schools was in¬
augurated by the Chicago Academy of
Sciences. As an outgrowth of this pro¬
gram thousands of children were given
their first contacts with and interest in
the study of nature.

His published works, especially those
on the Mollusca and on the Life of the

Pleistocene, have been and continue to be
source books for all students of these
subjects.

Mr. Baker became, for a short time,
curator in the newly established Field
Columbian Museum in Chicago (1894)
after having received professional back¬
ground and training in Brown University,
in the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences,
and in Ward’s Natural Science Establish¬
ment of Rochester, New York. This was
followed immediately by his appointment
to the curatorship in the Chicago Acad¬
emy of Sciences (1894-1915) where he de¬
veloped techniques of museum display
along with an absorbing interest in
research.

For two years (1915-1917) he carried
out a most comprehensive evaluation of
the relations of bottom faunas to fish life
for the New York State College of For¬
estry, at Syracuse.

Following this period, at the height of
his professional career, he became curator
of the Museum of Natural History in the
University of Illinois where he devoted 21
years (1918-1939) to building one of the
finest teaching museums on this conti¬
nent. All this while he was pushing
forward a research program which

20

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

brought him eminence in the fields of the
fresh water and land Mollusca and
Pleistocene paleontology. Under his
curatorship a third museum interest was
expanded, namely, the building of study
collections. The most widely recognized
of these are in the fields of Mollusca,
Paleontology, and Archaeology of Illinois.

Some of the scientific societies in which
Mr. Baker held membership are: Fellow
of the Geological Society of America;
Fellow of the Paleontological Society of
America; Fellow, American Association
for the Advancement of Science; Corre¬
sponding member, Zoological Society of
London; Life member, Illinois State
Academy of Science (Sec’y. 1911, Vice-
president 1931) ; Life member, Chicago
Academy of Sciences (Sec’y. 1894-9;
1908); Museums Association of Great
Britain; American Association of Mu¬
seums (Councilor 1914-6); Ecological So¬
ciety of America; Ottawa Field Natural¬
ists Club; Sigma Xi; American Mala-
cological Union (President in 1942).

Mr. Baker was a prolific writer. A
complete list of his published books and

articles totals close to 400 items. Of
these, several stand out as distinguished
contributions while the remainder com¬
prise short notes and numerous more ex¬
tensive articles. The best known of his
books are The Mollusca of the Chicago
Area (2 vols., 1892, 1902); The Lym-
naeidae of North and Middle America
(1911) ; The Productivity of Invertebrate
Fish Food on the Bottom of Oneida Lake,
with Special Reference to Mollusks
(1918); Life of the Pleistocene or Glacial
Period (1920); Mollusca of Wisconsin
(2 vols., 1928) ; Fieldbook of Illinois Land
Snails (1939).

Since his retirement from active service
in 1939, as Curator Emeritus, he has de¬
voted his full energies to research. Ill¬
ness interrupted his work on a two
volume monograph upon the Planorbidae
which had been his major interest for
many years. This work was expected to
be the magnum opus of his research
career. Death wrote the word “Finis” at
the close of the manuscript for the first
volume.

H. J. Van Cleave

MEMOIRS

21

EUGENE DAVENPORT

1856-1941

EUGENE DAVENPORT, born of pio¬
neer parents near Woodland, Michigan,
June 20, 1856, died on his old home farm,
March 31, 1941, in his eighty-fourth year.
He was graduated from the Michigan
Agricultural College in 1878. After sev¬
eral years on his farm he returned to the
Michigan Agricultural College for gradu¬
ate work, receiving the degree of Master
of Science in 1884. He was president of
the Collegio Agronomica, Brazil, during
1891-92, serving as its first president. He
became Dean of the College of Agricul¬
ture, University of Illinois, in 1895, Direc¬
tor of the Agricultural Experiment Sta¬
tion and Professor of Thrommatology,
January 1, 1896, Director of the Agricul¬
tural Extension Service in 1914, and Vice
President of the University in 1920,
which position he held until his retire¬
ment on September 1, 1922. After his re¬

tirement he was recalled to active service
to assist the President for a period of
several months in 1929.

The honorary degree of Doctor of Laws
was conferred upon Dean Davenport by
Michigan State College in 1907, by the
University of Kentucky in 1913, by the
University of Illinois in 1931, and the de¬
gree of Doctor of Science by Iowa State
College in 1920.

He was the author of several books and
many articles in various periodicals.
During the nineteen years of his retire¬
ment he did a great deal of lecturing and
writing. His deeply ingrained character¬
istic of always seeing ahead, planning
ahead, anticipating events was expressed
at the end of his work for a bi-weekly
agricultural journal to which he con¬
tributed a column. At the time of his
death he had prepared enough material to

22

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

carry the column on for ten issues.
Another important contribution since his
retirement was a special investigation for
the National Research Council.

To all of his work Dean Davenport
brought clear thinking unhampered by
petty details and prejudices which bias
so many conclusions. His independence
of thought and his far-reaching views of
the problems of agriculture had their
roots in the simpler pioneer life into
which he was born and in which he lived
through the most formative period of his
life. His strength came not only from his
love of people but from the great out-of-
doors in which he found keen delight. In
his book “Vacation on the Trail,”
he says concerning the mountaineer:
“Brother to the peaks and the snow fields
and the vast amphitheaters of green and
white and gray that have guarded the
passes since the world was young;
friend to the timber, the waters, and the
wild flowers; companion to the clouds
and the shadows and drifting mists, the
lightnings and thunders and the storms;
neighbor to the very stars at night that
seem to beckon one to step off the edge
and be with them!”

A statesman in all his approaches to
educational and agricultural policy, Dean
Davenport always considered the ultimate
welfare of all the people. Temporary dis¬
comfort or even distress could be
weathered, a slow beginning in a new
venture could be tolerated, if the ultimate
goal was right and the principles by
which it was to be achieved would stand
the test of time. At this point there was
no room for compromise or expediency.

The core of his educational philosophy
will be found in such statements as the
following taken from an address which
he gave in 1908. “The great mass of
human happiness will always arise out of
doing well the common things of life, and
the happiness of the individual will lie in
that creative genius which does today the
same thing it did yesterday but does it
better — the enduring things will always
be the useful things. There will be no

educated aristocracy, for education will
have a higher purpose than to give one
man an advantage over another. . . .

There is no higher duty now resting upon
all of us, and especially upon educators,
than to unite education and activity by j
the closest possible bonds, to prevent on
the one hand the acquirement of knowl¬
edge to no purpose, and on the other the
development of operative skill with little
knowledge of the true relations of things;
to see to it that no individual shall be
compelled to choose between an education
without a vocation, and a vocation with¬
out an education. . . . What we need

as a nation and a people is not simply
more knowledge, but higher ideals. More
of humility in success and more of forti¬
tude in adversity. More of confidence in
our fellows, and more of faith in the
future.”

Dean Davenport’s influence was felt in
all parts of the world, not only through
the students who came to the University
of Illinois from other countries, but as a
result of his vigorous leadership in scien¬
tific research and educational policies.
The esteem in which he was held was ex¬
pressed in a message from Sir John
Russell, of Rothamsted, England, which
came to Dean Davenport on his eightieth
birthday: “You have served not only |
your own country but the whole civilized I
world. May the rest of your days be in |
peace and in the knowledge that you have j
the affection of many friends in many
countries.”

In the passing of Dean Davenport we
have lost a great leader, a man of high |
professional record and personal accom¬
plishment, of rich service to mankind, a
loyal friend — one with whom we are all
proud to have been associated. Our con¬
solation is that the influence and inspira¬
tion of such a life will continue in ways
beyond our power to measure.

J. C. Blair
W. L. Burlison
H. E. Cunningham
C. F. Hottes
E. Roberts

MEMOIRS

23

FRANK SMITH

FEBRUARY 18, 1857,

Frank Smith came to the Urbana
campus in 1893. From the first, he held
dual appointments on the staff of the Illi¬
nois State Laboratory of Natural History
under Professor Forbes and on the Uni¬
versity faculty in the Department of
Zoology. His earlier experiences had
consisted of collegiate training in Hills¬
dale College, in Michigan, and graduate
study in Harvard, under Professor E. L.
Mark, ending in a Master’s degree in
1893. He had been Professor of Chem¬
istry and Biology in Hillsdale College
(1886-1892) and had taught Biology in
Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut
(1892-3). The summers of 1886 and 1887
were spent in special study in the
Anasquam, Massachusetts, marine station
and that of 1891 found him under the in¬
fluence of Alexander Agassiz in the New¬
port, Rhode Island, Marine Laboratory.
The summer of 1893 he was engaged by
the Michigan Fish Commission as a mem¬
ber of a group studying the biology of
Lake St. Clair.

These early experiences in field labora¬
tories peculiarly fitted him for the work
which he was about to undertake for the
Illinois State Laboratory of Natural His-

TO FEBRUARY 3, 1942

tory. He was made superintendent
(1894) of the Biological Station on the
Illinois River at Havana, under the joint
sponsorship of the University and the
State Laboratory. Here he helped to for¬
mulate and execute the early program of
studies on the biology of the Illinois
River.

The interests there aroused were kept
alive at a much later date in his teaching
of courses in field zoology in the Univer¬
sity of Illinois and as a member of the
faculty of the University of Michigan,
teaching summers in the biological sta¬
tion on Douglas Lake.

In the University and throughout the
Middle-west his long period of continuous
service and his broad personal contacts
made him a continuing agency between
the old and the new developments in the
zoological sciences. Not content to watch
the opening up of the new fields, he took
an active part in their development. As
early as 1901 he was offering a course in
Statistical Zoology in the University. In
this course, before any specific instruction
in evolution and heredity was given in
the Department of Zoology, he taught the
applications of mathematical analysis to

24

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

problems of “variation, heredity, distribu¬
tion, and phylogeny.”

His interests in teaching greatly in¬
fluenced the direction of development of
zoological courses in the University of
Illinois, where he was advanced to a
professorship in 1913. In 1923, Hillsdale
College, his alma mater, conferred on him
an honorary D.Sc. degree.

His earliest research was in marine
zoology, but in the Middle-west, where he
was to spend the remainder of his active
career, he early undertook a program of
studies on the earthworm fauna which
led to his becoming recognized as the
leading American authority on this group.

Another field of interest for both teach¬
ing and research was that of ornithology.
Long years of daily observations on
spring bird migration furnished data on
which he correlated migratory move¬
ments with changes in wind and weather.
After retirement, he found time and op¬
portunity to carry on bird banding in his
Michigan home during the summer
months and in Florida during the winter.

From 1900 to 1917 he was curator of
the museum of Natural History of the
University of Illinois, performing this as
a service to the University in addition to
a relatively full program of teaching and
research.

With his interest in the fauna of the
state it was only natural that he was
actively interested in the Illinois State
Academy of Sciei|pe, in which he held life
membership. His memberships in scien¬
tific organizations were chosen with the
same discrimination with which he chose
his personal friends. They included the
American Association for the Advance¬
ment of Science, the American Society of
Zoologists, American Society of Natural¬
ists, American Ornithologists’ Union, and
Sigma Xi. For many years he served as
consulting specialist to the U. S. National
Museum and to the U. S. Department of
Agriculture.

The qualities of unassuming modesty
and uncompromising honesty marked all
of his relations with both students and
associates.

H. J. Van Cleave

STATE OF ILLINOIS

Dwight H. Green, Governor

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ILLINOIS STATE
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Volume 35 December, 1942 Number 2

Papers Presented at the Thirty-fifth Annual

Meeting

Urbana, Illinois, May, 1942

Edited by Grace Needham Oliver

Department of Registration and Education
Illinois State Museum Division, Centennial Building
SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS
[Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois]

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY

Entered as second-class matter December 6, 1930, at the post office at
Springfield, Illinois, under the Act of Augrust 24, 1912.

[25]

STATE OF ILLINOIS
Dwight H. Green, Governor

DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION

Frank G. Thompson, Director

ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM DIVISION
John C. McGregor, Acting Chief

ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Affiliated with the
ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM

OFFICERS FOR 1942-1943

President: F. M. Fryxell
Augustana College, Rock Island

First Vice President: L. J. Thomas
University of Illinois, Urbana

Second Vice President: Willis DeRyke
Illinois College, Jacksonville

Secretary: R. F. Paton
University of Illinois, Urbana

Treasurer: John Voss
Manual Training High School, Peoria

Librarian: Gilbert Wright
Illinois State Museum, Springfield

Collegiate Section Chairman: Martha Leavenworth
University of Illinois, Urbana

Junior Academy Representative : Allen R. Moore, Cicero
Junior Academy Representative (Southern Division): Mary Creager, Chester

Editor: Grace Needham Oliver
Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana

In addition to current officers, the Academy Council for 1942-3
includes the two most recent past presidents: V. O. Graham,

4028 Grace St., Chicago, and T. H. Frison, Illinois Natural History
Survey, Urbana.

1943 MEETING AT JACKSONVILLE MAY 7-8

Publicity Chairman: Grace Tickle, MacMurray College, Jacksonville
Chairman Local Arrangements : Willis DeRyke, Illinois College, Jacksonville
Collegiate Section Local Arrangements: W. F. Bailey, MacMurray College,

Jacksonville

Junior Section Local Arrangements : Helen Kamm, Jacksonville H. S.

Printed December, 1942
(34349)

[26]

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Volume 35

December, 1942

Number 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAPERS IN AGRICULTURE

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman - • - - - • . . . • • • 31

Fuelleman, R. F., and W. L. Burlison, Germination studies of Bromegrass seed, ^

Nevens W. B., Results of experiments in improvements of pastures tor daily

Snider? H. J., The chemical composition of farm crops as affected by soil type and

Burijson nW. L., and R. F. Fuelleman, What are we doing with castor beans?. . . 39

Dungan, George H., Relative photosynthetic capacity of stalks, leaf sheaths, and
leaf blades in maize as measured by the contribution each makes to the develop- ^

Whalin, Oren L ., War production and soil conservation m Illinois . *

Graham, Burdette, Using the slope map as a basis for farm planning .

Lindstrom, D. E., Education for out of school rural youth .

ANTHROPOLOGY

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . . . • • • • • 49

Bennett, John W., and Moreau Maxwell, Archaeological horizons m southern
Illinois ••#••••••••••••••••••••* vU

Okala, J. B. C. Etuka, The problem of primitive education with particular ref¬
erence to the Ibo of Nigeria . . . . . Y

Schoenbeck, Ethel, Additional Clear Lake Village material .

BOTANY

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . . . •••••• ••••*,:: * nf 5‘

Britton, M. E., Notes on the distribution of some rarely reported species ot ^

Conover? Ro^rt a!,‘ and Neil E.’ Stevens, A Penicillium “disease" of ink . 59

Feldman, Albert W., Trees and shrubs of Champaign County, Illinois . bu

Croker, Dorothy, A key to the Illinois species of Solidago . • • . bz

Glassman, Sidney, A taxonomic study of the Illinois species of Rumex . bd

Galston, Arthur, The nitrogen content of oat chloroplasts. . . . . . . • • '‘‘'''l''

Hoskins, J. H., and A. T. Cross, New interpretations of Sphenophyllostachys

based on a petrified specimen from an Iowa coal ball. ••••••••••••••• -

McMenamin, Joseph P., A microanalysis of the epidermal cell walls beneath the

midrib of the holly leaf . . • • • • • • • *.••••;"• * * 'LV '. ‘

Jones, G. Neville, A checklist of the vascular plants of the University of Illinois ^

Noggli^Glenn Ray| The rate of transpiration in two oats varieties grown under

varying soil moisture levels . : .

Stanfield, J. Fisher, Some growth responses of Soja and Vinca to vitamins . 75

Tehon L. R., The White-bracted Hymenopappus still grows in Illinois . .

Voigt, John W„ A preliminary investigation of the effect of the descaling of winter

buds on their growth in east central Illinois . •••••••• • • . 1 9

Welch, Walter B., A study of the phytoplankton of Crab Orchard Lake . oi

Stephenson, Richard B., A preliminary investigation of the effects of naphthalene

acetic acid upon the growth and composition of oats . . . . 83

Watson, Stanley A., Preliminary studies on riboflavin (vitamin B;) content of
plant materials . 84

CHEMISTRY

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 87

Bennett, C. W., New acid-base terminology . 88

Cheronis, Nicholas D., and Peter G. Arvan, Semimicro methods in the teaching

of chemistry . 90

Dewalt, C. W., Review of recent chemistry texts for use in the teaching of chem¬
istry at the high school level . 92

Elmslie, W. P., W. R. Bunting, R. A. Sturdy, and Paul R. Cutter, New sources

Gould, H. W., What the colleges of Illinois are doing for national defense . 97

Moeller, Therald, Demonstration of unstable anionic complex formation by the

method of electrometric titration . 100

Preising, Sister M. Joan, Suitable curricula for high school chemistry . 102

Ronneberg, C. E., The role of the chemistry teacher in national defense: . 104

GEOGRAPHY

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 107

Barton, Thomas F., Saxicultural district of the Sudbury area . 108

Blanchard, W. O., The Black Sea and its borderlands . Ill

Booth, Alfred W., Soils and population — Decatur County, Georgia . 113

Cox, Flemin, The colonial question . 116

Cutshall, Alden, The manufacture of clay products in the Lower Wabash Valley 118

De Long, George Cass, The uses and production of tung oil . 121

Gueffroy, Edna M., The Murngin: an example of human geography . 123

Lathrop, H. O., The drought of central United States, summer and autumn, 1940. 126

GEOLOGY

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 129

Bieber, C. L., The “Trenton” near Morris, Illinois . 130

Cohee, George V., Use of the Glen Dean limestone as a structural key horizon in

the Illinois Basin . 132

Cooper, Chalmer L., Chester index ostracodes . 135

Mason, A. C., Thickness of glacial drift in Du Page County, Illinois . 136

Robertson, Percival, Bituminous matter in Warsaw geodes . 138

Tippie, Frank E., Subsurface stratigraphic sections near type Chester localities in

southwestern Illinois . 141

Weller, J. Marvin, Rhythms in Upper Pennsylvanian cyclothems . 145

Wilson, Geo. M., Fossiliferous zones of the Upper Pennsylvanian of Vermilion and
Edgar counties, Illinois . 146

PHYSICS

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 149

Inglis, A. F., A demonstration radio set . 150

Railsback, O. L., A demonstration power supply . 151

Ronneberg, C. E., Why not express the horsepower in f oot-poundals ? . 152

Smith, Clarence R., Normal daily temperatures for Aurora by comparison with

Chicago . 154

Tykociner, J. T., and L. R. Bloom, Wave forms of phase-shifted sine pulses and
their applications . 156

PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 159

Griffith, Coleman R., Warfare between human nature fictions . 160

Laughun, W. R., Handwriting as a factor in credit analysis . 164

Reeder, Edwin H., What can the elementary school do to prepare for winning the
peace? . 167

SOCIAL SCIENCE

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 171

Burgess, E. W., The fate of the family . 172

[28]

Jolley, V. D., Federal regulation of business enterprise . 1'

Philip, William Booth, Chicago and the down state . .

Ratcliffe, S. C., Hamlet and village populations in Illinois . ^

Schroeder, Clarence W., The fate of the family . ***

Timmons, B. F., Is the family passing? .

ZOOLOGY

Extract from the Report of the Section Chairman . 189

Balduf, W. V., New records for three Illinoisan orthoptera . . . . . ^

Bennett, Mary A., Effect of testosterone propionate on territoriality of ring doves 19J

Del Giudice, Vincent J., Zapatera spoilage of olives . - ; * *: iy°

Foster, Frances C., and William C. Grater, Chlorophyll in the treatment ot

athlete’s foot . . . iyb

Hansen, Donald F., The anglers’ catch at Lake Chautauqua near Havana, Illinois,

with comparative data on hoopnet samples . . . . • • • • • . ly'

Hoff, C. Clayton, Locality records of some Hydracarma from Illinois .

Hill H. C., Jr., and T. W. Robinson, Pseudo-cleavage of the frog’s egg . ^

Hoogstraal, Harry, A contribution to the exploration of Mexico . . 209

Prosser, C. Ladd, Comparative pharmacology of myogenic and neurogenic hearts. 212

Robinson, True W., Induced ovulation in Rana pipiens III .

Riegel, Garland T., Cyclocephala abrupta in Illinois (Coleop.: Scarab) . 2lt>

Sanders, J. M., Precaval anomalies of the cat .

Shoemaker, Hurst H., Color discrimination in canaries. . .

Thomson, Stewart Craig, Stimulating an interest in the history of the biological

sciences . , . V i: " ;; ' . . .;***;

Van Cleave, Harley J., Zoological courses in the early days of the University ot

Illinois .

From the Zoology Symposium:

Balduf, W. V., Interrelations of insect-eating insects . ***

Hoogstraal, Harry, Insect relations with plants .

Tehon, L. R., Insects as vectors of plant pathogens .

|291

ANNOUNCEMENTS

Attention is directed to the fact that the Committee on Research Grants
of the Illinois State Academy of Science has at its disposal a small sum of
money to be disbursed in support of worthy research projects. Applications
for grants will be accepted up to and including March 31, 1943. It is cus¬
tomary to give preference to scientists connected with the smaller institutions
of the state.

Requests for grants should be accompanied by a brief statement of the
training and experience of the applicant, the purpose of the investigation,
and the estimated cost. Previous publications should be listed. At least two
letters of recommendation should be transmitted directly by their authors.
Correspondence may be addressed to L. H. Tiffany, Northwestern University.
Evanston, Illinois.

SECTION CHAIRMEN FOR 1942-1943

Agriculture

Anthropology

Botany

Chemistry

Geography

Geology

Physics

Psychology
and Education

Social Science

Zoology

0. L. Whalln, 111 New Agr., U. of I., Urbana.

Ben Nussbaum, Fairbury

K. Richard Johnson, National College of Education, Evans¬
ton.

H. W. Gould, Northern Illinois State Teachers College,
De Kalb.

L. A. Holmes, State Normal University, Normal.

W. E. Powers, Dept, of Geology, Northwestern University,
Evanston.

F. W. Cooke, Illinois College, Jacksonville.

L. A. Pennington, Physiological Psych. Lab., U. of I., Urbana.
V. Dake Jolley, Wheaton College.

H. H. Ross, Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana.

SUSTAINING MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY

Atlas Electric Devices Co., 361 Superior St., Chicago.

Central Scientific Co., 1700 Irving Park Rd., Chicago.

Chicago Apparatus Co., 1735 N. Ashland Ave., Chicago.

Chicago Biological Round Table, Lake View H. S., Chicago.

Kenneth R. Coe Biological Co., 2024 Sunnyside, Chicago.

Gaertner Scientific Corp., 1201 Wrightwood Ave., Chicago.

General Biological Supply House, 761 East 69th St., Chicago.

Sigma Xi, University of Illinois Chapter, Urbana.

Morton Geological Club, Cicero.

W. M. Welch, Welch Mfg. Oo., 1515 Sedgwick, Chicago.

Illinois Association of Chemistry Teachers, S. A. Chester, Treas., Chicago.
Illinois Mining Institute, B. F. Schonthal, Sec’y., 28 E. Jackson Blvd.,
Chicago.

Rockford Senior High School Zoology Club, Rockford.

1943 MEETING: JACKSONVILLE, MAY 7-8

[30]

PAPERS IN AGRICULTURE

From the Report oe the Section Chairman

Eleven papers were presented at the Urbana meeting, 8 of which are
herewith published. The others were :

Spencer, E. R., McKendree College, Lebanon, Ill— The Practical Side of
the Nitrogen Cycle.

Dorsey, M. J., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill —The use of genetics in
solving the variety problem for peach growers.

Roberts, E., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. — Cross-breeding in swine.

Thirty attended the meeting and elected 0. L. Whalin, University of
Illinois, chairman for 1942-43 meeting at Jacksonville.

(Signed) C. H. Oathout, Chairman

GERMINATION STUDIES OF BROMEGRASS SEED,
BROMUS INERMIS LEYSS

R. F. Fuelleman and W. L. Burlison
University of Illinois, Uriana, Illinois

Difficulties attending the seeding of
bromegrass have given impetus to investi¬
gations of methods of processing brome¬
grass seed to facilitate its seeding with
ordinary farm machinery. The seed is
relatively large and light in weight.
Caryopses are rather loosely held within
the lemma and palea. Both of the latter
are nearly equal in size and the paleas
are slightly ciliated. Caryopses are
slightly curved, with the point of attach¬
ment to the rachilla rather abruptly
turned in. This brief description is in¬
cluded in an attempt to better illustrate
the reasons for difficulties encountered in
seeding and processing the seed without
damage.

Farmers have been hesitant to use this
excellent forage grass because it has
necessitated the use of a vehicle to carry
it through ordinary seed drills. Attempts
to seed it alone with a drill usually
results in “bridging,” and a nonuniform
seeding results. Various agitator attach¬
ments have been recommended but most
drills are not constructed to use these
agitators. This has made hand seeding
necessary. Here again, considerable diffi¬
culty is encountered in obtaining uniform
seedings of bromegrass, particularly on
windy days. This paper reports some
results of germination studies in the
greenhouse with untreated bromegrass
seed, hulled seed, and seed from which
the hulls were removed by abrasive
action. Treatment was intended as a
means of facilitating easy and effective
seeding. The effect of depth of planting
is also considered and reported.

Source of Seed and Treatment _ The

seed used in these experiments was pro¬
duced in southeastern Illinois, on the
Agronomy South Farm at Urbana in 1941,
and at the Soil Conservation Service
regional nursery located at Elsberry,
Missouri.*

Three lots of seed were used in the so-
called treatment tests: Lot 1, seed not
subjected to special processing or selec-i
tion — whole seeds taken from an ordinary
lot of seed ; Lot 2, naked caryopses
selected from seed after it had passed
through the combine; and Lot 3, hulled
seed from which lemmas and paleas were
removed by using an abrasive. In pre¬
paring the hulled seed, sandpaper was
first used, but it proved to be too severe.
This method seriously damaged most of
the caryopses. In the second method, the !
lemmas and paleas were removed by
means of rubber buffers. No observable
damage to caryopses occurred with this
method. The third method utilized a
hammer-mill, a machine first used ex¬
perimentally for commercial seed treat¬
ment. A fourth method consisted of
rubbing seed gently between a wood block
and a stone table top.

Untreated seed from Lot 1 was used in
depth of germination experiments. Whole
seeds were planted on greenhouse benches
at depths of %, %, %, 1, 1%, and 1 % ■
inches. Germination counts and measure¬
ments of seedling growth were made, i
Temperature, moisture, and light condi- I ]
tions were the same for all depths of
planting.

Results of Germination Tests Treatment

Series — Germination percentages of the
different lots of seed were closely related
to the severity of treatment. Whole seed,
or seed that retained the lemmas and
paleas, gave normal germination under I
greenhouse conditions. A slight drop in
germination during the period from
January 8 to 20 was due to slightly lower
temperatures in the greenhouse, and coin¬
cided with low outdoor temperatures.
This lot of seed was of high quality and
good germinability (See Table 1) _

The second lot of seed, selected from
the first lot, but with lemmas and paleas

* Acknowledgment is made to Mr. Walter Newlin of Casey, Illinois, for seed and his deep
interest in these investigations ; also to Mr. C. J. Coukos, Soil Conservation Service, Elsberry,
Missouri.

[33]

Agriculture — 191$ Meeting

absent, gave an average germination con¬
siderably lower than the first All condi¬
tions were similar to those of the first
lot. The seed was accidently hulled in
the process of combining. Examination
of the caryopses showed no observable
damage which might account for lowered
germination.

The third lot consisted of seed from
which lemmas and paleas were removed
either by (1) rubbing with sandpaper —
obviously too severe, (2) the use of a
rubber buffer, (3) the hammer-mill, or

(4) rubbing with a board on a smooth
concrete slab. Methods 1 and 3 proved
most damaging (Table 1). The hammer-
mill was previously considered as having
the greatest potential use in seed process¬
ing but these results indicate that it is
too severe, destroying the viability of a
large percentage of seeds. From the
practical point of view, the second
method, i. e., using a rubber buffer, has
more potentialities than any method of
treatment by which the chaffy and light
seed coverings are removed.

Table 1. — Percentage Germination of Seedlings at the End of Each 12-Day Period

Sample no.

Period

Replications1

Av6r3^G

1

2

3

4

5

Whole Seed Germinations

1 . . . .

11/8—11/21 . .

pet.

96

pet.

80

pet.

96

pet.

96

pet.

86

pet.

90.8

2 _ _

12/1 — 12/12. .

96

94

92

92

92

93.2

3 . .

1/8— 1/20. .

92

86

80

92

96

89.2

4 . .

2/2— 2/14 .

90

96

98

96

94

94.8

Hulled Seed Germinations

1 _ _ _

11/8—11/21 _ _

74

72

86

80

86

77.6

2 . .

12/1—12/12 . . .

80

86

86

76

74

80.4

3

1/8— 1/20 . . .

58

66

68

58

48

59.6

4 _

2/2— 2/14. .

70

70

78

68

60

69.2

Damaged Seed Germinations

1 . ...

11/8—11/21 . .

6

2

6

8

12

6.82

2 . . .

12/1—12/12... .

46

40

60

68

68

56.43

3 _ _

1/8— 1/20 . .

22

30

34

18

26

26. 04

4 _

2/2— 2/14 .

70

70

78

68

60

69. 45

1 Each replication consists of 50 seeds.

2 Sandpaper.

3 Rubber buffer.

4 Hammer-mill.

5 Rubbed with board on concrete.

Seedling Growth — Height of seedlings
in centimeters is not a direct indication
of seed treatment but apparently com¬
bines the effect of interactions of temper¬
ature, light, and moisture. Seedling
heights of the three lots of seed are
shown in Table 2. Germination and
height of seedlings seem to be related
although it is probable this relationship
would diminish with time under green¬
house conditions. Under field conditions,
the stronger initial growth of seedlings
may well favor more rapid establishment,
an important factor in economical pas¬
ture husbandry.

Depth of Planting — Rates of seeding
bromegrass as well as other species are
usually heavy enough to care for varia¬
tions in soil, seedbed, and climatic factors.
Much seed is planted too deeply and re¬
sults in uneven stands due to failure of
the plants to emerge. Seed size obviously

is important. Bromegrass seed is large
and can be planted at greater depths than
the smaller seeded species, such as red-
top, Agrostis alba, or Kentucky bluegrass,
Poa pratensis.

In this experiment, bromegrass was
planted at depths of 1/4, V2, SA, 1, 1 %, and
1 y2 inches, respectively. Emergence of
seedlings did not vary greatly with the
first four depths; however, the emergence
percentage was distinctly lower with the
1 % and 1 y2 inch depths.

Conclusions — Within the scope of these
experiments certain conclusions are ap¬
parent: (1) Untreated seed (unhulled)

is definitely higher in germination than
hulled seed (naked caryopses) regardless
of how the hull was removed. (2) Seed
planted at depths greater than one inch
is lower in emergence than seed planted
at shallower depths.

34 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Table 2. — Seedling Growth in Centimeters as Measured During Germination Periods

Table 3. — Germination of Bromegrass Seed When Planted at Varying Depths

Depth of planting
inches

Replications1

Average

S. D.

1

2

3

4

5

1

Perct. germination

90

96

98

96

94

94.8

2.71

Seedling height, cm.. . .

6.0

6.0

6.6

6.3

6.3

i _ _

Perct. germination

96

88

98

92

90

92.4

3.74

Seedling height, cm _ _ .

5.8

5.5

5.4

5.7

5.8

3

Perct. germination

96

98

98

90

94

94.2

2.98

_ _ _ _

Seedling height, cm _ _

4.7

4.6

4.7

5.0

5.2

1 _

Perct. germination

98

88

90

90

82

89.6

5.12

Seedling height, cm _

4.8

4.8

5.0

4.8

4.8

li _ _

Perct. germination. . .

82

82

88

84

86

84.8

2.35

Seedling height, cm _

4.4

5.0

4.6

4.1

4.8

li .

Perct. germination

86

74

78

82

72

78.4

3.96

Seedling height, cm _

4.9

3.9

4.6

4.4

4.0

1 Each replication consists of 50 seeds.

Agriculture — 19Jf2 Meeting

35

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN IMPROVEMENT OF
PASTURES FOR DAIRY CATTLE

W. B. Nevens

University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois

Seven years’ trials at the Illinois Sta¬
tion with pasture crops for dairy cattle
have shown possibilities for greatly in¬
creasing (a) the length of the pasture
season; (b) the yield of pastures; and
(c) the length of time fresh green pas¬
tures are available, as compared with
ordinary bluegrass pastures. These re¬
sults have been accomplished through
(a) selection of suitable, high-yielding
pasture crops; (b) good grazing manage¬
ment; (c) adequate and regular fertiliza¬
tion; and (d) persistent weed control.

High-producing pasture crops studied in
the trials were alfalfa, bromegrass, a
mixture of Sudan grass and soybeans,
sweet clover, and winter rye. It has been
found advantageous to grow a number of
these crops simultaneously in separate
fields and to pasture them in rotation or
when the crops are at their best stages
for pasturing.

Application of a nitrogen fertilizer to
bluegrass pastures increased (a) the
nitrogen content and (b) the palatability
of the grass. An explanation for the
greater palatability of the fertilized grass
is the higher moisture content of the fer¬
tilized crop.

A study of thirty-seven comparisons of
the dry matter of bluegrass taken from
fertilized and from unfertilized pasture
plots shows that in all but four cases the
grass from the fertilized plots was lower
in dry matter content (and thus higher
in moisture content) than the grass on
the unfertilized area. Of these four in¬
stances two occurred in August of 1940,
an unusually dry season, when pastures
were almost bare. An analysis of the
data by the method of Student indicates
a statistically significant difference in the
dry matter contents of the fertilized and
unfertilized grass. A summary of the

DRY MATTER CONTENT OF FERTILIZED
AND OF UNFERTILIZED SLUE GRASS

Averages of 4 fertilized, S unfertilized plots
3/8 separate determinations of dry matter

0 Fertilized
WUn fertilized

£

L

I

SO

40

30

20

10

JJS JJ MJJA S JJA S JJA S MJJA S M JJA MJJA A MJJA S

mO /74/ , 1^39 /94-Q" 194-/ 1939 /^fO 1*14-1 _ _

' W SAMPLES B" SAMPLES 9C ' SAMPLES

Fig. 1.— Over a 3-year period, fertilized bluegrass had a lower dry-matter content
(remained greener) than unfertilized bluegrass.

36

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

data is presented in chart form in Figure
1. It is believed, therefore, that the main
reason cattle select fertilized areas of
pastures for grazing, in preference to un¬
fertilized areas, is the higher moisture
content of the fertilized crop. Other
factors also may be operative, but these
are believed to be of less importance
than the dry matter content.

Further evidence that the dry matter
content is the factor of principal impor¬
tance in determining palatability of pas¬
ture crops is found in a study of the dry
matter content of a number of pasture
crops used in our trials. Samples taken
during the months of April to September,
inclusive, over a five-year period, show
that bluegrass contains more than 30
per cent dry matter thruout a large por¬
tion of the pasture season, while a Sudan

grass-soybean pasture rarely reached 30
per cent dry matter. There is a close
relation between dry matter content and
palatability, the crops lowest in dry mat¬
ter, as a rule, being most palatable.
(Table 1.)

Table 1. — Dry Matter Content of Pas¬
ture Samples

Crop

No. of
determi¬

Samples over 30
percent dry matter

nations

Number

Per cent

Alfalfa _

71

17

24

Bluegrass _ _

389

359

92

Brome grass _ _

30

9

30

Sweet clover . .

16

6

38

Sudan grass— soybeans.

38

1

3

THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FARM CROPS AS
AFFECTED BY SOIL TYPE AND TREATMENT

H. J. Snider

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Farm crops in Illinois are grown on
soils representing a large variation in
natural fertility. Little attention has
been given the probable effect that these
various levels of soil fertility might have
on the quality of these crops. Soil treat¬
ment, such as adding limestone, phos¬
phates, potash, and legumes, has reached
such proportions as to have a decided
effect on the production of total crops in
the state. Soil treatment is considered
almost solely from the standpoint of in¬
creasing acre yields. The factor of
quality which might be affected by the
fertility of soils is as a rule not con¬
sidered.

A recent publication, “Building Better
Pastures/’* contains some statements
which are highly pertinent to the con¬
servation of soil fertility and which
sooner or later must be given considera¬
tion by all who are interested in farm
production. Some of these statements
follow: “Good livestock are seldom found
in poor soil areas.” “Many soils are de¬
ficient in plant food elements, and as a
result grass is poor and this deficiency is

transferred to animals.” “The relation¬
ship between soil fertility and health of
livestock has been well established by
research.” “The object of this publica¬
tion is to supply information regarding
pastures to horsemen and stockmen
throughout the continent, and in this con¬
nection these statements are of great
significance.”

It is the object of this paper to present
briefly chemical data which supply infor¬
mation along the lines of the above quo¬
tations and limited to Illinois soil condi¬
tions. It is not always possible in
chemical work to select all of the con¬
stituents which may cause human beings
or animals to flourish or not to flourish
on certain foods or feeds. It is possible,
however, by chemical methods to show
deficiencies or abundance of certain con¬
stituents or elements which may have
considerable nutritive value. Protein is
one of the important constituents of foods
and its presence often determines the
value of the product. Phosphorus is one
of the important mineral elements and its
deficiency has frequently led to disastrous

* By W. Li. Burlison and R. F. Fuelleman, published by the Horse and Mule Association
of America.

Agriculture— 19 Meeting

results in animal nutrition. This discus¬
sion will be limited to these two con¬
stituents of foods and feeds.

Experimental Results. — The results from
three experimental fields are shown in
Table 1; one field represents an inter¬
mediate while the other two fields repre¬
sent almost two extremes in soil fertility.
The composition of Kentucky bluegrass
grown on these soils is also included.
The Elizabethtown field represents Ava
silt loam with a total nitrogen content of
1,580 pounds an acre on untreated soil.
This soil produced bluegrass which had a
protein content of 136 pounds per ton and
a phosphorus content of 1.6 pounds per
ton of air-dry hay. The Clayton field
which represents Harrison silt loam con¬
taining 3,600 pounds an acre of total
nitrogen produced bluegrass which con¬
tained 150 pounds of protein and 3.2
pounds of phosphorus per ton of air-dry
hay The Easton field representing the
more fertile Harpster clay loam produced
bluegrass which contained 162 pounds of
protein and 3.6 pounds of phosphorus per
ton of hay. The Kentucky bluegrass
grown on the Harpster clay loam con¬
tained approximately 19 per cent more
protein and 125 per cent more phosphorus
than did the hay from the low fertility
Ava silt loam which is typical of a large
area of the southern Illinois hill lands.
When differences of such high propor¬
tions as these are found it is not unlikely
that animals fed too long on this phos¬
phorus-deficient grass may suffer from
diseases peculiar to such a deficiency.

The results for the bluegrass on the
treated soils for the three fields were not
exactly comparable because of variations
in the amounts and kinds of fertilizers
used. However, these results do indicate
the enormous possibilities of these soils
when well treated. The protein content
was more than doubled by the use of
nitrogen fertilizers while the phosphorus

content on the Ava soil was doubled by
the use of phosphate fertilization. Am¬
monium sulfate supplied the nitrogen
fertilizer at Easton and Clayton while
sodium nitrate was used at Elizabeth¬
town. Superphosphate supplied the phos¬
phorus at Elizabethtown and Clayton
while at Easton the phosphorus was sup¬
plied by soybean meal.

The Kentucky bluegrass from the three
fields (Table 1) was harvested at approx¬
imately the same stage of growth— full
maturity. It is not probable that any
considerable part of the differences was
due to variations in the stages of growth
of the grass.

The hay values in Table 1 are based
alone on protein content at five cents per
pound. This value is obtained from the
market price of high-protein feeds such
as tankage, soybean meal, alfalfa meal,
etc.

The results in Table 2 show that soils
in a relatively low state of fertility do
not always produce grain of a low feed¬
ing value. The Kewanee field represent¬
ing Muscatine silt loam with a total
nitrogen content of 7,720 pounds an acre
produced corn grain with 2.35 per cent
less protein than that on the Enfield field.
The last named field represented Bluford
silt loam with a total nitrogen content of
3,100 pounds an acre. On the basis of the
above protein content and valuation, the
corn from the Enfield field was worth six
and one-half cents per bushel more than
the corn from the more fertile Kewanee
soil. The Enfield grain had also a
slightly better phosphorus content.

In this experiment, hybrid corn was
used with identical soil treatment
(RLPK) consisting of residues, lime¬
stone, rock phosphate, and potash.

Phosphorus and protein content of
wheat grain, presented in Table 3, shows
a decidedly lower content for grain
grown on soils of relatively low levels of

Table 1.

—Composition of Kentucky Bluegrass From Three Distinct Fertility
Levels Representing Both Treated and Untreated Soils

Experiment field

Soil

Total N

Hay — Untreated soil

Hay — Treated soil

Protein

Ton

value

Phos.

Protein

Ton

value

Phos.

Elizabethtown .

Clayton . - . .

Easton . . . -

lbs./A.

1580

3600

4800

lbs./T.

136

150

162

$6.80

"7.50

8.10

lbs./T.

1.6

3.2

3.6

lbs./T.

151

226

355

$ 7.55
11.30
17.75

lbs./T.

3.2

5.8

5.0

38

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Table 2. — Protein and Phosphorus Content of Corn Grain From Two Soils With

Identical Treatment

Experiment field

Soil

Soil

Corn

Protein

Phosphorus

Lbs./bu.

treatment

Total N

grain

Perct.

Lbs./bu.

Kewanee _ _

RLPK

lbs. /A.
7720
3100

bu./A.

91

82

9.25

11.60

.14

.15

Enfield _ _ _ _

RLPK .

5.2

6.5

fertility. The Minonk field representing
Drummer clay loam with a high nitrogen
and phosphorus content on untreated land
produced wheat grain which had 57
per cent more phosphorus and 13 per cent
more protein than wheat grown on the
Toledo field which represents Cisne silt
loam with a relatively low nitrogen and
phosphorus content.

Soil treatment which included a phos¬
phate fertilizer gave an increase in phos¬
phorus content of the grain of 64.2
per cent on the less fertile Cisne silt
loam, while on the more fertile Drummer
clay loam there was no apparent effect
of the treatment on the phosphorus con¬
tent of the wheat grain.

These data, although somewhat limited
in scope, indicate that a decidedly un¬
favorable nutritional condition may exist
in both food material and animal feeds
due to low levels of fertility elements in
our soils.

The above quotations regarding the
effect of soils on the health and welfare
of animals may appear to involve rather
serious problems. We may be inclined to
believe that these statements apply to
some far-removed part of the country and
dismiss them as problems which do not
concern us directly. However, even a
limited study of Illinois soil conditions
indicates that the foregoing statements,
serious as they may be, may at some time
apply directly here in this state.

Table 3. — Phosphorus and Protein Content of Wheat Grain From Two Soils

Treated and Untreated

Experiment field

Untreated soil

Phosphorus content of grain

Protein content

Total N

Phos.

Untreated

Treated

Increase

Untreated

Treated

Minonk . .

lbs./A.

6320

lbs./A.

130

18

lbs./bu.

.22

.14

lbs./bu.

.22

.23

perct.

0

aA O

lbs./bu.

•7 Q

lbs./bu.

Toledo _

2480

4.0

a n

7.9

o.y

6.9

' Agriculture— 19^2 Meeting

39

WHAT ARE WE DOING WITH CASTOR BEANS?

W. L. Burlison and R. F. Fuelleman
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

The castor bean, fruit of Ricinus com¬
munis, a species belonging to the spurge
family (Euphorbiaceae), has been culti¬
vated for various purposes since Biblical
times. It is the Palma Christa of the
Egyptians, sometimes referred to as
Jacob's gourd, and was the source of oil
used in making papyrus. Ricinus is a
Latin term meaning dog-tick, which the
seed was thought to resemble.

Although the original habitat of this
species was Africa, commercial produc¬
tion was and still is centered in Brazil
and British India. Most North American
supplies have been imported from Brazil.
During the 19th century a number of at¬
tempts were made to introduce commer¬
cial production in the United States, par¬
ticularly in southern areas. Between
1860 and 1916 castor beans were grown as
a farm crop in some sections of Kansas,
Oklahoma, Missouri, and Illinois. In 1879
Kansas produced a total of 750,000
bushels.1 In 1918 castor beans were
grown in many southern and western
states to provide oil for special purposes.
Several thousand tons were produced, but
following the war importations increased
and domestic interest declined. Since
then a few beans have been grown, chiefly
for experimental purposes.

Adaptation _ The crop is adapted to a

wide range of soil and climatic conditions.
Commercial production, however, is con¬
fined within the territory south of the 38
parallel of latitude.

Observations indicate that on rich soils
castor bean plants grow vegetatively
without a corresponding production of
seed. On soils of average fertility, seed
yields are more closely correlated with
vegetative growth.

Commercial varieties are for the most
part annuals attaining an average height
of approximately six feet in south central
Illinois. Seeds are about the size of large
beans and contain from 35 to 55 per cent

oil. These beans are found in spiny pods
with a ratio of 65 to 80 per cent bean to
hull by weight.

Composition of Castor Bean Plant and
Oil. — The castor bean plant contains a
substance, ricin, which is considered as
having potential use in insecticides. In
addition to oil, the seeds contain an
alkaloid, ricinine, a poisonous substance
belonging to the heterocyclic series of
compounds of the pyridine group. The
composition was determined by synthesis
by Spath and Koller.2 Castor oil contains
a considerable percentage of the esterols
of palmitic acid and ricinoleic acid, the
latter having a replaceable hydroxyl
group. This is mentioned because this
factor is important in the dehydration
process and its subsequent use as a dry¬
ing oil.

Castor oil is a viscous liquid of the
fixed oil group having a specific gravity
of 0.958 to 0.968 at 15° C. The iodine
number is 82 to 90, and the saponification
value is 177 to 187. It is soluble in alco¬
hol, ether, and petroleum ether.3

Imports of Castor Beans and Utilization

of Oil _ Imports of castor beans increased

very materially during 1940, reflecting a
growing demand for castor oil for indus¬
trial use. See Table I.

Small quantities of castor oil are used
for medicinal purposes, but most of the
oil is used in the manufacturing and
processing of industrial products such as
artificial leather, soap, ink, linoleum,
lubricants, paints, varnishes, and for use
in dyeing fabrics. During World War I,
castor oil was used extensively as a lubri¬
cant for airplane motors. It still has a
place as a special lubricant and as a
recoil absorbing liquid in armaments.

Investigations on Castor Beans and Oil.

_ Research on the castor bean is divided

into agricultural and industrial investi¬
gations. It is difficult to separate these
phases along clear-cut lines for both are

1 Crooks and Sievers. Mimeo. pub. U.S.D. A.

2 DeAlbe, Heterocyclic Compounds,

2 Jamieson, Geo. S„ Vegetable Fats and Oils,
rk. 1932.

The Chemical Catalog Company, Inc., New

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Table 1. — Imports of Castor Beans and
Estimated Utilization of Castor Oil

Year

Imports of
castor beans

Consumption
by drying
industries

1935 . .

1000 lbs.
77,049
164,077
146,808
114,072
162,611
237,789

1000 lbs.

9 8*8

1936 . .

o, ooo
4 7Q4

1937 .

7 799

1938 .

a fi43

1939 . .

O, Uio

1 1 844

1940 .

1 1 , Oli

24,858

interdependent. Agricultural research is
concerned particularly with the produc¬
tion of the crop, including studies of en¬
vironment, varieties and their soil
adaptation, oil production, composition,
cultural methods, and the development of
machinery for harvesting. This brief
statement encompasses a far-reaching
program of agricultural research which
eventually purposes to care for the war¬
time needs of the nation.

Research in industrial-chemurgical
chemistry employs a utilization of prac¬
tically all raw materials making up any
part of the castor bean plant.

What Are We Doing With Castor
Beans? — The Illinois Agricultural Experi¬
ment Station began preliminary work on
this crop in 1938 with some large flower¬
ing varieties which were unsatisfactory

in maturity and yield. In 1939, three
varieties were obtained from the U. S.
Department of Agriculture and one from
Kansas. Small test plantings were made
and the beans harvested. Increased
plantings of these varieties were made in
1940. In 1941, a number of new varieties
were obtained. These were included in
the tests which were made at several loca¬
tions in south central and southern Illi¬
nois. Yield data from three locations are
shown in Table 2.

In addition to beans, in 1941 stalks
were also harvested. Field observations
have indicated these stems were strong
and fibrous. Sample yields, following a
period of field curing and drying, aver¬
aged approximately 5,000 pounds for all
varieties. This material has considerable
promise for use in the manufacture of
paper boxes.

Plant Breeders Work on Improvement.
—A number of important factors con¬
tribute to the difficulties of economical
production of castor beans. A few are
included here: (1) Nonuniform ma¬
turity, making it difficult to harvest all
beans in a single picking; (2) tendency
to shatter; (3) nonuniform height; and
(4) some promising varieties mature too
late in northern areas. The time elapsed
since the initiation of this work has been
too short for workers to obtain little

Table 2.— Castor Bean Yields for 1939, 1940, and 1941 at Urbana, Dixon Springs,

and Alhambra, Illinois

Yield

Variety

1939

1940

1941

Average

Urbana — Central Illinois

Arlington .

U. S. 4 .

u. s. 7 . . . ;;;;

Kansas Common _

San Benita _

lb/A

466

701

1149.6

1175.2

lb/A

1015.0

1081.9

1052.0

1137.0

Conner Type (Texas).
Conner Type (Mo.)._.
Doughty 11 (Texas)..
MG Kentucky . .

lb/A

1554

1376

1624

1570

1684

1544

1296

1738

1596

lb/A

1012

1053

1275

1294

1684

1544

1296

1738

1596

Dixon Springs — Southern Illinois

Kansas Common . . . .

Arlington .

USD A 4 . .

usd a 7 . ;;;;;;;;;;;;

495.0

525.0

490.0

332.0

548.0

615.0

595.0

672.0

521.5
570.0

542.5
502.0

Alhambra — Southwestern Illinois

Kansas Common _

U. S. 7 .

u. s. 4 . ;;;;;;;;;;;;;

Arlington _ _ _

MG Kentucky . . . . . ’

Conner Type (Texas) . . . .

Conner Type (Mo.) . . . .

824.0

824

1016.0

1016

746.0

746

904.0

904

952.0

952

840.0

840

820.0

820

41

Agriculture — 191$ Meeting

more than an indication of definite favor¬
able trends which should lead to a solu¬
tion of these problems.

Culture and Harvesting Castor Beans.
— The planting and subsequent cultivation
of castor beans are similar to corn, but
the harvesting operations are more diffi¬
cult. Significant research on better
methods and means of harvesting and
threshing this crop is under way.

In Illinois, castor beans are usually
planted during May, depending upon soils
and climatic conditions. Hand corn
planters have been used, but it is pos¬
sible to utilize regular corn planting ma¬
chinery by substituting plates of correct
sizes in the drill boxes. Rows are usually
40-42 inches wide, and plants are spaced
either 36 or 40 inches in the row.
Germination and emergence require ap¬
proximately two weeks. Weeds are con¬
trolled by two or three cultivations with
the corn cultivator; however, little care
is necessary until harvest time after the
plants have attained a height of 18-24
inches.

Combines have been used and show
considerable promise that field harvesting
will replace hand picking. A number of
hulling machines have been built for re¬
moving beans from the capsules. The
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station
evolved a small experimental huller
which has been satisfactory. This prob¬
lem is well on the way to a solution.

Agronomic research as proposed for
1942 is both intensive and extensive. A
number of experiment stations are work¬
ing in cooperation with the U. S. Depart¬
ment of Agriculture in a series of studies
including the following: (1) Variety
studies in 22 states; (2) planting dates in
five states; and (3) spacing tests in five
states. These are in addition to genetic
studies already initiated.

Castor beans, as a crop, have shown
the most promise in the large area be¬
tween the cotton belt on the south and
the corn belt on the north, centered near
the southern tip of Illinois. It is realized
that competition with other crops for
space and labor limits this crop to the
designated area.

42

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

RELATIVE PHOTOSYNTHETIC CAPACITY OF STALKS,
LEAF SHEATHS, AND LEAF BLADES IN MAIZE AS
MEASURED BY THE CONTRIBUTION EACH MAKES
TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRAIN

George H. Dungan

University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois

From the extreme reduction in grain
yield associated with the removal of all
blades (1, 2, 3) from maize plants one
might conclude that no filling of the
grain takes place after defoliation. In
order to get data on this question a field
trial was made using U. S. Hybrid 13
(WF9 x 38-11) (Hy x L317) in the sum¬
mer of 1941 at Urbana, Illinois.

In a block of two-plant hills twenty
were selected which contained plants of
approximately equal size. On August 15,
when the kernels were in the roasting-ear
or milk stage, the ear from the north or
west plant in each hill was harvested.
The ear on the other stalk was allowed to
mature before it was harvested. From
another group of twenty twin-plant hills
both the blade and the sheath were re¬
moved from the north or west stalk.
(Fig. 1) The other plant in these hills
was uninjured. Ears from both -were left
on the stalks until normal time of
harvest. From another group of twenty
selected hills the north or west plant was
treated by removal of the blades only.
The neighbor plant in each hill of this
group served as an untreated check.

Each ear was harvested in mid-Novem¬
ber and tagged separately so that the

yield of the treated plants could be com¬
pared with that of the untreated checks
in the same hill. The results are pre¬
sented in Table 1.

Fig. 1. — Stalks of corn illustrating- both
blades and sheaths removed (left) ; blades
removed but sheath intact (center) ; and
both blades and sheath intact (right).
(Drawing by Dr. Carl Mohr).

Table 1. — Yields of Cork Plants Treated When the Kernels Were in the Milk
Stage by (1) Harvesting Ears, (2) Removing Both Blades and Sheaths, and (3)
Removing the Blades Only Compared With Normal Uninjured Plants. Urbana,
1941.

Treatment applied when kernels on the ears
were in the milk stage

Yield per acre

Test weight
per bushel

Weight of
1000 kernels

Shelled corn

Cobs

Harvested ears . .

bu.

19.7*

26.8

30.0

81.1

lbs.

690.8*

621.3

630.7

843.2

lbs.

38.7

45.8

47.9

58.9

gms.

88.2

104.0

126.1

295.4

All blades and sheaths removed. _

All blades removed.. ... _ _

None (normal, uninjured plants) _ .

* Italicized data were accompanied by odds according to Student’s method high enough to indicate distinct
significance as compared with the untreated check.

Agriculture — 19J/£ Meeting

Yield of shelled corn (Fig. 2) was
lowest when the ears were harvested on
the day the other plants were defoliated.
This yield was about 7 bushels an acre
lower than that obtained from plants
having both blades and sheaths removed.
The source of this greater yield may be
in the photosynthesis by the chloroplasts
in the green stalk, and in the transloca¬
tion of reserve materials from the stalk
and cob after the leaves were removed.

The yield of plants carrying leaf
sheaths, but no blades, was a little over
3 bushels an acre more than that of
plants from which both the sheaths and
blades were cut away. This difference
represents the photosynthetic activity of
the sheaths. Taking off all blades at this
stage of ear development lowered the
yield 51 bushels an acre compared with
plants on which the blades were allowed
to remain.

The weight of cobs was about 70
pounds an acre greater when the ears
were harvested in the milk stage than
when all the blades and sheaths were re¬
moved at that stage. This indicates that
the cobs of early harvested ears may have

contained some grain-forming materials
which, because of being removed from
the stalk, were not translocated to the
kernels.

Compared with ears harvested in the
milk stage, ears left on stalks which were
deprived of both blades and sheaths
showed an increase in grain yield of 36
per cent, a decrease in cob weight of 10
per cent, an increase in bushel weight of
18 per cent, and an increase in weight of
1,000 kernels of 18 per cent. Leaving the
ears on stalks from which the blades only
were removed was associated with an in¬
crease in grain yield of 52 .per cent, a de¬
crease in cob weight of almost 9 per cent,
and increase in weight per bushel and
weight of 1,000 kernels of 24 and 43
per cent, respectively. Permitting the
ears to remain on uninjured stalks until
complete maturity increased the yield of
shelled corn 312 per cent, the weight of
cobs 22 per cent, the bushel weight 52
per cent, and the weight of 1,000 kernels
235 per cent.

Thus, the yield of shelled corn was
made up of contributions as follows: 36'
per cent from the green stalk alone, 17

am jH

wjjt 1KH9I hHKct *

i IB

WBk flD

mk m

iiik nn i

L WSBA. ill

Fig, 2. — Representative kernels of maize produced by plants treated when the grain
was in the milk stage by (A) harvesting the ears, (B) removing both blades and sheaths,
(C) removing the blades, in comparison with (D) normal mature kernels produced on
non-defoliated plants.

44

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

per cent from the leaf sheaths alone, and
259 per cent from the leaf blades alone.
Considering only the development made
after treatment, the bare stalk was re¬
sponsible for 11.5 per cent, the leaf
sheaths for 5.5 per cent, and the leaf
blades for 83.0 per cent of the increase in
yield of shelled corn.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Dungan, George H. Losses to the corn
crop caused by leaf injury. Plant Phy¬
siology 9:749-766, 1934.

2. Eldredge, J. C. Hail damage to corn.

Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 348. pp. 3 OS-
322. 1936.

3. Hume, A. N. and Franzke, Clifford. The
effect of certain injuries to leaves of corn
plants upon weights of grain produced.
Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 21 :1156-1164,
1929.

WAR PRODUCTION AND SOIL CONSERVATION IN

ILLINOIS

Oren L. Whalin

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

If “food will win the war and write the
peace,” as the Secretary of Agriculture
has said, Illinois farmers have a very im¬
portant part to play in accomplishing the
desired result. Farmers are being asked
to increase production, especially of ani¬
mal products — milk, eggs, pork, lard,
beef; vegetable oils — soybeans, peanuts,
flax; and vegetables. The increases are
needed both for domestic consumption
and for use of the allies. Not only is Illi¬
nois an important livestock state, but is
very important in both corn, the leading
feed grain, and in soybean production.

Illinois crop acreage has been shifting
from more erosion-causing crops to
erosion-control or prevention crops since
the AAA program came into existence.
The accompanying table lists the impor¬
tant Illinois crop acreage for the 1930-32
period, 1941 and intended for 1942.
Under the AAA program corn and small
grain acreage decreased and hay and ro¬
tation pasture increased, up through 1941.

Soybeans increased greatly during this
period, partly because of the AAA pro¬
gram and partly as the natural develop¬
ment of this new crop. (See Table 1.)

The shift in crop acreage was accom¬
panied by increased yields so that total
production was maintained. This acre¬
age shift, accomplished through the
emphasis of the AAA, the Soil Conserva¬
tion Service, and the teachings of the
Agricultural Extension Service, was ac¬
companied by increased use of limestone,
contour farming, terracing and deep
rooted legumes. Limestone use averaged
405,000 tons for the state for the period
1930-32, compared with 2,650,000 tons in
1941. Alfalfa hay increased from an
average of 253,000 acres for the period
1930-32 to 583,000 acres in 1941. The
sweet clover acreage increased from an
average of 835,000 acres for 1930-32 to
1,243,000 acres in 1941. Illinois farm ad¬
visers reported that 66,000 acres were
contour farmed and 30,000 acres were

Table 1. — Acreage of Important Crops in Illinois, 1930-32, 1941, and 1942 Intentions

Crop

1930-32

1941

1942 Intentions

Corn _

9,603,000

1,932,000

4,337,000

343,000

810,000

2,554,000

7,645,000

1,776,000

3,584,000

135,000

2,743,000

2,698,000

8,027,000

1,226,000

3,571,000

200,000

3,703,000

2,750,000

Wheat _ - -- - _ _ _ - _

Oats _ _

Barley _ _

Soybeans alone _ _

Tame Hay _ _

Total _ _ _

19,579,000

18,581,000

19,477,000

Corn and Soybeans _

10,413,000

6,612,000

10,388,000

5,495,000

11,730,000

4,997,000

Small Grains _ - _

Agriculture — 191$ Meeting

terraced in 1941. The use of phosphates
increased greatly also. Erosion was def¬
initely being checked, fertility was being
improved and crop yields were increasing
as a result of the shifts being made in
Illinois farming.

Under the war production program
goals have been set for 1942. Increases
were asked for most crops and for all
livestock and livestock products. Two
important exceptions in 1942 were wheat
and oats. The wheat supply was exces¬
sive and soybean increases were being
asked for in place of part of the oat
acreage.

Farmers’ intentions in Illinois for 1942
(Table above) indicate that feed grains
and wheat will be held pretty well in line
with the goals set for them and the soy¬
bean acreage will exceed the goal. The
combined acreage of corn and soybeans
planned shows a 13 per cent increase
above the 1941 harvested acreage while
small grains indicate a 9% decrease due
largely to the drastic decrease in wheat
acreage. The wheat acreage decrease was
partly due to weather conditions. The
hay acreage is expected to be slightly
larger than in 1941, but the rotation pas¬
ture is likely to decrease in favor of soy¬
beans.

Legume seedings are not expected to in¬
crease in 1942 and it is very doubtful if
limestone applications can be maintained
at the level prevailing during 1940 and
1941. This shift in crop acreage for 1942
will undoubtedly increase production of
the crops especially needed, as well as
total production and will remove more
soil fertility. Less soil conservation and
improvement is likely to be practiced.

The period of war production will ex¬
tend beyond 1942; in fact the period most
often mentioned is five years. Thus pro¬
duction without seriously increasing soil
erosion becomes a paramount problem.
Both crop and livestock production must
be and will be forthcoming. To the ex¬
tent that the livestock is produced on the
same farms as the feed that they con¬
sume, the soil conservation problem will
be minimized, both because of the rota¬
tions followed and because of minimum
loss of fertility where the manure is prop¬
erly handled.

The goal of production is the greatest
total production over the five year period.
To secure this maximum production it
will be necessary to use the soil to the
utmost, but it will also be necessary to
grow enough legumes and to carry on
sufficient soil building practices so that
the soil will continue to produce approxi¬
mately as much as it has in the past.

Conservation is the key to securing
maximum production. Conservation is
“use without waste.” To obtain this
maximum production without serious
waste the following suggestions are
offered:

1. Farm the level, highly productive
land harder rather than plow up the
rougher, poorer land that would be sub¬
ject to severe erosion when planted to
a cultivated crop.

2. Seed all small grains to a legume.

3. Make sufficient seeding of legumes
and grasses each year to assure an ade¬
quate supply of hay and pasture in the
following year.

4. Contour clean-tilled and small grain
crops on sloping land to increase yields
and save soil and water.

5. Apply limestone, phosphate, and
other fertilizers, where needed, to the
maximum of availability and feasibility.

6. Make special effort to get barnyard
manure out on fields where greatest re¬
turn in production will result and refrain
from wasteful burning of crop residues.

7. Leave wide grassed waterways in
fields being broken out of sod, and estab¬
lish new grass waterways in the natural
drainageways in other fields.

8. Use terraces and strip farming
where it appears desirable to cultivate
land too steep to be handled satisfactorily
with just contouring.

9. Plant soybeans on level land as far
as possible. Where planted on sloping
land, plant on the contour and follow
with winter cover crop.

10. Adjust rotations in line with goals,
and the physical and fertility character¬
istics of the soil.

Through maximum use of the above
practices it should be possible to obtain
the production being asked for without
serious permanent depletion of the soil
during the war period.

46

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

USING THE SLOPE MAP AS A BASIS FOB FARM

PLANNING

Burdette Graham
Prairie City , Illinois

The almost universal pattern for laying
out farms into fields has been that of a
number of equal sized fields of rectangu¬
lar or square shape. The fact that the
topography of the field many times varied
from level to slopes of as much as 15
per cent did not receive much considera¬
tion in planning for fence lines. Fields
which were made up of various degrees
of slope, usually could not be farmed so
as to get a good profit from the soil and
at the same time not lose the top soil by
erosion. In making a good farm plan
one should consider the capacity of the
land to produce and still remain in place
and maintain or improve in fertility. As
a basis for a good farm plan the slope
map provides information on field ar¬
rangement and selection of crops, as the
greater the slope in length or per cent,
or both, the greater the erosion hazard
and the more crop protection necessary.
The slope of the land gives a good indi¬
cation of the amount of surface soil re¬
maining or the amount that will be re¬
maining if ordinary farm arrangement is
continued.

The slope map of a farm is made by
reading the slope of an area with a level
such as the Abney Hand Level and
sketching the area on a map of the farm.
Usually 5 or 6 classes of slope are used,
these being: Level (0 through 1
per cent), Gently rolling (2 through 4
per cent), Rolling (5 through 9 per cent),
Rough (10 through 14 per cent) and
Hilly (15 per cent or above). Each of
the above classes is given a color and all
of the like slopes are colored on the map
in one color. Field arrangement is then
made up to include like areas in the
same system or rotation. The field ar¬
rangement can easily be determined by
placing an outline map of the farm over
the colored map and sketching in field
lines. Fences will not always divide a
farm into four equal and uniform shape
and size fields, but they can be placed so
that a series of uniform size fields with
uniform topography can be included in
one rotation.

The level land will stand a rotation
with more cultivated crops and less
meadow than will the next class in steep¬
ness. Likewise the level land will need
less protection from mechanical measures
such as terraces, contour farming and
grass waterways than will the next class
with greater slope.

Using Slope Map. — if such mechanical
measures are used then a stronger rota¬
tion can be used on the areas with more
slope. To illustrate, consider the field of
3% slope which without any protection
would need to be served by a rotation
such as, Corn, Small Grain, Meadow,
Meadow. The same field, if contour
farmed could stand to have a rotation
with one more year of corn, or perhaps
one year less of meadow.

The shape of fields can be planned so
that the rows of crops can be on the
level and not up and down the slope.
Many times this can be accomplished by
only moving one fence to run at right
angles to the old line. In other cases
fences may be on a curve or diagonal. In
many cases long slopes can be divided by
fences or strips of crops so that accumu¬
lation of large volume of water is
hindered as much as possible.

Areas that are too steep can be ar¬
ranged for pasture while those which are
not convenient for pasture or are too
steep for grazing can be set aside for
tree plantings.

Using the slope map as a basis for
planning and supplementing it with
other points for consideration in plan¬
ning make possible a plan which will
make fullest use of the capability of the
land and protect it from erosion. With¬
out consideration of the slope of the land
much needless waste of the top soil and
surface water takes place. Certainly
both the surface water and surface soil
must be controlled if maximum produc¬
tion is to be secured. That slope map
gives a sound basis for planning a farm
so as to conserve soil and water.

Agriculture — 19J/.2 Meeting

47

EDUCATION FOR OUT OF SCHOOL RURAL YOUTH

D. E. Lindstrom

University of Illinois. Urbana, Illinois

Do rural young people who are now out
of school get much further education
other than the training that comes from
experience? To what extent do they drop
out of school before finishing high school
or college? Do they want to continue
their education? If they had the chance
for further education, what would they
want? These are questions a recent Ran¬
dolph county rural youth study carried
on by the Agricultural Experiment Sta¬
tion in cooperation with the U. S. De¬
partment of Agriculture, Division of
Farm Population and Rural Welfare and
the county farm adviser, the Randolph
County Rural Youth Group, and AAA com¬
mitteemen in the county, sought to an¬
swer in January, 1941. The study in¬
cluded: years of school, extent of voca¬
tional education, and additional training
desired. The data were secured from
1,040 farm and nonfarm rural youth, age
18 to 30 years.

Extended Schooling — The first question
naturally asked is, when do these rural
youth drop out of school? In Randolph
county almost two-thirds of the young
men and over one-half of the young
women dropped out after finishing the
eighth grade. One in five of the young
men and one in four of the young women
finished high school, but only one in
twelve of the young women and less than
2 per cent of the young men went on to
college.

Why do such a large number of rural
youth drop out of school after finishing
the eighth grade? There may be several
reasons'. Young men feel that they need
to get started in farming. Both young
men and young women feel that high
schools offer them little in the field in
which they are interested. The parents
of these rural youth may need them at
home. They may feel they cannot afford
to go on to school, or they may feel that
they cannot keep up in dress, manner, or
studies with those in high school. Farm
young women, especially, may have been

led to feel that an eighth grade education
was enough for them.

Doubtless, many of those who went on
to high school wished to do something
other than farming. This is especially
true of the young women. Most of the
rural youth who went on to college went
for a period of only two years and ob¬
viously were preparing to become teach¬
ers or to get a business college training.

Vocational Training — Opportunities in
vocational training are limited in Ran¬
dolph county to agricultural departments
in the high schools of Chester and
Sparta; home economics is offered in
Sparta, Chester, and Red Bud. Of a total
of 615 rural young men only one in
twelve had taken any vocational training.
One in 25 had vocational agriculture and
one in 50 had taken a business course.
More than nine out of ten young men in
the county depended upon experience and
training other than in school to fit them
for the vocation of farming.

One out of six of 427 rural young
women took some form of vocational
training. About half of these took a busi¬
ness course; less than one in twenty took
home economics. Of those going to high
school, one in three had some business,
home economics, or teacher training.
Evidently most of them were looking to¬
ward nonfarm occupations. The majority
of the girls who went on to farms had
no public school vocational training, yet
most of them went into the vocation of
home making.

Additional Training Desired. — More
than half of the out-of-school rural young
men in Randolph county wanted addi¬
tional vocational training. Over one-
fourth wanted additional training in semi¬
skill vocations, one-sixth in agriculture,
and one in twenty in the professions.
Only one-third of the out-of-school rural
young women wanted additional training;
half of these wanted it in home econom¬
ics, about one in twenty wanted clerical
training, and about one in twenty wanted
professional training.

48

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Though half of the out-of-school rural
young men in Randolph county expressed
a desire for additional vocational train¬
ing only one in twelve was getting it. If
a program of training work develops, it
doubtless should include both agriculture
and the semi-skilled trades. About half
of the young women wanting additional
vocational training seem to be getting it.
Additional training opportunities should,
therefore, include training in home eco¬
nomics and training for clerical and pro¬
fessional work.

Expansion in classes and other oppor¬
tunities for additional training for out-
of-school rural youth, should evidently
come in the fields relating to agriculture,
home economics, semi-skilled trades, cler¬
ical occupations and the professions. Ef¬

forts to expand the program should recog¬
nize the need for coordination of exten¬
sion work, vocational agriculture, home
economics, and other efforts to offer out-
of-school training for rural youth so that
the program could be developed on a uni¬
fied basis in the county. This is espe¬
cially desirable in view of the war needs,
and the movement of a large number of
rural youth out of the country into the
army and into war industries. It will be
equally valuable when the war is over,
and when the rural youth begin to come
back into the county to find jobs. A uni¬
fied guidance and training program
should, and can, be developed for rural
youth in Illinois. It will require coor¬
dinating the effort of all of those who are
now working in the field of training of
youth for rural life.

papers in Anthropology

From the Report of the Section Chairman

This section carried 6 papers, 2 of which, including one abstract, are here¬
with published, plus one from the Collegiate Section. Titles and authors of the
four papers not published are as follows :

Barloga, F. L., Peoria, Illinois, Indian trail markers.

Griffin, J. W., Daytona Beach, Fla., Tree ring dating in the Middle West.
Link, George M., Report on the Archaeology of Fere Marquette State Park.
Wray, D. E., Peoria, Illinois, Analysis of archaeological sites.

Fifty persons
Illinois, chairman

attended the meeting and elected Ben Nussbaum, Faiibuiy,
for the 1942-43 meeting at Jacksonville. .

(Signed) Donald E. Wray, Chairman

50

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

ARCHAEOLOGICAL HORIZONS IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS

John W. Bennett and Moreau Maxwell
University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

Abstract

In the past 5 years excavations by the
University of Chicago, in Massac County,
the Carbondale State Normal in Jackson
County, and of the St. Louis Academy of
Science in the St. Louis region, have been
centered upon the problem of north-south
transitional cultures. This work has
shown a number of interlocking culture
sequences that has assisted in redefining
the significance of the Fulton County se¬
quences, established by Cole and Deuel.
The general periods into which this ma¬
terial falls will be discussed briefly:

Non- Pottery Period — This horizon is
represented by artifacts found in the
lowest levels of the sites excavated by
Moreau Maxwell for Southern Illinois
Normal University. It is also represented
at the Kincaid site in Massac County.
In these two areas the material is re¬
lated to the shell-mound cultures of the
Southeastern United States. Robert
Adams, excavating for the St. Louis
group, has also found a pre-pottery level,
but it is probably unrelated to the others.
Early Woodland Period — This period is
represented by heavy, grit-tempered, cord-
marked or plain pottery at Carbondale
and St. Louis. The material occurs in
the lowest levels of the sites with cul¬
tures typical of the Middle Woodland
period. Artifacts seem to be crude Wood¬
land forms. Middle Woodland Period _

In this horizon a number of different cul¬
tures developed. At Kincaid two South¬
eastern cultures seemed to represent the
northwestern end of a culture develop¬
ment in the Tennessee Valley. One of
these (Baumer) featured fabric-im¬
pressed, limestone-tempered pottery; the
other (Lewis) had clay-grit tempered,
cordmarked pottery. At Carbondale a
similar sequence occurred, only in this
area the Baumer material received an in¬
trusive influence of Illinois Hopewellian
from the north. In the St. Louis area
some of the Early Woodland cultures con¬
tinued. These various cultures also had
semi-permanent log-post houses, elaborate

Woodland stone tools, and some bone
artifacts.

In Fulton County this period was rep¬
resented by Hopewellian and Central
Basin. Black Sand and Red Ocher may
belong to the preceding period, but also
continued into Middle Woodland. Classic
Middle Mississippi — All areas received
strong overlays of this culture. At Kin¬
caid, the period was represented by a
large Mississippi manifestation of a
Southeastern type; at St. Louis the “Old
Village” type of Cahokia culture flour¬
ished. “Trappist” or “Bean Pot” type of
Cahokia material probably began develop¬
ing in this period. Late Middle Missis¬
sippi — Late Woodland Period _ Trappist

cultures continued, and spread all over
central and southern Illinois. In some
areas, as at the Crable Site in Fulton,
strong influences from Oneota cultures
(Siouian) were noticeable. A Late Wood¬
land culture (Tampico) received Middle
Mississippi influence. At Carbondale a
local development of Late Woodland (Dil-
linger) shows a continuity from the
earlier Middle Woodland cultures.

General Remarks — The Korando Site,
in Jackson County, occupies a special
place inasmuch as it is contemporaneous
with the Middle Woodland period and
probably extends through to Late Wood¬
land times. In this period its clay-tem¬
pered pottery appears in a Trappist cul¬
ture (Plattin) in the St. Louis area.
Korando is the northern frontier of a
clay-tempered pottery horizon in the cen¬
tral and lower Mississippi Valley. It pro¬
vides a link between the early and late
horizons in Illinois.

The basically Southeastern cultures are
more or less “pure” at Kincaid; at Car*
bondale they become mixed with northern
facies; at St. Louis the Southeastern
sequence can still be recognized, but if.
has become heavily modified by indigenous
northern cultures. Farther north, in Ful
ton County, the typical central Illinois
sequences appear.

Anthropology — 191$ Meeting

51

THE PEOBLEM OF PRIMITIVE EDUCATION WITH
PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE IBO OF NIGERIA*

J. B. C. Etuka Okala
Northwestern University , Evanston , Illinois

Many definitions have been given to
the word “education” by deans of psy¬
chology and education. Underlying all
these definitions, there is an admission
that education is what remains after all
the Geometry, Latin, or Biology that has
been learned is taken away. In other
words, education is the process of orient¬
ing the child to the full utilization of his
culture. Whether it has led him up into
the fullest, noblest and most fruitful re¬
lationship with the world in which he
finds himself, and thus has fitted him for
the struggle of life is the significant con¬
sideration for education.

We are not, however, concerned with
“education” in terms of schools, colleges
and universities. Our chief interest in
this paper is: How did the native Afri¬
can in general and the Ibo in particular
get his education and what kind of edu¬
cation did he get? To answer this query
we must first make sure of the psychology
behind the primitive form of education.
It was an attempt of the adults to guide
the future generation into the behavior
patterns and value systems into which
they themselves had been led. In other
words, primitive African education is a
legacy handed down from one generation
to the next so that the practices and
items of knowledge that were current
during the great ancestors’ life-time might
continue in forms as near as possible to
the ancient customs and usages.

In strict parallel to the modern theory
which states that education starts at
birth, the education of the Ibo child
starts at birth. In Iboland there is a
ceremony immediately after the birth of
a child. This ceremony known as Maa-
Maa consists of a chant by a group of
men, women and children:

Child when you grow up be a good
man — Maa maa

When you are a man have sense,
have tact — Maa maa

When you are a man tell mother to
buy you a hoe — Maa maa
Then start to go to farm and work
out yams — Maa maa
Mother tells you word, hear [<= obey]
Father tells you word, hear D= obey]

And in modern times such lines as the
following have been incorporated:

When you grow up ask mother to buy
you slate — Maa maa
That you may learn book and work
out money — Maa maa
The native belief is that the foregoing
makes an impression on the undeveloped
mind of the new-born child. The modern
educational psychologist would, however,
be relieved of his anxiety on hearing of
such a wasted lesson period by reflecting
on the fact that the grown-up children
who joined in the ceremony were enabled
to hear for themselves what took place
at their own Maa-maa ceremony.

For a long time the child receives no
direct instructions as to his behavior.
But his presence in the family as a new¬
born child affords the material for the in¬
struction of others. For example, the
grown-up girls, who expect to be mothers
some day, are given object lessons in the
nursing and care of their own babies
when they have them.

Later, when the child is eight days old,
the naming ceremony furnishes the set¬
ting for a historical survey of the family.
Every Ibo name has a meaning and the
meaning either summarizes the historical
background of the child’s family or the
circumstances of his birth or the hope
of what the child will be. The review of
family history included in these rites has
an obvious effect on the half-grown chil¬
dren who are present.

As we can see, then, the social signifi¬
cance of Ibo names is of considerable im¬
portance in the process of education.
Names of outstanding warriors are given
to children in order to immortalize the

Contribution from the Collegiate Section.

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

achievements of great generals and fight¬
ers and also to provide suitable standards
for the children to emulate. We say:
“Agua onye afa chi ya analu” — If we give
a name to a child, his god accepts it. This
implies that the child will be expected
to have supernatural aid in living up to
the standards set by the great man whose
name he bears.

The child’s whole philosophy of life
may be tempered by his knowledge of
family feuds and injustices which are re¬
vealed in the names of the other children
of the polygymous household to w'hich he
belongs.

I shall now consider the first step men¬
tioned: Nursing. The Ibo give no solid
or nourishing food for the first three
days. During this time the baby is given
only water. Because the mother’s milk
is unfit for the child’s use at this time,
treatment is given to make the milk
healthy and useable. The child is nursed
at 6 a. m., again at 9 a. m. or 10 a. m.,
and at equal intervals throughout the day
and when it cries. A young maiden who
may be privileged to study infant nursing
observes in minutest detail the whole pro¬
cedure of nursing. She is free to ask
questions but is regarded as a “dunce” if
she asks questions on points she should
have observed herself. After an appren¬
ticeship of about three months the young
girl takes over the bathing and care of
the child.

As soon as the child is able to go about
and to play with other children, the
mother’s duty is to find out the type of
children the child plays with. Sometimes
the child is commanded to keep away
from a particular boy who may be known
to be dishonest or disrespectful to elders.
In the ubiquitous mud pie plays, children
symbolically express what they have seen
the older folks do in ordinary life.

Until the child is about eight years old,
his credulity is much exploited. It should
be explained that, in Iboland, the water
supply for drinking and domestic pur¬
poses is stored in earthen pots. These are
usually placed in a cool corner of the
house. On the cover of the pot in which
drinking water has been stored are to be
seen as many as three to five cups, all
turned upside down. Should the child
form a habit of leaving the cups unturned
after drinking, the mother orders him to
turn over the cup. Otherwise, he is told,
he will expose himself to the ghost who

drinks from any cup that is left un¬
turned. The child obeys, not knowing
that the real purpose is to prevent dirt
or ants from falling into the cup and
ultimately into the pot.

Proper meal-time manners are strictly
inculcated. Washing of hands before
meals is compulsory. The rule is: Wash
your hands and eat, or do not wash your
hands and do not eat. The child is told
that if he sits down for a meal and leans
to one side with one hand on the floor,
the earth will eat all the food through the
hand on which he leans and he will re¬
main hungry. He is also told that if he
hurries over his meal he will be caught
by a ghost in the latrine. The above
methods do succeed in inculcating correct
hygienic practices.

As for personal hygiene, the child is
helped to wash or bathe himself. This
assistance is only meant to help the child
to know to what parts of his body he
should devote more time. A schedule of
two baths a day is a pleasure to the child.
The underlying reason is apparent when
we take into consideration the climate of
his homeland. From about the age of
nine no child expects an elder to help
him keep his body clean.

In addition to the foregoing methods
of education the child depends on his per¬
sonal observations. From the age of
about nine, the male child accompanies
his father to the farm, while the girl
accompanies her mother to the market.
The girl from this time on acquaints her¬
self with domestic duties and the boy
learns farm-craft by observing what
others do on his father’s farm. On the
farm the boy’s father teaches him the
rudiments of agriculture.

In the market the girl is taught the
intricacies of buying and selling. The
child notices that her mother at the out¬
set of any bargain will quote a price al¬
most double what she has paid for her
commodity she is about to sell to a cus¬
tomer. The customer in turn offers a
price just a little below the cost price.
The seller herself then makes a little re¬
duction from her first price. The cus¬
tomer is thus tempted to offer a new
price, this time well above the cost price.
Further inducements are tried in an at¬
tempt to persuade the customer to offer
more, and sometimes these are effective.
After the encounter has ended the girl
will probably fire a barrage of questions

Anthropology—

concerning problems in trade. These
questions are carefully answered and
gradually the girl is allowed to attempt
independent ventures.

In addition to individual training given
by parents, training in folklore and good
citizenship is given by the different secret
societies and age group organizations.
Most of the boys clubs are organized on
a basis similar to the Boy Scout organiza¬
tion. The “Mbekwe” club, for example,
meets at regular intervals to enjoy com¬
munal meals and to limelight each mem¬
ber’s activities. This club prepares the
boys for more advanced secret societies.
“Respect of womanhood” is the motto of
the club.

One culture trait that has contributed
much to Ibo education is the lavish use
of folk-literature—- tales, proverbs, and
riddles. Proverbs are used not only to
point morals for young and old alike, but
as signals or warnings against proposed
actions. Children of about five to eight
years of age who have been learning how
to count by naming the constellations in
rhymes and jingles will also be plied with
brain teasers — riddles — before an old man
tells a folk-tale to wind up an evening.
Most of the tales are ornamented with
folk-songs and dance-songs. At the end
of the tale a free discussion generally fol¬
lows on what each hearer could have
done if he had been placed in some of
the situations encountered by the hero of
the tale.

I have defined education as that process
which operates to bring the individual to

■191$ Meeting 56

the fullest, noblest and most fruitful re¬
lationship with the world in which he
lives. In modern American culture eco¬
nomic and social specialization and com¬
plexity have necessitated an educational
system which is equally specialized and
complex. In order to implement this
kind of educational system, unusually
elaborate institutions have developed. Be¬
cause of pre-occupation with these spe¬
cialized educational institutions, Euro¬
pean and American educators have been
forced to ignore or de-emphasize certain
underlying educational processes which
go on in all cultures, primitive or non¬
primitive.

Ibo culture, which incidentally is far
from the stereotype of so-called primitive
simplicity, has felt no need until recently
for the erection of an educational super¬
structure of grammar-schools, high-schools
and colleges on the European pattern.
These became necessary only when
the Ibo found that he had to compete
with the European on the European’s own
terms. As I have indicated in this paper
Ibo education has been focused primarily
on the fundamental problem of orienting
the child in his culture.

In the main the Ibo (and to a certain
extent the “primitive”) system of educa¬
tion emphasizes just those phases of
child-rearing which are left in Western
culture to more or less haphazard condi¬
tioning by parents and playmates. It is,
despite this difference in emphasis, none
the less an efficiently functioning system
of education.

54

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

ADDITIONAL CLEAR LAKE VILLAGE MATERIAL

E. SCHOENBECK

Peoria Academy of Science, Peoria, Illinois

Clear Lake village, in Tazewell and
Mason counties, originally excavated
and described by Drs. Faye-Cooper Cole
and Thorne Deuel,1 has yielded through
the later excavations of G. and E. Schoen-
beck and A. Simpson, members of the •
Peoria Academy of Science, a wealth of
material and considerable data which
contributes to a better understanding of
both this site and the inclusive Hopewell
in this area.

Excavations of the year May 1941-May
1942 have greatly increased amounts of
objects and widened the range. The rela¬
tive position and abundance of the Hope-
wellian and the Maples Mills representa¬
tions continue with the Hopewellian, the
lower and the richer. A meager Missis-
sippian representation occurs in higher
depth. Objects of interest are a skull of
Bison bison;2 3 pipes (none platform) ; a
copper pin; a clamshell carved to show
a face in profile; new pottery types and
type variations; additional shell hoes
associated with Hopewellian material ;
and a cache of three 12 to 17#, shaped,
grooved, stone artifacts which are per¬
haps anchors, but suggested as possibly
mullers used with a sweep.

The highly developed pottery complex
grows increasingly richer. Pottery totals
are now: rims, 2,000; vessel portions suf¬
ficient for projection, 48; Woodland and
Hopewellian shapes, 13, and Mississippian,
3. A ceramic analysis by Dr. James B.
Griffin, Curator, Ceramic Repository, Uni¬
versity of Michigan, lists: Woodland _

Gooden Cord Impressed, Woodland Plain,
Woodland Cordmarked, Sister Creeks
Punctated, Various simple incised sherds,
Black Sands Incised, Cord-Wrapped stick
stamp, Naples Stamped, Havana Zoned
Stamped or Incised, Hopewell Zoned
Stamp, Hopewell Zoned Incised, Hopewell
Rim Incised, Fabric Impressed, Check
Stamp (the first record in Illinois).
Foreign — l. typical of Missouri Wood¬
land; 2. suggesting importation from
Florida coast area. Mississippi — St. Clair
Plain.

In much of the Cord Impressed ware is
used a black angular tempering of basal¬
tic hornblende,3 possibly analogous to that
described for Lake Michigan ware at
Aztalan,4 and to that of Adena ware.
Added shapes in Lake Michigan phase
ware are a cord-decorated sloping-necked
jar and a collared olla.

Fig. 1. — Bison skull, jaw, scapula and other bone excavated at Clear Lake
village, by E. Schoenbeck. Nov. 11, 1941. Jaw and other bone are behind
skull ; beaver skull to one side. Scapula had lain on top of skull, between horns.

55

Anthropology — 191+2 Meeting

The Bison skull, thought to be the first
reported from archaeological sites east of
the Mississippi river, lay in upper depth
in discolored sand, in association with a
Maples Mills sherd, a beaver skull, other
bones of bison, deer and turtle. Horn
cores appear as rotten particles held to¬
gether by sand. Other bone items are a
10-inch, grooved awl; a fishhook; skulls
of infant and various animals; and un¬
identified artifacts. Clamshell objects in¬

clude a cache of 7 spoons, a cache of 7
shells showing use as diggers, and shells
with perforations and cutouts.

Stone items are a reel-shaped gorget,
a symmetrical concretion polished by
handling; a discoidal from upper depth;
and 2 stone pipes, one stemmed, one stem¬
less, both associated with Hopewellian
material, suggesting existence in some
areas of various types for casual use.
The third pipe is an incised clay elbow.

'Rediscovering Illinois, University^ of Chicago Publication, 1937. . f Bureau

'JnlV»eMentificiilonaby' Dr. F. R. Matson, University of Michigan

< An?Snt A °talal, p. 303, Bulletin, Public Museum, Milwaukee, 1933.

'

*

PAPERS IN BOTANY

From the Report of the Section Chairman

The Botany program at Urbana carried 18 papers, 15 of which are herewith
published. The others were :

Jensen, Jens, Ellison Bay, Wisconsin, Plant sanctuaria.

O’Hanlon, Sister Mary Ellen, Rosary College, River Forest, Illinois,
Leaves in ontogeny and phytogeny.

Vestal, A. G., University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, Island groves in Illi¬
nois prairies.

In addition to these, one of the papers submitted from the Collegiate Section
was accepted for publication, and is herewith published.

Seventy-five attended the meeting and K. Richard Johnson, National Col¬
lege of Education, Evanston, Illinois, was elected chairman for the Jacksonville
meeting May 7-8, 1943.

(Signed) J. Fisher Stanfield, Chairman

L57J

58

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME RARELY
REPORTED SPECIES OF OEDOGONIUM

M. E. Britton

Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

Studies of Illinois waters by several in¬
vestigators have resulted in reports of
between seven and eight hundred species
of algae. Of these the single genus
Oedogonium is represented by seventy-
nine species, varieties, and forms (Tif¬
fany 1937, 1939) or roughly twenty-eight
per cent of the two hundred and eighty-
three species reported in the literature as
occurring in North America.

In the course of recent studies of Illi¬
nois and Indiana algae, the writer has
collected seven additional records of
species of Oedogonium, which by their
rarity of occurrence merit mention at this
time. Two of these were orginally de¬
scribed from North American material
and have not been reported from locali¬
ties other than that of the type. The five
remaining species were described from
type localities in Africa, Estonia, Ger¬
many and Sweden, and only two have
been previously recorded for North Amer¬
ica. The species to be reported are as
follows:

Oedogonium acmandrium var. st'ictosper-
mum Skuja, Acta Horti Univ. Latv.
4: 30(1930); Tiffany, N. Am. FI.

11(1): 84(1937).

Collected from a small swamp and in¬
termittent pond on Central Road about
two miles west of Glenview, Cook County,
Illinois, May 12, 1938. Author’s Herb.
#56.

Previously known only from the type
station on the island of Saaremaa (Ezel),
Estonia.

Oedogonium concatenatum var, superorna-
tum Tiffany, N. Am. FI. 11(1): 64
(1937).

Collected from small swamps, ponds
and intermittent streams on Glenview
Road about two miles west of Glenview,
on Lake Avenue just east of Pfingsten
Road, on Landwehr Road one-half mile
north of Lake Avenue, and on Pfingsten
Road about one mile north of Lake
Avenue, Glenview, Cook County, Illinois,
May 12, 1938; on Techny Road just east

and west of Landwehr Road southwest of
Northbrook, Cook County, Illinois, May
12, 1938; small pond just east of Tele¬
graph Road about one mile south of
Everett, Lake County, Illinois, May 15,
1938. Author’s Herb. #58-60, 62-64, 71.

Previously known only from the type
station at Woods Hole, Massachusetts.
Oedogonium Croasdaleae Jao, Rhodora
36: 202(1934); Tiffany, N. Am. FI.
11(1): 69. PI. 26. f. 416-419(1937).

Collected from small swamps and in¬
termittent ponds on Central Road about
two miles west of Glenview, Cook County,
Illinois, May 12, 1938; swamp north of
Rolling Prairie, La Porte County, and a
small pond north of Valparaiso, Porter
County, Indiana, April 30, 1938. Author’s
Herb. #31, 37, 53, 56.

Previously known only from the type
station at Woods Hole, Massachusetts.
Oedogonium decipiens var. africanum Tif¬
fany, Ohio Jour. Sci. 29: 74(1929);
Oedog. Monog. p. 145. PI. 55. f. 523-
524(1930).

Collected in swamp and intermittent
pond in Somme Forest Preserve, North¬
brook, Cook County, Illinois, May 15,
1938. Author’s Herb. #66.

Previously known only from the type
station in Angola, Africa, and from In¬
diana.

Oedogonium fragile var. a byssinicum
Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. Fennicae 27:
97(1900»); Tiffany, Oedog. Monog. p.
75. PI. 15. f. 147(1930).

Collected in swamps and intermittent
ponds on Techny Road just east of Land¬
wehr Road, Northbrook, and on Land¬
wehr Road about one-half mile north of
Lake Avenue, Glenview, Cook County, Illi¬
nois, May 12, 1938; swamp and intermit¬
tent pond in Somme Forest Preserve,
Northbrook, Cook County, Illinois, May
15, 1938; swamp north of Valparaiso,
Porter County, Indiana, April 30, 1938.
Author’s Herb. #36, 60, 62, 66.

Previously known only from the type
station in Africa.

Botany — 191^2 Meeting

59

Oedogonium Kirchneri Wittrock, Hed-
wigia 21: 104(1882); Tiffany, Oedog.
Monog. p. 116. PI. 38. f. 371(1930).
Collected in a small pond on Techny
Road just west of Landwehr Road and
in a swamp and intermittent pond in the
Somme Forest Preserve, Northbrook,
Cook County, Illinois, May 12 and 15,
1938. Author’s Herb. #63, 66.

Previously known only from the type
station in Germany.

Oedogonium nodulosum Wittrock, Bih.
Sv. Vet.-Akad. Handl. 11: 22(1872);
Tiffany, N. Am. FI. 11(1): 74. PI. 23.
f. 370-371(1937).

Collected in a swamp north of Rolling
Prairie, La Porte County, Indiana, April
30, 1938. Author’s Herb. #32.

Previously known only from the type
station in Sweden and from Michigan.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Tiffany, L. H. 1930. The Oedogoniaceae ; a
monograph including all the known species
of the genera Bulbochaete, Oedocladium,
and Oedogonium. Pp. 1-188. PI. 1-64.
Columbus, Ohio.

- . 1937. Oedogoniales. North Amer¬
ican Flora. 11(1): 1-102. PI. 1-36.

- . 1939. The Oedogoniales of Illi¬
nois. Transactions of the Illinois State
Academy of Science. 32(2): 90.

A PENICILLIUM “DISEASE” OF INK

Robert A. Conover and Neie E. Stevens
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

The damaged soap wrappers on which
the present study is based were sent to
us by Mr. R. H. Griffith of the In-Tag
Company who has given us permission
to publish our findings.

The blemishes consisted of pale red¬
dish-brown spots which had developed in
storage on the blue portions of the wrap¬
pers of a well known white soap. The
spots were regular in outline, of varying
size, and occurred only on the blue por¬
tion of the wrappers. The reddish areas
did not extend through the thickness of
the paper but were restricted to the fibers
covered by the ink. Cultures from the
discolored fibers resulted uniformily in
the isolation of a species of Penicillium
not yet positively identified.

The fungus was cultured on a wide
variety of media on all of which growth
was very slow. At the end of one month
at room temperatures, colonies never ex¬
ceeded an inch and were usually one-half
inch in diameter.

Samples of the dye, ultra-marine blue,
and ink used in printing the wrappers
were supplied by Mr. Griffith. The dye
dispersed in the various media was de¬
colorized by the growth of the fungus.
This is in all probability due to the
change in the pH of the medium result¬

ing from the growth of the fungus. The
dye is sensitive to acids and loses its blue
color as the pH is lowered. The fungus
was cultured in a liquid medium which
contained KH2PC>4 0.3g., MgS04 o.25g.,
KNOs 2.0g., dextrose 30.0g., and water to
make a liter and determinations of the
pH were made at various intervals. At
the end of two weeks the pH was lowered
from 5 to 3.8 and further lowered to 3.2
after four weeks growth.

The ink, smeared over the surface of
agar and on strips of filter paper laid
over the agar, was changed to a pale red¬
dish-brown color closely matching that on
the wrappers when the fungus was cul¬
tured beside it. Other fungi present as
contaminants in some cultures failed to
cause the color change. Attempts to pro¬
duce the reddish color found on the wrap¬
pers on plain filter paper were unsuccess¬
ful. That the reaction involved in caus¬
ing the reddish spots may be more
complex than an acid-base reaction is in¬
dicated by the fact that the fungus when
grown in contact with the dye alone will
not produce the reddish color. Some con¬
stituent of the ink other than the dye
apparently must be present in order to
obtain the color found on the affected
soap wrappers.

60

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

TREES AND SHRUBS OF CHAMPAIGN COUNTY, ILLINOIS

Albert W. Feldman
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

The terms trees and shrubs as used
here include those plants that are all or
part woody. Size is the usual means of
distinguishing a tree from a shrub; the
line of demarcation is, however, arbitrary
and often difficult to follow. In the fol¬
lowing list there are 130 native and
naturalized species of woody piants; of
these 64 are trees, 51 shrubs and woody
climbers, 2 suffrutescent, and 13 classified
as either trees or shrubs.

* The sequence of families, and the
nomenclature, are those of Rehder’s
“Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs,”
(ed. 2) 1940. Most of the common names
have been adapted from Deam’s “Flora

Pmaceae

Juniperus virginiana L. Red cedar (S
or T)

Salicaceae

Populus alba L. White poplar (T)

P. canescens (Ait.) Sm. Gray poplar
(T)

P. deltoides Marsh. Cottonwood (T)

P. grandidentata Michx. Largetooth as¬
pen (T)

Salix alba L. European white willow
(T)

S. cordata Muhl. Hearthleaf willow (S)
S. fragilis L. Brittle willow (T)

S. interior Rowlee. Longleaf willow (S)
S. nigra Marsh. Black willow (T)

S. pentandra L. Bayleaf willow (T)

S. prinoides Pursh. (S)

S. vitellina L. Golden willow (T)
Juglcmdaceae

Juglans nigra L. Black walnut (T)
Cary a cordiformis (Wang.) K.Kock
Bitternut hickory (T)

C. glabra (Mill.) Sweet Pignut hickory
(T)

C. laciniosa (Michx.f. ) Loud. Bigleaf
shagbark hickory (T)

C. ovalis (Wang.) Sarg. Small fruited
hickory (T)

C. ovata (Mill. ) K.Koch Shagbark
hickory (T)

Betulaceae

Carpinus caroliniana Walt. Blue beech
(T)

Corylus americana Walt. American
hazelnut (S)

Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K.Koch Hop
hornbeam (T)

Fagaceae

Quercus alba L. White oak (T)

Q. bicolor Willd. Swamp white oak (T)
Q. coccinea Muench. Scarlet oak (T)

Q. imbricaria Michx. Shingle oak (T)
Q. macrocarpa Michx. Bur oak (T)

Q. maxima (Marsh.) Ashe Red oak
(T)

Q. muhlenbergii Engelm. Chinquapin oak
(T)

Q. palustris Muench. Pin oak (T)

of Indiana.” The selection of a vernacu¬
lar name from the multitude of those in
use is quite difficult, especially since the
same name is often applied to several
totally different plants. All specimens
upon which this study is based are in
the Herbarium of the University of Illi¬
nois. The name of each species is fol¬
lowed by a letter or combination of let¬
ters to indicate its habit of growth as,
Shrub (S), Tree (T), Vine (V), and Suf¬
frutescent (Su).

I should like to express my apprecia¬
tion to Dr. G. N. Jones for his assistance
and criticism of this work.

XQ. runcinata Engelm. (Q. imbricaria
X maxima) (T)

Q. velutina Lam. Black oak (T)
Ulmaceae

C'eltis occidentalis L. Hackberry (T)
Ulmus americana L. American elm (T)
U. fulva Michx. Slippery elm (T)
Moraceae

Morus alba L. White mulberry (T)

M. rubra L. Red mulberry (T)

M a c 1 u r a pomifera (Raf.) Schneider
Osage orange (T)

R anvmculace ae

Clematis pitcheri T. & G. Pitcher
leather flower (V)

C. virginiana L. Virgins bower (V)

M enis\p ermaceae

Menispermum canadense L. Common
moonseed (V)

Anonaceae

Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. Pawpaw
(T)

Lauraceae

Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees. Sassa¬
fras (T)

Lindera benzoin (L.) Bl. Spicebush (S)
Grossulariaceae

Ribes americana Mill. American black
current (S)

R. missouriensis Nutt. Missouri goose¬
berry (S)

Platcmaceae

Platanus occidentalis L. American
planetree (T)

Rosaceae

Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic.

Downy shadblow (T)

Crataegus crus-galli L. Cockspur thorn
(S. or T)

C. macracantha Lodd. (S or T)

C. mollis (T. & G.) Scheele (T)

C. pedicellata Sarg. (T)

C. pruinosa (Wendl.) K.Koch (S or T)
Malus angustifolia (Ait.) Michx. (S or
T)

M. coronaria (L. ) Mill. Wild sweet
crab (T)

Botany — 19 Meeting

61

M. ioensis (Wood) Britt. Prairie crab

(T)

Prunus americana Marsh. American
plum (T)

P. angustifolia Marsh. Chickasaw plum
(S or T)

P. hortulana Bailey Hortulan plum (T)
P. serotina Ehrh. Black cherry (T)

P. virginiana L. Common chokecherry
(S or T)

Rosa Carolina L. Pasture rose (S)

R. rubiginosa L. (S)

R. setigera Michx. Prairie rose (S)

R. suffulta Greene (S)

Rubus allegheniensis Porter. Allegheny
blackberry (S) , , , ,

R. argutus Link Highbush blackberry
( S)

R.- flagellaris Willd. Northern dewberry
( S)

R. occidental is L. Common blackcap
raspberry (S) .

Spiraea alba DuRoi Meadow spirea (S)

Legumi/nosae

Amorpha canescens Nutt. Lead plant

A. fruticosa L. Indigobush (S)

Cercis canadensis L. Redbud (T)
Gleditsia triacanthos L. Honey locust
(T)

Gymnocladus dioica (L.) K.Koch Ken¬
tucky coffeetree (T)

Robinia pseudo-acacia L. Black locust
(T)

Svmarubaceae ,, v „ .

Ailanthus a 1 1 i s s i m a (Mill. ) Swingle
Ailanthus (T)

Rutaceae _ _ .,

Zanthoxylum amencanum Mill. North¬
ern prickly ash (T)

Ptelea trifoliata L. Common hoptree
(T)

Anacardiaceae

Rhus aromatica Ait. Fragrant sumac

( g)

R. glabra L. Smooth sumac (S)

R. radicans L. Poison ivy (V)

Celastraceae

Evonymus atropurpureus Jacq. Wahoo
(S or T)

E. obovata Nutt. Running evonymus

( g )

Celastrus scandens L. American bitter¬
sweet (V)

Staphyleaceae

Staphylea trifolia L. American blad-
demut (S)

Aceraceae

Acer negundo L. Box elder (T)

A. nigrum Michx. f. Black maple (T)

A. rub rum L. Red maple (T)

A. saccharinum L. Silver maple (T)

A. saccharum Marsh. Sugar maple (T)

Sapindaceae

Aesculus glabra Willd. Ohio buckeye

(T)

Rhamnaceae

Ceanothus americanus L. New Jersey
tea ( S )

Rhamnus frangula L. Glossy buckthorn
(S or T) , „ , ,

R. lanceolata Pursh. Lanceleaf buck¬
thorn (S)

T^itCK/6 CIB

Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L. ) Planch.

Virginia creeper (V)

P. vitacea (Knerr) Hitchc. (V)

Vitis aestivalis Michx. Summer grape
(V) . x

V. cinerea Engelm. Sweet winter grape
(V)

V. labrusca L. Fox grape (V)

V. palmata Vahl. Catbird grape (V)

V. riparia Michx. Riverbank grape (V)
V. vulpina L. Frost grape (V)

Tiliaceae . ,

Tilia americana L. American linden
(T)

Hypericaceae

Hypericum sphaerocarpum Michx. (Su)
Thymeleaceae

Dirca palustris L. Leatherwood (S)
Gornaceae

Cornus alternifolia L.f. Pogoda dog¬
wood (S or T)

C. amomum Mill. Silky dogwood (S)

C. asperifolia Michx. Roughleaf dog¬
wood (S) ,

C. florida L. Flowering dogwood (S or
T)

C. obliqua Raf. Pale dogwood (S)

C. racemosa Lam. Gray dogwood (S)

C. stolonifera Michx. Red osier dog-

Nyssa^sylvatica Marsh. Black gum (T)

Ebenaceae „

Diospyros virginiana L. Common per¬
simmon (T)

Oleaceae

Fraxinus americana L. White asn ( i )
F. lanceolata Borkh. Green ash (T)

F. pennsylvanica Marsh. Red Ash (l)
F. quadrangulata Michx. Blue ash (T)
Bignoniaceae

Campsis radicans (L.) Seemann Trum¬
pet creeper (V)

Rubiaceae .... T ~ _ _

Cephalanthus occidentalis L. Common
buttonbush (S or T)

Gaprifoliaeceae

Lonicera sempervirens L. Trumpet
honeysuckle (V)

L. prolifera (Kirchner) Rehder Grape
honeysuckle (V) _ .

Sambucus canadensis L. Elderberry (b)
Symphoricarpos orbiculatus Moench.

Coralberry (S) ,

Viburnum dentatum L. Arrow wood (S)
V. lentago L. Nannyberry (S or T)

V. prunifolium L. Blackhaw ( S or T )
V. trilobum Marsh. Cranberry bush
(S)

Liliaceae , ,

Smilax hispida Muhl. Hispid greenbner
(V)

REFERENCES

Deam, C. C., Flora of Indiana. Dept-, of
Conservation, Division of Forestry, Indian¬
apolis, Indiana. 1940.

Jones, G. N„ Catalogue of Vascular Plants
of Illinois. (Unpublished.) T . . #

_ and S. F. Glassman, Check List of

Vascular Plants of Champaign, Vermilion,
and Piatt Counties. (Unpublished.)
Rehder, A., Manual of Cultivated Trees and
Shrubs, (ed. 2) Macmillan Co. 1940.

62

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

A KEY TO THE ILLINOIS SPECIES OF SOLIDAGO

Dorothy M. Croker
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

The object of this study is a taxonomic
analysis of the Goldenrods of Illinois.
The study was made on specimens from
the herbarium of the University of Illi¬
nois.

The nomenclature of the species was
brought up to date and standardized ac¬
cording to Deam’s Flora of Indiana,
Friesner’s The Genus Solidago , Rydberg’s
Flora of the Prairies and Plains of Cen¬

tral North America, and Mackenzie’s
treatment of Solidago in Small, Manual
of the Southeastern Flora.

I should like to express my apprecia¬
tion to Dr. G. N. Jones for his guidance
and encouragement.

I have followed the plan of separating
this group of plants into three generic
units each possessing distinguishing mor¬
phological characteristics as follows:

Euthamia

I. Heads sessile ; leaves punctate .

I. Heads distinctly pedicellate ; leaves not punctate.

A. Heads in a dense compound corymbiform cyme ; bracts obtuse,

longitudinally striate ; achenes glabrous .

A. Heads in a panicle or axillary racemes ; bracts acute or obtuse,
not striate ; achenes glabrous or pubescent .

Oligoneuron
, . . .Solidago

Solidago L. Goldenrod

I. Stem glabrous up to the inflorescence.

A. Inflorescence completely glabrous.

a. Leaves elliptical-lanceolate with one principal vein . S. juncea Ait.

a. Leaves linear-lanceolate, distinctly triple-veined . S. glaberrima Martens

A. Inflorescence more or less pubescent or puberulent.

a. Heads in axillary racemes.

b. Stem angular ; ultimate branches of inflorescence pubescent ;

leaves oval with sharply serrate margins . S. latifolia L.

b. Stem terete ; pedicels pubescent ; leaves lanceolate with

unevenly dentate and hispidulous margins . S. caesia L.

a. Heads in a terminal panicle or raceme.

b. Stem strongly angled . S. patula Muhl.

b. Stem terete or nearly so.

c. Leaves with one principal vein ; bracts obtuse or acute ;
achenes pubescent or glabrous,

d. Leaves glabrous except the margins ; achenes
glabrous ; bracts obtuse.

e. Heads secund . S. uniligulata T. & G.

e. Heads not secund.

f. Lower leaves oval or ovate-lanceolate, serrate :

plants of rich woods . S. speciosa Nutt.

f. Lower leaves lanceolate.

g. Lower leaves sometimes crenate otherwise
entire ; plants of dry woods and

prairie . S. rigiduscula T. & G.

g. Lower leaves serrate or serrulate,

oblong-lanceolate ; plants of swamp

or bogs . S. uliginosa Nutt.

d. Leaves ciliate on margins, and veins beneath ;

achenes pubescent; bracts acute . S. ulmifolia Muhl.

c. Leaves triple-veined, i.e., one pair of lateral veins more
prominent than the others ; heads secund.

d. Leaves more or less puberulent or pubescent at least

along the veins beneath.

e. Involucre 2-2.8 (-3) mm. high . S. canadensis L.

e. Involucre 3-4.3 mm. high . S. gigantea Ait.

d. Leaves completely glabrous, except the

I. Stem pubescent or puberulent throughout (rarely glabrous below).

A. Heads not secund; rays white or yellow.

a. Rays white; involucre 3-5 mm. high; achenes glabrous . S. bicolor L.

a. Rays yellow ; involucre 4. 5-5. 5 mm. high ; achenes glabrous

or slightly pubescent . S. hispida Muhl.

A. Heads secund ; rays always yellow,
a. Leaves with one principal vein.

b. Blades elliptical ; bracts acute . S. rugosa Mill.

b. Blades oblanceolate ; bracts obtuse.

c. Plants with a green appearance . S. radula Nutt,

c. Plants with a whitish or grayish appearance . S. nemoralis Ait.

Botany — 191$ Meeting

63

Leaves triple-veined. _ , o rnHnia Nutt

b Blades oblanceolate ; bracts obtuse . . ■ . raauia l^uit.

b Blades lanceolate or elliptical ; bracts obtuse or acute.

c. Leaves lanceolate ; bracts acute. canadensis L

d. Involucre 2-2.8 (-3) mm. high . s- < altissima L

c Leaves elliptical ; bracts obtuse . S. Drummondn T. & G.

Euthamia Nutt. Bushy Goldenrod

iteS ffiSsssi <Greene) Bush

PU.berU.lent.° . • • • E. hirtella (Greene) Bush

Oligoneuron Small. Rough Goldenrod

Stem leaves conduplicate, entire . Riddellii (Frank) Rydb

Leaves not conduplicate. . n it i Small

A. Leaf margin crenate ; stem pubescent... - - - - • . . °* rigidum (L.) bmau

A. Leaf margin entire or sparingly serrulate ; stem glabrous
/ q nbiopnsis Ridd6ll Svn. Fl« ^IVGSt. St8,tGS 5*.

1835)^ .. . . ! ..... . . . . O. ohioensis (Riddell) G. N. Jones, comb. nov.

A TAXONOMIC STUDY OF THE ILLINOIS SPECIES OF

RUMEX

Sidney Glassman

University of Illinois, Urbana , Illinois

Introduction _ The most recent mono¬

graph of the North American species of
Rumex was written by Rechinger1 in 1937
in which he treated forty-seven North
American species. Other authors, includ¬
ing Trelease,2 and St. John,3 have also
published articles on this genus. Rech¬
inger has done much to elucidate the
species concept of Rumex by adding to
the number of known species. For ex¬
ample, R. salicifolius Weinm. has been
divided into several distinct species,
namely R. crassus Rech. f., R. oalifornicus
Rech. f., R. utahensis Rech. f. R. salici-
folius Weinm. and with other related
species, has been compounded into the
subsection Salicifolii.

Another important item of his clarifi¬
cation concerns R. persicarioides L. Most
authors have designated the range of this
species as extending from Quebec to
North Carolina, Ontario to Illinois, and
westward. This distribution, however,
should be referred to a closely related
species, namely R. fueginus Philippi.
Philippi described this plant in 1894 as
being a species distinct from R. per¬
sicarioides L. Subsequently St. John in
1915 thought R. fueginus to be a variety
of R. maritimus and described it as
R. maritimus var. fueginus. After ex¬
tended study, Rechinger in writing his

1 Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ. Bot. Ser. 17:

2 Revision of American species of Rumex
Garden. Third Ann. Report. St. Louis 1893.

3 R. persicarioides and its allies, Rhodora

monograph on Rumex, discovered that
R. maritimus occurs only in Europe and
Asia and should not be included as a
North American species; therefore, he
treated the plant as R. fueginus Philippi.
R. persicarioides L. has a limited distri¬
bution which includes eastern Canada and
Massachusetts. It differs from R. fueginus
mainly in that the tubercles are spherical
and not narrowed into the midrib of the
valves. R. fueginus is widely distributed
throughout North America except for the
southeastern part of the United States.

During the present study I have found
ten species of Rumex occurring in Illi¬
nois. Five ( R . altissimus Wood, R. cris-
pus L., R. obtusifolius L., R. acetosella L.
and R. verticillatus L.) are more or less
ubiquitous throughout the state. R. bri-
tannica L., R. fueginus Philippi, and R.
hostatulus Baldw. apud Elliott are un¬
common in Illinois. R. triangulivalvis
(Danser) Rech. f. which closely re¬
sembles R. altissimus and differs from it
chiefly in the smaller size of the valves
and in the narrower leaves is reported
from Illinois for the first time. I have
only seen one Illinois specimen.

I have recorded three imperfect speci¬
mens of R. patientia L., two of which
have only the valve and stem characters,
and the other in which there are only

1-151. 1937. _ . ,

occurring north of Mexico, Missouri Botanical

17 : 73. 1915.

64

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

leaves and flowers present. However,
they are authentic specimens. According
to its recorded geographic distribution
R. patientia is slightly out of range be¬
cause it occurs in its northern boundries
in upper Michigan, extending to Missouri
and westward.

R. mexicanus Meisn., as well as R.
salicifolius Weinm., have been errone¬
ously recorded for Illinois; however, the
former inhabits Mexico and New Mexico
and the latter California and Mexico.
Both species have been confounded with
R. altissimus which differs from R.
salicifolius in the larger size of the
valves, wider leaves and smaller tubercles
in proportion to the size of the valves. It
differs from R. mexicanus in the same
respects except the last named distinction.

Many authors, including Gray and

Small, have indicated that R. altissimus
has one tubercle, or some of the valves
have an abortive tubercle in addition
(Deam). In the numerous specimens ex¬
amined, I have observed at least twelve
in which there are three more or less
unequally sized tubercles and a few
plants in which the valves contain three
equally sized tubercles.

There has been one hybrid recorded for
Illinois, namely R. Crispin X obtusifolius,
which is found only infrequently.

I am indebted to Dr. G. N. Jones for
aid and advice in writing this paper. I
should also like to express my apprecia¬
tion to Dr. P. C. Standley, Curator of the
Herbarium of the Field Museum, for the
privilege of studying the specimens of
Rumex that are in that institution.

Key to Illinois Species of Rumex

Leaves hastately lobed, sometimes linear or lanceolate ; plant with acid
juice ; flowers dioecious or polygamous; rhizome horizontal; valves without
tubercles, roseate. (Sorrel)

2. Valves 1 mm. wide, not larger than the nutlets, and without distinct

venation . . ji acetosella

2. Valves 3-4 mm. wide, distinctly larger than the nutlets and with dis-

tinct venation . 2. R. hastatulus

Leaves never hastately lobed, not markedly acid ; flowers and rogynous ;
roots stout; valves usually with 1-3 tubercles. (Dock)

2. Valves entire, erose or merely denticulate.

3. Tubercles 1-3, when 3 mostly unequal in size or seldom with all
tubercles equal ; pedicels with a distinct tumid joint ; leaves flat, not
crisped, lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, tapering toward the base, pale

green . . . . . . . . ^ &l,ti>ss/i/yyi//its

3‘ Tub?fci?s ,usually occasionally oniy 1, or rarely absent.

4. Pedicels curved or flexuous, usually not more than twice the
length of the valves ; leaves dark green.

5. Pedicels with a tumid joint, tubercles less than iy2 times as
long as broad ; lateral veins of the leaf -blades forming acute
angles with the midvein.

6. Valves 3-4 mm. long; leaves flat, linear to lanceolate,

tapering toward the base . 4. R. tria/ngulivalvis

6. Valves usually much larger ; leaves more or less crisped.

7. Leaves rather narrow, strongly crisped, gradually
narrowed towards the base ; valves 4-5 mm. long,

tubercle usually 3 . 5. R. crispus

7. Leaves broader, often broadest below the middle,
suddenly narrowed towards the base, truncate or
cordate, less crisped ; valves larger, tubercles absent
or 1, smaller in proportion to the size of the valves. . . 6. R. patientia
5. Pedicels without a joint or only obscurely jointed ; tubercles
longer than broad, lateral veins of the leaf blades forming

almost a right angle with the mid-vein . 7. R. britannica

4. Pedicels deflexed, not flexuius, 2-3 times the length of the valves ;

leaves flat, pale green . 8. R. verticillatus

2. Valves with spinulose teeth.

3. Lower leaves broad, cordate at base, the upper narrower, lanceolate ;
valves 5-6 mm. long, usually only 1 tubercle bearing ; pedicels slender,

2 % times the length of the valves; perennial . 9. R. obtusifolms

3. All leaves linear-lanceolate, more or less truncate at the base ;
valves usually 2 mm. long, slightly broader1 than the tubercles, the
teeth long fine and bristle-like, all bearing tubercles ; pedicels seldom
more than twice the length of the valve; annual . 10. R. fueginus

List of Species

1. R. acetosella L. (Sheep sorrel) Pig. 1. Fields and waste grounds; nat. from Eur. and
Eurasia; May- July ; Roadside, Glenwood (O. E. Lansing, Jr. 1405). Sandy roadside,
Waukegan (F. C. Gates 3063). I. C. Track, Havana (F. C. Gates 3606). Meadow,
U. of I., Urbana (30849). Sand ridge, S. of oakwoods, Chicago (Agnes Chase 1350).
Champaign Co. (17739). Sand, Hyde Pk., Chicago (Agnes Chase 1366). Sandy prairie,
Ravenswood, Chicago (Agnes Chase). In sand, Chicago (A. Chase 1350, 1366).

Botany — 191+2 Meeting

65

2. R. hastatulus Baldw. apud Elliott. Fig. 2. Sandy soil ; May-July. (R. hastulatus
Baldw. apud Elliott), (R. englemannii Meisn.), (R. orbiculatus A. Gray), (R. hastatulus
Muhl.). Sandy barrens, East Alton, Madison Co. (F. E. McDonald FM). Dry hill by
French Village (H. Eggert FM). Dry sandy soil. East Alton Madison Co. (F. E. Mc¬
Donald FM). 17th and Jackson aves., North Chicago (O. C. Durham FM). Sandy bar¬
rens, near East Alton (F. E. McDonald).

3. R. altissimus Wood (Pale dock; Peach leaved dock). Fig. 3. Alluvial soil; June.
(R. britannica L. ) . Barnyard near Wady Petra (Virginius H. Chase 1530). Vermillion
Co. (Seymour and Butts 1438). Olney (Robert Ridgeway 1003). Along I and M
canal near Western Ave. (W. S. Moffatt 384). Wet meadows, Rose Hill (L. N. John¬
son 14188). Olney (Robt. Ridgway 1004). Margin of Desplaines River, Riverside (O.
E. Lansing, Jr. 1414). Bank of Desplaines River (Moffatt 1706). Greathouse Creephi
Bridge, Mount Carmel (J. Schneck). Alluvial soil, banks of Thorn Creek, Thornton (O.
E. Lansing, Jr. 1357).

4. R. triamgulivalvis (Danser) Rech. f. Sandy soil; June. (R. triangulivalvis Rech. f.),
(R. salicifolius Weinm. subsp. triangulivalvis Danser), (R. mexicanus sensu Fernald,
non Meisn.). Common along Great Western Railway, Forest Park (Frank R. Filck
13 FM).

5. R. crispus L. (Curley dock or yellow dock) Fig. 4. Fields and waste grounds; nat.
from Eur. ; May- June. (R. elongatus Guss. in part). Waste grounds, Peoria (E. F.
McDonald). Streets, Wheaton (W. S. Moffatt). Waste ground near Wady Petra (Vir-
ginous H. Chase). Streets and waste grounds, DuPage Co. (W. S. Moffatt 644). In
Carex assoc, at foot of bluff, Waukegan (Frank C. Gates 3095). Lake Matanzas,
Mason Co. (F. C. Gates 3722). Hocheiger’s farm (J. Schneck). Wet grounds, Engle¬
wood (E. J. Hill), Athens (E. Hall FM). Bowmanville, Chicago (F. C. Gates 769).

6. R. patientia L. (Patience dock) Fig. 5. Rich open soil; nat. from Eurasia; May-June.
Cold swamps, Spring Mills, Woodford Co. (F. E. McDonald). Dry roadside, N. W. of
Wady Petra (V. H. Chase 70). Spontaneous from gardens, Augusta (S. B. Mead FM).

7. R. britannica, L. (Great water dock) Fig. 6. Wet ground, Aug.-Sept. (R. orbicularis
Gray), (R. britannicus aquaticus Pursh.), (R. acutus Hook.), (R. sanguineus Hook.),
Slough, Algonquin (Wm. A. Nason). Wet ground, Hegenisch (E. J. Hill 92). Wet soil,
Skokie Marsh, w. of Ravinia (Earl E. Sherff FM). Fountaindale (Herb. M. S. Bebb
FM), Ringwood (Dr. Geo. Vasey FM). Peoria Co. (Dr. J. T. Stewart FM).

8. R. verticillatus L. (Swamp dock) Fig. 7. Wet ground; June-July. Back water swamp
of Spoon River near Wady Petra (Virginius H. Chase 618). Ditch, W. of Wheaton (W.
S. Moffatt 643). Shallow water, W. of Lombard (Moffatt). “Greenswale,” DuPage Co.
(Moffatt). Bernadotte, Fulton Co. (H. S. Pepoon). Muddy bank of Desplaines River,
Riverside (Moffatt). Stagnant stream, Bowmanville, Chicago (Agnes Chase). Cypress
Pond, Mt. Carmel (J. Schneck).

9. R. obtusifolius L. (Bitter dock or bluntleaf dock) Fig. 8. Fields and roadsides; nat.
from Eur.; July- Aug. (R. crispatulus Michx.), (R. sanguineus L.), Waste places, Peoria
(E. W. McDonald). Wet ground, Anna (A. B. Seymour 3136%), Chicago (17748). In
road in front of my home (J. Schneck). My barn yard, Mt. Carmel (J. Schneck),
Shady waste places, near Waldron (E. J. Hill 186). Waste places, Peoria (F. E. Mc¬
Donald). Carbondale (A. B. Seymour 31361). Moist soil, Union Co. (Geo. D. Fuller
and Ralph Fisher 180 FM). Jackson Co. (G. H. French FM).

10. R. fueginus Philippi Fig. 9. Swamps, humid sand and shady places. (R. maritimus
Meisn. apud), (R. maritimus L. var. fueginus Dusen.), (R. persicarioides Pursh. in
part), Woodstock (Geo. Vasey). Woodstock (Frederick Brendel). Mascoutah (W.
Welsch). Ringwood (Dr. Vasey FM). Cahokia (H. Eggert FM).

66

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THE NITROGEN CONTENT OF OAT CHLOROPLASTS

Arthur W. Galston
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

I. Background of the work. Many
techniques have been utilized to separate
chloroplast material from the remainder
of the plant cell. Chibnall (1) found that
the protoplasmic suspension obtained by
grinding spinach leaves in water could be
fractionated by filtration through paper
pulp. Nuclear and chloroplastic ma¬
terials were retained on the filter, the
cytoplasmic material passing through.
Since nuclear material in leaves is very
small in amount, the retained material
was considered as essentially “chloroplas¬
tic material.” Channon and Chibnall (2)
ground cabbage leaves in water and
warmed the suspension to flocculate the
dispersed protoplasm. The ether extract
of the precipitate was considered to be
mainly of chloroplast origin, since cyto¬
plasm contains little ether-soluble ma¬
terial. Menke (3) found that suspensions
of spinach leaves ground in water would
deposit chloroplastic material upon addi¬
tion of ammonium sulfate.

All of these techniques may be criti¬
cized on the ground that they do not
yield intact chloroplasts; hence some of
the chloroplast material may remain un¬
extracted and some cytoplasm may be car¬
ried along as an impurity in the extract.
These objections are, to a large extent,
removed by the technique of Granick (4).
This experimenter ground turgid leaves
of tobacco and tomato in 0.5 molar glu¬
cose and succeeded in obtaining intact
chloroplasts in suspension, along with the
remainder of the protoplasmic material.
Short, slow centrifugation removed most
of the non-green protoplasm, whereas
longer, more, rapid centrifugation de¬
posited the chloroplasts. The plastids
could then be washed by resuspending in
water and flocculated by recentrifugation.
Microscopic examination of the centrifu¬
gate revealed intact plastids almost en¬
tirely devoid of cytoplasmic granules.
Furthermore, by colorimetric comparison
of acetone extracts of leaf and chloro¬
plasts, he was able to determine what per
cent of total leaf chloroplasts he had in
his suspension. This made possible the

determination of total chloroplast ni¬
trogen per leaf.

II. Object of this work. This work
was undertaken: 1) To discover whether
the technique of Granick is applicable to
the leaves of cereal grasses, which con¬
tain much fibrous material. 2) To obtain
information on the relative importance of
chloroplasts and cytoplasm as synthe¬
sizers of protein in leaves of cereals. 3)
To trace the course of protein synthesis
in the chloroplasts and cytoplasm of a
single leaf.

III. The nitrogen content of green and
chlorotic leaves and chloroplasts at vari¬
ous ages. Kherson oats were sown in
composted Flanagan silt loam in the
greenhouse, and were allowed to grow
until the fifth leaf was 1-3 cm. long.
Leaves of the same size and physiological
condition were then harvested in groups
of 40. Ten of the leaves were dried for
two hours in a forced-draught oven at
80° C., were then weighed to get the
average dry weight per leaf, and finally
were ground to a fine powder in a Wiley
mill. This powder was analyzed to get
the nitrogen content per leaf. The re¬
maining thirty leaves were treated to ex¬
tract the chloroplasts, according to the
procedure of Granick (4). The extracted
chloroplasts were analyzed for nitrogen
simultaneously with the dried leaf ma¬
terial.

Nitrogen was determined by the mi-
crokjeldahl method of Pregl (6), all
analyses, as well as blanks, being run in
duplicate. The extracted chloroplasts,
usually as a 2 cc. suspension, were
pipetted into the digestion flasks. 20-30
mg. samples of the dried leaves were
placed in other flasks. To the samples
were added 2 cc. of CuSCh-ILSCh diges¬
tion mixture and a pinch of K2S04. The
mixture was then digested 15-30 minutes
until clear. The digested mixture was
then transferred into the still, made alka¬
line with excess NaOH, and steam-dis¬
tilled into a flask containing 20 cc. of
boric acid (1 lb. per 10 L.). The am¬
monia was titrated with .01 N HC1 using

Botany — 191$ Meeting

Table 1. — The Nitrogen Content of Oat Chloroplasts

67

Average
length
per leaf

Average
dry wt.
per leaf

Physiological

Condition

Chloroplast

N per leaf

Total N
per leaf

N as % of dry
wt. per leaf

% of total leaf

N in the
chloroplasts

7.2 cm

9.3

14.6

11.7

17.6

4.6 mg
5.5

8.4

10.0

17.7

Green

Chlorotic

.084 mg

.119

.137

.078

.168

.285 mg

.287

.470

.261

.495

6.20%

5.26

5.60

2.61

2.79

30.1%

41.3

29.2

30.0

34.2

bromcresol green as an indicator. Re¬
sults were expressed as milligrams of
nitrogen per leaf. The data are presented
in Table I, all values being the means of
two closely checking sets of results.

It can be seen that in both green and
chlorotic leaves, at all stages of growth
studied, the chloroplasts contain about 30-
40% of the total leaf nitrogen. This
checks well with the results of Granick
(5), who considers further that about
80% of both leaf and chloroplast nitrogen
is protein nitrogen. This would indicate
that the chloroplasts synthesize large
amounts of leaf protein.

IV. The course of protein synthesis in
a single leaf. It was decided to use the
first leaf of oat for this experiment, since
this would avoid complications due to the
translocation of soluble nitrogenous ma¬
terials from other leaves. Oat plants
grown in 2-gallon porcelain crocks were
thinned until twelve uniform plants were
left in each crock. The first leaf was
harvested periodically at various stages
of development, and analyzed for total
and chloroplast nitrogen. The difference
between these two values was called
“cytoplasmic nitrogen.” The last group
of leaves was harvested when the ligule
was visible and the leaves had apparently
attained their maximum length. The re¬
sults of the analyses are presented graph¬
ically in Figure 1. Again, it is found
that the chloroplast nitrogen is about 30%
of the* total leaf nitrogen at all stages of
development studied.

V. Summary and conclusions. A. The
technique of Granick for extracting intact
chloroplasts from leaves is applicable to
oat leaves. B. The chloroplasts contain
about 30-40% of the total leaf nitrogen in
both green and chlorotic leaves at all
ages studied. C. In any one leaf, chloro¬
plasts produce about 30% of the total pro¬

tein, the “cytoplasm” producing the re¬
mainder.

Pig. i. — The nitrogen content of oat
chloroplasts and entire leaf at various stages
of development.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Chibnall, A. C. Spinacin, a new pro¬

tein from spinach leaves. Jour. Biol.
Chem. 61: 303-308. (1924)

(2) Channon, H. J. and Chibnall, A. C.

The ether-soluble substances of cab¬
bage leaf cytoplasm. IV. Further
observations on diglyceridephosphoric
acid. Biochem. Jour. 21: 1112-1117.
(1927)

#( 3 ) Menke, W. Untersuchungen der einzel-
nen Zellorgan in Spinatblattern auf
Grund preparativchemischer Meth-
odik. Zeitschr. Bot. 52: 273-295.

(1938)

(4) Granick, S. Quantitative isolation of

chloroplasts from higher plants.
Am. Jour. Bot. 25: 558-561. (1938)

(5) - Chloroplast nitrogen of some

higher plants. Am. Jour. Bot. 25:
561-567. (1938)

(6) Pregl, F. Quantitative organic micro¬

analysis. Philadelphia — Blakiston.
(1937)

68

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

NEW INTERPRETATIONS OF SPHENOPHYLLOSTACHYS
BASED ON A PETRIFIED SPECIMEN FROM AN
IOWA COAL BALL

J. H. Hoskins and A. T. Cross
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio

A specimen of Sphenophyllostachys
with structure preserved was collected by
the writers in coal ball material from the
Angus Coal Mine, Des Moines Series, in
Iowa. This is, we believe, the first record
of an American Sphenophyllostachys
showing structure.

The specimen consists of a portion of
an isolated strobilus. Neither the base
nor apex of the strobilus was preserved,
so the total length of the fructification is
uncertain. None of the vascular ele¬
ments of the stele remain, and the tips
of the bracts are but indifferently pre¬
served. The excellent preservation of
the remaining portion of the strobilus
makes possible adequate and significant
comparisons with previously known speci¬
mens.

The strobilus has a maximum diameter
of not less than one and one-half centi¬
meters, the axis occupying approximately
four millimeters. Attached to this axis
are whorls of bracts, the upturned tips of
which form the free surface of the
strobilus. The bracts of each whorl are
inserted upon the axis at a slight upward
angle and are adnate for a considerable
distance from the axis, forming a cup.
The free tips turn sharply upward.
Each whorl, composed of approximately
eighteen bracts, appears to be directly
superimposed upon the bracts of the
whorl below, rather than alternating
with them.

On the adaxial surface of each bract,
are borne three sporangia, each attached
to the surface by an unbranched
sporangiophore. The sporangia are ar¬
ranged linearly. Thus in longitudinal
section of the strobilus, three sporangia
are seen on the adaxial surface of each
bract. The sporangiophores become free
from the bract near the axis but at
slightly variable points. The sporangio¬
phores are slender, essentially cylindrical
stalks, increasing slightly in size as they
approach their respective sporangia, be¬

coming greatly thickened near and at
the points of attachment to the sporangia,
where the sporangiophore bends slightly
toward the strobilus axis, and bears a
single, pendulous sporangium.

The sporangium is essentially spherical.
Its wall is composed of an outer layer of
radially elongated cells and two or three
inner rows of much smaller cells with
thin walls. Spores completely fill the
sporangial cavity. They average ap¬
proximately ninety microns in diameter.
The spore wall has a characteristic
sculpturing of anastomosing ridges with
a rather definite bipolar orientation.
Thus in cross-section the spore appears
to be spinose. The strobilus is homo-
sporous.

A single vascular bundle traverses the
known length of the bract. Its connec¬
tion with the vascular tissues of the axis
cannot be determined because of incom¬
plete preservation. Similarly, a single
vascular bundle extends the length of the
sporangiophore, ending at the point of
attachment of the sporangiophore to the
sporangium. The bifurcation of a single
vascular bundle into the bundle of the
bract and that of the sporangiophore
takes place in the outer cortex of the
axis slightly below the insertion of the
bract. No further bifurcations of either
of these bundles occur.

This strobilus is to be compared with
those described as Sphenophyllostachys
Dawsoni, of which the forms alpha, beta,
and gamma have been designated. The
Iowa specimen agrees in general with
S. Dawsoni with the important exception
of the difference in the number and or¬
ganization of sporangiophores and
sporangia. S. Dawsoni formae alpha and
beta have been interpreted variously by
Scott and Hirmer, the former ascribing
to each bract two (occasionally fewer)
sporangiophores, each of which becomes
free near the axis and bears a single
sporangium; the latter considers that a

Botany — 191$ Meeting

69

single bundle branches in such a manner
as to produce two short and one long
sporangiophores alternating with two
long and one short sporangiophores on
adjacent bracts. Each sporangiophore
bears a single sporangium. In either in¬
stance, a longitudinal section would give
the picture of two sporangia on the
adaxial surface of each bract. In
8. Dawsoni forma gamma, Hirmer de¬
scribes an elaboration of this branching
system to produce six sporangiophores
and sporangia for each bract, and these
arranged in four cycles (a longitudinal
section shows four adaxial sporangia per
bract).

The Iowa specimen shows none of
these conditions. There is no branching
of the sporangiophore after it emerges
from the surface of the bract near the
axis. Three unbranched sporangiophores

arise at slightly different points near the
axis, are of different lengths, and each
bears a single sporangium placed linearly
on the adaxial surface of the bract. A
longitudinal section of the strobilus thus
shows the correct number of sporangia
per bract, namely, three.

It would seem that for a complete un¬
derstanding of this form genus a revalu¬
ation of the known specimens is neces¬
sary. The evidence points toward a
separation of the genus Sphenophyllos-
tachys Dawsoni formae alpha, beta and
gamma into distinct species. The neces¬
sity of this is emphasized especially when
the correlation of the fructifications with
the vegetative plants which bore them is
also considered. Consequently, the
writers believe that the Iowa specimen
itself is best considered as a species
heretofore undescribed.

A MICROANALYSIS OF THE EPIDERMAL CELL WALLS
BENEATH THE MIDRIB OF THE HOLLY LEAF

Joseph P. McMenamin

Springfield Junior College, Springfield, Illinois

In stained sections of Ilex opaca leaves
that had gone through the paraffin process
two interesting features were observed.
There were thick-walled guard cells that
appeared to be “petrified” by lignification
and dependent in functioning upon adja¬
cent non-lignified epidermal cells, and
there were lower epidermal cells on the
midrib exhibiting a distinct absence of
lignin in the outer tangential walls. A
microanalytical study of these latter cell
walls with differentiated lignification was
made.

Sections of living, mature holly leaves
collected in late January were cut
through the midrib with a sliding micro¬
tome to thicknesses of 12 to 15 microns.
Three types of tests were applied to these
sections in determining cell wall con¬
stituents and their location. Different
staining reactions were checked by dif¬
ferential solubility reactions and by the
use of the polarized microscope. The
deposition and the location of four wall
constituents, cellulose, lignin, pectin, and
cutin, were thus determined.

Chlorozinc iodide and the hydrocellu¬
lose reaction were employed for cellulose
staining tests. Cuprammonia was used

to dissolve cellulose, and since cellulose
is an anisotropic substance the use of
polarized light and interference colors
served in checking the other tests. Both
staining and solubility tests brought
negative results until lignin was removed
from the walls, after which, these tests
gave distinctly positive reactions. The
resultant swelling of the walls in stain¬
ing tests made the pitting less evident.
Cuprammonia dissolved the non-cutinized
portions of the delignified walls. Sections
left in cuprammonia to remove cellulose
were of little value, there being no posi¬
tive test possible in the first place. As
a result of cutin saponification there were
disclosed lamellated structures located in
the inner cutin layer over each cell.
These gave the positive blue and violet
colors for the cellulose staining tests.
They dissolved when cuprammonia was
added to a slide and gave further evi¬
dence of their plated organization in
breaking down. They were doubly re¬
fractive between crossed Nicols, but only
to the extent where it was barely notice¬
able, whereas anisotropy of the rather
thick secondary walls was actually strong.
It seemed that the outer tangential

70

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

secondary wall was not quite as bright
as the other secondary walls.

Two lignin staining tests were applied,
the phloroglucin and the Maule reaction,
revealing a high concentration of lignin
in all walls except the outer tangential,
the cutinized wall. This wall seemed to
be more pitted than the other walls, the
irregular pits extending out to the cutin
layer. Sections were delignified by soak¬
ing in Chlorox for three hours. Staining
tests were then repeated to make certain
all lignin had been removed, and nega¬
tive reactions substantiated this treat¬
ment. Lignin staining tests applied to
sections treated with cuprammonia
showed no apparent differences, unless a
more sharply defined reaction. Sections
stained by chlorozinc iodide were ob¬
served to have a brownish color which is
often indicative of cellulose “masked” by
lignin. Optical properties were of little
help here as lignin is amorphous and
isotropic. Even in its intimate associa¬
tion with the cellulose micelles, it will
not affect their anisotropy.

Ruthenium red and methylene blue
were used as pectin stains, the former
known to be the more specific. Reactions
revealed a high concentration of pectin
in the immediate cutinized zone outside
the secondary walls, as well as in the
middle lamellae. In removing these com¬
pounds the sections were treated in hot
5% KOH and again washed. Staining
was repeated for checks with negative re¬
actions in these pectin regions. Deligni¬
fied sections were tested with the same
results. Pectic compounds are known to
be colloidal and isotropic. They appeared
dark between crossed Nicols where there
was no cellulose present.

To obtain an accurate determination of
complete cutinization sections were left
in Sudan III for an hour, which brought
out the boundaries of the cutin more dis¬
tinctly. Sections treated with chlorozinc
iodide were examined to note the effect
on the cutin layer and clues as to
heterogeneity of structure were evident.
Slow saponification was accomplished by
heating sections on slides under cover
glasses and slowly adding 10% KOH.
The slide was examined progressively
under the microscope as the saponifica¬
tion increased. A thin outer strip of the
cutin layer was the only part of this
layer to disappear, the inner portion
which was already found to contain cellu¬
lose lamellae and pectin remaining in¬
tact. Since cutin is insoluble in cupram¬
monia, 72% sulfuric acid, and hot dilute
acids and alkalies, those sections having
gone through such reagents for other
tests were rechecked and found to have
the cutin still in place. The outer stratum
of “pure” cutin was optically isotropic in
all paraffin sections, but showed up
anisotropically in some fresh sections.
Weak double refraction in the inner
stratum coincided with the pectin zone
containing the cellulose lamellae. Al¬
though cutin can be optically isotropic
or anistropic when free from cellulose,
its anisotropy can be considered, and was
here, as indicative of cellulose deposition.

It became evident, then, that these par¬
ticular epidermal cell walls are of a com¬
plex nature in the orientation of wall
constituents. Different degrees of lignifi-
cation in xerophytic leaf structure are
not uncommon but, to the knowledge of
the writer, pits extending into the cutin
layer are most unusual.

Botany— 191$ Meeting

n

A CHECKLIST OF THE VASCULAR PLANTS OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS WOODLANDS

G. Neville Jones

University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois

The University of Illinois woodlands,
situated a few miles northeast of Urbana,
Champaign County, Illinois, consist of
approximately 100 acres of natural woods,
fenced and maintained by the University
of Illinois as a permanent preserve of
wild life for scientific purposes. This
property consists of two separate areas,
the Brownfield Woods, and the University
Woods. The following checklist is based
almost entirely upon the collections of
the writer during the years 1939, 1940,
1941, and 1942. The specimens are de¬
posited in the Herbarium of the Univer¬
sity of Illinois. Other species have been
reported from time to time but since
these reports are not based upon speci¬
mens they are not included in this list.

Cystopteris fragilis (L.) Bernh.

Diplazium pycnocarpon (Spreng. ) Broun.
Botrychium virginianum (L. ) Sw.

Bromus tectorum L.

Cinna arundinacea L.

Dactylis glomerata L.

Diarrhena americana Beauv.

Echinochloa crusgalli (L. ) Beauv.

Elymus villosus Muhl.

Glyceria striata (Lam.) Hitchc.

Hystrix patula Moench.

Leersia virginica Willd. .

Muhlenbergia mexicana (L.) Trm.

Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx.

Phleum pratense L.

Poa compressa L.

P. pratensis L.

P. sylvestris Gray
Sporobolus heterolepis Gray

S. vaginiflorus (Torr.) Wood
Carex albursina Sheldon
C. bromoides Schkuhr.

C. gravida Bailey
C. grayii Carey
C. grisea Wahl
C. hirtifolia Mack.

C. rosea Schkuhr.

Arisaema atrorubens (Ait.) Bl.

A. dracontium (L. ) Schott
Tradescantia subaspera Ker
J uncus macer S. F. Gray
Allium canadense L.

A. tricoccum Ait.

Asparagus officinalis Lv
Erythronium albidum Nutt.

Lilium michiganense Farw
Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.) Ell.

Smilacina racemosa (L.) Desf.

S. stellata (L.) Desf.

Smilax ecirrhata (Engelm. ) Wats.

S. hispida Muhl.

S. lasioneuron Hook.

Trillium gleasoni Fern.

T. recurvatum Beck.

TTvularia grandiflora J. E. Smith
Iris shrevei Small.

Aplectrum hyemale (Muhl.) Torr.

Triphora trianthophora (Sw. ) Rydb.

Populus deltoides Michx.

Carpinus caroliniana Walt.

Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K.Koch
Corylus americana Walt.

Juglans cinerea L.

J. nigra L.

Carya cordiformis (Wang.) K.Koch
C. ovata (Mill.) K.Koch
C. laciniosa (Michx. f. ) Loud
Quercus bicolor Willd.

Q. imbricaria Michx.

Q. macrocarpa Michx.

Q. maxima Michx.

Q. muhlenbergii Engelm.

Celtis occidentalis L.

Ulmus americana L.

U. fulva Michx.

Maclura pomifera (Raf. ) Schneid.

Morus alba L.

M. rubra L.

Humulus americanus Nutt.

Cannabis sativa L.

Urtica procera Muhl.

Laportea canadensis (L. ) Gaud.

Pilea pumila (L. ) Gray
Parietaria pennsylvanica Muhl.

Asarum reflexum Bickn.

Polygonum pensylvanicum L.

P. persicaria L.

P. punctatum Ell.

P. scandens L.

P. virginianum L.

Rumex acetosella L.

R. crispus L.

Amaranthus retroflexus L.

Chenopodium album L.

C. boscianum Moq.

Phytolacca americana L.

Claytonia virginica L.

Cerastium vulgatum L.

Silene antirrhina L.

S. scabrella (Nieuwl.) n. comb. (S. stellata

var. scabrella Palmer & Steyermark in
Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 25:781. 1938).

Stellaria media (L. ) Cyrill.

Actaea pachypoda Ell.

Anemone canadensis L.

A. virginiana L.

Hepatica acutiloba DC.

Hydrastis canadensis L.

Isopyrum biternatum (Raf.) T. & G.
Ranunculus abortivus L.

R. septentrionalis Poir.

Thalictrum dioicum L.

T. revolutum DC. , x .

Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx.
Podophyllum peltatum L.

Menispermum canadense L.

Asimina triloba (L. ) Dunal
Lindera benzoin (L.) Bl.

Sanguinaria canadensis L.

Dicentra 'canadensis (Goldie) Walp.

D. cucullaria (L.) Bernh.

Capsella bursa-pastons (L.) Medic.
Cardamine bulbosa (Schreb. ) BSP.

C. douglassii (Torr.) Britt.

Dentaria laciniata Muhl

Iodanthus pinnatifidus (Michx.) Steud.

Lepidium virginicum L.

Ribes americanum Mill.

R. missouriense Nutt.

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Platanus occidentals L.

Agrimonia pubescens Wallr.

Crataegus crusgalli L.

C. mollis (T. & G.)

Fragaria virginiana Duch.

Geum canadense Jacq.

G. vernum (Raf.) T. & G.

Malus angustifolia (Ait.) Michx.

M. ionensis (Wood) Britt.

Prunus americana Marsh.

P. serotina Ehrh.

Rosa setigera Michx.

Rubus occidentalis L.

Cercis canadensis L.

Desmodium acuminatum (Michx.) DC.

D. canescens (L.) DC.

Gleditsia triacanthos L.

Gymnocladus dioica (L.) K.Koch
Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.

Robinia pseudoacacia L.

Trifolium pratense L.

T. repens L.

Geranium maculatum L.

Oxalis stricta L.

O. cymosa Small
Impatiens biflora Walt.

I. pallida Nutt.

Acalypha virginica L.

Euphorbia maculata L.

Floerkia proserpinacoides Willd.
Zanthoxylum americanum Mill.

Rhus radicans L.

Celastrus scandens L.

Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq.

Aesculus glabra Willd.

Staphylea trifolia L.

Acer negundo L.

A. saccharum Marsh.

A. saccharinum L.

Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch.
Vitis vulpina D.

Tilia americana L.

Abutilon theophrasti Medic.

Viola eriocarpa Schwein.

V. papilionacea Pursh
V. sororia Willd.

Panax quinquefolium L.

Circaea latifolia Hill
Oenothera biennis L.

Chaerophyllum procumbens (L.) Crantz
Crypto taenia canadensis (D.) DC.

Daucus carota L.

Osmorhiza claytoni (Michx.) Clarke
O. longistylis (Torr.) DC.

Pastinaca sativa L.

Sanicula canadensis L.

Zizia aurea (L.) K.Koch
Cornus racemosa Lam.

Samolus pauciflorus Raf.

Steironema ciliatum (L.) Raf.

Fraxinus americana L.

F. lanceolata Borkh.

F. quadrangulata Michx.

Asclepias syriaca L.

Phlox divaricata L.

Ellisia nyctelea L.

Hydrophyllum appendiculatum Michx.

H. canadense L.

H. virginianum L.

Lappula virginiana (L.) Greene
Mertensia virginica (L.) Link
Verbena urticaefolia L.

Agastache nepetoides (L.) Kuntze
Blephilia hirsuta (Pursh) Benth.
Glecoma hederacea L.

Leonurus cardiaca L.

Marrubium vulgare L.

Nepeta cataria L.

Prunella lanceolata Bart.

Scutellaria lateriflora L.

Stachys tenuifolia Willd.

Teucrium canadense L.

Solanum carolinense L.

S. nigrum L.

Collinsia verna Nutt.

Mimulus alatus Ait.

Scrophularia marilandica L.
Verbascuin blattaria L.

V. thapsus L.

Veronica arvensis L.

V. peregrina L.

Veronicastrum virginicum (L.) Farw.
Campsis radicans (L.) Seemann
Ruellia strepens L.

Plantago lanceolata L.

P. rugelii Dene.

Phryma leptostachya L.

Galium aparine L.

G. concinnum T. & G.

G. obtusum Bigel.

Sambucus canadensis B .

Viburnum lentago L.

V. prunifolium L.

Campanula americana L.

Lobelia inflata L.

L. siphilitica L.

Achillea millefolium L.

Actinomeris alternifolia (L.) DC.
Ambrosia elatior B.

A trifida L.

Arctium minus (Hill) Bernh.

Aster ericoides L.

A. sagittifolius Wedem.

A. Shortii Lindl.

Bidens vulgata Greene
Cacalia muhlenbergii (Sch.-Bip.) Fern.
Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Airy-Shaw
C. arvense (L. ) Scop.

Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers.

E. canadensis L.

E. philadelphicus L.

Eupatorium purpureum L.

E. rugosum Houtt.

Helianthus decapetalus L.

Lactuca scariola L.

L. floridana (L.) Gaertn.

L. spicata (Lem.) Hitchc.

Polymnia canadensis L.

Rudbeckia laciniata L.

R. triloba L.

Solidago rugosa Mill.

Taraxacum officinale Weber
Vernonia missurica Raf.

Botany — 191$ Meeting

73

THE EATE OF TRANSPIRATION IN TWO OATS
VARIETIES GROWN UNDER VARYING SOIL
MOISTURE LEVELS

Glenn Ray Noggle
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Studies 'are being made in the labora¬
tory of plant physiology at the University
of Illinois on the metabolism of cereal
grasses. Considerable emphasis has been
placed on the relationship of the nitrogen
metabolism to the vitamin content dur¬
ing the growth period. It is obvious that
if the plant is to be used commercially
as a protein source, it will be advantage¬
ous to get maximum protein content and
dry weight yield. A continuous chrono¬
logical study of the metabolic changes
during the various growth stages of the
plant from the vegetative to the repro¬
ductive phase through maturity is re¬
quired.

There are several stages of plant de¬
velopment that may be distinguished by
a detailed chemical analysis of the plant
tissue. Burd (2) divided the growth of
barley into three periods: a preliminary
period of eight to nine weeks from plant¬
ing characterized by intense vegetative
activity; a second period of about six
weeks during which structural differentia¬
tion takes place and flowering occurs;
a third period of about three weeks
characterized by a loss in weight and by
dessication of all parts of the plant. As
an indication of these various stages of
growth Burd noted that at the beginning
of the second period there was a sharp
decline in the moisture content of the
leaves. At the beginning of the third
period there was another decline in the
moisture content of the leaves.

Loehwing (3) and his associates
studied mineral nutrition in relation to
reproduction in higher plants. The re¬
sults showed that important metabolic,
as well as structural, changes originated
in the period between the origin of floral
primordia and full bloom. With pot cul¬
ture studies under conditions of adequate
mineral nutrition there occurred a sudden
and thereafter continuous increase in the
rate of transpiration at about the time
of flower inception. Tissue analyses

showed that the plants actually under¬
went a change in water balance toward
the direction of lower water content.
Frequently the increase in transpiration
and change in water balance could be
noted before the appearance of any
visible floral structures. The experiment
reported here was set up to study the
varietal differences of oats in respect to
the relation -between changes in their
water balance and morphological differen¬
tiation.

Two varieties of spring oats, Kherson
and Illinois 30-2088, were seeded in
glazed porcelain pots each containing 8
kilograms of composted Flanagan silt
loam. The coleoptiles appeared three
days after seeding. The plants were uni¬
formly watered until the first leaf was 5
cm. high. Water was then added or
withheld from the soil so that 10 pots,
each containing 10 plants, were main¬
tained at soil moisture levels of 15%,
22.5%, 30%, 37.5% and 45%. The water
holding capacity of the soil was 66%.
The pots were weighed three times a
week and the desired moisture level
maintained by adding water. Part of the
water was added to the surface and part
to the lower levels by means of inserted
glass tubes.

Twenty-eight days after seeding a
sudden increase in transpiration was
noted in both varieties grown at all soil
moisture levels (Fig. 1). An examina¬
tion of the stem and growing point
showed that the stem was starting to
elongate and the growing point was be¬
ginning to differentiate. Bonnett (1)
found that the oat stem passed through
two stages of development. In the first
stage the growing point remained short,
the leaf initials differentiated, the leaves
grew, and tiller buds developed in the
axils of the leaves at the base of the
stem. In the second stage the internodes
of the stem elongated, and the branches,
spikelets, and flower parts differentiated

74

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

and developed. The results of this ex¬
periment would indicate that the sudden
increase in rate of transpiration took
place at the beginning of the second
stage.

In both varieties grown at all soil
moisture levels, the peak of transpiration
was reached on the same day. After an
initial fall the rate of transpiration again
rose. It was at this period that the two
varieties differed. The Illinois 30-2088

rapidly regained a high rate of transpira¬
tion which was maintained for the dura¬
tion of the experiment while the Kherson
continued transpiration at a reduced
level. The total amount of water lost by
transpiration was greater at each soil
moisture level in the Illinois 30-2088
variety than in the Kherson variety.

If we assume that the higher level of
transpiration is related to the morpho¬
logical differentiation accompanying the

Fig. 1.

Table 1. — Total Grams of Water Lost
(100 Plants)

15%

22.5%

30%

37.5%

45%

Illinois 30-2088...
Kherson _ _

17117

11428

34504

26182

35184

30922

41785

30004

43493

33661

reproductive phase, then the Illinois
30-2088 was developing through the re¬
productive at a more rapid rate than
Kherson. This interpretation is further

borne out by the fact that the inflores¬
cences of the Illinois 30-2088 immerged
4-5 days before those of the Kherson.

REFERENCES

( 1 ) Bonnett, O. T. The development of the

oat panicle. Jour. Agr. Res. 5h:
927-931. (1937)

(2) Burd, J. S. Rate of absorption of soil

constituents at successive stages of
plant growth. Jour. Agr. Res. 18:
51-72. (1919)

(3) Loehwing, W. F. Mineral nutrients in

relation to flower development. Sci¬
ence 92: 517-520. (1940)

Botany — 19Jf£ Meeting

75

SOME GROWTH RESPONSES OF 80JA AND VINCA

TO VITAMINS1

J. Fisher Stanfield

Chicago Teachers College, Chicago, Illinois

Recent researches on the effects of the
various vitamins on the growth of higher
plants indicate that the degree of stimu¬
lation varies with the species of test plant
employed as well as with concentration
of the reagent (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9).
Scrutiny of the literature suggests that
plant responses to vitamin-like stimulants
may perhaps be correlated with the
normal rate of over-all growth of plants.
Plants known to grow rapidly under-
normal conditions often respond differ¬
ently than those growing more slowly,
especially when stature is taken as the
growth criterion (4).

In order to test this hypothesis, ex¬
periments were undertaken with two
species of contrasting growth habit. The
Manchu variety of Soja max was selected
for its rapid growth, especially in the
early stages, and compared with the
slow-growing periwinkle, Vinca rosea, in
response to three synthetic vitamins:
thiamin chloride, riboflavin, and ascorbic
acid. By study of the root system as well
as the shoot, an attempt was made to de¬
termine if there was a differential re¬
sponse to the three stimulants employed.

Methods. — One-week-old seedlings were
transplanted from sand flats to washed
gravel cultures in two-gallon jars. The
gravel, free from organic matter and
sterile at the beginning of the experi¬
ment, was supplied with Withrow’s
nutrient solution, feeding being uniformly
maintained by gravity (fig. 1). Plants
were grown during July and August
under ordinary greenhouse conditions.

The two test species were arranged in
five series of treatments with twenty
plants in each series as follows:

Series 1: nutrient plus 5.0 p.p.m. vita¬
min Bi (thiamin chloride).

Series 2: nutrient plus 2.5 p.p.m. vita¬
min B2 (riboflavin).

Series 3: nutrient plus 5.0 p.p.m. vita¬
min C (ascorbic acid).

1 This research was supported in part by a
Advancement of Science.

Series 4: nutrient plus combination of
Bi, B2, and C in the above concentrations.

Series 5: nutrient Control. Withrow’s
solution only.

Merck’s vitamins were used in all
cases.

The jars were completely drained at
two-day intervals and 2 liters of fresh
nutrient solution added; traces of minor
nutrients (Mg, Zn, B, Cu, Fe) were
added. Moisture was maintained at con¬
stant level by adding distilled water as
needed between changes of the nutrient
solution.

The soybeans were in bud when har¬
vested four weeks after transplanting and
were about three feet tall. Vinca plants
were permitted to grow to flower and
were harvested at seven weeks when
about twelve inches tall.

Measurements of height, root and shoot
fresh weight, and total leaf area were
made immediately at harvesting. Subse¬
quently, total tops and roots were dried
in vacuum at 85° C. to determine re¬
spective dry weights and moisture of in¬
dividual plants. Leaf areas were meas¬
ured in a photo-electric areameter (7).
The resulting data are given in tabular
form in table I.

Discussion — Inspection of the data for
Vinca (table I) shows a statistically
significant increase in total leaf area of
the vitamin combination over the con¬
trols. No similar significant effect on leaf
area is noticeable in any of the single
vitamin treatments. In fact, 2.5 p.p.m. of
riboflavin reduced leaf area and root dry
weight but the effect is barely significant
in the leaves. The difference in fresh
and dry weight of roots in the riboflavin
series of Vinca substantiates the hydra¬
tion effect of this reagent previously re¬
ported by Dennison (6) for egg plant
tissues. Entire plants of Vinca supplied
with riboflavin are somewhat less luxuri¬
ant then the controls if dry weight and

grant from the American Association for the

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

leaf areas are taken as criteria. Other
than the diminution of leaf area with
riboflavin, the single vitamin treatments
of Vinca are essentially neutral, responses
which stand in contrast to the three-
vitamin combination which induced in¬
crease in leaf area. Failure of slow-
growing Vinca to respond is in contrast
with the results of Bonner (4) who re¬
ported stimulation of several slow-grow¬
ing species with the application of vita¬
min Bij this reaction is in agreement,
however, with the results obtained by
several workers on a variety of genera
(1, 8, 9).

The only exception to the lack of
favorable response of Vinca to single
vitamins is found in the dry weight in¬
crease of tops supplied with 5 p.p.m. of
thiamin. The results in terms of fresh
and dry weight indicate that these are
not stimulated by either riboflavin or
ascorbic acid in Vinca, an example of a
slow-growing species.

Significantly different responses are ex¬
hibited by the soybean. Riboflavin exerts
a distinctly inhibitory effect in concen¬
trations of 2.5 p.p.m., especially upon the
root system (table I). The response
suggests some injury from this concen¬
tration in the soybean. The contrast be¬
tween Vinca and Soja to identical con¬
centrations of riboflavin implies a lower
tolerance of Soja to this reagent.

Soja exhibits a significantly favorable
response to thiamin chloride both on a
fresh and dry weight basis and also the
percentage of dry weight in the roots.
Although growth of both root and top are

Fig. 1.— Gravity feed system used in sup¬
plying nutrients.

stimulated by 5 p.p.m. of thiamin chlo¬
ride, increased growth of soybeans occurs
primarily in the tops. Studies of other
investigators on excised roots in tissue
culture have disclosed the favorable
effects of vitamin Bi on root growth;
Bonner (3) further states that Bx is a
general root-growth factor in actively
growing plants. Other workers have in¬
dicated the efficiency of the treatment of
cuttings. In a recent publication, how¬
ever, Hitchcock and Zimmerman (10) do
not recommend Bi for either cuttings or
the growth of plants in soil. The above
response of Soja , however, suggests that
its influence is by no means limited to
the root system.

Table I.— Growth Responses of Soja and Vinca to Vitamin Treatments*

Vitamin

Fresh Weight

Dry Weight

Percentage

Dry Weight

Top
Root
Ratio b

Total

Leaf

Area

Root

Top

Root

Top

Root

Top

Bi... .

gm.

3.9

3.2

3.6

3.4

gm.

9.2

6.9

8.1

9.1

gm.

gm.

.97

.73

.78

%

%

cm.2

o

B2 .

. /U
.54
.70
.65
.77

18.0

10.6

1.39

206

gj

C _

16.9

10.5

1.35

180

>

Combination..

19.4

9.7

1.11

204

Control _

3.4

8.6

.88

19.1

9.7

1.35

235

.86

22.6

10.0

1.12

196

Bi____ .

5.8

2.8
3.2
4.7
5.0

20.1

14.4

16.2

17.2

16.9

3.55

2.45

2.66

2.98

2.88

26.1

B2 _

1 .01

oo

17.7

2.35

t-s

c _

.00

23.2

17.0

4.30

W

m

Combination..
Control _

.88

1.09

1.10

27.5

23.4

16.5

17.3

3.6

4.3

22.2

17.0

4.5

a Average of 16 plants.
b Based on dry weight.

Botany — 191$ Meeting

77

Roots in the thiamin series of Soja
were more fibrous, longer, and more
highly branched than in controls. Root
systems in controls and all other Soja
series were smaller, woody, less fibrous,
and generally less luxuriant. The low
Top/Root Ratio in the thiamin chloride
series of the soybean reflects the larger
root system and improved balance be¬
tween root and shoot. A similar relation¬
ship was noted by Bonner and Bonner (2)
in Cosmos.

It is difficult to account for the elimin¬
ation of the beneficial effect of thiamin
in the three-vitamin combination but it
may possibly be attributable to the pres¬
ence of 2.5 p.p.m. riboflavin which singly
in this concentration is especially repres¬
sive on root growth.

Vitamin C was not significantly bene¬
ficial in any general fashion in the
growth of either Soja or Vinca with the
exception of the percentage dry weight
in Soja. Plants receiving ascorbic acid
were much higher than the controls or
any other series in this test. A similar
stimulative effect was reported by Den¬
nison (6) for tobacco by the use of
ascorbic acid. These data suggest a
variation in the metabolic index of the
plants in question and any study of the
connotations of this response will require
further quantitative experimentation.

In both Vinca and Soja the gross super¬
ficial appearance of the growing plants
was not indicative of the compositional
differences shown in table I; all series
were similar in their general appearance.
An examination of the percentage of dry
weight in the series’ tests is further
indicative of quantitative variations not
apparent in gross dry and fresh weights.
A similar observation was reported by
Dennison for tobacco (6). This particu¬
lar aspect of the response of plants to
vitamin treatments has received little at¬
tention in the literature; only compara¬
tive fresh and dry weights are usually
reported.

It is noteworthy, however, that Soja
was consistent in its positive response to
vitamin Bi in the entire series of tests
with one exception found in the percent¬
age of dry weight in the tops.

Summary

1. In view of the responses of the two
test species and their known differences
in normal rate of growth, the foregoing
data suggest that the slower-growing
form, Vinca, is less responsive than Soja
to external sources of thiamin, riboflavin,
and ascorbic acid in the concentrations
used and under the growing conditions
employed. Normally rapid-growing forms
may thus prove to be more favorable test
plants in vitamin studies because of their
immediate and more distinctive responses
to treatment.

2. Soja responded to vitamin Bi by a
significant increase in dry and fresh
weight of both tops and roots over the
controls.

3. The relative increase in root
growth in Soja was evident in a lower
Top/Root Ratio than in either the con¬
trols or other vitamin treatments.

4. Vitamin B2 was not significantly
beneficial in its effects on the growth of
either Soja or Vinca.

5. Vitamin C was not significantly
beneficial in its general effects on the
growth of either Soja or Vinca.

10.

LITERATURE CITED
Arnon, D. I. Vitamin Bi in relation to
the growth of green plants. Science
n.s. 92: 264-266. 1940.

Bonner, David M. and Bonner, James.
On the influence of various growth fac¬
tors on the growth of green plants.
Amer. Jour. Bot. 27 : 38-42. 1940.

Bonner, James. Experiments on photo¬
period in relation to the vegetative
growth of plants. Plant Physiol. 15 :
319-325. 1940. „ . _

- and Greene, J. Vitamin Bi

and the growth of green plants. Bot.
Gaz. 100: 226-237. 1938.

- and - - Further experi¬
ments on the relation of vitamin Bi to
the growth of green plants. Bot. Gaz.
101 : 491-499. 1939.

Dennison, Raymond. Growth response
of plants to riboflavin and asorbic acid.
Science n.s. 92: 17. 1940.

Frear, D. E. H. Photoelectric apparatus
for measuring leaf areas. Plant Physiol.
10: 569-574. 1935. ,

Gorham, P. R. Measurement of the
response of Lemna to growth-promoting
substances. Amer. Jour. Bot. 28 : 98-
101. 1941. „ .

Hamner, Charles L. Effect of vitamin
Bi upon the development of some
flowering plants. Bot. Gaz. 102 : 156-
168. 1940. _ „r

Hitchcock, A. E. and Zimmerman, P. W.
Further tests with vitamin Bi on estab¬
lished plants and on cuttings. Contrib.
Boyce Thompson Inst. 12 : 143-156.

1941.

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

78

THE WHITE-BRACTED HYMENOPAPPUS STILL GROWS

IN ILLINOIS

L. R. Tehon

Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana , Illinois

Just a century ago — in July, 1842 —
Charles A. Geyer collected the White-
bracted Hymenopappus, Hymenopappus
scabiosaeus L’Her. (S. carolinensis of cur¬
rent botanical manuals) in sandy soil
near Beardstown, Cass County, Illinois.
In June, 1845, Dr. S. B. Mead collected
the plant in Mason County, and eleven
years later— on May 23, 1856— Elihu Hall
collected it again in Cass County. These
three records probably are the basis upon
which the species was included in Lap-
ham’s 1857 list of Illinois plants and upon
which the range given for it in Gray’s
New Manual of Botany (1908) and Brit¬
ton and Brown’s Illustrated Flora (1913)
includes Illinois. During 85 years no fur¬
ther collections of the plant were made
in the localities in which it was first dis¬
covered and no records of its occurrence
In other parts of Illinois were made.

In the summer of 1941 the writer col¬
lected the White-bracted Hymenopappus
in the southeastern part of Kankakee
County. This latest locality, approxi¬
mately 50 miles north and 130 miles east
of the earlier recorded localities, lies
about 145 miles from them. The site
occupied by the plant is almost exactly
one and one-half miles due east of the
town of Wichert. It lies on the western
section line of Section 25, Township 30
North, Range 12 West, about midway be¬
tween the northwestern and southwestern
corners of the Section.

The range of the White-bracted Hy¬
menopappus lies generally to the south of
Illinois. It is defined in Rydberg’s Flora
of the Prairies and Plains of Central
North America (1932) as from “South
Carolina westward to Kansas and south¬
ward to Texas and Florida,” in Britton
and Brown’s Illustrated Flora as from
“Illinois and Texas east to South Caro¬
lina and Florida,” and in Gray’s New

Manual of Botany as Illinois to South
Carolina and southwestward. In habitat,
the plant is restricted to sandy barrens.

Since the publication of these manuals,
little additional evidence of the northern
limit of the species has been published.
Charles C. Deam, in his Flora of Indiana
(1940) records the plant in two widely
separated Indiana counties, Vigo and
Stark. Collections were made in Vigo
County, near Terre Haute, in 1890 by
Blatchley and in 1925 by A. R. Bechtel.
Four sites were found in Stark County,
in northwestern Indiana, by Deam in
1930.

The isolated occurrences of the plant in
Illinois and Indiana, hundreds of miles
north of its normal range, is not easily
explained. Both the Illinois and the In¬
diana records are for sandy habitats close
to rivers. The Illinois and Stark County,
Indiana, sites form an interrupted chain
along most of the length of the Illinois-
Kankakee river valleys, and the Vigo
County, Indiana, sites are close to the
Wabash River. Such facts would sug¬
gest transportation by water fowl, except
that what is known about migratory
routes and food habits almost certainly
precludes the possibility. However, smal¬
ler birds following overland migration
routes might have served as chance car¬
riers.

It is possible, also, that these northern
occurrences of the plant represent surviv¬
ing outposts of a former general range
and date back, perhaps, to a warmer age
or the time when the Gulf of Mexico ex¬
tended northward to and beyond the pres¬
ent Ohio River valley. They might then
be regarded as remnants of a retreating
southern flora, persisting only where, in
small localities, some factor of soil or
climate continues to favor their existence.

Botany — 191$ Meeting

79

4 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF
THE DESCALING OF WINTER BUDS ON THEIR
GROWTH IN EAST CENTRAL ILLINOIS*

John W. Voigt

Eastern Illinois State Teachers College , Charleston , Illinois

This study arose from a preliminary
investigation conducted by Dr. Priestly
of Leeds University, England.1 Priestly's
work consisted only of the effect of
winter climate on the viability of de¬
scaled buds. Priestly's results are being
checked with those of this experiment
in determining whether buds live through
the winter without bud scales. A study
was made of buds after they had been
three months in the descaled condition,
to determine whether or not there were
any structural modifications occurring in
the exposed scales between the time the
buds became dormant and the time they
broke their dormancy in the spring.

Thirty-five buds from specimens of
each of these trees, Liriodendron tulipi-
fera, Betula nigra, and Tilia europea were
descaled the fifteenth of November, 1941.
The buds were all tagged with linen cloth
tags which were dated and duly marked
with India ink, and then coated with
paraffin before being tied to the twig
bearing the descaled bud. These buds
were carefully watched for the duration
of the winter. After three months, twigs
bearing descaled buds were brought into
the laboratory and sections of the bud
scales of the undissected buds made.
These were the control groups. Sections
were made of the second pair unexposed,
and second pair exposed of the dissected
buds. The sections were about twenty-
five microns in thickness.

In the buds of Liriodendron tulipifera
it was observed that the exposed leaf
turned brown and later dried up. There
was no change in the scales except in the
deposition of resin in each of the epi¬
dermal cells of the second scale which
was exposed.

Tilia (Dissected buds). In the second
pair of scales exposed there was found
cutin, pectin, suberin, and resinous de-

* Contribution from the Collegiate Section.

1 Priestly.

posits in the lower epidermis. These
materials were identified by the conven¬
tional microchemical tests. There were
also scattered areas of lamellated mate¬
rial for which we could find no positive
test. This material was thought to be
mucilage. (The deposits are assumed to
be mucilages because of their transpar¬
ency in the fresh material and solubility
in water. The material was thought to
have coagulated as the sections were de¬
hydrated in the making of the slides. The
unidentified material has resemblance in
crystalin form to inulin crystals.

Diagrams of cross sections of the second
bud scales unexposed and exposed indi¬
cate that there is a difference in the
number of the unidentified deposits and
likewise in their distribution. In the un¬
exposed scales, the deposits are scattered
irregularly. In the second exposed scale
the deposits are in the center of the sec¬
tion and evenly distributed throughout
the middle of the scale and there is an
appreciable increase in the amount of this
material. There was no increase in the
thickness of the cuticle in the exposed
scale.

Betula (The first and second scales
were sectioned in the same manner as
were those in the preceding buds). Ex¬
amination of the sections showed that
there were no appreciable modifications.

Summary. Priestly's results indicate
that a number of buds lived through the
winter in the absence .of the scales and
in Aesculus hippocastannm and Castanea
sativa almost half of the buds lived. In
this experiment seventeen of the River
birch buds lived and thirteen of them
died, thus giving a percentage of 56.7%.
Twenty-nine out of thirty-two tulip tree
buds survived for a percentage of 90.6%.
It is not known just how many basswood
buds would have survived, because this

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

part of the experiment was maliciously-
destroyed by some unappreciative indi¬
vidual.

In this experiment more buds survived
than in the experiment recorded by
Priestly. Some of the buds were small
and it is highly probable that in the re¬
moval of the scales they were mutilated
to the extent that they did not survive.
Some of the buds of river birch in this
experiment were victims of faulty tech¬
nique we are quite sure.

Priestly found that, when dormant, the
buds contain very little water and are
relatively insensitive to the external con¬
ditions, while actively growing buds ab¬
sorb much water and are easily killed
by frosts or sharp changes in tempera¬
ture. We had no spring frosts after the

buds started to swell so we cannot draw
any conclusion as to the importance of
the amount of water contained in the
parts which grew.

Some naked buds such as those of the
way-faring tree (Viburnam lantans) are
resistant to winter conditions and the
buds of Cornus sanguinea and Alnus ro -
tundifolia, where the scales often do not
completely enclose the leaves within, are
also resistant to winter conditions. In
this country attention is called to the
pawpaw tree which has no scales, but
yet is able to endure the winter climate.

This as well as the results of the two
experiments hint that bud scales, as pro¬
tective structures, are not so very im¬
portant. The problem probably needs
more experimental data before being con¬
cluded definitely.

Botany — 191$ Meeting

v STUDY OF THE PHYTOPLANKTON OF CRAB
ORCHARD LAKE

Walter B. Welch

Southern Illinois Normal University, Carhondale, Illinois

Crab Orchard Lake is that body of
water formed by a dam across Crab
Orchard Creek at the Jackson-Williamson
county line in Southern Illinois. (Fig. 1).
The stream and its tributaries have a
drainage basin of 200 miles. The lake at
the spillway level covers about 7,000
acres. It is about four miles wide at the
widest part and about 10 miles long. Its
greatest depth, in the stream bed at the
outlet tower, is 14 meters. The stream
bed is three or four meters below the
surrounding land. Thus the greatest
depth out of the stream bed is 10
meters. The land which was flooded was
badly eroded leaving many gullies in the
bottom of the lake; consequently it was
necessary to place buoys at the two sta¬
tions out in the lake to mark those
depths used in our experiments.

Four stations were established across
the lake for a distance of one and one-
fourth miles, beginning at the southern
edge. See figure 1. Station CO-1 is in
a cove on the south side of the lake well
protected by headlands on the east and
west. A small stream emptied into this
cove during the wet seasons. Only
surface samples were taken here, and
these in the mouth of the stream where
the water was not over two feet deep.

Station CO-2 was taken in the old
stream bed. When water is at the spill-

Pig. i. — Outline Map of Crab Orchard
Lake.

way level this station is not over 13
meters. (The lowest the water was last
summer was 10 meters deep.) Along the
banks of the old stream were small trees

and shrubs. These are now completely
covered and are found only when they
tangle the lines of the collecting tube.
Small bits of wood are found in samples
from this station.

Station CO-3 is about three-fourths of
the way from Station CO-2 to the north
shore. Its greatest depth was five meters.
At the low water stage it was about three
meters. The soil here had been culti¬
vated and was most recently planted in
corn.

Station CO-4 is in a shallow cove on
the north shore where the soil had been
graded to make a smooth beach. This
had grown over with weeds before the
land was flooded. The water here was
only about two feet deep. Surface samples
were taken here.

The dam was closed May 10th, 1940,
and the water went over the spillway for

P jg. 2. — Diagram of average net algae at
Station CO-2.

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

the first time during the night of Febru¬
ary 1st, 1942. Most of these data were
taken before the water had reached spill¬
way level. The collections from the
surface were taken in a dip pan and from
water below with a collecting tube of
one liter capacity. Samples were put
through a collecting net of silk bolting
cloth and washed into 100 c.c. of
Transeau’s Fluid for storage. Counts of
the numbers of organisms were made in
a Sedgwich-Rafter cell of 1 c.c. capacity.
At Stations CO-2 and CO-3 the samples
from below the surface were taken at one
meter intervals.

Fig. 2 shows the average of six net
algae that were abundant enough long
enough to be charted. These were col¬
lected at Station CO-2. As was expected
the number of individuals was small and
the genera few early in the spring. The
collections were made each week until
the first week of October; then every two
weeks until the second week of December.
At this time a question of jurisdiction
arose since the upper end of the lake be¬
came a defense area. Then the lake was
covered with ice too thick for a row boat
but not thick enough to support a col¬
lector and all the equipment. The first
organisms to appear maintained little
variation in a restricted range. Asterion-
ella disappeared the last of May. Only
one individual of this alga has been seen
this spring. Ceratium varied the least of
any while it was seen but was gone the
second week in October, except those
found the second week in February. The
others continued in the collections from
the time they were first seen until the
last collection was made the first week in
April. The most striking increase was
made by Aphanizomenon when it reached
700,000,000 organisms per cubic meter
the third week of July. The decrease
was more rapid than the increase. At
Station CO-1 Microcystis became so thick
it could not be collected in the net, but
was allowed to rise to the top of the col¬
lecting pan and 100 c.c. of this material
was taken as a sample.

Vertical distribution of these organisms
at Station CO-2 is shown in Fig. 3. The
greatest number of organisms was found
at two meters in Asterionella and Coelo-
sphaerium , at three meters in Dictyo¬
sphaerium and Aphanizomenon, at four
meters in Ceratium, and at the bottom in
Microcystis. These represent the average

numbers taken during the middle of the
season for each.

Vertical distribution at the four sta¬
tions is shown in Fig. 4. The letters in¬
dicate the name of the organism and the
distance between the short vertical lines
shows the number of individuals of each
alga. This gives a rough idea of the dis¬
tribution from top to bottom of the lake.
Dictyosphaerium was not seen in the

Fig. 4. — Vertical distribution of four algae
at the four stations in Crab Orchard Lake.
C — Coelosphaerium. D = Dictyosphaerium.
A = Aphanizomenon. M = Microcvstis
Sept. 12, 1941.

upper two meters at any station and was
also absent from the four and seven
meter samples taken at Station CO-2.
Here again the greatest number occurred
at the three-meter depth at CO-2 and at
the two meter depth at CO-3. The sur¬
face samples were very much the same at
all stations, although when the wind was
from the north Microcystis and Coelo¬
sphaerium collected in large quantities on
the surface at Station CO-1.

Among the other
sufficient number to
following:

1. Anabaena

2. Ankistrodesmus

3. Arthrospira

4. Chlamydomonas

5. Chlorella

6. Closteriopsis

7. Closterium

8. Coelastrum

9. Cosmarium

10. Crucigenia

11. Cylindrospermum

12. Diatoms

13. Dinobryon

14. Eudorina

15. Euglena

16. Gloeocapsa

17. Gonium

18. Gonyaulax

net algae found in
be recorded were the

19. Mougeotia

20. Netrium

21. Oedogonium

22. Oocystis

23. Oscillatoria

24. Pachycladon

25. Pediastrum

26. Pleurotaenium

27. Scenedesmus

28. Schroederia

29. Sphaerocystis

30. Spirogyra

31. Spondylosium

32. Staurastrum

33. Stigeoclonium

34. Tetraedron

35. Ulothrix

36. Zygnema

Botany — 19Jf2 Meeting

83

A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF
NAPHTHALENE ACETIC ACID UPON THE GROWTH
AND COMPOSITION OF OATS

Richard B. Stephenson
University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois

Previous experiments (1) have indi¬
cated that the substance naphthalene
acetic acid may have an effect on the
morphology and yield of some plants
grown in pot culture when it is supplied
in the nutrient medium. Other experi¬
ments have shown that this substance is
active in growth correlation (2). The
preliminary investigation described here
is an attempt to observe in somewhat
more detail the effects of naphthalene
acetic acid on the growth and composi¬
tion of young oat plants, (Ill. variety 30-
2088).

The plants were grown in crushed
quartz gravel in 6^ inch glazed pots.
They were supplied nutrient by a sub¬
irrigation system from three gallon bot¬
tles. Each bottle supplied two pots.
By means of an automatic time clock, the
system was irrigated and drained eight
times daily. The nutrient solution was
renewed every two weeks. There were
eight groups of nutrient supply: the con¬
trol or plain salts medium, and seven
dilutions of naphthalene acetic acid in this

medium, 0.005, .01, .05, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, and
2.0 mg. per liter. There were twelve pots

Pin i. — The effect of various concentra¬
tions of naphthalene acetic acid on the per
cent total nitrogen in the tops and roots of
young oat plants. Note the inverse rela¬
tionship.

with sixteen plants per pot of each dilu¬
tion and the control. These plants were
harvested at the end of six weeks before
the development of the first node. The
pots were immersed in a large tub of
water and the plants were gently ex¬
tricated from the gravel to preserve as
much of the roots as possible. The roots
and tops were separated and rapidly
dried in a moving current of hot air
(85° C.). They were then pulverized in
a Wiley mill and the material analyzed
for its total nitrogen content.

The total nitrogen was determined by
the Kjeldahl-Gunning method (with
CuSCh catalyst) with micro-digestion and
distillation equipment. The average
sample weight was 50 milligrams. De¬
terminations were made in triplicate. Re¬
sults are shown in Fig. 1. The inverse
relationship of the graph suggests that
some influence of naphthalene acetic acid
on transport might be involved.

A difference in appearance of the plants
was noted while they were growing.
Those in concentrations of naphthalene
acetic acid above .5 mg. per liter were
much darker in color than any of the
others and their leaves did not fall aside
from the stems as in normal growth. The
chlorophyll content of the dried tops was
compared colorimetrically in acetone ex¬
tracts with the results shown in Fig. 2.

Ascorbic acid determinations were
made/ on 5 gram samples of fresh tissue
at the time the plants were harvested.
The amount found in all samples was un¬
usually constant, having extreme values
of 25-29 mg. per cent ascorbic acid. 2-6
dichlorophenolindophenol was used to
titrate the metaphosphoric-trichloroacetic

acid extract of ascorbic acid.

The dry weight yield of both tops and
roots generally was lowered as the con¬
centration of naphthalene acetic acid in¬
creased, except that a slight increase over
the control occurred in the lowest con¬
centration, 0.005 mg. per liter.

84

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Fig. 2. The effect of various concentra¬
te118 of naphthalene acetic acid on the
chlorophyll content of the tops of young
oat plants.

The data obtained in this preliminary
study show that naphthalene acetic acid
supplied in nutrient solutions affects the
total growth of oat plants and the amount
of chlorophyll in the leaves. It also
affects inversely the amount of nitrogen
in tops and roots. It has no apparent
effect on the ascorbic acid content of the
tops.

l.

o

REFERENCES

Stephenson, Richard B. Effect of growth
regulating substances on development of
seedlings and excised parts in culture.
M.S. thesis, University of Maryland,

cuctio ui sextain growm
regulating substances on growth cor¬
relation in lettuce seedlings. Plant
Physiology, 1942 (in press).

PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)
CONTENT OF PLANT MATERIALS

Stanley A. Watson, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

It will probably be agreed that the last
decade has brought forth much startling
and important knowledge in regard to
the chemistry and physiology of the
vitamins and there is every indication
that there is still much to be done. One
of the most interesting and intensive
phases of this work has been the isola¬
tion and identification of the vitamins of
the “B-complex.” Aside from the com¬
mon feature of water solubility, each one
seems to be universally distributed in liv¬
ing, growing organisms which probably
indicates that most of them, at least, are
indispensable to all forms of life. Sev¬
eral members of this group which have
been most studied, thiamin, riboflavin
and nicotinic acid, have been shown to
exert their influence as prosthetic groups
for enzymes or as co-enzymes in cellular
respiration. The author of a recent re¬
view (1) has stated that over 700 papers
were written on the water soluble vita¬
mins during 1941. However, even a
cursory reading of the text reveals that
the proportion of papers dealing with
plant-vitamin relationships (excluding de¬
terminations on foods) is exceedingly
small.

Green plants are known to be the pri¬
mary seat of vitamin synthesis not only
for themselves (wherein they are not
vitamins according to definition) but for
all animals dependent upon them directly
or indirectly for food. The study of vita¬
min relationships in plants should be a

rich field of physiological endeavor but
has been slow getting started mainly be¬
cause of a lack of adequate methods for
their determination. A recent publication
by Williams and co-workers (2) presents
microbiological assay methods which re¬
quire little outlay for equipment and
appear to be reasonably accurate.

The present investigator has applied
the microbiological method for riboflavin
to plant materials with a view of learn¬
ing something about the occurrence,
synthesis and possible functions of the
substance in plants. One phase of the
problem which is considered to be im¬
portant is the relation of mineral nutri¬
tion to vitamin content of cereal grasses
and is being studied at the present time
in the laboratory at the University of
Illinois.

The study of riboflavin in plants seems
to have been almost untouched up to the
present time but experiments with other
vitamins can serve as a guide. Riboflavin
content of several plant materials is pre¬
sented and is used to illustrate possibili¬
ties for further research. Bonner (3)
has studied the thiamin distribution and
transport in tomato plants and reports
that the thiamin content, on the basis of
gammas per gram of dry weight, is high¬
est in the youngest leaves and falls off
with each successive leaf to a low figure
in the oldest. The accompanying data on
tobacco and tomato show no difference
between the riboflavin content of young

Botany — 191$ Meeting

85

Table I

Plant

Part

Riboflavin in gammas
per gram dry tissue

Tobacco - - - - -

Growing point and youngest leaves . - .

10.88 ± 0.1

11.15 ± 0.1

8.00 =4= 0.8

“ , senescent -

Tomato - -

Growing point and youngest leaves -

Leaves, growing rapidly -

“ mature _

23.90 ± 1.0

23.71 * 1.5

20.73 ± 1.0

14.37 ± 1.0

“ , senescent -

Roots _

9.73 ± 0.5

23.38 ± 2.0

4.35 =*= 0.4

14.90 ± 0.1

Oat (Flowering stage) -

(includes leaf sheaths)

Coleus _ _ _

Leaf margins (chlorophyl) -

Leaf centers (no chlorophyl) -

21.63 ± 0.9

22.17 ± 1.3

15.76 ± 1.3

Magnolia -

11.58 0.3

16.49 ± 1.0

8.75 ± 1.0

10.48 ± 1.0

(Var: Old Dominion)

“ , female _

Vegetative, male - - -

“ , female _

and mature leaves but shows a low value
for senescent leaves. This may be due
to destruction or removal of riboflavin
from necrotic cells. By means of girdling
experiments, Bonner was able to conclude
that thiamin is apparently synthesized in
the mature leaves and transported up or
down the stem to the growing leaves and
to the roots. This technique might be
profitably applied to the other B vitamins.

The data on the oat plant indicates
that the leaf is the place of synthesis of
riboflavin. Its occurrence in the stem
might be in part due to transport to the
flowers and to the roots. The difference
between the concentration in tobacco and
tomatoes is interesting but should be
confirmed because the tobacco samples
were not analysed until several months
after they were dried. They were stored
at room temperature in light-tight con¬
tainers.

As early as 1935, Kuhn and Kalt-
schmitt (4) investigated the possible re¬
lationship between riboflavin and chloro-
phyl in the green leaf but came to no
definite conclusion. The results of analy¬
sis of variegated cloeus leaves and of
magnolia petals would lead one to believe
that there is no necessary relationship
between chlorophyl and riboflavin con¬
tent. It is especially interesting if one
assumes that the only difference between

the cells of the margin and those of the
center is presence or absence of chloro-
phyi.

Loehwing’s (5) investigation on the
chemistry of sex expression in spinach
suggested that there might be a differ¬
ence in vitamin content between male and
female because of apparent differences in
metabolic activity. The female plants,
which seem to have a higher rate of
nitrogen metabolism also show a higher
riboflavin content. This conforms to the
previously reported (6) relation between
protein synthesis and riboflavin content
in oats.

The list of vitamins of the “B-complex”
now includes 7 known chemical com¬
pounds and the list is probably not com¬
plete. The application of some of the
above-mentioned methods to the study of
each of these factors in plants offers a
field of fundamental and productive re¬

search.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

[organ, Agnes Fay. Ann. Review of
Biochem., 10, 337 (1941).

Studies on the Vitamin Content or
Tissue I.” Univ. of Texas Publica¬
tion No. 4137. (1941.)

(1942).

Kuhn and Kaltschmitt. Ber. Chem.

Gesel. 68, 128 (1935).

Loehwing, W. F. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol.

and Med. 30, 1215 (1932).

Watson and Wynd. Airier. J. Bot. 27,
20s (1940).

PAPERS IN CHEMISTRY

From the Report of the Section Chairman

The Chemistry program carried 11 papers, 8 of which are herewith pub¬
lished. The others were :

Garvey, N. F., Supervisor Visual Aids, University of Illinois, Urbana,
Illinois, Review of 191+0-1+1 movies useful in the teaching of physical
science.

McLain, M. H., Wilson Junior College, Chicago, Illinois, Review of
191+0-1+1 texts for teaching of chemistry in first two years of college.

Van Arsdell, Prudence, and Gustav Egloff, Universal Oil Products Co.,
Chicago, Illinois, Nomenclature of cyclic hydrocarbons.

Forty-five attended the meeting and elected as chairman for the Jackson¬
ville meeting May 7-8, 1943, H. W. Gould, Northern Illinois State Teachers

College, DeKalb, Illinois. .

(Signed) N. D. Cheronis, Chairman

[87]

88

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

NEW ACID-BASE TERMINOLOGY

C. W. Bennett

Western Illinois State Teachers College, Macomb, Illinois

The last twenty years have seen a
rather amazing change in the meaning of
the terms acid and base for those who try
to keep up with new developments. The
following summary of the more important
proposals will show that the meaning of
the terms become more and more inclu¬
sive.

a) Arrhenius 1887— H y d r o g e n ion

donor in water.

b) Bronsted 1923 — Proton (H+ ion)

donor in general.

c) Germann 1925 — Solvent-cation

donor.

d) Lewis 1923 and 1938— Electron-

pair acceptor.

e) Sidgwick 1927— “Acceptor” for

same idea as Lewis.

f) Usanovich 1939 — More inclusive — ■

electrophile.

The Journal of Chemical Education has
published many articles concerning the
new ideas and has recently reprinted a
very valuable selection of them in book
form.1 To me the ideas of G. N. Lewis2
seem most reasonable. Usanovich’s acids
include almost everything, Lewis’ acids,
oxidizing agents and other substances
while the Bronsted theory is forced to
omit some real acids like S03 and SnCl4.
Lewis defines an acid as “a molecule, ion,
or radical capable of accepting a pair of
electrons furnished by some other ele¬
ment or group. Conversely, a base is a
structure which can furnish such an elec¬
tron pair.”

Many felt at first that the new ideas
were all right if only new names were
applied. Sidgwick,8 for example, calls the
Lewis acids “acceptors” and the bases
“donors.” Lewis, however is rapidly
gaining support and the logic of his posi¬
tion is asserting itself.

When one considers the classical con¬
notation of the word “base,” it is hard
to see how it could be the foundation of
anything but the new usage makes it the
base or foundation of an acid. The word
“acid” means sour and that is generally
true of Lewis’ “acids.” All the classical

acid radicals as well as some other
entities are called bases by the new sys¬
tem. Thus the acetate ion is the base
of HC2H3O2. Acids or bases may be
cations, neutral molecules, or anions as
the following examples will show:

ACIDS (Electron-pair Acceptors)

Cations

Molecules

Anions

H,0+

HC1

H2PO4-

NH4+

HC2H3O2

HPO4--

Zn++

SnCL

HC2O4-

Ag+

H2O

HSO4-

Fe+++

Al+++

Mg++

Cr+++

BASES

H3PO4

502

HAIO.

503

(Electron-pair

Donors)

Cations

Molecules

Anions

Zn(OH) +

H2O

OH-

A1 ( OH ) ++

NIL

PO4---

A10+

Al(OH)3

HPO4--

Fe ( OH ) ++

NH2OH

H2PO4-

Fe(OH)2+ CN-

FeO+ C2H3O2-

SOr-

HSOr

0--

Those which occur in both lists would

be called amphiprotic (since the words
amphoteric and ampholytic are now ob¬
solete). Perhaps the most striking con-
strast is in the classical use of the word
“bases” in Soil Chemistry and qualitative
analysis for cations and “acids” for
anions. The new theory makes most of
these same cations “acids” and the anions
“bases.” Thus Zn++, Al+++, Fe+++ have
long been called bases but their solutions
taste sour, turn litmus red and have
other characteristics of acids, alum even
being substituted for the acid in cheap
baking powder. Modern ideas are there¬
fore more realistic.

Again, solutions containing such ions
as CN~, C2H3O2", Si<V", S-“, SIT, C03“ '
and OH~ have a distinct basic reaction,
yet some older books, especially qualita¬
tive texts, call them acids, including even
OH- by courtesy.

Chemistry — 19Jf£ Meeting

89

It would seem then, that at least for
cations and anions, the new ideas are
more logical than the classical. There is
a feeling among many that somehow it
is the Na+ in NaOH that makes it a base.
The new theory would say it is the OH~
which is the base and that the Na+ is such
a weak acid that it has practically no
neutralizing effect upon the OH". Clas¬
sical defenders will at once argue that
NaOH is strong while Zn(OH)2 is weak.
They will say that this proves that the
cation is what makes a base. The an¬
swer is that the cation is important but
not in the way they thought. The Zn++
is a stronger acid than the practically
•neutral Na+, and so partly neutralizes or
minimizes the effect of the OH~. This
attitude, anyway, is no doubt a hangover
from the confusion of a free element
with its ion. While sodium is a very
active element, the sodium ion is quite
inactive, and it is this inactivity which
allows the other ions of sodium com¬
pounds to exhibit their unhampered
effects.

Now the Cl" is a very weak base and
practically neutral, while C2H302_ is a
strong base. The molecule acid, HC1, is
strong because Cl" has little or no neutral¬
izing effect upon the acid. HC2H302 is
weak because C2H302~ has a strong basic
reaction and so reduces the acidity of the
molecule.

The reaction between an acid and a base
is not necessarily neutralization but can
usually be fitted into the following
scheme or a modification of it.

Acidi + Base2 Acid2 + Base!

HC1 + H20 ^ H30+ + Cl"

H30+ + OH" H20 + H20

The word salt is restricted to a sub¬

stance which has an ionic lattice in the
solid form and is completely ionized
when fused or dissolved. Thus, Na+Cl",
Na+OH", and H30+C1' are all salts but
As2S3, HgCl2 and CdCl2 are excluded since
the latter are practically un-ionized.

A classical “neutral salt” like Na+Cl“
is a salt which contains the practically
neutral weak acid Na+ and the practically
neutral weak base Cl". A classical “base”
like Na+OH" is a salt which contains the
weak acid Na+ and the very strong base
OH". H30+Cr is a salt which contains

the strong acid, H30+‘ and the practically
neutral base Cl".

It is unreasonable to call Na+OH" a
base and not a salt and refuse a similar
classification to Na+CN", Na+2C03" ",
Na+SH", Na+2S" “, Na+C2H302", Na+2Si03"",
etc., which are in some cases almost as
basic in reaction. Furthermore, the dry,
fused classical “salts” and “bases” will
carry an electric current while pure clas¬
sical “acids” in the liquid state will not
carry a current unless an ionizing solvent
is added. This shows that there is no
fundamental difference between the first
two classes which are now to be classed
simply as salts, containing more or less
active bases. The term “base” is thus re¬
leased for a more fundamental meaning.
Classical “acids” do not become salts,
however, until they have reacted with an
ionizing solvent. Thus HC1 must react
with H20, NHs or similar ionizing solv¬
ent to form an “onium” salt.

HC1 + H20 «=» H30+ + Cl"

hci + nh3 <=> nh4+ + cr

Types of Lewis Salts
Classical Salts “ Onium ” Salts

Na+Cl"

NH4+C1"

k+no3-

H30+C1"

Ca++SOr "

nh4+oh-

Fe+++Cl"3

H30+HS04-

Classical Bases

Not Salts

Na+OH"

As2S3

K+OH"

CdCl2

Li+OH-

HgCl2

Mg++(OH")2

Hg(CN)2

The more we consider these points, the
more reasonable the new ideas become
but one could wish that more texts and
teachers had the daring to use them con¬
sistently. I look forward to the time
when some department somewhere will
start a generation of students right and
use the new ideas entirely. I am afraid,
however, that they would still have to be
somewhat familiar with the classical
ideas in order to be able to converse with
the “barbarians” elsewhere.

REFERENCES

1. Acids and Bases, J. Chem. Ed. Contribu¬
tion of Chemical Education no. 1, 1941.

2. Lewis, G. N. “Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules," Chem. Catalog.
Co. 1923.

J. Franklin Inst. 226 , 293, 1938.

3. Sidgwick, “Electron theory of valency"
Oxford Press, 1927.

90

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

SEMIMICRO METHODS IN THE TEACHING OF
CHEMISTRY

Nicholas D. Cheronis and Peter G. Arvan
Wright Junior College , Chicago, Illinois

The introduction of methods and
technics permitting chemical experimen¬
tation with very small amounts was in¬
troduced about the first decade of the
present century. The earliest uses of
micro methods appears in biochemical
and mineralogical investigations. In the
detection of poisons it became necessary
to develop tests using small amounts of
.materials and having high sensitivity.
Also, as early as 1894, micro methods had
been developed for the identification of
a large number of minerals using in
many cases a single crystal or 1 mg. of
a substance were described. (1903.)
The first microbalances were developed
between 1909-1911. The work of Emich
and Pregl during the early part of the
century in the development of micro¬
chemical methods in quantitative organic
analysis may be regarded as the begin¬
ning of a systematic growth in micro and
semi-micro methods in chemical experi¬
mentation.

It was clearly recognized that the
micro methods saved time and material,
without sacrificing accuracy, provided
the proper technics were used. Between
1925-1935, a few universities in this
country introduced courses in micro¬
chemical quantitative organic analysis.
One of the first introductions of the
micro methods to undergraduate instruc¬
tion was by E. C. Gray of Cairo, Egypt,
who in 1925 developed a course in gen¬
eral chemistry. Though a manual was
published, these methods did not take
root in the teaching of general college
and high school chemistry. The main
reason is probably that these early at¬
tempts introduced actually micro meth¬
ods, that is, the work involved a drop of
the liquid, or a few milligrams of a solid.
It was not until the micro methods were
changed to semi-micro that they found a
place in the college curriculum, in the
teaching of Qualitative Analysis. En-
gelder at the University of Pittsburgh
introduced such a course at about 1930
and published his first results in 1932.

This marks the beginning of a rapid
growth in the introduction of the semi¬
micro methods to the teaching of Chem¬
istry. Today about 75 per cent of the
colleges and universities use the semi¬
micro technic in the teaching of
Qualitative Analysis.

Although the semimicro technic has
been introduced widely in the teaching of
qualitative analysis only limited progress
has been done in the introduction of
these methods in the teaching of general
chemistry both at the college and high
school level. As shown by the bibliog¬
raphy there have been a few attempts but
the method has not yet taken root. The
introduction of the semi-micro methods
to the teaching of elementary organic
chemistry did not start until recently.
The difficulties in this field are much
greater. Special glass equipment such as
condensers and distillation flasks for
handling small amounts had to be de¬
veloped first before any of the traditional
experiments can be adapted to the new
technic.

The war has brought great demands
for economy not only of materials but
also of time; it seems therefore impera¬
tive that teachers should reexamine their
disinclination to stray away from the
easy beaten path of the tried and true
traditional methods. The semi-micro
technic for teaching sacrifices none of the
objectives of any laboratory course in
chemistry — and in addition offers a num¬
ber of distinct advantages. On the basis
of the experience of teachers who have
worked with these methods the following
advantages may be safely claimed: (1)
The factual material of chemistry and
the illustration of principals can be illus¬
trated as well with 0.5 g. as with 10 g.;
(2) Technics, cleanliness and accuracy
are better and more highly developed by
the micro methods than by the traditional
micro methods; (3) A smaller initial in¬
vestment for equipment and what is
more important, less breakage and up¬
keep; (4) The student is enabled to do

Chemistry — 191$ Meeting

91

a great deal more in the time available
without sacrificing thoroughness; (5)
The accident hazard is reduced; accidents
become micro accidents; (6) The micro
methods can be well adapted to develop
the student’s curiosity for self-develop¬
ment. The hobby of the “home labora¬
tory” which is difficult or impossible with
macro equipment not only can be en¬
couraged but it can be used to greater
advantages. The space needed at home is
very small, with little or no fumes or
odors. The following is a partial bibliog¬
raphy of micro and semi-micro methods
for the teaching of chemistry.

1. Micro Methods of Quantitative Organic
Analysis , J. B. Neiderl and Victor
Niederl, John Wiley and Sons, (1942).

2. Semi-Micro Methods in High School
Chemistry , S. D. Law, Science Teacher,
Vol. 9, No. 2, 16, (1942).

3. Semi-Micro Equipment for High School
and College Chemistry , W. J. Schiller
and Sister N. Lawrence, J. Chem. Educ.,
Vol. 18, 543, (1941).

4. Semi-Micro Chemistry for the Beginning
Student, V. E. Wood and H. R. Walker,
J. Chem. Educ., Vol. 18, 427, (1941).

5. Advances of Semi-Micro Technic in
Teaching Qualitative Analysis, P. Ar¬
thur, J. A. Burrows, O. M. Smith and
E. L. Adams, J. Chem. Educ., 18, 385,
(1941).

6. Semi-Micro Qualitative Analysis for
College Freshmen, J. L. Dalton, J.
Chem. Educ., 17, 182, (1940).

7. The Use of Semi-Micro Technic in Ele¬
mentary Organic Chemistry I, N. D.
Cheronis, J. Chem. Educ., 16, 28, (1939).
Semimicro and Macro Organic Chem¬
istry. N. D. Cheronis. Crowell, (1942).

8. The Use of Semi-Micro Methods in
Undergraduate Instruction , E. Deger-
ing, J. Chem. Educ., 16, 276, (1939).

9. The Teaching of Qualitative Analysis
by the Semi-Micro Methods, G. W.
Smith, J. Chem. Educ., 7 5, 324, (1938).

10. A Laboratory Manual for High School
Chemistry with Semi-Micro Methods,
Schiller and Lawrence, Welch Mnfg. Co.,
(1938).

11. The Teaching of Micro Chemistry, J. B.
Niederl, J. Chem. Educ., IS, 254, (1936).

12. Semi-Micro Methods in Qualitative
Analysis, Engelder, Dunkelberger and
Schiller, John Wiley and Sons, (1936).

13. The Teaching of Micro Chemistry, A. A.
Benedetti-Pichler, J. Chem. Educ., IS,
253, (1936).

14. Microbumer, V. T. Jackson, J. Chem.
Educ., 12, 216, (1935).

15. Semi-Micro Qualitative Analysis, Hogg-
ness and Johnson, Henry Holt and Co.,
(1935).

16. Benedetti-Pichler and Spikes, Introduc¬
tion to the Micro-technique of Inorganic
and Qualitative Analysis, Micro-chemi¬
cal Service, Danglaston, L. I., N. Y.,
(1935).

17. Cos Generator for Micro Chemistry, S.
Susman, J. Chem. Educ., 11,375, (1934).

18. Microchemical Qualitative Analysis
Without Sulfides, E. M. Gerstenzang, J.
Chem. Educ., 11, 369, (1934).

19. The Role of Micro Chemistry in Chemi¬
cal Education, Paul E. Spoerri, J. Chem.
Educ., 10, 491, (1933).

20. Laboratory Directions in Micro In¬
organic Chemistry, Hjort and Wood¬
ward, Edwards Bros., Inc., Ann Arbor,
Mich., (1933).

21. Increasing the Sensitivity of Chemical
Reactions, E. W. Blane, J. Chem. Educ.,
10, 7 1,6, (1933).

22. Micro Methods in General Chemistry,
Hjort and Woodward, J. Chem. Educ.,
9, 1815, (1932).

23. Engelder and Schiller, A System of
Qualitative Microanalysis, J. Chem.
Educ., 9, 1636, (1932).

24. Microchemical Laboratory Manual,
Emich-Schneider, John Wiley and Sons,
(1932).

25. Practical Methods by Micro Methods,
E. C. Grey, W. Heffer and Sons, Cam¬
bridge, England, (1925).

26. Quantitative Organic Micro Analysis,
Fritz Pregl, P. Blakiston’s Son and Co.,
(1924).

27. A Manual of Microchemical Analysis,
H. Behrens, MacMillan, (1894).

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

{J2

REVIEW OF RECENT CHEMISTRY TEXTS FOR USE IN
THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY AT THE
HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL

C. W. Dew alt
Decatur , Illinois

In the consideration of recent text¬
books in chemistry, I am reminded of a
statement by Dr. Samuel Ralph Powers,
regarding educational practices in gen¬
eral. He states that “practices in educa¬
tion are influenced by the condition of
the times in which they are current and
seem to represent a fusion resulting from
conflict between apparent demands of an
immediate and on-going social milieu and
traditional procedures based upon sup¬
posed needs of the past!”1 Examination
of textbooks on the high school level re¬
veals on one hand an obvious tendency
to comply with the suggestions of modern
educational procedure; on the other, a
reluctance to break sharply with tradi¬
tion. The observation is not intended as
a criticism of publications in general, but
as a statement of fact, as I see it. There
is even a possibility of the condition per¬
sisting to the extent that the success of
a textbook is measured in terms of volume
of sale. If this is true, those attempting
the production of a volume of material
suitable to the needs of a course of in¬
struction cannot be criticized too severely
for an adaptation to an established prac¬
tice — the manner in which work of this
kind is approved, published, and accepted
by the educational world.

One might be inclined to question
whether or not there is cause for a cer¬
tain devotion to the traditional methods
of educational procedure; however, we do
not have to search long to find evidence
of it. Belting and Clevenger in The High
School At Work remark . . . “though we
live in a world of progress and change,
tradition has spun its web around hun¬
dreds of our high schools so strongly that
if one of the colonial schoolmasters could
rise from his grave for a visit to them,

he would feel quite at home.”2 Dr.
Powers in the discussion mentioned
above says, “There can be no doubt that
science teachers in many schools have’
failed to keep adequately in touch with
trends in education and with the social,
economic, and political developments of
the dynamic society of which they as in¬
dividuals and as teachers are a part. This
is obvious to anyone who will take the
trouble to observe it.”3

Regardless of the status of science in¬
struction, the tendency of many textbooks
to follow the trends of modern educa¬
tional practice should do much to correct
a condition that has long been ignored by
those who are subject-matter minded.

In the main, the modern approach
seems to stress certain factors; namely,
the education of numbers, regardless of
individual differences; less formal presen¬
tation with greater adaptation to social
needs; consideration of economic princi¬
ples, that is, the conservation and utiliza¬
tion of natural resources; care of health,
physical and mental; a recognition of the
educational value of activity; and the or¬
ganization of information into units of
instruction that can be integrated with
material of other courses.4

With these factors in mind, I should
like to consider the following features:

1. Philosophy : What is the book expected
to teach? How is the objective to be
attained?

2. Mechanics : A. Basic organization. B.
Outward appearance, dimensions, and
construction. C. Size and clearness of
print. Readableness of material. D.
Number and quality of diagrams, photo¬
graphs, and other illustrative materials.

3. Content Materials : A. Chemical prin¬
ciples, theories and laws. B. Discussion
materials. C. Descriptive materials. D.
Contributions of chemistry to science.
E. Glossary of terms, tabular material,
and appendices.

4. Learning Materials : A. Research activ¬
ities and projects. B. Use of knowledge

1 Powers, Samuel Ralph: “Preparations of Science Teachers to Contribute to General

Education ; School Science and Mathematics, April, 1942, p. 315.

3 Belting and Clevenger, “The High School at WorTc,,} Chapter II, p. 19.

3 Powers, op. cit., p. 317.

4 Adapted from Powers, op. cit., pp. 316-17.

Chemistry — 19J+2 Meeting

93

gained. C. Development of ideas and
principles. D. Topics for investigation.
E. Unit recitation and tests. F. Supple¬
mentary exercises.

5. Teaching Aids : A. Films. B. Film
strips. C. Slides. D. Posters. E. Dis¬
plays. F. Free teaching aids.

6. Evaluation : A. Methods for testing

* ability to think reflectively. B. Methods

for testing ability to use the scientific
method.

I should like to discuss, first, the texts
of recent copyright still organized oh the
topical plan. In this group I have se¬
lected the following:

1. New World of Chemistry, by Bernard
Jaffe ; Silver Burdett Company, Chicago,
1941.

2. Chemistry and Its Wonders, by Oscar L.
Brauer ; American Book Company, 1938.

3. First Principles of Chemistry , by Brown¬
lee. Fuller, Hancock, Sohon, and Whitsit ;
Allyn and Bacon, Chicago, 1940.

4. Ceneral Elementary Chemistry, by John
C. Hogg and Charles L. Bickel ; D. Van
Nostrand Company, New York, 1941.

New World Of Chemistry seeks to de¬
velop well informed, intelligent indi¬
viduals, capable of complete adjustment
to life situations. Furthermore, it seeks
to impress students with the importance
of science, and to create a desire for use
of the scientific method. The book is
attractive in design. The type is of mod¬
erate size, and clear. Diagrams, photo¬
graphs, and murals are clear and
abundant. They are well chosen and
contribute much to a general theme, that
is, the role of science in the development
of civilization. Although there are a
large number of chapters, the sequence is
good. The language is simple and clear.
Technical terms are made intelligible to
the student. Chemical principles are
carefully developed, and the illustrative
materials are compact. At the close of
chapters there is a brief list of selected
readings; a summary of useful ideas de¬
veloped; two groups of review questions —
the second brief, but sufficiently difficult
to challenge the stronger students. Also,
there are suggested activities, projects
and investigations. In addition to a de¬
velopment of chemical principles, there is
direct effort to impress students with the
importance of learning, and the values
of the scientific approach. The work is
inclusive, in that it treats the earliest
developments, and also modern contribu¬
tions. It suffers somewhat from tradi¬
tional organization.

Chemistry And Its Wonders is intended
to contribute to the general culture of the
individual. An extreme effort is made to
show the relation of chemistry to life.
The book is attractive; however, it is

slightly cumbersome for ordinary use.
The type is large, clear, and the material
is very easy to read. Photographs and
diagrams are numerous and appropriate,
the latter being particularly illustrative.
The reading material is interspersed
with simple experiments to be demon¬
strated by the instructor. At the close
of chapters and at appropriate places
within chapters there are numerous re¬
view questions. The questions are de¬
signed to review scientific facts and to aid
in understanding principles developed.
Additional exercises for superior stu¬
dents, and supplementary reading lists,
compensate in part for a lack of formal
data. Some of the later chapters — Chem¬
istry and Health, How Chemistry Helps
the Doctor, The Chemistry of Cooking,
Chemistry and Transportation, The Chem¬
istry of Common Things — indicate the
general purpose of the work. The book
is an excellent reference, but it is
scarcely adequate as a textbook for
ordinary high-school work.

Elementary General Chemistry is
strictly traditional chemistry. The book
is plain in design, and organization. No
particular philosophy is expressed by the
authors. The numerous chapters close
with a few questions on factual data.
There is an occasional summary, and an
occasional list of practice problems. At
the close of the book there is an adequate
list of supplementary readings; also, some
review questions. Few of the questions
provoke thought, nor do they test ability
to use chemistry in a practical way. The
book is designed to serve the needs of
schools having one or two years of chem¬
istry. I doubt if it would serve either
very well.

First Principles Of Chemistry is a book
that has enjoyed a wide usage. The au¬
thors were among the first to break
sharply with tradition. Although the
copyright lists three revisions since the
1931 edition was published, the book is
sadly out of date. Compared with some
recent publications, the book is not par¬
ticularly attractive. It is lacking in
photographs and illustrative materials.
There are numerous learning exercises
within chapters and at the close of chap¬
ters. Also, there are four general tests,
designed to cover certain sections of the
book. The summaries at the close of
chapters deal with facts only. There is
no provision for individual differences,

94

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

no projects are suggested, and no sugges¬
tions are made for supplementary read¬
ings. A satisfactory revision of the book
is long overdue. (I understand the work
is in progress.)

The second group of books considered
are organized on the unit plan. I have
selected the following for consideration:

1. Modern Life Chemistry , by Kruh, Carle-
ton and Carpenter; J. B. Lippincott, Chi¬
cago, 1941.

2. Chemistry and You, by Hopkins, Davis,
Smith, McGill, and Bradbury ; Lyons and
Carnahan, Chicago, 1939.

3. Chemistry at Work, by McPherson, Hen¬
derson, and Fowler; Ginn and Company,
Chicago, 1938.

Modern Life Chemistry is based upon
the philosophy that the individual is of
prime importance. It is desired that the
course of instruction will benefit the indi¬
vidual in a personal and social manner.
The book is attractive, modern, and well
organized. The diagrams and photo¬
graphs are numerous, but many are not
clear. The careless design of many dia¬
grams constitutes a serious defect, in an
otherwise very creditable publication.
Numerous charts and tables have been
used to good advantage. The book con¬
sists of eleven units; a number of discus¬
sions concerning contributions of modern
chemistry; an appendix of useful mate¬
rials; and a long list of supplementary
references. Five of the units in the
earlier part of the book deal with the
fundamentals of chemistry. Six units in
the latter part of the book deal with
chemistry as it is used in a practical way.
Each unit is organized about a basic idea,
or principle. The units are broken down
into specific contributory problems. All
units and all problems have a definite
assignment. Following the problem as¬
signment is a presentation of subject
matter and a list of summary exercises
for all students. At the close of the units
there are optional exercises, problems,
and topics for investigation. Also, a unit
recitation and test dealing with topics
for oral or written recitation. The theory
of the book is that knowledge alone is in¬
sufficient; the student must be trained to
use the scientific method. The materials
and organization of the book are well
adapted to this end.

Chemistry And You is based upon the
theory that individuals are constantly
confronted with new problems. For this
reason the students should learn to solve
problems as they appear. In order that
they may be able to do so, they must

learn to use the scientific method. The
learning materials are adapted to this
end. This is an attractive book. The
print is small, however clear; the dia¬
grams are not numerous, but they are
adequate, and clear in design; photo¬
graphs are few in number, but good.
There are sixteen units in the book. The
units are developed about fundamental
principles and generalizations. Units open
with a preliminary discussion. Major
problems are suggested by means of spe¬
cific questions. At the close of the as¬
similative material bearing on the prob¬
lems, two or three appropriate readings
are suggested. Also, there are sugges¬
tions for the application and use of chem¬
istry. Research activities are given to
stimulate continued study. At the close
of the unit a comprehensive summarizing
test is provided. It is followed by a dis¬
cussion review. Attention is focused
upon economic principles, through ex¬
tensive units dealing with health, natural
resources, and metals. An extensive list
of supplementary readings is provided in
the preface of the text. The content ma¬
terials are well adjusted to the develop¬
ment of problem solving abilities.

Chemistry At Work is intended to
teach students that science is the result
of careful observation and experimenta¬
tion; careful formulation of theories and
laws; and that the body of knowledge is
constantly growing. Furthermore, it is
suggested that the material should be
interesting, and as practical as possible.
The book is attractive, and of good con¬
struction. While slightly larger than the
average book, the dimensions are not ob¬
jectionable. The print is of moderate
size, and clear. The material is easy to
read. Diagrams and photographs are
numerous and generally good. The four¬
teen units in Chemistry At Work are
broken down into chapters. Chapters are
headed by a preliminary discussion. At
the close there is a summary in question
form. Also, numerous thought questions
and optional exercises are provided. At
the close of units an extensive list of
supplementary exercises is given. Appar¬
ently, the authors do not feel that the
student is of first importance. Contents
of the book reveal a considerable respect
for science as an end in itself.

Conclusions — Practically all of the
books mentioned are written on a second¬
ary level and may be adjusted to the

Chemistry — 19Jf£ Meeting

95

needs of the average student. In most
cases there is an increasing tendency to
stress individual and social needs as well
as factual data.

Three of the books: Modern Life
Chemistry, New World Of Chemistry, and
Chemistry And You, provide an abun¬
dance of learning materials, thus indi¬
cating a profound belief in the educational
value of activity.

None of the books make suggestions
concerning visual aids in the form of
films, film strips, slides, posters, and free
teaching aids.

No provision is made to evaluate prog¬
ress made in the effort to employ re¬
flective thinking, or to learn the use of
the scientific method. There is urgent
need for means and methods of measuring
progress.

Often the teacher is reminded that in¬
struction is of little value unless it be¬
comes functional. In reply, the instructor
asks, “How can it be made functional?”
It is my sincere belief that the authors
of Modern Life Chemistry, New World Of
Chemistry, and Chemistry And You have
done much to answer the question.

NEW SOURCES OF MINERAL ELEMENTS IN ANIMAL

NUTRITION

W. P. Elmslie, W. R. Bunting, R. A. Sturdy, and Paul R. Cutter
Moorman Manufacturing

Introduction. — In the national war
effort, many scarce and necessary ma¬
terials have been designated as “strategic
materials.” Among these are certain
metals of nutritional importance which
are called “trace elements” in nutrition
and which are essential to animal life.
They overcome some “hidden hungers,”
and it is therefore important under many
conditions of livestock feeding to supply
available sources of these elements.

Manganese, cobalt, and copper are
among the most important of these ele¬
ments. Manganese in the form of a
soluble salt is now included in the ma¬
jority of poultry feeds to prevent perosis
or slipped tendons and to improve egg
production and hatchability of the egg.
It also prevents certain types of lameness
in pigs according to recent work from the
Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment
Station.

The element cobalt is lacking in the
soils and vegetation of many regions of
the world. In this country, such cobalt
deficient areas are found in Florida,
Texas, Michigan, and other regions.
Cobalt is necessary for the normal nutri¬
tion of domestic animals, particularly
cattle and sheep, and a deficiency pro¬
duces a typical anemia which may be
very severe and result in great economic
loss.

Copper is known to be necessary for
the building of the hemoglobin of the
blood and for the utilization of iron in

Company, Quincy, Illinois

the body. A copper deficiency has been
demonstrated in the soils of Florida, and
it has been shown that the administra¬
tion of copper compounds to livestock
has given remarkable results.

All of these elements are commonly
supplied in livestock feeds in the form of
soluble salts such as the sulphates. Since
these salts have become “strategic ma¬
terials,” it has become important to in¬
vestigate non-strategic substitutes such as
the crude ores and other unrefined forms
of these metals.

Experimental — The experimental pro¬
cedure has been as follows:

First, to locate deposits of ores and
other impure sources of the metal in
question; second, to analyze for the ele¬
ments desired and also for any toxic
materials; third, to determine the avail¬
ability to the animal of each source; and,
fourth, when the form was found non-
assimilable, to devise treatments to in¬
crease its assimilation by the animal.

The investigations have covered manga¬
nese ores from Tennessee, Arkansas, and
Missouri, cobalt ores and impure con¬
centrates from Missouri, Nevada, Ari¬
zona, and Oregon, and copper ores from
Missouri, Nevada, and New Mexico. The
analysis of these ores varied widely, and,
in a few instances, ores have been found
unsuitable for further study because of
toxic impurities such as lead.

Manganese — A typical experiment on
the availability of manganese ore in-

96

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

volved the use of young chicks on a
perosis-producing ration, which was high
in phosphorus and low in manganese.
Five lots of twenty chicks each were fed
for six weeks on the experimental rations
and the incidence of perosis observed.
Supplying fifty parts per million of
manganese in the form of a Tennessee
ore or an Arkansas ore, or even one
hundred parts per million as the
Arkansas ore, failed to give protection
against perosis. The results were no bet¬
ter than in the lot receiving no manga¬
nese. On the other hand, fifty parts per
million of manganese in the form of
manganese sulphate protected all but one
bird.

Sehaible and his co-workers at Michi¬
gan State College reported good utiliza¬
tion of numerous manganese ores, in¬
cluding oxide ores. Tennessee and
Arkansas ores studied in our laboratory
were stated by the producers to he oxide
ores. The findings reported therefore do
not agree with those of Sehaible.

Laboratory investigations show that the
manganese ores are made soluble and
thus available by a simple treatment with
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid.

Cobalt — The availability of cobalt to
the animal was determined with rats by
the production of a polycythemia or in¬
crease above normal in the red cell count
and hemoglobin content of the blood.
Groups of rats on a mineralized milk
ration and receiving cobalt at the rate of
0.6 of a milligram per rat per day

showed a marked rise in hemoglobin
with cobalt sulphate but only a slight
response to the cobalt in a Missouri ore
or crude cobalt oxide.

The method used may be open to
question, since cobalt in these ore forms
might be utilized by an animal in need
of it, where as it might not be effective in
stimulating the hemoglobin to abnormally
high levels. Nevertheless, it furnishes a
basis of comparison of the relative avail¬
ability of cobalt sources.

Preliminary laboratory treatments of
cobalt ores have indicated that at least
partial availability may be achieved by
relatively simple acid treatments.

Copper. — The availability of copper
compounds was studied with young albino
rats made anemic by the method of
Elvehjem, using dried whole milk. Rapid
hemoglobin regeneration was produced
by 0.03 of a milligram per rat per day of
copper in the form of copper sulphate or
of a copper carbonate ore from Ari¬
zona; however, the copper in a copper
sudfide ore from Nevada produced no
greater recovery from the copper anemia
than did iron alone in the negative con¬
trol group.

Conclusion — Much more work needs to
be done, but this progress report shows
that it is entirely feasible, by the use of
such methods as those described, to de¬
velop new sources of the trace elements
suitable for animal feeding and thus con¬
serve the pure metallic salts.

Chemistry — 19J$ Meetmg

97

WHAT THE COLLEGES OF ILLINOIS ARE DOING FOR
NATIONAL DEFENSE

H. W. Gould

Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb, Illinois

The accompanying table furnishes a
general picture of the ways in which the
colleges and universities of Illinois are
cooperating with the war program. The
picture, however, is not complete. There
is no report from some 14 other colleges
where war-connected activities are likely
in progress. Also most of the schools
which have reported are carrying on a
variety of activities hardly classifiable
under the general heads chosen.

As may be expected the three larger
universities of the State, also the tech¬
nical and engineering schools, have been
carrying on large war-connected pro¬
grams for some time. Also the universi¬
ties in particular have supplied many
staff members for technical and confiden¬
tial governmental research. Research
work for the branches of the military
service is now being engaged in actively
by teaching and research staff members.
Both on and off campus the University of
Chicago estimates that 80 per cent of all
research now carried on is specifically
directed toward some war end, 232
members being so engaged. Here at the
University of Illinois the department of
physics has granted leaves to Professor
Loomis, the head of the department and
to 6 of its principal men to carry on a
highly technical program of research in
the East, all of which has been in prog¬
ress for over a year. Also the depart¬
ment of chemistry at Illinois has a num¬
ber of men similarly engaged on very
important research projects related to
the war for various departments of the
government. Professor Roger Adams is
now serving as chairman of division B
(chemistry and chemical engineering) of
the National Defense Research Commit¬
tee. In addition to such service as this,
the Universities have furnished a large
number of staff members and students
who have gone into military service, most
of them as volunteers. Northwestern
University reports 43 faculty men and
161 students plus an additional 42 men

scheduled to leave with the hospital unit
number 12, February 15.

Most of the military units are in the
universities only, such as R. O. T. C., Sig¬
nal Corps, Coast Guard, Meteorological
Institute (at Chicago, one of five in U. S.)
and Naval Aviation. However, it is to
be noted that an R. 0. T. C. Unit has been
functioning in Knox College for some
time, also a volunteer unit using the
R. O. T. C. manual has been working at
Shurtleff College which is near Western
Military Academy also in Alton, Illinois.
Also training with sea planes is in prog¬
ress at Carthage College. Civilian pilot
training is or has been carried on in
many of our small colleges. The Brad¬
ley Polytechnic Institute, have had a
ground school and flight training pro¬
gram in operation for some time.

War time courses of one kind or an¬
other are to be found in practically all
of the colleges. It should be pointed out
in this connection that the elementary
courses in physics, chemistry and mathe¬
matics which have long been a part of
the regular curricula furnish very valu¬
able background training for all branches
of the military service. ESMDT courses
have been offered in profusion by the
universities and many of the technical
schools. These courses are offered either
on the campus of the institution where
they are organized or are given as exten¬
sion courses in surrounding areas, such
extension courses being in charge of in¬
dustrial trained men or instructors in
nearby colleges. At the University of
Illinois, for example, there are now 24
such extension courses involving a total
enrollment of 3,600 students. These
courses are taught in centers distributed
throughout the State. Other courses are
in process of being organized. At North¬
western University there are 24 ESMDT
courses with an enrollment of 1,500;
at the University of Chicago there are
18 courses with an enrollment of 1,100.
At Bradley Polytech there are 900 stu-

98

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

dents at present enrolled in ESMDT
courses, also there are 1,500 students
enrolled in a separate vocational in¬
dustrial program. It is expected that next
year a 24-hr. round schedule will be in
operation. At Illinois institute of tech¬
nology there are 60 courses now being
taught with such typical enrollments as
30 or 40 per course. It is noteworthy to
note that at this Institution courses are
being organized for training women for
the industrial plants in the Chicago area.
At Shurtleff College there are 18 ESMDT
courses with a total enrollment of
600. All courses of this kind are for the
most part non-credit courses taught by
instructors in many cases at night or out
of class hours as overtime, and are
taught to students outside the regular
college or university enrollment. It
would appear that this total program of
courses, pointed towards training for
specific war aims, represents the greatest
single contribution that the colleges and
universities are making toward the war¬
preparedness program.

There are a number of courses that are
either regularly taught in the curriculum
or have been recently added which are of
distinct service to the war program as,
for example, radio, electronics, meteor¬
ology, and navigation. Of particular in¬
terest is a three-year radio course now
organized in the physics department at
Eastern Illinois Teachers College at
Charleston. This course is being offered
at the expense of certain other courses
dropped temporarily from the physics
major.

There are many other ways in which
the colleges are contributing to the war
program, as for example, the Southern
State Teachers College at Carbondale.
The college has loaned to the community
for half-time duty, a director of the
Civilian Defense Council, also another
for coordinator of War Activities in the
area acting as liaison officer between the
different civic and political organizations
in the area and the local ordinance plant.
Another member of the faculty is chair¬
man of the rationing board; still another
a member of the local draft board. Simi¬
lar contacts have been reported in other
colleges.

In many cases where a college is near
an industrial or war-production plant
various mutually beneficial contacts have

been established. Members of the college
staff may serve in advisory capacities for
plant operations or men in the plant may
serve as instructors in vocational or in
ESMDT courses at the college. Modified
credit courses may be offered which are
pointed directly towards the training of
students for work in the local plant and
many of the graduates and undergrad¬
uates go into the plant as civil service in¬
spectors, etc.

A summary of activities on our local
campus will serve as typical illustra¬
tion of what has gone on apparently
in most of the colleges of the State. For
the past year a college defense committee
has been developing possibilities for war
connected activities in which the College
could function. A regular College repre¬
sentative has also been appointed to serve
as general liaison officer between the Col¬
lege and surrounding areas. Under this
set-up the following things have devel¬
oped or are in process of development.
(1) A committee on Civilian Morale has
administered a program of training dis
cussion leaders. Up to now these leader¬
ship training programs have been set up
in 25 centers serving about 900 persons.
The materials used at these meetings
have been endorsed by the U. S. Office
of Education. Requests for them have
come from Western Teachers College,
University of Illinois, University of Kan¬
sas, and Columbia University. (2) The
College was one of the first to be accepted
for the V-l program. (3) A plan with
the Great Lakes Naval Training Station
under which groups of 300 men are to be
sent to the campus for training periods
is under consideration. (4) Several spe¬
cial courses are being carried on or are
being arranged, (a) Visual Education
materials (University of Illinois, super¬
vision) (b) First Aid (c) Public health
and Sanitation (University of Illinois)

(d) Fundamentals of Radio (ESMDT)

(e) Foundations of Engineering
(ESMDT) (f) Lathe Practice and Map
reading. (5) The Social Science Depart¬
ment has conducted a winter series of
lectures and forums for the past several
years. This year this Department has
brought in other members of the faculty
for discussions of topics pertinent to the
war emergency. (6) The college has co¬
operated with the local town officials in
the promotion of trial blackouts, also in
an air raid warden emergency course.

Chemistry — 19 Meeting

99

Table I

School

Civilian

Morale

Program

R.O.T.C.

V-l

C.P.T.

Other

Military

Units

E.S.M.D.T.

Affiliation

Vocational

New or
Modified
Courses

Phys. Ed.
Program
Increased

Accelerated

Schedule

1. University of Chicago..

yes

1000

V-l

yes

Signal
Meteor.
Coast G.

18q(1100)

yes

yes

4 quarters

2. University of Illinois...

yes

4243

V-l

yes

Signal

Exptl.

24 (3600)
others

yes

3 semesters

3. Northwestern Univ _

yes

Naval

V-l-7

yes

Nurses

Train.

24 (1500)

yes

4 quarters

41 Augustana . .

C.P.T.

10 sect.

5. Bradley Poly Tech... .

V- 1-5-7
C.A.A.

(900)
(1500)
24-hr. Sch.

year-round

6. Carthage — . . .

yes

V-l

Sea Plane

3 sect.

7. Eureka.. .

2-yr. Sci.
Schedule

6

8-wk. terms
(single units)

8. Illinois Inst. Tech . .

60 Courses

Courses
for Women
in Industry

9. Illinois Teachers _

Carbondale

yes

V-l

C.P.T.

5 sect.

4 quarters

10. Illinois Teachers . .

Charleston

yes

7 sect.

3-yr. Radio
Course

4 quarters

11. Illinois Teachers .

DeKalb

15 centers

V-l

Navy Plan

2 (planned)

1 (planned)

8 wks.
summer

12. Illinois Teachers .

Normal

V-l

C.P.T.

yes

13. Knox _ _

yes

R.O.T.C.

C.P.T.

yes

Calisthenics

yes

14. Lake Forest .

Pre

Ind. Plan
V-l

yes

15. MacMurray . .

4 sect.

8 wks.
summer

16. North Park .

yes

V-l

2 sect.

yes

17. Quincy Jr. College _ _

yes

C.A.A.

First Aid

18. Shurtleff . .

V-l

C.A.A.

Volunteer

Unit

18 (600)

19. Springfield Jr. . .

yes

V-l

Cadet

Air

Corps

3 sect.

12 wks.
summer
for

premedics

20. St. Francis . .

yes

7 (350)
First Aid

21. St. Xavier .

yes

yes

22. Wright Jr... .

yes

V-l

Army Plan

4 sect.
Others
Planned

It has also carried on selective service
registrations and sugar rationing.

Accelerated schedules have been
adopted in several schools. This has
taken several forms as shown in the
table. Some schools, the University of

Chicago for example, have been offering
eleven to twelve weeks of summer ses¬
sions made up of two terms and are con¬
tinuing to do so. Others which have
offered no summer work before are doing
so now, at least in some subjects. Others

100

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

are extending their summer session say
from six to eight weeks (MacMurray
College) or from eight to twelve weeks
or an entire semester as the University
of Illinois and some of the teachers col¬
leges are doing. Others, like Bradley
Polytechnic Institute are putting on a
continuous year-round schedule, elim¬
inating the usual holiday vacations. In

this connection there is difference of
opinion as to the efficiency of an un¬
broken teaching period of several months
duration.

It would appear from this brief survey
that the institutions of Illinois, over and
above their ordinary programs, are do¬
ing a fair share in helping to train per¬
sonnel for this highly mechanistic war.

DEMONSTRATION OF UNSTABLE ANIONIC COMPLEX
FORMATION BY THE METHOD OF ELECTROMETRIC

TITRATION

Therald Moeller

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Although the pH value at which the
precipitation of a given hydrous oxide
or hydroxide occurs is in general inde¬
pendent of the type of anion present, in
those instances where the anion is
capable of coordinating with the cation,
the concentration of the latter may be
reduced to such an extent that excessive
quantities of alkali must be added to
induce precipitation. In other words
under these conditions the precipitation
pH is appreciably raised, and in in¬
stances where the complex is either in¬
herently sufficiently stable or is stabilized
by excessive quantities of the added
anion, precipitation can be completely
inhibited.

Thus it has been demonstrated (1, 2)
that not only can the precipitation of
hydrous mercuric oxide be completely
inhibited by added chloride, bromide, or
iodide but also that the dry oxide can
itself be dissolved in solutions of the
potassium halides with the quantitative
liberation of titratable potassium hydrox¬
ide. Similar phenomena are encountered
with the corresponding cadmium ma¬
terials (3) although the lesser stabilities
of the cadmium complexes necessitate
the presence of excessively high quan¬
tities of the potassium halides to
prevent the precipitation of the hydrous
hydroxide.

The effects of anionic complex forma¬
tion upon subsequent hydroxide precipi¬
tation can be readily followed by an
electrometric titration technique which
involves treatment of the salt solution in
question with successive increments of
standard alkali, the changes in pH being

followed by means of a suitable glass,
quinhydrone, or hydrogen electrode as¬
sembly. Displacement of the resultant
titration curve toward higher pH values
can then be taken as being indicative of
complex formation, and the instability of
the complex is shown not only by the
magnitude of the pH displacement but
by the similarity existing between the
displaced curve and the normal curve for
the uncomplexed cation. Procedures of
this sort do not, however, give informa¬
tion as to the structures of any complexes
which may arise.

Thus when solutions of such strong
electrolytes as lanthanum bromide and
neodymium chloride are titrated with
alkali in the presence of successively
increasing quantities of alkali bromide
and chloride respectively, the titration
curves show no displacement from those
obtained with the pure salts alone even
at such high ratios of alkali halide to
rare earth halide as one hundred twenty
to one. These not unexpected results
indicate the complete lack of coordination
between the halide and rare earth ions
by proving that the concentrations of the
lanthanum and neodymium ions are un¬
affected by added halide.

With the elements immediately follow¬
ing the transition elements in the
periodic system, however, anionic com¬
plex formation is commonplace as is in¬
dicated by the poor conductivities of
many of the salt solutions (particularly
those of the soluble halides). Thus the
inhibitions of oxide and hydroxide for¬
mation is mercuric and cadmium salt
solutions containing added halides can be

Chemistry — 19Jf2 Meeting

101

ascribed to the formation of complex
anions of the form [MX4]= in accordance
with the coordination number of four
usually exhibited by these elements.

The method of electrometric titration
could readily be extended to studies upon
the effects upon hydroxide precipitation
exerted by similar complexes of many of
the elements in this general region of the
periodic arrangement. Such an element
is indium, halo complexes of which have
been indicated by various other methods.

Alkali titrations of indium salt solu¬
tions containing added alkali salts indi¬
cate displacements of the precipitation
regions of the titration curves to higher
and higher pH values in the series iodide
to bromide to chloride to fluoride, the
fluoride thus giving the most stable com¬
plex. The weakly coordinating nitrate
ion has no effect when added, but the
sulfate raises the precipitation region
somewhat farther than does the chloride.

That the resultant indium complexes
are sufficiently unstable (except with the
fluoride) to effect only slight reductions
in indium ion concentration is apparent
from the fact that only at halide to
indium ratios of around one hundred to
one do curve displacements become ap¬
preciable. Precipitation of hydrous
indium hydroxide is completely inhibited
by none of these anions, probably because
of the instabilities of the complexes and

of the fact that the precipitation pH of
the hydroxide is so low at 3.41 (4) that
an extremely large pH shift would be
necessary.

Inasmuch as the coordination number
of indium in its compounds is generally
six, anionic complex formation can be
regarded as resulting according to the
equilibrium

[In (H20)g]+++ + 6X"^±[InX,]5 + 6 H,0
That the equilibrium constants for the
reactions in question are small is attested
by the excessively large amounts of X"
needed to bring about effective equili¬
brium displacements.

The stabilities of halo anions in gen¬
eral are functions of both the cation and
the anion. Thus the order of decreasing
stability runs from iodide to fluoride with
the members of the “B” families of Peri¬
odic Groups I and II but from the
fluoride to the iodide in Groups III and
IV. The smaller ionic radii of the mem¬
bers of the latter two groups apparently
offset the tendency of the more covalent
iodide to enter into such complex
formation.

REFERENCES

1. Britton and Wilson, J. Chem. Soc., 1982,
2550.

2. Britton and Wilson, ibid., 1938, ,9.

3. Moeller and Rhymer, J. Phys. Chem., 46,

477 (1942).

4. Moeller, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 63, 2625
(1941).

102

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

SUITABLE CURRICULA FOR HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY

Sister M. Joan Preising
College of St. Francis , Joliet, Illinois

ice hypothetical considerations on
curricula for High School Chemistry
have been discussed so frequently and so
thoroughly, it mounts almost to the
height of the ridiculous to break down
and build up once more, with the hope
of attaining anything like the ideal.

High School Curricula as viewed in
this paper cover the well known accepted
line: First, General Chemistry; Second,
College Entrance Equivalent; Third, Pop¬
ular Course; Fourth, General Science.
These have their various advantages and
disadvantages.

Because of these apparent advantages
and disadvantages a rapid summary will
be sufficient to bring them to our atten¬
tion. First, General Chemistry is an en¬
cyclopedic description of practically the
entire field. This is found successful
with students who have carried two to
three years of science or those who have
the ability to do scientific thinking. On
the other hand students who have had
but one year of science or no previous
training would perhaps lose all enthusi¬
asm or never develop an inclination to¬
wards chemical viewpoints.

Second, the College Entrance Equivalent,
is the course that should enable the stu¬
dent after entrance examination, to reg¬
ister in Analytical Chemistry or carry
a condensed course in General Chemistry.
It is recognized in many colleges that
this course is sufficient preparation for
Analytical Chemistry. However, many
college freshmen find the following dif¬
ficulties: (A) they are not as yet orien¬
tated into college; (B) they do not think
with adult scientific minds; (C) the
ebulition of High School Chemistry has
ceased.

Third, the Popular Course in Chemistry
and fourth, the General Science Course
should develop a scientific attitude of
mind, and the ability to do critical think¬
ing, and should serve as vocational guid¬
ance courses for the scientifically minded.

Estimating these courses from the
teacher’s platform, his adequacy and in¬

adequacy of preparation comes to the
fore. The following appears in the Illi¬
nois Bulletin No. 8, 1940, concerning prep¬
aration of teachers in Physical Sciences,
effective in Illinois High Schools: In the
field of Physical Sciences sixteen hours
are required, in the subject ten hours.
Is this preparation adequate? Yes, if as
a student, the teacher in question had
developed the two concepts (critical
thinking, and a scientific attitude of
mind) and can stimulate a critical at¬
titude and an appreciation of science. Ad¬
versely many with stereotyped prepara¬
tion never get beyond a mechanical pre¬
sentation of the subject.

The nucleus of this paper is to discuss
the fact that the ideal course in High
School Chemistry should be given pri¬
marily to incite stimulation. (This stimu¬
lating course would act as a sounding-
board to test the student’s aptitude for
Chemistry.) Also the General Inorganic
Course taken in the college is practically
indispensable for the Chemistry Major.

The advantages of the above sugges¬
tions may be listed: — a) This would give
all entrance students relative mental
aptitudes — their orientation and tools
with which to begin their major work
would lie in the same plane; b) with this
average requirement of knowledge, en¬
thusiasm would not suffer; c) presenta¬
tion of theory in High School Chemistry
should be subservient to practical appli¬
cation. This inductive method, broadens
instead of cramps the student’s ability to
do creative thinking; d) an elaboration
of theory if not accompanied by thorough
understanding and sufficient practical ap¬
plication, stifles scientific interest and
progress; e) an elaboration of theory
accompanied by thorough understanding
creates a superiority complex with regard
to the student’s idea of his knowledge of
Chemistry; this has a disintegrating
effect which is practically irrevocable; f)
it is almost impossible to introduce into
High School a course that will be equiva¬
lent to a General Inorganic Course as

Chemistry — 191$ Meeting

103

given in college; this means that the
student with the General Inorganic
Course that is supposed to be College
equivalent, has inadequate background
for major study in Chemistry.

What would be the ideal course in
High School Chemistry? These would no
doubt amount to courses, and would dif¬
fer according to the type of high school.
In an academy for girls where the ma¬
jority will be Home Economics majors or
technicians the practical applications can
be directed in those fields. In a boy’s
high school industrial and special profes¬
sional fields may be considered, whereas
in the co-ed high school, a varied course
would be advisable, one having general
application. Such a course would be one
that would accompany the laboratory
manual, “Test It Yourself” published by
Scott Foresman.

A great objection to the above sugges¬
tions is the well-worn fear that Chem¬
istry majors will be retarded if they are
not able to step into courses in Analytical
Chemistry as soon as entering college.
There are other time saving devices
which would not nip the scientific bud.
Cannot the High School equip the student
so well in fundamentals of rhetoric, his¬
tory, languages, that these can be elimin¬
ated in college by proficiency examina¬
tions? This would afford more hours in
the major field.

May I be pardoned for referring to per¬
sonal observations and experiences? In
the teaching of High School Chemistry
for nine years, I have noticed that: a)
much of the truly theoretical material is
beyond the grasp of the majority, there¬
fore presentation is cramped; b) the time
element being limited, presentation of ex¬
tensive theoretical or practical applica¬
tions must suffer in assimilation; c)
whether they be potential Chemistry
majors or not emphasis on the practical
will leave all students with a fair under¬
standing of everyday Chemistry; d) for
potential Chemistry majors, practical
Chemistry gives them a background
which broadens their concepts to the fact
that theory without application is like a
soul without a body, rather ghostly.

Carrying this knowledge into the
teaching of six years of Freshmen College
Chemistry, the following points have
come to my attention through observation
and interviewing of students who have
had Chemistry before entering college:
a) decided superiority complex: b)
waning of interest; c) class morale
disintegration; d) fallacy in theoretical
knowledge.

As a closing question: If these sug¬
gestions made in this paper are valuable
to our future Chemists, can we do any¬
thing about them?

104

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THE BOLE OF THE CHEMISTBY TEACHEB IN
NATIONAL DEFENSE

C. E. Ronneberg

Herzl City Junior College, Chicago, Illinois

Fear has been expressed in certain
quarters that a sense of frustration might
develop in the minds of chemistry teach¬
ers because of their inability to take an
active part in the war effort. Before
Pearl Harbor, we were always speaking
of our defense effort. Slowly, since
December 7th, there has been a distinct
change from a spirit of defense to a spirit
of offense. We are hearing less and less
of the necessity of purchasing defense
stamps and bonds, and more and more
of the privilege of purchasing war stamps
and bonds to sustain our offensive effort.
Slowly the nation is beginning to gain a
better conception of the magnitude of the
war effort and to realize that we have a
home front as well as the battle front.
In this home front the chemistry teacher
can perform a very important role.

We are beginning to realize that this is
“total war”. In 1937 it seemed incredible
to all of us that it was a crime in Ger¬
many to discard an empty toothpaste
tube. But now we find that we cannot
purchase a tube of toothpaste unless we
turn in an empty tube. This typifies the
meaning of total war. Successful prose¬
cution of the war requires correlation of
effort between the home front and the
battle front. One of the important func¬
tions of the home front is the battle of
production — munitions, tanks, planes,
ships, fuel, and hundreds of other items
needed in quantities never dreamed of
before. We have become the principal
arsenal of all the United Nations. The
enemy can be expected to do everything
in its power to disorganize our home
front. This is not the place to discuss
the possibility or probability of assaults
by air with incendiaries, high explosive
bombs and gas in the interior of this na¬
tion. The attack on Pearl Harbor was
not thought possible, but it did occur.
Before January 1st, no one would have
thought it possible for Germany to sink
one or two ships a day on our side of

the Atlantic. But it has been done. Our
army and navy authorities point out that
a bombing of industrial centers in Illinois
can be expected. The great circle route
from Norway to Chicago is about the
same distance as that from Germany to
New York. However, the chances of de¬
tection of enemy bombers over this route
would be very small because most of the
route lies over uninhabited forest region
in Canada. The objective of such a bomb¬
ing, of course, would be to demoralize
the civilian population and to hamper
production. Especially in densely popu¬
lated manufacturing areas, our govern¬
ment wishes that all citizens should have
some instruction in the nature of high
explosive and incendiary bombs, that they
might know what to expect and what to
do in case of bomb and gas attacks. A
bombing with ten medium size bombers
might start as many as 1500 fires in the
congested area of a large city. The only
way to combat this kind of an attack is
with a trained citizenry.

The training of citizens in proper
blackout methods and the proper pro¬
cedure to follow in case of gas, fire and
air attack involves problems in the selec¬
tion and training of personnel in which
the chemist should play an important
role. Chemistry teachers should prepare
themselves now to take an active part in
training gas, fire, and air defense per¬
sonnel, decontamination and gas detection
squads. All teachers of chemistry should
have the following handbooks put out by
the U. S. Office of Civilian Defense:
Training Courses -for Civilian Protection,
First Aid and Treatment of Chemical
Casualties, Gas Defense, Handbook for
Decontamination Squads. Another excel¬
lent handbook procurable from The
British Library of Information in New
York City, R. C. A. Bldg., is Basic Train¬
ing in Air Raid Precautions.

There is a second important way in
which the teacher of chemistry can help

Chemistry — 191$ Meeting

105

increase the effectiveness of the home
front. Our war effort is on such a tre¬
mendous scale that there is an actual
shortage of many essential materials.
For example, our average annual produc¬
tion of aluminum for the five years pre¬
ceding 1939 was 256,000,000 pounds. Cur¬
rent production is at the rate of 700,-
000,000 pounds annually, and the supply
is not equal to the demand. Hence, the
absolute necessity to salvage every piece
of scrap aluminum in the country to get
it back into use. Aluminum is but one
example of many materials of which
there is an actual shortage. Recently
the WPB published a report on the war
status of many materials. In Group I
are materials where the present supply is
not equal to the demand. Citizens will
have to do without consumer goods made
of these materials or use available sub¬
stitutes.

GROUP I. — “CRITICALLY ESSENTIAL
FOR PROSECUTION OF WAR”

Metals

Alloy steels
Iron alloys
Wrought iron
Aluminum
Aluminum scrap
Cadmium
Calcium-silicon
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Copper scrap
Iridium
Lead

Magnesium

Nickel

Tin

Tin plate and tern plate
Tungsten

Tungsten high speed tools
Vanadium

Chemicals

Alcohol, methyl
Chlorinated hydrocarbon
refrigerents

Chlorinated hydrocarbon
solvents
Chlorine
Diphenylamine
Formaldehyde

Paraformaldehyde
Hexamethelenetetramine
Synthetic resins therefrom
Phenols

Polyvinyl chloride
Sodium nitrate pure
Toluene

Miscellaneous

Agar

Asbestos — long fibre

Burlap and burlap products

Cashew nut shell oil

Corundum

Cotton linters

Graphite — Madagascar

Hempseed

Jewel bearings

Kapok

Manilla fiber and cordage
Pig and hog bristles

Rubber, crude and latex

Chlorinated

Synthetic

Shearlings

Silk

Silk waste
Silk noils

Garnetted

Reclaimed silk fibre
Sperm oil
Tin cans

Titanium pigments
Tung oil

The chemistry teacher, through his
teaching and professional contacts can
help acquaint the general public with
this shortage of many critically needed
materials and emphasize that it is the
patriotic duty of each one to do without
consumer goods made from these ma¬
terials, that they may be available for
those of our nation who are at the front.

Again, the chemistry teacher can help
to get his community “scrap and waste
material minded.” In every community
there should be voluntary organizations
to continually stress the necessity of sav¬
ing scrap and waste materials to get
them back into use. The steel industry
which is at an all time “production high”
is actually being handicapped because of
the difficulty of getting sufficient steel
scrap. Chemistry teachers do not need to
be reminded that the charge of an open
hearth furnace consists of steel scrap and
iron as well as molten pig iron. Almost
every freight train which we now see
contains gondola cars filled with iron
scrap bound for the steel mills. But there
are not enough of them. A short journey
through the country will reveal many
carloads of scrap iron and steel, which
not only detract from the beauty of the
countryside, but which are rusting away.
There should be an effective voluntary
organization in each community to push
the cause of — “Save your scrap to beat
the Jap.”

Because of their knowledge of the prop¬
erties and uses of these vitally needed
materials, teachers of chemistry are in a
position to emphasize the necessity for
saving all scrap and waste materials
that can be reused. This includes:

1. All metal scrap, from an old baby
carriage to a tooth paste tube.

2. All waste paper — newspapers, maga¬
zines and paper cartons.

3. All scrap rubber from an old cas¬
ing to discarded garden hose.

4. All fats and edible greases from the
kitchen.

106

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

We have become a prodigal nation. Of
our annual production of paper in excess
of 10,000,000 tons, only 22% went to uses
where it was permanently taken out of
use and only 28% was recovered. The
remainder, or 50% was destroyed mostly
by burning. Our grandmothers carefully
saved all fat renderings from the kitchen
for re-use, but now most housewives dis¬
card them or burn them with the gar¬
bage. If a million housewives in the State
of Illinois alone would save a half pound
of fat a week, it would be enough to pro¬
duce 57,000 pounds of glycerol, not an
inappreciable sum. Large hotels and
restaurants have always saved their fats.
We should do the same to help the family
purse and to get added glycerine and fats
for the war effort. The OCD has tried
to set up machinery reaching into every
community for this purpose, but whether
or not the plant functions depends upon
those who have the grease and fats to
conserve.

I am sure that the large number of
people who are not turning in scrap and
waste material do not wish to be un¬
patriotic. Their apparent apathy is due
to lack of knowledge. The OCD has an
enormous task in setting up voluntary or¬
ganizations in all communities to carry
the message of civilian defense and the
saving of scrap. The chemistry teacher
should be functioning in this job.

The question may be asked, “How is
the chemist to find his place?” In the
first place, he should inform himself of
the nature of the many tasks confronting
the OCD; then he should volunteer his
services in his own community. There
is no reason why he should not assume
a position of leadership in this work.
Many chemistry teachers are doing that
very thing. The writer for example, re¬
cently gave a demonstration lecture to
600 fire wardens on magnesium fire
bombs with a discussion of the proper
method of fighting them.

The chemistry teacher has another very
important function to perform in this
conflict. This is a war of machines, and
men and women trained to operate those
machines form largely a specialized per¬
sonnel. Under the impact of war, college
and university enrollments have de¬
creased. No one knows how long this

war will continue nor at what level col¬
lege and university enrollments will
again stabilize. In England and Canada
enrollments have stabilized at about 50%
of pre-war enrollments. No one knows
if this will be true in this country. But
our government and our military leaders
appreciate the necessity of continuing the
training of young men and women along
lines necessary for the war effort. The
newly announced V-l program of the
U. S. Navy provides for training up to
80,000 qualified young men with at least
two years of college work. The newly
announced plan for the U. S. Army En¬
listed Reserve envisions a pool of college
students large enough to supply 50,000
young people annually for the next four
years for the officer training schools of
the U. S. Army Air Corps. Those ac¬
cepted for the army reserve will be
allowed to finish their college courses.
Then, too, women will have to be trained
to fill many technical positions usually
filled by men. In this vast training pro¬
gram, the chemistry teacher will play a
very important part. He should encour¬
age young men with aptitudes in mathe¬
matics, science, medicine, and engineer¬
ing to get the viewpoint that it is
patriotic to get as much training as pos¬
sible. We can prepare for the war of
two or three years hence now. While col¬
lege enrollments will probably continue
to decrease for some time, it is very
probable that additional burdens will fall
on mathematics and science departments.
This may call for greater attention to
duty and more working hours. In many
cases this enhanced program will call
for more effective use of physical plants.
It certainly will call for a critical evalua¬
tion of course content in order to save
time. All these chemistry teachers are
ready to do to assist in training the in¬
creased quota of physicians, chemists,
physicists, engineers, laboratory techni¬
cians, supervisors, and inspectors needed
for war industries and the armed services.
To paraphrase the words of a well-known
news commentator at the close of each
of his broadcasts —

“Chemists are proud to assume the re¬
sponsibility of helping this nation to
make an effective home front to make
possible the successful conclusion of the
war by those on the battle fronts.”

papers in Geography

From the Report of the Section Chairman

The Geography program carried 10 papers. Seven of these are herewith
published, and, in addition, one from the previous meeting, submitted too late
for publication in volume 34, namely that by H. 0. Lathrop, but accepted by the
Committee on Publications. Those given at the Urbana meeting but not pub¬
lished are as follows :

Brown, Clarence L., University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, Regional
reality from the concept of space-time.

Fryxell, F. M., Augustana College, Rock Island, Illinois, Burias, a little-
known island of the Philippines.

Wells, George R., Senior High School, Decatur, Illinois, The relations of
geographic factors to some diseases.

Thirty attended the meeting and elected as chairman of the Jacksonville
meeting May 7-8, 1943, L. A. Holmes, State Normal University, Normal, Illinois.

(Signed) Joseph Van Riper, Chairman

108

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

SAXICULTURAL DISTRICT OF THE SUDBURY AREA

Thomas F. Barton

Southern Illinois State Normal

The most important cultural features
of the Sudbury Area are those associated
with the mining industry. Mines, smel¬
ters, and mining towns leave an indelible
impression with the traveler. Tall smoke
stacks with clouds of smoke and fumes;
long freight trains of ore or glowing slag;
huge blocky shaftheads near deep open
pits; and large smelting and refining
plants with their associated mining towns
are dominant cultural scenes. Miners in
their characteristic dress, increased traffic
after the shift whistle blows, old dil¬
apidated cars, unpainted unattractive
houses on small lots along unpaved
streets, these are the scenes which char¬
acterize this mining landscape and sets it
distinctly apart from the others.

The mining industry does not occupy
a large compact continuous area; rather,
it consists of islands of concentrated de¬
velopment linked together by communica¬
tion and transportation lines. This rough
network of mining development is sur¬
rounded and enclosed on all sides by
woods.2

The focal center of the mining devel¬
opment is Sudbury. Secondary railroads
and highways connect the mining and
smelting towns with Sudbury, the trans¬
portation and commercial “capital” of the
area. Five miles west of Sudbury is Cop¬
per Cliff with its smelter and refinery.
Eight miles east of Sudbury at Coniston
is another smelter. Eleven miles to the
northeast is the town and mine of Gar-
son and four miles farther on is the mine
and smelter at Falconbridge. Directly
north is the Frood mine; and town; still
farther north is the Stobie mine; north¬
west is the Levack mine and town and
southwest is the Creighton mine and
town.

University, Carhondale, Illinois

Consequently, within a radius of
twenty-two miles of Sudbury are found
the six active mines, three active smelters
and a refinery. These mines and smelters
produce over four-fifths of the world’s
nickel, a large quantity of copper (Fig.
1). In addition to the six active mines,
there are within this same area thirty-
eight abandoned or inactive ones. (Fig.
2.)

This localization of mines is related to
the ore bodies which outcrop in an oval
shaped belt surrounding a structural
basin. This is responsible for the pat¬
tern of active and non-producing mines.
The only exception to the oval pattern
are the mines located along mineralized
dikes which appear as off shoots from
the ore belt and the old lead-silver mine
in the basin.

The greatest concentration of mines is
in the south central part of the ore belt
near Sudbury. Thirty-five mines are lo¬
cated here within an area thirty-six miles
long and six miles wide. Two factors
which aided in this mining concentration
are: (1) this part of the area had the
earliest and best transportation facilities
and (2) smelters having been established
in the southern part, it proved more
efficient to use ores that were close at
hand and needed only to be shipped a
short distance.

Types of Mines — Shaft and open pit
are the two types found in the area.
These may be further subdivided into
classes according to their present devel¬
opment such as active, and non-produc¬
ing. (Fig. 2.)

At the present time only six mines pro¬
duce all of the nickel. Two of the shaft
mines have associated open pits, while
at the Stobie all ore is removed by the

1 For practical purposes at present the writer uses the term “The Sudbury Area" when
wriV-nf Portion of Ontario included on the Sudbury Topographical Sheet which is

published by the Department of Interior. The area is forty-eight miles long from east to
west ; thirty-four miles wide, and is named after its largest city Sudbury

Information in this paper is based upon six weeks field work in the summer of 1939 and
library research. The first article on the Sudbury Area, Ontario entitled “Agricultural Land-
ScfePTOe,°vSumeU34“S> ATlf-m appears in the Transactions of the Illinois Academy of

_ . 1 Fif^re I in article entitled "Agricultural Landscapes of the Sudbury Area

Ontario,” Transaction of the Illinois Academy of Science, Volume 34, p. 131. y

Geography — 19Jf£ Meeting

109

SAX I CULTURAL FEATURES

SUDBURY AREA, ONTARIO

Fig. 1.

open pit method. The fact that thirty
of the forty-three mines have open pits
indicates that a high percentage went
through the open pit stage.

The small number of active mines is
not because of a paucity of ore or to the
limited extent of the ore body. There
are many mines that contain ore rich
enough and pure enough to be mined but
in peace time the world demand for
nickel is limited. Consequently, only
those mines are active where the ore is
richest; where it can be most cheaply
mined; where the least amount of unde¬
sirable impurities is found; where haul¬
ing costs to the smelter are low and
where the desired ores for mixing may
be obtained.

Stages of Development. — Six stages
which may be recognized in the develop¬
ment of this mining industry are (Fig. 3).

1. Prospecting and Boom Period 1883-
1905; during this period most of the
mines were located and established.

2. Consolidation Period 1905-1920. This
period was characterized by con¬
solidation of small holdings until the
International Nickel Company gained
control of all the mines.

3. The Depression Period 1921-1922 fol¬
lowed the close of the First World
War.

4. The peace time Production Period of
1923-1930.

5. The Depression Period of 1930-1933.

6. Second World War Boom Period
which began in 1934 with an in¬
creased production of armaments
throughout the world.

Vigor of the District — When the entire
mining district is considered, many fac¬
tors indicate that the nickel industry will
be permanent for at least the next fifty
years. Some of the leading indications
are (1) a steady increase in production,
except for the short depression periods
of 192i-1922 and 1930-1933; (2) the dis¬
covery and development of new mines;
(3) a continued expansion of the railroad
net; (4) a steady increase in the amount
of hydro-electric power being used, and
the enlargement of the power system,
(5) the growth of such towns as Sud¬
bury, Copper Cliff, Coniston, and others
whose development is dependent upon the
mining industry, and (6) the recent con¬
struction of larger and more substantial
buildings as connected with the extrac¬
tion of the ore and its treatment.

The vitality of the saxicultural district
is expressed by the prosperous conditions
of the cultural forms, such as new and
well-constructed shaft-heads, processing
plants, transmission lines and dams each
of which has been built to last for
decades to come.

The district has reserves of nickel ores
larger than those found in any other

110

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

place in the world. In
New Caledonia, the
district’s chief com¬
petitor, four hundred
thousand tons of ore
is considered to be a
large reserve for a
mine. In comparison
it is estimated upon
data obtained by dia¬
mond drilling that the
Frood mine of the
Sudbury district has a
reserve of over one
hundred and twenty
million tons.

Present Develop¬
ment. — in 1939 the
Sudbury Area pro¬
duced 102,559 tons of
nickel or approxi¬
mately 83 per cent of
the world’s total. The
second largest known
nickel area is in New
Caledonia with an
estimated production
of only 9,300 tons dur¬

ing the same year. Although the Sud¬
bury mines are now being expanded, pro¬
duction of nickel in the Surbury Area is
limited by smelter facilities. Formerly
inactive, the Stobie, an open pit mine,
began operation in 1939 in order to meet
wartime demands. Although production
facilities are now being increased, the
production of nickel is insufficient to meet
present demands.

Summary — The pulsating heart of the
Sudbury Area is located in the active
mines and in the plants connected with
the treatment of ore. These give employ¬
ment to the miners who occupy the towns
and cities. The roads and railroads are
built to connect the mines, smelters,
cities and the agricultural areas which
help feed them. Thus the quality and
quantity of the ore together with the type
and distributions of the ore body have
been the dominating factors in producing
the type and amount of cultural forms in
the Sudbury Area.

NICKEL PRODUCTION OF CANADA

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Geography — 191$ Meeting

111

THE BLACK SEA AND ITS BORDERLANDS

W. 0. Blanchard
University of Illinois, Urhana

Of the major coastal waters that fringe
the Mediterranean Basin the Black Sea
is perhaps the least well-known. For the
most part this is due to the factor of
location. It is too far off the main
through-water route — Gibralter to Suez.
Odessa is 1,000 miles north from this
route. After all, the Black Sea is com¬
mercially a “blind alley”. The ships that
use it are mostly tramp steamers carry¬
ing out grain, oil, lumber and manganese,
not the trim passenger liners usually asso¬
ciated with the “Mediterranean Cruises”.

The Sea is really a sizeable sheet of
water, a little smaller than the Caspian,
about the same size as the Baltic, over
iy2 times the area of all of our Great
Lakes combined. Into it debouch several
of the largest rivers of central and east¬
ern Europe so that it is the catch-basin
for about one-fourth of the whole conti¬
nent. Since it is almost isolated from
the ocean, tides have little effect and
the rivers empty through vast swampy
deltas. Many of the more important
ports are, as a consequence, located either
on the stream above the delta or on the
coast some distance from the delta
mouths. Rostov on the Don is an exam¬
ple of the first; Odessa, between the
Dnestr and Dnepr, illustrates the second.

Some of the most interesting character¬
istics of the Basin are explained by its
geologic history. Unlike the shallow
North, Baltic and White Seas, formed by
the gradual encroachment of ocean waters
onto adjacent lowlands, the Black Sea,
like the Mediterranean and Caspian, was
formed by faulting and the foundering
of large blocks of the earth’s crust. Fea¬
tures likely to be found as a consequence
of this type of origin are: (1) Great
depths. Extensive areas of the Black Sea
bottom are over 6,000 feet deep. (2)
High coasts. In the Black Sea littoral
only for two short stretches do extensive
plains meet the water. These are at the
Gulf of Odessa and the Sea of Azov. (3)
Regular coast lines. The Black Sea has
very few islands and good natural har¬
bors are lacking. Breakwaters must be

built and much of the loading and un¬
loading of steamers is done by lighters.

Finally, an “accident” in geologic his¬
tory seems to be responsible for the
peculiar condition of the deeper waters.
These lower levels of the Black Sea are
charged with hydrogen sulphide and there
is there an absence of the higher forms of
organic life. During the Glacial Period
much sea water was withdrawn to form
the great ice sheets, the sea level was
lowered and the Black Sea became an
inland fresh water lake whose outlet was
through what is now the Bosporus-
Dardanelles gap. With the return of
warmer temperatures, the ice melted and
the sea level rose so that salt water
poured from the ocean into the Black Sea.
This destroyed the fresh water fauna
which had developed there and although
that was thousands of years ago the
lower stagnant waters remain poisoned
by the decompositions products and fish
are absent. The surface waters, however,
are well populated and in some parts of
the coast, eg. the Danube delta, fishing
is an important item of the domestic
economy.

Climatically the Euxine, by which name
the Black Sea was known to the Greeks,
is in marked contrast with the Mediter¬
ranean. Entering by way of the Bos¬
porus one feels that the name given by
the Turks— “Black Sea” is very appro¬
priate. You leave behind the blue waters,
the clear air and bright skies for dark
stormy waters, overcast'* heavens and
dense fogs. Except along the southeast
littoral, the borderlands receive rather
light rain and their native vegetation is
grass or steppe. Temperature ranges are
greater than in the Mediterranean. The
January isotherm of 32 °F. — the same
which passes through St. Louis — crosses
a little to the south of the main Russian
coast so that all of the rivers from the
Danube to the Don, as well as the har¬
bors, are ice bound part of the year.
Odessa averages two or three weeks of
ice; the Kerch Strait at the outlet of the
Sea of Azov is closed for twice that

112

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

period. In this rather dark climatic set¬
ting there are two “bright” spots. In and
about Batum, and on the southern tip
of the Crimean peninsula, are outliers of
the Mediterranean climate. Of the two
the latter is far more interesting.

Jutting far out from the mainland the
commanding position of Crimea has long
made it a bone of contention among rival
commercial powers. Indeed, to the aver¬
age American, the peninsula is syno-
nomous with the Crimean War, the
“Charge of the Light Brigade” and the
pioneering work of Florence Nightingale
The incidents of the Peninsular War are
now commemorated by a multitude of
memorials and cemeteries near Sevastopol,
the great Soviet naval base. However,
Crimea has played a double role— that
of a playground as well as a battle¬
ground. Russian travel literature refers
to it as the “little paradise” and the
“Russian Riviera”. For most of the
peninsula these titles are decidedly inap¬
propriate. If one approaches from the
mainland, for example, Crimea appears
to be but a continuation of the dry,
monotonous steppe of adjacent Russia.
However, the Yaila Mountains an out-
liner of the Caucasus, parallel the south¬
eastern coast and serve as a wind-break.
Wedged in between these ranges and the
sea is a climatic oasis — a land of moun¬
tains, sea, and flowers. To the north of
these protecting ridges lies the windswept
steppe, parched by drought in summer,
and blanketed by cold and snow in
winter. On the south, although in the
latitude of Minneapolis, are found the
mulberry, fig, olive and vine. Ice here is
rare. The January mean is 20° warmer
and the rainfall four to five inches greater
than on the steppe. Little wonder that
for cold Russia it should be regarded as
a “paradise” and a popular resort for
Czarish wealth and fashion. Today the
royal residences, palaces and luxurious
hotels have been transformed into rest
houses for Russian workers.

The most interesting of the Black Sea
features is the slender bottleneck out¬
let — the Dardanelles - Marmara - Bosporus
waterway. The opening totals 52 miles
in length and in form suggests a north-
south winding corridor with a vestibule

in the middle. It narrows to one-half
mile in the Bosphorus; the coasts are
rugged and there are numerous islands.
A strong outward surface current flows
to the Aegean, averaging about three
miles per hour, but at times having twice
that rate in the narrows. This is too
swift to row against and in the days of
sailing vessels, if combined with a
strong north wind, ships might be held
up in the Straits for a week at a time.
A submarine current of heavy salty water
flows toward the Black Sea. At Istanbul
this return movement is at a depth of
60 feet and moves about four-fifths miles
per hour. In configuration the Bosporus
is a strait, in flow, a river and in depth,
a sea.

Few important waterways are so easily
defended for it allows control of all ship¬
ping by a nation without a single ship.
Even the current can be used for floating
mines among attacking vessels seeking to
enter from the Aegean as was well-shown
in the disastrous attempt of the British
in World War I. Naturally this was a
perfect stronghold for pirates and one
of the world’s strongest bands of sea raid¬
ers infested the Straits in the 16th cen¬
tury. The strategic and commercial
significance of the Straits all through
history is evidenced by the rows of ruins
of cities and forts which line the shores
on either side. Except for a brief period
of internationalization, 1920-1936, Turkey
has ruled the waterway for the past 500
years.

The Straits provide a water gateway
for the Black Sea though in so doing
they necessarily interrupt the land route
from Europe to Asia. The intersection of
these two provides a situation for a great
commercial center. The drowning of a
tributary of the Bosporus— the Golden
Horn — provides the local site — a harbor
protected from the currents of the main
waterway. Given this magnificent set¬
ting, Constantinople for centuries during
the Middle Ages was the world’s leading
city, but the blight of Turkish control has
never allowed the full utilization of the
opportunities offered even though few
cities have equalled it in dramatic in¬
terest. In a recent typical year only five
percent of the shipping through the
Dardanelles was Turkish.

Geography — 19J{£ Meeting

113

SOILS AND POPULATION— DECATUR COUNTY, GEORGIA

Alfred W. Booth1

University of Illinois, Urlxina, Illinois

In Decatur County most rural dwelling
abandonment has resulted either from the
eviction of share croppers where land
owners are shifting from intensive to ex¬
tensive agriculture in order to make
more efficient use of soil, or from actual
land abandonment where soil erosion and
decreasing soil fertility have made such
a step almost mandatory. To a certain
extent the amount of house abandonment2
may be considered to be an indication of
the amount of change which has been
necessary in order to reach an adjust¬
ment between the carrying capacity of
soils3 and farm population.

The amount of and reason for abandon¬
ment differs in each one of the five soils
regions into which the Southwestern
Georgia county has been divided.

Region I. This, the most homogenous
of all the soils regions, is covered almost

entirely by one soils type, the sterile Nor¬
folk sand. The low productivity of Nor¬
folk sand has long been recognized.
Hence a fair compromise has long ago
been effected between carrying capacity
and population and the percentage of
vacant houses is low (Table I). How¬
ever, this last statement applies only to
the two larger subdivisions, la and lb.
On subdivision Ic a land use system sim¬
ilar to the more favored adjoining Region
V was imposed. This system has proved
so successful that now one out of every
nine dwellings has been abandoned.

Region II. In addition to Norfolk
loamy sand, a soil somewhat better than
Norfolk sand, this region contains large
patches of Norfolk sandy loam and Tifton
sandy loam, both of which are highly de¬
sirable coastal plains soils types. Popu¬
lation density as measured by occupied

Table I

Total

number

dwellings

Total

number

vacant

dwellings

Per cent
total
dwellings
vacant

Occupied
dwellings
density
(per sq. mi.)

Decatur County.. . . . . .

“ — Rural _ . . . _

5628

325

5.7

9.2

2465

161

6.5

3.76

Soils Reg'ons

I. Norfolk Sand _ _ _ _

1107

60

5.4

4.11

A _

474

21

4.6

3.25

B _ _ _

568

30

5.3

5.16

C _ _ _ _ _ _ _

65

9

13.8

5.05

II. N orfolk Loamy Sand . . . .

215

16

7.4

4.45

A

106

7

6.6

4.81

B _ _

40

3

7.5

3.59

C . . .

73

6

8.2

4.86

III. Terrace Soils . . . . . .

130

23

17.7

1.27

IV. Escarpment Soils . . . . . .

53

6

11.3

1.22

V. Altamaha Upland Soils . . . .

960

56

5.8

4.81

1 Field work made possible by a grant from the Graduate Research Board of the Uni¬
versity of Illinois. _ . . . _

2 Unoccupied dwellings from the Georgia State Highway Commission map of Decatur
County, and field reconnaisance.

2 Soils ratings established with the help of : „ _

Hasty, A. H., et al. “Soil Survey of Decatur County, Georgia.” U.S.D.A. Bureau
of Chemistry and Soils, Soil Survey Series 1933, No. 24, 1939.

Mereness, E. H. “Farm Mortgage Loan Experiences in Southeastern Alabama.
Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. 242.

Henderson, J. R. “The Soils of Florida.” V. of Fla. Ag. Exp. Sta., Bull. 334.

114

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

dwellings is greater here than in Region
I, a direct result of the greater produc¬
tivity of its soils. However, the percent¬
age of abandonment is also greater here
than in either Region I or the county as
a whole. Most of this can be explained
in terms of a shifting farm economy, al¬

though decreasing soil fertility is also a
factor.

Region III. A number of soils series,
the Kalmia, Cahaba, Leaf, and Flint, are
represented on the terraces along the
Flint River. Also included within this
soil region are contiguous areas of Blan¬

ton soils and the swamp lands of the
first bottoms. Flint fine, sandy loam is
by far the most extensive soil§ type.
Most of the soils of the terrace have a
profile in which sandy surface soils over-
lie a layer of sticky clay. Unsuited to
cotton or peanut production, these soils
have been taken out of cultivation very
rapidly in the last decade. Locally they
are called “cowhide lands” since they are
excellent pasture soils. The percentage
of abandoned dwellings in this region is
higher than any other soils region in the
county as a result of the shift from in¬
tensive cropping to extensive grazing
which is taking place.

Region IV. Though largely in Guin
soils, small areas of other soils abound.
A broken and dissected area, it has never

been extensively cultivated. Cleared
lands are being eroded seriously as a re¬
sult of sheet wash and gully formation.
As might be expected, abandoned dwel¬
lings form a high percentage of the total
dwellings in this region.

Region V. A great variety of soils
types are represented here. Norfolk and
Tifton soils are found on the flatter up¬
lands, such red podzolic soils series as
the Greenville, Magnolia, and Faceville
on the upper slopes, soils of the Blanton,
Cuthbert, Plummer, and Susquehanna on
the lower slopes, and swamp soils in the
river bottoms. The red podzolic soils are
the premium soils of the region as well
as the county, although such soils as
Norfolk sandy loam and Tifton sandy
loam do not rank far behind them. The

Geography — 191$ Meeting

115

concentration of population on these up¬
land soils can be noted in Figure 2. In¬
tensive cultivation, particularly of shade-
grown tobacco, has given this region a
rather stable economy which its soils
apparently are able to support. Many of
the abandoned dwellings found here (Fig.

1) should be associated with the declin¬
ing economy of the adjacent Norfolk sand
area Ic and the Escarpment, rather than
with the more or less stable economy of
this region. Thus the actual amount of
abandonment is negligible.

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THE COLONIAL QUESTION

Flemin Cox

Southern Illinois Normal

The colonial question has been pushed
into the background for the present, but
it was a question of great significance at
the close of the last war, and will again
demand the most careful consideration of
statesmen when the present war is over.

If the Axis powers should win, there
would be no use to discuss the colonial
question. We know that their desire is
to reduce the whole world to slavery.
We shall then discuss the question with
the assumption that the United Nations
will win. In the first place, some would
question the right of any nation to have
political dominion over other people and
other lands. The principle of “Self-
Determination” advocated in the speeches
of Woodrow Wilson aroused desire and
expectation among people of many lands,
and living under various forms of
political domination. Some are inclined
to say let all the different peoples govern
themselves. All liberal thinkers will
agree that each people fit to govern them¬
selves should be allowed to do so. Many
will go farther and state that even “a
second-rate government under native con¬
trol is better than a first rate government
under foreign control.”1 There still re¬
main, however, many places in the world
where even second-rate control may not
be realized. Some islands and patches of
land in other places are too small for
responsible governments. Some people
are too ignorant or too low in the scale
of human development to govern them¬
selves. If left to themselves, they might
on the one hand, be subjected to cruel
and inhuman treatment by native rulers,
and in the second place they would prob¬
ably impinge upon the more orderly por¬
tions of the world in such a way as to
bring injury to the outside world. An
example of such was the uncontrolled
slave raids formerly made by Arabs of
Northern Africa upon the negroes of the
Sudan. Another, was the piracy prac¬
ticed, for a time, by the Barbary States
against the nations of Western Europe
and even the United States. Another ex¬
ample is the exportation of opium by
Iran. As the world communications be-

ZJniversity, Carbondale, Illinois

come more closely knit, the spread of
contagious diseases from low grade people,
with no knowledge of sanitation, must be
controlled. It is safe to conclude there¬
fore that there still must be colonial
government.

Germany and Italy have demanded
colonies as outlets for their excess
populations. In the first place, people
from temperate lands do not wish to
colonize tropical lands, but seek out new
homes in independent countries in
temperate lands. In the second place the
rulers of Italy and Germany are not
sincere, because they heap praise and
even prizes upon mothers who bring
forth large families.

From an economic standpoint colonies
do not pay. Libya costs the poverty
stricken people of Italy four times as
much as is received from it. Other
colonial powers show deficits also. Even
if an annual expense and receipt account
shows that the expense is not larger, the
long time expense of conquest, develop¬
ment and control makes the colony an
expense upon the people of the governing
power.

Another reason for the desire for
colonies is the prestige value. This of
course is foolish and of no value and
cannot be defended. It is, nevertheless,
probably the most impelling reason be¬
hind the desire of Mussolini, Hitler, and
of the Japanese. Against this foolish
childish impulse we are today at war.

The statement that colonies almost
always do not return to the governing
country as much as they cost is almost
universally true. This does not neces¬
sarily imply that no one may receive
benefit from the colony. In fact, in
almost every colony some favored indi¬
vidual may receive a liberal profit. Here
again, the British may serve as an ex¬
ample. In spite of being a democratic
country, the government is controlled
very largely by the aristocratic class and
the wealthy element. The younger sons
of the aristocratic class need well paying
jobs that are not beneath their dignity.
Appointment to administrative positions

1 Bowman, Isaiah — The New World, pp. 109-110.

Geography — 19^2 Meeting

117

with good salaries and other advantages
often solves the problem of what to do
with the younger sons. More important
advantages may be secured by wealthy
men and great corporations, who may re¬
ceive valuable concessions to develop
mineral deposits or other natural re¬
sources of the colony, at little cost to
themselves, because of their preponderat¬
ing influence with the government of the
ruling power. In fact some members of
the government may also be members of
the corporation receiving the concession.
In this case some few people may receive
great profit at the expense not only of
colony, but at the expense of the more
numerous poorer people of their own
country. This is one of the chief roots
of imperialism, and statesmen of the
future should see that special favor for
privileged groups should have no place in
the governments of free people.

The League of Nations, in spite of its
faults and other weaknesses, advanced
the idea upon which future colonial gov¬
ernment must be based, if the idealism
advanced as the program of the United
Nations prevails. This is that the para¬
mount purpose of colonial government is
the welfare and well being of the colonial
people. The Mandate System set up by
the League of Nations, although admin¬
istered imperfectly, called not only for
government for the benefit of the people,
but also called for an accounting, at
stated intervals, by the governing coun¬
try, to the League of Nations. These ad¬
vanced ideas, should not be allowed to
perish. They are the fruits of the highest
development of the colonial system. This
system, under the Romans, was little re¬
moved from slavery, in the early develop¬
ment of the colonial empires of Western
Europe, the colony existed solely to be
exploited by the governing country, and
only slowly did the idea develop in the
world that the welfare of the people of
the colony should have first considera¬
tion. Kipling’s “White Man’s Burden”
idea has long been considered a hypo¬
critical excuse for British imperialism,
but at long last, after Kipling’s time has
the new idea received the best considera¬
tion in the British colonies. After the
British come the French who also have
been working to a certain extent for the
benefit of the natives.

One of the demands of the Axis powers,
before the start of the present war, was

for colonies. They made much of the
“Have nots” and the “Haves” and while
we now know, they were only using this as
a plausible excuse for their desire to
dominate other lands, they led many to
believe that there was some justification
for their demands. Let us examine the
reasons put forward in the demands or
desires for colonies. To understand these
demands, the location of the colonial ter¬
ritories should be indicated. They are all
in the hot belt of the world. The group
of greatest importance from the stand¬
point of area and population are inter-
tropical Africa, Second, the islands and
peninsulas of southeastern Asia, Third,
the West Indies and the Guianas, Fourth,
the desert and semi-arid lands of north¬
ern Africa and western Asia. The de¬
velopment of the colonial system of today
came from an economic impulse, from a
world whose great powers were strong
nationalistic states.

An important reason given for having
colonies is the need for food and raw
materials for industry, together with a
market for manufactured articles. In
order to help the metropolitan country,
custom dues and other measures of pref¬
erence must be established in its favor,
both in buying and in selling. This has
been done by some of the colonizing
powers, least of all by the British who
have been most successful. The curtail¬
ment of trade thus brought about by
tariff preferment does not help, but
hinders the well being of the colony.
There has been in recent years a surplus,
not a deficiency, in colonial products.
There were products for all who had the
money or the goods with which to buy.
It does not require political dominion to
do business with colonies. Furthermore
the sources of most of the food and raw
materials as well as the markets for
manufactured goods are in independent
countries. A reason behind the commer¬
cial one is the desire to control the
products in time of war. Even this is
not a valid reason because an enemy can
cut off the colony from the metropolitan
country and secure its products. Striking
examples are the Netherland Indies
which cannot supply rubber and quinine
to the Netherlands, and Malaya which
cannot supply Britain with rubber and
tin. With a world organized on a basis
of peace, this excuse for colonies is not
valid.

J 18

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THE MANUFACTURE OF CLAY PRODUCTS IN THE
LOWER WABASH VALLEY

Aldejnt Cutshall

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

The clay industry of the Lower Wabash
Valley includes the manufacture of the
various kinds of bricks, drain and build¬
ing tile, sewer pipe, electrical conduits,
pottery, sanitary ware, and a variety of
other products. However, as far as sta¬
tistical measurement is concerned, the
manufacture of brick and tile far sur¬
passes all other clay working industries.

Brick yards have always operated in
the vicinity of the major cities and many
of the medium sized and smaller towns
of the United States, but there has been
a tendency to concentrate at favorable
production centers. By the end of the
century, this trend began to manifest it¬
self distinctly in the eastern states but
was not noticeable in southern Illinois
and Indiana until the World War era.
Between 1910 and 1925 those plants which
were unfavorably located with respect to
raw materials, transportation facilities,
and markets were gradually discontinued,
leaving an area of four or five counties
extending north and west from Brazil
with most of the important clay plants
of the region. Within the last decade
about one-half the remaining plants have
closed and Clay County (Indiana) re¬
mains as the only important producer of
clay products within the area.

An Early Period of Small Plants _ The

clay industry of the Valley dates from
about the middle of the last century,1
but it was about 1900 before a large clay
plant was built in the Wabash Valley.2
Although brick making was almost as
widely distributed as town-building, most
of the plants were small and, in general,
served only the immediate vicinity. (In

1880 there were thirteen brick and tile
plants in Vigo County and six in Knox
County.3 After 1900 the introduction of
more modern brick-making machinery
and the growing demand for specialized
products (pressed brick, fire brick, and
paving brick) encouraged a greater de¬
gree of specialization, which has con¬
tinued from that time to the present
decade. By the end of the century Terre
Haute had only six plants, three in 1930,
and only one by 1940.

Although a number of large plants fol¬
lowed in rapid succession after 1900, the
trend away from small establishments
was not yet apparent in 1913. The Clay
Products Directory4 for that year lists
more than 75 plants located in 44 cities
and villages of the area. Every county
except Wabash, Gibson, and Pike was rep¬
resented, and Clay County continued its
early leadership with 15 concerns, some
of which made several different ceramic
products.

Industrial Selection Within the Last
Decade — The unusual demand for drain
tile in the Corn Belt of Illinois and
Indiana gave special impetus to that
phase of the industry. This region was
within the area of Wisconsin glaciation
and the postglacial epoch has been so
short, geologically speaking, that the
drainage of large areas had not become
organized by the time of white settlement.
This, in part, accounted for the develop¬
ment of the National Drain Tile Com¬
pany of Terre Haute which was rated as
the “strongest tile plant” in the state in
1931. It marketed about two-thirds of its
products within Indiana and 80 per cent

1 °ne °f .oldest ceramic plants in the state is the Griffith Pottery -at Clay City which
was established m 1848 and has been operated continuously since that date. (G. I. Whit-
latch, I he Clay Resources of Indiana,” Indiana Department of Conservation, Division of
Geology, Publication No. 123, 1933, p. 107). The first tile made in Indiana was made by a
handpower machine in 1852. (W. DeRoy Perkins, “The Significance of Drain Tile in Indiana,”

Economic Geography , Vol. 7, 1931, p. 382.)

cqi wafrnun marly leader in this industry and the first large plant in that area was
built in 1891. (The Terre Haute Tribune, Vol. 91, No. 62, Jan. 31, 1940, Sec. G. p. 15 )

3 Tenth Census of the TJ. S., 1880, Manufactures.

4 Directory of Clay Products Manufacturers in the U. S., compiled by L. D. Longdon, 1913.

Geography — 191$ Meeting

119

of the rest in Illinois, but the remaining
sales were scattered over nine states.6

This industry has suffered severely in
recent years. The business depression
affected the farmer in numerous ways
and thereby limited the sale of drain tile.
When he experienced a recovery the pur¬
chase of new machinery and the upkeep
of the farm buildings and fences, rather
than further draining of the fields, have
occupied his time and taken what money
could be spared for improvements. The
United States land policy of adding acre¬
age in the irrigated west and retiring
from production a similar acreage in the
eastern states has tended to retard the
further reclamation of wet lands. The
conservation program has limited the
acreage of soil depleting crops which, in
general, are the crops that require well
drained soils. As a result, the drain tile
plants have ceased operations or, at most,
are working only a day or two per week.

According to the 1930 census Illinois
and Indiana ranked second and third in
the manufacture of brick and tile, mak¬
ing about 18 per cent of the national
total,6 however, the number of establish¬
ments has decreased consistently since
1900.

The clay plants in the Illinois portion
of the Valley had decreased from 27 in
1913 to four in 1929, and three of those
have since been closed. The only addi¬
tion was the W. A. Case Company, a
large concern manufacturing sanitary
ware, which located in Robinson shortly
after 1920. In Indiana the proximity of
cheap fuel and a more suitable supply of
raw clay were responsible for the sur¬
vival of a greater percentage of the
original plants. Whitlatch7 shows 37
plants in the area, 13 of which were in
Clay County, and 14 of the remainder in
Vermillion, Parke, and Vigo Counties.
The recent depression has reduced this
number by more than 50 per cent. In
1940 only ten firms were operating in
Clay County, three in Parke, and one
each in Vigo and Vermillion Counties.
(Fig. 1.) Within the last two years two
plants (at Newport and Brazil) have dis¬
continued operations. It is true that eco¬
nomic conditions have contributed greatly
to the decline of the industry, but the shift
to other construction materials has also
been a vital cause. Concrete and asphalt

Fig. 1. — Although brick and tile plants
were located in nearly every county of the
area, most of the major clay products plants
that remain in operation are localized in
the Brazil (Indiana) district.

preparations have replaced the use of
brick in road construction and the first
named has become an important material
in the building of city structures. It is
easier and cheaper to pour a building
than to construct it of brick.

Most major brick-making centers are
located in the vicinity of the large cities,
but the Brazil region has been able to
develop a clay industry and remain an
important producer despite the absence
of nearby urban agglomerations. A
number of factors have contributed to
this success: (1) The operators have
had easy access to an ample supply of
raw materials. Most of the plants use
underclays or shales associated with the
local coal measures and in many cases
their pits are located within a few hun¬
dred feet of the plant. (2) The proximity
and cheapness of the fuel as well as the
clay is another vital factor, and not infre¬
quently these two major raw materials
have their source in a common mine or
pit. (3) The area possesses an efficient
transportation system, all major plants
having switching facilities from one of

6 Perkins, op. cit., p. 380.

« Fifteenth Census of the United States, 1929, Manufacturers.

7 Whitlatch, op. cit., p. 68.

120

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions
Table I. Brick and Tile Plants of Illinois and Indiana"

Date

Number of
establishments

Value of
products

Value added
by manufacture

Thousands

Illinois

1899 . _.

S 5,081

$ 4,055
7,274
12,734
17,782

1909 . . . .

ODD

1919 . . . . . .

OrtU

9,765

1929 . . . . .

101

17, 564

1939 . . .

Ivl

4fi

23,685

Indiana

So

5,861

4,313

1899 _ _

1 2,931

$ 2,379
3,413
6,444
11,841

1909.. . . .. . .

OOo

31 1

1919 . . . . . .

Oil

1 5i

4, 719

1929 .

101

77

9,881

1939 . . .

07

15,948

3,143

2,288

Data from the United States Census Reports.

the principal railways. At present the
rail connections are of less importance
than in the past, because the bulk of the
clay products now moves on the high¬
ways. A decade ago Perkins8 9 noted that
most of the drain tile transported within
Indiana and a large part of that sent to
points outside the state was carried by
motor truck. (4) Skilled labor is essen¬
tial for only a few positions, and the rise
of the brick industry coincided with the
decline of Terre Haute iron and steel
production, so an adequate labor supply
has always been available. (5) Efficient
business connections and organizations
have placed the industry on a firm basis,
and some plants are units of major or¬
ganizations with headquarters in St.
Louis or Cleveland. (6) Some plants
have developed sidelines or secondary
products, and (7) during normal periods,
adequate and usually vigorous markets
have been available.

The products have their greatest market
in Indiana or the adjacent portion of
Illinois, but a limited quantity is trans¬
ported to more distant parts of the
country. In general, the brick and drain
tile are sold principally in Indiana and

s Perkins, op. cit., p. 380.

9 Ibid.

the adjacent states, while the more
specialized products supply a market that
extends over a wider area. The National
Drain Tile Company (no longer operat¬
ing) sold its product in eleven states*
The two plants of the Brazil Clay Com¬
pany, manufacturing face brick, serve a
market extending over a radius of about
500 miles. Hollow building tile and silo
blocks have been shipped to points in a
half dozen nearby states. The principal
market for sewer pipe is Indiana, Illinois,
Wisconsin, Missouri, and Oklahoma. Fire
brick and special shapes are sold in the
Chicago market and fireplace bricks have
an extensive sale in the southern states.
The Clay Products Company, which once
owned three plants near Brazil, was
unique in that all of its output was
shipped to points outside the state. How¬
ever, the one remaining plant was re¬
cently taken over by the Arketex Corpo¬
ration which now operates two plants.
A decade ago floor tile was distributed
throughout the United States with selling
points at Chicago, New York, and Cali¬
fornian and Canadian cities, and the sani¬
tary ware of Robinson has a national
market, the home offices of the Case Com¬
pany being located in Buffalo.10

10 Whitlatch, op. cit., passim, and personal interviews by the writer.

Geography — 191$ Meeting

121

THE USES AND PRODUCTION OF TUNG OIL

George Cass De Long

Jacksonville High School, Jacksonville, Illinois

Tung oil has been known and used in
China for over sixty centuries for ship-
■ caulking and as an ingredient in Chinese
lacquers, but it was not introduced into
the United States until 1869.1 Its use
was quite limited until during the World
, War when its values were first recog¬
nized. Since then its versatility has
brought it recognition as a valuable and
useful natural product.

Tung oil is the fastest drying oil
known. A drying oil is one that makes
substances with which it is mixed non¬
absorbent, completely repellent to water.
Thus the addition of tung oil to certain
organic and inorganic compounds and
rosins gives quick-drying power to var¬
nish and the ability to absorb oxygen and
form a hard protective film that is re-
‘ sistant to boiling water, freezing, and
former whitening effects.2 3

The general availability of tung oil in
quantities commensurate with our grow¬
ing needs served to heighten its value in
spite of certain drawbacks, and in the
opinion of a leading chemist its produc¬
tion has completely revolutionized paint
and varnish manufacture.8 By 1939 Amer¬
ican manufacturers were relying upon it
as their major drying oil.

Despite the earlier use of tung for
lacquer, it was not used in paints in this
country until 1936. In that year a new
kind of paint, whose basal mixture con¬
sisted of 45% soy and 55% tung oil, was
introduced. Thus in discovering a new
use for soy oil the paint industry also
. broadened the use of tung oil. The addi-
' tion of soy oil keeps tung from solidfy-
( ing at a relatively low temperature and
prevents destructive distillation that
occurs when it is used alone.4 5

The modern auto is most grateful to
tung. Cheaper but better paint and filler

jobs, improved gaskets, high grade brake
linings, enameled surfaces, shellac, and
bakelite and plastic fittings often depend
upon it. Linoleum and oilcloth makers
likewise tip their hats to it, while num¬
erous other things, some of them vital
to defense, have been improved with its
addition. Raincoats, shower curtains, and
balloon coverings now shed water because
of tung treatment, and shot cartridges
withstand wetting to a greater degree
than before. Even a rubber substitute
has been developed which is composed
basically of tung.

Timber-poor China has long employed
whatever means possible to prolong the
life of paper and wood. It is tung oil
that the Chinese have used to water-proof
their buildings and writing materials,6 to
line their junks, as an important con¬
stituent in their varnishes, lacquers,
paints, and japanning processes, and to
give permanence to their masonry.6

Certainly the extensive use of tung has
been a bonanza to American, European,
and Chinese manufacturers and has im¬
proved the appearance of office, home,
and barn.

Whereas tung is indigenous to various
parts of Malaysia, Africa, and certain
Pacific islands, China has long been the
chief producer and exporter. In com¬
mercial circles and in parlance common
to those acquainted with the oil it has
been called chinawood oil. This is
a misnomer. It is not a product of the
wood, but is the oil extracted or ex¬
pressed from the fruit of the tung tree.
The word TUNG is Chinese for heart,
and the leaf of the most important species
of the family to which tung belongs is
heart-shaped; hence the name. The tree
is brittle and is usually covered with a
maze of beautiful bell-shaped, generally

1 Phillips, M. O. : Florida’s Infant Industry, Economic Geography, vol. V., October, 1929,
pp. 348-357.

2 Pulsifer, L. Valentine : The Romance of Valspar, Valentine & Co.

3 Gardner, H. A., and Butler, Paul H. : Tung Oil Culture, National Paint, Varnish, and
Lacquer Association, Inc., Washington, June, 1937, p. 8.

4 Anonymous : Tung Oil’s Marriage to Soybean, Review of Reviews, vol. XCIV, Septem¬
ber, 1936, p. 4.

5 Phillips: Op. Cit., p. 348.

•Gardner and Butler: Op. Cit., p. 2.

122

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

pink or white, entomophilous blossoms,
which precede the leaves.

Inasmuch as tung is sensitive to cold
weather, it thrives only in tropical and
subtropical regions. In China, Aleurites
fordii, the chief species, is important in
four provinces, Szechwan, Hunan, Hupeh,
and Chekiang, while montana species
does best in tropical Kwangsi province,
west of Canton.

It seems that the first seeds to produce
tung trees in America were imported
from China in 1905. In that year the
United States Department of Agriculture
received nuts from Consul-General Wilcox
of Hankow. The Experiment Station at
Chico, California, presumably planted
them at once.7 Concurrently Dr. David
Fairchild, in charge of the Division of
Plant Introduction of the United States
Department of Agriculture, became ac¬
tively interested and through his efforts
plantings were made in Alabama, Florida,
Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South
Carolina, and Texas.8 By 1909 a govern¬
ment contingent was optimistically inves¬
tigating tung conditions in China.

To the enthusiasm and experimental
work of the late William H. Raynes, a
well-known horticulturist of Tallahassee,
Florida, is due much of the credit for the
early developments of the tung oil trees
in Florida, and that state leads in the
promotion and interests of tung growth
in the United States. From Raynes’ one
successful tree the first grove of commer¬
cial importance in the United States
originated.9

With the favorable reports of the gov¬
ernment “spies” who had investigated the
growth of tung in China, expansion in the
South appeared to far-sighted individuals
a just and profitable venture. Both the
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils and the
Bureau of Plant Industry have assisted
in the expansion of tung groves and pro¬
duction through many experiments, while
state and local agencies have been de¬
voting much attention to the production
of tung crops as an economic policy.

The first extraction of American oil
that was sufficient to attract commercial
interests took place in January, 1929. As
the extracting machine was installed near
Gainesville, Florida, and the golden oil
was pressed out, nationally known manu¬
facturers, representatives of internation¬
ally powerful financiers, chemists, agri¬
culturists, scientific workers, and many
curious and interested laymen looked on.
Since then extracting mills have been
established at numerous places in the
Tung Belt. The Belt extends along the
Gulf from eastern Texas to central
Florida, a strip of territory generally not
exceeding 100 to 125 miles in width.10

Thus far tung production in the United
States has been negligible compared to
the huge amounts China has contributed.
Our 11,000,000 pounds produced prior
to 1941 were about 1.5% of the amount
imported during those years. Yet the
decade of the thirties showed a remark¬
able increase from practically nothing to
4,000,000 pounds produced in 1940. In
1939 there were over 12,500^000 trees in
the United States, one-third of them bear¬
ing. This number is constantly increas¬
ing.* 11

Imports into the United States in¬
creased steadily from 1914 to 1937,
amounting in that year to 175,000,000
pounds,12 valued at $25,000,000 (U. S.).
But since then the Chinese Incident has
greatly curtailed Chinese exports which
have finally been entirely cut off. Mean¬
while, American production is far from
sufficient to supply recent demands. But
on the optimistic side there are three
noteworthy facts: that American oil is of
much higher quality than Chinese and
hence goes farther; that the mixture of
tung oil with certain other lesser-quality
oils now produces very excellent drying
results; and, that our production is in¬
creasing.

Therefore, it appears logical that the
United States will continue its efforts at
becoming self-sufficient whether China
rises again as a great exporter or not.

7 Newell, Wilmon, et al. : The Tung Oil Tree. University of Florida Experiment Station,
Gainesville; Bull. no. 280, June, 1935, p. 26.

8 Concannon, C. C. : Tung Oil Blue Book, USDC Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com¬
merce, Washington, 1938, p. 3.

9 Gardner, H. A., and Butler, Paul H. : Op. Cit, p. 30.

10 Concannon, C. C. : Op. Cit., p. 5.

11 Dickey, R. D. : Personal communication.

12 Inspectorate General of Customs (China): Foreign Trade of China, Maritime Customs
(export volumes only), volumes covering years 1913 to 1939 inclusive.

Geography — 191$ Meeting

123

After cessation of the war China will
have to try to undersell the United States
and must produce better oil if she’s to
compete with us. Tung has definitely
had a setback because of the war, but it

may emerge in a healthier, cheaper, and
more stable condition if and when our
South provides our needs, which accord¬
ing to some tung authorities may be as
early as 1947.13

13 Anonymous : H. W. Bennett on Expansion of the Tung Industry, New York Times.
June 26, 1932, part L.V, p. 10: 2.

THE MURNGIN: AN EXAMPLE OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

Edna M. Gueffroy

Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois

Abstract

The Murngin are only one of several
small and scattered nomadic hunting and
food gathering tribes of Australia. They
wander over the low alkaline plain of
northeast Arnhem Land, located between
the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Timor
Sea. This tropical location, which brings
the region under the influence of the al¬
ternating rainy doldrums and dry trades,
limits the number of people who may in¬
habit the land, and sets limits to the
activities of the inhabitants. Fortified
by mangrove jungle isolation along the
better watered portions of the flat coastal
region and tidal rivers the tribe has long
been preserved from invasion in that di¬
rection. On the south the burning sands
of the Great Australian Desert closed the
door to destructive inroads on their civil¬
ization. Thus in this remote refuge the
geographical factor of isolation made it
possible for these primitive people to live
happily within the resources of the re¬
gion, and to preserve intact the customs
and beliefs which were common to the
whole human race in its infancy.

Influence of Water — Tribal life is fo¬
cused around one or more water holes
which may be an ordinary small lake or
pool, a river or a creek flowing through
the domain of the clan, a spring, a native
well or water hole; and in a few cases
it may be the ocean itself.1 Small wonder
that with food and drink of life depend¬
ent on the water holes, and possible death
resulting from floods, the native has
chosen water as the chief symbol of the
clan’s spiritual life.

The seasonal fluctuation of plenty or
scarcity of rainfall regulates the member¬

ship and size of the economic groups. In
the early part of the dry season when
food is plentiful friendly clans may live
together in groups containing as many as
thirty or forty people. But what might
have been a community relapses into
family groups as the drought drags on for
five or six months. Likewise in the rainy
months when food is secured with dif¬
ficulty, the group is small.

Vegetation and Animals. — The plants
that flourish in this tropical region with
alternating wet and dry seasons are
limited in variety. Cycad palm nuts,
Pandanus fruit, the glutinous substance
from the trunks of small cabbage palms,
spear grass, lily roots and yams make up
the chief vegetable diet of the people.
Every kind of tree found in the environ¬
ment is used for some purpose.

Hunters they were and hunters they
have remained. Roaming of course, is
necessary, since the natives cannot de¬
pend on a regular food supply. The lack
of domesticated animals cannot be fairly
charged against the Murngin. With noth¬
ing higher than a marsupial to work with
the scope was limited. One could hardly
expect them to accomplish much with a
kangaroo or a duck-billed platypus. Na¬
ture is prodigal as regards varieties of
fish, birds and other animals which fur¬
nish the natives with food and material
for adornment. Oysters and other varie¬
ties of bivalves are gathered by the
women; and turtles, sharks and croco¬
diles are harpooned by the men. Snakes,
iguana and grubs are also common ar¬
ticles of food.

1 Warner, W. L., A Black Civilization, p. 20.

124

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Soil and Mineral Influences — Except as
the soil affects the natural vegetation and
the vegetation in turn determines the
food supply, it can be said that soils in¬
fluence the people very little.

Rocks and minerals, on the other hand,
play a significant part in the culture of
the Murngin. Every native knows for
what this or that stone is used. Smooth
river stones are gathered for ax heads,
and small stones are used to break mus¬
sel shells and to grind nuts or seeds.
“Rock ledges forming caves are some¬
times utilized as shelter during the rainy
season. Rock basins which catch rain
water are used as types of primitive cis¬
terns to supply water in the absence of
wells and fresh-water courses.”2

Deposits of red and yellow ochre are
used in making body paints, in painting
totemic emblems, and in working out de¬
signs on carrying baskets, forehead bands,
etc.

Shelter — People who must adjust their
lives to a shifting food supply must con¬
struct a shelter that can readily be built
with each new change of location. Fur¬
thermore, the dwellings must have a
periodical alternation of type due to
marked seasonal change of wind and
precipitation.

During a good part of the dry season,
the only shelter is some tree underneath
which a semi-circle of ground has been
smoothed and outlined by a border of
sand and perhaps a series of strips of
paper bark. Another type of dry season
shelter is a lean-to or windbreak three
or four feet high, made by placing brush
against sticks pushed into the ground.

The wet season house calls for an ad¬
justment to fifty to sixty inches of rain
during a three or four month period. It
is a small, dome-shaped house made by
placing layers of bark over a framework
of sticks and pandanus leaves. The stone
cave dwelling is used by some clans in
the north during the wet season. It is
interesting to note that clans living near
mosquito infested swamps build their
houses on poles about eight feet above the
ground.

Clothing — For the Murngin there are
no changing fashions. If one excepts the
carrying bags, hair belts, necklaces, and
public-aprons made of opossum fur string
as articles of ornamentation or for ritual

purposes, it may be said that the Murngin
have neither invented clothing nor bor¬
rowed it from others.

Weapons and Utensils — Stones, shells,
wood, bark, resin, grass, leaves, and bones
of animals — all of these are formed into
weapons and utensils by which the native
adapts himself to his natural environ¬
ment. While the use of the bow and
arrow does not seem to have occurred to
him, the spear and ax are in general use.
Clubs and boomerangs used for striking
blows are commonly made of ironwood or
the curved roots of the mangrove. Roots,
yams, grubs and small lizards are dug
with a digging stick made by sharpening
both ends of an ironwood stick about four
or five feet long.

String, basic to most of the articles
worn and carried, is made of the inner
bark of certain trees (the hibiscus in
particular), roots of trees, human hair
and opossum fur. Fiber bags woven to
transport lily bulbs, cycad nuts, yams,
and other foods are important utensils of
both the men and the women.

Tools for catching sea food include
turtle harpoons, harpoon rope, fish nets
and fish traps. People in the interior do
not possess boats of any description but
use a specially constructed bark bundle
as a raft to cross streams. Coastal peo¬
ple, on the other hand, make canoes from
certain types of fig and eucalyptus trees
whose centers have been eaten out by
termites.

Art — The art of the Murngin is con¬
ditioned by the natural environment, the
most familiar objects occurring with
greatest frequency. As one might expect,
figures representing animals such as the
snake, kangaroo, and fish bulk large in
the art motifs of their crude rock draw¬
ings and eucalyptus bark paintings. Art
also finds expression in the human hair
belts decorated with parrot feathers,
spear grass armlets, wristlets and anklets,
totemic emblems of various kinds, feather
headdresses, and forehead bands for men
made of fiber string covered with white
clay or red ochre.

Myths and Rituals — Many of the myths
and rituals symbolize the cycle of rainy
and dry seasons with the accompanying
phenomena of greater and less heat,
changing winds and sky conditions,
growth and decay of vegetation, and the

2 Warner, W. L»., A Black Civilization, p. 152.

Geography — 19^2 Meeting

125

appearance of certain animals and the
disappearance of others. This is not sur¬
prising when one considers the need of
change in the adaptation of Murngin life
to fit the changing seasons.

Rhythmic dance movements interpret
the rise and fall of flood waters, the flow
and ebb of the tide, the wash of the
waves covering the sand beaches, the stir
of water when the waves break, and
others equally meaningful.

Although the natives do have a pro¬
found belief in magic, they have a fairly
wide knowledge of both plant and animal
remedies for curing illnesses. Infusion
of broken-up leaves of paper-bark tree is
the remedy for sore throat; the bark of
the plum tree is heated and placed over

the aching tooth or against the aching
ear; infusions of the leaves of certain
trees are used to treat headache; and the
inner bark of a certain variety of eucalyp¬
tus tree is chewed and swallowed to re¬
lieve chest cold.3

Thus we have glimpsed the life of a
simple people, a selfjcontained, a self-
sustaining people; a people whose culture
is crystallized by the geographical factor
of isolation, and whose needs and tastes
are satisfied by a physical environment
which is both limiting and stimulating.
It is to be hoped that the Australian gov¬
ernment, which has already reserved
Arnhem Land for its natives, will give
adequate patrol to this fast dying race,
remnants worthy of sympathetic effort to
save as a unique link with the past.

3 Warner, W. L., A Black Civilization, p. 221.

126

Illinois Slate Academy of Science Transactions

THE DROUGHT OF CENTRAL UNITED STATES,
SUMMER AND AUTUMN, 1940

H. O. Lathrop

Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois

Droughts in the United States may be
divided into two general classes. One of
these is a transitory type affecting a
relatively small area. The other type
is the one which affects large areas over
a number of years, in some cases a de¬
cade. Such a prolonged drought occurred
in the United States during the decade
1930-1940, and another of the same type
occurred in the later eighties and early
nineties of the last century. The years
1934 and 1936 were the most serious
drought years of the dry decade of 1930-
1940.

Although the drought of the Central
United States for the summer and autumn
of 1940 came at the end of a decade of

low precipitation, it belongs to the transi¬
tory type of drought because it affected a
comparatively small area, and heavier
rainfall prevailed .on all sides. However,
in much of the area affected the precipi¬
tation was far below normal, and in some
places lower than during the more serious
general droughts of 1934 and 1936. The
1940 drought of central Illinois was ac¬
tually one of 19 months duration extend¬
ing from September, 1939, to April, 1941,
and in some parts of the state it was not
broken until the autumn of 1941. The
average precipitation of central Illinois
during this period was only 70% of nor¬
mal. The deficiency of precipitation at
Peoria during this 19 months was five

Geography — 19J+2 Meeting

127

per cent below that of any previous
drought, thus setting a record for low
precipitation for that station.

The normal rainfall for Peoria for July
is 3.58 inches, but July 1940, had only
.82 of an inch. The normal rainfall for
the same station for July and August is
6.70 inches, but the 1940 rainfall for
l these months was only 2.21 inches or less
than one-third of normal. Peoria may
be taken as a type station since it lies
near the center of the drought area.

It will be noted that the heart of the
drought area is elliptical with the long
axis running from northern Missouri
1 through central Illinois, northern In¬
diana, and into northwestern Ohio, (Fig.
1). Perhaps the most striking fact em¬
phasized by the isohyetal map is the
, increased precipitation which prevailed
in all directions from the drought center,
even toward the generally dryer west.
The increase of rainfall outward from
the center was rapid; so that within 100
miles in some directions the amount of
rainfall trebled, and in some cases there

was actually too much precipitation for
optimum crop conditions. The region
lying to the north of the drought area,
including northern Illinois, Wisconsin,
Michigan, and parts of Iowa, had excep¬
tionally heavy rainfall.

The explanation of this small but se¬
vere drought over a limited area appears
to lie in the high pressure which per¬
sisted during the severe drought months
of July and August, 1940 over much of
eastern and southeastern United States.
(Fig. 2). Undoubtedly it represents a
westward extension of the Azores High
Pressure Area over southeastern North
America. The high pressure prevailing
over that portion of the United States
prevented rain bearing winds from com¬
ing into the central part of the country
from the Gulf and South Atlantic. At
the same time, cyclonic areas moved
around the area of high pressure far
north over the Lakes Region, thus leaving
the drought area unaffected and without
rain.

Papers in Geology

From the Report of the Section Chairman

Seventeen papers were included in the Geology section of which 8 are here¬
with published. Those not published were as follows :

Gutschick, R. C., University of Illinois, Urbana. — Redwall limestone of
north-central Arizona.

Schopf, J. M., Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. — The morphology
and distribution of Tasmanites (“ Sporangites” ) ; problematic fossils of
the Devonian-Mississipian.

Lowenstam, H. A., Illinois State Museum, Springfield, Illinois. — Niagaran
cherts from northern Illinois and southeastern Indiana.

Simpson, Edwin, University of Illinois, Urbana. — The Pleistocene geology
of Garrison quadrangle , North Dakota.

Brokaw, A. L., Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. — Small spores
from Illinois No. 5 coal.

Easton, W. H., Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. — Incompetent
sediments in the Illinois basin.

Rowland, R. A., Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. — Thermal
analysis of pyritic clays.

Grogan, R. M., Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. — Shape variation
of some Lake Superior beach pebbles.

Agnew, Allen F., University of Illinois, Urbana. — Devonian stromatopo-
roids.

Sixty-five attended the session.

Chairman for the Jacksonville meeting is W. E. Powers, Dept, of Geology,
Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois.

(Signed) A. H. Sutton, Chairman

[1291

130

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THE “TRENTON” NEAR MORRIS, ILLINOIS

C. L. Bieber

North Central College, Naperville, Illinois

Eight miles north of Morris, Illinois,
in the north limits of the village of Cen¬
tral, SW. % Sec. 28, T. 35 N., R. 7 E.,
a quarry exposes rock of Trenton age.
Culver1 has briefly described this location
in his report on the Morris Quadrangle.
The Galena rock in the quarry is of par¬
ticular interest because it is one of the
few places in northeastern Illinois where
relationship between the Kimmswick of
Missouri and the Galena of Wisconsin
and Illinois may be studied. The quarry
is located on a gentle rise on a rather flat
till plain. Three to five feet of till covers
the rock, the upper surface of which has
been polished and striated by glacial ac¬
tion. The striae strike S. 55° W.

Apparently this area of Trenton rock
represents an erosion remnant which has
been planed off by glacial action. How¬
ever, the fact that the Maquoketa contact
is five and one-half miles east, and
Pennsylvanian rocks overlap beds of
Trenton age one and one-half miles south
and west indicates the possibility that
the quarry is on a minor fold extending
from the LaSalle anticline. Payne2 has
studied the subsurface conditions west of
Central and found evidence of faulting
near Sandwich and Millbrook, Illinois.
His studies disclose a number of minor
structures associated with the LaSalle
anticline, and one of these may be repre¬
sented near Central.

Mottling — The middle and lower beds
of the quarry have a peculiar and striking
mottled appearance. The main mass of
the rock is light gray, but the mottles
stand out as darker grays and browns.
The mottling is not a surface staining;
darker areas penetrate the rock in an
irregular pattern.

The quarry walls in the mottled hori¬
zons were tested in many places with a
50% concentrated solution of hydro¬
chloric acid. The light colored portions
of the rock effervesce as a relatively pure
limestone, while the stained areas react
more slowly. Samples of the light and

dark colored rock
analysis:

show the

following

Si02 .

% light

% dark

3.16

CaO .

38.93

MgO .

14.23

R2 03(A1, Fe, Mn)..

. 45

.97

co2 .

42.27

Alkalies -j- Ba .

- 2.86

2.48

The analysis shows that the mottled
areas are dolomitic, and that they con¬
tain more insoluble material. The ir¬
regular pattern of the markings, and
thinning or fading of many of the mottles
at their outer surfaces strongly suggest
that the uneven dolomitization is caused
either by the secondary infiltration of
minerals, or, more probably, by the leach¬
ing out of those originally there.

In attempting to explain the peculiar
dolomitization, the writer has considered
the following: Evidence of solution is
prevalent in the quarry rock. Vugs of
varying size, stylolites, large cavities
along joint planes, slump of beds, and
insolubles remaining in the rock in the
form of blue clay and shaly clay-like
films are common. The light colored
areas are less dense and not as hard as
the mottled portions. The porosity of the
light-colored rock suggests that leaching
accounts for the partial disintegration.

The original rock was probably a
slightly dolomitic limestone. Solution,
either by sea water or ground water,
leached the rock. Since descending
ground waters are known to have a high
calcium-magnesium ratio, the leaching
probably took place after the sediments
were uplifted. The percolating waters
increased the relative amount of silica in
the rock, and, by removing calcium, in¬
creased the relative percentage of mag¬
nesium. At the same time, the total
volume of the rock was reduced. Thus,
considerable calcium has been carried
away, leaving the insolubles as clay-like
films in irregular pattern throughout the
rock, and dolomitic mottles as evidence
of remaining partial dolomitization. It
is realized that this view is the reverse

1 Culver, H. E., Geology and mineral resources of the Morris Quadrangle : Illinois Geol.
Surv. Bull. 43, pp. 115, 116, 1923.

2 Payne, J. N., Subsurface geology of the Marseilles, Ottawa, and Streator quadrangles
and vicinity; Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Chicago, 1938.

Geology — 19 Meeting

131

of accepted theories of dolomitization,
but the close association of solution and
mottling lend support to this belief.

The writer has observed rocks of simi¬
lar mottling at Dubuque, Iowa, Dixon and
Belvidere, Illinois, Ft. Atkinson, Wiscon¬
sin, and Groos, Upper Michigan. The
markings, however, are much less dis¬
tinct, and are commonly deeper buff than
the surrounding rock. At the above loca¬
tions solution is not nearly so much in
evidence, which fact may account for the
less distinct marking of the rock.

Lithology — The quarry may be divided
roughly into two zones lithologically.
(1) An upper, consisting of ten feet of
platy, medium to coarsely crystalline
limestone. Shales are not common. The
color of the rock in this zone is light
gray on a freshly fractured surface with
a slight pinkish cast where the rock is
more coarsely crystalline, but the weath¬
ered rock is buff. Red films often cover
the fossil molds. Secondary calcite is
plentiful in the strata and along the
joints. Calcite vugs and pyrite are quite
common. Small amounts of oil have been

found at this horizon in the area south
of Plainfield about 15 miles northeast of
Central. The porosity of the rock in this
zone makes it a possible reservoir for oil.
(2) The lower 20 feet is a gray, dense,
dolomitic limestone in which upper beds
contain several well defined crystalline
bands. The bands have an uneven sur¬
face at the base, are coarsely crystalline,
and very fossiliferous. Many of the fossil
fragments appear to have been macerated.
The bands, ranging from two to four
inches in thickness, grade into bands
more finely crystalline above and change
gradually upward to fine grained nearly
lithographic limestone. Zone five of the
measured section shows a one inch band
of fine grained rock both above and below
one of these bands.

In the lower division, thin shaly part¬
ings separate the massive beds. Also
thin shaly films, referred to above (see
mottling) are found without any definite
pattern throughout the rock. These
films, when exposed on a fresh fracture
are dark gray, dark brown, or black.
The rock gives off a fetid odor under the
blow of a hammer.

10.

9b.

9a.

8d.

8c.

8b.

8a.

7b.

7a.

6c.

6b.

6a.

5.

3b.

3a.

2.

1.

CENTRAL QUARRY, SW. % SEC. 28, T. 35 N., R. 7 E., MORRIS QUADRANGLE,

ILLINOIS

Feet Inches

Limestone, slabby, thin-bedded, gray, weathers buff ; bedding surfaces
uneven ; iron stained in places, calcite vugs ; very fossiliferous with

strophomena profuse, Illaenus and Isotelus . 7 3

Limestone, dark gray, pyritic, fossiliferous ; beds three inches thick ;

more crystalline than No. 10 . 1

Limestone, gray, thin-bedded, slabby, pyritic ; calcite vugs . 1 10

Limestone, gray, dense, fossiliferous ; calcite vugs ; crystalline band

through center which is more coarsely crystalline below than above .... 7

Limestone, gray, fossiliferous, in two thin beds . 7

Limestone, very fossiliferous, near coquina; weathers buff . 2

Limestone, dolomitic, gray to dark gray, beds three to four inches thick,
bedding surfaces uneven with carbonaceous films between the beds ;
prominent shaly parting at base ; mottling of dark and light gray colors
noticeable, but not prominent ; dwarfed species of Receptaculites near

the top . 1 3

Limestone, dolomitic, gray, mottled, brittle; more massive than 8a . 1 6

Shale, calcareous, dark gray, somewhat crystalline, carbonaceous ; wavy

laminated bedding, persistent as a marker; Hormotoma noted . 2

Limestone, dolomitic, gray, mottled, fossiliferous . 7

Limestone, dolomitic, similar to 6c but contains a gray-brown crystal¬
line band which is coarse below grading to sublithographic limestone

upward ; base of the crystalline band is uneven . 5

Limestone, dolomitic, gray, brittle, fossiliferous, in a massive bed . 1

Limestone, dolomitic, gray, brittle, mottled, carbonaceous, massive ; near

lithographic at top and bottom of this unit . 1 6

Limestone, dolomitic, similar to No. 5 except that top for six inches is

very crystalline; mottling pronounced . 1 7

Limestone, dolomitic, gray, dense, massive, mottled . 10

Limestone, dolomitic, similar to 3b ; carbonaceous films on uneven and

pitted bedding planes . 3

Limestone, dolomitic, gray, dense, massive, somewhat mottled . 1

Limestone, dolomitic, similar to No. 2 ; sparingly fossiliferous.

Hormotoma and Trochonema present . 7 6

Comparison with the Kimmswick limestone.

The Kimmswick of Missouri and western Illinois is a medium to massively-bedded, gray,
crystalline, fossiliferous limestone. It is characterized by its lithologic uniformity. The rock
at Central exhibits the following characteristics, which shows transitional relationships :

(1) A number of coarsely crystalline bands in the quarry section.

(2) The calcareous and not wholly dolomitic nature of the rock.

(3) Gray color with a pinkish tone in the upper beds.

(4) A fauna which compares closely.

132

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

USE OF THE GLEN DEAN LIMESTONE AS A STRUCTURAL
KEY HORIZON IN THE ILLINOIS BASIN1

George V. Cohee2

Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois

The Glen Dean formation is one of the
best known formations of the Chester
series in Illinois. Since 1937 the basal
limestone has been used widely as a
structural key horizon and as a subsur¬
face “marker” in drilling. The producing
formations in most of the new oil fields
in Illinois lie below the Glen Dean lime¬
stone, so the formation is penetrated by a
great majority of the oil tests drilled
within its boundary.

The formation was first described by
Butts3 in 1917 as follows: “The Glen
Dean limestone is named from Glen Dean
in the southern part of Breckinridge
County, Kentucky. This name is adopted
because of the excellent exposure of the
limestone along the railroad on both sides
of Glen Dean. It is composed of varying
proportions of limestone and shale and
includes locally, at least, a little sand¬
stone. The bottom segment of the forma¬
tion, at several widely separated points in
Breckinridge County, is about 10 feet of
green and red shale lying upon the flaggy
Hardinsburg sandstone.”

Figure 1 shows the subsurface and out¬
crop boundaries of the Chester series and
the Glen Dean formation in Illinois and
the thickness of the Glen Dean through¬
out its areal extent. Considerable varia¬
tion in thickness is noted from north to
south. Around the north end of the Illi¬
nois basin it is from 0 to 25 feet thick,
and in Jackson County in southwestern
Illinois it is more than 100 feet thick. A
short distance to the east in Union
County there is a pronounced thinning of
the formation along the outcrop, but it
thickens again to almost 100 feet in John¬
son County. In the deep basin area in
White, Hamilton, and Wayne counties, it
is generally from 50-75 feet thick. Thin¬
ning of the formation occurs in areas of
major structural features in the State, in¬

dicating some structural movement dur¬
ing late or post-Glen Dean time.

The Glen Dean formation in the Illi¬
nois basin is predominantly limestone
with various amounts of shale. In many
areas it consists of two limestone mem¬
bers, separated by calcareous shale, which
are designated as upper and lower or
“massive” Glen Dean. The upper lime¬
stone is very erratic in its distribution
but the lower member is persistent and
maintains a fairly uniform structural re¬
lationship with the underlying beds al¬
though there may be some local variation
in its thickness. Both the top and base
of this lower member are used as key
horizons on which structure contour
maps are based. The limestone is charac¬
teristically coarse-grained, c r i n o i d a 1 ,
oolitic, and brownish-gray. It contains a
variable amount of chert and some dolo¬
mite. In most areas it is the highest
limestone of the Chester series that con¬
tains well developed oolites. (Occasion¬
ally oolites occur in the higher Menard
and Vienna formations.) In subsurface
studies the top of the formation is placed
at the top of the calcareous shale over-
lying the uppermost limestone and the
bottom of the formation is placed at the
base of the calcareous shale below the
basal limestone member.

The Glen Dean is usually overlain by
the Tar Springs formation, generally a
massive sandstone which varies from 30
to 135 feet in thickness but in some areas
it is principally shale or sandy shale.
The Glen Dean formation is underlain by
the Hardinsburg formation, which gen¬
erally consists of shale and sandy shale
or siltstone and is usually from 20 to 60
feet thick. Locally a well developed
sandstone may occur within the Hardins¬
burg.

1 Published with the permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey.

2 Now Assistant State Geologist, Dept, of Geology, Indianapolis, Ind.

8 Butts, Charles, Description and Correlation of the Mississippian Formations of Western
Kentucky: Kentucky Geol. Survey, 1917, p. 97.

Geology — 19Jf£ Meeting

133

Fig. 1. — Thickness map of Glen Dean formation,

134

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Fig. 2.— New Harmony Field. North-south electrical log- cross-section

In various areas in the Illinois basin
certain thin persistent limestone beds,
such as the basal Golconda limestone,
have proved more satisfactory than the
Glen Dean for detailed structural in¬
formation. In the New Harmony field of
eastern White County the thin basal
Golconda limestone is present throughout
the area and is a better structural key
horizon than the basal Glen Dean lime¬
stone which is slightly variable in thick¬
ness. Figure 2, a north-south electrical
log cross-section in the New Harmony
field, shows the variation in thickness of
the Glen Dean formation in that area.
The wells represented in the cross-sec¬
tion are about one mile apart. In wells
one, three, and five of the cross-section,
the upper Glen Dean limestone is pres¬
ent; however, it is best developed in well
one. Only the lower or “massive” lime¬

stone occurs in the other wells of the
cross-section. The “massive” limestone is
poorly developed in well six. In the few
areas where production is limited to that
part of the Chester series above the Glen
Dean, the basal Menard or the lower Kin-
kaid limestone, if present, are used for
structural key horizons.

The Glen Dean formation is an im¬
portant subsurface “marker” because it is
usually recognized easily in electrical
logs, in sample studies, and in drilling,
and it is present over most of the area in
southern Illinois where oil development
and exploration is most active.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer is grateful to Dr. A. H. Bell
and other members of the Survey staff
for helpful suggestions and criticism of
the manuscript.

Geology — 19J/.2 Meeting

135

CHESTER INDEX OSTRACODES1

Chalmer L. Cooper

Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois

The ostracodes constitute one of the
most persistent orders of microfossils.
Although many genera are extremely
long lived, careful study reveals many
species of value as index fossils. These
forms have been found in all types of
marine sediments throughout most of the
Paleozoic era. Freshwater forms ap¬
peared with the change of the sedi¬
mentary conditions that resulted in the
deposition of alternating marine and
freshwater beds in the Pennsylvanian and
Permian systems. The non-marine forms
become important only in post-Paleozoic
formations.

As shown by recent work2 the Chester
series has furnished one of the most
diversified ostracode faunas of the
Paleozoic era. Nearly 360 species are
known and all but 35 are found in Illi¬
nois. This is a very marked increase
over the number of species found in the
lower Mississippian formations.

A few holdover genera from the De¬
vonian period are present, but in greatly
decreased numbers, namely Beyrichia and
Primitia. The Chester series is character¬
ized by a great increase in the number
of species of Bairdia, Cavellina , Glypto-
pleura, Healdia, and P araparcUites.
Genera restricted to the series are Bair-
diolites, Chesterella, Deloia, Geffenites,
Glyptopleuroides, Lochriella, Paracavel-
lina, Perprimitia, and Tetratylus. Genera

which continue into the Pennsylvanian
era with little- or no change in the num¬
ber of species represented, are Amphis-
sites, Bythocypris, Ectodemites, Kirkbya,
and Paraparchites.

However, genera alone are of little
value as stratigraphic indices. Only eight
of the 67 genera known to occur in the
Chester series are restricted to one forma¬
tion, and five of these are represented by
only one species each. More diagnostic
species are found in the New Design
(lower Chester) group than in the Hom-
berg (middle Chester) and Elvira (upper
Chester) groups. In the New Design
group about half of the known species
are restricted to one formation, whereas,
approximately only a third of the species
in each of the two higher groups are so
restricted. The greatest change in the
ostracode faunas occurs at the Homberg-
Elvira boundary, dividing the Chester
series into an equal number of formations
above and below.

Some of the restricted species may not
be good index fossils. Many of them are
new and further work will no doubt in¬
crease their range. In some genera the
species are so nearly alike that they are
readily confused, and for this reason they
are of little value for correlation. These
include species of Bairdia , Healdia,
Cavellina, and many species of the Am-
phissitinae.

1 Published with permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey.

3 Cooper, Chalmer L.t Chester ostracodes of Illinois: Illinois Geol. Survey, Rept. Inv. 77,
101 pp., 14 pis., 1941.

136

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THICKNESS OF GLACIAL DRIFT IN DU PAGE COUNTY

ILLINOIS1

A. C. Mason

Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois

A map showing the thickness of glacial
drift in Du Page County has been pre¬
pared as an aid to the State Department
of Public Health in their enforcement of
water-supply and sewage-disposal regula¬
tions in those regions in which limestone
and dolomite constitute the uppermost
bedrock and the glacial drift is thin or
absent. Water moving underground in
limestone and dolomite may receive little
or no filtration, and water from the sur¬
face recharging these formations is likely
to be inadequately filtered unless it has
passed through a sufficient thickness of
glacial drift. Where less than 50 feet of
glacial drift overlies limestone or dolo¬
mite from which municipal water sup¬
plies are obtained, the Department recom¬
mends continuous and adequate chlorina¬
tion, or, under certain conditions, puri¬
fication and chlorination. Where the
drift is less than 30 feet thick, the De¬
partment recommends chlorination of
private supplies. In addition, certain
local sanitary units, such as township
health boards, may permit no private
septic-tank sewage disposal unless there
is a minimum thickness of 30 feet of
glacial drift to filter the effluent.

Du Page County is located directly west
of Cook County and its eastern boundary
is less than 5 miles from the western
city limits of Chicago. It is a suburban
region where water-supply and sewage-
disposal problems are common, and it is
the only county in Illinois in which all
the bedrock at the surface or directly
underlying the glacial drift is limestone
and dolomite.

The thickness of the glacial drift is the
resultant of the elevation of the bedrock
surface, the amount of glacial deposition,
and the extent of subsequent stream dis¬
section. A contour map of the bedrock
surface of Du Page County, based on data
obtained from the logs of more than 600
wells in the county, shows that the bed¬
rock surface in general slopes from an

elevation of about 685 feet above sea-level
in the northwest part of the county to
an elevation of about 560 feet in the
southeast corner where a trench in the
bedrock has been cut by the Des Plaines
River. The preglacial divide between
east and southwest drainage appears to
have crossed Du Page County from north¬
west to southeast, 10 to 15 miles west of
the present drainage divide. Buried bed¬
rock hills lie along the former drainage
divide.

The present ground surface has a gen¬
eral slope towards the southeast, from an
elevation of about 840 feet above sea-
level near the northwest corner of the
county to an elevation of about 590 feet
in the southeast corner in the valley
trench cut by the Des Plaines River.
Standing about 50 to 90 feet above the
general surface are a series of arcuate,
somewhat discontinuous, morainic ridges
trending north to south-southeast. The
greater portion of the county is covered
by the Valparaiso morainic system which
on its west side includes the West Chi¬
cago moraine. Beginning near the west
border of the county, the ground surface
rises to the west towards Minooka Ridge.
In the northeast corner of the county,
the Tinley moraine forms a prominent
ridge. The rest of the county is mostly
covered by ground-moraine and outwash
plains.

The map showing the average thickness
of glacial drift in Du Page County has
isopachous intervals of 50 feet, with in¬
clusion of the 30-foot isopach because of
its importance for sanitary engineering
considerations. The relative accuracy of
the map varies in accordance with the
amount of data obtained, which in gen¬
eral is greater in the built-up areas. The
thickness of the glacial drift varies from
a maximum of about 175 feet in the north
part of the county to nothing where bed¬
rock crops out in small areas in the south
and east parts of the county. The thick-

1 Published with the permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey.

Geology — 19J$ Meeting

137

est drift is found in the north part of
the county beneath the highest portions
of the West Chicago moraine and the un¬
differentiated Valparaiso moraine. The
drift is less than 30 feet thick where
streams have cut into thin , ground
moraine overlying bedrock hills. These
areas are in the vicinity of the West
Branch Du Page River near Naperville,
the East Branch Du Page River near Lisle,
and Salt Creek near and south of Elm¬

hurst. Bedrock is exposed near Naper¬
ville and in a quarry at Elmhurst. The
drift is also less than 30 feet thick in
Des Plaines River valley, where bedrock
is exposed in quarries and at points
along the hillside.

In approximately 90 per cent of the 345
square miles of area of Du Page County
the drift is more than 50 feet thick, and
in approximately half the county the
drift is more than 100 feet thick.

OCT 15 1941

DECREE OF ACCURACY VARIES IN DIFFERENT AREAS WITH THE
AVAILABILITY OF WELL DATA AND DETAIL OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAPPING OUTCROP

ISOPACH INTERVAL 50 FEET
LESS THAN 30 FT THICK CSS3

MILES

138

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

BITUMINOUS MATTER, IN WARSAW GEODES

Percival Robertson
The Principia College, Elsah, Illinois

In 1922 Van Tuyle1 called attention to
the geodes found in the Keokuk and
lower Warsaw beds in this language:
“Apart from Professor Brush’s prelim¬
inary examination and description of a
few select specimens submitted to him in
1865 by A. H. Worthen, then director of
the Geological Survey of Illinois, no
study of these remarkable geodes has
ever been made, in spite of the fact that
they bear a variety of metallic sulphides
and promise to throw some light upon
the origin of more important deposits of
these materials in sedimentary rocks
which show no signs of igenous influ¬
ence.” In addition to the sulphides, Van
Tuyl later called attention to another
very interesting phenomena connected
with the geodes, namely the occurrence
of a black bituminous matter. He wrote,
“The geodes from the lower part of the
Lower Warsaw at several localities near
Niota, Illinois, are strikingly contrasted
to those in other occurrences in that
many of them are partly or completely
filled with a black viscous bitumen. The
fact that such bituminous geodes occur
in a non-bituminous shale and may be
found in close proximity to ordinary
geodes which show no trace of bitumen,
lends to this feature still greater interest.
As a general rule, however, the regular
hollow geodes which occur in the same
layers with bituminous types show at
least a black stain in their chalcedonic
shells.”

A few years ago Mr. Thayer Gruner,
then a graduate student at Washington
University, called the author’s attention
to the appearance of bituminous matter in
what he described as “vugs” in the Alto
formation a few miles south of Jones¬
boro, Illinois, specifically along the south
line of the NW % sec. 1, T. 13 S., R. 2 W.,
in the eroded bank of a small tributary
of Dutch Creek. The vugs that Mr.
Gruner described are crystal lined cavi¬
ties found in the interior of siliceous con¬
cretions. These concretions could prob¬

ably be called geodes, although we were
not able to ascertain if they actually
weathered out of the limestone and
formed the familiar rounded pebbles or
cobbles that most people usually think of
when we use the term geode.

With these two occurrences of petro¬
leum-like masses in geodes it appeared
that there might be value in examining
more precisely some of the chemical
and physical properties of the bituminous
matter and determining if there was any
marked similarity between the bitumin¬
ous matter found in these geodes and
petroleum found elsewhere in the state.
To this end about fifty petroleum-bearing
geodes were collected from near Niota.
The oil is usually a black tarry matter,
so viscous that it will just about flow.
We were able to collect enough of the
material in this way for our determina¬
tions. However, we were able to collect
only a few, eight or' ten, of the geodes
from the Alto formation and found bitu¬
minous matter to be, in these instances,
merely a black mass lining parts of the
geode cavity. It may be interesting to
note in passing that small crystals of
sphalerite were found in several of these
bituminous-bearing geodes. In an at¬
tempt to obtain the bituminous matter
we first distilled small amounts directly
from the broken fragments of the geodes
but were able to collect a few drops of
viscous matter resembling a very soft
paraffine, neither quite liquid nor quite
solid. The color was dark but not black.
Not obtaining a sufficiently large sample
in this way, the balance of the geodes
were broken up into small pieces, placed
in a Soxhlet apparatus and extracted
with carbon tetrachloride. The latter be¬
ing distilled off, there remained a black,
nearly solid mass of bituminous material
which provided the samples for most but
not all of the analyses performed.

For the purpose of comparison we ob¬
tained samples of petroleum from the
Colmar-Plymouth oil field through the

1 “The Stratigraphy of the Mississippian Formations of Iowa,” Iowa Geological Survey,
Annual Reports 1921-22, Vol. XXX.

Geology — 19^2 Meeting

139

Table I. — Properties of Bitumens Analyzed

Crude oil
from
Colmar
oil field

Topped
residue
from
Colmar
oil field

In geodes in
Warsaw
formation
from near
Niota, Ill.

In geodes in
Alto

formation
from near
Jonesboro

Carbon percent _ . _

82.68

13.23

95.91

21.0

trace

none

0.867

1.4105

85.58

11.93

97.51

21.0

trace

none

0.902

1.4100

110°C.

10 mm.
sol.

82.83

15.71

98.54

29.0

trace

none

0.785

1.425

107°C.

7 mm.
sol.

86.4

11.2

97.6

50.0

trace

none

0.895

1.534

109°C.

20 mm.
sol.

Hydrogen percent _ _ - _ _

Iodine number . . . .

Halogen content _

Sulfur content _

Specific gravity _

Refractive index _

Boiling point _

Solubility in carbon tetrachloride _

courtesy of Mr. 0. C. Ackman of the Ohio
Oil Company. The oil here is found in
the relatively shallow depth Hoing sand
of Silurian age. This particular oil was
selected because it was the nearest oil
field to the Niota locality, being less
than thirty miles away. We determined
first the boiling point of the bitumen in
the Warsaw geodes, and distilled the
petroleum, rejecting all of the faction that
boiled below the boiling point of the oil
found in the geodes. The results shown
in Table I were then obtained from the
three bituminous residues.

From these results it becomes evident
that there is marked similarity between
the bitumen in the geodes from both
Niota and Jonesboro and the topped oil
from Colmar. They were paraffins of
relatively high molecular weight. There
are only negligible amounts of unsatur¬
ated hydrocarbons in all three. The
geode oils show practically no halogen.
The original sample of crude oil from
Colmar contained a small amount of salt
water. No traces of sulfur were found.
The specific gravity is slightly high in all
cases except for very high boiling point
paraffin, (Hexadecane has a specific
gravity of 0.775), but the refractive index
and boiling points, (the latter taken
under reduced pressure to avoid cracking
as much as possible) correspond closely
to those reported for paraffin hydro¬
carbons of high molecular weight.

In general the Alto geodes, appear to
have lost more volatile material than the
Warsaw ones. It seems reasonable to
assume that the oils have at least similar
sources and that they have been subjected
to similar conditions affecting their for¬
mation, the Alto geodes having lost some¬
what more of their volatile fraction.

The problem of migration of the oil
into the geode is more difficult. Any as¬
sumption of original oil in the geode
appears fantastic. We have found that
the Warsaw formation where in contact
with oil bearing geodes is quite saturated
with petroleum in one locality, specifically
along the south bank of Tyson creek
about where it intersects the south edge
of sec. 15, T. 7 N., R. 8 W., south of Niota,
Illinois.

The chalcedony geode shell, and more
particularly the shale layer immediately
in contact with it are very impervious.
Dr. Norris Johnston of the General Pe¬
troleum Corporation of California reports
in a private communication that the air
permeability of the geode walls run from
0.03 to 0.37 millidarcies, while that of a
characteristic sample of Warsaw shale
from the same horizon as the geodes was
0.54 millidarcies.

While the main part of the geode walls
are highly impervious, in breaking some
geodes there seem to be minute cracks or
capillary tubes thru which the oil may
have penetrated. There are sometimes
seen fine black lines of oil extending from
the center of some geodes to, or nearly to,
the outer edge of the chalcedony shell.
If oil was under considerable pressure in
the rocks, it would probably find it easier
to compress the gas contained within the
geodes passing through the few capillary
openings than to overcome the resistance
of passage through the only very slightly
pervious shale. We suspect the unusual
imperviousness of the shale directly sur¬
rounding the geode is an important bit
of evidence regarding the origin of the
geodes themselves.

Conclusion: The bituminous matter in
geodes found in the Warsaw formation

140

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

in the vicinity of Niota, Illinois, and in
geodes found in the Alto formation a few
miles south of Jonesboro, Illinois, is
similar in some of its chemical and
physical properties to petroleum found in
the Hoing sand at Colmar, Illinois, except
that the materials in the geodes have
less of the more volatile hydrocar¬

bons. The shale in contact with some
bituminous bearing geodes is itself oil¬
bearing in at least one locality. The oil
would find the shell of the geode in gen¬
eral difficult to penetrate, but there are
capillary passages that would afford a
passage to the interior of the geode.

. Geology — 191^.2 Meeting

141

SUBSURFACE STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS NEAR TYPE
CHESTER LOCALITIES IN SOUTHWESTERN
ILLINOIS1

Frank E. Tippie

Illinois State Geological Survey, TJrbana, Illinois

Introduction — The correlation of the
Chester formations in southwestern Illi¬
nois has been greatly aided by the study
of cuttings from wells which are located
near the type localities of these forma¬
tions. Descriptions of outcrops and well
cuttings agree closely. Most outcrops do
not expose a complete formation and its
relationship to formations above and be¬
low it. Therefore, subsurface strati¬
graphic sections of seven Chester forma¬
tions having type localities in southwest¬
ern Illinois are presented to enable geol¬
ogists to observe these relations and
make direct comparisons with other
stratigraphic sections.

Aux Vases Sandstone. — In 1892, C. R.
Keyes (1, p. 298) 2 proposed the name Aux
Vases for the “ferruginous sandstone”
described' by Shumard, typically exposed
at the mouth of Aux Vases Creek, Ste.
Genevieve County, Missouri. The Aux
Vases sandstone is now recognized as
the basal formation of the Chester series.
It overlies the Ste. Genevieve limestone
unconformably and is in turn overlain by
the Renault formation.

In the type locality the Aux Vases (4,
p. 229) formation consists of two zones,
each 18 feet thick. The lower zone is
made up of interbedded variegated shales
and sandstones, and the upper is massive
fine-grained sandstone. It is overlain by
the Renault formation, consisting of 2 to
4 feet of sandstone and sandy green clay
overlain by purple shales.

The Anderson-Cassoutt No. 1 well (fig.
IB) is located 7 miles east of the type
locality of the Aux Vases sandstone. In
this well the Aux Vases is represented by
56 feet of fine-grained to coarse-grained
angular sandstone. The base is a sand¬
stone conglomerate containing pink and
white chert and a few limestone frag¬
ments. This is indicative of the uncon¬

formity recognized at the base of the
Aux Vases formation. The Aux Vases
becomes increasingly finer-grained up¬
ward. It is here overlain by very fine¬
grained pink pyritic sandstone and inter¬
bedded variegated shales of the Renault
formation.

Renault Formation — Stuart Weller (2,
pp. 122-124) proposed the name Renault
for the series of limestones, sandstones,
and variegated shales that lie above the
Brewerville, now the Aux Vases sand¬
stone, and below the Yankeetown chert.
The Renault formation is typically devel¬
oped along the tributary to Dry Fork of
Horse Creek in sec. 23, T. 4 S., R. 9 W.,
Monroe County, Illinois, and consists of
the following zones in ascending order
(5):

(4) 5 feet of limestone with some

shale partings.

(3) 15 feet of calcareous fossiliferous
shale with numerous thin lime¬
stone layers.

(2) 2 to 3 feet of arenaceous lime¬

stone.

(1) 3 feet of massive sandstone.

The Renault formation as represented
in the Ames-Nicholson No. 1 well (fig.
2A) , located 4 miles south of the type
locality, is, in part, almost identical.
Zone 1 of the outcrop is represented in the
well by 23tfeet of yellow and greenish
partly spotted reddish-brown, very fine¬
grained compact sandstone with a few
thin stringers of sandy limestone and
greenish-gray and purple shales; Zone 2
by 5 feet of sandy limestone; Zone 3 by
24 feet of red, purple, and gray calcareous
shale, interbedded with very calcareous
siltstone; and Zone 4 by 7 feet of cherty
coarsely crystalline green limestone and
white lithographic limestone.

Yankeetown Chert. — The Yankeetown
formation (2, pp. 124-125) is a hard per-

1 Published with the permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey.

2 Numbers in parentheses refer to references at end of article.

142

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

WELL NO. I

ANDERSON ET AL - CASSOUTT NO I

LOT 2, SURVEY 4, KASKASKIA COMMONS, RANDOLPH CO

RENAULT FORMATION

id Sandstone, white, fine to medium, angular,
in incoherent

Sandstone, calcareous, white, medium to
coarse; sandstone conglomerate, coarse,
cherty; limestone fragments; green shale

STE. GENEVIEVE LIMESTONE.

sistent siliceous stratum, typically de¬
veloped as an arenaceous chert near
Yankeetown School in southeastern Mon¬
roe County, Illinois.

Only a few subsurface records show
the Yankeetown chert in its typical out¬
crop form. In the Ames-Nicholson No. 1
well, 5 miles southeast of the type lo¬
cality, the Yankeetown formation is rep¬
resented by a sandy chert in the lower
16 feet and by a slightly calcareous chert
in the upper 7 feet. A few miles to the
east of the outcrop belt, the Yankeetown
formation becomes a very fine-grained
sandstone that continues into the Illinois
basin.

Paint Creek Formation. — The name
Paint Creek (2, pp. 125-126) was proposed
by Stuart Weller for the red shale and
limestone above the Yankeetown chert
and below the variegated shales and
sandstone of the Ruma formation. The
Paint Creek formation is typically de¬
veloped along the tributary to Paint
Creek in sec. 2, T. 5 S., R. 9 W., Randolph
County, Illinois. Weller recognized two
zones of the Paint Creek: The lower zone
consists of 20 to 25 feet of deep red clay

with a few limestone nodules; the upper
zone is more calcareous and shaly below,
grades upward into more massive lime¬
stone beds, and totals 30 to 40 feet in
thickness. In 1920, Weller (3, p. 298)
extended the Paint Creek to include the
variegated shales in the lower part of
the Ruma formation and suggested that
the name Ruma be discontinued as a
formation name. This would establish a
third zone in the Paint Creek.

In the composite log of the Ames-
Nicholson No. 1 and the Haverstick-
Dashner wells, respectively one mile
southeast and two miles northeast of the
type locality, all three zones are present.
The lower red shale zone with limestone
nodules is 28 feet thick. The middle
limestone zone consists of a lowermost
sub-lithographic limestone 15 feet thick,
a middle sandy limestone 15 feet thick,
and an uppermost light brown and pink,
partly oolitic and partly coarsely crystal¬
line limestone 12 feet thick. The third
zone is 12 feet of variegated shale.

An additional zone, not noted in out¬
crops but generally recorded in wells, is
a thin very fine-grained sandstone or silt-

Geology — 191+2 Meeting

143

WELL NO. 2*

AMES OIL CO. - NICHOLSON NO. I

SEC. 12, T.SS.R.9W., RANDOLPH CO.

CYPRESS SILTSTONE

Shale, yellow, greanish-gray, red, dark gr ay,

Limestone, partly oolitic, light brown, pink,
yellow, coarse, crinoidal

2C Limestone, becoming very sandy at base ,
^ partly oolitic, buff, green, little pink,

DC fine to coarse, crinoidal
• O

2 Limestone, buff, green, light gray, *ub-
^ lithographic, crinoidal
0.

Shale, calcareous, dark red; few red and
greenish limestone nodules

Chert, slightly calcareous, white, opague ;
little green, silty shale at top

Chert, sandy, white, opaque

Limestone, partly cherty, greenish, coarse,
crinoidal; limestone, white, lithographic

Shale, calcareous, gray, purple, red; siltstone,
very calcareous, gray, green, coarse

3

»7<

bJ Limestone, sandy, light buff, fine
CL

Sandstone, slightly calcareous, light gray
green, yellow at base, very fine, compact
little limestone, sandy, brown; little
shale, greenish -gray, purple

AUX VASES SANDSTONE

* Log above 103 ft. interpreted from nearby
well ^3, Haverstick- Dashner, in Sec. 3 1,
T. 1 S., R 8 W., Randolph County

WELL NO. 4

C. L. LACHTRUP - SCHULZE NO. 3

SEC. 2, T. 7S., R. 6 W., RANDOLPH CO.

DEGONIA SILTSTONE

Limestone, argillaceous, dark gray,

very fine, partly crystalline, crinoidal

Siltetone, calcareous, argillaceous, dark greenisk

9raV

Limestone, very argillaceous, greenish- gray,
little red, dense

Limestone, partly dolomitic, brown, gray,
very fine, crystalline

Limestone, argillaceous, dark brownish -gray,
dense, infer bedded with shale , calcareous,
dark gray; shale more prominent in lower
part

Limestone, brownish-gray. very fine, crystalline

Sondstone, calcareous, light greenish-gray,
very fine, compact, carbonaceous

bJ

Z

H

</>

_l Sand stone, light gray, fine, carbonaceous,
incoherent

Limestone, argillaceous, brownish -gray, very
fine, partly crystalline; shale, calcareous, gray

Limestone, argillaceous, dark brownish -gray,
very fine "to coarse, fossiliferouj; shale

Limestone , buff to brown, very fine, partly
mottled gray

q Limestone, cherty, buff to brown, very fine,
CL Some coarse, partly mottled gray
<

^ Limestone, light buff to brown, lithographic
^ Dolomite, silty, green, very fine

Limestone, more or less argillaceous,

portly dolomific. brownish -gray, very fine
partly mottled, crinoidal

Limestone, oolitic, light buff, fine to medium

Limestone, argillaceous, gray, brownish,
greenish, dense; m+erbedded gray shale

Shale, slightly calcareous, gray, flaky

WALTERSBURG SILTSTONE

A

r ig 2

144

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

stone that occurs directly above the red
nodular shale. However, this sandstone
is not present in the Ames-Nicholson No.
1 well.

Menard Formation — The name Menard
(2, p. 128) was proposed for the mod¬
erately thick-bedded limestone with num¬
erous shale partings, typically exposed in
the Mississippi River bluffs at Menard in
Randolph County, Illinois. In the out¬
crop the limestones are generally bluish-
gray, close-textured, and fine-grained and
often have a small amount of chert.
Coarsely crystalline limestones may be
common locally, but they are usually rela¬
tively thin and occur in the upper part
of the formation. The lower part of the
Menard is usually marked by a dark gray
shale with thin limestone streaks.

The Lachtrup-Schulze No. 1 well (fig.
2B), 7 miles northeast of the type locality,
exhibits a fairly typical Menard succes¬
sion. At the base is 16 feet of shale and
argillaceous limestone. Above this is a
3-foot oolitic limestone followed by 17 feet
of more or less argillaceous limestone.
The next lithologic unit is 35 feet of
light brown, very fine-grained partly
crystalline limestone. The lower five feet
of this unit is a silty green dolomite
whose lateral extent is not known, and
for this reason the dolomite is not con¬
sidered a separate unit. Chert is present
at depths between 210 and 220 feet. The
top of the Menard is 18 feet of fossilifer-
ous shaly limestone and dark gray shale.
The limestone is generally very fine¬
grained but some is coarsely crystalline.

Palestine Sandstone — The Palestine
sandstone (2, pp. 128-129) was so named
because its type exposures are in Pales¬
tine Township, Randolph County, Illinois.

It consists in part of heavy beds of sand¬
stone and in part of thinly bedded sand¬
stones or arenaceous shales.

In well No. 4, located about six miles
east of the type locality, the Palestine
formation consists of two zones* a lower
light gray fine-grained incoherent and

carbonaceous sandstone 32 feet thick, and
an upper light greenish-gray very fine¬
grained calcareous carbonaceous and com¬
pact sandstone 12 feet thick. Arenaceous
shales are not shown in sample cuttings
from this well.

Clore Formation — The name Clore (2,
p. 129) was applied to a series of inter-
bedded limestones and shales that overlie
the Palestine sandstone and crop out near
Clore School in Randolph County, Illi¬
nois. In many places the Clore includes
much more shale than limestone. The
shales are generally calcareous and dark
in color. The limestones are variable,
grading from dense argillaceous lime¬
stone to crystalline limestone.

In well No. 3, located about four miles
northeast of the type locality, the Clore
formation is represented by 5 feet of a
very finely crystalline limestone at the
base, overlain by 38 feet of dark gray
calcareous shale interbedded with dark
gray shaly limestone, the shale content
decreasing upward. Above this shaly
zone is 10 feet of brown very finely
crystalline limestone overlain by 5 feet of
very argillaceous greenish-gray limestone.
A few fragments of -this limestone in the
cuttings are red. The next unit consists
of a dark greenish-gray calcareous and
argillaceous siltstone, 8 feet thick. The
top of the Clore is 7 feet of mottled gray,
crinoidal limestone.

REFERENCES

Keyes, C. R., The principal Mississippian

IImo"; utf Soc- Am- Bul1- vo1- 3’ **-

Weller, Stuart, Stratigraphy of the Ches¬
ter group in southwestern Illinois : Trans.
19i3State Acad* ScL’ voL VI> pp- H8-129,

Weller, Stuart, The Chester series in Illi¬
nois: Jour. Geol., vol. XXVIII, pp. 281-
303, 395-416, 1920.

Weller, Stuart, Geology of the Ste. Gene¬
vieve County, Missouri : Mo. Bur. of
Geology and Mines, vol. XXII, 2nd ser.,
1928*

Weller, Stuart, A report on the geology
of parts of Monroe, St. Clair, and Ran¬
dolph counties, Illinois : Unpublished
manuscript in the files of Ill. State Geol.
Survey.

Geology — 19 1$ Meeting

145

RHYTHMS IN UPPER PENNSYLVANIAN CYCLOTHEMS1

J. Marvin Weller

Illinois State Geological Survey, TJrbana, Illinois

The concept of cyclothems is familiar
to most geologists who have been con¬
cerned with the stratigraphy of the Penn¬
sylvanian system in Illinois during recent
years. The characteristic repetitions of
different types of strata that make up a
cyclothem are not, however, the only
rhythms occurring in this system. In the
McLeansboro group, particularly, com¬
plete cyclothems of different types suc¬
ceed one another in a definite order that
is repeated at least three times. These
major rhythms or cycles of cyclothems,
because of their similarity to one another,
have caused confusion in the field that
has undoubtedly resulted in miscorrela-
tions at some places where outcrops are
not abundant or adequately connected.
When they are properly understood and
worked out, however, they may furnish
the basis for a new classification of the
Illinois Pennsylvanian in which the
cyclothems are joined into groups and
series that are of more significance
stratigraphically and historically than the
ones now recognized. It is also possible
that these larger rhythms may be the
long-sought key that will solve some of
the perplexing problems of interbasin cor¬
relation.

The succession of cyclothems that are
now recognized in the McLeansboro is as
shown in table I.

These cyclothems are arranged in six
groups. The lower two are incomplete
and more or less doubtful, but above the
base of the Trivoli cyclothem, which is
the boundary between the Des Moines
and Missouri series of the Midcontinent
region, the repetition of four general
types of cyclothems is conspicuous. The
highest group is represented only by a
single basal cyclothem.

(a) The basal cyclothems of these
groups are well developed. They possess
prominent basal sandstones that appear
to be separated from underlying beds by
unconformities that at least locally are
more than ordinarily well marked. Coal

is generally present and may be locally
workable on a small scale. Black sheety
shale is conspicuously present at many
places and is both underlain and overlain
by lenticular, dark colored, and very im¬
pure marine limestone of similar lith¬
ology. The upper gray shale member of
these cyclothems is generally thick.

(b) Cyclothems of the second type are
very imperfect or even rudimentary and
their presence is generally indicated only
by a more or less persistent horizon of
marine fossils that may be limestone
(Collinsville), sandstone (Collinsville,
Upper Macoupin), or ironstone (Upper
Newton).

(c) Cyclothems of the third type are,
like the first, well developed but their
characteristics are quite different. Good
basal sandstones are present. “Fresh¬
water” limestones are rare and coal
seams are thin or absent. Black slaty
shale occurs in the Shoal Creek cyclothem
but is missing in the LaSalle and Omega
cyclothems. The upper marine limestones
of these cyclothems are light colored,

TABLE I

Name of Cyclothem

23 Shumway .

22 Woodbury .

21 Gila .

20 Omega or Greenup .

19 Upper Newton .

18 Newton .

17 Upper Bogota .

16 Lower Bogota .

1 5 Cohn . .

14 Upper Livingston “La Salle”

13 Lower Livingston “La Salle”

12 Upper Macoupin .

11 Macoupin .

10 Flannigan .

9 Shoal Creek .

8 Collinsville .

7 Trivoli .

6 Exline .

5 Gimlet .

4 Sparland .

3 Bankston Fork .

2 Jamestown .

1 Bre reton (part) .

Type

a

d

d

c

b

a

d

d

d

c

c

b

. d

c

. b

d

c

a?

d?

c?

c

Published with permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey.

146

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

comparatively pure, and massive. They
have been quarried at many places and
are probably the most conspicuous beds
in the upper part of the Pennsylvanian
system in Illinois. The upper gray shale
members are generally of only average
thickness.

(d) Cyclothems of the last type are
thin and incomplete and their marine
members commonly contain brackish-
water rather than truly marine fossils.
On the whole they are difficult to recog¬
nize because of their variability and lack
of distinguishing characters. Some of
these cyclothems include very prominent
“fresh-water” limestones of various kinds.
Some have well developed black slaty
shale members that locally attain unusual
thickness. Coals are generally thin or
absent although in one area coal in the
Flannigan is mined in a small way.

Truly marine limestones are thin or
absent, and the commonest fossils are
Estheria and ostracodes in the black
shales.

Of the three recognized groups of
cyclothems above the Trivoli, the first is
the simplest with only one cyclothem of
each type and the second is the most
complex with two cyclothems of the third
type and at least three of the fourth.

Field work suggests that the Omega
limestone of Marion County and the
greenup limestone of Cumberland County
are equivalent but the fusulines occur¬
ring in these beds are different, and
those of the Greenup are believed by Dun¬
bar and Henbest to be much younger. If
these limestones have been miscorrelated,
a fourth group of cyclothems, including
the Opiega, is probably present between
the Upper Bogota and Newton cyclothems.

FOSSILIFEROUS ZONES OF THE UPPER PENNSYLVANIAN
OF VERMILION AND EDGAR COUNTIES, ILLINOIS

Geo. M. Wilson

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

The McLeansboro (Upper Pennsyl¬
vanian) in Vermilion and Edgar counties
in eastern Illinois is exposed along Ver¬
milion River and Brouillet Creek and
their tributaries. The McLeansboro has
been sub-divided into the following
cyclothems (ascending order) : Sparland,
Gimlet, Trivoli, Shoal Creek, Flannigan,
Macoupin, and Livingston. The com¬
posite section in Vermilion County in¬
cludes about 300 feet of strata and in
Edgar County nearly 400 feet. The
regional dip of the strata is to the south¬
west. The names of the various
cyclothems have been previously assigned
by other workers. Further detailed study
of the fauna of these cyclothems may
prove or disprove their correlation with
their type sections in other parts of the
state.

In general the strata consists of shale,
sandstone, limestone, underclay, coal, and
conglomerate in about that order of
abundance. Marine invertebrate fossils
occur in strata above the coal zones of
each cyclothem, and in calcareous sand¬
stones below the coal in a few instances.
Plant remains have been found in a few
places in shale, sandstone, and limestone.

Land vertebrate fossils were collected
many years ago from reddish shales in
the lower part of the Shoal Creek
cyclothem in Vermilion County, and
erroneously referred to the Permian.
Marine fossils occur in greatest abund¬
ance in the limestones, and in decreasing
abundance in the calcareous shales, black
fissile shales, limestone conglomerates,
and sandstones.

The megascopic fossils indicate a wide
range of ecological conditions. They are
very abundant in most of the marine
members of the cyclothems. The most
common genera are: Dictyoclostusr
Neospirifer, Composita, Juresania, Lino -
productus, Lophophyllum, Sphaerodoma ,
Meekospira, Naticopsis, Bellerophon, Phar-
kodonotus, Euphemites, Myalina, Allor-
isma, Schizodus, Astartella, Pinna, and
many others. Several trilobites have
been found in the Macoupin.

The ostracods are the most common of
the micro-fossils and will, when further
study is made, be of considerable value in
correlation of the Pennsylvanian in Illi¬
nois. For example, Geisina gregaria has
been found only in the Trivoli in Ver¬
milion County. It is known to occur at

Geology — 191$ Meeting

147

the same stratigraphic position in Peoria
County. This form was originally de¬
scribed in 1906 from the Kansas City
group of Kansas and called Beyrichiella
gregaria. It is probable that other forms
will be of equal value when their strati¬
graphic ranges have been determined.
The dominant ostracod genera vary be¬
tween cyclothems. The most common
genera listed in the order of abundance
are: Bairdia, Gavellina, Hollinella, Am-
phissites, KirTcbya, Bythocypris, Geisina,
Jonesina, and Kelletina.

Foraminifera occur throughout the Mc-
Leansboro section. One of the important
forms is Triticites irregularis, which has
been found also in the Winterset beds of
Iowa. This form occurs in a shale part¬
ing in the Livingston limestone. Other
common foraminifera are: Ammodiscus,
Tetrataxis, Ammovertella, Polytaxis, and
Glyphostomella. Glyphostomella trilocu-
lina thus far has been obtained from only
the Macoupin.

Conodonts have been found in several
zones, even from the uppermost sand¬
stone in the Vermilion County section.

In the Sparland, at the base of the
thick marine shale, may be found an ir¬
regular black fissile shale that bears a
pyritized, dwarfed fauna. Gastropods
abound, with lesser numbers of brachio-
pods, pelecypods, some cephalopods, and
ostracods. The overlying shale contains
varying amounts of megascopic fossils,
especially pelecypods.

The Gimlet in Vermilion County is
represented by a thin basal sandstone and
a limestone conglomerate, while in Edgar
County there has been an addition of sev¬
eral members to the cycle and a thicken¬
ing of the strata to nearly 90 feet. The
limestone conglomerate is found in Edgar
County also. It is of marine origin ap¬
parently, for in it there are crinoid stems,
shark teeth, brachiopods, and bryozoa.
In some areas it contains microfossils in
the shales.

The Trivoli in Vermilion County yields
largely micro-fossils, while in Edgar

County it contains large numbers of
megascopic, as well as microscopic fossils.
The marine shale immediately overlying
the coal zone in Vermilion County may
be divided into two distinct zones on the
basis of the micro-fauna.

The Shoal Creek in Vermilion County
contains fossils in the nodular lime. In
Edgar County there is an expansion of
this cycle and a corresponding increase
in the number of forms.

The Flannigan yields large numbers of
microscopic as well as a large megascopic
fauna. The members of the cyclothem
are more completely developed in Edgar
County.

The Macoupin is ideally exposed along
Salt Fork of Vermilion River in Ver¬
milion County. At the base there is a
sandstone which grades upward into a
siltstone. This is succeeded by a fresh
water limestone at the base of the under¬
clay immediately below a coal. The coal
is immediately overlain by a black fissile
shale. The black fissile shale grades up¬
ward into a dark carbonaceous, fos-
siliferous shale. The limestone varies
from pure crystalline to argillaceous, and
is very fossiliferous, containing large
numbers of both megascopic and micro¬
scopic fossils. The overlying shale con¬
tains fossils also.

The basal sandstone of the Livingston
cyclothem in Vermilion County is exposed
along the Salt Fork. The black shale, an
overlying blue shale, and limestone have
been exposed in the Fairmount quarry.
In Edgar County there is a continuous
section along Brouillet Creek. The basal
sandstone contains Lingula and Aviculo-
pecten. The black shale overlying the
coal and the green shale at the base of
the limestone bear conodonts. The lime¬
stone here is tentatively correlated with
the one in Vermilion County. It is from
the shale partings in this limestone that
Triticties irregularis, has been collected.

Although the general strategraphic
succession has been studied, this is the
first detailed study of the fauna that has
been undertaken.

.

PAPERS IN PHYSICS

From the Report of the Section Chairman

Twelve papers were presented at the Urbana. meeting, one of which. The
Betatron, by D. W. Kerst, was published in the September issue of the Trans¬
actions, and five of which are published herewith. The others were :

Ewert, W. E., Chicago. — Meteorology. A new method of long range
weather forecasting .

Wall, C. N., North Central College, Naperville. — The inverted pendulum.

Kibort, V., University of Chicago. — Color vision.

Ewert, W. C., Chicago. — Falling bodies and the cause of gravity.

Phillips, Theodore, Wright Junior College, Chicago. — An outline of a
physics course related to the C. A. A. program.

Reed, C. I., and B. P. Reed, University of Illinois College of Medicine,
Chicago. — X-ray diffraction studies on physiological changes in bone.

Maximum attendance was 70. Chairman for the 1943 meeting at Jackson¬
ville, as elected, is F. W. Cooke, Illinois College, Jacksonville, Illinois.

(Signed) Frank L. Verwiebe, Chairman

1 149 |

150

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

A DEMONSTRATION RADIO SET

A. F. Inglis

Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

University of

The demonstration radio set to be de¬
scribed here was built to make the tran¬
sition between the circuit diagram and
the actual circuit easier for the beginning
student, and to provide a working model
with which the function of each stage of
a radio set could be readily demonstrated.
All the wiring and all the parts of the set
are placed on the top side of the mount¬
ing board, and as far as possible the lay¬
out of the wires corresponds to that on a
conventional circuit diagram. Thus the
function of each connection is made im¬
mediately apparent to the student. See
fig. 1.

The radio employs a tuned radio fre¬
quency circuit since it was felt that the
importance of the superheterodyne prin¬
ciple to the beginning student was not
sufficient to warrant the added complica¬
tion in the construction of the set. The
model has four stages: a tuned radio
frequency amplifier stage using a type 26
tube; a combined tuned radio frequency
amplifier and detector stage using a type
27 tube; an audio frequency amplifier
stage employing a type 26 tube; the
power amplifier stage employing a type
71A tube. There are two tuning con¬
densers which must be adjusted sepa¬
rately. Transformer coupling is used the
audio frequency section. Sufficient power
is developed to operate either a pair of

headphones or a small magnetic speaker.
The power supply employs a type 80 tube
operating as a full wave rectifier sup¬
plying 250 volt plate potential.

Each stage in the set is terminated in
an ordinary wall socket, and the connec¬
tion to the next stage is ordinarily made
by means of a short double wire running
to another socket adjacent to it to which
is connected the input leads of the next
stage. However, by using a longer wire
it is possible to skip any stage by bridg¬
ing over it. The set will operate with
any stage except the detector missing,
although its power is greatly decreased.

Thus the purpose of
each stage is impressed
upon the student.

On the top of the
mounting board and
running the entire
length of the set is an
oscillogram giving the
wave form of a typical
signal for the stage im¬
mediately below. Thus
the progress of the sig¬
nal is graphically illus¬
trated from antenna to
loudspeaker. It is also
possible to connect an
oscilloscope at any stage
and obtain the wave form of an actual
signal. In this manner the effects of de¬
tection and amplification are readily
shown.

The set was built at virtually no cost
by Mr. John P. Karbler from discarded
materials which inevitably collect in any
laboratory. The mounting board is %"
plywood, 6' x 3', painted white and
permanently mounted to the wall. The
set was built under the direction of Dr.
Harvey B. Lemon. It is used both for
the instruction of superior students in
the Physical Science Survey course and
for the students in the regular General
Physics course. It has proved to be of
invaluable assistance in demonstrating
the basic principles of radio to beginning
students.

Physics — 19 J$ Meeting

151

A DEMONSTRATION POWER SUPPLY

O. L. Railsback

Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Illinois

Rj 2,500 "
R» 2,500 "
R* 10,000 *•
R6 ZS,000 »
R7 2 25,000 "

, 50 -
-

, IO "
, 5- •'

. I "

L, , L^_ 8 Hrys. j /20 ma.

C, 40 Mfd. , ISO Volts
C2,Cj,CA 8 Mfd. ,600 Volts
T 5Z3 or 83

In the teaching of an elementary-
course in Radio it frequently is desirable
to show the action of the various parts
which go into a standard power supply.
The apparatus here described has been
planned to make this possible without the
necessity of re-wiring circuits each time
a new observation is to be made. The
circuit diagram shows the arrangement
of parts and switches. It is “fool-proof”
in the sense that no damage can be done
to the unit with any combination of open
or closed switches. With this unit the
following observations can be made
merely with the opening or closing of
switches:

1. Half-wave rectification

2. Full-wave rectification

3. The separate effects of each com¬
ponent in the filter section \

4. The effect on voltage of condenser
or choke in-put

5. The effect of varying load on volt¬
age out-put. Data for six or more
points on a calibration curve for a
given filter arrangement are avail¬
able by opening and closing
switches.

The effect of using a high vacuum or
mercury tube can be shown by inter¬
changing a 5Z3 and 83 type tube.

The unit can be used as a power supply
in an amplifier or radio. “A”, “B”, and
“C” voltages are available at binding
posts, and the necessary auxiliary instru¬
ments are milliammeter, voltmeter, and
oscillograph.

152

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

WHY NOT EXPRESS THE HORSEPOWER IN
FOOT-POUNDALS?

C. E. Ronneberg

Herzl City Junior College, Chicago, Illinois

The concepts of mass, acceleration,
force, energy, and momentum are the
very basis of mechanics, the foundation
of all the physical sciences. In spite of
the importance of these concepts, teachers
in science and engineering must admit
that we have a long way to go before we
achieve uniformity in the handling of
these concepts. The prejudices of work¬
ers in physical science in regard to the
units used to measure mass, force, energy,
and momentum are distressing to the be¬
ginning students who must decode the
writings and usages of the many authors
of physics and engineering texts. It is
worthy of note that the students of
physics in France, Germany and other
European countries escape this confusion
because they are familiar with only one
system of units— the absolute c. g. s. sys¬
tem. In this country teachers and stu¬
dents must struggle along with both the
gravitational and absolute system of
units.

Many teachers of physics feel that the
best way to handle the second law equa¬
tion of Newton is to resort only to abso¬
lute units and the equation, F — ma.
However, the concept of horsepower is so
entrenched in the minds of the engineers
and the public in general that they have
despaired of entirely dispensing with
gravitational units. Many teachers feel
that it is necessary to teach the idea of
pound of force because of its relation to
the horsepower as 550 foot-pounds per
second. They feel impelled to devise
some system of handling F — ma which
will permit solution of problems in either
gravitational or absolute units. Many
teaching devices have been invented to
accomplish this dual purpose.1 One com¬
mon method is to make use of two differ¬
ent sets of equations for force, energy,
etc., one for use with absolute units, and
one for gravitational units.

The concepts of force, mass, kinetic
energy, and momentum in reality are not

simple concepts. They are due to con¬
tributions by philosophical and mathe¬
matical thinkers of the caliber of New¬
ton, Galileo, Descartes, Johannes Ber¬
noulli, and Huygens. Ernest Mach2 in
1888 pointed out that Newton’s definitions
of mass and force leave us in a logical
circle:

F(orce)

t t

. - / V. _

m(ass) a(cceleration)

i _ i

These three concepts are all inter¬
related and physicists have adopted two
different procedures to build up a system
of units around them.

Procedure I. The relationship between
two different masses is determined ex¬
perimentally by the measurement of the
different accelerations produced by the
same force acting on the two masses.

ai a2

- > - >

This led to the relationship,

mi/m2 = a2/ai Equation 1

Eventually the followers of this pro¬
cedure arbitrarily selected a conveni¬
ent reference mass, the gram or pound
to measure the magnitude of any other
mass in terms of this reference mass by
the determination of the different accel¬
erations imparted to the two masses by
the same force, the masses and acceler¬
ations being inversely proportional to
each other, i. e.,

m2 = mi(ai/a2) — ai/a2 when mi = unity
Equation 2

^Cf. Perkins Science, October 14th, 1938; Beardsley, Science 89, No. 2299, p. 58 (1939).
Oampier, William, History of Science, Macmillan Co., New York, 1932, p. 170.

Physics — 19It-2 Meeting

153

The accelerations of course are ex¬
pressed in terms of length and time, as
cm/sec2 and ft/sec2. In this experimental
procedure the acting force remains con¬
stant. This is implicitly stated in the
expression given in Equation 2 since

imai “ m2a2 = a constant. Equation 3

This led to the common statement of
the second law of motion, Fc=ma. In
this procedure, force must be a derived
. unit dependent upon the units of mass,
length and time. In this way our com-
. mon absolute units of force, the dyne
and poundal came into use.

Procedure II. In this procedure the
| relationship between different forces was
determined experimentally by measuring
the different accelerations imparted by
different forces on the same mass. The
accelerations are directly proportional to
i the applied forces, or

Fi

ai a2

- ► - >

force.”4 Unfortunately, the followers of
Procedure II adopted the concept of
pound of force. In order to get the
notion of pound of force, it was necessary
to use the pound of mass. To add to the
confusion a new unit of mass was in¬
vented, the slug. In order to have the
second law in the form F = ma mathe¬
matically, Equation 5 is slightly altered,

F = Wt(a/g) = W/g(a) =Ma Equation 6

When F is expressed in pounds of force
and a in ft/sec2, then the new unit of
mass, the slug, is a derived unit and is
defined as that mass in which a force of
one pound will produce an' acceleration
of 1 ft/sec2. In effect the followers of
Procedure II in a round about manner go
from our unit of mass, the pound, to the
pound of force and back to the hypo¬
thetical unit of mass, the slug, in order
to use the second law in the form,
F = Ma = Wt/g(a). In practice this
results in the use of two sets of equations
in mechanics as illustrated below:

Results of Procedure I

P. E. = mgh

K. E. ■= y<2 mv2

F = mv2/r

m

Fi/F2 = ai/a2 Equation 4

This method requires the use of a
standard force and corresponding acceler¬
ation which is usually the weight and
acceleration due to the attraction of the
earth for the given mass at place where
the experimental work is carried out.

The last expression is changed to

F/Wt = a/g Equation 5

This is sometimes called the ratio

form of the second law. This method re¬
quires the use of the concept of weight
and this naturally led to the gravitational
units of force. It should be noted that
the concept of mass is not involved in
Equation 5. Many physicists contend
that Equation 5 in that form is the most
fundamental equation in mechanics.3

Both procedures have been used which
is responsible for the great confusion
that exists in regard to the units of
mass, force, and energy. ‘‘Difficulties

. arise from the fact that two

systems of measurement of force are
actually in use alongside one another,
thus producing the appearance of two
fundamentally different definitions of

Procedure II

P. E. = mgh/g = mh
•K. E. = y2 mv2/g

F = mv2/rg, etc.

Often the followers of Procedure II do
not actually stress the use of the term
slug.

As stated before the reluctance of many
teachers to discard the gravitational
units of force is due to the use of the
foot-pound in the horsepower unit. But
it is still possible to retain the horse¬
power unit and express in absolute units
as foot-poundals per second. For some
reason this is not done by writers of
physics and engineering texts. The legal
definition of the pound in this country as
stated by the Bureau of Standards is a
mass equal to 453.5920 grams. The aver¬
age value of g at sea level and 45 degrees
latitude is 32.1740 ft/sec2. Hence, the
horsepower in absolute units will be,

P = w/t = F xS/t = mgS/t <=

(550 lbs) (32.1740 ft/sec2) (1 ft)

1 sec

= 17696 foot-poundals per second

For ordinary calculations, the horse¬
power can be expressed as 17,700 foot-

*Cf. Huntington, Science, 1,1, 207-209 (1915).

4 Bavink, The Natural Sciences, The Appleton-Century Co., New York, 1932.

154

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

poundals per second with an error of 0.02
per cent.

For problems involving the conversion
of mechanical energy into heat, the me¬
chanical equivalent of heat can likewise
be expressed in foot-poundals per B. T. U.

1 Calorie = 4.184 joules
1 B. T. U. = 252 cal = 252 x 4.184 joules
= 2.50 x 104 foot-poundals

Expressing the horsepower and the me¬
chanical equivalent of heat in absolute
English units means that only one set of
equations is needed to measure force,
work, potential and kinetic energy, etc.
The parallelism between the absolute
metric and English units is quickly
grasped by the beginning student in
physics.

NORMAL DAILY TEMPERATURES FOR AURORA BY
COMPARISON WITH CHICAGO

Clarence R. Smith
Aurora College , Aurora, Illinois

The normal daily temperatures at
Aurora have been much desired as a mat¬
ter of popular interest including use by
the local newspaper which would like to
report a comparison each day with the
current mean. Since the use to be made
of these normals is general rather than
technical or scientific, it did not seem
justifiable at this time to undertake the
rather laborous Fourier series method or
even one of the elaborate arithmetical
smoothing methods which have some¬
times been used.

The method here employed was sug¬
gested to the writer by Mr. C. F. Jesper-
sen of the Chicago downtown station of
the U. S. Weather Bureau. It consists of
comparing the Aurora monthly normal
temperatures with the Chicago monthly
normals and applying this variation to
the Chicago daily normals to obtain
Aurora daily normals. The city of
Aurora is located 36 miles from down¬
town Chicago, in a direction west and
slightly south. The figures used for the
Aurora monthly normals were those pub¬
lished in the 1940 year issue of Climato¬
logical Data and represent a record cover¬
ing 61 years ending with 1940. The
Chicago figures, both monthly and daily,
were those appearing in the Annual
Meteorological Summary, 1940, for Chi¬
cago, published by the U. S. Weather
Bureau at that city. This record repre¬
sents a period of 69 years.

The twelve departures of the Aurora
from the Chicago monthly normals were
plotted on calendar coordinate paper and

a smooth curve drawn among the points.
From this curve a departure was read off
for each day of the year. These depar¬
tures were then applied to the published
Chicago daily normals to obtain Aurora
daily normals’ as shown in the accom¬
panying table. Certain values were ad¬
justed slightly by interpolation to fit more
consistently with the data just before and
after. In no case was the adjustment
more than 1 degree. In case of departure
ending in .5 the choice of whether to use
the next whole number higher or lower
was determined by examining the ad¬
jacent data.

The summer maximum at Aurora is
higher than that at Chicago while the
minimum in winter is lower. Yearly
curves for the two localities are quite
similar in shape but the Aurora curve is
in general ahead in phase by about 5
days. These and other phenomena which
developed in making the comparisons,
deserve farther study but are considered
aside from the main objective of this
paper. It is believed that the Aurora

Fig. 1\. — Departure of Aurora normal monthly
mean temperatures from similar data for
Chicago.

Physics — 19Jf.2 Meeting

155

daily normals here formulated are of
sufficient accuracy to be of practical value
until such time as more elaborate meth¬
ods might become necessary. Acknowl¬
edgment is made to Mr. Jespersen not

only for suggesting the method, but for
his kindly interest and his offer of library
facilities. Mr. F. J. Thomas of the Chi¬
cago station also made suggestions which
proved to be of much value.

AURORA DAILY NORMAL MEAN TEMPERATURES

Day

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

1 . .

22

22

29

42

53

64

72

73

68

58

45

31

2 .

22

22

29

43

54

64

72

73

68

58

43

30

3 . .

22

22

30

43

54

65

72

73

68

58

43

30

4 . . . . .

21

22

30

44

55

65

72

73

67

57

42

29

5 .

21

22

30

44

55

65

72

73

67

57

42

29

6 .

21

22

31

44

55

66

72

73

67

56

41

29

7 .

21

22

31

45

55

66

72

73

67

56

41

28

8 . . .

21

22

32

45

56

66

72

73

66

56

40

28

9 .

21

23

32

46

56

67

72

72

66

55

40

28

10 . .

21

23

33

46

57

67

72

72

66

55

39

27

11 .

21

23

33

46

57

67

72

72

65

54

39

27

12 .

21

24

34

47

57

67

72

72

65

54

39

27

13 .

21

24

34

47

57

68

72

71

65

53

38

26

14 . .

20

24

34

47

58

68

73

71

64

53

38

26

15 . .

20

24

35

48

58

68

73

71

64

53

37

26

16 .

20

24

35

48

59

69

73

71

63

52

37

26

17 . .

20

25

36

49

59

69

73

71

63

52

36

25

18 .

20

25

36

49

59

69

73

71

63

51

36

25

19 . .

20

25

37

49

59

69

73

70

62

51

35

25

20 .

20

25

37

50

60

70

73

70

62

50

35

24

21 . .

20

26

38

50

60

70

73

70

62

50

35

24

22 . .

21

26

38

50

61

70

73

70

61

49

34

24

23 . . .

21

26

39

51

61

70

73

70

61

49

34

24

24 . .

21

27

39

51

61

71

73

70

61

48

33

23

25 . .

21

27

40

51

62

71

73

69

60

48

33

23

26 . .

21

28

40

52

62

71

73

69

60

48

33

23

27 . . .

21

28

41

52

62

71

73

69

60

47

32

23

28 .

22

29

41

52

63

71

73

69

59

47

32

23

29 .

22

29

41

53

63

72

73

69

59

46

31

23

30 . . .

22

42

53

63

72

73

69

59

46

31

22

31 .

22

42

64

73

68

45

22

156

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

WAVE FORMS OF PHASE-SHIFTED SINE PULSES AND
THEIR APPLICATIONS

J. T. Tykociner and L. R. Bloom
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

In the course of development of an
automatic recorder of spectral sensitivi¬
ties of photoelectric cells, means were re¬
quired for producing pairs of 60 cycle
modulated light sources whose intensities
could be sustained in definite phase re¬
lations. This led to a theoretical study
of rectified phase-shifted sine waves. En¬
hanced by an urgent demand for a prac¬
tical method of precise determination of
small phase shifts this work has been
further developed experimentally. The
main theoretical and experimental results
are given in the following brief report.

The task set for the theoretical in¬
vestigation consisted of finding new wave
forms characterized by sharply marked
critical points whose coordinates would
determine the phase shifts. Such new
wave forms were derived by the super¬
position of two rectified phase-shifted
sine waves.

Three distinct wave forms have thus
been studied:

(1) Those obtained by the subtraction
of two rectified phase-shifted sine
waves.

Fig. 1. — Graphical subtraction of
two rectified phase-shifted sine
waves.

(2) Those obtained by the addition of
two rectified phase-shifted sine
waves.

(3) Those obtained by a rectified
phase-shifted sine wave added to
or subtracted from a full sine
wave.

Due to space limitation only the first
type of wave form will be discussed here.

Fig. 1 represents graphically the sub¬
traction of instantaneous values of two
phase-shifted rectified waves, A and B, of
equal amplitude and frequency. Each of
the seven graphs shows the resultant
wave shape D — A-B for a particular
phase shift 0, namely, 0 = 0°, 15°, 30°,
60°, 90°, and 120° respectively. The re¬
sultant curve D appears as an alternating
wave of double the frequency of the
original sine wave. The curve has sharp
peaks marked a, c, and e. It crosses the
X-axis at the points b and d. Interesting
from the point of view of practical ap¬
plication is the property which makes the
amplitude of the curve D proportional
to the sine of the phase angle 0. A fur¬
ther property is that for D = O, «b,d —
K tt/2 + 0/2, where 0, 1, 2, . . . and
that the value of the abscissa for the
maximum is Xc — K ‘rr + 0 and for the
minimum, Xa,e — K^r. With increasing
phase shifts the wave form develops
gradually from an unsymmetrical shape
with a small amplitude into a symmetri¬
cal triangular form of maximal amplitude
at 0'=9O°. Similar studies of the two
other types of wave forms mentioned
under (2) and (3) reveal other charac¬
teristics also depending on the phase
angle.

In order to examine the possibility of
producing such wave forms in electrical
circuits, the oscillographic method was
applied in connection with mixing cir¬
cuits for combining the two rectified
phase-shifted sine waves.

Fig. 2 is an example of a series of oscil¬
lograms thus obtained for 0 = 0°, 15°,
30°, 45°, 60°, and 90° respectively. The
left column shows the component rectified

Physics — 19Jf2 Meeting

157

Fig. 2. — Oscillograms showing subtraction
of two rectified phase-shifted sine waves.

sine waves each taken by a separate ex¬
posure while the second column of oscil¬
lograms shows the resultant forms chang¬
ing as the phase is varied step by step.
These correspond closely to the curves
theoretically predicted.

In order to produce any required def¬
inite combination of currents it was
necessary to develop accurate means for
adjusting phase angles of the component
currents. The oscillograms shown in
Fig. 2 were obtained at 60 cycles per
second by a known method of addition
of electrical vectors in quadrature rela¬
tion.

For audible frequencies from f = 500
cycles to f = 10,000 cycles per second a
more accurate method of obtaining phase-
shifted currents was developed.

As shown in Fig. 3, in room I were
placed the oscillator O, whose frequency
could be varied from 20 to 20,000 cycles
per second. The oscillator was coupled
to a transmitter T. For frequencies not
exceeding 2,000 cycles this transmitter T,
consisted of a high impedence earphone
of the Baldwin type. For higher fre¬
quencies it was replaced by a high fidel¬
ity driving unit of a dynamic speaker
whose voice coil impedance was 16 ohms
and whose audio spectrum extended from
30 to 10,000 cycles. At a distance di and
d2 of approximately two wave lengths
were placed two high impedance head¬
phones Pi and P2, identical in their char¬
acteristics. One of the headphones, P2,
was fixed in position. The other, Pi,
was mounted on a stand and could be
shifted between guides by means of a
worm-gear G. By turning a crank K, the
distance di could be varied and set to any
desired position with an accuracy of
± 0.2 mm. For each given phase angle
0, the distance d = di-d2 = 0r/7Tf could be
calculated from the sound velocity v and
frequency f and then adjusted accord¬
ingly.

In room II were placed two sets of
measuring equipment. Each set consisted
of a voltage amplifier (Ya or Vb), a
matching transformer (Wa or Wb), a full-
wave rectifier (Ya or Yb) and a coupling
circuit (Za or Zb).

The outputs, a and b, of the receiver
headphones Pi and P2 were fed through
shielded concentric cables into the re-

158

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

spective amplifiers Va and Yb. An oscil¬
lograph G was used as an indicating in¬
strument to observe the resultant wave
forms.

For frequencies from 10,000 to 100,000
cycles the method of adjusting circuit
constants was used for producing phase
shifts. Thus, the entire frequency spec¬
trum over the range from 30 to 100,000
cycles was found adaptable in connection
with the described wave forms.

The applications of the new wave forms
are manifold. By direct use of an oscil¬
loscope which records the wave forms on
a screen, it is possible to measure the
coordinates of the critical points of the

resultant wave forms and thereby de¬
termine phase differences. However,
more refined methods of utilizing the
characteristics of the new forms are be¬
ing developed. Of other applications
which are in the course of development,
the following may be mentioned as ex¬
amples: time axis sweep circuits for
oscillograph and television tubes, square
wave generators, and harmonic oscilla¬
tors.

A complete report concerning the math¬
ematical and experimental investigation
will be published in a Bulletin of the
University of Illinois’ Engineering Ex¬
periment Station.

Papers in psychology and education

From the Report of the Section Chairman

Six papers were contained in the program at the Urbana meeting, 3 of
which are herewith printed. The others were :

DeYoung, Chris A., Illinois State Normal University, Normal. — Financing
public education in Illinois.

Hibler, Frances W., Illinois State Normal University, Normal. — The
problem of student morale during war.

Witty, Paul A., Northwestern University, Evanston. — Mental hygiene
effects of war upon children.

Twenty attended the session.

L. A. Pennington, Physiological Psychology Laboratory, University of Illi¬
nois, was elected chairman for the Jacksonville meeting in 1943.

(Signed) J. H. Hughes, Chairman

[159]

160

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

WARFARE BETWEEN HUMAN NATURE FICTIONS

Coleman R. Griffith
University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois

It is obvious beyond all question that
this war is being fought between armies,
navies, flying forts, and radios which are
owned by, and serve the interests of, the
several nations. These nations, or the
people who lead them, hate each other
and are bent on the destruction of their
enemies. It is not quite so obvious, but
nonetheless true, that a struggle is being
waged between patterns of belief, forms
of government, systems of finance, claims
to priority in access to raw materials,
means of control over ocean lanes of
traffic, and rights to sell goods in pre¬
ferred markets. As an integral part of
these factors, there are the roots of evil
intentions which are said to lie in
balances of power, race hatreds, old debts
to be paid, and the desire to remedy
ancient wrongs. Still less obvious are the
brutal qualities that are commonly at¬
tributed to man's original nature, — his
lusts, instincts, and other echoes of the
fact that he stems from the beasts of the
field. This might be called, then, a war
of machines, a financial war, a political
war, a war of ideologies, a war of em¬
pires, and a struggle for survival, but in
none of these manners of speech has the
final and irreducible nature of the con¬
flict been indicated. In the last analysis,
it is a psychological war. Stripped of
all the trimmings of men and machines,
or of policies and practices, this is a war
of man against himself. It is civil war
in the body psychologic. It is a war be¬
tween fictions about the nature of human
nature, that is, a war between partial
views of the traits of men and of what
they need in order to live.

Since all of us are men who normally
pursue a double path toward self-
knowledge, that is, a path among the im¬
mediacies of self-inspection, and a path
among inter-behavioral contacts with our
own kind, any appeal to the notion that
we are the witnesses at a civil war
among human nature fictions stands

forth, at first sight, almost as a peculiar
kind of nonsense. If there is anything
in the whole universe that should be
known with precision, and in the fullness
of its being, it is man’s own nature.
Moreover, it is said to be one of the most
patent facts of history that human nature
is the same the whole world over; and
yet, instead of a view of himself in the
wholeness of his character, one must still
insist that death is the price being paid
for a wild array of partial views and of
absurd abstractions which are battling
one another to the bitter end. Some of
them have stood out to the exclusion of
all of the others, and some of them have
been united with others so as to form
curious caricatures of the truth.1 There
have been biological, rational, spiritual,
economic, political, liberal, nomadic,
western, oriental, romantic, pragmatic,
mystical, humane and military or power¬
men, to say nothing of the man of the
golden mean. These terms have not been
used to name the several facets of the
whole of the psychological creature.
They have been taken as real names for
views that have been held of man’s essen¬
tial constitution as displayed in what he
has done, what he wants, what he will
strive for, and for which he will give up
his life. Some of them are names for
the kinds of men who are now grasping
each other’s throats or blasting out each
other’s brains from the skies.

There is, then, at the very center of
man’s universe a strange paradox. He
ought, since he is always his own sub¬
ject and object, fully to know himself in
the completeness of his nature, and yet
the actual record shows scarcely an in¬
stance when he has scored a notable suc¬
cess in synoptic comprehension. So grave
a failure must be explained and, for¬
tunately, the answer is not far away, for
man has at last become a problem to
himself, and this is the beginning of wis¬
dom. It is first to be observed that men

1 Each of them, of course, will hold that it reveals the truth, all the others being- defec¬
tions from the obvious and the essential. See, for example, Maritain, J. Christian humanism.
Fortune, 1942, 25, 106 ff.

Psychology and Education — 19^2 Meeting

161

must, if the immense variety of partial
views which crowd the record are to
make any sense at all, be extremely
versatile in their resources for adjust¬
ment to life situations. The plain fact
is that they do have capacities for meet¬
ing their environments which can be
channeled into action in an amazing
variety of ways. In the second place, it
is wholly clear that life situations vary
over an immense area from deserts to
lavish riches, from battle, mating and
feeding to dialogue, friendship and
aesthetic pleasure, from being ruled to
the role of ruler, from working and pro¬
ducing to selling and saving, and from
manual labor to deep concern about
angles, sizes, words, verbal propositions
and final principles. When pieced to¬
gether, these two kinds of facts point to
a single conclusion. At a time and a
place within a given culture, and for a
given purpose, men are able to mobilize
their rich resources for adjustment in
precisely those patterns which appear’ to
be adequate to the conditions which
prevail.

This conclusion, however, marks only
the first step in the creation of human
nature fictions. When a particular set
of life situations is intensely demanding,
the whole scope of human nature will
appear to be expressed in exactly those
habits, skills, attitudes, and thoughts
that have been designed to meet the de¬
mands. But it is at this point that the
next step in the creation of a fiction is
normally taken. In proportion as the
designs for action meet with success,
they will be used to prescribe the rules
for response to all kinds of situations, in
all kinds of cultures, even though the
initial conditions which gave rise to them
have already passed away. But success
alone is not enough. The traits aroused
by one life situation in its own climate
of opinion, when utterly demanded by
that situation, are often abstracted from
their functional dependency on time and
place and converted into the intrinsic
rights, duties, essences, or powers of the
adjusting individual. In short, they
appear to express the laws of the inner
nature of man, and they are made pre¬
scriptive, therefore, not only for the
same but for all other kinds of situations.
They become definitions of what it means
to be a human being. Moreover, — and

this is the final step in the creation of
fictions, — the adjustive habits required by
local conditions of time and place are
quickly transformed into rules, codes of
law, customs, institutions and political or
other social arrangements which appear
to be right because they manifestly em¬
body the wants, the best thoughts, and
the hereditary qualities of the men who
have created them.

A single example will suffice. With
the advent of the machine at the outset
of the Industrial Revolution, the ways of
men with respect to machines, to raw
materials, to goods produced, to sales,
and to bank accounts passed through the
mighty transformation that marked the
end of feudalism. Moreover, their man¬
ners of dealing with one another in the
market place and in the forum took on
a flavor which set them off from the
customs that had prevailed in feudal
times. Men who owned land gave way
to men who owned goods or banks, and
in proportion as almost any one could
share in the new kinds of ownership,
men became individualists endowed with
the kinds of rights that individuals ought
to possess.2 From an earlier period,
these new kinds of men drew upon the
fiction of rational men as it had been
perfected by those who had learned how
they ought to behave if they were to deal
adequately with geometry, mathematics,
or with the meanings of words when they
are used to compose a syllogism. The
result was, first, an economic sort of man
ruled by reason in behalf of enlightened
self-interest, and, second, a whole array
of political, commercial, international
and military arrangements, intended to
bring in a constant flow of raw materials
and send out a constant flow of goods to
be sold for a profit. This economic man
was a liberal, an individualist, or a
capitalist whose habits, emotions, and
points of view, instead of being relative
to the kind of world in which living had
to be accomplished, appeared to stem
from his genes and be expressive of his
inalienable rights. His government, his
treaties, his wars, his peace pacts, his
schemes for a balance of power, and his
attitudes toward natives in the far cor¬
ners of the earth, accordingly, were
merely public and institutional expres¬
sions of what he conceived to be the

2Cf. Laski, H. The Rise of European Liberalism. London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1936.

162

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

intrinsic human nature granted to him
by his Creator®

This is, of course, an extremely sketchy
view of a complex process. This is not
the place, however, to fill in the details,
whether for economic or any other kind
of man, and neither is it the place to find
out how various types of men fare when
they go to war in order to protect what
they manifestly feel to be the inner es¬
sence of their own natures. We must
not even attempt to trace the way in
which economic, religious, democratic,
totalitarian, communistic and emotional
men, with all their associated practices
and arrangements, are caught in the
present tangle of world-wide conflict.4
The existence of human nature fictions,
however, raises one question which is
pertinent to this program. Given the
conditions which produce a varied assort¬
ment of human nature fictions and which
place them in bitter conflict, what is it
that preserves them and sheds an aura
of finality over them? The answer is:
Education. Education is one of the very
first of the arrangements set up by
groups of men in order to develop youth
in accordance with the fundamental
nature of human nature. In short, educa¬
tional systems also go to war. In fact,
they are employed long before the advent
of overt conflict in order to prepare men
more heroically to defend or to die for
the values and natures ascribed to them
by the fictions they have created. More¬
over, it is education upon which is placed
the burden of instruction regarding
civilized habits, customs, institutions,
practices and loyalties which, because
they appear to be grounded in human
nature, constitute exactly the substance
of the various nations which spring at
one another’s throats. Stated in another
way, if wars are fought between human
nature fictions at the level of the political,
social and economic arrangements which
embody these fictions, then education is
the primary agent by which the truth and
the authority, both of the fictions and of
the arrangements, can be nurtured to the
point of complete conviction and utter
devotion.

If, however, education can go to war
in this fashion, it ought also to be sub¬
ject to mobilization in the interests of
peace. What is needed is not an educa¬

tion which will change human nature or
a mode of training which will eliminate
brutal instincts, but an education which
will strive toward, because it is based on,
the whole of the psychological person in
the full array of his adaptive talents.5
For some situations, and when to the
manner trained, men should be rational,
but they might also be romantically and
economically as well as religiously and
politically democratic, and scientific in
method as well as emotional and wor¬
shipful in their rights and duties. In
short, then, these several words could
not be used as the names of kinds of men
in a culture whose education was ex¬
pressly designed to develop the whole of
the psychological person. Moreover, they
could not be the names of the human
nature forces, whether they are called
instincts, innate ideas, or the first prin¬
ciples of being, which guarantee finality
to political, economic and social arrange¬
ments. By contrast, they would name
degrees of excellence, now in this facet
and now in that facet, of races of men in
accordance with the duties they must
perform and the relations they must
establish with respect to others of their
own kind in the common business of re¬
moving occasions for civil war in the
body psychologic.

It should be obvious that the road away
from revolution lies in this direction, for
men who intend fully to realize the whole
of their natures will not tolerate institu¬
tions, standards and practices which are
a violation of what they need and must
secure if they are to avoid ceaseless con¬
flict. They will, instead, create institu¬
tions which are compatible with the
kinds of human nature their educative
process has directed them to achieve.
If, for example, it is affirmed that a form ;
of government, or a system of banking, is
finally and absolutely true because it is
based on human nature, then schools
ought to teach that form of government
and its financial arrangements. On the j
other hand, however, if the human na¬
ture which is said to underlie a form of
government can be shown to be a fiction
produced by the chances of time and j
place, and wholly relative to a given cul¬
ture, then education, instead of becoming
a form of propaganda in order to pre-

«Cf. Browne, L. Something- Went Wrong. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1942.
■*Cf. Drucker, P. F. The End of Economic Man. New York: John Day Co., 1939.
°Cf. Tolman, E. C. Psychological man. J. Soc. Psychol., 1941, 13, 205-218.

Psychology and Education — 19J+2 Meeting

163

serve the fiction, ought to stand forth as
an agent for the training of men who will
gradually and thoughtfully amend their
government and all other institutions so
as to make them fully expressive of the
whole of their psychological beings.

The crucial test of this assertion is
said to lie in the relations that obtain
between human nature and democracy.
Democracy, of course, has been defined in
a great many ways, but none of them
emphasizes so many facts as the argu¬
ment that plans for self-government
name a direction of becoming rather than
a state of being. Likewise, human nature
can be defined in a great many different
ways, but none strikes quite so close to
the spread of man’s abilities as the state¬
ment that the scientific method, that is,
the operating intellect which uses goals
as means to further ends, demands more
of the whole person than any other pos¬
sible statement about him. Human na¬
ture and democracy, then, became twin¬
like terms, for adjusting men who ex¬
emplify the scientific method are the

premise of, and the necessary condition
for, the coming-to-be of democracy. The
alternative is to use the processes of edu¬
cation in the interests of conformity, that
is, in the interests of maintaining an ex¬
isting fiction about human nature and
about all the social arrangements con¬
tingent thereon. In this case, education
becomes an extremely powerful agent for
the promotion of wars without end, for
its natural product is a multiple person¬
ality whose members are always in con¬
flict, either directly or by way of social
structures. On the contrary, however,
education can be used for a peculiarly
human and democratic purpose, namely,
to direct growth toward the actualization
of all the powers of adjustment of the
whole of the psychological person. In
this case, educated men become, first, the
necessary correctives of the formal agen¬
cies by which their lives will be regu¬
lated, and second, the natural mode of
approach to a time when wars need no
longer be waged because men no longer
fashion themselves into their own worst
enemies.

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

164

HANDWRITING AS A FACTOR IN CREDIT ANALYSIS

W. R. Laughlin

Loyola University, Chicago, Illinois

Credit is the name given to that busi¬
ness operation by which delivery of
money or merchandise or other consider¬
ation is made on the promise of future
payment. Credit is based on confidence;
confidence in a man’s resources and
ability to pay, in his character and in¬
tegrity; confidence in the stability of the
locality in which he conducts his busi¬
ness; confidence in the government un¬
der which he lives. Credit-making is an
estimate or opinion of future commercial
conditions and of the ability and inten¬
tion of men to carry out a contract. So
important has this aspect of American
business become, that up to the present
emergency roughly one-third of American
merchandising was done on credit.

Credit extension has long been granted
on what is largely a mechanical and sta¬
tistical approach, based chiefly upon eco¬
nomic factors. One widely used method
seeks to determine the credit character
of a customer from the information fur¬
nished by him. The applicant is asked
to answer certain questions with respect
to race, marital status, length and type
of employment, age, income, other credit
affiliations, references, etc.

While tangible assets may be an im¬
portant basis for the extension of credit,
yet it can be stated absolutely — and it is
an agreeable evidence of the large part
which the human element, man himself,
plays in the more or less sordid opera¬
tions of business — that the rock-bottom
foundation upon which the whole system
of credit is based is character. Those
characteristics of the applicant himself
most significant to the credit man are
rightfully identical with the most essen¬
tial elements of success in any man:
honesty, good habits, ability, industry,
economy, and care in the conduct of his
business. Of these assets none can be
levied upon by law, but just as a man
cannot attain success without them, so a
credit man cannot safely give credit to
an applicant lacking them. In fact, if a

credit man could be absolutely sure of an
applicant’s honesty, most other consider¬
ations could safely be eliminated. Not
that honest men never fail, for they
often lack ability and other essentials,
but between the man with large resources
and doubtful honesty, and the honest but
financially weak man, the latter is the
better credit risk.

Undoubtedly in credit extension there
are at least two aspects: an economic
one (the ability to pay) and one largely
psychological (the intent to pay). It ap¬
pears most likely that our credit con¬
cerns are better equipped to deal with
the economic aspect than with the psy¬
chological aspect. This paper will report
the research which has convinced one
Chicago concern, which does a large
credit business, that handwriting can be
an important factor to be considered in
the extension of credit.

The prevailing attitude toward hand¬
writing analysis among American psy¬
chologists is one of scepticism and dis¬
trust. Along with phrenology, palmistry,
and astrology it is contemptuously dis¬
missed or deplored as charlatanism. The
commercial abuses of graphology seem
to have disqualified this type of analysis
for impartial experimental study. Con¬
sequently very few American psycholo¬
gists have studied its methods or claims
seriously; in their unfavorable criticisms
they seldom refer to more than one or
two inconclusive experiments. The typi¬
cal American attitude has been expressed
by John B. Watson. Depending as many
of the critics of graphology do, upon a
single experiment of Hull and Montgom¬
ery, he concludes that all claims for
graphology are “a tissue of exaggerations”
which “will not bear critical experimental
testing”. Since this famous experiment
has only remote relation to most of the
claims of graphologists and practically
none to their methods of work, it is a
meager and insecure foundation for such
a sweeping opinion. Watson wrote twenty

165

Psychology and Education — 191+2 Meeting

years ago, yet this attitude toward
graphology still prevails.

Briefly, it may be said that American
psychology and science regard hand¬
writing as unrelated to the deep-lying
central factors of personality, and as a
product essentially of peripheral manual
movement. In addition they consider it
to be influenced greatly by external con¬
ditions of instruction and example.
European psychologists on the other hand
see in handwriting the essence of expres¬
sion, reflecting many, if not all, of the
inner constituents of personality.

In sharp contrast to the scepticism and
neglect in this country we find an alert
and sympathetic interest in Europe.
Many reputable psychologists on the con¬
tinent are following the topic and experi¬
menting in the field of handwriting.

It was one of these European psycholo¬
gists, Dr. Walter Marseille, who initiated
the research reported in this paper. Dr.
Marseille, in addition to completing his
doctoral dissertation analyzing and criti¬
cising the methodology of the various
European schools of graphology in 1926,
had many years experience as a private
consultant. He saw the possibilities of
handwriting analysis as a factor in credit
extension, and a large Chicago merchan¬
dising company, which we shall call the
X-company, became interested. The X-
company is a progressive company with
special credit problems. Over the past
ten years its research department has
developed a rather extensive and compli¬
cated point system which it applied to
individual applications for credit. Its
management, however, anxious to cut
down credit losses, have long been on
the alert to improve their credit rating
system and invited Dr. Marseille to con¬
duct research to demonstrate the validity
of analyzing the handwriting of the ap¬
plicant before extending him credit.

It took him two years to integrate the
experience with the American handwrit¬
ing with its own national character and
its peculiar conditioning. In the United
States rather uniform conditions of in¬
struction and example, such as the Palmer
Method, have resulted in a certain amount
of what might be called “conventional¬
ized handwriting”. The European work
was mainly with handwriting of indi¬
viduals on a much higher economic and
cultural level than the Chicago firm’s
customer. Dr. Marseille, together with

Prof. Paul Zagersfeld, has done special
research on this very question of educa¬
tional level. These results, based on
Senatorial mail, were published in part
in “Public Opinion Quarterly”, Fall 1941.

But after acquainting himself with the
handwriting level of the typical customer
of company X, Dr. Marseille was given
two tests devised by the company.

The first test was taken in New York.
Two hundred order blanks were sent to
him. Half of these orders were from
customers who have proved themselves to
be good credit risks; experience had
shown that the other half should not
have been given credit. Dr. Marseille
was asked to separate the good from the
bad credit risks after analyzing the hand¬
writing on the order blanks. He did this
with an accuracy decidedly better than
their point system based on social and
economic factors. The X-company was
so impressed that they invited him to
come to Chicago and carry out further
research and take a second test. The
second test included six hundred cases
and the results were just as impressive.
Dr. Marseille was able to demonstrate
that credit losses were due not so much
to dishonesty on the part of the applicant
as to lack of adjustment, instability, and
lack of integration. Furthermore, the
characteristics were apparently revealed
in the handwriting of the applicant.

The X-company was convinced that
here was a method of analyzing credit
risks that had great potentialities. But
was this ability subject to training?
Could it be applied to mass production?
This was very important, since the X-
company had, depending on the season,
from 2,000 to 6,000 applicants for credit
daily.

Dr. Marseille was given the task of
selecting and training in his methods
five young men and women. None of
these trainees had any previous hand¬
writing training or made any claim to
intuitive gifts in this field. After twenty-
five training sessions of three hours each
for subjects 1, 2, and 3, and fifteen ses¬
sions of three hours each for subjects
4 and 5, all were given a test. The test
material consisted of 500 order blanks,
half of which were those of good credit
risks and half were those of bad credit
risks. The testees were asked to select
roughly twenty percent of the cases
which were called the extremes. These

166

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Table I

Subject

Cases

Rated

Cases

Correct

%

Correct

Extremes

Rated

Extremes

Correct

„ %
Correct

1

356

250

70

106

87

83

2 _ _ _ _

363

238

66

100

72

72

3 _ _ _ _

373

220

59

100

71

71

4 _

375

228

61

100

69

69

322

197

61

100

70

70

were the cases which the testee felt most
sure of being good or bad. In addition
the testee could select as many other cases
which he felt sure were good or bad as
he wished. The criterion of whether a
case was good or bad was of course the
X-company’s experience with it. If a cus¬
tomer had paid he was good, if he had
not paid he was bad. The results of the
test have been summarized in Table I.

The X-company felt that subjects 1
and 2 had performed satisfactorily on
the test and they were permitted to carry
on some private research which was de¬
signed to acquaint them with the opera¬
tions and problems of the company and
to see in what actual operational area
their services could best be used. It was
decided that subjects 4 and 5, who had
had less training, should be given more
training and a second test. Subject 3’s
performance was deemed unsatisfactory
and he was eliminated from further con¬
sideration. It is interesting to note, how¬
ever, that his results were on the positive
side and definitely above chance.

Subjects four and five and a new
trainee, subject six, who had previous
training in Europe, were given twenty

additional training sessions by Dr. Mar¬
seille and a second test. The results of
this second test are summarized in
Table II.

The X-company was satisfied with the
performance of these three subjects and
had them follow the same pattern of fur¬
ther training as subjects one and two.
At the present time the handwriting
analysis is definitely a part of the credit
extension policy of the company. Credit
applications are being examined by the
handwriting analysis who accept certain
applicants, reject others, and refer a third
group of applicants to the regular credit
extension programme.

It is impossible to discuss the method
of handwriting analysis in the short time
at my disposal. However, it should be
emphasized that the method does not con¬
sist of looking for certain definite signs
of dishonesty in a handwriting. Rather
it is an evaluation of an individual’s
writing style as a whole. The Chicago
firm is concerned primarily with nega¬
tive aspects which are: lack of integra¬
tion of the handwriting style, discrepan¬
cies in the handwriting style, and
evasiveness of the style.

Table II

Subject

Cases

Rated

Cases

Correct

%

Correct

Extremes

Rated

Extremes

Correct

„ %
Correct

4 _ _ _

329

221

67

92

72

78

311

206

66

95

69

73

6 . . . .

338

224

66

85

62

72

Psychology and Education — 191$ Meeting

167

WHAT CAN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL DO TO PREPARE
FOR WINNING THE PEACE?

Edwin* H. Reeder

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

The last forty years have constituted
a period of very rapid change in public
school education. This statement is true
of all features of the school system, in¬
cluding school buildings, professional
training of teachers, compulsory attend¬
ance age and the like. In no department
of education has it been more true than
in the field of the curriculum. From a
curriculum composed largely of dead,
inert, static factual material, the schools
have moved toward subject matter which
is alive, changing and within the realm
of children’s interests and comprehension.
Dead wood has been cut away and rich
and stimulating new material has been
added.

This change has been particularly note¬
worthy in the field of the social studies.
In this section of the school curriculum
there has been an increasing tendency to
introduce problems of contemporary life
and of national and international thought.
Leading educational theorists have been
largely responsible for this movement for
they have insisted in their speaking and
writing that the schools should introduce
contemporary problems into their curri¬
cula.

On the whole this tendency has been
a thoroughly desirable and healthy one.
There is one aspect of it, however, that
has been unfortunate. Theorists have
used the expression “the school” in an
entirely undiscriminating manner, as
though the children of our schools were
homogeneous in their maturity and power
to grasp ideas or to deal with data. The
absurdity of this assumption is obvious
as soon as it is stated, but it has ap¬
parently not been recognized by many
leaders and teachers in the elementary
school. Urged on by the unanalytic
pleadings of educational theorists, these
practitioners have often introduced into
the curriculum of the elementary school
problems of economic, social and political
import, the solutions of which require a
capacity to grasp abstruse ideas or to

manipulate complicated data which is
far beyond the abilities of common school
children. One often suspects that such
ability may even be far beyond that of
the average teacher!

At first thought, one might well con¬
clude that the problem of winning the
peace after this war is over is one of
those complicated problems, the intro¬
duction of no element of which into the
elementary school can be defended. It is,
of course, obvious that such a topic as
economic international relations after the
war would be far too difficult for a child
in the elementary school. But it is the
belief of the writer that in a democracy
there are three elements in the solution
of most problems, and that with respect
to the question of winning the peace, two
of these elements can be presented to
elementary school children.

The three elements are: first, the
emotional background upon which a ma¬
jority of our citizens must agree if they
are to accept the solutions offered by their
experts and representatives at the peace
table; second, the mass of factual data
which will constitute the basis for de¬
veloping the peace terms; third, the
actual solution of the world’s peace prob¬
lems as worked out in the final treaty.

As an illustration of these three ele¬
ments consider the problem of how to
satisfy the needs of all nations for the
world’s basic raw materials. This prob¬
lem will have to be dealt with if a per¬
manent peace is to be hoped for; indeed
it was recognized as of first importance
when Roosevelt and Churchill included it
in the Atlantic Charter. In this docu¬
ment, “to further the enjoyment of all
states, great or small, victor or van¬
quished, of access, on equal terms, to the
trade and raw materials of the world”
was stated as a war aim of the United
Nations.

It seems obvious that if this provision
of the Charter is to be fulfilled it will
mean that nations will have to give up,

168

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

in some measure at least, their sovereign
control of the raw materials within their
boundaries. This will be a difficult thing
for many Americans to accept; it will
constitute a radical change in that emo¬
tional background in the light of which
they have considered all relationships
with foreign countries. The first element
in the solution of the raw materials
question is, therefore, the emotional
framework within which the details of
the peace treaty will be enclosed.

The second element is the factual one;
where are raw materials found, how far
have the different nations developed
them, how far can they be developed,
where are they located with respect to
strategic transportation routes and pres¬
ent centers of industrial production.
Many of these facts are very simple and
can be easily understood and learned by
children.

The third element is enormously com¬
plicated; it consists of the actual treaty
provisions by which the intent of the
Atlantic Charter statement is to be im¬
plemented. To determine these provisions
will require the best brains of the United
Nations and the consideration of ex¬
tremely intricate data with reference to
production, consumption, transportation,
money values and the like.

The above analysis clarifies the answer
to the problem of this paper, namely,
what can the elementary school do to pre¬
pare for winning the peace? It is our
manifest first duty in this section of our
school system to go to work on the emo¬
tional background of our children. In
the opinion of the writer, the previous
efforts in this field have been distinctly
harmful rather than helpful. They have
been calculated to produce in our chil¬
dren a strongly nationalistic, if not ac¬
tually jingoistic attitude. Our nation has
been held up as the strongest in the
world, with the best government and the
highest standard of living existing any¬
where. There is no objection to this,
provided there is associated with it not
the smug self-satisfaction which has been
too characteristic of our national point
of view in the past, but rather a sense of
the international responsibilities which
our fortunate position inevitably lays
upon us.

It is the opinion of the writer that
the provisions of the Atlantic Charter
should be discussed frequently in ele¬

mentary school classrooms, both inci¬
dentally in connection with classes in the
social studies, and definitely in current
events periods. With a study of these
provisions should be coupled frequent
considerations of the necessity of a demo¬
cratic association of free peoples to put
them into effect. Thus, children will grow
up with certain emotional mind-sets
which will make easy the acceptance of
some points of view which are now diffi¬
cult for the American people but which
are essential if we are to have an endur¬
ing peace.

It may be argued that it is not neces¬
sary to expose little children to this sort
of subject-matter. The answer to this
contention is two-fold. First, if as it
seems likely, it takes the world as long
to win the peace after this war as it took
it to lose the peace after the first world
war, then children in our elementary
schools will have become voters long be¬
fore the peace is won. Second, emotional
attitudes are acquired easily by younger
children, and such attitudes are sur¬
prisingly permanent, coloring their think¬
ing for many years to come.

It is obvious that our elementary
schools have for a long time dealt with
some aspects of the second element in
solving the problem of winning the peace,
namely the factual element. But here,
too, the instruction needs to be changed.
Geography has been losing its place in
our common schools in the last few years;
this movement needs to be reversed and
a greater emphasis than ever before
should be given to geographic education.
Too frequently in the past, however, the
study of geography has consisted in the
enforced memorization of a vast number
of unrelated facts about the various coun¬
tries of the world. The geography of the
future should have two main emphases.

First, it should stress the pattern of
interrelationships between man and his
natural environment. This point of view
has been expressed many times in the
last forty years, but it is still too in¬
adequately followed in our schools which
are still teaching locations, products and
industries as unrelated data instead of as
factors in understanding the varying ways
in which man responds to his natural
environment.

Second, the geography of the future
must place far more stress on world re¬
lationships. We need to emphasize such

Psychology and Education — 19J/.2 Meeting

169

things as the world distribution of races;
of such basic commodities as oil, rubber,
coal, tin, iron and foodstuffs; and of
transportation and supply routes. Only
as we teach such types of subject matter
can we hope for a group of future citizens
who will understand what the terms of
the peace treaty are all about.

In a democracy, it is not the peace
plenipotentiaries nor the President who
make the peace; in the last analysis it

is the people who do it. It is, moreover,
the sentiments and will of the people, as
expressed through their representatives,
which modify and readjust the terms of
peace as time goes on after the acceptance
of the actual treaty. For the early stages
of the development of an intelligent
electorate who are capable of grappling
with these problems the elementary
teacher has a heavy and vital responsi¬
bility.

PAPERS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

From the Report of the Section1 Chairman

Eight papers were contained in the program at the Urbana meeting, in
addition to one given at the luncheon meeting by Florian Znaniecki, The Social
Scientist in Time of Crisis. Six are herewith printed. Two others, presented in
the same symposium, The Fate of the Family , were given by Ernest R. Mowrer,
Northwestern University, Evanston, and Ruth Shonle Cavan, Rockford.

Y. Dake Jolley, Wheaton College, Wheaton, was elected chairman of the
Jacksonville meeting in 1943.

(Signed) C. W. Schroeder, Chairman

[171]

172

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

THE FATE OF THE FAMILY

E. W. Burgess

University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

One way to forecast the fate of the
family is to observe trends in the past
and at present and to project them into
the future.

What are the chief changes affecting
the American family in the perspective of
time?

First of all, if we contrast the colonial
with the modern American family, it is
apparent that the family has lost, or is
still losing, its historic functions. The
family as a unit of production for the
market is gone except in rural districts.
Many home activities of economic sig¬
nificance as canning vegetables and fruits,
baking bread, laundering, making clothes
and cleaning and dying them are vanish¬
ing from the family. Recreation has de¬
parted in large measure from the home,
the only counter gain being the radio
which paradoxically brings the entire
outer world into the home. The educa¬
tion of the child is taken care of by the
day nursery, the kindergarten and the
school. Health and protective functions
have been assumed in ever increasing
degree by the state. Even religious prac¬
tices like family prayers and grace before
meals are on the decline. There can be
no doubt that the family has lost so
many of its functions that some ask what
is left of sufficient significance to justify
its continued existence.

The second great change is that young
married couples are increasingly separated
from the in-laws, in space and of more
importance in spirit. Less and less each
decade do husband and wife after mar¬
riage seek guidance from their parents.
No longer is the larger kinship group an
indispensable factor in regulating and
guiding the small family unit.

A third big change, in part related to the
preceding two, is the growing emancipa¬
tion of the family from community con¬
trols and from the mores.

Many observers see in the superficial
manifestation of this shift such as the
smaller family and the increasing divorce
rate evidence of family instability and
perhaps its eventual disintegration.

Sorokin like Le Play before him bewails
the decline of the stable family and the
rise of the unstable family.

Other sociologists and I count myself
in that number welcome this change al¬
though granting the conflicts and losses
incidental to a transition period because
of its promise for a higher type of family
in the future.

This break of the family with tradition
is all-important because it means that
each family is now on its own to realize
in its own way its potentialities for de¬
velopment. Family stability based on the
mores was valuable in a static society but
in a dynamic society it can prevent the
family from making necessary adjustment
to new conditions and so stifle the free¬
dom of family members for self-expres¬
sion. The modern family face-to-face
with a changing situation finds adapt¬
ability to be a more important character¬
istic than integration which we have all
tended to value higher perhaps than is
warranted by the facts.

This point, however, has recently been
documented by a restudy of the original
case-records upon which Robert Cooley
Angell based his findings in his book,
“The Family Encounters the Depression.”
He had indeed found that the adaptability
as well as the integration of the family
was important for its success in meeting
the impact of the depression. The re¬
study of cases by the use of a rating
scale and statistical methods shows that
the adaptability of the family is much
more important than integration in meet¬
ing a crisis such as the depression. In
fact, when the factor of adaptability is
held constant integration shows only a
zero correlation with success in meeting
the depression. This finding does not
mean that integration played no part in
adjustment to the depression. But it does
indicate that only those elements in in¬
tegration which made for adaptability
aided the family in meeting this crisis.

It follows, in all probability, that the
adaptability of the family and its mem-

Social Science — 191$ Meeting

173

bers in meeting changing situations pro¬
vides the key to the future of the family.

That is why no tears should be shed
over the loss of the historic functions of
the family. They are a case of good rid¬
dance of old rubbish. Their disappear¬
ance allows the family to concentrate
upon its essential functions, namely,
affection-giving, the bearing and rearing
of children and their informal education
which can be and often is far superior to
the education of the best schools.

The emancipation of the family from
the in-laws and the mores frees it to sub¬
stitute science for custom in the shaping
of marriage and of family relations.

Already in one large area of family
behavior tradition is in the discard and
science is supreme. Children are now
being reared by intelligent parents not
as they were brought up by their parents
but according to the advice of the
pediatrician, the psychologist and the
psychiatrist. The more intelligent the
parent, however, the more he takes the
advice of the specialist with a grain or
more of common sense. The significance
of this change cannot be over-emphasized.
It means a revolution in our thinking and
our way of life.

Signs are multiplying that this reliance
on science first evidenced in child rearing
is spreading rapidly to other areas of
family behavior. Courses on education
for marriage and family living are now
being given in colleges and universities,
in high schools and in programs of adult
education. Most significant in its impli¬
cations for the future is the mounting
demand of college students for courses in
preparation for marriage. Marital counsel¬
ing services are being set up to give in¬
formation and advice to couples before
and after marriage. Young people are
eager to obtain the latest findings of
scientific research which may be of as¬
sistance to them in marriage and family
relations.

Those who see the golden age of the
family in the past and would seek to re¬
turn to the large patriarchal family or
some substitute for it are fighting against
the trend of the times. Le Play was
wrong when he thought the old stable
French family “famille souche” (the
stem family) could be restored. Marshall

Petain will fail in any similar attempt.
Sorokin is mistaken when he believes
that the contractual state of family rela¬
tionships can or will be revived. Hitler
and Mussolini are engaged in a losing
battle in their reactionary efforts to turn
back the hands of time. The trends of
family life can only temporarily and not
permanently be thrown into reverse.

Many at present are pessimistic about
the effects of the war upon the family.
Certainly marriage and the family will
be subjected to great stress and strain.
Without question every effort should be
made to protect the family in this period
of crisis. But the general effect of this
War for Survival as of World War I will
be to speed up the changes taking place.
The greatest gain in my judgment will
be in the increased status of woman
brought about by her achievement of
more of the substance of equality with
man to square with the appearance of
equality with which she has been all too
satisfied.

There is no evidence that family life
of today is less happy than in the past.
Even the increase in the divorce rate
may in the total accounting represent a
net gain of happiness since the dissolu¬
tion of an unhappy union may con¬
tribute its part to net gain in happiness.
In fact, there is some evidence that the
city family as representing future trends
is on the whole happier than the rural
family which retains more of the char¬
acteristics of the past. A White House
Conference study of “The Adolescent in
the Family” revealed that on the average
the rural child was less well adjusted
than the town or city child. Studies in
marital adjustment seem to indicate a
larger proportion of rural than urban
families clustered around average hap¬
piness with smaller percentage at the
very happy and very unhappy extremes
of marital happiness. These findings
taken together seem to show not only the
present status but the future promise of
greater family happiness in the emerging
type of family united by the subtle in¬
tangible but binding ties of affection,
congeniality, and mutuality of interest,
adaptable to changing conditions, and
utilizing scientific knowledge with intel¬
ligence in the solution of its problems.

174 Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

FEDERAL REGULATION OF BUSINESS ENTERPRISE

V. D. Jolley

Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois

It is obviously beyond the scope of this
paper to present an exhaustive exposition
of the subject of federal regulation of
business enterprise, or even to summarize
the Constitutional, statutory, and admin¬
istrative provisions for such regulation.
The purpose therefore will be to present
a few observations which I have made
during a recent study of a large number
of federal regulatory measures. These
observations will be presented under two
following headings: (1) The Changing
Concept of Federal Regulation, and (2)
The Broadening Bases of Federal Regula¬
tion.

I. The Changing Concept of Federal
Regulation

The word “regulate” is found in the
Commerce Clause of the Constitution.
This empowers Congress “To regulate
Commerce with foreign Nations, and
among the several States, and with the
Indian Tribes.”1 This clause has not been
modified by amendment; but there is rea¬
son to believe that its connotation has
been changed by construction, or usage,
with the passage of time. The popular
concept of the term within recent years
has been that of restriction; but to one
who is familiar with the history of our
early years it is inconceivable that the
members of the Constitutional Convention,
meeting in the fall of 1787, should have
contemplated the imposition of restric¬
tions upon the struggling infant indus¬
tries of their time. Nor is it likely that
many, if any, of their number possessed
sufficient vision to anticipate the prob¬
lems and difficulties which would emerge
with the development of large-scale in¬
dustry, and the consequent need for
restrictive measures. It is therefore
reasonable to assume that they intended
the word regulate to mean only promote.

There is evidence to support the view
that the purely promotive concept of
regulation prevailed for many years.
During the debates attending the passage
of the Interstate Commerce Act, in 1887,
such able lawyers as Senator Evarts, of
New York, a former Attorney-General of

the United States, contended that the
regulatory provisions of the Interstate
Commerce Act were un-Constitutional be¬
cause they were restrictive rather than
promotive of the industries affected.2
But the restrictive provisions of the act
were subsequently upheld by the Supreme
Court in numerous decisions. Gradually
the public adopted the restrictive concept.
In 1912 the Supreme Court, in the Case
of Mondou v. New York, N. H. & H. Ry.
Co.,3 construed the term to mean “to
foster, protect, control, and restrain, with
appropriate regard for the welfare of
those who are immediately concerned and
of the public at large.”

This definition recognizes both the
promotive and restrictive concepts and
suggests the type of regulation which
seems to be evolving, namely, that of
government participation. To all intents
and purposes the federal government is a
participant in the operation of the rail¬
roads. So close and continuous is the
supervision of the Interstate Commerce
Commission over the carriers subject to
its jurisdiction that they have acquired a
quasi-public character, even though they
remain nominally as private enterprises.
As the scope of federal authority over
business enterprise increases, it is not
unlikely that the term federal regulation
will come to be synonymous with federal
participation. In this connection it might
be observed that the term participation is
more apt than the term regulation if
there is a sharing of responsibility be¬
tween the industries and the government.

II. The Broadening Bases of Federal
Regulation

Strictly speaking, there are only two
Constitutional bases for the federal
regulation of business enterprise. These
bases are found in the Commerce Clause,
previously quoted, and in the final clause
of Article I, Section 8, which empowers
Congress to make all laws necessary for
carrying out the powers expressly
granted to Congress or to any other de¬
partment or officer of the federal govern¬
ment.

1 Article I, Section 8, Par. 3.

2Cullom, S. M., Fifty Years of Public Service, p. 230.

3 223 U. S. 1, 47 (1912).

Social Science — 19J$ Meeting

175

It is of interest to note, in passing,
that the Commerce Clause remained
practically unused during the century
following the adoption of the Constitu¬
tion, the Interstate Commerce Act being
the first significant statute based upon it.
The Interstate Commerce Commission in
its first annual report to Congress dis¬
cussed the long delay in applying the
provisions of the Commerce Clause, and
gave as its explanation “the slow expan¬
sion of interstate trade.”4 *

There could be little question as to the
propriety of regulating interstate car¬
riers and communication systems on the
basis of the Commerce Clause. But grad¬
ually the definition of interstate com¬
merce was expanded to include industries
auxiliary to interstate carriers, and later
to include firms whose products were in¬
tended to be sold outside the state in
which they were produced. Statutes such
as the Fair Labor Standards Act,6
popularly known as the Wages and Hours
Law, are typical of this tendency to bring
within the federal jurisdiction activities
which can be called interstate only
under the most liberal construction.

The implied powers of Congress pro¬
vide a basis for the indirect regulation of
business enterprise. The economic ac¬
tivities of the federal government have
always had their impact upon private en¬
terprise. But recently advantage has
been taken of this fact for the purpose of
inducing private enterprisers to conform
to certain standards of business conduct
set up by Congress or some federal
agency. The Walsh-Healey Act of 1936
is typical. It provides for the withhold¬
ing of all contracts exceeding in amount
$10,000 from contractors who fail to ob¬
serve specified requirements relative to
the wages, hours, and working conditions
of their employees; and it provides severe
penalties for violations. While such pro¬
cedures were certainly not contemplated
by the framers of the Constitution, they
are accepted by liberals as being in keep¬
ing with the spirit of the Constitution.

National emergencies provide occasion
for the extension of federal control on
the basis of the implied powers, for un¬
der such circumstances governmental
functions are expanded and redirected,
thus increasing their potency as regu¬

latory factors. The present state of war
has necessitated the rigid regulation of
many industries by the federal govern¬
ment, not merely by means of positive
and negative incentives, but through ex¬
ecutive orders. Such regulation is in
many instances necessary for the success¬
ful prosecution of the war, and is there¬
fore justifiable. But experience has shown
that powers exercised in an emergency
are with difficulty relinquished by the
government when the emergency has
passed.

In the exercise of some of the express
or implied powers it has been discovered
that regulation of business enterprise may
be achieved where it might not be 'pur¬
posefully undertaken. For example, in
the exercise of the taxing power it is
possible to accomplish a regulatory end,
even though a tax imposed for the obvi¬
ous purpose of regulation would not be
allowed by the Supreme Court.6 Thus, a
penalty, or regulatory tax, on oleomar¬
garine was upheld by the Court on the
ground that a Constitutional function of
government (taxation) must not be de¬
feated on the ground that its effect would
be regulatory. But in a later case7 it was
held that if the statute gave evidence on
its face that its purpose was to achieve
an un-Constitutional regulatory effect, the
statute would not be enforceable.

Again, the taxing power has been used
to effect general economic changes which
have a direct bearing upon business en¬
terprise. Through a proper use of this
power in the establishment of rates and
incidences of taxation it is possible to
induce a redistribution of wealth or in¬
come which will materially affect private
enterprises. This power was greatly im¬
plemented by the Sixteenth Amendment,
on the basis of which progressive income
taxes are possible.

Tracing the development of federal con¬
trol one cannot but be amazed at the
manner in which the Constitution may be
made to apply where regulation is de¬
sired. This at once constitutes a basis
for optimism and a basis for fear. It is
the responsibility of political scientists,
sociologists, and economists to use their
influence to see to it that these enlarged
Constitutional powers are not abused.

4 I. C. C., Annual Report, Vol. I, (1887) p. 2.

6 52 U. 8. Stat. 1060ft (1938).

6 McCray v. United States, 195 U. S. 27 (1904).

7 The Child Labor Tax Case, 259 U. S. 20 (1922).

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

176

CHICAGO AND THE DOWN STATE

William Booth Philip
Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, Illinois

Keep awake, Peoria. Chicago will not give
up. They are only getting their fight
started. Get a few shots more into Wash¬
ington before Chicago catches Peoria with
its clothing disarranged so it cannot stand
at parade with a presentable condition.1

‘I have already learned,’ said Anthony
(Cook County) ‘that when gentlemen wish a
thing to be beaten, they only have to raise
a hue and cry against Chicago, and down it
goes. I have never seen such prejudice and
malice exhibited against any region as has
been exhibited by some gentlemen here
against Cook County. The animus exhibited
this morning seems to me unworthy of this
convention.’2

‘I am just as proud of that great city as
any gentlemen upon the floor can be,' ex¬
plained McCoy (Whiteside County), ‘al¬
though I believe it has become a nice ques¬
tion, whether the city of Chicago is in the
State of Illinois, or the State of Illinois is in
the city of Chicago. I believe that depends
on whether you live in Chicago or not.’

( Laughter. ) 3

These selections, dated 1942 and 1869
bind together a series of intermittent
struggles which have disturbed Illinois
leaders for over seventy years. Much
like they reputedly do about the weather,
many people talk about the situation, but
do nothing about it.

This paper grows out a study recently
completed at the University of Chicago
which tried to answer three questions4
regarding Chicago — Down State relation¬
ships. Its chief sources were: Constitu¬
tional Debates and Proceedings; House
and Senate Debates5 and Journals; Rec¬
ords of the City Council of Chicago, Sani¬
tary District of Chicago, and Board of
Commissioners of Cook County; publica¬
tions of committees; newspapers; and
personal interviews made over a period
of sixteen years by the writer.

A method of approach gave some trou¬
ble. The first task was, to define the
term conflict — which finally meant a per¬
sonal, conscious, spasmodic, but rather
recurring struggle for individual or sec¬
tional advantage which has appeared fre¬
quently between persons residing in the
two areas here designated, Chicago and
the Down State; next, evidences of such
conflict, and the reasons for the same
had to be found. Committee and or¬
ganization6 reports provided some proof.

Constitutional Convention and legislative
debates gave other clues. Newspaper ac¬
counts furnished useful information. The
duty of verification followed. Votes by
counties cast in legislative bodies by dele¬
gates and representatives were recorded
on maps of Illinois and studied for evi¬
dence of conflict existing between Chicago
and the rest of the State. Personal in¬
terviews were made as another means of
possible testimony as to the findings.

Before these are discussed, a little
orientation may be necessary. Illinois
entered the union in 1818. Much of the
credit belongs to pioneers who migrated
from Kentucky, North Carolina, Ten¬
nessee, Virginia, and entered the State
from the South. Later, settlers came
from Maryland, New England, New York,
Pennsylvania, remaining for some time
in the northern part of Illinois. These
two cultures were enriched by a third
contribution, made by emigrants from
Ireland, Germany, and other foreign
countries.7 According to students of our
history, residents of northern and south¬
ern Illinois mingled little before the sec¬
tions were bound together (1856) by the
Illinois Central Railroad. Meantime,
Chicago was growing. Her population
of 350 in 1833 increased to almost 300,000
by 1870.

Other changes are worthy of note. Prior
to the year 1900 Illinois was a rural state,
but the Federal census of that year
showed that 54.3 percent of the popula¬
tion lived in urban areas. Of these, 64.9
percent resided in Chicago. Thirty years
later (1930) only 26.1 percent of the
State’s inhabitants were classified as
rural, while 59.9 percent of an urban
population of 73.9 percent lived in the me¬
tropolis. These factors may explain:
why certain rural-rurban attitudes have
persisted in Illinois from the beginning;
why these attitudes came more ag¬
gressively into conflict with urban-
metropolitan ideas; and why certain
Illinois cities tended to unite more closely
since the year 1905, 8 when they began to

Social Science — 19J+2 Meeting

177

recognize that they had common wants
which might, if they united, be satisfied
partially by legislative action.

Thus the historical, cultural, and eco¬
logical threads were at hand with which
to weave the fabric of sectionalism.

The searcher, for two reasons, was
early disappointed. First, before the
Constitutional Convention convened ( 1869-
70), sectionalism was more a conflict
waged between northern and southern
Illinois than one carried on between Chi¬
cago and the Down State. Second, sec¬
tionalism between the latter, although
emerging in over one hundred conflicts,
was found to be of a more prosaic char¬
acter than that which had fascinated the
student of sectionalism in America.

For the sake of clarity, the writer in
the study has followed each class of con¬
flict historically. But it must be ac¬
knowledged that this type of approach
places the reader at a decided disadvan¬
tage, for one is apt to think of these
usual biennial disturbances as rather sim¬
ple affairs. Thus it very often has oc¬
curred to the writer that the study might
have been better understood if it had
been entitled “An Intertwining of Con¬
flicts From the Year 1870,” for on several
occasions various conflicts have clashed
together in the same legislative session,
pushing emotions to a high pitch. Dur¬
ing these periods much bad feeling was
evident, threats were hurled from one
side of the house to the other, legislation
was slowed down, and often most of the
session was one of conflict and uncer¬
tainty, with occasional compromises. A
study of Convention journals, Chicago
and Down State newspapers, and the re¬
port of votes set forth in legislative pub¬
lications serve as proof of this situation.

The legislative session held in 1927
when Small was Governor of Illinois and
Thompson became Mayor of Chicago is
one example of the point made above.
Before the session was six weeks old,
Hunter (Winnebago County) introduced
a gasoline tax bill, and six attempts, three
intended to limit Chicago, were made to
deal with the apportionment problem.
Later two more gasoline bills, two income
tax measures, and a bill by Kessinger
(Kane County) designed to regulate the
Chicago Board of Trade, were presented.
Further, the senate received on May 17
from Chicago five transportation and
eighty-seven finance measures. This situ¬

ation became more complex because three
Chicago representatives wanted their fav¬
orite intoxicating liquor bills passed into
law during the session. The occasion
was so tense that Mayor Thompson ap¬
peared before the senate and Chicago
newspapers not only accused the Small-
Thompson machine, but also the farmer
members of the Legislature of being “all
set to trim” Chicago. Senator Denvir of
Chicago protested against the treatment
his city had received and introduced a
motion that Illinois be formed into two
states: one, named Northern Illinois, con¬
sisting of Cook, Will, DuPage, Kane, Lake,
McHenry, DeKalb, and Boone Counties;
another, called Southern Illinois, compris¬
ing the rest of the state.® The plan died
in committee.

The final report showed that the board
of trade, income tax, representation,
transportation and liquor bills had failed
in the Legislature, while the gasoline tax
bill and seventy-eight Chicago tax meas¬
ures were signed by the governor.10 Such
is the history of a legislative session
which gave ample opportunity for Chi¬
cago-Down State conflict. The Chicago
Tribune saw “eighty-one perjurers” in
the legislature.

Since 1870, Chicago and the Down
State areas have disagreed on the follow¬
ing major topics: representation; home
rule for Chicago; the waterway and the
Chicago Drainage Canal ; internal im¬
provements; the judiciary; the wet and
dry issue; taxation; and the State’s de¬
sire to build certain State buildings in
Chicago. Of these, representation, home
rule for Chicago, and taxation remain
live issues perplexing to law makers. The
depression added new elements; poor re¬
lief and the method of raising funds to
meet it, and Chicago’s depression needs
as compared with the wants of other
areas. Besides, Illinois has a Chicago
Governor.11

Since this paper must be in condensed
form, only one problem — representation —
is discussed at length. On the surface
this question seems to be a constitutional
one, but at its foundation the issue ap¬
pears to be one of control; a struggle for
power based on the section and having
within it the elements often ascribed to
“power politics.”

In 1870 the State population was over
two-and-one-half million with about 300,-
000 persons living in Chicago. Then Cook

178

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

County had seven representatives in the
lower house at Springfield and conse¬
quently was allowed seven delegates in
the Constitutional Convention (1869-70).
There a conflict occurred over the prob¬
lem of representation. Down State
wanted a county basis for apportionment
while Chicago-Cook insisted on a popula¬
tion plan. Chicago won because she had
excellent leadership. In the legislature
which followed, despite sectionalism,
Cook County was allowed seven senators
and twenty-one representatives, a substan¬
tial increase over the previous allotment.

The Constitutional provision, accepted
1870, calls for an apportionment every
ten years based on the Federal census.
The Illinois legislature is required to
divide the population of the State by
fifty-one, thus providing a quotient which
will be used in determining senatorial
districts. Each such district is assigned
one senator and three representatives,
latter to be chosen by minority represen¬
tation. The Constitution provides that
“senatorial districts shall be formed of
contiguous and compact territory, bounded
by county lines.” This plan has two ob¬
vious weaknesses: first, apportionment is
a legislative matter; second, with popula¬
tion moving elsewhere, many areas in the
State lack direct representation.112

The last senatorial apportionment was
made forty-one years ago (1901). Before
that date Chicago was criticized, but
Down State party leaders needed Chicago
party votes in order to reapportion the
State along party lines, so the metropolis
received its quota of representatives in
both houses.13 Since that date, apportion¬
ment has been the major issue in Chi¬
cago-Down State sectionalism, and the
constitutional provisions have been
ignored.

Since 1903 Cook County has been able
to control such legislation as requires a
two-third vote of the membership of both
houses before final passage, for that
county sends nineteen senators to an
upper house numbering fifty-one and
fifty-seven representatives to a lower
house consisting of one hundred fifty-
three members.

Down State leaders have been willing
to give Chicago more home rule in purely
local affairs on condition that the latter
accept a limited membership in the leg¬
islature. Such limitation would restore
the two-third voting strength in one or

both houses to the Down State area. The
record of the Constitution Convention
held during the years 1920-22 prove this
point.

Two illustrations, one political, the
other sectional, are given to substantiate
the statements made above. The demo¬
crats had apportioned and gerrymandered
the State (1893) making use of the gag
rule and the sick and ignoring the dead
in order to do it. Two bills were passed
before the task was completed because
Riverside (Cook County) had been omit¬
ted from the first measure. Down State
democrats needed three Chicago votes in
order to carry through the proposal
which in turn increased Cook County’s
strength in the legislature by 50 per
cent.14 Illinois republicans were not sat¬
isfied, for since 185715 that party had car¬
ried the State. Two courses, however,
were still open: perhaps the court would
declare the law unconstitutional; if not,
party success at the following state elec¬
tion would give republicans an oppor¬
tunity to pass a new reapportionment bill.
The first plan was tried, but the judges
(1895) held the act unconstitutional. Next
year (1896) the republican party carried
the state.

Again in power, the latter was de¬
termined to pass a senatorial reapportion¬
ment bill even though Attorney General
Akin advised against the procedure. The
first attempt (1897) failed because the
republicans did not vote unanimously. A
party split in Chicago was given as the
reason.16 Dismayed but resolute, repub¬
licans caucused at Springfield, heard Gov¬
ernor Tanner exhort them in a doleful
message, and determined to try again.
The Governor called a special session of
the legislature and in his message showed
the gravity of the situation from a party
point of view. Republican representatives
obeyed by passing a new apportionment
bill,17 later the state Supreme Court de¬
clared the act unconstitutional.18

The sectional conflict over representation
reached its zenith in the years 1925-26.
Political leaders and newspaper writers
made much of the issue. Slogans, a tax
revolt, threats of secession, and a manda¬
mus of the legislature all entered into
the picture. The issue became immeshed
with such problems as daylight saving,
public utilities, a gasoline tax, prohibi¬
tion, and the failure of the legislature to
remove the county jail and criminal

Social Science — 19 1$ Meeting

179

courts from Dearborn and Illinois Streets,
Chicago. Chicago newspaper headlines
read: “Tyrranizing over the City;” “Or¬
ganizing the State Against Chicago;” “A
Sample of Oppression;” “Tax Action
Without Representation.” Three stal¬
warts, two from Down State, former Gov¬
ernor Joseph W. Fifer and the Honorable
Lewis A. Jarman, appeared before the
legislature arguing for the Down State
proposal that Chicago be limited; the
third, John B. Fergus “the eighty-two
year old fighting Chicagion” defended his
city at Springfield. While the legislature
failed to limit the metropolis at this ses¬
sion, the Schnackenberg (Chicago) mo¬
tion that the House proceed to a reap¬
portionment of the state along constitu¬
tional lines received only five votes from
counties other than Cook.19

Chicago aldermen advocated that Chi¬
cago secede from the State of Illinois and
instructed Corporation Counsel Busch to
outline the legal steps in the process.
Mayor Dever (Chicago) appointed a com¬
mittee whose business was “to secure con¬
stitutional apportionment for Cook
County” so talk of secession subsided for
a time. The Hamilton Club of Chicago
selected a committee of seven, represent¬
ing both opposing sections of the state,
whose duty it was to find a solution to
the reapportionment problem on the basis
of “sober and intelligent thought.” This
committee favored a compromise between
the sections. Fergus carried the fight to
the Supreme Court of Illinois and finally
to the United States Supreme Court. The
courts refused to interfere in what the
judges considered a legislative problem.20
Today the issue — representation — re¬
mains in the realm of conflict.

As mentioned above, ecological changes
have forced Illinois leaders, at times, to
cooperate on certain issues. Representa¬
tion is one of these. A study of fourteen
divisions on that subject made during a
thirty year period (1901-1931) revealed
that Chicago had some cooperation from
legislators representing thirty-five Down
State counties.21 Peoria voted eight times
with Chicago.

When one searches for causes which
brought about conflict between these areas
one must keep in mind that the real
reasons may remain in obscurity, while
lies, truths, and past statements may be
effectively used by persons who seek ad¬
vantages for themselves. With these

thoughts in mind, two lists of causes are
given in explanation of these periodic dis¬
turbances.

Since Down State representatives have
been more aggressive in dealing with the
problems at issue, their reasons are given
first. Expediency — “the end sought justi¬
fies the means” — is the most subtle argu¬
ment given by them for their persistent
nullification of the Constitution. This is
followed by three arguments: other states
limit metropolitan cities — New York and
others; the present system of representa¬
tion is virtual, not direct; the population
method of apportionment should give way
to one based on electors or citizens. The
statement is then made that Chicago will
dominate the state which means the fol¬
lowing: control by a unit; a city of one
interest; a city which sends undesirable
Chicago interested legislators to Spring-
field; a city with a population of a size,
type, and attitudes which are considered
undesirable; a city of crime. Then fol¬
lows a most interesting argument: Chi¬
cago needs protection.

Since Chicago leaders were on the de¬
fensive, they were content to put forth
four reasons in justification of their at¬
titudes toward the Down State First.
“Chicagoans object to discrimination giv¬
ing their city less than its proportionate
representation in the legislature.” Said
one, “In my opinion it will make a Mason-
Dixon line out of the Cook County line.”
Second, the Down State position is one
of fear. Third, limitation deprives in¬
dustrial centers of representation, and
gives control to areas which are decreas¬
ing in population. Fourth, Chicago pays
most of the state taxes. Leaders in both
areas emphasize the idea of domination
in speaking of the aims of the other party
to the conflict.

The following reasons seem to better
answer the question as to why these
areas have difficulty in cooperating. They
are given as a result of the writer’s read¬
ing and questioning over a period of
years: the ever-increasing size of Chi¬
cago; the parental attitude of Down State
toward Chicago; fear of the growing
city; desire for public office; methods em¬
ployed by politicians to secure votes and
win elections; desire for control when in
office; a busy press; lack of adequate
knowledge; conflicting theories of govern¬
ment. Because Chicago lacks home rule
she has easily been exposed to Down

180

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

State criticism; mere number of requests
from the legislature, made necessary by
constitutional procedure, have often pro¬
duced bad feeling through almost an en¬
tire legislative session; Chicago delega¬
tions failed to plan in advance for the
work under consideration, thus giving
Down State members a chance to say that
they did not exactly know what the peo¬
ple of Chicago wanted; Chicago represen¬
tatives often disagreed among themselves
and failed to act as a unit; they have
been accused of lack of interest in the
state as a whole.

Other reasons have been given by Down
State at different times, all of which were
applied to Chicago: election frauds; fail¬
ure to collect taxes and pay school teach¬
ers; the large sums of tax money needed
for relief purposes, despite the fact that
the city was millions of dollars behind in

tax collections; the crime wave; Chicago
has sent many mediocre men to the leg¬
islature. Chicago has been poorly ad*
vertised at Springfield on important occa¬
sions by some of her most public-minded
citizens, who in their zeal to reform local
conditions in the big city have spoken too
publicly at critical moments. To these
may be added differences growing out of
the cultural heritage of these areas.

In its wider aspects the conflict may be
called sociological and political. Sociolog¬
ically, the problem concerns the attitudes,
the social heritage, and the aspirations of
people; while politically, the problem in¬
volves theories of representation — popula¬
tion, county, and virtual — a subject which
is joined with the desire for home rule
and at times is augmented with the de¬
mand for a new constitution to replace
the inadequate one accepted in 1870.

Speak *e°Ha Journal-Tr^script, January 13, 1942. Rex Post, “Diversion” in The People

•* 2 Constitutional Convention Debates, 1869-70 p 1661

3 Ibid., p. 387.

confli<it exist between Chicago and the rest of the state? What subjects are re¬
sponsible for such conflict? What reasons lie behind the conflict?

5 Hoiise Debates, 1915, 1917; Senate Debates, 1915, 1917, 1919.

reports— Citizen’s Association of Chicago; Federation Reports and Bulletins;
Bulletins Bu au of Pubhc Efficiency publications ; Legislative Voters League ; Assembly

. VS C-,Col.e !?diXor)’ The Constitutional Debates of 181,7, shows only seven native Illi¬
nois delegates in the Convention.

® Illinois Municipal League became active about this date.

9 Ninety-four counties.

tt11 *^ n*ne Chicago tax bills failed of passage.

1913)HDunn^0(T9ei3)(1933) ’ others were Beverid&e (1873) ; Altgeld (1893) ; Deneen (1905-

a V iPoarf-7S * * * 9 * * * * 14 15 * 17 18f d (1f°A) *he number has varied the lowest number being seventeen
counties (1903 and 1907), and the largest, thirty-three (1927 and 1931).

“See Senate and House Journals, 1881, 1891, 1893, 1897.

14 Senate from 10 to 15 ; House from 30 to 45

15 Governor Wm. H. Bissell.

18 The trouble seems to have occurred in the twelfth ward (third district) of Chicago
where an “out group” was in control.

17 Senate and House Journals, 1897 (Special).

18 April 30, 1898.

o!! ^'hnton (Southern Illinois) ; Peoria, Will, Winnebago (partial support) ; DuPage.
Fergus V. Marks (1926) ; United States Reports, vol. 279 (1929)
v ' 9,VtorVi3) ’ P0UNPalne ,i4) : ,Macon (3) ; Madison (3) ; Peoria (8) ; Will (4) ; Winne-
(-4)/oxEdf^ar (?U F£lton <2>: Lake (2); LaSalle (2); Marion (2); Mercer (2);
St. Clair ( 2 ) , Kane ( 2 ) . Twenty others voted once.

Social Science — 191$ Meeting

181

HAMLET AND VILLAGE POPULATIONS IN ILLINOIS

S. C. Ratcliffe

Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington, Illinois

This paper is a report of four investiga¬
tions pertaining to Illinois hamlets and vil¬
lages. As measured by population, hamlets
are communities with less than 250 inhabi¬
tants, while villages have at least that
number but less than 2,500.

I. — In 1912 an article in The Journal
of Political Economy contained a predic¬
tion that many of the then existing ham¬
lets and villages in Illinois would decline
in population and disappear. This was
based on the assumption that improve¬
ments in the means of communication
and transportation would eliminate the
need for as many small communities with
their local business establishments as ex¬
isted. The aforesaid prediction has not
been fulfilled so far as incorporated ham¬
lets and villages are concerned. This is
proved by Bureau of Census records
which show 922 incorporated hamlets and
villages in Illinois in 1910 and 934 in
1940.

Incorporated hamlets and villages con¬
stituted only 44.4% of all hamlets and
villages in 1930. From this fact it is
clear that the validity of the prediction
in question cannot be judged by data par-
taining only to incorporated communities.
Serious difficulty is encountered, however,
when one undertakes a study of unincor¬
porated hamlets and villages for no pre¬
cise statistical data are available regard¬
ing them. In spite of this students have
assembled such data as they could pro¬
cure. The most complete recent study of
such communities in Illinois, so far as
the author knows, was published in 1938.
It reports that in 1930 the number of
such places was 357 less than in 1910.
This conclusion arouses curiosity about
the source of information. When that is
examined, one finds that what this recent
study actually discovered was that in
1930 there were 357 less unincorporated
communities in Illinois that contained
one or more business establishments rated
by a national financial agency than was
the case in 1910. But the disappearance
of business establishments does not neces¬
sarily indicate the extinction of the ham¬
lets and villages in which they were lo¬

cated. The author of the study in ques¬
tion recognized and acknowledged this
fact. No available evidence known to
the author demonstrates the validity of
the prediction that Illinois hamlets and
villages would disappear as the means of
communication and transportation im¬
proved.

II — The second investigation shows
that a correlation, but not a direct causal
relation, exists between the size of ham¬
lets and villages and the probability of
their growth or decline. Larger percen¬
tages lose population each decade of ham¬
lets and small villages than of large vil¬
lages. Tests of this were confined to in¬
corporated hamlets and villages. These
communities were classified under three
categories, namely, places with populations
of less than 500; of 500 to 999; and of
1000 to 2499. The percentages of each
class of community which lost population
beginning with the largest are:

For the decade 1920-1930, 46.4; 62.2;
and 73.9.

For the decade 1930-1940, 22.9; 22.4;
and 39.5.

The correlation postulated above was
found to exist in an analysis of incor¬
porated hamlet and village population
changes in 75.6% of 36 states for the last
intercensal decade and in 86.1% of these
same states for the decade 1920-1930.
Size is not in itself a direct cause of
population changes but the causes of
population changes are, with a high de¬
gree of consistency, related to size, so
that the smaller the place the more liable
it is to lose population and the larger the
place the less this liability.

III — The third investigation was con¬
ducted to test the hypothesis that prox¬
imity to urban centers lessens the liabil¬
ity of hamlets and villages to lose popu¬
lation while remoteness from such centers
increases that liability. Only incorporated
hamlets and villages were considered.
The investigation consisted of a study of
six cities in Illinois selected on the basis

182

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

of size and distance from other competi-
itve communities. Around each of these
cities three concentric ten mile ’ wide
zones were marked and the number of
hamlets and villages in each zone and
the numbers of them which lost popula¬
tion during the last decade were counted.
Communities were classified under four
categories, instead of only three as in the
last investigation, by making hamlets
into one class and villages with popula¬
tions of from 250 to 499 inclusive, an¬
other. The assumption was that if the
hypotheses were valid the percentages of
communities which lost population would
be greater in zone three, the most distant
one, than in zone two, and greater in
zone two than in zone one. Because
communities were divided into four cate¬
gories this test could be applied to each
category for each city and also to the
totality of all communities for each city.
This provided 30 opportunities to test the
validity of the hypothesis. Four of these
had to be discarded because of the lack
of hamlets of certain categories in some
of the zones. In only 7 instances out of
26 did the percentages of communities
which lost population increase with the
distance from the urban center. In 19
cases out of 26 no progression is ex¬
hibited. In other words, conformity to
the criterion employed to test the validity
of the hypothesis was found in only 27%
of the tests, which means that in 73%
of the tests the results were negative.
Similar tests were applied to a study of
5 cities in Iowa and to an additional 6
metropolitan cities and with much the
same results. In the tests for these 11
cities conformity to the criterion was
found in only 22% of the cases, while
78% were negative.

From these facts we are forced to con¬
clude that proximity to urban centers

does not lessen the liability of incorpo¬
rated hamlets and villages to lose popu¬
lation nor remoteness from such centers
to increase such liability.

,v — The fourth investigation was to
ascertain whether any significant corre¬
lation exists between the percentage of
people on relief in Illinois counties and
the growth or decline of the hamlets and
villages in those counties. The five coun¬
ties which had the smallest percentages
of their population on public relief in
1940 were contrasted with the five coun¬
ties which had the largest percentages
on public relief.

In each of the five low relief counties
a majority of the hamlets and villages
gained population. However, in two of
those counties the number that gained
population was only one greater than the
number that lost. In the other three
counties the number that gained was a
sufficiently large majority so that the per¬
centages of all hamlets and villages in
the five Imv relief counties that gained
population was 71.4%. In contrast, a ma¬
jority of the hamlets and villages in the
High relief counties lost population, the
percentage that gained being only 46.6%
of the total. This seems to indicate that
low relief is correlated with the village
growth and high helief with village de¬
cline. When losses and gains are studied
by counties, however, the correlation dis¬
appears. All of the hamlets and villages
in one of the high relief counties lost
population while in another all of them
gained. In two of the remaining three
counties a majority gained while in one
the majority lost. From these facts we
conclude that no significant correlation is
established between the percentage of
people on public relief and the tendency
for hamlets and villages to increase or
decrease in population.

Social Science — 19 Meeting

183

THE FATE OF THE FAMILY

Clarence W. Schroeder
Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, Illinois

The family, like any other institution
or a living organism, leads a double ex¬
istence. It has an internal life. Its in¬
ternal structure and functions must serve
its own constituent elements. These
elements, in turn, or the organization
itself, play a role in relation to other
elements, organizations, and institutions.
The family has a life of interaction with
them, a life observed as external.

If or when one dares to speak of the
future of an institution, there is involved
the entire social structure of which it is
a part. Therefore, one’s task would seem
to be the assessment of the entire cultural
structure and functions, as well as the
cultural patterns involved.

The family is at once the creator, and
is created by, the general cultural world
of which it is a part. It has become
common knowledge among sociologists
that in the family are originated all of
the essential elements of the personali¬
ties of its members, the basic elements of
humanness. In Cooley’s phrase, the
family is “essential to the genesis” of
human nature.

The truth of this basic conception has
been amply demonstrated since it was
first expressed in Social Organization in
1909. There is evidence of two varieties.
First, personality disorganization cannot
be explained or understood fully without
realization of the inadequate functioning
of the family group of which the dis¬
organized personality is or has been a
member. Second, the prediction of fail¬
ure or success of a particular marriage,
although the technique is still in its in¬
fancy, has gone far enough at the mo¬
ment to demonstrate that cultural back¬
ground factors of each of the persons
marrying, form a cornerstone of predic¬
tion. The late Dr. Meroney demon¬
strated, for example, that there were
three possible attitudes in the person
coming from a home situation where ten¬
sion was predominant in the relations of
the members. First, there was the pos¬
sibility that children growing up in such

a condition would refuse to marry; sec¬
ond, they might accept the condition of
tension as a pattern of behavior so that
in marriage there would be a repetition
of the conditions in the original home;
third, there might be special effort to
avoid tension. A former student con¬
fided to the writer that when she mar¬
ried there were going to be special pre¬
cautions taken against a repetition of the
condition of tension which finally led to
divorce in the family in which she had
grown up.

The principal constituent element fur¬
nished by the family in the production of
personality is intimacy. The term in¬
timacy includes all relationships involv¬
ing the entire family group. It is not
limited to the physical and psychosocial
intimacies of the sex act. The response
function is a basic one. The family is
the organization, the world over, which
satisfies this desire. The form of the
marriage over most of the earth’s surface
is monogamous. It seems to be the form
of organization that is especially well
adapted to produce the personalities
which, in turn, are best adapted to func¬
tion in a complex world. Most of the
peoples of the world, the assumption is,
are partisans of monogamy, and being
thus partisan, we must observe with
many misgivings the temporary and arti¬
ficial arrangements made in some of the
totalitarian countries. It may be, how¬
ever, that when a young woman is per¬
suaded that her function in life is to
produce babies for Der Fuehrer and that
this is “much nobler, much grander, than
having a home and a husband,” that
better soldiers will be produced than we
could with our type of family organiza¬
tions.

Our conclusion must be drawn condi¬
tionally, therefore. If someone like
Adolph Hitler does not succeed in organ¬
izing the world of the future, something
like our form of the family will persist.
Human nature will continue to be born
in some sort of intimacy of relationship.

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Indeed, one might go farther and ask if
the family organization itself is not the
principal reason why human beings will
never find satisfaction in a totalitarian
society. In intimate relationships there
inevitably is an approach to equality.
The universality of the demand for sat¬
isfaction of the wish for response leads
one to wonder if there could be a long-
range program based on totalitarianism.
The experience which the Soviet Union
has had in its experiment of complete
freedom for members df the family would
seem to be evidence on this point.

This leads us directly to the question
of the relation of the family with other
institutions. It would seem that the
types of personality we produce in our
families will tend to determine the nature
of other institutions, particularly political
and economic organizations. But these,
in turn, will tend to determine the type
of family organization.

What is the general outlook for the
future, assuming that there is anywhere
sufficient wisdom to make an intelligent
guess? Pitirim Sorokin has spoken re¬
cently to the question in The Crisis of
our Age. His argument has been re¬
viewed both favorably and adversely.

It must not be assumed that Sorokin
is entirely pessimistic with reference to
the future of the family, for in one place
he says, “Genuine contractual relation¬
ships — not fictitious ones — can and will

eventually be restored.” In another place
he expresses his faith that society will!
enter upon a “new, integrated, stable,
orderly, and creative phase of its ex¬
istence.” In spite of the dark picture
which this author paints of the transition
through which society is passing, he be¬
lieves that the conceptions set forth are
among the most optimistic concerning
“socio-cultural change.”

Right or wrong in detail, we shall have
to agree with Sorokin that there are
forces operative over which even the dic¬
tators have little or no control. They
themselves are to be explained as prod¬
ucts rather than as originators.

If there should come about an idea¬
tional or idealistic culture as Sorokin in-;
sists that he is optimistic enough to
believe, then there will persist a family
not greatly different from the type which
we now have. It might even be that the
evidences of family mal-functioning, such
as our high divorce rate, would to some
extent disappear. There will be predom¬
inant in such a culture values that i
Sorokin calls “absolute.” One of these
absolute values will be a recognition of
the preponderant importance of human
personality. If this is to be a value of
the future and personalities find their
genesis in the family, then the institu¬
tion which, more than any other satisfies
the need for intimacy of relations will
continue to be of predominant importance.

Social Science — 191$ Meeting

185

IS THE FAMILY PASSING?

B. F. Timmons

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Theoretically, two things can happen
to the family: it can remain very much
the same as it now is in our society, or
it can change. If it changes, it can change
in either of two directions: it can lose
its importance as a social institution,
even gradually disappearing and being
replaced by other institutions, or it can
grow stronger and socially more signifi¬
cant.

An examination of our culture and its
development indicates that the family
can hardly be expected to remain as it
is. In an age when practically everything
is in flux, even the basic moral codes of
our society, it is useless to think long
of a far-flung institution like the family,
which touches practically all phases of
our lives, remaining isolated from the
process of change. Then, again, if we
use the experience of the past as a guide,
the family may be expected to undergo
changes inasmuch as changes have oc¬
curred in its nature and function in re¬
cent decades, these changes continuing
even into our present time.

The facts of changes themselves, as
well as the direction of these changes in¬
dicating somewhat the future fate of the
family, may well be reviewed briefly in
support of the statement that changes
have taken place in the family and are
still in progress. The significance of
these changes for the future of the family
will also be of interest.

One of the most evident changes in
the last century is the transfer to other
institutions of functions previously per¬
formed by the family. The industrial
factory has largely taken over the making
of cloth and of garments, the laundering
and repair of clothing, the canning of
foods and the baking of bread and pas¬
tries, and to some extent, the cooking and
serving of meals, all of which were form¬
erly the almost exclusive function of the
family in its own home environment.
The family has changed industrially from
a production to a consumption unit.

What does this transfer of industrial
production mean to the family? Some

have feared that it means a definite step
toward the ultimate dissolution of the
family. An examination of the facts in¬
dicates that the transfer has meant that
cloth, lint, looms and other materials
with their noise and clatter have been
taken out of the home to modern fac¬
tories built, for the most part, to perform
the work of manufacture under better
lighting, ventilating and sanitary condi¬
tions than the home affords. If the in¬
creased leisure time provided by this
transfer can be filled with cultural and
wholesome recreational activities in the
home, the change is a definite gain for
the family in this respect. There is one
way, however, in which the bonds of the
family are weakened by this shift. The
members of the family in our grand¬
parents’ day worked together very much
as an industrial unit and were in con¬
stant close communication because of this
fact. Unity of belief and attitudes among
the family members was a natural result
of this close association. On the other
hand, members of the family of today
often scatter widely in attending to their
various duties and activities and usually
come in contact with beliefs and attitudes
which are very different from those of
the family. Adoption of different view¬
points in this natural course of associa¬
tion leads to greater disharmony in the
family than was true in former decades.
I may point out here also, that this ex¬
posure to different viewpoints has some
beneficial effect when it breaks the bonds
of narrow prejudices which so often
thrive in the isolated soil of a close
family unit. While industrialization has
broken the unanimity of family attitudes
and opinions, it has also paved the way
for greater tolerance of new viewpoints
and thus for cultural change and progress
in general. It is evident that the rural
family which still works as a single in¬
dustrial unit to some extent is less af¬
fected by the transfer to industry than
is the urban family, although power
farming, good roads, the auto and the
radio are tending to close the gap of any

186

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

such difference between rural and urban
families.

In a somewhat similar manner the
family has been affected by the transfer
of religion from the home to the church,
of formal education from the home to the
school, and of recreation to commercial¬
ized recreation agencies. But insofar as
these new social institutions perform
their tasks more effectively than the
family did, the family is merely relieved
of these functions and is free to replace
them with added family services and en¬
joyments. Actually, the school is prob¬
ably the only one of these three types of
agencies which is doing better work with
its assignment than was being done in
the family. It does its work so well
largely because it took over only the
formal side of education to which it is
adapted, leaving the informal part still
chiefly in the hands of the family.

Religion seems to have gotten lost to
a considerable degree somewhere in the
transfer from the family to the church,
and commercial recreation, although im¬
proving in recent years, leaves much to
be desired in comparison with the home
and neighborhood recreation of the age
just past. While public community rec¬
reation is assuming a new and increas¬
ing role that has definite family value,
one wonders if there is not still lacking
to a considerable extent in both public
community and in commercialized recrea¬
tion the personalized element that made
the family recreation of the past so satis¬
fying to the individual. Family days at
church and family picnics in parks and
playgrounds are illustrative of construc¬
tive family activities since the transfer
referred to has taken place.

The functions yet left to the family are
the rearing of children and the emotional
satisfactions of affection among its mem¬
bers. Because the family has so few of
its earlier functions remaining, there are
those who fear the family is passing to
an unimportant and insignificant position
among our social institutions. This view¬
point fails to take into account two very
important facts. In the first place, the
new conditions of society, especially the
vast increase of anonymity and imperson¬
ality of relationship, have given greater
emphasis to the need for affectional re¬
sponse of individuals on the personal
basis of family life so that the remaining
functions of the family, affection and

child-rearing, have greatly increased in
relative importance. In a desert world of
anonymity and personal indifference, the
family is the one remaining oasis of per¬
sonal relationship, solicitous attention,
and affection. It is quite possible that
this affectional function of the family has
already assumed such major importance
that it not only overshadows the other
earlier services largely transferred to
other social institutions, but that it gives
such present significance to the family as
to make it more important than before.

The second fact to be remembered is
that many of the functions, given up by
the family have left more time and space
for the family to concentrate its efforts
on those peculiarly vital functions that
remain to it.

The increasing number of divorces and
separations of married couples has wor¬
ried many people interested in family
life. It seems likely that these separa¬
tions denote increased emphasis on the
emotional element in marriage inasmuch
as couples separate when they are emo¬
tionally disappointed in marriage. Form¬
erly, unhappy couples were generally
bound to stay together because of the
economic dependence of the wife and the
expectation of the mores of society. But
persons who separate today remarry. The
proportion of the population married was
never higher than today.

The present status of the family seems
then to be that family life is more de¬
sirable than ever before, but persons
undertaking the establishing of family re¬
lationships must find these relationships
emotionally satisfying or they will sever
them in the hope of making other and
more satisfying attempts. The transfer
of certain functions has meant that the
family has changed, but it has not be¬
come less important.

The family has changed also with re¬
spect to authority. The patriarchal fam¬
ily rule has been giving place to equali-
tarian practice. Whereas, a century ago
in this country a wife was legally a de¬
pendent of her husband, was denied ad¬
mission to colleges, was not permitted to
vote, and had very little voice in de¬
termining her own life much less that
of her family, today all this has changed.
Formerly husbands divorced wives but
wives seldom divorced husbands, while
wives today make the applications for

Social Science — 191+ 2 Meeting

187

divorce against their husbands in about
70 per cent of the divorce cases.1

This increasing freedom of women no
doubt contributes to the breakup of in¬
dividual families which are not satisfac¬
tory, particular to wives. As cited above,
however, this does not mean a decline of
pf the family as an institution so long
as remarriage keeps the total per cent of
married persons higher than it was be¬
fore the change took place. It must also
be borne in mind that marriage and
family life that is maintained on a free
and voluntary basis because people care
for each other is a higher type of family
relationship than that which is enforced
by economic necessity as was true in
many cases of the period previous to the
present day.

Still another change in the family is
the decrease in the number of children.
The average number of children in the
present day family is less than half that
of a century ago, and the trend is for
still further decrease. This is probably a
greater hazard to society as a whole than
it is to the family institution itself.
Family life may go on even with an
average of one child per family, but

population rapidly decreases on such a
propagation rate. It appears that family
limitation at present is affecting most the
middle class of American society. Here
young couples anxious to maintain their
standard of living forego children until
they become established in business or
in a profession.2 Then they settle with
nature by having one child. It may be
that Myrdal’s criticism of birth limitation
in Sweden has some appropriate applica¬
tion in America when it is said Sweden’s
radicalism, attempting “to adjust the size
of the family to social malformations, did
not materially readjust the malformations
but led in the direction of extinguishing
the human content of society.”3 The
problem involved in the decrease of the
size of the family concerns society prob¬
ably more than it does the family. It
seems likely that society must eventually
be willing to make family economic con¬
ditions easier if it wants the family to
yield more children. Certainly America
has reason to be concerned about the sur¬
vival of its sturdy middle class. The
family is going on but it seems destined
to be a smaller family unless some better
provisions are made for it.

1 Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department of Commerce, “Marriage and Divorce, 1931.”
U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1932, page 20.

2 See Folsom, J. K., The Family, Wiley & Sons, 1934, pp. 255-257, 265, and 266.

3 Myrdal, Alva, Nation and Family: The Swedish Experiment in Democratic Family and
Population Policy, Harpers, 1941, p. 4.

PAPERS IN ZOOLOGY

From the Report of the Section Chairman

Twenty-five papers were contained in the program at the Urbana meeting,
16 of which are herewith published. One from the Collegiate Section is also
printed. Titles of papers in the Senior section not printed are as follows:

Gearhart, H. E., Edwardsville. — Wildlife conservation as a part of soil
conservation.

Mohr, C. 0. and Yeatter, R. E., Illinois Natural History Survey, TTrbana.
— Distribution pattern of pheasants and quails in Illinois.

Hill, Collan, Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale. — A
southern Illinois heronry.

Gloyd, H. K., Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago. — A preliminary
report on a herpetological survey of Illinois.

Thompson, D. H. and Bruno von Limbach, Illinois Natural History Sur¬
vey, Urbana. — Bass and bluegill feeding experiments.

Lowrie, D. C., Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago. — Distribution of
spiders in the Indiana dunes associes.

In a separate section, a symposium was held on “Interrelation ships of Insests
with Other Organisms.” Three of the six papers given are herewith printed ; the
others were :

Emerson, A. E., University of Chicago, Entomophagy of solitary forms.

Metcalf, C. L., University of Illinois, Parasites and vectors of pathogens.

Ross, H. H., Illinois Natural History Survey, Insects as food of vertebrates.

Between 40 and 50 attended each of the two sections.

H. H. Ross, Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana, Illinois, was elected
chairman for the Jacksonville meeting in 1943.

(Signed) Orlando Park, Chairman

[189]

190

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

NEW RECORDS FOR THREE ILLINOISAN ORTHOPTERA*

W. Y. Balduf

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

My paper concerns the giant walking
stick, Megaphasma dentricus ( Stal ) ,
Phasmidae, the slightly musical cone-
head, Neoconocephalus exiliscanorus
(Davis), Tettigoniidae, and the Carolina
mantis, — our only native mantid, Stag-
momantis Carolina (Joh.), Mantidae.

The Giant Walking Stick. The wing¬
less adult female specimen at hand seems
to be the first of this species recorded
from Illinois. It came to me through Mr.
Roy E. Dively, instructor in high school
biology at Red Bud, Randolph County,
Illinois. Measuring 139 mm. in length,
this individual was obtained alive at Red
Bud late in October, 1941, on a portable
water tank in a little-used private lane
about a mile from a main road and 2.5
to 3.0 miles from a railroad.

The giant walking stick occurs largely
in the southern states, being known from
Alabama, Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico
and Louisville, Kentucky (Blatchley),
and from the Ozark region of Missouri
(Somes). The northermost points from
which Somes recorded it were Hamburg
and Clarinda, Iowa, near northern Mis¬
souri, between latitudes 40°, 30' and 41°.
Inasmuch as Red Bud is situated consid¬
erably farther south, — or at latitude 38°,
14', and but slightly above Louisville, it
may probably be supposed that southern
Illinois falls fairly well within the
natural distributional area of this phas-
mid. But since it has been taken but
infrequently in this and higher latitudes,
Red Bud seems to represent approxi¬
mately the northernmost line at which
the species may be expected to occur
naturally without the aid of man-made
agencies.

The Slightly Musical Cone-Head. So
named by Davis (Blatchley) because so
large a meadow grasshopper produces so
very faint a call, this green long horn
“has been very rarely encountered except
on the Atlantic coast from Long Island
to Virginia” (Hebard). Records cited by
Blatchley indicate it occurs also in Ten¬

nessee, as far west as Texas and as far
north as New Harmony, Indiana. The
first record for Illinois is credited by
Hebard to Hunter who located “a con¬
siderable colony” of this species at Tower
Hill, — latitude about 39°, 20'. This in¬
stance represented also the “northwestern
limital record” within the United States.
I am now able to extend this northern
limit to latitude about 40°, 8' by virtue
of an adult female specimen taken at a
light by Ruth Agate (Mrs. Garland
Riegel) in Champaign on August 8, 1940.

The Carolina Mantis (see table I). Its
front legs admirably fitted to seize living
insects on which it feeds, this species of
mantis occurs commonly in the southern
states from Florida to Arizona (Rau and
Rau), and northward in diminishing
numbers to central Illinois. The princi¬
pal papers describing its bionomics are by
Riley (1869), Rau and Rau (1913) and
Roberts (1928). The latter two cite many
references to other literature.

Concerning its distribution in Illinois,
Hebard (1934) expressed his belief “that
the northern limits must be given as
Quincy, Olney and Centralia.” This state¬
ment was made in part on the basis of
19 adults and several juveniles and egg
masses in the collection of the State
Natural History Survey. These communi¬
ties lie between 38°, 32' and 39°, 57' lati¬
tude. I am presuming Hebard’s state¬
ment is to be interpreted as signifying
that those points form the northern limit
at which the species occurs perennially.
Perhaps a somewhat clearer picture of
distribution will be obtained if we think
of this, and any other insect species liv¬
ing under natural conditions, as varying
its range from time to time within cer¬
tain geographical limits. The factor regu¬
lating the direction and extent of this
variation in range in the case of our
mantis is perhaps winter temperature in
relation to the egg mass or ootheca,
which forms the only stage that passes
the cold season in latitude of Illinois. We

Contribution No. 231 from the Entomological Laboratories of the University of Illinois.

Zoology — 191+2 Meeting

191

may, therefore visualize a strip of terri¬
tory, extending east-west across the state,
in which this mantis vacillates at irregu¬
lar periods in accordance with variations
in degree of winter cold above and be¬
low critical points. What the critical
temperatures are may possibly be de¬
termined by experiment. This strip is
bounded on the south by a line of latitude
beyond which the species never retreats,
because the winter temperatures are con¬
tinuously tolerable to the eggs, and it is
bounded on the north by another line be¬
yond which the species never advances
because sooner or later there comes a
winter with such low temperatures as de¬
stroy the eggs and thereby set the species
back southward again.

What the extreme boundaries of this
area of vacillation are has, of course, not
been learned. But that it involves Cham¬
paign county is suggested by the records
of four living adult specimens taken in
the city limits of Champaign in the early
fall of 1940 and 1941. The individual
secured in 1940 was brought to the De¬
partment of Entomology at the Univer¬
sity by an unidentified citizen, and three
females were taken in 1941 by Charles
Hirsh in a vacant lot near the campus.
How much farther north the year-around
temperature is sometimes favorable to

the survival of the eggs, and therefore to
the development of the cycle during the
warmer seasons, can be determined only
by securing additional records.

However, the potential range of natural
distribution may not be accepted as being
coextensive with known records of occur¬
rence. Being large, and inspiring popu¬
lar hope of aid in the war against hostile
insects, this mantis is subject to deliber¬
ate dissemination by man. Moreover, the
egg masses, nymphs and adults that
chance to occur on man’s vehicles that
roll along highways and railroads, or are
borne on nursery stock and manufactured
articles of numerous kinds, obtain “lifts”
that take them quickly far beyond their
normal limits. The female taken at Chi¬
cago on a lumber car (Hebard), the
Staley nymph which I discovered on
weeds by a junction of two railroads
whose southern terminal is Springfield,
Illinois, and the two adults taken on box
cars at a grain elevator at Peoria and
made available to me by Frank Has-
brouck, are probably instances of such
artificial transportation. In the older
literature we find further evidence of
such cases. Walsh and Riley (1868) re¬
ported an egg mass was sent to Lacon
in Marshall County from a southern point
in the state, and the pair described by

TABLE I.— ILLINOIS RECORDS OF STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA

Locality

Specimens

County

Approximate

Latitude

Sources of Records

Metropolis... _ . ...

2

Massac

37°, 8'

37°, 13'

Hebard (1934)

Pulaski . . . .

3

Pulaski

Hebard

Dongola.. _ _

2

Union

37°, 22'

LeBaron (1870)

Carbondale _ _ _ _ _

1

Jackson

37°, 45'

Hebard

Pinckneyville . . . . .

1

Perry

38°, 6'

38°, 12'

Hebard

Dubois _ _

1 j. and
egg mass

1

Washington

Hebard

Ashley . . . . .

Washington

38°, 20'

Hebard

Keensburg _ _ _

1

Wabash

38°, 20'

Hebard

Waterloo _ _

1

Monroe

38°, 20'

Hebard

Fairfield _ _ _

2

Wayne

38°, 20'

Coll. Dept, of Entom.

Browns . . .

1

Wabash

38°, 22'

Hebard

Centralia. . . . . .

1

Marion

38°, 22'

Hebard

Olney . . .

1 9 and
egg mass

Richland

38°, 42'

Hebard

Edwards ville . . . .

1

Madison

38°, 48'

Hebard

Vandalia . . . .

1

Fayette

38°, 58'

Hebard

Decatur _ _ _ _

1

Macon

39°, 50'

Coll. Dept, of Entom.

Quincy _ _ _

1

Adams

39°, 57'

Hebard

Staley _ _ _

1 j.

Champaign

40° , 6'

Coll, of W. V. Balduf

Champaign . .

1

Champaign

40°, 6'

Coll. Dept, of Entom.

Champaign _

3

Champaign

40°, 6'

Charles H. Hirsh

Peoria _ _ _ _

2

Peoria

40°, 44'

Frank Hasbrouck

Lacon _ _ _

Egg mass

Marshall

41°, 4'

Walsh and Riley (1868)

Chicago _

2

Cook

41°, 50'

Hebard

Egg mass

Ogle

42°

Riley (1867)

192

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

LeBaron (1870) was mailed to him, pre¬
sumably at Chicago, by a friend at Dongola
in Union County. The possibility of de¬
liberate or accidental participation by
man in the dissemination of the mantis
therefore clearly renders it impossible to
know with certainty whether specimens
found in the central area of Illinois are
normal residents or adventives. But if
found considerably south of central Illi¬
nois they may usually be regarded as
permanent residents, while if north, or
in general decidedly beyond latitude 40°,
they would seem to be artifically im¬
ported and therefore doomed to local ex¬
termination with the coming of the first
critically cold winter.

REFERENCES

Blatchley, W. S. (1920), Orthoptera of
Northwestern America, 784 pp., refs., keys,
246 figs.

Hebard, Morgan (1934), The Dermaptera
and Orthoptera of Illinois, Illinois Natural
History Survey Bulletin, Vol. 20, Art. 3,
125-279, refs., keys, 167 figs.

LeBaron, Wm. (1870), Entomological, Prairie
Farmer, 41, 314.

Rau, Phil, and Rau, Nellie (1913), The bi¬
ology of Stagmomantis Carolina, Trans.
Acad. Sci. St. Louis, 22, 1-58, pis., bibl.

Riley, C. V. (1867), Queries answered.
Prairie Farmer, 36, 69.

Riley, C. V. (1869), The rear-horse, First
Ann. Rept. State Ent. Mo., 169-171.

Roberts, R. A. (1928), Notes on the biology
of Stagmomantis Carolina, Can. Ent. 60,
209-212.

Somes, M. P. (1916), The Phasmidae of Min¬
nesota, Iowa and Missouri, Entom. News,
27, 269-271.

Walsh, B. D. and Riley, C. V. (1868), Rear-
horses vs. Grasshoppers, Amer. Ent. 1, 184.

Zoology — 19J/.2 Meeting

193

EFFECT OF TESTOSTERONE PROPIONATE ON
TERRITORIALITY IN FLOCKS OF RING DOVES

Mary A. Bennett

Western Illinois State Teachers College, Macomb, Illinois

A characteristic of bird flocks receiving
much attention is territoriality. In
studies of the organization of flocks, a
significant relationship between this
characteristic and the development of
social hierarchies has been pointed out
by several investigators. Hierarchies of
two types are recognized. These are the
stable peck-order as reported in chickens
(Masure and Allee, ’34) and the much
more flexible peck-dominance as found in
pigeons (Masure and Allee, ’34, and
Diebschlag, ’41), of ring doves (Bennett,
’39), and of canaries (Shoemaker, ’39).
Investigators of peck-dominance have
suggested that the explanation of this
condition is in some complexity in the
form of territoriality developing in
flocks.

Shoemaker (’39) observed in canaries
that a bird, which is dominant over
another in neutral territory, normally
becomes subordinate in the nesting terri¬
tory of the other bird. He says, “This
factor alone would account for the peck-
dominance type of social organization.”
Diebschlag (’41), in an analysis of the
social order in a heterosexual group of
pigeons, concluded that the peck-domin¬
ance system is entirely a matter of terri¬
toriality. He states that each animal
attempts to fix the limits of and to de¬
fend a certain amount of space against
other members of the society. Since the
distribution within a dovecote shifts
somewhat easily and rather frequently,
he concludes that this flexible “place-
order” prevents a “linear dominance”
such as that found in the chicken. Both
Shoemaker and Diebschlag see in the
instability of territorial relationships, in
flocks of canaries and pigeons respect¬
ively, a probable explanation of peck-
dominance.

In ring dove flocks, experimentally
treated with an androgen (Bennett, ’40),
a tendency away from the characteristic
peck-dominance type of social order
toward a peck-right was observed. As
this accompanied an increase in terri¬

toriality, the hypothesis was advanced
that the possible “explanation of the in¬
creased stability observed may lie in the
expression of territorialism rather than
in any new development.” In most of the
flocks of ring doves observed, previous to
treatment with an androgen, certain in¬
dividuals had shown distinct territorial
tendencies. They “adopted definite loca¬
tions in the cages and tended to defend
these against all intruders.” If added to
these in any flock, there were others in
whom territoriality could be induced by
experimental treatment, it is to be ex¬
pected that a greater degree of stability
would appear in the social organization
of the group. The present report follows
an attempt to analyze more fully the data
in the ring dove investigation from the
standpoint of the relationship of in¬
creased territoriality and accompanying
changes in social organization.

The experimental birds, that is, those
injected with an androgen, were selected
because of low rank, a status character¬
ized either by passivity or by failure to
win in pecking encounters. They seldom
if ever attempted defense of a location.
The general procedures used are fully de¬
scribed in previous reports (Bennett, ’39,
’40). Three homosexual caged flocks, one
of females, two of males, were observed
daily. Records of individual locations
and activities were recorded in five-
minute intervals, making the reconstruc¬
tion of a cage picture for any given time
a possibility. Pre-injection (control)
periods were followed by experimental
periods. In the latter, one or two of the
selected flock members in each cage re¬
ceived daily injections of testosterone
propionate. Post-injection periods fol¬
lowed. Two series, one of 78 days, one
of 50 days, included 48 days and 24 days,
respectively, of injections. The treated
birds in Series I were D and RH in the
female flock, two birds in male flock A,
and EB in male flock B. Three of these,
one from each flock, were again experi¬
mental subjects in Series II.

194

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

In the pre-injection period of Series I
both experimental female birds were
passive, located much of the time on the
front perch. In the injection period, D
moved to the floor with occasional ag¬
gressive sallies upon the perches. RH
first changed from the front perch to the
back, then also located on the floor for
the remainder of the period. In the
post-injection period both birds soon
retired to the front perch and became as
passive as preceding treatment. In
Series II, D again returned to the floor
but alternated between it and the front
perch. Again, upon cessation of injec¬
tions, D became passive on the back
perch.

The behavior of EB in the male flock
B was characteristic for the treated
males. In the pre-injection period of
Series I, he was never definitely located.
He engaged in frequent floor encounters,
losing most of them. With injections, he
began winning encounters. After three
weeks, he located for a time on the front
perch. With an increase in androgen
dosage later in this series, he returned to
the floor. Here the other birds exhibited
a wariness with regard to him. In the
post-injection period, he gradually became
inactive on the back perch. With re¬
injection EB returned to the floor, be¬
coming an aggressor there. In the suc¬
ceeding post-injection period he once
more settled passively on the back perch.

The androgen induced aggressiveness
in the experimental subjects. As this
occurred, the same birds exhibited an
increased tendency to occupy new loca¬
tions and to engage intruders in combat
until these intruders would withdraw
from the place. It was noticeable that
the floor was the usual arena of defense
activity. This is to be expected because
of the space and freedom permitted dur¬
ing combats. With cessation of injections
the resumption of the pre-injection status

was accompanied by a decrease in the
stability of the flock structure.

The flocks observed by Diebschlag and
Shoemaker were heterosexual and be¬
havior, directly associated with the
breeding cycle, complicated the picture.
Since homosexual flocks were used in the
case of the ring doves, the influence of
sex interrelations was, in part at least,
removed. Whatever changes in flexi¬
bility of social order occurred were less
obscured by mating and nesting activities.

Increased aggressiveness occurred in
all injected birds. This was followed by
a development of territorial tendencies in
the same individuals, accompanied by an
increased development of a peck-right
type of social organization. The conclu¬
sions of Shoemaker and Diebschlag, that
in the shifting conditions of the birds
flocks observed by them, lay the explana¬
tion of the flexible peck-dominance type,
is supported by the evidence in this case.
As more birds in a flock became definitely
located and began aggressively to defend
the regions occupied, the social structure
became more fixed.

It seems clear that the injection of
testosterone propionate in low ranking
members of ring dove flocks increased
territorialism in the flocks and con¬
tributed to an increase in the develop¬
ment of a peck-right type of social
hierarchy.

LITERATURE CITED

Bennett, Mary A. 1939. The social hierarchy
in ring doves. Ecology 20:337-57.

— ♦ - . 1940. The social hierarchy in

ring doves. II. The effect of treatment
with testosterone propionate. Ecology 21 :
148-65.

Diebschlag, E. 1941. Psychologische Be-
obachtungen fiber die Rangordnung bei der
Haustaube. Zeitschr. F. Tierpsych. 4 :
173-188.

Masure, R. H. and W. C. Alee. 1934. The
social order in flocks of the common
chicken and pigeon. The Auk 51 :306-27.
Shoemaker, Hurst H. 1939. Social hierarchy
in flocks of the canary. The Auk 56:381-
406.

Zoology — 19 Meeting

195

ZAPATERA SPOILAGE OF OLIVES*

Vincent J. Del Giudice
University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois

Zapatera, the name given to one type
of spoilage, is a Spanish word meaning,
“shoemaker’s wife,” but the literal trans¬
lation of the word is “stinkfoot.” Its
only means of detection is by the offensive
odor produced.

In an attempt to discover the cause
of Zapatera spoilage a study of types of
organisms found in normal and spoiled
olive brine was conducted. Microscopic
examinations were made of all samples,
which revealed the presence of yeasts,
associated with rods and cocci. The first
observation was on the number of or¬
ganisms in the brine. Plate counts were
made on various agars in order to isolate
as many different types of organisms as
possible. In all tests the spoiled samples
had higher counts than those considered
normal.

During the investigation determinations
of pH were made electrometrically. All
spoiled samples with the exception of
three had a pH of 4.0 or above. Normal
samples were below this figure. Expos¬
ing spoiled samples to air increased the
spoilage. A rapid increase in pH also
occurred, and the samples became dark¬
ened. Normal samples when exposed to
the air increased somewhat in pH, but
showed no darkening. These results in¬
dicate that exclusion of air, and control
of pH are important factors in the pre¬
vention of the spoilage.

Smyth reported a group of spore form¬
ing, aerobic, proteolytic organisms as the
cause of Zapatera spoilage. Heat tests
were conducted on all samples. Or¬
ganisms developed from spoiled samples
which had approached a pH of 7.0 or
higher. Since Zapatera begins at a pH
of about 4.2 to 4.3 the possibility of spore
forming organisms in the solution is very
remote. Vaughn later reported that non
spore forming organisms caused Zapatera
spoilage.

Some of the organisms isolated from
the samples were inoculated into normal
samples, but the spoilage was not repro¬
duced.

Tracy and other workers reported a
spoilage of olives due to organisms of the
genera Escherichia and Aerobacter. This
spoilage can easily be detected by the
presence of gas in the samples. No gas
was noticed in Zapatera spoilage, however,
all samples were inoculated into lactose
fermentation tubes, and observed for gas
production. Gas was produced in only
one sample. It has been exposed to the
air for six months, and has a pH above
8.0. Therefore it may have been easily
contaminated with gas producing organ¬
isms.

A “butyric” spoilage in olives caused
by the butyric acid anaerobes has been
described by Vaughn. A study of ana¬
erobes that were isolated from the brine
is being conducted. As yet they have
not been definitely classified. There is a
possibility that they are Lactobacilli.
These organisms play an important role
in the normal fermentation of olives.
Therefore their presence is essential for
a good, vigorous fermentation. Tests of
abnormal fermentation of olives were
made, by the addition of spoiled olive
brine to good olives in a salt, sugar
solution with the absence of lactic acid.
The flora for two and one half months
has consisted of large cigar shaped yeast
cells, filamentous rod forms, large and
short rods, and some cocci.

An attempt is being made to classify
the bacteria and yeasts isolated from sam¬
ples of Zapatera spoilages.

In conclusion it can be said that the
exclusion of air and control of pH would
probably aid the manufacturer greatly in
reducing Zapatera spoilage in olives. In¬
cidentally this type of spoilage is chiefly
a concern and loss to the manufacturer
for the consumer seldom finds it in
packed olives. Packers would not dare
risk their business by selling olives which
had this spoilage because of the offensive
odor.

More work can and should be done on
this type of spoilage.

Contribution from the Collegiate Section.

196

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

CHLOROPHYLL IN THE TREATMENT OF ATHLETE’S

FOOT*

Frances C. Foster and William C. Grater
University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois

Recently, in the field of chemotherapy,
chlorophyll has been used experimentally
in the treatment of infections, particu¬
larly in acute or chronic local suppura¬
tive lesions. Dr. Benjamin Gruskin, Di¬
rector of Experimental Pathology at Tem¬
ple University, suggests the theoretical
explanation that the action of chlorophyll
consists for the most part of increasing
the resistance of cells in some physico¬
chemical manner so that enzymatic diges¬
tion of the cell membrane by invading
bacteria or their toxins is checked; and
that the bacteria are inhibited from form¬
ing toxic compounds. Dr. Gruskins’ suc¬
cess in treating various dermatological in¬
fections, including one case of Actinomy¬
cosis, suggested the possibility of success¬
ful treatment of athlete’s foot caused by
a fungus of the Genus Trichophyton.

Oil soluble chlorophyll in a lanolin
base, and also in a liquid solvent, was
used in the treatment of cases in the
present study. Volunteer patients were
brought to the laboratory and their feet
examined, particular attention being paid
to scales, pustules, open lesions and
breaks in the skin. Cultures of skin
scrapings and pus were made on plain
agar, Sabouraud’s maltose agar with and
without tellurite, and a hanging drop
preparation containing maltose, peptone
and water. The medium containing tel¬
lurite was efficient in inhibiting the
growth of certain bacteria found on the
feet, so was satisfactory for the isolation

* Contribution from the Collegiate Section.

of the fungi, on which it had no appre¬
ciable effect. The cultures were incu¬
bated at room temperature and Trich¬
ophyton isolated when possible. Check
cultures were made in 2-3 days, and final
cultures were taken after treatment had
been followed for at least two weeks.

Treatment consisted of rubbing or
swabbing the chlorophyll material thor¬
oughly into and around the lesions. Each
person was instructed to apply treatment
once daily, and regularity in treatment
was emphasized. Thirty-one cases were
treated, but only one case could be re¬
ported as cured. The chlorophyll treat¬
ment, however, had some beneficial effect.
There was some evidence of better results
when Trichophyton was not isolated as
the cause of the infection, and little or
no improvement was noted in acute cases
where the fungi were definitely isolated.
Neither the liquid nor the ointment showed
any fungistatic power with tests carried
out, a fact which seem to indicate, also,
that chlorophyll has no fungicidal power.
This is in line with Dr. Gruskin’s theory
that chlorophyll increases the resistance
of the cell.

In conclusion, the present experiment
indicated that chlorophyll is of value in
preventing cracks and itching in the in¬
terdigital spaces, but that it seldom, if
ever, cures athlete’s foot. Better results
might be obtained if the treatment could
be carefully controlled.

Zoology — 19 Meeting

197

THE ANGLERS’ CATCH AT LAKE CHAUTAUQUA NEAR
HAVANA, ILLINOIS, WITH COMPARATIVE DATA ON
HOOPNET SAMPLES

Donald F. Hansen

Illinois Natural History Survey, TJrbana, Illinois

The year 1942 was the third successive
year in which a partial record was ob¬
tained of the hook-and-line catch at Lake
Chautauqua, a wildlife refuge maintained
by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
near Havana, Illinois. Lake Chautauqua
is an abandoned drainage and levee dis¬
trict. The levees separate the refuge
from the adjoining Illinois River except
at flood stages. At ordinary levels the
lake has an area of 3,200 acres and a
maximum depth of about 5 feet. The
lake is approximately 6 miles long and a
mile wide.

Lake Chautauqua attracts more hook-
and-line fishermen than any other lake
along the Illinois River; nevertheless, the
fishing cannot be ranked high. Large-
mouth bass, bluegills, both black and
white crappies, yellow perch, and yellow
bass (M or one interrupt a) are the prin¬
cipal kinds caught.

The census was conducted by the Illi¬
nois Natural History Survey with the co¬
operation of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife
Service through Mr. Homer L. Bradley,
refuge manager, and Mr. Milfred Smith,
refuge patrolman.

The catch records were kept by the
boat liverymen, that is, by men in the
business of renting rowboats. The
records kept by Mr. Frank Kuntz, care¬
taker at Bridgeman’s livery, were nearly
100 per cent complete for 1941 and 1942
and because of their completeness are
especially valuable for a study of seasonal
trends in fishing. Bridgeman’s record
alone comprises the data for the present
paper.

The Bridgeman record for 1940 cov¬
ered only three months and no records
were kept of people who failed to catch
fish.

Bridgeman's livery is located on
Haven’s Slough at the northeast end of
Lake Chautauqua. This part of the lake
is protected from wind and supports
rather dense growths of submerged

aquatic plants. Above Bridgeman’s dock
the slough widens out into an area of
about 80 acres. Most of the fishermen
renting boats at Bridgeman’s stay within
this small area. A considerable amount
of still-fishing is done around dense
stands of button bush, Cephalanthus
occidentalis, which grows in water up to
three feet in depth. A certain amount of
still-fishing is also done in the shade of
the partly submerged willows, as well as
in open water. The proportion of all
Chautauqua fishermen using this boat
livery cannot easily be estimated. Be¬
sides the boat liveries on the lake proper,
of which there were five in 1941 and two
in 1942, there are two liveries at Liver¬
pool and others at Havana. Boats from
the latter towns are hauled over the
levees on wooden rollers, or pull-overs.
Numbers of private boats are also on the
lake, but no estimate of their numbers is
at hand.

The record cards were made out for
parties rather than for individuals. The
parties usually consisted of two persons
each. The information entered on each
card included number of fishermen in the
party, number of hours spent, and num¬
ber of each kind of fish brought to the
dock. The boat yard attendants were not
asked to separate the species of crappies,
bullheads, or sunfish except for bluegills.
No observations were made on lengths or
weights.

The periods covered in this report in¬
clude all of the year 1941 and from Jan¬
uary 1 to September 6, 1942, except that
no fishing was allowed during the 1941
duck shooting season, October 16-De-
cember 14. Bass fishing was closed both
years from April 1 to May 31. Winter
fishing was prohibited under the ice but
was permitted where holes naturally re¬
mained open.

Kinds and Numbers Caught arid Differ¬
ences in the 1941 and 1942 Catch - The

species totals for the same periods of

198

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

1941 and 1942, i. e., January 1 to Septem¬
ber 6, are shown in table 1. Number
caught refers to the fish taken away from
the lake. No record was kept of the fish
thrown back. The late 1941 data are
omitted from this list because of absence
of corresponding data for 1942. There
are certain striking differences in the
catch for the two years. In 1942 there
were a great many more bluegills and
yellow bass with fewer crappies and fewer
miscellaneous sunfish.

Table 1. — Comparison of the 1941 and
1942 Seasons With Respect to Kinds
and Numbers of Fish Caught by
Anglers at Bridgeman’s Boat Livery
on Lake Chautauqua in the Period
January 1-September 6

Kinds

1941 1942

Largemouth bass
Smallmouth bass

Bluegill .

Other sunfish . .

Crappie .

Yellow perch . . .
Yellow bass

Sheepshead .

Bullhead . .

Channel cat .

Buffalo .

Dogfish .

Eel .

Kind not shown. .

426

450

1

0

2,043

3,622

400

306

681

357

1,002

1,110

9

1,236

55

4

56

75

13

0

0

1

3

2

0

1

30

0

Total fish . 4,719

Total fisherman-days . 1,695

Av. catch per fisherman per

day . 2.8

Av. catch per fisherman per

hour . 0.7

7,164

1,563

4.6

1.0

Whereas only 9 yellow bass were re¬
corded for 1941, 1,236 were recorded for
1942. Due to this increase the yellow
bass ranked second in importance of all
kinds caught in 1942. It is significant
that the yellow bass was among the three
most abundant kinds taken in hoopnet
samples in 1940, 1941, and 1942, but had
no importance in the hook-and-line catch
until the last year. Lake Chautauqua
may be considered unusual among Illinois
waters for its large populations of both
yellow bass and yellow perch.

Number of Zero Catches. — For the
periods mentioned above, the percentage
of boats returning with no fish averaged
40 per cent in 1941 and 41 per cent in
1942. During some of the poorer weeks
in the middle of the summer zero catches
ran as high as 50 per cent. Since there
were usually in each boat two fisher¬
men, only one of whom may have caught
fish, the percentage of individuals failing
to catch fish would be somewhat higher
than the figures given for boats.

The Average Catch Per Fisherman - Day
and Average Catch Per Hour _ For cor¬

responding periods January 1 to Septem¬
ber 6, the average daily catch was 2.8
fish per day in 1941 and 4.6 fish per day
in 1942. The length of day averaged 4.1
hours in 1941 and 4.5 hours in 1942. The
average 1941 catch, however, was larger,
3.6 fish per day, when the period Septem¬
ber 17-December 31 is included.

The average catch per hour for the
period January 1 to September 6 was 0.7
fish per hour in 1941 and 1.0 fish in 1942.
For the entire 1941 season, January to
December, the catch per hour was 0 9
fish.

The non-technical reader should bear
in mind that these are averages of good
and bad periods and of expert and inex¬
pert fishermen. Nevertheless, the legal
creel limit of 10 bass, 25 of other fine fish
of a single kind, or 35 in the aggregate
of several kinds, was seldom obtained or
even approached except during September
and October, 1941, when many limits of
bluegills were taken.

The following tabulation (table 2)
shows how Lake Chautauqua compares
with some other lakes both within and
outside the State of Illinois, in terms of
number of fish caught per hour. The
figures for Rinaker Lake, Onized Lake,
and Lake Glendale are from unpublished
data. Rinaker Lake (14.3 acres) near
Carlinville, Illinois, is an artificial lake
40 years old operated by a club with 75
members. The fishing record for the
years 1932-39 has been analyzed by Dr.
David H. Thompson of the Illinois
Natural History Survey. The fishing be¬
gan in March or April each year (except
in 1932 when the record began in June)
and ended in October or November. The
largest number of fishermen-days for any
of the 8 years was 642.

Onized Lake (2 acres) near Alton, Illi¬
nois, has been under the observation of
Dr. George W. Bennett, also of the Illi¬
nois Natural History Survey. The record
covers two years, 1939 and 1940, and
takes in the months April to October.

Lake Glendale (82 acres) is a new lake
in the Shawnee National Forest in south¬
ern Illinois near Dixon Springs. The
record covers 2,754 man-days during the
summer of 1942, which was the first year
the lake was opened to fishing. The lake
was completed in 1939, and stocked in
April, 1940. Fishing in 1942 was per¬
mitted from May 15 to August 29.

Zoology — 191+2 Meeting

199

Table 2. — Observed Average Catch Per
Hour in Four Illinois Lakes, and
Corresponding Data From Lakes in
Other States

State and lake

Length

of

record

Fish per hour
(High and low
yearly average)

Illinois —

Glendale.. _ .

1 year

0.4

Onized . . .

2 years

0.4— 0.8

Rinaker - -

8 years

1.0— 2.1

Chautauqua _

2 years

o

I

d

Michigan —

Fife _

4 years

1.0— 1.7

Waterloo Area . .

1 year

1.2

(12 lakes)

Whitmore Lake . .

5 years

Largemouth bass _

0.3— 1.4

Bluegill _ _ _

4.4—12.8

Bullhead _

1.8— 3.7

Wisconsin —

Chequamegon Forest _

1 year

0.8

(5 lakes)

Waubesa* . . .

1 year

1.9

Kegonsa* . .

1 year

1.2

Tennessee —

Reelf oot _ _ _

1 year

1.6

Norris _ .

2 years

0.2— 0.3

Wheeler..

1 year

0.4

New York—

Chautauqua Lake _

5 days
(July 1-5)

0.5

* The authors thought that all zero catches were
probably not reported and that these figures were
somewhat too high.

On all three of the above lakes the
censuses were handled by full time care¬
takers who were charged with the re¬
sponsibility of recording the results of
all fishermen.

The catch rates for out-of-state waters
were obtained from the papers of Esch-
meyer (1939), Hazzard and Eschmeyer
(1938), Eschmeyer and Tarzwell (1941),
Elkins (1937), Frey, Pedracine, and Yike
(1939), Moore (1938), and Troutman
(1941).

The dates at which the various censuses
begin and end differ considerably so that
the catch per hour figures should only
be taken as suggestive of the quality of
fishing in different parts of the country.
An hourly rate of 2 fish per hour seems
to represent unusually good fishing and
3 fish per hour very exceptional fishing.
Some of the lowest yields were found
among lakes in which rates ran heavily
to large game fish. This was true for
Norris Reservoir (Tennessee), and for two
of the five lakes in Chequamegon Forest
(Wisconsin).

Seasonal Trends In the Numbers of
People Fishing — Marked variation from

week to week may be seen in tables 3
and 4 in numbers of people who fished
at Lake Chautauqua. Both in 1941 and
1942 fishing was well under way by April,
but the numbers of fishermen dropped off
around the second or third week in July.
Fishermen came in comparatively large
numbers throughout September and into
October until fishing was closed at the
opening of the duck season. In 1941 the
peak number of fishermen occurred dur¬
ing the week ending May 18 at the
height of the crappie season, while in
1942 this peak occurred during the open¬
ing week of the bass season, June 1,
which was also the second best week in
1941. It might be suggested that the de¬
cline inf number of fishermen in July re¬
sulted from the discouragement of the
bass fishermen or perhaps because the
peak interest in fishing is reached by a
certain group of fishermen at the open¬
ing of the bass season.

Seasonal Variation in the Anglers’
Catch.. — Seasonal variation in the catch
per hour of the important species has been
determined by dividing each week’s catch
by the total hours of fishing by all fisher¬
men.

The catch-per-hour rates for weekly
periods in 1941 and 1942 are shown in
tables 3 and 4 and in figure 1.

On the basis of figure 1 the following
conclusions are reached with respect to
seasonal variations in fishing:

1. There are definite peaks in biting
activity, but these peaks do not neces¬
sarily occur at the same time for all
species.

2. The biting of a given species may
show several conspicuous peaks during
the same year.

3. The peaks may occur at quite dif¬
ferent times in different years.

4. Periods of excellent fishing tend to
be short, i.e., peaks are more inclined
to have steep than gradually tapered
slopes.

There was enough difference between
periods of good fishing in 1941 and 1942
to make it impossible to define accurately
the most likely time of the year for a
good catch. The periods when fishing
was better than ordinary, however, are de¬
fined below.

Largemouth bass. — Rather good catches
of bass were made in January and Feb¬
ruary, 1941 (see table 2), but were not
duplicated in corresponding months of

200

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Table 3. — Bridgeman’s Livery, 1941. Numbers of Fish and Catch Per Hour Rate
by Weeks For Most Important Species. The Catch Per Hour Rate Is Based on
Total Hours of Fishing Including Those Spent by the Unsuccessful Fishermen
The Yellow Bass Was Not One of the Important Hook-and-Line Species in 1941.

Week ending
Sunday —

Number

of

fisher¬

men

Jan. 5 . .

4

” 12 _ _ _

6

Feb. 16... .

1

” 23 _

1

Mar. 2 . . .

5

” 9. .

2

Apr. 6 _

23

” 13.... .

69

” 20 _

16

” 27 . .

71

May 4 _ _

110

” 11 _

38

” 18.. .

196

” 25.... . .

101

June 1 _

157

” 8 .

139

” 15 .

44

” 22 .

106

” 29.. . .

28

July 6 . .

102

” 13... .

80

” 20 . .

101

” 27 .

24

Aug. 3 . .

53

” 10. .

10

” 17... .

49

” 24 _

50

” 31 .

82

Sept. 7 .

27

” 14 _

86

” 21 _

68

” 28.. . .

40

Oct. 5... . .

64

” 12 _ _

27

Dec. 21 . .

30

” 28 .

12

Bluegill

Crappie

Yellow perch

Catch

Catch

Catch

Number

per

Number

per

Number

per

hour

hour

hour

17

?

14

?

64

0.695

5

0.054

27

0.293

194

0.570

37

0.108

207

0.608

9

0.140

3

0.046

32

0.500

61

0.169

17

0.047

111

0.308

90

0.195

138

0.300

94

0.204

17

0.110

101

0.655

37

0.240

249

0.258

167

0.173

116

0.120

199

0.523

6

0.015

18

0.047

258

0.368

2

0.003

21

0.030

45

0.092

67

0.356

1

0.005

2

0.010

80

0.338

1

0.004

54

0.228

33

0.088

7

0.018

90

0.294

35

0.114

33

ol 107

75

0.192

20

0.051

60

0.154

31

0.413

7

0.093

66

0.328

30

0.149

55

0.109

13

0.025

12

0.024

25

0.147

1

0.005

33

0.194

64

0.304

5

0.024

50

0.238

171

0.483

111

0.313

30

0.084

79

0.675

18

0.153

21

0.179

219

0.501

11

0.025

77

0.176

171

0.546

4

0.012

400

2.174

6

0.032

734

2.351

8

0.027

16

0.055

560

5.384

159

1.458

4

0 036

90

1.875

2

0.041

Total

hours

'S'H

'z. o

Largemouth bass

Number

92

340

64

360

460

154

965

380

700

486

188

236

84

374

306

390

75

201

502

170

210

354

117

437

313

184

290

104

109

Catch

per

hour

§2*

0.051

0.130

0.091

0.139

0.071

0.101

0.104

0.038

0.093

0.064

0.004

0.106

0.057

0.040

0.068

0.029

0.086

0.011

0.062

0.009

0.109

1942. There were no outstanding peaks
during the summer and fall months in
either year.

Crappie. — In Illinois the crappies are
traditionally known as spring and fall
biters. There were well defined peaks in
May both years but no evidence was
found for a fall peak. Perhaps the
natural fall peak would come during the
waterfowl season. The peak occurring in
late August, 1941, was unexpected. The
crappies underwent longer periods of
complete biting inactivity than the other
principal species.

Yellow Perch. — The peak month in 1941
was April, but in 1942 the peak occurred
in late July and early August. There
were four consecutive depression weeks
starting late in May with exact corre¬
spondence in dates between the two years.

Yellow Bass. — The highest peak was
reached in July with lesser peaks in April
and June. This species practically re¬

fused to bite in 1941 so that there were
no outstanding peaks.

Bluegill. — The bluegill seems to be the
most erratic species in its biting of any
of the five observed. The best fishing
occurred in late September and early
October, 1941, when during one week
bluegills were taken at the rate of 5.38
fish per hour; while in 1942 there were
three moderately high peaks as follows:
January, late April, and late May.

Comparison between the Anglers’ Catch
and the Hoopnet Catch. — The species
composition observed in the anglers’
catch at Lake Chautauqua has been found
to be different from the composition of
the hoopnet catches. Inasmuch as hoop-
nets are used in fisheries work for fore¬
casting hook-and-line possibilities of lakes
and also for determining management
needs for hook-and-line fishing, it is im¬
portant to know how great these dis¬
crepancies are.

Zoology — 19 1+2 Meeting

201

From May 6 to May 14, 1942, hoopnets
were set in the 80 acres most used by
the fishermen who rent boats at Bridge-
man’s livery. Seventeen hoopnet catches
were obtained at this time with 4 one-
inch mesh (square measure) nets. The
percentage representation of each species
in these seventeen catches is shown in
table 5. Also appearing in this table are
the percentages of the same species
caught by hook and line at Bridgeman’s
during the five weeks ending May 31. The
catches of 405 fishermen are included in
the latter figures. The most striking dif¬
ferences in the percentages were found
among bluegills and crappies. Bluegills
made up 78.5 per cent of the anglers’
catch but only 17.8 per cent of the hoop-
net catch. Crappies, on the other hand,
made up 12.6 per cent of the anglers’
catch but 61.4 per cent of the hoopnet
catch. Fairly important differences of
this type were found also in connection
with yellow perch, bullheads, and sunfish.
Certain other species, namely carp, dog¬
fish, sheepshead and buffalo, were slightly
more abundant in the hoopnpts than was
yellow perch, but were not caught at all
in May by anglers. However, the num¬
ber of fishermen using special carp baits
is slight as compared with the number
using worms, minnows, or artificial baits.

It should be mentioned that an un¬
usually high percentage, probably at least
90 per cent, of the hoopnet catch was
made up of fish large enough to be eaten.

During the two weeks ending May 17,
which most nearly coincide with the
hoopnet collection dates near Bridge-
man’s, hoopnet and anglers’ catches fail
to agree any more closely than for the
five weeks shown in table 5. The per¬
centage representation of the four prin¬
cipal species taken by hook during those
two weeks were as follows: bluegills
31.8%, crappie 9.5%, yellow perch 55.5%,
and yellow bass 3.1%. The hoopnet per¬
centages for this period were bluegills
17.8%, crappie 61.4%, yellow perch 0.4%,
and yellow bass 1.7%.

The same sort of discrepancies appear
in table 6, where all the hoopnet catches
made in 1942 are compared with all avail¬
able 1942 hook-and-line data from the
Bridgeman livery.

The hoopnet data for 1942 include, be¬
sides the 17 catches in the vicinity of
Bridgeman’s at the northeast corner of
the lake, an additional 19 catches ob¬
tained between May 4 and 14 at scattered
points between Bridgeman’s and the other
end of the lake, a distance of 6 miles.
Another 6 catches were taken near the
southwest end of the lake July 9-11.

Table 4. — Bridgeman’s Livery, 1942. Numbers of Fish and Catch Per Hour Rate
by Weeks. The Catch Per Hour Is Based on Total Hours of Fishing Including
Those Spent by the Unsuccessful Fishermen.

Week

ending

Number

of

fisher¬

men

Total

hours

Largemouth bass

Bluegill

Crappie

Yellow perch

Yellow bass

Number

Catch

per

hour

Number

Catch

per

hour

Number

Catch

per

hour

Number

Catch

per

hour

Number

Catch

per

hour

Jan.

ii

6

33

11

0.336

7

0.212

18—

14

54

4

0.074

94

1.730

7

0.129

»*

25

17

41

2

0.048

71

1.700

3

0.072

3

0.072

Feb.

8 _

10

36

49

1.340

2

0.055

Apr.

5

15

68

T-.

73

1.060

2

0.029

19

17

77

f-H ©

35

0.450

2

0.026

8

0.010

”

26—

43

176

^ U. §

339

1.810

13

0.074

49

0.278

67

0.381

May

3—

59

197

298

1.510

4

0.020

13

0.066

24

0.124

10-...

43

180

16

0.089

15

0.083

37

0.203

5

0.028

99

17

63

250

(/i <D
<0

34

0.136

50

0.200

24-...

114

473

l!

850

1.800

169

0.356

13

0.029

30

0.064

99

31

126

563

oa

771

1.370

130

0.230

41

0.073

June

7....

223

1350

169

0.125

411

0.304

17

0.013

66

0.049

36

0.026

99

14— —

101

414

47

0.117

16

0.039

24

0.058

99

21..

122

564

48

0.085

238

0.422

174

0.310

f»

28 _

91

418

32

0.077

85

0.204

66

0.158

198

0.474

July

5— —

115

519

34

0.065

38

0.073

89

0.171

47

0.091

12

70

296

41

0.138

58

0.196

63

0.213

85

0.267

tt

19 _

58

265

37

0.140

4

0.015

75

0.283

35

0.134

99

26...

56

248

1

0.004

6

0.024

63

0.254

328

1.340

Aug.

2....

49

208

14

0.067

30

0.144

97

0.466

155

0.745

fi¬

56

270

5

0.018

48

0.178

97

0.360

122

0.450

99

le

49

227

41

0.180

38

0.167

75

0.330

99

23 _

18

81

15

0.186

11

0.136

99

30

11

55

1

0.018

5

0.100

10

0.184

Sept.

6-..

14

56

1

0.018

15

0.268

8

0.143

NUMBER OF FISH PER HOUR BY ALL FISHERMEN

202

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Fig. 1. — Average catch of various species per hour of fishing. Bridgeman’s boat livery in
1941 and 1942. The weekly catch of each species is divided by the total hours of fishing
during the week.

Zoology — 191$ Meeting

203

Table 5. — Relative Abundance of Species in Hoopnet Catch and Anglers' Catch in
the Vicinity of Bridgeman’s Livery During May, 1942

Species

Vicinity of Bridgeman’s Livery, May, 1942

Angler’

s catch

Hoopnet catch

' Per cent

Number

Per cent

Number

Bluegill - -

78.5

1969

17.8

123

Crappie (2 sp.)* . . . . .

12.6

318

61.4

425

Yellow perch _ _ _ _ _ _

6.1

154

.4

3

Yellow bass - - - -

2.4

59

1.7

12

Largemouth bass - - - -

Closed

season

2.0

15

Bullhead (3 sp.)* - - - -

0.3

7

6.1

42

Other sunfish (3 sp.)* _

4.3

30

Carp _ _ _ . . _

3.6

25

Dogfish (Amia) _ _ _

1

0.9

6

Sheepshead _ _ - _ _

0.9

6

Buffalo _ _

0.6

4

Eel _ _ _ _

0.3

2

Total - - - -

100.0

2,508

100.0

693

* Number of species found in hoopnets and possibly represented in the angler’s catch.

Table 6. — Relative Abundance of Species in Hoopnet Catch and Anglers’ Catch.
Period of the Anglers’ Catch in the Vicinity of Bridgeman’s, January 1 to Sep¬
tember 6. The Hoopnets Were Set in Various Parts of the Lake. May and July
Hoopnet Catches Are Combined.

1942 season

Species

Angler’s catch
near Bridgeman’s

Jan. 1 to Sept. 6

Hoopnet catch
from entire lake

May and July

Per cent

Number

Per cent

Number

Bluegill _ _ _

50.5

3,622

1,236

1,110

450

14.9

414

Yellow bass* _

17.3

23.5

656

Yellow perch _ _

15.5

0.7

21

Largemouth bass _

6.3

0.8

23

Crappie - _

5.0

357

52.4

1,458

72

Other sunfish _

4.3

306

2.6

Bullhead _

1.0

75

2.7

74

Sheepshead- _ _

4

2

Dogfish (Amia.) _

2

0.4

11

Eel . . . - _ _ _

1

0.3

8

Buffalo . . . - _ _

1

0.2

7

1.3

35

Channel cat _

1

Redhorse _ _

1

Total . . . - _ _ _

100.0

7,164

100.0

2,783

* The catch from one hoopnet set 21 hours was omitted from these totals because of the exceptionally large
number of yellow bass (835) which it contained. This net also included 15 crappies and 1 or 2 individuals of othe r
species, none of which are included in the above totals.

204

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

It is apparent that either one or both
of the sampling techniques are selective.
Otherwise, the percentages in tables 5 and
6 should agree. For some species, the
two techniques may be selective in oppo¬
site directions. For example, bluegills
may be comparatively difficult to catch
in hoopnets but comparatively easy to
catch on hook-and-line, thus distorting the
bluegill figures with respect to those for
other species. Also, the degree of selec¬
tivity for either hoopnets or hook-and-
line might vary with the season of the
year.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bennett, George W. (Unpublished). Onized
Lake, a study in over-fishing.

Elkins, Winston H. (1937). A fish yield
study for certain lakes in the Chequame-
gon National Forest. Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc. 66:306-12.

Eschmeyer, R. W. (1939). Summary of a
four-year creel census on Fife Lake,
Michigan. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 68 :
354-8.

Eschmeyer, R. W., and Clarence M. Tarz-
well. (1941). An analysis of fishing in
the T. V. A. impoundments during 1939.
J. Wildlife Management. 5:15-41.

Frey, David G., Herbert Pedracine, and
Lawrence Vike. (1939). Results of a
Summer Creel Census of Lakes Waubesa
and Kegonsa, Wisconsin. J. Wildlife Man¬
agement. 3 : 243-53.

Hansen, Donald F. (Unpublished). Angling
at Lake Glendale.

Hazzard, Albert S. and R. William Esch¬
meyer. (1938). Analysis of the fish catch
for one year in the Waterloo Project area.
Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters.
23 : 633-43.

Juday, Chancey, Clarence Livingstone, and
Herbert Pedracine. (1937). A census of
the fish caught by anglers in Lake Wau¬
besa in 1937. Wis. Nat. Hist. Surv.
Mimeogr. Repts. 7 pp.

Juday, Chancey, and Lawrence E. Vike.
(1938). A census of the fish caught by
anglers in Lake Kegonsa. Trans. Wis.
Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters. 31:527-32.

Kuhne, Eugene R. (1930). The Reelf oot
Lake creel census. Rep. Reelfoot Lake
Biol. Sta. 3 : 46-53.

Moore, Emmeline. (1938). A creel census
at Chautauqua Lake, New York. Trans.
Am. Fish. Soc. 67 : 130-38.

Thompson, David H. (Unpublished). An
eight year record of hook-and-line fishing
at Rinaker Lake, Illinois.

Troutman, Milton B. (1941). Fluctuations
in lengths and numbers of certain species
of fishes over a five-year period in Whit¬
more Lake, Michigan. Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc. 70:193-208.

t

Zoology — 191$ Meeting

205

LOCALITY RECORDS OF SOME HYDRACARlNA FROM

ILLINOIS

C. Clayton Hoff

Quincy College, Quincy , Illinois

While engaged in field work in various
localities in Illinois during the summer
of 1940, the writer on a few occasions in¬
cidentally collected hydracarina from the
shallow water areas of rivers, lakes, and
ponds. A list of the species found in
these collections with an indication of
the localities is given in the present
paper.

Although the number of species repre¬
sented in the collections is exceedingly
small and most of the forms reported are
known to be cosmopolitan, the writer be¬
lieves that the publication of this incom¬
plete list is justified because several
species, Neumania extendens Marshall,
Koenikea Jialdemani Yiets, Unionicola
crassipes (Muller), Lebertia distincta Mar¬
shall, and perhaps Mideopsis orbicularis
(Muller), are reported herein for the
first time from Illinois. What is more
important, perhaps, is the finding of
species which are common in the lakes of
Wisconsin and northern Illinois occurring
abundantly in the more or less acid
waters of southern Illinois. Some of the
water mites listed here were collected
from waters having a hydrogen ion con¬
centration of 6.4 to 6.6. The data are too
meager to give any indication of the
effect, if any, of acidity as a limiting
factor in the distribution of species of
hydracarina.

When the water mites of southern Illi¬
nois become better known, it may be pos¬
sible to point out certain differences be¬
tween the hydracarina fauna of northern
and southern Illinois. That there is some
difference in the invertebrate fauna of the
two parts of the state is already known
with respect to a few groups. It has
been found that certain species of
ostracods are confined to the northern
part and certain ones to the southern
part of the state (Hoff, 1942). To some
degree, the limitation of range in this
group appears to be the result of avail¬
ability of certain types of habitats. Ross
(1941) reported that certain species of

insects are restricted to specific regions
of Illinois as a result primarily of differ¬
ences in vegetation. The effect of differ¬
ences in vegetation upon the distribution
of the aquatic invertebrates is poorly
known. A detailed taxonomic and
ecological study of the water mites of
southern Illinois would make possible a
comparison with the species of Wisconsin
lakes as described by Marshall (1932,
1933, 1935, et al.).

The writer wishes to express his
gratitude to Dr. H. J. Van Cleave for the
loan from his library of much of the liter¬
ature used in identifying the species
reported here.

LIST OF SPECIES WITH LOCALITY
RECORDS

Hydrachna sp.

1 male. Small stream. Will Co., Ill. June
30, 1940. Since the material consisted of
a single male individual in which the
dorsal plates could not be clearly recog¬
nized, it was not possible to determine
the species.

Arrenurus marshallae Piersig

1 male. Fox Lake, Lake Co., Ill. June
29, 1940.

1 male. Bottomland lake, Whiteside Co.,
Ill. July 6, 1940.

1 female. Mississippi River, Rock Island
Co., Ill. July 6, 1940.

Ar renurus spp.

1 female. Pistakee Bay, McHenry Co.,
Ill. June 29, 1940.

1 female. Lake, Vermilion Co., Ill. July
25, 1940.

1 female. Pond, Clay Co., Ill. August 15,
1940.

1 female. Pond, Massac Co., Ill. August
16, 1940.

2 females ; 1 male. Pasture pond, John¬
son Co., Ill. August 17, 1940.

1 female. Small lake, Lake Co., Ill.
August 21, 1940. Several species are
represented here but were not identified
because of the lack of good male speci¬
mens.

Koenikea marshallae Viets

1 female. Mississippi River, Carroll Co.,
Ill. July 6, 1940.

2 males. Pond, Carroll Co., Ill. July 6,
1940.

1 male. Pond, Massac Co., Ill. August
16, 1940.

1 female. Roadside ditch, Massac Co., Ill.
August 16, 1940.

1 female. Horseshoe Lake, Alexander Co.,
Ill. August 16, 1940.

206

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Koenikea haldemani Viets

1 male. Pool in stream bed, Hamilton
Co., Ill. August 15, 1940.

1 female. Roadside ditch, Massac Co., Ill.
August 16, 1940.

Koenikea spinipes (Wolcott)

1 female. Roadside ditch, Franklin Co.,
Ill. August 16, 1940.

Mideopsis orbicularis (Muller)

1 female. Loon Lake, Lake Co., Ill.
August 7, 1940.

Lebertia distincta Marshall

1 adult, sex not determined. West Loon
Lake, Lake Co., Ill. August 7, 1940.
The single individual in the hands of the
writer agrees with the original descrip¬
tion (based on a single specimen) given
by Marshall (1914) except for a slight
and perhaps insignificant difference in
the swimming hairs of the legs and the
presence of two setae rather than one
on the outer (extensor) margin of the
second podomere of the palp.

Limnesia fulgida Koch

(= L. histrionica (Hermann))

2 nymphs. Bottomland lake, Whiteside
Co., Ill. July 6, 1940.

1 nymph. Mississippi River, Carroll Co.,
Ill. July 6, 1940.

1 nymph ; 1 male. Chautauqua Lake,

Mason Co., Ill. July 19, 1940.

1 female ; -1 male. Pasture pond, Massac
Co., Ill. June 6, 1940.

1 female. Hasting’s Lake, Lake Co., Ill.
August 8, 1940.

1 female ; 1 male. Pasture pond, Johnson
Co., Ill. August 17, 1940.

Neumania extendens Marshall

1 female ; 2 nymphs. Pasture pond, John¬
son Co., Ill. August 17, 1940.

1 female. Hasting’s Lake, Lake Co., Ill.
August 8, 1940.

Neumania sp.

■Several nymphs taken in Carroll, White-
side, Johnson, and Henry Counties, Illi¬
nois.

Unionicola crassipes (Muller)

1 female. Illinois-Mississippi Canal, Henry
Co., Ill. June 13, 1940.

1 nymph. Illinois-Mississippi Canal, Bu¬
reau Co., Ill. June 13, 1940.

Piona reighardi (Wolcott)

5 nymphs. Bottomland lake, Whiteside
Co., Ill. July 6, 1940.

3 nymphs; 1 female. Ox-bow, Crawford
Co., Ill. June 4, 1940.

5 females. Pasture pond, Massac Co., Ill.
June 6, 1940.

1 female. Pasture pond, Johnson Co., Ill.
August 17, 1940.

1 nymph. Illinois River, Peoria Co., Ill.
August 30, 1940.

1 young male. Mississippi River, Carroll
Co., Ill. July 6, 1940.

Hygrobates longipalpis (Hermann)

1 male. Loon Lake, Lake Co., Ill.
August 7, 1940.

REFERENCES

In the papers listed here will be found
descriptions of the species included in the
present article.

Hoff, C. Clayton. 1942. Ostracods of Illinois.

Ill. Biol. Monographs, 29(1-2): 1-196.
Marshall, Ruth. 1908. The Arrhenuri of the
United States. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc.,
28 : 85-140.

- • 1914. Some new American

water mites. Trans. Wis. Acad., 17:

1300-1304.

- . 1922. The American water

mites of the genus Neumania. Trans. Wis.
Acad., 20 : 205-213.

- . 1932. Preliminary list of the

Hydracarina of Wisconsin. Part II.
Trans. Wis. Acad., 27/ 339-358.

- * — . 1933. Preliminary list of the

Hydracarina of Wisconsin. Part III.

Trans. Wis. Acad., 28/37-61.

- . 1935. Preliminary list of the

Hydracarina of Wisconsin. Part IV.

Trans. Wis. Acad., 29: 273-297.

- . 1940. Preliminary list of the

Hydracarina of Wisconsin. Part VI.

Trans. Wis. Acad., 32 / 135-165.

Ross, Herbert H. 1941. Distribution of
Illinois insects. Trans. Ill. Acad., 3li :

236-237.

Wolcott, Robert H. 1899. On the North
American species of the genus Atax
Fabr.) Bruz. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc.,
20: 193-259.

- . 1902. The North American

species of Curvipes. Trans. Amer. Micr.
Soc., 23: 201-256.

— t - . 1903. The North American

species of Limnesia. Trans. Amer. Micr.
Soc., 24/ 85-107.

- . 1905. A review of the genera

of the water-mites. Trans. Amer. Micr.
Soc., 26 : 161-243.

Zoology — 19J/-2 Meeting

207

PSEUDO-CLEAVAGE OF THE FROG’S EGG

H. C. Hill, Jr., and T. W. Robinson
University of Illinois, TJrbana, Illinois

During a study suggested by Dr. Waldo
Shumway on the fertilization of coelomic
eggs of the frog Rana pipiens, it was
found that these eggs exhibited a surface
phenomenon which resembled normal
cleavage and is termed pseudo-cleavage.
Inasmuch as the writers have found no
reference of this phenomenon for amphi¬
bian eggs in the literature it has seemed
proper to record its appearance in this
paper.

Method _ Coelomic eggs (without jelly)

were obtained by the pituitary-ovulation
method of Rugh (’41). The coelomic
eggs were removed after opening the
body cavity and placed in a watch glass
or finger bowl containing fresh sperm
suspension or sperm-free salt solution.
The eggs were periodically observed
under binocular magnification for changes
in the external appearance and for the
formation of polar bodies. Observations
were continued until the eggs cytolyzed
or ceased to undergo surface changes.
The sperm suspensions were made up in
biological (chlorine-free) water. The
sperm-free salt solutions used were as
follows: biological water, NaCl, LiCl,

frog Ringer’s and Holtfreter’s solution at
normal and at reduced concentrations.

Experimental. — Inseminated coelomic
eggs were not fertilizable and did not de¬
velop into embryos. Coelomic eggs in¬
seminated or exposed to sperm-free salt
solutions underwent cortical changes
which gave an external appearance simi¬
lar to cleavage planes. This phenomenon
is referred to as pseudo-cleavage since
cytological study showed that none of the
eggs observed had complete cleavage
planes which cut through the entire egg.
In one case a blastomere-like segment
was cut off tangentially through the
upper part of the animal pole, but could
not be called a true blastomere.

The order of events during the process
of pseudo-cleavage were as follows. A
few hours after insemination, or exposure
to sperm-free salt solutions, the cytoplasm
of the egg sunk away from the animal

pole and became separated from the
vitelline membrane which continued to
maintain its original spherical shape.
The space between the flattened cyto¬
plasm and the vitelline membrane occu¬
pied, in some eggs, as much as one-fifth
of the egg’s diameter. Whether a fluid
was present in this space was not de¬
termined. Diffusion of water or salts in
solution from the surrounding medium,
or dehydration of the egg cytoplasm,
could supply liquid to fill this space. In
some cases the first polar body was given
off.

Pseudo-cleavage began as a constriction
of the plasma membrane either at the
center or at the periphery of the flat¬
tened cytoplasm. Deepening and increase
in length of the constriction gave it the
appearance of a primary cleavage furrow
of the normal egg with the exception that
the path of the furrow was not straight
across the egg but deviated either to the
right or left. In most cases secondary
and tertiary furrows were formed by ad¬
ditional constrictions which cut off from
the primary furrow or began at the
periphery and met it at the center. In
a few isolated cases pseudo-cleavage com¬
menced in the animal pole near the
equator of the egg, yet the cytoplasm had
sunken at the apex of the animal pole.

Several hours later the egg rounded up
as additional constrictions were cut off
on the animal pole so that the egg ap¬
peared to have many surface blastomeres.
These were of variable size and number.
As many as sixteen were formed on the
animal pole of one egg. These blas¬
tomere-like configurations after a few
hours became flattened and the surface
of the egg became relatively smooth.
Cleavage furrows in most cases did not
penetrate beyond the equator of the egg
into the yolk material, yet the surface
of the vegetal pole on some eggs was
marked off with thin white lines which
resembled cleavage planes. Pseudo-cleav¬
age occurred in all of the experimental
solutions except the sperm-free NaCl (it

208

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

occurred in inseminated NaCl.) The ex¬
tent of pseudo-cleavage in the various
salt solutions used was variable, the low
concentrations producing the effect as
well as the normal concentrations. The
rate of pseudo-cleavage was not constant
for all eggs but seemed to vary with the
egg and the medium.

Discussion — The phenomenon of
pseudo-cleavage in the frog’s egg prob¬
ably is caused by several factors. Ex¬
perimental evidence to demonstrate these
factors is lacking. Osmotic pressure dif¬
ferences between the cytoplasm and the
medium or between the cytoplasm and
the liquid in the space below the vitelline
membrane may cause shrinkage of the
cytoplasm and consequent surface con¬
figuration. Since both normal and low¬
ered concentrations of salt solutions
caused pseudo-cleavage it may be that a
permeability gradient existed which per¬
mitted a certain concentration of water,
which was conducive to pseudo-cleavage,
to be established in the cortex layer of
the cytoplasm. From a chemical stand¬
point, the permeability may have per¬
mitted certain cations or anions to enter

or leave the egg and cause the cortical
cytoplasm to stiffen and constrict in a
cleavage pattern. Calcium may well be
the ion involved. The phenomenon may
be an expression of an aging process.
Schechter (’41) working with the unfer¬
tilized clam egg, Mactra, in sea water
found that when the egg aged an inden¬
tation was formed on the egg. The sur¬
face of the egg became crumpled and
polar bodies were sometimes given off.
He thinks that these changes are caused
by nuclear material released by the aged
germinal vesicle and that the process
may be an “abortive attempt at partheno¬
genesis before the cell dies,”

Conclusions — Coelomic eggs upon in¬
semination or exposure to salt solutions
undergo surface changes which give the
external appearance of cleavage. This
phenomenon is termed pseudo-cleavage.

REFERENCES

Rugh, R. Induced ovulation and artificial
fertilization in the frog. 1934 Biol. Bull.,.
66, 22-29*

Schechter, V. Experimental studies upon the
egg; cells of the clam, Mactra solidissima,
with special reference to longevity 1941
Jour. Exp. Zool., 86 (3), 461-479.

Zoology — 191$ Meeting

209

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE EXPLORATION OF MEXICO

Harry Hoogstraal

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Less than thirty driving hours from
this campus lies the northern border of
the Republic of Mexico. Not only have
Mexico’s old world civilization and ma¬
jestic scenery attracted thousands of awe-
inspired tourists during the last few
years, but its rich and varied flora and
fauna have lately attracted an increasing
number of biological investigators.

Early in the nineteenth century, sev¬
eral European explorers made classical
collections in southern Mexico, and in the
latter part of the century, Godman and
Salvin’s magnificent set of illustrated
volumes, Biologica Centrali Americana,
summarized most of the biological knowl¬
edge of Mexico and Central America ex¬
isting at that day. During the last ten
years of the same century, Nelson and
Goldman traversed Mexico from north to
south and from east to west and returned
with huge collections of mammals and
birds. At the same time, Cyrus Pringle
was invading many parts of Mexico and
returning with large botanical collections
which were promptly studied and dis¬
tributed among the herbaria of the world.

The knowledge gained from these ex¬
peditions was kept alive only in scientific
publications, since for many years little
further progress was made in the explora¬
tion of Mexico. Biologists were well
aware that at our very door flourished a
tropical flora and fauna as luxurient and
as diverse as is to be found in almost
any part of the earth. They knew, more¬
over, that the high central plateau of
Mexico and the massive mountain ranges
which border the plateau harbor plants
and animals which are either the same
or related to those of temperate North
America, and that a thorough study of
the natural history of Mexico would be
necessary before many of the phenomena
concerning our own animal and plant life
could be adequately explained.

In recent years, this spark of interest
has burst into a flame of renewed explora¬
tion and research. With closer coopera¬
tion between the scientific institution of
Mexico and the United States, improved

traveling facilities, and peaceful internal
and international conditions, more and
more American investigators have been
going to Mexico for a few weeks or a few
months, and even more have been en¬
gaged in the study of their collections
and findings. The Mexican students
themselves have been exploring their land
more assiduously than heretofore, and
have created several excellent journals
for reporting their results and those of
their American colleagues. In our own
country, scarcely a single issue of many
of the leading biological journals appears
without one or more articles devoted in
whole or part to Mexican specimens,
observations, or research.

In Mexico City, in buildings furnished
by the Mexican government, the U. S. De¬
partment of Agriculture maintains an
excellent laboratory for study of the fruit
fly. There it can determine the fly’s im¬
portance should it become established in
our own orchards, and suggest methods
of combating it and preventing it from
crossing the international border. Field
laboratories in various parts of Mexico
contribute additional information towards
this study. Other investigators have been
exploring Mexico for rare or valuable
plants for breeding or cultivation, or to
encourage their cultivation in Mexico for
the mutual benefit of both nations.
Entomologists interested in the biological
control of insects have gone to Mexico in
search of parasites of Mexican insects
which have become important pests of our
crops, for with our modern commercial
activity and agricultural practices it is
often simple for such inadvertently in¬
troduced insects to become economic
liabilities.

If only to increase the volume of sci¬
entific knowledge, museum and university
researchers have been combing Mexico
for new or rare species, or to secure dis¬
tributional or ecological data for those
which are already known. The prox¬
imity of Mexico and the United States,
together with the intergradation and in-
terdigitation of this continent’s temperate

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

and tropical biotic elements there, make
these investigations of pertinent interest,
more so than if they were done in some
far-off land.

For the last four years, the speaker has
taken expeditions, each involving three
months of time and a staff of from five to
eleven persons, into Mexico to contribute
in a small measure to the increasing
wealth of knowledge concerning Mexican
plants and animals.

Our stopping places have been chosen,
so far as possible within the limits of
time and financial resources, to provide
us with as adequate a conception as pos¬
sible of the various biotic units that
characterize the Mexican region. In the
eastern lowlands we have made numerous
stops between the northern scrub forests
and the more humid central forests. Our
first stop each year has been in the thick
semi-desert scrub, similar to that of
Texas, less than a hundred miles south of
Laredo, and the second in a mesic,
temperate forest, less than a hundred
miles farther south, which greatly re¬
minds us of some of our Illinois ravine
forests. Then we have worked farther
south in the various transitional forests
that grade into the tropical jungles
characteristic of Central America. At
other times we have stopped in the moun¬
tains and traveled up and down through
the various altitudinal zones, and then
crossed the great divide and gone down
to the high central plateau which occu¬
pies the whole central part of Mexico.
Visiting these places year after year gives
those of us who can make the trip again
an opportunity to profit from our previ¬
ous experiences there and from what we
have learned during a winter of studying
our notes and specimens.

The composition of our party is de¬
signed so that we may gain as complete
a picture as possible of the biotic com¬
plement of each region in which we spend
a few days, weeks or months. The mem¬
bership of our fourth expedition consisted
of two entomologists, a mammologist, a
herpetologist, an ornithologist, a parasi¬
tologist, and a botanist, besides two
helpers for these men. In addition, we
brought our own cook to sustain them,
and a native student to make many of
• the necessary and time-consuming ar¬
rangements. The close cooperation be¬
tween the various members of the party
is of mutual benefit. For instance, the
ornithologist, mammologist, and herpe¬

tologist provide specimens for the parasi¬
tologist, or the latter, in turn, assists
each one in obtaining animals. The
botanist surveys the region, and after
consultation with the others who have
traveled through it in search of other
specimens, announces the vegetational
outlines and affinities of the locality
under study. Or he cares for plants
from which the entomologists have taken
certain insects, so that these hosts can
later be identified and the data recorded
with the names of the insects. The
herpetologist is sometimes so busy caring
for the specimens which the others bring
in in their searches that he cannot find
time to go into the field himself for days
at a time.

This method of procedure and organiza¬
tion, we believe, is an ideal way to study
any new region. We have succeeded in
obtaining several hundred new species of
plants and animals in Mexico, and almost
two dozen new genera of animals. In
addition, the known range of hundreds of
animals and plants have been extended,
and many rare forms have been brought
to the attention of students interested in
them. But best of all, we have secured
records of thousands of already known
species of plants and animals which help
us to correlate our findings with what is
already known about the biogeography of
Mexico. To make this information avail¬
able to other students, each of our men
has reports of his work in progress or in
press. In, addition, scores of papers by
others who have studied our specimens
have appeared or are in preparation or in
press.

Our results after four years of effort
might have been much more impressive
had we had expensive equipment and
ample financial backing, but with de¬
pendence mostly on collecting equipment
and our own five senses for specimens
and data, and with only some pecuniary
assistance from Chicago’s Field Museum
and a few other interested colleagues, be¬
sides the limited personal ability to
finance these trips, our efforts have been
restricted more than we have liked. In
addition, our gross inexperience and lack
of guidance on the first and second trips
greatly reduced our results, and it has
only been with increasing experience and
knowledge that we have begun to ac¬
complish that which we first hoped to do.
The loss of much of our insect collection
the first year and a serious accident early

Zoology — 19J+2 Meeting

211

the second year greatly hampered the
work, but the “breaks” on the last two
trips have been as good as the early ones
were bad.

Our most ambitious research problem
is now in progress in the mountains at
the southern end of the great Mexican
plateau. We have already spent four
months there in an investigation of a
swath of land, or transect, some fifty
miles long, which begins in a wide, swelt¬
ering river valley only a thousand feet
above sea level, and progresses upward
through the various transitional zones to
the temperate forests at six thousand
feet elevation, and then up the cold, damp
slopes of the adjacent mountain to its
summit at about twelve thousand feet.
In an isolated village at the halfway
point, seldom if ever before visited by
Americans, we have made our headquar¬
ters in the many rooms of one of the
town’s largest adobe houses. The local
people are our good friends and perform
many services as we spend happy and
busy weeks climbing up the mountain to
its peak, just a day’s journey above our
house, or down to the hot lowlands, just
a day’s journey below our house. On the
mountain, we work from base camps
which are supplied by frequent visits of
the expedition’s mule driver and his
balky animals. The middle region of this

steep transect, we easily work with the
house as a base, and in the lowlands we
lodge with a well-educated Dane who
makes our work easier with his many
years of experience in that section of the
country. In the lowlands, our work is
speeded since we are able to bring in our
truck, after a slow and treacherous drive,
and dash from place to place over the
hard valley floor, but in the mountains
we are connected with the world only by
forty miles of narrow, slippery, and
winding mule paths and a single noisy
telephone that operates only for one or
two hours a week if we are lucky after
yelling into its scratchy recesses for sev¬
eral hours beforehand.

After four months of work by eleven
people and many retainers, we have se¬
cured the records of part of the inverte¬
brates, many of the birds, and most of
the mammals, reptiles, and amphibia
which are found in this steep fifty mile
stretch of Mexican mountain country.
Our future plans, once the war is over
and traveling for nonbelligerent purposes
may be resumed, is to establish ourselves
in this region for a whole year, not only
to continue to study the altitudinal dif¬
ferences there, but also to observe the
seasonal variation in the flora and fauna.
Thus we hope to contribute our bit to the
exploration of Mexico.

212

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

COMPARATIVE PHARMACOLOGY OF MYOGENIC AND
NEUROGENIC HEARTS

C. Ladd Prosser

University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois

The hearts of adult vertebrates and
molluscs are known to be inhibited by
acetylcholine. These hearts are myogenic
in that their pacemakers are muscular in
nature, although the hearts may contain
secondary regulating neurones. It is sug¬
gested that myogenic hearts in general
may be inhibited by acetylcholine.

The hearts of decapod Crustacea, of
Limulus and of the grasshopper, Melano-
plus, have been shown to be accelerated
by acetylcholine. Limulus, the decapod
Crustacea, and probably Melanoplus have
ganglionic pacemakers, i.e., are neuro¬
genic. It is suggested that neurogenic
hearts may be accelerated by acetylcho¬
line.

Embryonic hearts (Fundulus) were
shown by Armstrong (1935) to be un¬
affected by acetylcholine prior to vagal
innervation. Apparently innervation sen¬
sitizes the heart so that it is inhibited by
the drug. We have investigated the effect
of acetylcholine on the heart of Limulus
throughout early development. From the
21st to 32nd days when the heart is not
innervated (Carlson and Meek 1908)
acetylcholine is without effect. Later it
is accelerated. It is suggested, therefore,
that non-innervated hearts are not af¬
fected by acetylcholine.

Kymographic records were obtained of
the heart beat of the annelid, Arenicola,
and the hearts and dorsal vessel of Lum-
bricus were counted. Both these animals
showed acetylcholine acceleration. His¬
tological evidence supports the suggestion
that their hearts are neurogenic.

The heart of the freshwater isopod
Caecidotea is accelerated by acetylcholine.
Multipolar ganglion cells have been de¬
scribed in the heart of the isopod, Ligia

(Alexandrowicz, 1932). The hearts of
two amphipods, Talorchestia and Bactru-
rus, and of a eopepod, Diaptomus, are
likewise accelerated. It is likely that
they are neurogenic.

Baylor (1941) has found the heart of
Daphnia to be inhibited by acetylcholine.
Ingle (personal communication) has been
unable to find ganglion cells in this heart.

Acetylcholine is without effect, even in.
high concentrations (10“3) with or with¬
out eserine, on the hearts of Artemia or
Eubranchippus. Pure adrenaline is also
ineffective on the Atemia heart although
adrenalin solution (Parke Davis) inhibits
due to the reducing agent, sodium bisul¬
phite. A variety of control experiments
shows that lack of effect of acetlycholine
is not due to lack of penetration into the
animals. It is suggested on the basis
of the Fundulus and Limulus embryo ex¬
periments that the hearts of Artemia and
Eubranchippus are not innervated.

In general, potassium acts much the
same as acetylcholine. Calcium antagon¬
izes potassium by slowing the higher
Crustacean and Limulus hearts but its
effects on myogenic hearts are complex.

It is likely that the action of acetylcho¬
line provides a pharmacological method
for distinguishing between neurogenic, in¬
nervated myogenic, and non-innervated
hearts.

REFERENCES

Alexandrowicz, J. S. 1932. Quelques experi¬
ences sur le fonctionnement du systSme
nerveux du coeur des Crustaces Isopodes.
C. R. Soc. Biol. 108, 1270.

Armstrong, P. B. 1935. The role of the
nerves in the action of acetylcholine on
the embryonic heart. J. Physiol. 84, 20-32.
Baylor, E. R. 1941. Stroboscopic studies on
the heartbeat of the water flea, Daphnia.
Master’s thesis, University of Illinois.
Carlson, J. and W. J. Meek. 1908. On the
mechanism of the embryonic heart rhythm
in Limulus. Am. J. Physiol. 21, 1-10.

Zoology — 191$ Meeting

213

INDUCED OVULATION IN RAN A PIPIENS III

True W. Robinson

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

The relation of the pituitary gland to
ovulation in amphibians has been studied
since the work of Wolf in 1929. Implan¬
tations of the pituitary into the lateral or
femoral lymph sac1 and under the skin2,
and injections of pituitary suspensions
into the abdominal vein,2 dorsal lymph
sac or hind leg muscles,3 and body
cavity,4’ 6’ 6 have all caused ovulation. In¬
jections of other substances besides am¬
phibian pituitaries such as human pla¬
centa,3 whole sheep pituitary,4 antuitrin-
S,6 human pregnancy urine,7’ 8 proges¬
terone,8 testosterone and methyl testos¬
terone,10 have also induced more or less
ovulation. These studies on the effect of
various substances on the ovulation pro¬
cess have been complicated by the fact
that the ovaries were left in the animals
during the period of ovulation. A quan¬
titative measurement of the amount of
ovulation is difficult to obtain under such
circumstances. The writer, in collabora¬
tion with Henry C. Hill, Jr., has
shown11, 12 that ovulation may be studied
quantitatively by removing the ovaries
some hours after injection of the frog and
suspending them in Ringer’s solution.

Recently ovulation has been obtained
from ovaries which were removed from
normal uninjected females and placed in
Ringer’s solution containing a suspension
of female pituitaries. Zwarenstein13 re¬
ported that ovulation can be induced in
excised ovaries of Xenopus, suspended in
Ringer’s solution, by the addition of pro¬
gesterone, and Shapiro and Zwarenstein14
showed that testosterone and androsten-
edione are similarly effective. Experi¬
ments reported in this paper prove that
ovaries from Rana pipiens will ovulate
when placed in Ringer’s solution con¬
taining Rana pipiens pituitaries.

Method. — Hibernating frogs received
from Wisconsin were soaked in cold
water and placed in a refrigerator at 0
to 1° C. until used. They were periodic¬
ally removed, bathed in cold water, and
returned to refrigerator. Under these
conditions good ovulation was obtained in

experiments covering a month’s time.
Pituitary glands were removed from fe¬
males, placed in Ringer’s solution, and
broken up into a fine suspension. Vari¬
ous concentrations of the hormones for
each experiment were prepared by dilu¬
tion from such a pituitary suspension.
Ovaries from the same females used for
the pituitary suspension or from other
females were removed and portions of
these ovaries were suspended by Nich-
rome wires in vials containing the Ringer-
pituitary suspension. Ovulation occurred
in these pituitary suspensions, and by
periodic counts until ovulation ceased the
rate and total amount of ovulation was
determined.

Experiments

1. Effect of pituitary concentration on
ovulation.

Six experiments were performed in
which the ovaries were placed in various
concentrations of female pituitaries, rang¬
ing from zero to one pituitary per ml of
suspension. The results of these experi¬
ments are summarized in Table I.

Only one egg was obtained in six con¬
trol vials which contained the Ringer’s
solution but no pituitary. No eggs were
found in the six vials which contained
0.001, 0.002, and 0.005 pituitary per ml.
Starting with 0.01 some ovulation
occurred, increased to a maximum around
0.08 and decreased to a minimum at 1.0
pituitary per ml. Experiments performed
a year ago, using concentrations of sev¬
eral pituitaries per ml, gave no ovulation.
The occurrence of a maximum effect is
interesting because it shows that some
inhibitory factor, which increases with
concentration, must be present; and the
low optimal concentration (0.08) may in¬
dicate something of the amount of pitui¬
tary normally needed in the female at
the time of ovulation.

2. Effect of methods of storage of the
frogs on the subsequent ovulation.

In a second series of experiments a
new shipment of female frogs was divided

214

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Table I. Effect of Pituitary Concentration on Ovulation Concentration in
Pituitaries Per ml of Ringer-Pituitary Suspension

0

.001

.002

.005

.01

.02

.03

.04

.05

.06

.07

.08

.09.

.10

.20

.50

1.0

Average eggs per vial . .

0

0

0

0

12

11

23

26

15

9

25

28

13

12

8

5

5

Table II.— Effect of Two Methods of Storage of Frogs on Ovulation
Jar A Frogs Kept in Water; Jar B Frogs in Moist Air

Pituitaries from

Ovaries from

Pituitaries and
ovaries from

Jar A

Jar B

Jar A

Jar B

Jar A

Jar B

Average eggs per vial _

26

28

39

15

35

12

in two groups. One group of frogs was
placed in a large jar (A) containing
about one inch of water, the other group
in a similar jar (B) containing cheese
cloth saturated with water. Thus, some
of the frogs (jar A) were continually in
water and the others were always in a
moist atmosphere, but not actually in
water. Both jars of frogs were kept in
the refrigerator at 0 to 1° C. Four com¬
binations of pituitary suspensions and
ovaries were made. Ovaries from jar A
frogs were tested in suspensions of pitui¬
taries from both jar A and jar B frogs
and similarly for the ovaries of jar B
frogs. In all cases the suspensions were
made up to a concentration of 0.08 pitui¬
tary per ml. The results are summar¬
ized in Table II.

The pituitaries of both sets of frogs
were equally potent when tested on
ovaries of either set; but the response
from ovaries of frogs kept in water (jar
A) was nearly three times as great (39
to 15 eggs) as that from ovaries of frogs
kept in moist air. Successive experi¬
ments showed that the response from jar
B ovaries became progressively weaker
with time.

When the combination of jar A pitui¬
taries plus ovaries is compared with that
of jar B pituitaries plus ovaries it is
seen that the jar A combination is about
three times better than that of jar B.
This difference, as could be inferred from
the above paragraph, is due nearly en¬
tirely to the decreased response of the
jar B ovaries and not to the decreased
potency of the jar B pituitaries.

3. Effect of pH on ovulation .

Measurements of the pH of the pituitary
solutions at the end of each experiment
gave values averaging around 5.5. Pre¬
liminary experiments with buffer solu¬
tions showed that good ovulation can be
obtained in buffer solutions with pH
values around 5.5.

Summary. — 1. Excised ovaries from
normal female frogs (Rana pipiens) will
ovulate when placed in Ringer’s solution
containing pituitaries from Rana pipiens
frogs. 2. Under the experimental condi¬
tions employed it was found that:

a. No ovulation occurred in suspensions
of zero, 0.001, 0.002, and 0.005 pituitaries
per ml. b. Maximum ovulation occurred
at about 0.08 pituitary per ml. c. Little
or no ovulation occurred in suspensions
of one of more pituitaries per ml. d. In
0.08 pituitary per ml. suspensions good
ovulation occurred at pH values around
5.5.

REFERENCES

1 Wolf, O. M., 1929, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol.

and Med., 26, 692-693.

2 Houssay, B. A., L. Giusti, and J. M. Las-

cano-Gonzalez, 1929, Comp. rend. Soc. de
Biol., 102, 864-866.

3 Adams, E. A., 1931, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol.

and Med., 28, 677-681.

4 Buyse, A., and R. K. Burns, Jr., 1931,

Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med., 29, 80-81.

5 Ogilivie, A. E., 1933, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol.

and Med., 30, 752-753.

6 Rugh, R., 1937, Physiol. Zool., 10, 84-100.

7 Bellerby, C. W., 1934, Nature, 133, 494-495.

8 Shapiro, H. A., and H. Zwarenstein, 1934,

Nature, 133, 762.

9 Zwarenstein, H., 1937-1938, Trans. Roy.

Soc. South Africa, 25, x, (Proc. Roy.
Soc. S. A., 21 Oct. 1936).

10 Shapiro, H. A., 1936, J. Soc. Chem. Ind.,

55, Part I. Chem. and Ind., 1031-1032.

11 Robinson, T. W., and H. C. Hill, Jr., 1940,

Trans. Ill. State Acad. Sc., 33, 223-224.

12 Hill, H. C., Jr., and T. W. Robinson, 1941,

Trans. Ill. State Acad. Sc., 34, 221-222.

13 Zwarenstein, H., 1937, Nature, 139, 112-113.

14 Shapiro, H. A., and H. Zwarenstein, 1937,

J. Physiol., 89, 38P (Proc. Physiol. Soc.).

Zoology — 19J+2 Meeting

215

CYCLOCEPHALA ABRUPT A IN ILLINOIS
(COLEOP.: SCARAB.)

Garland T. Riegel

State Natural History Survey, TJrbana, Illinois

To naturalists the sand areas of this
state have long been the objects of great
interest because some of the plant and
animal inhabitants of such regions are
more or less restricted to sand. Further¬
more, many of these organisms seem to
be of western origin. As Vestal (1913)
has pointed out, “many animals reach the
eastern limit of their range in the Illinois
sand areas. Others are not continuous in
distribution, but occur in the sand areas
and also in the West.” This note is con¬
cerned with what is apparently an ex¬
ample of the latter type of distribution
pattern.

In 1907 Hart and Gleason reported on
a study of the sand area around Havana,
listing many western plants and animals.
Hart demonstrated the western derivation
of much of the insect fauna, with special
emphasis on the Orthoptera. Ross (1934)
has since briefly discussed that order in
relation to all the sand areas of the
state.

The presence of a western termite,
Reticulitermes tibialis Banks, has been
reported by Dietz (1924) from a sandy
region in southwestern Indiana, and Park
(1929) records the same species from the
dunes of the northwestern part of that
state. It also has been taken in the
sandy region near St. Anne, Illinois.

More recently Knight (1941) has given
an interesting record of a plant bug,
Largidea grossa Van Duzee, from Havana.
Previously this species had been reported
only from California, Oregon and Ari¬
zona.

On the evening of July 21, 1941, I col¬
lected a number of specimens of a
Cyclocephala which were flying to the
lights at the Natural History Survey
Field Laboratory near Havana. Through
the interest of Dr. M. W. Sanderson
these were identified by Mr. L. W. Saylor

Fig. 1. — Cyclocephala abrupta (Casey),
male and female (enlarged).

as Cyclocephala abrupta (Casey), fig. 1.
The record of this species from Illinois is
unusual since previously it has been re¬
ported only from California, Arizona and
Oregon (Saylor, 1937). The similarity
between the known distribution of this
little scarab and that of Largidea grossa
is striking.

It is intriguing to speculate as to how
many more species of western insects
range into the sand areas of Illinois and
thus far have escaped notice.

LITERATURE CITED

Dietz, H. F. 1924. Notes on the termites of
Indiana — II. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. (1923).
33: 299-301.

Hart, C. A. and H. A. Gleason. 1907. On
the biology of the sand areas of Illinois.
Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist. 7 (7):

137-272.

Knight, H. H. 1941. The plant bugs, or
Miridae, of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist.
Survey. 22 (1) : 1-234.

Park, Orlando. 1929. Reticulitermes tibialis
Banks in the Chicago area. Proc. Ent.
Soc. Wash. 31 (7) : 121-126.

Ross, H. H. 1934. In Morgan Hebard, The
Dermaptera and Orthoptera of Illinois.
Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Survey. 20 (3): 125-
279.

Saylor, L. W. 1937. Revision of California
Cyclocephala. Jour. Ent. Zool. 29 (3) :
67-70.

Vestal, A. G. 1913. An associational study
of Illinois sand prairie. Bull. Ill. State
J^ab. Nat. Hist. 10 (1) : 1-96.

216

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

PEECAVAL ANOMALIES OF THE CAT

J. M. Sanders

Chicago Teachers College, Chicago, Illinois

The usual or normal precava of the
cat is formed by the junction of the
right and left innominate veins each of
which receives an internal and an ex¬
ternal jugular and a subclavian. Veins
of an adult cat in which the innominates
failed to join are described early in this
paper, and later, attention is given to a
specimen in which the coronary sinus
empties into the precava.

In the first variation considered the
innominates have not joined and the left
descending vein follows the coronary
groove around the dorsal aspect of the
heart to enter the right atrium posterior
to the entrance of the post cava. This is
the usual location of the entrance of the
coronary sinus. The ventricular myo¬
cardium is drained by several venous
branches which empty into the anomalous
structure. There were also a few venous
twigs which drained directly into the
atrium. The atypical vein appears to
represent the left innominate and the
coronary sinus which have remained con¬
nected. The variation therefore is a
persistent anterior and common cardinal.
The anastomosis which normally occurs
across the anterior cardinals cephalad to
the heart failed to appear in the present
instance and embryonic channels remain
as the adult, functional, veins. No other
significant difference is present. The
right side is typical with both the
azygous and sternal veins present as
branches entering the right precava, or in
the present case, the right anterior and
common cardinal veins. This latter vein

enters the right atrium in the same lo¬
cality characteristic of the normal mam¬
malian anterior vena cava.

Another adult cat possessed an unique
vein which drained the blood from the
ventricular myocardium into the other¬
wise normal anterior vena cava. This
vein entered the dorsal aspect of the
precava two centimeters posterior to the
innominate junction. It drained almost
the entire area of ventricular myocard¬
ium except for a few anastomosing twigs
which emptied directly into the atrium.
There was no coronary sinus entrance
into the atrium. It is suggested that the
peculiarly located vein draining the
heart is the posterior portion of the
anterior cardinal with the common
cardinal. Again, the variant seems to be
a persistent embryonic condition. When
the right and left precaval veins (anterior
cardinals) anastomosed, to form the
single vessel which empties into the right
atrium, the left vessel posterior to the
anastomosis failed to degenerate and re¬
mained as a functional vessel. It is not
certain what happened to the cardiac end
of the common cardinal. It may have
become occluded in the changes of the
developing sinus and atrium or it may
have never been open into the sinus
venosus.

It is very probable that in the develop¬
ment of the anterior vena cava any
significant variation is a retention of
embryologic features. This fact has al¬
ready been pointed out in connection
with the post cava.

Zoology — 191+2 Meeting

217

COLOR DISCRIMINATION IN CANARIES*

Hurst H. Shoemaker
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Introduction — it is a common belief
that lower animals lack the ability to
discriminate between colors. Such an as¬
sumption seemed to be unfounded for
most of the species studied and therefore
indicated the need for testing many more
forms. Among birds the chicken, pigeon,
ring dove, and shell parakeet have been
tested and all showed color discrimina¬
tion. Among Passeriformes, the English
sparrow and cow-bird were tested with
colored papers but these methods have
. since been proved inadequate due to in¬
tensity factors.

The author, in a previous experiment,
had trained canaries to discriminate be¬
tween a red and a green filter, thus offer¬
ing the opportunity to discover whether
these birds were responding to differences
in the intensities transmitted or to the
wave lengths.

Materials and Methods. — A “two-choice”
problem box 15 inches high, 42 inches
long, and 28 inches wide (Fig. 1), was
constructed of plywood. Red and green
Wratten A and C Monochromatic light
filters mounted as lantern slides were
placed over round openings in the end of
the maze before the 25W lamps at Ei and
E2. Overhead lights illuminated the box
through a screen wire roof. The birds
were transferred from the home cage to
small individual cages. Each bird in
turn was introduced at the entrance A,
went through runway B toward the
colored lights. At the open sliding doors,
Ci and C2, it had to make a choice of go¬
ing into alley Di or D2. If the bird en¬
tered the alley illuminated by the color
to which it was being trained to go it
was allowed to pass on out into the exit
alley Fi or F2, through the open door
Gi or G2, into the return runway Hi or
H2, and into the home cage. But when
the bird was being trained to green and
the green filter was at E2 with the red at
Ei, the bird made an error and entered
Di, the door Ci was immediately closed.
For this trial the door Gi had been closed

and the bird ran back and forth in Di
and Fi for one minute as penalty for
making the incorrect choice. At the end
of the minute door Ci was opened long
enough to let the bird back into B and
then closed. It then passed through D2,
F2, out the open G2, and back to the home
cage through H2. Thus only one error
could be made at a trial.

Getting out of the foreign problem box
where all visual contact with its fellows
was cut off and returning to the home
cage to which it was accustomed provided
sufficient motivation for rapid learning.
The birds usually showed considerable
learning in 20 - 30 trials though they con¬
tinued to improve for variable lengths of
time. The birds became trained to either
red or green without any apparent aver¬
sion to either color. There was a strong
tendency shown to go always to the same
side regardless of the signal color unless
penalties are begun at the outset. This
rendered color “preference” experiments
meaningless here as was shown in an
earlier series.

In order to avoid the one side habit
the birds were forced to go out to the
right the same number of times as
the left according to the pattern
LRLLRLRRLR, etc. Even this pattern
was altered often enough to show that
they had not learned it but were respond¬
ing to the signal light. The 6 birds re¬
ported upon here were all trained to
green in a red-green combination and
were given 162 trials with 25W lamps
behind each filter. By that time they
were making an average of only one
error in 17 trials.

Color discrimination test. — The next
step was to run a series of 28 trials for
each bird (168 total) with the light in¬
tensity made very unequal behind the
filters. This was accomplished by using
a 200W in combination with a 25W
lamp. The 200W lamp was moved from
right to left according to the pattern
RLRLRL, etc. Thus the more intense

* The assistance of Barbara Weil and Eugene Lipner is gratefully acknowledged.

218

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

O

o;

Fig. 1. — Two-choice problem box.

light fell behind the two colors an equal
number of times. Though it is known
that colors have varying intensity values
for different species the great inequality
in the light sources would counteract
them.

The number of errors made in this
series of 168 trials (Table I) was 10
which happened to be the same number
as was made in the preceding 168 trials.
The average time consumed (Table II)
was slightly greater as might be expected
after altering the customary conditions.

Table I. — Number of Errors in “Two-
Choice” Problem Box

Errors Per 7 Trials
25W&25W 200W&25W

Bird Lamps Lamps

109-R 0 0

233-T 0 0

111-C 1 1

115-H . 0 0

238-B 0 1

216-L 1 1

2 3

0 1 0 0 0 0
10 0 10 0
0 0 10 10
0 0 110 1
11 110 0
1 0 0 2 0 0

3 2 3 5 1 1

Table II. — Time Required in “Two-Choice” Problem Box With One-Minute

Penalties Deducted

Average Time in Seconds For 7 Trials

Bird 25W&25W Lamps 200W & 25W Lamps

109-R 6.3 6.3 6.1 8.8 8.8 8.3 10.1 8.6

233-T 4.4 6.4 6.0 4.1 6.0 4.8 4.4 4.6

111-C 14.0 8.3 7.3 7.6 11.8 9.6 9.4 8.6

H5-H . 10.6 11.6 21.8 13.7 22.6 25.0 18.6 17.7

238-B 5.0 6.1 5.6 6.7 5.0 5.4 4.3 4.6

216-L 4.8 4.3 4.7 6.0 5.6 7.8 5.1 4.3

Ave . 7.5 7.1 8.6 7.8 9.8 10.1 8.6 8.6

Zoology — 19J+2 Meeting

219

For further evidence that the response
was to color, one or the other of the
light sources Ei or E- was turned off.
The green trained birds continued going
to green in the absence of red or con¬
tinued to avoid red in the absence of
green. A red trained bird under the same
conditions continued to the red in the
absence of green and avoided green in
the absence of red. Further tests were
made with one or the other of the filter
slides completely removed allowing the
white light to show from behind and
similar results were obtained.

Conclusions. — Canaries learned to dis¬
criminate between red and green light
as transmitted through Wratten tricolor
light filters A and B. No matter how
much the intensities were varied with
even one or the other light source en¬
tirely removed the birds continued posi¬

tive to the color to which they had been
trained and negative to the one which
they were trained to avoid.

REFERENCES

Bailey, F. W. and Riley, C. F. C., 1931, Color
vision and formation of associations with
reference to light of various wave lengths
in the parrakeet ( Melopsittacus wndulatus
Shaw). Trans. Roy. Can. Inst. 18:47-115.

Brown, Frank A., 1937, Responses of a large-
mouth black bass to colors. Ill. Nat. Hist.
Surv. Bull. 21:33-55.

DeVoss, J. C. and Ganson, Rose, 1915, Color
blindness in cats. Jour. Animal Behav.
5 :115-139.

Frisch, Karl von, 1927, Aus dem Leben der
Bienen. Berlin, J. Springer, 149 pp.

Grether, Walter F., 1940, Chimpanzee color
vision. Jour. Comp. Psyc. 29 :167-192.

Lashley, K. S., 1916, The color vision of
birds. Jour. Animal Behav., 6 :l-26.

Walton, W. E. and Borneimeier, R. W., 1939,
Color discrimination in rats. Jour. Comp.
Psyc. 28:417-436.

Yerkes, R. M., 1907, The dancing mouse.
New York, Macmillan, 290 pp.

STIMULATING AN INTEREST IN THE HISTORY OF THE
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

Stewart Craig Thomson

Loyola University School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois

There is a spreading wave of interest
in the history of the natural sciences.
This is particularly observed in medicine
but is apparent in all branches of science.

The student of science today possesses
a rich heritage. The biological sciences
have furnished no small part in the ac¬
cumulation of this legacy. From the
earliest times up to the present, they
have played an integral and fundamental
role in the progress of civilization. The
history of biology and the history of
medicine are so closely related that it is
difficult to separate one from the other.

Dr. George W. Corner in his book on
the history of anatomy remarks that
“whether we feel it thus keenly or not,
however, the influence of the past in¬
evitably guides our hands as we work,
for not only in the ancient seats of the
science of anatomy, but in the newest
schools of America, the methods we use,
the names we learn, the present trends
of our investigation have been determined
by our predecessors; unless we under¬
stand them we can hardly understand our
own tasks.”1

Students in the biological sciences are
naturally interested in the relationship

of these sciences to man himself. This is
especially true if the student is enrolled
in a pre-medical course. Even if he is
not in that group, the interest shown by
all people in their own health and the
well-being of their fellow-men makes a
study of the history of the biological sci¬
ences an important contribution to one’s
general education.

To present a systematic series of lec¬
tures on the history of the biological sci¬
ences takes time away from the already
crowded schedule of laboratory studies
which are exceedingly essential. Other
means of stimulating an interest in
biological history are available. Such
methods have proved helpful in the ex¬
perience of those who have used them.
These include: (1) introductory lectures
and frequent, brief references to history
as it relates to the subject which is being
presented; (2) the use of a bulletin board
devoted to the history of biology; (3) the
encouragement of the reading of biog¬
raphies and histories related to biological
science; (4) the formation of a society
of students interested in problems in
history.

220

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

The introductory lecture to a course
serves as an excellent opportunity to ob¬
tain a “bird’s-eye” view over the entire
field of the subject. The historical ap¬
proach can be appropriately used at this
time. William Hunter (1718-1783),
founder of the Great Windmill Street
School of Anatomy which played a very
significant part in the history of medicine
and who was one of the greatest of the
teachers of anatomy, regularly began his
course of lectures with an account of
anatomical study from the days of
Aristotle and Galen to his own period.

Reference to history can very easily be
made at appropriate places. In a lecture
on circulation in a general college course
or in a pre-medical course, there is an
opportunity to mention William Harvey
and his classic of 1628, Exercitatio
Anatomioa Be Motu Cordis et Sanguinis
in Animalibus. Some students might be
stimulated to read this book which surely
belongs among those books which should
be familiar to every well-read man. Ap¬
propriate reference can be made to
Aristotle’s Historia Animalium and to
Harvey’s Exercitationes Be Generatione
Animalium in courses in college embry¬
ology. Perhaps copies of these works
can be displayed. The opportunities to
inculcate an interest in the history of
biological science in such a way are
numerous and varied.

A bulletin board which is regularly set
apart for the history of biology is a
means of stimulating interest. It should
be located in the laboratory in a place
where the light is good and where it is
easily accessible for the students. In our
Gross Anatomy laboratory we found such
a place. We have had occasion during
the past six years to observe how care¬
fully the bulletin board is studied. The
comments by the students and the ques¬
tions which have arisen in their minds —
for which they have sought further in¬
formation — have more than justified the
time spent in preparing the exhibits.

The bulletin board is changed each
week. When the student learns that new
material is placed weekly on the board he
will develop the habit of looking for the
display. Material for the exhibits is easy
to obtain. Envelopes which contain the
pictures, maps and cards bearing the
necessary data for each one can be filed
ready for use another time. Every year
brings new material. No small number
of our pictures have been found in the

advertisements of scientific companies
and in the advertising section of scien¬
tific journals. This is especially true of
material which is useful for an exhibit
on medical history. Photographs in
books and pictures of the title-pages of
certain biological classics are easily pro¬
cured. We have found that our medical
students watch for material of this sort.
Some of our finest illustrative material
has come from them.

The student is given a mimeographed
list of the bulletin board exhibits for the
course on the first day the class meets.
Brief biographical notes concerning the
men whose photographs are included in
the displays, and a bibliography of
readily accessible and interesting refer¬
ences are included with the list. The
schedule of the subjects is never the same
for any two years. A cluttered, crowded
board does not invite the student’s atten¬
tion. An attractive display of only a
small amount of pertinent material is far
preferable. The bulletin board must be
carefully arranged.

The exhibit on Galen will serve as an
example. A card with the word “Galen”
and the dates of his birth and death is
placed at the upper, middle part of the
board. Photographs of Athens and Rome
(two cities with which he was especially
identified) flank the title card on either
side. Beneath the card is a portrait of a
bust of Galen taken from an advertise¬
ment in a journal. A map of the Medi¬
terranean region occupies the center of
the display. Pergamum is marked with
red ink and a red string leads out to a
card which is inscribed with the words,
“Galen was born at Pergamum and was
the son of the architect and mathema¬
tician, Nikon. From 157-161 A. D. he was
surgeon to the gladiators of that city.”
Next to the card is an illustration of a
gladiatorial combat from a text-book of
ancient history. Smyrna, Corinth, Alex¬
andria, Rome and Athens are similarly
marked on the map and colored strings
lead to cards which bear pertinent data.
The left, lower corner of the board has a
page from a translation of his “Anat¬
omical Procedures,” and the right, lower
corner has a card on which is a brief
summary of Galen’s contributions as a
teacher, an author and a physician.

No two persons would ever choose the
same material for a bulletin board in
the history of biological science. The
schedule given here is only a suggestion

Zoology — 19J/.2 Meeting

221

as to the large amount of history which
can be covered in this way by having
each week an exhibit of material which
relates to one or more of the outstanding
biologists of history.

SCHEDULE OF BULLETIN BOARD
DISPLAYS

1. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)

2. Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D. )

3. Galen (131-201)

4. Avicenna (980-1037) and the Arabians

5. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

6. Vesalius (1514-64)

7. Gesner (1516-65)

8. Harvey (1578-1657)

9. Malpighi (1628-94)

10. Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

11. Linnaeus (1707-78)

12. John Hunter (1728-93) and His Asso-

ciates

13. Cuvier (1769-1832)

14. Schleiden (1804-81) and Schwann (1810-

82)

15. Mendel (1822-84)

16. Pasteur (1822-95)

17. Walter Reed (1851-1902) and Yellow

Fever

18. Biologists of the Twentieth Century

A shelf of books in the history of the
biological sciences is a constant invitation
to the student to enter and enjoy the
realm of literature of this sort. Books
should be located on an open shelf where
they may be examined at leisure. Locy’s
“The Story of Biology” and his “Biology
and Its Makers,” Singer’s “Greek Science
and Modern Science,” J. Arthur Thom¬
son’s “The Science of Life” and “Garri¬
son’s “History of Medicine” are only a
few examples of general books. Biog¬
raphies have led many students to a real
interest in the history of science. The
excellent biography of Osier by Harvey

Cushing and the one by Ethel Giddings
Reid, Sigerist’s “The Great Doctors,”
Paget’s “John Hunter, Man of Science
and Surgeon,” D’Arcy Powers’ “William
Harvey” and Foster’s “Claude Bernard”
are of this group. Paul De Kruif’s books
have led several college students whom I
know to an interest in the history of
medical science. An exhibit of carefully
chosen books in the laboratory or the
lecture-room, as well as in the library,
serves to direct attention to them in a
forceful way.

Students are gregarious and a society
for the history of biology will appeal to
many of them. This organization should
be properly supervised, but the students
themselves should assume the duties
which are required and take the leading
role in its activities. The preparation
and delivery of papers, the participation
in discussions and the training in the
conduct of meetings is most worthwhile.

These are only a few suggestions as to
how we can stimulate an interest in the
history of the biological sciences. Locy
says that “the place of biology in public
esteem and public consideration is well
established.” The time is here for us to
lay more emphasis upon the main scenes
and the chief actors in the intriguing
drama of biological history.

REFERENCES CITED

1. Corner, George W. : Anatomy (Clio

Medica Series), Paul B. Hoeber, Inc.,
N. Y. 1930, p. 1-2.

2. Locy, William A. : The Story of Biology,

Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., Gar¬
den City, N. Y., 1925, p. 4.

222

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

ZOOLOGICAL COURSES IN THE EARLY DAYS OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

Harley J. Van Cleave
University of Illinois , Urbana, Illinois

In a little less than a year the Univer¬
sity of Illinois will have passed the three
quarter century mark in its history.
When its doors were opened, in March
1868, to receive the first students, the
offerings of courses in science were natur¬
ally considerably different from what we
have come to regard as characteristic
courses today. Some of the changes in
course offerings have been due to changes
and development of the fields of knowl¬
edge while just as truly in part they are
attributable to changes in objectives.

The work in zoology in the University
of Illinois falls very readily into four
distinct epochs.

1. The gestation period from the
founding in 1868 to 1885 in a struggling
new institution.

2. The birth and rapid development of
teaching and research under the guiding
genius of Stephen A. Forbes (1885-1909).

3. The period of maturing and expand¬
ing of the scope of the department under
the leadership of Henry B. Ward (1909-
1933).

4. The current phase of the develop¬
ment of the physiological aspects of
zoology which became particularly recog¬
nized in the program in 1933.

In the present article only the first
two of these epochs will be considered.

In the minds of its founders, definite
plans for the University were carefully
formulated before it came into existence.
As engendered in the mind of Jonathan
B. Turner, the plan envisioned an institu¬
tion dedicated to the needs of the in¬
dustrial workers of the state. This idea
was carried out in the charter of the Uni¬
versity which bore the name of the “Illi¬
nois Industrial University” but the first
board of trustees broadened the concept
of “industrial” sufficiently to include sev¬
eral distinctly liberal fields of instruction
in the first program of the University,
even though only five faculty members
were available to do all the teaching.

However, the spirit of the practical

pervaded the whole institution and under
these circumstances it is not surprising
to find that the earliest courses in zoology
and entomology were particularly con¬
cerned with matters pertaining to agri¬
culture. One other important influence
supplemented the agricultural emphasis,
namely, the active interest in exploration
of the West.

In the earliest plans for a University,
a special committee outlined a series of
desirable professorships which in scope
looked very ambitious for a university
starting from nothing. In a carefully
guarded statement supplementing the pro¬
posed list of professorships (1867) it was
added “The number of professors must
depend upon the extent of the endow¬
ments and the consequent ability to pay
salaries.” And furthermore “Several of
these departments may at the outset be
represented by the same man.” In the
compromise between the ideal set up of
separate departments and the practical
problems of finance, the entire field of
natural history and geology were com¬
bined and to this post Major J. W. Powell
of Normal who was becoming distin¬
guished by his western explorations was
called but never became a resident
teacher.

In the first year of operation of the
University the Board of Trustees en¬
visioned researches in economic zoology
as a desirable field for development, but
such work had already been firmly estab¬
lished at Normal, under the agencies of
the State Entomologist and the State
Natural History Society which later be¬
came the State Laboratory of Natural
History. It was not until 1884, when
Stephen A. Forbes, in charge of these two
state organizations at Normal was per¬
suaded to come to Urbana as professor
of zoology and entomology that the Uni¬
versity acquired the prestige which these
scientific organizations had gained in the
fields of economic zoology and entomology.

In the first year (Catalogue for 1868-9)
the courses in zoology are rather sketchily

Zoology — 19^2 Meeting

223

described. Elementary zoology, given in
the second year, opened in the first term
with “Principles of Zoology — develop¬
ment, structure, classification and dis¬
tribution of animals.”

The second term was devoted to “Sys¬
tematic zoology, in lectures ; natural
orders, families, etc. ; embryology, and
peculiar modes of reproduction; alternate
generations; comparative anatomy as ap¬
plied to classification; collection and pres¬
ervation of specimens and natural his¬
tory of domestic animals.”

In the third term was given: “Ento¬
mology; classification of insects, habits of
those injurious to the region with means
of checking their ravages. Habits of
beneficial insects.”

The first term of the third year was
devoted to “general physiology, compara¬
tive anatomy and veterinary surgery.”

Little is known of the methods of in¬
struction in this first year, or of the
faculty except that Professor Burrill,
whose name is more familiar as a bota¬
nist, taught entomology and at least part
of the zoology. He held the title of
Assistant Professor of Natural Science.
Professor Forbes and Dr. L. O. Howard
have been outspoken in their praise of
the significance of his teaching.

The objectives of natural history in¬
struction in these early days are summed
up (1873-4, catalogue and circular, p.
37) in the statement of the objects of
The School of Natural History in the
following sentence: “The aim of this
School is to thoroughly educate and pre¬
pare Practical Geologists, Collectors and
Curators of cabinets and museums of
Natural History, and Superintendents of
scientific explorations and surveys.” It
was further recorded that “The instruc¬
tion is given by lectures and text-books
and excursions are made under charge of
the professors.” Laboratory work was
very limited. Late in this period it is
recorded that a course in anatomy for
veterinary students was taught, using a
papier-mache model of a horse for labora¬
tory study.

Until 1885, the teaching of natural sci¬
ence followed much the same trend as
that established when the University was
founded, with the objectives little changed
from those mentioned above. The year
1885 marks the opening of a new epoch
in the teaching of zoology and entomology
in this institution. On January 1 of that

year Stephen Alfred Forbes came to have
charge of Entomology and Zoology after
having been appointed the preceding
March. Under his guidance the teaching
of zoology was reorganized on new levels.

For a time he did all the teaching ex¬
cept for what help he commandeered from
the other scientific laboratories under his
direction. ’ Under his capable direction
zoology was no longer to remain a dis¬
cipline intended wholly for training
farmers and potential explorers, but be¬
came a professional field for intensive
cultivation in laboratory study and in re¬
search.

When he first organized the laboratory
teaching, Professor Forbes wrote out in
longhand detailed copy for laboratory
directions which were then duplicated by
the blueprint process. Later editions of
these guides were typewritten and dup¬
licated by a hectograph process. A copy
of this later edition was on display in the
University exhibit at the Chicago World’s
Fair in 1893.

When Frank Smith came to the Uni¬
versity, he introduced to the work of the
elementary course exercises in the study
of Protozoa and in preparation of micro¬
scopic sections. Modifications of these
outlines were used down to 1909 when
the courses of the department were en¬
tirely reorganized.

Previous to the coming of Forbes,
zoology and entomology had been taught
by individuals who had their chief in¬
terests in other fields, with no individual
devoting his entire time to teaching of
zoological subjects. As a start in build¬
ing a staff. Professor Forbes out of his
own meagre salary paid for a laboratory
assistant. From this beginning, the staff
was built to include specialists in various
fields. Joint employment by the State
Laboratory and the University enabled
the building much more rapidly than
could have been accomplished otherwise.
Offerings in physiology, aquatic biology,
experimental zoology, and ecology brought
expansion to the originally humble be¬
ginnings. By 1909, when Professor
Forbes retired as head of the Department
of Zoology, he left to the third epoch a
strong staff representing most of the
fields of zoology then recognized.

The history since 1909 parallels the
history of the development of new fields
and is too recent to merit special atten¬
tion here.

224

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

INTERRELATIONS OF INSECT-EATING INSECTS

W. V. Balduf

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

Scope of Entomophagy. Sweetman has
found published records showing that
224 insect families, distributed among
15 of the 25 insect orders, contain species
already known to live more or less by
eating relatives of their own class. I
estimate that about 100,000 of the million
species of insects catalogued to date pos¬
sess structural or physiological adapta¬
tions fitting them to make such use of
their kin. These adaptive modifications
for entomophagy find full opportunity for
expression in the amazing variety of
form and mode of life exhibited by the
prolific and ubiquitous insects in their
several metamorphic stages. Grubs in
soil are hunted by fossorial predatory and
parasitic wasps; caterpillars excavating
herbaceous and woody plants are reached
by the boring ovipositors and supersenses
of ichneumonids; eggs, whether laid on
exposed surfaces or in prepared crevices,
are penetrated by the piercing mechanism
of numerous microscopic serphids and
chalcids, some of which even use wings
as oars to swim in water where the host
eggs occur; the malodorous nymphs and
adults of bugs afford no defense against
the ovipositors or larvipositors of tach-
inid flies, and neither the jumping
nymphs of grasshoppers or the flying,
hard-shelled adult of beetles are immune
from parasitization by sarcophagid and
other dipterous parasites. This small
series of instances serves to show that
insects, regardless of developmental stage,
place of residence, mode of defense and
manner of locomotion, are sought out and
devoured, either at once or by small de¬
grees over a period of time, by some
entomophagous hexapod possessed of
equally effective means for overcoming
the defensive positions or structures of
some relative. However, it would be
worth while, if space permitted, to con¬
sider whether the predatory and parasitic
ten per cent are actually equipped with
the variety of senses and structures neces¬
sary to reach and employ as sources of
nutriment all the bionomic types occur¬

ring among the non-entomophagous nine-
tenths of the insect class.

Predatism and Parasitism. The rela¬
tions entomophagous insects sustain to
their non-entomophagous kin naturally
form two classes, predatism and parasi¬
tism. Both these expressions of entomo¬
phagy are richly exemplified, and except¬
ing some annoying borderline cases, are
readily distinguished by the features pre¬
sented in the following characterizations.

Predatism appears in both the major
insect subclasses, Heterometabola and
Holometabola. In the former, both the
nymphal and adult stages are predatory,
if either is so, and in the latter either the
larval or adult stages, or, in some groups,
both, practice predatism. The predator
is mostly larger than the prey it devours
or sucks out, but those equipped with
grasping and inactivating devices of un¬
usual efficiency commonly overcome in¬
sects of more bulk than themselves. In
either case, the prey is killed quite
promptly after seizure, and more or less
consumed during the time that follows
immediately. Inactivation is achieved by
stinging, injection of a deadly digestive
secretion through the mouth parts, or by
simple mechanical biting with chewing
jaws. While not a few are fitted for
watchful and patient waiting until prey
comes into reach of legs or mouth parts,
the majority use legs and/or wings to
hunt aggressively. This locomobility
brings the predator over a wide terrain
and hence in contact with a numerically
high average diversity of prey forms and
helps to account for its utilization of a
different captive at each meal. Where
the adult, as well as the young, is preda¬
cious, its faculties for locomotion result
also in the wide distribution of the egg
progeny, — as a consequence the preda¬
tory nymph and larva may hatch more or
less remote from the essential prey food.
This imposes on them the obligation to
hunt for the living insect to be victimized
and ingested.

Zoology — 19^2 Meeting

225

Parasitism, on the other hand, expresses
itself only in the Holometabola, and with
few questionable exceptions, the feeding¬
growing larvae alone are parasitic
entomophags. Many adult female ichneu-
monid, chalcidoid, sphecoid and vespoid
Hymenoptera, and a few true' flies feed
on the individuals of the species used as
a host by the larva, or even on one not
so used, but since these do not confine
themselves to any one individual and live
there only irregularly, this relation is
more akin to predatism than to para¬
sitism. The parasitic larva, particularly
early in its development, is smaller than
the stage of the insect it employs as a
host. And because it generally avoids
feeding on the vital viscera but utilizes
at first only such reserve materials as
nutriment in the blood or fat body, the
parasite usually permits the host to live
as long as, or even somewhat longer than
itself, thereby assuring itself with a food
supply adequate to complete its parasitic
life. In a few known cases the host dies
early, hence the parasite becomes obliged
to feed in its later phase in a scavenger-
ous capacity. Many adult parasitic
Hymenoptera, exclusive of the true wasps,
paralyze the host by stinging. Here the
size differential between parasitic and
host stages is such that the latter pro¬
vides the food bulk needed by the former
despite cessation of its growth due to in¬
activation. Adult parents of the para¬
sitic larvae resemble the parental preda¬
tors in their locomobility, but are gener¬
ally selective, not promiscuous in their
choice of hosts for reception of the egg
or larva. This comparative selectivity
seems to be determined on the one hand
by such inherited specialized mechanisms
as sensory organs and ovipositors, and
on the other by the structural, physio¬
logical and bionomic limiting factors of
the hosts or their habitats. This is equiv¬
alent to stating that the larva has little
to do with host selection, hence, in the
case of polyphagous species, the parasite
seems to be adjustable to diverse hosts.
Because the parasitic larva is mostly leg¬
less from hatching to maturity, its place¬
ment on the hosts by the parent is obvi¬
ously essential to survival. But this
principle does not apply to the consider¬
able number of species whose first larval
instars are active planidia or triungulins.
However, also, these undergo a degener¬
ative metamorphosis that leaves them

increasingly sessile and helpless after the
first molt.

Forms of Parasitism. Parasitism seems
to assume a greater variety of forms than
predatism, hence also a greater diversity
of relations to their food species. The
principal relations or forms have been
fairly well defined to date, but numerous
further variations of these are readily
found among the species whose bionomics
have been investigated. The chief rela¬
tions are distinguished on the basis of
the position the parasite assumes with
reference to the host, the number of para¬
sitic individuals or species attacking a
host, and the relation of the several para¬
sites to each other.

First, classified as to position, the
larvae are ectoparasitic or endoparasitic.
Although the large majority attack the
host exclusively either from without or
from within, a few species initiate the
attack externally and terminate their de¬
velopment as endoparasites, and a few
cases of the reverse relation have been
recorded.

Second, entomophagous parasitism is
solitary when but one individual attacks
one host, but gregarious or supernum¬
erary when two or more parasitic larvae
attack one host simultaneously and sus¬
tain like, i.e., parallel relations to it.
Gregariousness may involve a number of
larvae of a single species, — a relation
termed superparasitism, or the number
may represent two, and possibly more,
species, — a condition described as multi¬
parasitism.

Third, where several parasitic species
are associated with one host, but sustain
a successive instead of a simultaneous
relation to it, each successively attacking
its immediate predecessor, a relation
known as hyperparasitism exists. Here
the primary or non-parasitic host (e.g. a
leaf-eating caterpillar) is first attacked
by the primary parasite (e.g. an ichneu-
monid); the latter, in turn is utilized as
a source of food by a secondary parasite
(e.g. a chalcid), thus becoming the
secondary host. Hyperparasitism of the
secondary degree is richly exemplified
among the ichneumonid and chalcid
Hymenoptera, but well demonstrated in¬
stances of tertiary parasitism seem to be
infrequent. In a few cases (e.g. the
chalcid Dibrachys cavus), the species
work at one time as a primary and at
another as a secondary parasite.

226

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Fourth, since only the larvae and not
the adults of Holometabola are entomo-
phagous parasites, the parasitism de¬
scribed here is exclusively transitory in
character; no absolute parasitism, in
which all the life stages live entomo-
phagously on or in the host, occurs. The
nearest approach to the permanent rela¬
tion appears in certain Scelionidae whose
adults ride the adult host, thereby
facilitating oviposition in the host egg.
But these phoric adult forms are not
known to derive their food from the
parent host, hence do not constitute en-
tomophagous parasites.

Fifth, entomophagous parasitic insects
vary greatly from facultative to obliga¬
tory from the standpoint of their de¬
pendence on the host. A few seem to be
limited to one stage of one species, others
to a few of close taxomic relationship or
of similar modes of life or habitats,
whereas a large number exhibit a wider
adaptability and utilize hosts of more
varied taxonomy and bionomics. These
several degrees of dependence may be ex¬
pressed as monophagous, oligophagous
and polyphagous. Predators are largely
polyphagous, but some forms that stand
close to the borderline between predatism
and parasitism are restricted to few prey
species (e.g. blister beetles predatory ex¬
clusively in the egg masses of locusts).

Phoresy. This relation, in which one
species utilizes another as a carrier but
not as a direct source of food, serves
merely to facilitate parasitism and does
not in itself constitute entomophagy.
Two varieties of phoresy occur among
entomophagous insects. In one, exempli¬
fied by the scelionid, Rielia manticida
Kieff., the adult female rides largely the
female, more infrequently the male, of
certain mantids. When the mantid de¬
posits her egg mass, covering it with a
frothy matrix as she proceeds, the Rielia
females descend to the host eggs and in¬
sert their own into them. It appears to
be essential for success that parasitiza-
tion be accomplished while the host
matrix is yet soft and the host embryo
exists in an early phase of development.

In the other variety of phoresy, the
active first instar larva of several parasi¬
tic groups ride the adults of their hosts,
which are ants, bees and wasps. These
larvae hunt or wait for the Hymenoptera
on the nest site or in flowers in order
to ascend upon them and to be carried to

the host nests. The larvae of some blister
beetles are carried by bees and wasps, —
largely solitary, and eat the egg and the
store of pollen-nectar mixture. Several
rhipiphorid beetles gain entrance thus
into the nests of wasps and bees, but
parasitize the larvae. Four families of
Strepsiptera possibly are carried by adult
bees and wasps, and also utilize the car¬
rier or other adults of the species as
hosts. And the eucharid Hymenoptera
affix themselves to worker ants whose ad¬
vanced larvae and pupae they subse¬
quently parasitize.

BIONOMIC TYPES OF ENTOMOPHAGY

The following classification of predator-
prey relations is based on the kind of
metamorphosis, the structural or foreign
preying devices and the degree of preda¬
tism exhibited by entomophagous preda¬
tors. On the other hand, the parasite-
host relations are divided according to
the stage or succession of stages the
parasite employs as host.

PREDATOR - PREY RELATIONS

I. Hyphenic Relations. There exists a
considerable number of entomophags
which live as predators for only a part
of the entomophagous stage, or which
may exhibit predatism only occasionally,
and meet the rest of their food require¬
ments as phytophags, scavengers or even
as temporary parasites. These combina¬
tion food practices are here designated
hyphenic relations. A few examples will
make the meaning clear.

The maggots of the anthomyid fly,
Hylemya dlicrura Rond, sometimes feed
upon planted seed corn and again prey
gregariously on the egg masses of grass¬
hoppers. This case illustrates phyto¬
predatism. A variety of this occurs in
the gland-bearing caterpillar of Lycaena
which eats foliage in its first instars and
devours the subterranean brood of ants
in the last phase of its development. This
abrupt change in diet is compelled by
the ants that feed on the glandular secre¬
tion of the caterpillar. Predato-parasi-
tism is exhibited by the sarcophagid fly
Wohlfartia euvittata . Its larvae are capa¬
ble of opportunistic interchange between
predatism on the subterranean egg
masses of locusts and parasitism in the
nymphs and adults of the same locust
species.

II. Absolute Predatism. This category
embraces the large majority of predatory

Zoology — 191+2 Meeting

227

entomophagous insects, and is character¬
ized by the fact that the food taken by
one or both feeding stages consists ex¬
clusively of insect prey.

A. Hetermetabolous Predators. 1 1
may be taken for granted that both
nymph and adult are predators if either
proves to be so, and that both possess
some similar adaptations for pursuit, seiz¬
ure, retention and ingestion of the prey.
Several noteworthy but not fundamental
differences in fitness for predation occur
here.

The numerically dominant type displays
front legs fitted with enlarged or spinifer-
ous femora and tibiae, and, in the man-
tids, with greatly elongated coxae. Be¬
side the Mantidae, many families of
Hemiptera are thus equipped — including
the well known giant water bugs, back-
swimmers, assassin bugs and ambush
bugs. Yet the mechanical features of the
front legs vary greatly in their efficiency.
For example, the damselbugs use small
non-resistant prey forms, whereas the am¬
bush bugs capture insects having up to
several times their pwn bulk. The latter
make use of most flower-visiting insects
ranging in size from gnats to bumblebees.
In three years of collecting near Urbana,
I have found Phymata feeding on repre¬
sentatives of 7 orders, 54 families, 131
genera and 195 species of insects. Its
efficiency is due also to the deadly sub¬
stance it injects into its victims, killing
them in a few minutes and liquefying the
body contents as it feeds.

Another method of attack is employed
by the asopine Pentatomidae. Thrusting
the forward-extended proboscis against
the caterpillar, beetle larva or other prey,
the stylets are simultaneously jabbed into
the body. The needle-like mandibles then
recurve laterally, holding the captive un¬
til inactivated, presumably by a lethal
injection, whereupon the contents are
drained out.

In the Odonata the metamorphosis is
hemimetabolous, hence, the dragon and
damselflies secure their prey on wing,
while the aquatic naiads employ their ex¬
tensible mask-like lower lip and its pair
of apical hooks for securing prey and
bringing it to the jaws.

B. Holometabolous Predators. Several
variations of predatism are represented
among insects characterized by a complete
metamorphosis. In the carabid and coc-
cinellid beetles and in the chrysopid,

hemerobiid and sympherobiid Neuroptera
both larva and adult have thysanuriform
bodies, hunt aggressively in like habits,
and seize their similar prey with their
jaws. True these neuropterous larvae
possess grasping-sucking jaws, whereas
the adults have the simple chewing kind.
But the adults and larvae of many other
Holometabola live and feed in dissimilar
ways. Striking cases are the Mantispidae
which are presumably predacious as
adults but whose larvae prey on small
spiders in the egg sac, and the tiger
beetles, which as adults employ their effi¬
cient running legs and sickle-shaped jaws
to hunt aggressively, whereas the S-
shaped body, hook-bearing dorsal abdom¬
inal bump and powerful jaws of the larvae
form a remarkable machine for elevating
soil, clambering up and down a vertical
shaft in the ground and lying at the
burrow mouth in wait for prey running
across. Many solitary wasps not only
paralyze prey by stinging before storing
it in a nest for the future legless larva,
but themselves malaxate the prey to ob¬
tain the body fluids as food. Such treat¬
ment may be accorded to prey to be stored
subsequently or to a victim that serves
solely to satisfy the adult wasp.

In another form of relation, only the
adult uses prey as food. The calliphorid
genus Bengalia feeds on winged termites
or robs ants carrying their brood; several
genera of sawflies prey on the larvae and
pupae of beetles, and other insects;
mecopterous hanging flies suspend them¬
selves by the front legs to capture Diptera
with the dangling hind legs, and numer¬
ous ichneumonoids, parasitic as larvae,
jab their ovipositors into host insects and
imbibe fluids thus liberated, not a few
constructing feeding tubes to facilitate the
process where the host lives under cover.
The larvae in these instances are largely
or wholly non-predatory.

Again many species prey only as larvae.
I do not include the solitary wasps here;
presumably the adults, like the larvae,
will be found to feed largely if not en¬
tirely on insects or other small arthro¬
pods. Among the ichneumonoids and
chalcidoids, which are predominantly
parasitic, occur a few species predatory
as larvae. A Habrocryptus consumes suc¬
cessively the eggs and larvae from several
adjacent cells of an andrenid bee; cer¬
tain Spilocryptus destroy the numerous
larvae of Pteromalus parasitic in the

228

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

chrysalis of the cabbage butterfly, etc.
Also nonhymenopterous instances are
known. The larvae of some mosquitoes
eat aquatic insect larvae; the remarkable
worm lion, Vermilio vermilio L., a rha-
gionid fly, imitates the pit-making ant
lions in its mode of preying; most syr-
phid larvae feed on aphids, whereas the
adults utilize plant fluids, honeydew and
the like, and not a few minute cater¬
pillars regularly prey on various Coc-
cidae as contrasted with the nectar-
siphoning practice of the adult moths.
And while many blister beetles are
hyphenic in that the larvae first prey on
the egg or larva, then on the stored
pollen-nectar mixture of bees, the larvae
of Epicauta and some species of Mylabris
and other genera, destroy masses of grass¬
hopper eggs, as do also the maggots of
several bee flies.

III. Opportunistic Feeders. Studies of
stomach contents indicate that caddis
worms, an entirely aquatic order, use
almost any manageable organic matter
either in a state of life or decay. This
seems to be true of both those fashioning
portable cases and the trapnet builders,
although the more primitive families of
the latter group display a feeble prefer¬
ence for prey. In any case, however, prey
forms only a variable part of the total
diet.

TYPES OF PARASITE - HOST RELATIONS

The larvae of Holometabola constitute
all the true parasitic entomophagous in¬
sects. The adults that practice phoresy
seem not to feed on the parent host which
they ride, and the behavior of the flies
and Hymenoptera that feed on fluids re¬
leased by thrusts of the ovipositor comes
closer to predatism than parasitism.

Parasitic entomophags form a sizeable
minority of the order Diptera, at least
half of the order Hymenoptera and all
the small tiny order Strepsiptera. Also a
few beetles and Lepidoptera are entomo¬
phagous parasites. Most of the Diptera
seem not to possess a piercing ovipositor,
hence place their eggs or young larvae
directly upon the host or at the entrance
to the shaft or burrow occupied by the
prospective victim. However, the female
hymenopterous parasite is invariably
equipped with a boring ovipositor which
is employed to penetrate either the body
wall of free-living hosts, or the protecting
cover and, in some cases, the host as well.

that lives in some sort of shelter such as
a cocoon or plant cavity. Accordingly,
the legless majority of the larvae find
themselves on or in the host when they
begin their active life. However, both
the Diptera and Hymenoptera include a
considerable number that are of unusual
interest for their practice of depositing
numerous eggs remote from the host.
Parasitization then depends on (1) in¬
gestion of the egg by the caterpillar host
as it eats foliage or (2) the locomotor
or waiting activity of the young larvae,
that attach to and bore into the host
when it is reached. The primary larvae
of the Strepsiptera seem to rely on their
fleet-footedness or a carrier to bring them
to the new hosts. In the former instance,
the hosts are saltatorial Homoptera, in
the latter aculeate Hymenoptera.

The classification of parasite-host rela¬
tions presented below is based on the
host stage or succession of such stages
the parasitic larva requires for its de¬
velopment. Usually also the egg, and
in many cases the pupa, are found on or
in the host, whereas the adult lives free.

I. Parasites of Hetermetabolous
Nymphs and Adults. Many Hymenoptera
and Diptera and some Strepsiptera use
this subclass of insects as hosts. Ichneu¬
mons and chalcids commonly parasitize
the nymphs and adults of both Hemiptera
and Homoptera, and the dryinid wasps
mostly initiate their attack within jump¬
ing Homoptera and complete it externally
in a sac formed of the larval exuviae.
Some sphecoid wasps, typified by the
cicada killer, Sphecius speciosus store but
one paralyzed insect, hence fall within
the re'alm of parasitism, whereas most
species store two or more prey insects,
hence must be rated as predators.

The chironomid fly, TrissoclaxLius equi-
tans Claas. is ectoparasitic on a may fly
nymph, an aquatic host; the planidiai
larvae of cyrtid flies stand up by aid of
a caudal disc in order to attach to
spiders; certain sarcophagid flies larvi-
posit on grasshopper nymphs or even the
flying adult, and the tachinid Trichopoda
and others inject eggs or larvae into
various terrestrial bugs.

Members of several strepsipterous fami¬
lies endoparasitize jumping Homoptera.
The active primary larva issues from a
puparium-like case occupied by the grub¬
like female on the old host and mounts
new nymphs of the host species, boring

Zoology — 19Jf2 Meeting

229

into it at the- intersegmental membranes
and absorbing nutriment from its blood.
In the final or seventh instar, the larva
pushes the cephalothorax out between the
abdominal segments of nymph or adult.
The apodous female undergoes no recog¬
nizable pupal stage, whereas the male
does so and bears legs and a pair of func¬
tional wings.

The minute caterpillars of several
moths parasitize various coccid Homop-
tera internally. The Epipyropidae, how¬
ever, should probably be regarded as
scavengers, not as entomophags, because
their food, in observed cases, consists of
wax or excretions derived from their
homopterous hosts.

II. Parasites of Insect Eggs. Most of
the numerous Mrymaridae and Scelioni-
dae, and some other miscroscopic Hymen-
optera, pass their entire egg, larval and
pupal stages exclusively as solitary en-
doparasites of the eggs of other insects.
However, a few species of this order that
attack eggs laid in masses, e.g. Mantidae,
do so externally. Again, Tricho gramma
species are gregarious, the number of in¬
dividuals developing in one egg being
correlated with the size of the host. More
than 150 host species of six orders are
known to be used by T. evanescens Westw.

III. Parasites of Insect Larvae. Insect
larvae doubtlessly are utilized to a much
larger extent as hosts than any other
metamorphic insect stage. Numerous ex¬
amples are known to occur among the
Hymenoptera and Diptera and a few in
the order Coleoptera, and their larval
hosts belong principally to the Lepidop-
tera, while the beetles, flies and Hymen¬
optera also appear on the list. Altogether
they represent almost every kind of re¬
lation to the host, living outside or in¬
side singly or in numbers, and as pri¬
mary or secondary parasites. In addition,
the female ichneumonoids, chalcidoids,
parasitic vespoids and others may punc¬
ture or malaxate the host and feed on it
previous to oviposition, or, in some cases
feed without subsequently placing an egg.
The above wasps and some ichneumonoids
paralyze the host, either in part and
temporarily, or wholly and permanently,
before depositing the egg.

A parasitizing process of unusual in¬
terest appears in the primitive Trigonali-
dae. The numerous microscopic eggs are
placed in foliage remote from the hosts,
and the larvae have been reported as sec¬

ondary parasites of ichneumons in cater¬
pillars or sawfly larvae, and as primaries
in the larvae of Vespa. According to ob¬
servations, the trigonalid eggs are in¬
gested by the caterpillar or sawfly as they
eat foliage, whereupon the small parasitic
larva attacks the primary ichneumonid
parasite already present in the primary
host.

However, the Vespa grub does not eat
foliage and contains no ichneumonid pri¬
maries. How, then, does the trigonalid
gain entrance into the wasp host? Clausen
theorizes plausibly that the parent wasp
fed parts of trigonalid-parasitized cater¬
pillars or sawfly larvae to her grubs, a
mode of feeding practiced generally by
social vespoids. Thus, he believes* the
parasitic larva was ingested along with
the prey larvae provided by the parent, —
a simple mechanical, incidental transfer
of the trigonalid from its original host
to a second.

The Eucharidae, Perilampidae, a num¬
ber of tachinid flies, and others likewise
place numerous microtype eggs on leaves,
buds or in soil irrespective of the host’s
location. The parasitic, active first in¬
star, primitive-type larva then gains en¬
trance in one of several ways: ingestion
by the host of the egg along with its
plant food (some Tachinidae); the loco¬
motor activity of the larva itself (Per¬
ilampidae and some 'Tachinidae) ; explor¬
atory movements of the larva while sup¬
porting itself caudally on the chorion of
its egg during the wait for the caterpillar
host (some Tachinidae), or by riding a
worker ant whose intranidal larvae or
pupae it uses as hosts (Eucharidae). The
known Perilampidae are secondary para¬
sites on ichneumons or tachinids in cater¬
pillars. In all these cases, as also in the
Trigonalidae, the larvae assume progres¬
sively reduced forms during their onto¬
geny, thus displaying various degrees of
hypermetamorphosis.

IV. Parasites of Prepupae or Pupae.
While the lines between parasitism of
larvae and of pupae are naturally not
sharply drawn, some Hymenoptera and a
few Coleoptera develop at the expense of
only the pupal stage of their hosts. For
example, the chrysalids of Lepidoptera,
the pupae of ladybeetles, lacewings and
caddis flies, and the puparia of Diptera
form the hosts of many ichneumonoids
and chalcidoids, and the active running
primary larvae of aleocharine Staphylin-

230

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

idae complete their parasitic life within
the puparia of cyclorrhaphous flies.

V. Parasites of Adult Holometabola. A
few examples are cited to elucidate this
relation. First, Elasmosoma inserts her
eggs into the abdomen of Formica fusca
within the nest, SyrrJiizus parasitizes
Diabrotica beetles, and Perilitus coccinel-
lae Schr. uses lady beetles exclusively.
These are braconid Hymenoptera. In the
order Diptera, we find certain ceratopo-
gonid flies suck blood from the wings,
or other body parts, of caterpillars,
dragonflies, etc., while a conopid makes
the ovipositional attack on wasps and
bees in air, and the tachinid, Chaeto-
phleps setosa Coq. likewise seems to at¬
tack Diabrotica when these are on wing
exposing the vulnerable dorsum of the ab¬
domen. The Strepsiptera concerned here
are endoparasitic in wasps and bees. The
procedure in parasitization and develop¬
ment is similar to that of those which
utilize homopterous hosts, with the pos¬
sible exception that the primary larvae
may practice phoresy which facilitates
finding new hosts, particularly such as
are social.

VI. Parasites in Consecutive Host
Stages. This category embraces not a
few ichneumonoid, chalcidoid and even
serphoid Hymenoptera which utilize
either two or three successive stages of
holometabolous hosts to accomplish their
life cycles. Three such combinations
have been shown to be employed to date,
namely egg-larva, larva-pupa and egg-
larva-pupa. The hosts include Lepidop-
tera, Diptera and Coleoptera. For ex¬
ample, the chalcidoid, Tetrastichus as-
paragi Cwf. inserts an egg into that laid
by the common asparagus beetle on its
food plant. The parasite does not inter¬
fere with the embryonic development of
the host, but makes its development at
the expense of the beetle larva. The lat¬
ter is permitted to complete its growth
and to proceed normally to the soil and
form the usual pupal cell. But its life
is terminated before pupation by the final
feeding activity of the endoparasitic
Tetrastichus larva.

Representatives of the chalcidoid genera
Ageniaspis, Encyrtus, Copidosoma, Bere-
cyntus and Litomastix similarly utilize
the egg-larval stages of Lepidoptera,
whereas the serphoid genus Platygaster
may employ the egg-larval host sequence
of tiny nematocerous Diptera; these

genera are, in addition characterized by
polyembryony that works itself out in
the larval host.

Several examples are known also in the
Braconidae and Ichneumonidae. Where
the host relation involves the larva-pupa
succession, the parasitic larva hatches in
the larval host but, in some cases, larval
feeding and development is delayed until
the host attains the pupal period. In
such instances it is believed the histolytic
changes accompanying pupation consti¬
tute the stimulus necessary to initiate
parasitic activity. It may therefore be
surmised that this fact, plus the unfavor¬
able size differential between parasite and
host, explain at least in part the need for
a succession of host stages required in
the above instances for the success of the
parasite.

CONCLUSION

An extensive panorama of entomo-
phagous food relations has passed in
quick review. Only a small fraction of
the known cases exemplifying the sev¬
eral relations described are cited above.
Moreover, a considerable number of con¬
fusing exceptions have been omitted in
the interest of simplicity. Readers in¬
terested beyond this brief attempt to por¬
tray the diversity and fascination in¬
herent in the bionomic relations of en-
tomophags and their prey and hosts are
invited to consult the several more com¬
prehensive treatises cited below.

REFERENCES

Balduf, W. V., Bionomics of Entomophagous
Coleoptera, 1935. 220 pp. John S. Swift

Co.

Balduf, W. V., Bionomics of Entomophagous
Insects, Vol. II, Lepidoptera, Trichoptera,
Mecoptera, Neuroptera. 1939, 384 pp.

John S. Swift Co.

Breland, O. P. (1941), Podagrion mantis
Ashm. and other parasites of praying
mantid egg cases, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer.,
34, No. 1, 99-113.

Clausen, C. P., Entomophagous insects, 1940,
688 pp. McGraw-Hill.

Horsfall, W. R. (1941), Biology of the black
blister beetle, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., 34,
No. 1, 114-126, pis. refs.

Imms, A. D., Recent advances in entomology,
1931, pp. 269-316. P. Blakiston’s Son and
Co.

Knowlton, G. F. and Stains, G. S., Geocoris
atricolor feeding, Bui. Brookl. Ent. Soc.,
36, No. 5, 201-202.

Lindsley, E. G. and MacSwain, J. W., Bio¬
nomics of the meloid genus Hornia, Univ.
Calif. Pubs, in Entom., 7, 189-206, 1942.
Martin, C. H. (1928), Biological studies of
two hymenopterous parasites of aquatic
insect eggs. Ent. Amer. 8, 105-156.

Salt, George (1941), The effects of hosts
upon their insect parasites, Biol. Reviews,
16, No. 4, 239-264.

Sweetman, H. L., The biological control of
insects, 1936, 461 pp. Comstock Publ. Co.,
Ithaca, N. Y.

Zoology — 191+2 Meeting

231

INSECT RELATIONS WITH PLANTS

Harry Hoogstraal

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

The insects comprise by far the great
majority of animals on the face of the
globe. In the evolution of life, they orig¬
inated about the same time as the seed-
and flower bearing plants, and since
that time, the relations between the two
have been of the utmost intimacy. Both
insects and plants have been modified in
numerous ways to sustain this relation¬
ship or to protect one or the other from
the deleterious effects of such close and
greedy company.

It is immediately apparent that, with
the possible exception of the plant ene¬
mies of insects, either the aggressiveness
of insects in their quest for food or their
desire for shelter or refuge, or a combina¬
tion of both, almost always is the under¬
lying reason for relations between insects
and plants.

Probably the desire for food is the most
important of these two reasons since
more complex and far-reaching results
come from it.

No terrestrial plant, not even the
dreaded poison ivy, is free from insect
feeders, and some, such as our larger
trees, are hosts to a thousand or more
species. No part of the plant, from the
deep roots to the high branches, from
the tough outermost bark to the woody
innermost pith, from the hardest seed,
the waxiest leaf, or the spiniest branch
to the daintiest flower, the softest fruit, or
the most succulent shoot is free from in¬
sect attack.

Only plants in salt water are out of
reach of insect depredations, for most, if
not all, of the extremely few insects
which venture a greater or lesser dis¬
tance into salt water, are of predacious
rather than phytophagous habits. Fresh
water plants are often eaten or tunneled
into by insects, punctured for the deposi¬
tion of eggs, or otherwise utilized for pro¬
tection, by a number of families of sev¬
eral orders of insects.

Of the terrestrial plants, those higher
in the evolutionary scale probably harbor

the greatest number of insects, but even
the lowest forms have their characteristic
species. Great numbers of insects are
known to exist on the microscopic organ¬
isms which cause decay. Even the hard
fungi are often riddled by small borers,
usually beetles, which are limited to them
as a habitat. While making botanical
collections on tropical mountains I have
split open fleshy mushrooms only to find
more fly maggots there than plant meat.
The ferns seem to be unusually free from
insect attack, though by no means com¬
pletely so.

Now that we have briefly indicated the
extent to which insects will feed on
plants, one of the next most important
questions concerning this relationship,
that of the specificity of relationship be¬
tween the feeder and host, presents itself.
This question is of interest both to the
biologist who studies the evolution or
bionomics of these forms and to the ap¬
plied scientist who must fight the insects
attacking crops.

Certain insects are known to feed on
as many as 200 kinds of plants. When
such an omnivorous phytophagous, or
polyphagous, feeder is of importance in
planted fields, as it might easily be, it
may be very difficult to control because
of the almost unlimited opportunities for
sustinence. The corn earworm is one of
the best examples, the tarnished plant
bug is another.

However, it is probably more common
to find that plant eating insects are more
or less restricted to a certain group of
plants, whether it be a single order, a
single family, or a single genus, or any
closely related group of any of these
catagories. Insects which feed within
such a restricted group are termed oligo-
phagous feeders.

The monophagous feeders, the ones re¬
stricted to one kind of host, are fre¬
quently encountered among insects. Every
school boy who tries to rear larvae knows
how careful he has to be to provide just

Exclusive of Pathogenic.

232 Illinois State Academy

the right kind of leaves for certain of
them.

Certain insects, such as the aphids and
the potato leafhopper, alternate their
specific hosts from season to season. The
possibilities of different hosts for a single
species are further increased and com¬
plicated by the different stages in the
metamorphosis of insects. As a general
rule, I believe, nymphs feed on the same
host or hosts as the adults, but larvae
may or may not feed on the same host
as the adults. Larvae in most cases feed
on at least a different part of the plant
from the adults. For instance, the larvae
of the famous Japanese beetle feeds on
the roots of grass, vegetables, and nur¬
sery stock, while the adults feed on the
foliage and fruits of about 250 different
kinds of plants of a great taxonomic
variety.

As generalized insect groups evolve in¬
to more specialized forms it is generally
conceded that they also acquire more
specialized feeding habits. Under pres¬
sure, a specialized feeder can adapt it¬
self to new varieties of the preferred plant.
Once an insect has been able to survive
on a certain kind of plant over a period
of several generations it may more or less
completely refuse to consume its original
food plant. Biological races of the same
species, one of which will not feed on the
host of the other, are known for a num¬
ber of insects. These races can some¬
times be distinguished by slight mor¬
phological modifications or by changes in
habits or in the life cycle.

While it is true that insects can and do
change their feeding habits, especially in
times of stress, it appears to be the gen¬
eral rule in Nature that many prefer the
food plant upon which they hatched. Ac¬
cording to Hopkins Host Selection Prin¬
ciple, the female of a species which can
breed in two or more hosts will prefer
to lay her eggs on the same host on
which she fed, and that this physiological
attraction will tend, in the course of
many generations, to develop a physiolog¬
ical race of insects more or less restricted
to the preferred host.

Plants in Nature have evolved numer¬
ous ways of protecting themselves from
insect attack, but during the selection and
breeding of plants for cultivation, many
of the resistant properties have been lost.
Cultivated plants are not only grown in

of Science Transactions

large stands favorable for the concen¬
trated attack of insects, but they also are
most attractive to insects and themselves
suffer more severely from insect feeding.
The plant breeder is often faced with the
process of rebreeding, if such a word
might be used, these resistant qualities
into his crop. Imms1 lists the factors
which contribute to the resistance of a
plant or lack of resistance of a plant as
the thickness of the cuticle, the develop¬
ment of the sclerenchyma or other me¬
chanical tissue, general hairiness or its
absence, acidity or alkalinity of the cell-
sap, silica content, presence or absence of
certain glucosides, date of maturity, and
power of recuperation. It has also been
observed that the cell-sap of certain varie¬
ties or species of plants directly effects
the fecundity of sap-sucking insects
which feed on them.

By their feeding habits, insects some¬
times perform great service to the plant
and to the agriculturist. One of the most
publicized of the direct benefits to the
agriculturist is that of the many kinds
of cactus feeding insects which have been
sent from North America to Australia to
combat the extensive growth of the
prickly pear, itself imported from North
America, which has inadvertently estab¬
lished itself and covered enormous areas
of grazing land.

By their intimate association with cer¬
tain plants a number of insects, especially
bees, perform a value of incalculable im-
mensity in the cross-pollination of
flowers. Most flowering plants are
strongly modified to utilize this insect
service and so to produce seed which will
result in vigorous and fertile offspring.
The colors of the plants attract the in¬
sects to the nectar cups deep within
them. As the insects press into the
flower to obtain nectar or pollen, they
pass by structures marvelously designed
in one manner or another to leave pollen
on the hungry visitor or to retain the
pollen brought by him from a previous
flower. By their habit of feeding mainly
on plants of one species, the probability
of cross-pollination by insects is greatly
increased.

The modifications of flowers, besides
those of color and odor, are indeed re¬
markable. In the flower of the common
Japanese barberry the stamens are
adapted so that there is a turgor move-

1 Imms, Recent Advances in Entomology.

Zoology — 19^2 Meeting

233

ment in response to the stimulus given
by the touch of a visiting insect’s foot.
This movement appresses the anthers to
the leg of the insect, so effecting pol-
linization. The common iris has a plat¬
form for visiting bees formed by three
sepals. The anthers are just above the
platform on which the bee rests to ob¬
tain nectar and are just at the proper
height to leave some of their pollen on
the branched hairs of the back of the
insect. Then as the bee enters the next
flower, some of the pollen is scraped off
the back on the stigmatic surface of a
flap under which it must pass to reach
the platform. Pollination of the same
flower from which the pollen is received
is prevented because the surface of only
the flap that is met while entering is re¬
ceptive to pollen; that met while leaving
is non-receptive.

Our common milkweeds are so designed
that little pollen bearing structures are
attached to the legs of visiting insects
when they slip into beautifully designed
grooves of the flower in their attempt to
obtain nectar. These structures, called
pollinia, twist on their stalks after being
removed from their flower and are then
in a position to remain in the stigmatic
chamber of the next milkweed visited.
One often finds insects which are not
powerful enough to extricate their legs
from these grooves hanging dead or dying
from milkweed flowers. The yucca moth
has specially adapted mouth parts and a
strong ovipositor, such as is possessed by
no other moth, with which it carries on
activities upon which the yucca is entirely
dependent for pollination. With these
mouth parts, the female scrapes pollen
from several yucca flowers and then by
means of her ovipositor inserts her several
eggs into the ovary of another flower
after which she pushes the pollen into the
stigmatic tube and departs. There is, at
present, no conclusive explanation for
these strange actions, for the female does
not feed and the larvae which develop
from the eggs eat only a few of the sev¬
eral seeds among which they are laid.

The shapes of the Orchidaceae, which
are entirely dependent upon insect pol¬
lination, are the most fantastic of all
floral developments. In some species
special adaptations are formed for de¬
positing pollen on the eyes of a visiting
sphinx moth and for reclaiming this
pollen when the moth visits the next

individual. Some of our most valuable
crops, as for instance, many of our fruits
and clover, are entirely dependent upon
insect visits and pollination for their con¬
tinuation from season to season.

Flowers are more noticeably modified
than insects for pollination because of
their utter dependence upon them, while
the insect’s purpose is usually accom¬
plished when it obtains the nectar or
pollen that the plant has to offer. How¬
ever, there are a number of structural
modifications present on insects which
visit flowers that are not found on other
insects and which make the service of
cross pollination more effective. Some
flies and many bees have hairy bodies
and legs which gather and hold pollen
until scraped off on the next flower. The
hairs of pollen-gathering bees and of some
flies are branched or feathery so as to
insure the adherence of pollen. For the
mere gathering of pollen or nectar, honey
bees and sphinx moths have extremely
long tongues to reach the nectaries.

Sometimes after we have pitched our
tents under trees in the semi-desert scrub
of Mexico we have awakened the next
morning to find the trees entirely stripped
of their leaves and the ground below them
littered with the cut edges of the leaves.
The leaf-cutting ants of warm climates
go to such great effort in order to bring
these cut leaves to their nests to use
them as a culture media for the propaga¬
tion of fungus upon which they subsist.

Plant galls caused by insects are so
common that one cannot walk into the
field without seeing numerous examples
of infinite variety. There is little ex¬
planation for these curious and varied
shapes that the plant tissues assume when
certain insects lay their eggs or feed in
or on the plant. It is even more amazing
to find that in many cases the insect ap¬
parently determines the shape of the gall,
although the gall is entirely a plant
growth. One species of insect may cause
similar galls on different species of plants
but the galls of different species of insects
on one and the same plant may be en¬
tirely different. It is usually supposed that
the gall does not develop until the larva
hatches. However, some galls are com¬
pletely formed between the time the egg
is laid and the larva hatches. Others
seem to need a continuation of stimula¬
tion from the larvae that live within
them. Often galls containing healthy

234

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

larvae can be distinguished from those
containing sickly larvae. Galls are found
on almost every part of the plant, the
roots, leaves, flowers, stem, and seeds.
They are caused by a great many kinds
of insects and are found on many kinds
of plants. The simple nodular galls of
the Hessian fly and the wheat joint worm
are of extreme economic importance be¬
cause of the debilitation of the plant
while certain foreign galls are used for
fuel, food or dyes.

Seed dispersal by insects is restricted
almost entirely to the ants. In the west¬
ern grasslands we often see the rings of
grasses that surround the subterranian
nests of the agricultural ants that have
brought their seeds there for storage. It
is said that the seeds of a certain species
of bloodroot have fleshy handles by which
ants carry them. According to some au¬
thors, the seeds of another plant so closely
resemble the pupae of certain ants in
size, form, and odor that these ants carry
them from place to place although they
do not use them for food.

Of importance secondary only to feed¬
ing is the protection offered by plants to
insects. The innumerable possibilities of
concealment offered by plants are easy to
imagine. The plant may simply offer
refuge from enemies or weather. For
instance, while collecting in the rain on
one of the deserts of southern Mexico,
we once encountered within three or four
minutes almost fifty specimens of a rare
family of Neuroptera huddled in the
crevices of the bark of a poisonous tree,
but when the rain subsided none were
to be found, and indeed, we collected only
one other specimen in the general vicinity
during the whole month. Often feeding
and protection go hand in hand. Scores
of our most common insects feed on the
underside of leaves where they are hidden
from many of their natural enemies.
Root eaters usually have little to fear
from predators or parasites. It is obvi¬
ous that borers into stems or wood have
almost no enemies to fear, especially if
they bore beyond the reach of wood¬
peckers and other strong beaked, hard
working birds. Leaf miners, of which
there are many more than the average
person realizes, go about their business
of eating inside of the leaf in which they
are living entirely or relatively un¬
harmed. The bagworm utilizes twigs and
leaves from the plant on which it feeds

to spin into its silken web, and so makes
a cozy little house which it carries on
its back to shield itself from at least some
of its many potential enemies, although
many tiny parasites may still attack it.
Even the aquatic Trichopterous larvae
make cases of plant material for protec¬
tion, but often the larvae do not feed on
the plant which protects them.

Many insects utilize the interior of
plants for egg laying, thus protecting the
eggs from many dangers. Sometimes the
young which hatch from these eggs stay
within the plant, as is the case of the
larvae of the engraver beetle, but many
others, such as the nymphs of cicadas, fall
to the ground upon hatching, or others,
such as the nymphs of treehoppers,
emerge and live on the outer surface of
the plant.

Leaf cutting bees cut leaves with which
to line the nests in which they place
honey and pollen for their larvae, and
then plug these nests with more cut
leaves. The solicitude with which some
ants place aphids on plants so as to se¬
cure their sweet offal is well known. On
the desert, we have seen neat little round
“stables” for these aphids, made in the
crotches of branches from pieces of gravel
cemented together.

We have already noted that many
plants have evolved structures or other
modifications to protect themselves from
insect attack. Numerous insects have
been so modified as to obtain protection
from their enemies because of their simi¬
larity in color or structure to the plants
among which they live. The common
katydid is often overlooked because its
green color blends so well with the bark
or leaves among which it rests. Catocala
moths, though brilliantly colored on the
under wings and under surfaces, blend
perfectly with the bark as they rest there
with only their upper surface visible.
The undersurface of the remarkable
Kallima butterfly of India, exposed as it
rests among dead leaves, exactly re¬
sembles these leaves so that it is remark¬
ably difficult to distinguish.

Insectivourous plants, while rare and
of little importance in the economy of
Nature, nevertheless are of great interest
biologically. In the well-known pitcher-
plants of our marshes, the leaves and
petioles are modified into brilliantly col¬
ored, sweet-scented pitchers provided
with nectar glands which lure sweets-

Zoology — 19^2 Meeting

235

loving insects into their sticky depths.
Then, when the victim dies from exhaus¬
tion after its unsuccessful attempt to
extricate itself, this marvelously devel¬
oped plant slowly digests its unchitinized
tissues. Strangely enough, the pitcher-
plant is the home of a genus of Noctuid
moths which oviposit in the pitcher and
whose larvae feed on its tissues and even
spin a web across the opening, thereby
protecting themselves from spiders and
other enemies.

The leaves of the sundew are provided
with hairs, each with a fluid secreting
gland. An insect that flies to one of these
leaves is trapped when the hairs enclose
over it and is digested by the secretions
from the glands. When the digestion has
been completed the leaves open in antici¬
pation of the next victim. Each of the
leaves of the Venus fly-trap of the coastal
regions of North and South Carolina slant
upward from the middle and clamp over
an insect which alights on it. Sharp
bristles along each margin prevent es¬
cape of the larger victims, but small in¬
sects, which contain little nourishment
anyway, can escape between the spines.
The trapped insect is digested by fluids
on the glands on the leaf’s surface.

Of great interest, especially to medical
entomologists dealing with the problem
of mosquito abatement for the control of

malaria or yellow fever, are such aquatic
plants as the common Lemma which often
covers the surface of water so closely that
mosquito larvae cannot find place to ex¬
tend their breathing apparatus through
the surface film to obtain air.

Some insects actually guard plants. I
was made painfully aware of this relation
a few years ago while walking through
the tropical scrub country of southeastern
Mexico. While in quest of a particularly
fancy flying beetle, I brushed against the
sharp spines of the bull-horn acacia, one
of the most common leguminous plants
of the area. I was immediately sharply
bitten by a number of large ants which
rushed out from holes at the ends of the
spikes shaped like the horns of bulls, for
which the plant is named. These hollow
horns shelter the ants, which, in turn,
supposedly drive off the leaf-cutting ants
which are so common in the region. They
also drive off innocent entomologists,
which are much rarer. In addition to the
shelter which the acacia offers the ants,
it also offers two kinds of food which
are the ants’ chief subsistence, a sweet
fluid which they obtain from the bases
of the petioles, and also little round knobs
rich in albumin which they pick from
the ends of the leaflets. In the tropics
there are several other such plant houses
with insect guards.

236

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

INSECTS AS VECTORS OF PLANT PATHOGENS

L. R. Tehon

Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana, Illinois

It is appropriate in particular degree
that the role of insects as vectors of plant
pathogens should have a prominent place
in this Symposium. In 1881 Thomas J.
Burrill, Professor of Botany at the Uni¬
versity of Illinois, demonstrated for the
first time that bacteria could cause dis¬
ease in plants and were the cause of fire-
blight of pears and apples. In 1884
Stephen A. Forbes, then State Entomolo¬
gist, expressed the opinion that fireblight
was spread by the tarnished plantbug.
And in 1891 M. B. Waite, until 1887 a
student under Burrill, reported experi¬
ments proving that bees and wasps com¬
monly spread fireblight from blossom to
blossom. Thus, at the University of Illi¬
nois, was born the conception of an active
and intimate association between insects
and plant diseases.

The development of this conception by
plant pathologists and entomologists is
well exemplified by the time of publica¬
tion of 655 research reports making
notable contributions to the problem.
Only seven of these reports appeared
prior to 1900, but in succeeding years the
number increased rapidly. From 1901 to
1905, ten reports appeared; from 1906 to
1910, twenty-one appeared; from 1911 to
1915, thirty appeared; from 1916 to 1920,
forty-one appeared; from 1921 to 1925,
seventy-one appeared; from 1926 to 1930,
one hundred forty-six appeared; from
1931 to 1935, two hundred and two ap¬
peared; and from 1936 to 1940, one hun¬
dred twenty-seven appeared.

With so large a number of researches
completed, it must be apparent that a
large body of information has been de¬
veloped and that within the time per¬
mitted today little more can be presented
than a bold outline of what it contains,
as illustrated by a number of selected ex¬
amples of diseases and vectors.

HISTORICAL,

The first suggestion that an insect was
associated as vector with a plant disease
was made by Forbes in 1884. The first
proof that insects function as vectors was

published' by Waite in 1891. Milestones
in the elaboration of knowledge of the
vector role of insects may be listed as
follows:

1901. — Takami, a Japanese, showed that
the dwarf disease of rice, not then known
to be a virus disease, resulted from the
feeding of the leafhopper Nephotettix

apiealis.

1906. — Ball, in America, showed that
curlytop of sugar beet was associated
with the leafhopper Eutettix tenellus.

1909-1910. — Petri, in Italy, showed that
olive knot was transmitted by the olive
fly (Dacus oleae) and that an intricate
symbiotic association obtained between
the pathogen, another bacterial organism,
and the insect.

1911. — E. F. Smith, in America, showed
that bacterial wilt of cucurbits was trans¬
mitted by the striped cucumber beetle
(Diabrotioa vittata).

1911. — Norton, in America, published a
classification of insect injuries to plants,
in which insect dissemination of patho¬
gens was recognized.

1912. — Allard, in America, showed that
tobacco mosaic was transmitted by aphids.

1913. — Heald, in America, summarizing
the dissemination of plant pathogenic
fungi, recognized the importance of in¬
sects as vectors.

1918. — Ball, in America, demonstrated
that potato hopper burn resulted, as a
toxic effect, from the feeding of the leaf¬
hopper Empoascus fabae. He thus es¬
tablished a new concept, that of disease
being induced by toxicogenic insects.

1921. — Buchner, in Germany, published
elaborate studies of the symbiotic phe¬
nomena occurring between microorgan¬
isms and insects.

1926. — Kunkel, in America, showed that
an incubation period in the body of the
insect is required for transmission of
aster yellows.

1929. — Boning, in Germany, published
an extensive critical review of the litera¬
ture on insects as carriers of plant
diseases.

Zoology — 19J+2 Meeting

237

1937. — Kunkel, in America, showed that
the virus of aster yellows in the body of
the leafhopper can be inactivated by ex¬
posure of the insect to a temperature of
31° to 32° C.

1937. — Hartzell, in America, reported
the finding of intracellular inclusions in
the intestinal walls and salivary glands
of viruliferous Macropsis trimaclata, the
leafhopper vector of peach yellows.

1937. — The American Phytopathological
Society, the Entomological Society of
America, and the American Association
of Economic Entomologists staged an
elaborate symposium on insects in rela¬
tion to plant diseases.

1940. — Leach, in America, published the
first book dealing with insects as vectors
of plant pathogens.

EXAMPLES OF INSECT TRANSMISSION

Diseases due to phytotoxic insect secre¬
tions. — The outstanding example is the
mealy bug wilt of pineapple, a disease
known in Hawaii since 1910 as the most
important cause of pineapple failure.
Leaves of affected plants become flaccid,
droop, turn pale or become pink or red.
On young plants progress of the disease
is rapid, but recovery occurs commonly.
On old plants progress of the disease is
slow and affected plants never recover.
On young plants an initial population of
fifty mealy bugs (Pseudococcus brevipes)
is sufficient to induce the disease. On
older plants the disease develops slowly,
as a large population of mealy bugs de¬
velops from an initial small number, and
is accompanied by collapse of the roots
and final destruction of the plants.

The disease is not caused directly by
the feeding of mealy bugs but by a phy¬
totoxic substance injected into the plants
by the bugs as they feed. The phytotoxic
substance is apparently diffusible in the
plant but is not capable of reproduction
there. The failure of plants to wilt
quickly when colonies of mealy bugs are
built up slowly from small intial popu¬
lations has been interpreted as the result
of an anti-toxic reaction on the part of
the plant. In general, the wilting of
plants increases with the number of
mealy bugs, but the increase is not
directly proportional; and there appears
to be a point on the bug dosage scale be¬
yond which there is only a small increase
in the number of wilting plants.

Another disease of the same kind, one
familiar in America, is hopper burn of

potato. This disease follows the feeding
of Empoascus fabae. It differs from the
mealy bug wilt of pineapple in that it is
not limited to just one of the hosts
used by the causal insect. It affects
alfalfa, clover, apple and other plants
also, and may severely damage them.

Explanations other than that of a
diffusible toxic substance have been
offered for the injury done by toxicogenic
insects. It has been suggested that ac¬
cumulation in excess of carbohydrates
above the point injured by the insect is
sufficient cause for the injury. However,
Empoascus fabae feeds almost exclusively
in the phloem elements of the vascular
bundle, and the line of penetration is
surrounded by a region of disorganized
cells not producible mechanically, as for
example by probing with a fine glass
needle. Presumably, then, pathological
disorganization of plant cells must fol¬
low the injection of at least some toxic
material. Since other leafhoppers that
feed in the vascular elements of the
plants cause less injury, or none at gll,
differences in amount of injury can most
logically be attributed to differences in
toxicity of the salivas of the different
leafhopper species. The concept of
toxicity is, nevertheless, poorly defined,
and it is well, therefore, to consider that
injury displayed by plants could result
from excessive abnormal physiological re¬
actions induced by toxic materials, as
well as from the direct action of toxic
substances.

Fungus diseases transmitted by in¬
sects — A great variety of associations
between fungi and insects is exhibited
by the known cases in which insects
serve as vectors of fungous pathogens.
Commonly, these associations appear
based on the search for food by insects.
The ergot diseases of rye and other
grasses furnish fine examples.

In the spring, ergot kernels that have
lain dormant on the ground over winter
send up globe-capped stalks. Beetles, and
also other insects that visit the blossoms
of grasses, are attracted to these globular
caps and become contaminated with
ascospores of the ergot fungus. Crawling
or flying then to rye and grass heads,
these insects deposit spores in the blos¬
soms and infection is accomplished. As
the new ergot develops, a conidial type of
spore is borne in droplets of honeydew.
More than forty kinds of insects, includ-

238

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

ing especially flies and a fungus gnat
(Sciara thomae) have been observed
feeding on this spore-bearing honeydew.
Insects that habitually visit both healthy
and diseased grass heads in their search
for pollen and nectar are obviously
effective agents in spreading ergot infec¬
tion from blossom head to blossom head.
The relationship between fungus and in¬
sect is, however, purely casual and acci¬
dental. The fungus evidently is not the
food sought by the insect, since it has
been demonstrated that its spores pass
through the alimentary canal of the in¬
sect without losing their viability. The
only obvious adaptation apparent in the
relationship is that the fungus, as it de¬
velops in the grass head, produces a
carrion-like odor that seems especially
attractive to flies.

A more restricted relationship exists
between a number of wood staining fungi
and certain bark beetles. Fungi, chiefly
of the genus Ceratostomella, attack the
sapwood of certain coniferous and
deciduous trees important in industry,
not rotting but killing and staining in
shades of blue and brown the wood they
invade, and thus decrease the commercial
value of lumber obtained from the trees.
Affected trees usually have been weak¬
ened by fire or drought previous to in¬
fection. Inoculation with these fungi is
accomplished chiefly, if not exclusively,
by bark beetles as they bore into the
trees and construct their galleries. The
fungi, after penetrating the wood of the
tree, fruit in the brood galleries of the
insects and thus contaminate the young
beetles. Invariably, spores of these fungi
are borne in a sticky matrix, an adapta¬
tion assuring that new broods of beetles
will be well contaminated externally as
well as internally when they emerge
from the trees.

In some instances, the association of
stain-producing fungi, insect species and
tree hosts is not closely restricted. For
example, the blue stain fungus Ceratosto¬
mella ips is carried to Norway pine logs
by two species of bark beetle, Ips pint
and I. grandicollis. It can also be car¬
ried to other coniferous species by at
least three other species of the same bark
beetle genus. On the other hand, the as¬
sociation may be rather strict, as in the
case of two brown stain fungi affecting
white fir. One of these fungi, Spicaria
anomala, is found only in the top and
branches of the tree, where it is intro¬

duced by Scolytus praeceps and 8. sub-
scaber. The second fungus, Tricho-
sporium symbioticum, is found only in the
base of the tree, where it is introduced
by Scolytus ventrales. Although it has
been shown experimentally that either of
these fungi will grow in any part of the
tree artificially inoculated with them,
their occurrence in nature only in definite
portions of the tree is clearly associated
with their dependence on specific insect
vectors.

The relationship existing between blue
stain fungi and bark beetles may be re¬
garded as an instance of mutualistic
symbiosis. The fungi apparently are of
no significance as food for the insects.
Their role is apparently that of making
the wood which they parasitize a more
suitable habitat for the beetles, and this
they accomplish by killing the cambium
of the tree and reducing the moisture
content of the sapwood. The service
rendered by bark beetles to wood-staining
fungi is apparently limited to that of
transport and insertion into the tree.

The well known dependence of plants
on insects for pollination is also a means
for the spread of disease. In Russia and
in Wales, red clover is affected sys-
temically by a, fungus known as Botrytis
anthophila. This fungus fruits on the
anthers of affected plants, destroying the
pollen grains and replacing them with
masses of spores. The vigor of the plant
is not impaired, and blighted anthers
constitute the only symptom of disease.
Because of the destruction of pollen there
is, however, a decrease in seed yield.
Bees, upon which red clover is largely
dependent for pollination, visit the
flowers for nectar, become contaminated
with the Botrytis spores, and carry them
to the stigmas of flowers on healthy
plants. Here the spores germinate. The
mycelium penetrates the ovary, remains
within the seed until it germinates, and
then grows systemically within the
young plants. It again appears in fruit¬
ing condition when the flowers mature.

Insects can be extremely important as
vectors in indirect ways, as for example
in the diploidization of fungi. One of the
most recently discovered rdles is that of
flies and perhaps other insects in the
fertilization of heterothallic rust fungi.
With these fungi, reduction division
occurs in the germinating teliospore.
Sporidia produced after this germination
give rise to haploid mycelia. Infection

Zoology — 191$ Meeting

239

by these sporidia results in the formation
of the structure known as a pycnium, in
which are produced numerous minute
pycniospores and certain elongated
hyphae regarded as trichogynes. Pycnio¬
spores exude from pycnia in drops of a
fragrantly scented, sugary solution
eagerly sought by over 135 observed
species of insects. As insects feed on the
sugary solution, they become contamin¬
ated externally and internally with
pycniospores, which they deposit in other
areas of infection. Flies, perhaps because
of their tendency to regurgitate, appear
to be the most important carriers of these
spores.

When pycniospores are deposited on in¬
fected areas other than the one from
which they came, they adhere to trich-
ogyne filaments, unite with them, and
accomplish diploidization. This immedi¬
ately results in production of the cluster
cup stage of the rust fungus.

Constant cross-fertilization of rust races
by insects increases opportunities for
hybridization and variation. It not only
accounts for the large number of physio¬
logic forms occurring in such important
rust species as the stem rust fungus, Puc-
cinia graminis, but also makes it very
probable that success in breeding eco¬
nomic plants for resistance to heterothalic
rust fungi will always be only tempo¬
rarily successful.

Bacterial diseases transmitted by in¬
sects. — The bacteria known to be patho¬
genic in plants exceed 200 species. With
few exceptions they are unicellular, rod¬
shaped organisms of such simple struc¬
ture that they are able to penetrate plants
only through natural openings or in¬
juries. Insects that penetrate the epider¬
mis of plants are therefore especially use¬
ful as vectors; but in many instances in¬
sects also serve as chance or accidental
carriers, depositing bacteria on or near
natural openings in the plant — stomata,
hydathodes, and nectaries.

A great many instances of insects serv¬
ing as vectors for bacterial plant diseases
are recorded in the literature of plant
pathology and entomology. Many of
these instances never have been substan¬
tiated experimentally but are based on
observation, or especially when the meth¬
od of dissemination of a bacterial patho¬
gen is not understood, on assumption.
The relationship between insects and bac¬
teria has, however, been investigated care¬

fully in a number of instances, and it has
been definitely shown that this relation¬
ship may vary from the purely casual or
accidental to an extremely complicated
symbiosis.

The earliest of the bacterial diseases of
plants to be recognized as being spread
by insects was fireblight. In 1884 Forbes,
from observational evidence, associated
spread of the disease with the feeding
activities of the tarnished plantbug.
Nearly thirty years later this association
was proved experimentally. In 1891 Waite
proved experimentally that fireblight is
transported from blossom to blossom by
bees and wasps. Since this early work, it
has been proved that bees are concerned
almost solely with the increase of the
phase of the disease known as blossom
blight, and that aphids, tarnished plant-
bugs, and other insects carry infection
from hold-over cankers to the growth of
the current year. It seems that trans¬
mission by these insects is purely me¬
chanical and that any insect feeding on
a susceptible host is a potential vector.
Thus the infection of large branches and
trunks may be accomplished by the fruit
tree bark beetle, Scolytus rugtilosus. The
beehive has been suspected as an over¬
wintering haven of the fireblight bacter¬
ium, and there is evidence that at least
in some parts of the United States it
can serve this purpose.

The role of insects as transporters of
fireblight has perhaps been investigated
more extensively and by a greater num¬
ber of researchers than any other insect-
carried disease, yet after nearly sixty
years investigators are by no means
agreed as to the roles to be assigned to
various insects. Since many means of
spread other than insects are utilized by
fireblight bacteria, the one point of agree¬
ment in all of the data now available
probably is that insects are casual or
accidental, mechanical carriers.

At the opposite extreme is the olive
knot disease, which in Italy has been
proved to be closely associated with the
olive fly, Dacus oleae. The bacterium,
Phytomonas savustanoi, causing the dis¬
ease is found constantly in the intestinal
tract of this insect in all its stages of
development, is transmitted internally
through the egg, and survives in the
puparium. In the female fly, the anal
tract and the vagina unite at their pos¬
terior ends to form a common opening.

240

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

Near this opening, but in the wall of
the anal tract, there are a number of
sac-like evaginations, which are always
filled with bacteria. Immediately oppo¬
site the openings of the evaginations is
a longitudinal slit in the membrane sep¬
arating the anal tract and the oviduct.
An egg, passing along the vagina, spreads
this slit open, so that its surface presses
against the openings of the bacterium-
filled evaginations. In this way the egg
becomes smeared with bacteria, which
find their way through the micropylar
opening into the interior of the egg and
into the body of the developing embryo.
Larvae are, consequently, always con¬
taminated internally before they hatch.
Near the forepart of the mid intestine of
the larva are four spherical caeca that
harbor the bacteria, and from these caeca
as points of origin bacteria are contin¬
ually being distributed throughout the
length of the intestinal tract. In the
larva, during pupation, a spherical di¬
verticulum develops off the esophagus and
just in front of the brain of the pupa,
and this diverticulum becomes filled with
the bacteria. Here the bacteria persist,
and when the fly emerges it also is al¬
ways internally contaminated. Shortly
after the imago emerges, the entire in¬
testinal tract, including the anal sacs, be¬
comes contaminated from the diverticu¬
lum. In this way, persistence of the bac¬
teria in the body of the insect is assured.
Transmission of the bacterium to the
olive tree occurs by way of the wound
made during oviposition.

Another, non-pathogenic bacterium, As-
cobacteriwm lutemn, occurs constantly in
the body of the olive fly, in the same
places as the olive knot bacterium, ap¬
parently in symbiosis with the olive knot
bacterium, and frequently in much
greater numbers than the olive knot bac¬
terium. What relationship exists between
the olive fly and the two bacteria it har¬
bors has not been determined; but it
may be assumed to be some high type of
symbiosis, since special structures have
developed in the body of the insect to
further the relationship.

The olive fly is not the only means by
which olive knot can be spread. The dis¬
ease is not uncommon in California, but
the olive fly does not occur in that state.
There the disease is apparently dis¬
tributed by wind-blown rains.

An instance in which a bacterial patho¬
gen is entirely dependent for spread upon
a definite kind of insect is furnished by
the bacterial wilt of cucurbits. As a re¬
sult of the presence of Erwinia trachei-
phila in their vascular bundles, cucumber,
cantaloupe, squash and pumpkin plants
wilt and die. Primary infection of these
plants always originates in the spring
from the feeding of overwintered striped
cucumber beetles, Diabrotica vittata, in
the bodies of which the bacterium also
overwinters. After the disease is estab¬
lished in a plant, it can be spread to
other plants by both the twelve-spotted
cucumber beetle, D. duodecempunctata,
and the striped cucumber beetle. Ex¬
perimental work has established that
these two insects are the only insects
capable of harboring and spreading the
disease and that the squash bug, the
squash ladybird, the melon aphid, the
honey bee and the potato flea beetle are
not vectors. Although the bacterium
lives over winter in the body of the
striped cucumber beetle, it is not known
that any symbiotic relationship exists
between the bacterium and either of its
vectors.

Virus diseases transmitted by insects.

— Since 1912, when Allard showed that
tobacco mosaic was transmitted by aphids,
the number of proved instances of insect
transmission of viruses has increased so
greatly that now the number of insect
vectors much exceeds the number of rec¬
ognized plant pathogenic viruses. Here,
also, the relationships between the viruses
and their vector insects are variable,
ranging from casual mechanical trans¬
mission to biologically obligatory asso¬
ciations.

An instance of a highly infectious virus
being transmitted mechanically by many
different insects is furnished by the
spindle-tuber disease of potato. This dis¬
ease, first recognized in 1922 and proved
to be of a virus nature in 1923, is of con¬
siderable economic importance. Its virus
is easily transmitted artificially by inocu¬
lation with infected sap, by contact be¬
tween cut seed pieces, and especially by
the cutting knife. Positive transmission
has been proven experimentally for the
following insects: the aphids Macrosi-
phum gei and Myzus persicae, the tar¬
nished plantbug, larvae of the Colorado
potato beetle, the flea beetles Epitrix, cu-
cumerus and Systena taeniata, the leaf

Zoology — 191$ Meeting

241

beetle Disonycha triangularis, and grass¬
hoppers of the genus Melanoplus. The
only insect that has failed to give posi¬
tive transmission in tests is the leafhop-
per Eusoelis exitiosus. The fact that so
many insects are able to transmit
the spindle-tuber virus suggest that al¬
most any insect feeding on potato is a
potential vector of the disease. This fa¬
cility for insect spread undoubtedly ac¬
counts for the very rapid increase of the
disease in the field, which may reach the
extent of 42 to 95 per cent of the plants
in as short a time as three years.

Leafroll of potato, also an economically
important virus disease, is less readily
transmitted than is spindle-tuber. It can¬
not be transmitted by mechanical inocu¬
lation with virus-infected sap. It can,
however, be transmitted by such insects
as the plantbug, Calcoris Mpunctatus, and
the leafhopper Typhlocyba ulmi and is
transmitted chiefly by aphids. At least
seven aphid species have been incrim¬
inated in experimental tests. Among the
seven, Myzus persicae is most important,
with M. pseudosolani and M. circumflexus
in second place. One of the pathological
aspects of leafroll is a necrosis of the
phloem tissues of the potato plant, and
this fact seems associated with the fact
that the most efficient aphid transmitters
habitually feed in the phloem.

After feeding on an infected plant, the
aphid M. persicae requires several days
before it is able to transmit leafroll, but
after this period has elapsed it remains
infective for a relatively long period of
time. Apparently some biological rela¬
tionship exists between the insect vectors
and the leafroll virus.

Curly top of sugar beets, a disease his¬
torically important because its relation¬
ship to the leafhopper Eutettix tenellus
was recognized before its virus nature
was understood, presents an instance of
still closer biological limitation between
insect and virus. Although curly top
virus can be transmitted artificially by
sap inoculation, the only known means
of transmission in nature is the beet leaf¬
hopper. This leafhopper is not known
to transmit any other virus disease.
Curly top virus overwinters in a number
of wild plants, as well as in overwintered
sugar beets Leafhoppers, feeding on
these plants, become infected. The virus
then requires an incubation period in the
body of the insect, ranging from as short

a time as twenty minutes to as long as
seven hours, and the leafhopper is unable
to transmit the disease until this period
has elapsed. In plants a latent period of
four to fourteen days is required before
symptoms appear.

Curly top has been investigated ex¬
tensively by a number of workers, who
have determined numerous interesting
and important facts bearing upon the
interrelations of host, virus and insect.
In affected plants the virus is localized
in the phloem. Insects, when feeding,
must reach the phloem to become viruli-
ferous and to transmit the disease. In
searching for phloem tissue, the insect
seemingly is guided by the pH value of
the tissues through which its feeding ap¬
paratus passes. Phloem tissue is said to
have a pH value of 7.5, xylem a value
of 6.2, and parenchyma a value of 6.0.
Rickettsia-like microorganisms have been
reported in the intestinal tract lining of
infective leafhoppers but have not yet
been discovered in the tissues of infected
plants. In the body of the insect, curly
top virus is apparently most abundant
in the blood, from which it is most readily
recovered; it can also be recovered from
the salivary glands and the contents of
the alimentary tract. The virus content
of the insect decreases slowly as the in¬
sect feeds on uninfected plants, and the
power of transmission may disappear
after fifty-four days. Apparently the
virus does not multiply in the body of
the leafhopper, although it may survive
the winter there. If a quantity of viruli-
ferous juice is precipitated with an equal
volume of 95 per cent alcohol, centri¬
fuged, washed in 50 per cent alcohol,
dried, and mixed with sufficient five per
cent sugar solution to restore the original
volume, the product may be fed to leaf¬
hoppers to make them viruliferous and
able to infect healthy plants.

Besides these biological relationships,
certain ecological aspects are of interest.
The beet leafhopper is restricted to an
arid climate, and the curly top disease,
being restricted to one vector, is limited
to the region occupied by the leafhopper.
Sparse stands of Russian thistle provide
optimum conditions for development of
the leafhopper; high humidity in heavy
stands checks development of the insect.
In sugar beet fields, optimum conditions
for the leafhopper obtain when the stand
is poor or when the plants are small.

242

Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions

The virus the leafhopper transmits bene¬
fits its vector by contributing suitable en¬
vironment. Sugar beet fields would be
but little used by the leafhopper were it
not for the effect of the curly top virus
on the sugar beet plants.

Aster yellows and peach yellows are
two additional virus diseases, research on
which has yielded important knowledge
of the relationship of plant pathogenic
viruses and insect vectors. Aster yellows
is an extremely destructive disease of
cultivated asters and affects nearly 200
other species of plants in North America.
It is transmitted exclusively by the leaf¬
hopper Macrosteles divisa. Both nymphs
and adults are able to transmit the virus.
However, incubation of the virus for at
least ten days in the body of the insect
is required before disease can be induced.
Fully viruliferous leafhoppers, if held at
a temperature of 31° C. or above for
several days, become non-infective. Ap¬
parently the virus in the body of the in¬
sect is destroyed by prolonged heat. It
is supposed that on this account spread
of the disease is less during the hot
weather of midsummer. If, however, the
exposure of the insect to high temperature
is of short duration, the virus is only par¬
tially inactivated and, after the elapse of
a suitable period, may again become
potent. Thus there is evidence of multi¬
plication of the virus in the body of the
insect.

Peach yellows, recognized for more
than a hundred years as an extremely
destructive disease of peaches, is trans¬
mitted only by the plum leafhopper,
Macropsis trimaculata. It and aster
yellows can be transmitted artificially
only by grafting. The incubation period
of the peach yellows virus in the leaf¬
hopper ranges from eight to 26 days.
Both nymphs and adults are able to
transmit the virus. The presence of in¬
tracellular inclusions has been demon¬
strated in the intestinal walls and sali¬
vary glands of viruliferous leafhoppers.

Taxonomic groups of insects vary
greatly in importance as virus vectors,
and the importance of different groups
appears correlated with feeding methods.
Grasshoppers, which have chewing mouth
parts, transmit the spindle-tuber disease
of potatoes, but are not specific trans¬
mitters. Thrips, which feed with a rasp¬
ing-sucking action, transmit spotted wilt
of tomato, pineapple yellow spot, and

streak of peas, and some degree of spe¬
cific biological relationship exists between
them and these viruses. Aphids, which
feed by sucking, are the most important
of the virus vectors, both as to number of
vectors and number of viruses trans¬
mitted. Thirty-six aphid species transmit
38 viruses. One aphid, Mizus persicae,
transmits 19 viruses. Next in importance
are leafhoppers, and it is in this group
that the highest type of biologically ob¬
ligatory association between virus and
vector is found. Fifteen viruses are trans¬
mitted by 19 leafhopper species. But no
leafhopper transmits two unrelated vi¬
ruses, and no virus is transmitted by
more than four leafhoppers. Scale in¬
sects and mealy bugs, though common on
a wide range of plants, transmit few
viruses. Two lacebugs transmit the
viruses of two sugar beat diseases, and
plantbugs, especially the tarnished plant-
bug, transmit viruses that are easily
transmitted mechanically. Only a small
number of beetles transmit viruses and in
those few cases probably do so mechan¬
ically and without displaying any bio¬
logical relationship.

Sucking insects are the most effective
vectors of plant pathogenic viruses, but
even among them there are great dif¬
ferences in ability to transmit. Some are
unable to transmit any virus; others
transmit certain viruses mechanically;
and still others transmit only single
viruses in such a way as to indicate the
existence of very highly specialized
adaptations between vector and virus.

PROBLEMS NEEDING INVESTIGATION

Although the role of insects as vectors
of plant pathogens has been recognized
in numerous instances, there still is need
for clarification in this basic field. Insect
vectors are unknown for 54 out of a totaL
of 129 recognized virus diseases of plants.
There are numerous opportunities for re¬
search in special aspects of the relation¬
ship between plant pathogens and their
insect vectors. In the field of viruses,
for example, it is important to learn why
one aphid species can transmit 19 kinds of
virus, while at the other extreme one leaf¬
hopper species can transmit just one
kind of virus not transmitted by any
other leafhopper species. It would be of
interest to know what the incubation
period of a virus in an insect body ac¬
tually represents. It would be valuable

Zoology — 19Jf2 Meeting

243

to trace the progress of a virus in an
insect body from the time it is accepted
until it is given back to a plant. An
especially intriguing field of research has
been opened up by the discovery that cer¬

tain plant viruses appear as protein
crystals. That discovery may furnish the
key to the question, “What form does a
virus take in the body of its insect
vector?"

STATE OF ILLINOIS
DWIGHT H. GREEN, Governor

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ILLINOIS STATE
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 35 MARCH, 1943 NUMBER 3
PRELIMINARY PROGRAM
Thirty-sixth Annual Meeting

Friday and Saturday, May 7 and 8, 1943
JACKSONVILLE, ILLINOIS

Published by the Academy
Affiliated With the Illinois State Museum Division
Department of Registration and Education
Centennial Building, Springfield, Illinois.

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY

Entered as second-class matter December 6, 1930, at the post office at
Springfield, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, 1924

OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES OF THE ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF

SCIENCE 1942-1943

President: F. M. Fryxell, Augustana College, Rock Island.

First Vice-President: L. J. Thomas, University of Illinois, Urbana.

Second Vice-President: Willis DeRyke, Illinois College, Jacksonville.

Secretary: R. F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana.

Treasurer: John Voss, Manual Training H. S., Peoria.

Librarian: Gilbert Wright, Illinois State Museum, Springfield.

Editor: Grace Needham Oliver, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

Delegate to A. A. A. S. : L. J1. Thomas, University of Illinois, Urbana.

Delegate to Conservation Council: V. O. Graham, 4028 Grace St., Chicago.

Junior Academy Representatives: General Chairman: Allen R. Moore, Cicero; Southern Division: Mrs.
Mary Creager, Chester.

1943 Meeting at Jacksonville: Publicity Director: Grace Tickle, MacMurray College; General Chairman,
Local Arrangements : Willis DeRyke, Illinois College ; Collegiate Section Local Arrangements :
W. F. Bailey, MacMurray College.

Junior Section Local Arrangements: Helen Kamm, Jacksonville H. S.

Committee on Conservation: M. M. Leighton,
State Geological Survey, Urbana, Chairman.
W. H. Haas, Northwestern University, Evans¬
ton.

N. M. Gersbacher, Carbondale.

D. D. Lansden, Cairo.

Paul Houdek, Robinson.

George Bennett, State Natural History Sur¬
vey, Urbana.

R. S. Smith, University of Illinois, Urbana.
W. C. Allee, University of Chicago.

E. L. Stover, Charleston.

Rev. Geo. M. Link, Michael.

Committee on Legislation and Finance: Fay-
Cooper Cole, University of Chicago, Chairman.
H. B. Ward, University of Illinois, Urbana.

F. W. Aldrich, 1506 E. Washington St.,

Bloomington.

E. S. Bastin, University of Chicago.

Committee on Affilations: H. R. Wanless, Uni¬
versity of Illinois, Chairman.

Ildrem Daniel, Chicago Schools.

V. F. Swaim, Bradley Polytechnic Institute,
Peoria.

Glen Warner.

H. K. Gloyd.

Mrs. Geraldine Nilson.

Percival Robertson, Principia College, Elsah.

Committee on Membership : J. E. Coe, 2024
Sunnyside, Chicago, Chairman.

J. H. Reedy, University of Illinois, Urbana.
N. D. Cheronis, 5556 Ardmore Ave., Chicago.

J. F. Stanfield, Chicago Normal.

George E. Ekblaw, State Geological Survey,
Urbana.

Floyd Barloga, Peoria.

G. W. Hufford, Joliet.

W. B. Welsh, Carbondale.

D. L. Eaton, DeKalb.

K. G. Larson, Augustana College, Rock Island
Orlando Park, Northwestern, University,
Evanston.

G. N. Jone3, University of Ill., Urbana.
Fred R. Cagle, Carbondale.

Carl Ekblad, Moline.

Committee on Conservation of Archaeological and
Historic Sites: Fay-Cooper Cole, University
of Chicago, Chairman.

F. W. Aldrich, Bloomington

M. J. Herskovits, Northwestern University,

Evanston.

M. M. Leighton, State Geological Survey,
Urbana.

J. B. Ruyle, Champaign.

H. B. Ward, University of Illinois, Urbana.
Bruce W. Merwin. Carbondale.

Committee on Research Grants From A. A. A. S. :

L. H. Tiffany, Northwestern University,
Evanston, Chairman.

Carl G. Hartman, University of Illinois, Ur¬
bana.

H. E. Way, Knox College, Galesburg.

O. L. Railsback, Charleston.

B. S. Hopkins, University of Illinois, Urbana.
R. L. Beyer, Carbondale.

Committee on Budget: C. L. Furrow, Knox
College, Galesburg.

John Voss, Peoria.

W. H. Voskuil, State Geological Survey, Ur¬
bana.

Committee on Publications : The President.

The Secretary.

Neil E. Stevens, University of Illinois, Ur¬
bana.

H. J. Van Cleave, University of Illinois,
Urbana.

Committee on Ecological Bibliography: A. G.
Vestal, University of Illinois, Urbana.

Committee on High School Science and Clubs
(Junior Academy) : General Chairm&n :
Allen R. Moore, Cicero ; Assistant : Miss
Aleta S. McEvoy, Rockford H. S. ; Chairman
of Exhibits : Dwight L. Barr, Chicago ; As¬
sistant : Miss Nellie Bates, Champaign H. S. ;
Chairman of Judging: Robt. L. Smith, Her¬
on Twp. H. S. ; Assistant: Dale McNeal,
Normal Community H. S. ; Radio Service :
Rosalie M. Parr, University of Illinois, Ur¬
bana; Correspondent: Audry Hill, University
H. S., Carbondale.

Southern Division, Junior Academy : General
Chairman : Mary Creager, Chester ; General
Science Chairman: Audry Hill, University
H. S., Carbondale ; Biology Chairman : Eliza¬
beth Buell, Anna-Jonesbore, H. S. ; Physics;
Chairman : Eldon Walter, Galatia H. S.

—246—

ANNOUNCEMENTS

Authors submitting manuscripts for con¬
sideration by the publications committee of the
1943 Transactions must leave them with Section
Chairmen on or before May 7th. These scripts
must be in final form. They must be typed
(double spaced) in dark ribbon, and should not
exceed 1200 words in length (including tables
and not more than one illustration if possible)
unless special arrangements are made. (1200
words amounts to 2 printed pages, thus eliminat¬
ing an extra-page fee and keeping to a minimum
for the author the cost of reprints.)

Beneath title should appear author’s name
and, in a separate line, his school and/or town.
At the end of article should appear the address
to which proof is to be sent in August or Sep¬
tember. If author will not be able to read proof,
an alternate should be specified who will be

responsible for reading it.

Inasmuch as the Academy does not have
funds for preparing illustrations, all drawings,
charts, and special formulae (chemists and physic¬
ists, please note) must be submitted in India
ink, about twice the finished size desired. All
photographs should be gloss prints (no photostats
can be used), also larger than desired finished
size. Mount each illustration on separate sheet,
with title or figure typed beneath it.

Any author whose paper is published must
be a member of the Academy ($1.00 annual dues
payable to John Voss, Treasurer, Peoria, Illinois),
and must pay an editorial fee of $1.00 when
submitting paper, to help defray expenses of
publication. Reprint prices and order blanks
will be included with proof.

Authors are asked to send, if possible, brief abstracts of their articles to
Grace Tickle, MacMurray College, Jacksonville, Illinois, immediately. If Section
Chairmen already have these, please send at once to Miss Tickle, Publicity Chairman.

Requests for research grants from the A. A. A. S. are received each year
up to April 24th and recipients announced at the May meeting. Chairman for the
current year is L. H. Tiffany, Northwestern University, Evanston. Chairman for
the ensuing year will be announced in the June issue of the Transactions.

State Physics Teachers Association, affiliated with the Academy, will
meet with the Physics section Friday afternoon and Saturday morning.

Social Science group will meet at luncheon Friday. (See General Program) .
SATURDAY MORNING TRIPS

(1) To the State School for the Blind ; (2) To the State School for the
Deaf; (3) To Jacksonville State Hospital.

Exhibits of work, explanation of operation, methods of teaching will be ex¬
plained on these trips. Members and guests are urged to indicate their choice ahead
of time because of the problems incident to arranging transportation.

SECTION CHAIRMEN

AGRICULTURE, O. L. Whalin, Dept, of Agriculture, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana.
ANTHROPOLOGY, Ben Nussbaum, Fairbury.

BOTANY, K. R. Johnson, National College of Education, Evanston.
CHEMISTRY, H. W. Gould, Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb.
GEOGRAPHY, L. A. Holmes, Department of Geography, State Normal, Normal.
GEOLOGY, W. E. Powers, Dept, of Geology, Northwestern Univ., Evanston.
PHYSICS, O. L. Railsback, East Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston.
PSYCHOLOGY and EDUCATION, M. R. Goodson, University H. S., Urbana.
SOCIAL SCIENCES, V. Dake Jolley, Wheaton College, Wheaton.

ZOOLOGY, H. H. Ross, Natural Resources Building, Urbana.

All Section Meetings will be held in the Science Building of MacMurray

College.

-247—

GENERAL PROGRAM

ALL ADDRESSES AND SECTION MEETINGS OPEN TO THE PUBLIC

Jacksonville, Illinois, May 7-8, 1943

THURSDAY, MAY 6. 6 :00 p. m. Council Dinner and Meeting. DUNLAP HOTEL.
8 .00 a. m. Registration by all members and guests. Securing of Final Programs,
tickets for annual banquet, registration for Saturday visits. Tanner Me¬
morial Library , Illinois College.

8 :45 a. m. Preliminary business meeting of the Academy for all members. Appoint¬
ment of nominations, resolutions and auditing committees. Jones Chapel ,
Illinois College.

9:30 a. m. General Session. Jones Chapel , Illinois College.

Welcome by H. Gary Pludson, President of Illinois College, and Clarence
P. McClelland, President of MacMurray College. Academy Presidential
Address : “American Science in the Development of the Phillipines,” F. M.
Fryxell, Augustana College, Rock Island.

Lecture : “Our Natural Heritage, its Benefits and its Menace,” Dr. Edson
S. Bastin, Department of Geology, University of Chicago, Chicago.
12:30 General Luncheon. MacMurray College. 65 cents.

Mail reservation to Willis DeRyke, Illinois College, Jacksonville, Illinois
by May 1.

Social Science Luncheon. Dunlap Hotel , Mayfair Room. 75c cents.

1 :30-4 :30 Section Meetings. MacMurray College , Science Building class rooms and
lecture rooms. All papers, to be considered for publication, must be given
to Section Chairmen by the end of this session. See Announcements page
for specifications.

Junior Academy of Science Club “Aids” from the Illinois State Museum on
display in room 5, MacMurray Hall Science Building.

5:00-5:30 Annual Business Meeting for all members of the Academy. Room 17,
MacMurray College Science Building.

6:30 p. m. Annual Banquet for Senior Academy, Collegiate Section, and guests.

Dunlap Hotel. $1.25. Informal. Announcements of A. A. A. S. research
awards. Mail reservations to Willis DeRyke , Illinois College , Jacksonville ,
Illinois by May 1. Call for tickets by 10:30 a. m. May 7, at Registration
Desk.

8:15 p. m. Annual Lecture for everyone attending Academy sessions and for the
general public. “National Parks During the War and in the Future,” illus¬
trated, by Carl P. Russell, Head of the Department of Research and In¬
terpretation of the National Park Service. High School auditorium. A
special section will be reserved for those attending the Academy banquet.
SATURDAY, MAY 8

8 :45 a. m. Meeting of the Council for 1943-44. Dunlap Hotel.

9:30 a. m. Annual Trips. Three trips, all within Jacksonville, have been arranged.

A tour of the plants and demonstrations of methods of teaching the State’s
handicapped children will be conducted at the State School for the Blind
and the State School for the Deaf ; the third will be to the State Hospital
for the Insane. Please indicate choice by May 1. Reservation blanks in
this issue.

-248—

AGRICULTURE— ROOM 16

Chairman: 0. L. Whalin, University of Illinois, Urbana.

Election of Chairman for 1943-44.

1. Wood Helps to Win the war.

J. E. Davis, University of Illinois, Urbana.

2. The Rural War Production Training Program.

R. D. Eiler, Jacksonville H. S.

3. Effect of Soil on Plant Nutritive Content.

H. J. Snider, University of Illinois, Urbana.

4. Improving the Quality of Roughage as an Aid to Wartime Feeding of Dairy

Cattle.

W. B. Nevens, University of Illinois, Urbana.

5. Agricultural Extension Program Meets Wartime Needs.

W. F. Coolidge, Farm Adviser, Jacksonville.

6. Meeting Wartime Production While Maintaining Fertility in Southern Illinois.

C. J. Badger, University of Illinois, Urbana.

7. Credit Agency Adjustments for Wartime Needs.

H. S. Whalin, Federal Land Bank, St. Louis, Mo.

8. Making Pastures Contribute Their Share to Food Production.

G. C. Hanson, U. S. Soil Conservation Service.

9. Cutting Corners in Wartime Livestock Production.

E. T. Robbins, University of Illinois, Urbana.

Turn papers in to Chairman

ANTHROPOLOGY— ROOM 29

Chairman: Mr. Ben Nussbaum, Fairbury, Illinois.

Election of Chairman for 1943-44.

1. Title to be announced.

Fay-Cooper Cole, University of Chicago, Chicago.

2. Aims and Methods of Archaeology.

John C. McGregor, Springfield.

3. A Method for Mound and Mound Group Determination in the Wisconsin

Glaciation of Central Eastern Illinois.

John B. Ruyle, Champaign.

4. An Illinois Corner-Tang.

C. W. Hudelson, Normal.

5. Who were The Prehistoric Peoples of Illinois?

Harry L. Spooner, Peoria.

6. The Arrowsmith Battlefield.

William B. Brigham, Bloomington.

7. Prehistoric Indian Mounds in Central and Eastern Illinois and Their Exca¬

vations.

Francis Lowry, Champaign.

8. The Illinois Confederacy and The Middle Mississippi Culture in Illinois.

Donald E. Wray and Hale Smith, University of Chicago.

9. The Prehistoric Indian in Calhoun County.

Rev. George M. Link, Michael.

10. Exit, The Red Man; Enter, The White Man.

C. C. Burford, Urbana.

Turn papers in to Chairman
—249—

BOTANY — EOOM 7

Chairman: K. Richard Johnson, National College of Education,

Evanston

Election of Chairman for 1943-44.

1. A possible explanation of the origin of preclimax prairies.

Blanche McAvoy, Illinois State Normal University, Normal.

2. Cellular Versus Organismic Physiology of the Vitamins.

F. L. Wynd, Urbana.

3 Applied Botany as Fun.

Neil E. Stevens, Urbana.

4. The Use of Prairie Relics in Teaching.

L. Wallace Miller, Normal.

5. Oedogonia from Southern Florida.

L. H. Tiffany, Evanston.

6. A New Mucor-like Fungus from Plant Roots.

L. H. Tehon, Urbana.

7. A Preliminary Check List of the Plants of Sangamon County, Illinois.

Geo. D. Fuller, Springfield.

8. Preliminary Report on Bryophytes of Bois Blanc Island.

Opal C. Hartline, Normal.

9. Total Nitrogen and Vitamin C in Oats Grown at Different Levels of Soil
Moisture.

Glenn R. Noggle, Urbana.

10. The Genus Viola in Illinois.

G. Neville Jones, Urbana.

11. The Older Forest Plantations of Illinois.

J. Nelson Spaeth, Urbana.

12. Natural Reforestation in Strip Mines of Salem County, Illinois.

Clarence Bonnell, Harrisburg.

Turn papers in to Chairman

CHEMISTRY-ROOM 17

Chairman: LL W. Gould, Northern Illinois State Teachers College,

DeKalb

Election of Chairman for 1943-44.

1. Some New Sources of Aluminum and Magnesium.

B. S. Hopkins, Urbana.

2. Perchloric Acid — A Neglected Chapter in General Chemistry.

J. H. Reedy, Urbana.

3. Inulin-Containing Plants as a Source of Ethyl Alcohol.

D. T. Englis and L. F. Szerlong, Urbana.

4. Some Observation of The Influence of Sodium Carbonate in Water Supplies.

FI. W. Adams, Normal.

5. A Comparison Between Small and Large Group Instruction in the Teaching

of the Physical Sciences.

N. D. Cheronis, Chicago.

6. Determination of Magnesium.

I. J. Jenks, DeKalb.

—250—

7. Certain Vitamin Requirements of Bacteria.

F. M. Clark, Urbana.

8. The Determination of Chlorates in The Presence of Perchlorates.

G. F. Smith, and A. J. Veraguth, Urbana.

9. Illinois Fluorspar in the War Effort.

G. C. Finger, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

10. Illinois Minerals as Chemical Raw Materials.

F. H. Reed, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

Turn papers in to Chairman

GEOGRAPHY— ROOM 22

Chairman: Geography: L. A. Holmes, State Normal University, Normal

Election of Chairman for 1943-44.

1. The Place of Geography in the Field of Aeronautics. (With Slides) .

Harry L. Adams, Bloomington.

2. The Baltic Sea.

W. O. Blanchard, Urbana.

3. A Phase of Geography in the Sudbury Area.

Thomas F. Barton, Carbondale.

4. Pre-War Truck Movement of Coal From Illinois Mines.

Leslie A. Holmes, Illinois State Normal University, Normal.

Turn papers in to Chairman

GEOLOGY— ROOM 4

Chairman: William E. Powers, Northwestern University, Evanston.

Election of Chairman for 1943-44.

1. The program of oil well logging of the Illinois Geological Survey.

G. H. Cady, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

2. The use of electric logs in the interpretation of the Pennsylvanian succession in

Illinois.

M. W. Pullen and Paul K. Sims, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

3. Shallow coal resources of Wabash County.

J. M. Schopf, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

4. The structure of the Millersville limestone in Shelby and Cumberland Counties.

E. F. Taylor, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

5. Pennsylvanian stratigraphy of eastern Vermilion County, Illinois, and an

adjacent area in Indiana.

J. W. Alexander, University of Illinois, Urbana.

6. Pennsylvanian stratigraphy of the Carlinville, Illinois, quadrangle.

J. R. Ball, Northwestern University, Evanston.

7. A Microfossil Profile of Certain Pennsylvanian Coals of Ohio.

R. M. Kosanke, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

8. Place of Geology and Geography in the War.

Harold W. Scott, University of Illinois, Urbana.

9. War Time Course in the Interpretation of Maps and Aerial Photographs.

Harold R. Wanless, University of Illinois, Urbana.

10. Bedrock Surface and Thickness of Glacial Drift in Will County, Illinois.

Leland Horberg and A. C. Mason, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

—251—

11. Buried Bedrock Valleys East of Joliet and Their Relation to Water Supply.

Leland Horberg and K. O. Emery, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

12. Progress in the Wisconsin Zinc District.

C. H. Behre, Jr., and A. F. Agnew, U. S. Geological Survey.

13. Comparative Study of the Quartz Pebbles in the Lafayette Gravel and Casey-

ville Conglomerate of Southern Illinois.

Robert R. Reynolds, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

14. Insoluable Residues of the Rosiclare, Levias and Renault Formations of Hardin

County, Illinois.

Frank E. Tippie, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

15. Post- Wisconsin Chronology.

Don L. Carroll, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

Turn papers in to Chairman

PHYSICS— ROOM 11

Chairman : 0. L. Railsback, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College,

Charleston

Election of Chairman for 1943-44.

The I. A. A. P. T. is meeting jointly with the Academy section. The program this
year will encompass a Round Table discussion of problems arising out
of the war effort. Details later.

SOCIAL SCIENCE AND PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION
Joint Session — Room 25

Chairman : Psychology and Education : M. R. Goodson, University H. S., Urbana.

Social Sciences : V. Dake Jolley, Wheaton College, Wheaton.

12:30 Luncheon. Address: “Wanted: A West Point for Peace Leadership.”

Sylvanus M. Duvall, George Williams College.

2:30 Election of Chairmen for 1943-44.

1. Liberal Arts Education in the Time of War.

H. Gary Hudson, Illinois College, Jacksonville.

2. Guidance Problems in War Time.

Wendell S. Dysinger, MacMurray College, Jacksonville.

3. The Sociological Theories of Cournot and Pareto Examined in the Light of

World Conditions Today.

Grace M. Jaffe, Barat College, Lake Forest.

4. Vice and Juvenile Delinquency in Defense Areas in Rock Island County.

A. F. Schersten, Augustana College, Rock Island.

5. The Poverty-Line and Wartime Policy.

W. Hardy Wickwar, Rockford College, Rockford.

(Discussion of Papers 3, 4, and 5, conducted by Joe Patterson Smith, Illinois
College, Jacksonville.)

Saturday morning. “The Effects of Social Climates on Behavior,” a motion picture
showing procedure and results of experiments in autocracy, democracy,
and laissez-faire types of social organization performed by Lewin and
others at University of Iowa. Implications for classroom management of
interest to psychologists as well as teachers of social science because of
method of research involved and results obtained.

Turn papers in to Chairman

—252—

ZOOLOGY— ROOM 12

Chairman: H. H. Ross, Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana

Election of Chairman for 1943-44.

1 . Rare and Extinct Birds in the Collections of the Illinois State Museum.

Gilbert Wright, Illinois State Museum, Springfield.

2. A Neglected Function of Biologists.

W. V. Balduf, University of Illinois, Urbana.

3. An Unusual Case of a Sexually Mature Trematode From the Body Cavity of

a Diving Beetle.

W. W. Crawford, Blackburn College, Carlinville.

4. Notes on the Sudden Mortality of Yellow Bass.

D. F . Hansen, Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana.

5. The Removal of Parasites from Fowl Hosts by Means of Starvation.

W. M. Reid, Monmouth College, Monmouth.

6. The Life Cycle of a New Diphyllobothrium Tapeworm from the Herring Gull.

L. J. Thomas, University of Illinois, Urbana.

7. Some Notes on the Natural History of Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee.

C. C. Hoff, Quincy College, Quincy.

Turn papers in to Chairman

COLLEGIATE SECTION— ROOM 23

Papers and Demonstrations by Undergraduate College and University

Students

Chairman: Mrs. Martha Leavenworth, University of Illinois.

Preliminary Business Meeting.

1. Plant Pigments and Plastids.

Marijane Anderson, Rosary College, River Forst.

2. Prevalence of Typhoid Fever in Illinois — 1935-1941.

Ada Jeanne Thomas, College of St. Francis, Joliet.

3. The Heredity of Myopia, (15 min. — Lantern slides).

E. Antzis, Loyola University, Chicago.

4. Genetics and Pre-medics.

Dorothy Tatter, Rosary College, River Forest.

5. The Effects of Low Pressures on Colon Activity in the Dog.

J. A. Frymire, University of Illinois, Urbana.

6. The Effect of Nicotine on Pregnant Mice and Their Offspring, (15 min.—

Lantern Slides) .

Arthur T. Janecke, Loyola University, Chicago.

Kenneth J. Fitzgerald, Loyola University, Chicago.

7. Nutritive Content of Fruit Juices, and Methods of Determination.

A. Vitamin C, Edith Walder, College of St. Francis, Joliet.

B. Minerals, Georgene Pranger, College of St. Francis, Joliet

—253—

8. The Use of Alizarin Stain for a Microscopic Study of Bone Development in

the Chick.

M. Vruno, Loyola University, Chicago.

9. Further Studies on the Cardiac Frequency of the Chick Embryo, (15 min. _

Lantern Slides).

R. DeSalvo, Loyola University, Chicago.

M. Kralicke, Loyola University, Chicago.

A. Sowka, Loyola University, Chicago.

10. The Effects of Janus Green B. upon the Respiration and Potential of Frogs.

W. A. Teppert, University of Illinois, Urbana.

11. Electrolytic Polishing of Metals for Metallographic Examination.

John A. Bell, University of Illinois, Urbana.

12. Some Physical Properties of Powdered Iron Compacts.

Frank A. Rough, University of Illinois, Urbana.

15. Geological Study of Aerial Photographs in the Uinta Mountains, Utah.
William Oesterling, University of Illinois, Urbana.

14. Correlations of the Mississippian in Alaska and Canada.

Dorothy Johnson, University of Illinois, Urbana.

15. Stratigraphic Studies on the Mississippian of the Rocky Mountains.

Earl Cockrum, University of Illinois, Urbana.

GENERAL INFORMATION

Headquarters

Headquarters for the Academy Friday forenoon will be in Tanner Me¬
morial Library Building, Illinois College.

Messages sent previous to registration and until noon of Friday, May 7,
should be addressed in care of Willis DeRyke, Illinois College, Jacksonville, Illinois.
After noon Friday, May 7, messages will be received at MacMurray college.

Transportation

Railroads: Alton; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Wabash. At present
the Alton R. R. has two trains each way daily. The Burlington and Wabash each
has one train each way daily.

Buses: Greyhound between Chicago and Kansas City. Jacksonville Trail-
ways between Peoria and St. Louis and between Springfield and Hannibal and
Quincy.

Room Accommodations

Those who desire hotel accommodations should communicate directly with
the hotels.

The Dunlap Hotel

Single room without bath (with Toilet and Lavatory) - $1.75, $2.00, $2.50

Single room with bath _ $2.50, $2.75, $3.00, $3.50

Double room without bath (with Toilet and Lavatory) (double bed)

$2.75, $3.00, $3.50

Double room with bath, double bed - $3.50, $3.75, $4.00, $4.50

Double room with bath, twin beds - $4.50, $5.50

The Pacific Hotel

Single room without bath (lavatory only) - $1.00, $1.25

Double room without bath, double bed - — $1.50, $1.75

Double room with bath, double bed - $2.00, $2.50

Rooms in private homes may be arranged for in advance of the meeting
by communicating with Willis DeRyke, Chairman of Arrangements, Illinois College,
Jacksonville, Illinois.

Meals

Luncheon and banquet reservations should be made in advance, so that
tickets may be obtained at the registration desk in Tanner Memorial Library Build¬
ing Friday forenoon, May 7.

Inspection Trips

There are three inspection trips. They will start from the Dunlap Hotel
promptly at 9 : 30 a. m. Saturday. Those expecting to go on these trips should make
reservations in advance if possible and verify these at the time of registration on
Friday.

—255—

RESERVATIONS*

For

ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE MEETINGS
Jacksonville, Ill., May 7-8, 1943.

Return to Willis DeRyke, Illinois College, Jacksonville, Ill. by May 1
Please reserve rooms in private rooming house for (list names) :

Friday night
Saturday night

Signed

Please reserve tickets for the following meals :

Number Desired

Regular Academy luncheon
Regular Academy banquet
Social Science luncheon

Signed

Please indicate which Saturday trip you expect to make :

Trip to State School for the Blind -

Trip to State School for the Deaf -

Trip to Jacksonville State Hospital -

Signed _

*PLEASE SEND IN YOUR RESERVATIONS BY MAY 1st. Mr. DeRyke asks
your cooperation in this to avoid confusion in the food and transportation plans
which must be worked out for the meeting in advance. There will be a limited
number of reservations available on May 7.

—256—

STATE OF ILLINOIS
Dwight H. Green, Governor

JUL G liWL

T ransactisNMEJSIs'i Of ILUH01S

of the

ILLINOIS STATE
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Volume 35

June, 1943

Number 4

Reports Concerning the Thirty-sixth Annual
Meeting, Jacksonville, Illinois,
including Collegiate Section Consitution
May, 1943

Printed by the Illinois Academy of Science
Affiliated with the

Illinois State Museum Division, Centennial Building
SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS
Published Quarterly

Entered as second class matter at the Post Office at
Springfield, Illinois, under The Act of August 24, 1912

STATE OF ILLINOIS
Dwight H. Green, Governor

DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION
Frank M. Thompson, Director

ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM DIVISION
John C. McGregor, Acting Chief

ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Affiliated with the
ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM

OFFICERS FOR 1943-1944

President: L. J. Thomas
University of Illinois, Urbana

First Vice-President: A. E. Emerson
University of Chicago, Chicago

Second Vice-President: H. W. Gould
Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb

Secretary: L. R. Tehon
Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana

Treasurer: John Voss
Manual Training High School, Peoria

Librarian: Gilbert Wright
Illinois State Museum, Springfield

Collegiate Section Coordinator: H. R. Wanless, University of Illinois, Urbana
Junior Academy Representatives: To be named later

Editor: Grace Needham Oliver
Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana

In addition to current officers, the Academy Council for 1943-4 includes the two
most recent past presidents: F. M. Fryxell, Augustana College , Rock Island and
T. H. Frison, Illinois Natural History Survey , Urbana.

1944 MEETING AT DE KALB, MAY 5-6

COMMITTEE ON LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS
H. W. Gould, Chairman , Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb
Paul Street, Publicity Chairman , Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb
G. L. Terwilliger, Collegiate Section Chairman , Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb
W. H. Beaumont, Junior Academy Chairman , DeKalb Township High Shcool, DeKalb

Printed June, 1943

Number 4

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Volume 34 June, 1943

CONTENTS

Reports of Council Meetings, 1942-1943 .

Reports of the 36th Annual Meeting:

Business Meetings, Friday, May 7, 1943 .

Local Arrangements .

Publicity .

Report on the Progress of the Collegiate Section ....

Report of the Editor .

Report of the Librarian .

Report of the Treasurer .

Report of the Auditing Committee .

Reports of Committees:

Conservation Committee .

Nominating Committee .

Committee on Publications .

Committee on Research Grants .

Committee on Resolutions .

Committee on Affiliation .

Committee on Conservation of Archaeological and Historical Sites

Committee on Legislation and Finance .

Committee on the Budget .

Committee on Membership .

Committee on Pre-Medical Training .

261

264

264

265

265

266

266

267

267

268

268

268

268

268

270

270

270

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721

271

SECTION CHAIRMEN FOR 1943-44

Agriculture: C. J. Badger, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station,

Mt. Vernon.

Anthropology Donald E. Wray, 604 Caroline St., Peoria.

Botany L. Wallace Miller, Illinois State Normal University,

Normal.

Chemistry C. W. Bennett, Western Illinois State Teachers
College, Macomb.

Geography Harry L. Adams, Bloomington High School, Bloom¬
ington.

Geology A. H. Bell, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana.

Physics K. G. Larson, Augustana College, Rock Islaud.

Psychology

and Education Marion Stewart, MacMurray College, Jacksonville.

Social Science W. Hardy Wickwar, Rockford College, Rockford.

Zoology Charles S. Spooner, Department of Biology, Eastern

Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston.

Collegiate

Section H. R. Wanless, Coordinator, University of Illinois,

Urbana.

DELEGATES AND COMMITTEES FOR 1943-44

Delegate to A. A. A. S.: R. F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana.

Delegate to Conservation Council: V. O. Graham, 4028 Gract St., Chicago.

Committee on Conservation:

M. M. Leighton, Chairman, Illinois Geological Survey*

Urbana. . „

W. H. Haas, Northwestern University, Evanston.

N. M. Gersbacher, Southern Illinois Normal University,
Carbondale.

D. D. Lansden, Ca,iro. _ , .

Paul Houdek, Robinson High School, Robinson.

George Bennett, Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana.
R. S. Smith, University of Illinois, Urbana.

W. C. Allee, University of Chicago, Chicago.

E. L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College
Charleston.

Rev. G. M. Link, Grafton.

C. P. Russel, National Park Service, Chicago.

H. L. Shantz, U. S. Forest Service, Chicago.

Committee on Legislation and Finance:

Fay-Cooper Cole, Chairman, University of Chicago,
Chicago.

H. B. Ward, University of Illinois, Urbana.

F. W. Aldrich, 1506 East Washington Street, Blooming-

ton. . .

E. S. Bastin, University of Chicago, Chicago.

Committee on Affiliations:

H. R. Wanless, Chairman, University of Illinois, Urbana.

I. P. Daniel, Lake View High School, Chicago.

V. F. Swaim, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria.

Glen Warner, 7633 Calumet Avenue, Chicago.

H. D. Gloyd, Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago.
Mrs. Geraldine Nilson, Elmhurst College, Elmhurst.
Percival Robertson, The Principia College of Liberal
Arts, Elsah.

Committee on Membership:

J. E. Coe, Chairman, 2024 Sunnyside, Chicago.

J. H. Reedy, University of Illinois, Urbana.

N. D. Cheronis, 5556 Ardmore Avenue, Chicago.

J. F. Stanfield, Chicago Teachers College, Chicago.

G. E. Ekblaw, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

Floyd Barloga, 1423 North Glen Oak, Peoria.

G. W. Hufford, 116 Sesser, Joliet.

W. B. Welch, Southern Illinois Normal University, Car¬
bondale.

D. L. Eaton, Northern Illinois State Teachers College
DeKalb.

K. G. Larson, Augustana College, Rock Island.

Orlando Park, Northwestern University, Evanston.

G. N. Jones, University of Illinois, Urbana.

Fred R. Cagle, Carbondale.

Carl Ekblad, Moline High School, Moline.

Committee on Conservation of Archaeological and Historic
Sites:

Fay-Cooper Cole, Chairman, University of Chicago
Chicago.

F. W. Aldrich, 1506 East Washington, Bloomington.

M. J. Herskovits, Northwestern University, Evanston.

M. M. Leighton, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

J. B. Ruyle, 201 South Fair, Champaign.

H. B. Ward, University of Illinois, Urbana.

Bruce W. Merwin, Carbondale.

Committee on Research Grants from A.A.A.S.:

Carl G. Hartman, Chairman University of Illinois ,
Urbana.

J. R. Ball, Northwestern University, Evanston.

O. L. Railsback, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College,
Charleston.

B. S. Hopkins, University of Illinois, Urbana.

R. O. Freeland, Northwestern University, Evanston.

N. M. Gersbacher, Southern Illinois Normal University,
Carbondale.

Committee on Budget:

C. L. Furrow, Knox College, Galesburg.

John Voss, Manual Training High School, Peoria.

W. H. Voskuil, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana.

Committee on Publications:

The President.

The Secretary.

Neil E. Stevens, University of Illinois, Urbana.

H. J. Van Cleave, University of Illinois, Urbana.

Committee on Ecological Bibliography:

A. G. Vestal, University of Illinois, Urbana.

Committee on Teacher Training:

E. L. Stover, Chairman, Eastern Illinois State Teachers
College, Charleston.

Committee on Pre-Medical Training:

C. T. Reid, Chairman, University of Illinois College of
Medicine, Chicago.

1944 MEETING: DE KALB, MAY, 5-6

REPORTS OF COUNCIL MEET¬
INGS, 1942-1943

The first council meeting was called to order
by President Fryxell at 9:00 a.m. May 9, 1942,
in room 132, Natural Resources Building, Ur-
bana. The minutes of the last meeting were read
and approved. Those present were T. H. Frison,
F. M. Fryxell, John Voss, Mrs. G. N. Oliver,
J. S. Ayars and R. F. Paton.

The main business of the meeting was con¬
cerned with checking the reports of the various
committees and going over the list of officers and
committees for next year to be sure that every¬
thing was in order for the new administration.
A tentative report from the chairman of the
collegiate section indicated that this new activity
of the Academy at the annual meeting had been
highly successful and the appointment of a com¬
mittee to make plans for the next year was post¬
poned as a special order of business for the No¬
vember council meeting. The secretary was
instructed to inform the groups at Jacksonville,
Illinois, that the Academy had voted unani¬
mously to accept their cordial invitation to hold
the next annual meeting of the Academy there.
The secretary was also instructed to send a sin¬
cere vote of thanks to the other groups who had
asked to sponsor the Academy meeting, pointing
out to them that there were two main reasons
why the Jacksonville invitation was accepted
instead of their own, one being that the Academy
had never met at Jacksonville and it was felt
that this would be an interesting place to hold
the meeting. The other reason was that Jackson¬
ville is fairly centrally located in the State, and
since transportation may be difficult next year,
it was felt that the central location was more
desirable.

The appointment of a second vice-president
was postponed also until the November meeting,
awaiting recommendations from Jacksonville
for this very important position.

The second council meeting was called to ord¬
er at 10:30 a.m. by vice-president L. J. Thomas
in the council room of the Natural History Sur¬
vey, Natural Resources Building, Urbana, on
November 7, 1942. President Fryxell had sent a
telegram stating he would be delayed until noon
on account of train connections from Washing¬
ton, D. C. Members of the council present were
T. H. Frison, V. O. Graham, A. R. Moore, R. F.
Paton, L. J. Thomas, and John Voss.

Minutes of the May meeting were read and
approved

Reports of the officers showed that the Acad¬
emy had a cash balance in the treasury, that the
publications were only slightly delayed by war
conditions, and that only a few vacancies in the
committees and section chairmanships were to
be filled. After careful discussion, O. L. Rails-
back was appointed chairman of the Physics
Section, M. R. Goodson chairman of the Psy¬

chology and Education Section, and H. H. Ross
chairman of the Zoology Section.

Mrs. Martha Leavenworth reported that plans
for continuance of the Collegiate Section were
being formulated. After some discussion, the
council named Professor H. R. Wanless co¬
ordinator for this group for the current year.

There was some discussion of the advisability
of abandoning plans for the meeting at Jackson¬
ville, but it was agreed that the importance of
increased scientific activity more than justified
the extra effort needed. President Fryxell, who
arrived in time to take part in the discussion,
said that national authorities felt state meetings
should be continued and most state academies
were going ahead with their plans. On motion
it was voted unanimously to proceed with plans
for the Jacksonville meeting in May. It was sug¬
gested that if possible a speaker be obtained for
the annual public lecture, competent to discuss
the direction which the effort of our academy
group should take in the war.

The committee on premedical training was
named and the secretary was instructed to ask
Dr. C. I. Reed of the University of Illinois Col¬
lege of Medicine.

In line with the resolution voted at the annual
business meeting, the council appointed a com¬
mittee to make plans for the symposium on pre¬
medical training as suggested. Professor H. J.
Van Cleave was elected as chairman of this com¬
mittee with instructions to recommend a com¬
plete committee to the president for election at
the council meeting in November. The name of
Victor Johnson was also suggested for this
committee.

The resolution from the physics section re¬
questing that the ’Academy appoint a committee
to work with the National Cooperative Com¬
mittee on training for science teachers in the
secondary schools was received and the council
voted to establish this committee, suggested
membership of which included the president of
the high school chemistry teachers, John Coe of
Chicago, J. Neckers of Carbondale, P. Houdek
of Robinson, R. F. Paton of Urbana, with O. L.
Railsback of Charleston as chairman. The secre¬
tary was instructed to notify Professor Railsback
of this action, and to request him to accept the
post as chairman.

The work of maintaining and increasing the
sustaining membership of the Academy was
assigned to another special committee with
Ildrem Daniels of Chicago acting as chairman
and the secretary and treasurer as ex-officio
members. It was suggested that the local clubs
of the State might well be informed of the pro¬
gram of the Junior Academy and be encouraged
to support actively the work as a stimulus to
increasing the interest in science training, the
need for which is so important in the present
emergency.

261

262

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

The time for the next council meeting was dis¬
cussed and it was voted that the secretary should
be instructed to call this meeting in Urba'na at
the time of the next high school conference. Dr.
Frison invited the group to meet in his office.
The time suggested was 10.00 a.m. The plan for
a February meeting at Jacksonville was also
discussed. The meeting adjourned at 10:30 a.m.
to take the lead in calling the group together
A. Carlson, C. I. Reed, B. V. Hall and I. C.
Ivey were suggested as members of this com¬
mittee.

A. R. Moore reported that the Junior Acad¬
emy had decided not to hold a project competition
in Jacksonville on account of anticipated trans¬
portation difficulties for many of the high school
groups. A plan for local demonstrations and
awards was outlined, together with an essay
competition to assist in selecting recipients of
the American Association for the Advancement
of Science awards. The council agreed to co¬
operate in the judging. It was also agreed that
the winning essays should be submitted to the
editorial committee for publication in the Acad¬
emy Transactions. The council also agreed to
aid the Junior group in purchasing suitable in¬
signia of membership. It was voted to authorize
the treasurer to advance the necessary funds to
purchase the pins selected, the treasury to be
reimbursed from funds secured from the sale of
the pins at cost.

The council adjourned at 12:15 for luncheon
at the Illinois Union, further business being
taken up during the luncheon.

L. J. Thomas reported on his work with the
advisory committee on the Science Clubs of
America. It was voted unanimously to recom¬
mend that cooperation with the Science Clubs
of America be limited to servicing the Junior
Academy clubs.

The secretary was instructed to request section
chairmen to plan programs looking toward their
usefulness in the war effort.

Meeting adjourned at 2:00 p.m.

The third council meeting was called to order
February 20, 1943 at 2:00 p.m. at the Dunlap
Hotel, Jacksonville, Illinois. W. A. De Ryke,
Miss Helen Kamm, J. C. McGregor and R. F.
Paton, O. L. Railsback, H. H. Ross, L. J. Tho¬
mas, Miss Grace Tickle, John Voss, and Gilbert
Wright were present. President Fryxell being
unable to leave his work in Washington, vice
president Thomas presided.

Minutes of the previous meeting were read
and approved.

The main business of the day was checking
arrangements for the annual meeting of the
Academy to be held in Jacksonville on May 7
and 8, 1943. A letter from President Fryxell out¬

lining the program for the general sessions of the
Academy was read. The council agreed that this
part of the program was excellent. The repre¬
sentatives of the sponsoring colleges, MacMur-
ray College and Illinois College, discussed
arrangements with the council, and excellent
facilities seemed to be available.

The treasurer, John Voss, reported a balance
of $984.82 to provide for expenses of the meet¬
ing, such as publishing programs, postage, and
similar items.

Most of the section chairmen reported through
the secretary, and plans seemed well advanced
with interesting programs already planned.

The Collegiate Section report was not en¬
couraging. Transportation difficulties and dis¬
traction due to the war seemed to have prevent¬
ed any general interest among undergraduates.
The council agreed that any papers submitted
could be scheduled with the regular sections, but
asked the committee on local arrangements to
provide a room where any delegates who might
be able to attend could meet to discuss plans for
the future.

Dr. De Ryke presented the plans for trans¬
porting and housing those attending the meet¬
ings. Excellent hotel accomodations were avail¬
able and trains on the Alton, Burlington, and
Wabash railroads, as well as bus service, pro¬
vided ample transportation possibilities.

A letter from Sam Woodley was read, an¬
nouncing that the grant for research for the
Academy awards from the American Association
for the Advancement of Science was $210.00 for
1943. It was pointed out also that this sum was
10 per cent of the dues paid by Academy mem¬
bers and amounted to 50 per cent of the annual
dues to the state academy. Hence any member of
the American Association for the Advancement
of Science who joined the State Academy would
be contributing a sum equal to half of his dues
to the state organization to promote research in
the state.

Dr. McGregor pointed out that, due to delays
in publishing the December issue of the Trans¬
actions, the printing bill for this number was
larger than would otherwise have been the case
and the Museum had had to advance nearly
$200.00 out of its own funds for this reason, in
order to make the publication possible at all.
He informed the council that postal authorities
might also insist on the Academy forfeiting its
bond guaranteeing the regular quarterly issue
of the Academy publications for mailing. The
finance committee of the Academy had been
cooperating individually, he said, and it was
hoped that the usual support from the state for
the Academy publications could be secured. He
urged that every effort be made to bring out the
publications promptly.

36th Annual Meeting , Jacksonville , 1943

263

A report from the editor showed that con¬
siderable difficulty had been experienced in
getting proof back from the authors due to the
many changes in address arising from war con¬
ditions.

Mr. Wright, the librarian, asked that he be
given the privilege of furnishing a few reprints,
in demand by research agencies in industry in
connection with the war effort, from extra copies
of the Transactions where available. It was
moved, seconded, and voted to grant the li¬
brarian this privilege, provided extra copies of
the Transactions were available.

To assist the editorial committee of the Acad¬
emy in making a consistent decision on charges
for publishing symposium papers, the council
was asked to determine the policy. After some
discussion, it was voted to charge the authors
the same page fee as charged to all authors sub¬
mitting papers for publication. Section 'chair¬
men, it was felt, should feel free to ask for invited
papers for publication only if each chairman in¬
structed the authors concerning the necessary
charges which the Academy would have to make
due to the limited funds.

A. R. Moore submitted a report for the Junior
Academy. Plans for local competition were
being worked out and received with good spirit
in most cases and some enthusiasm in many
localities. The Junior groups were naturally
disappointed in not being able to come to the
state meeting. Pins for the Junior Academy
clubs were now available, and club charters and
certificate awards were being provided.

L. J. Thomas reported further work with the
American Association for the Advancement of
Science committee on cooperation with the
Science Clubs of America. He felt that the plan
worked out by the Virginia Academy was sensi¬
ble, and after some discussion the council voted
to reocmmend to the council of the Junior
Academy that it draw up a plan for a two-way
membership in the Junior Academy and the
Science Clubs of America. It was pointed out
that the Junior Academy clubs should still use
their own pins and that any contributions to the
Science Clubs of America should be optional on
the part of the Junior Academy. Dr. Thomas
felt such a plan would still be acceptable to the
governing board of the Science Clubs of America.

A nominating committee consisting of T. H.
Frison, G. D. Fuller, H. K. Gloyd, V. O. Gra-
nam, E. L. Stover and Gilbert Wright was named
by the council.

The meeting adjourned at 5:00 p.m.

The fourth council meeting was called to order
May 6, by President Fryxell in the Hotel Dun¬
lap, Jacksonville, Illinois, at 7:00 p.m. Members
of the council present were F. M. Fryxell, L. J.
Thomas, W. DeRyke, J. Voss, G. Wright, A. R.
Moore, R. F. Paton, and Mrs. G. N. Oliver.
Also attending were special officers of the Acad¬
emy and guests who were assisting with the

details of the annual meeting: Miss Grace
Tickle, Miss Helen Kamm, E. S. Bastin, W.
F. Bailey, E. Hildner, L. R. Tehon, M. R.
Goodson, J. Aggar, and E. C. Rutherford.

Minutes of the previous meeting were read
and approved.

Dr. DeRyke, second vice-president and chair¬
man of the local arrangements committee, re¬
ported that plans were laid, facilities provided
and all arrangements for the meetings scheduled
for Friday and Saturday in order. Final details
were discussed and it was plain that all the needs
had received careful consideration.

Brief reports from the treasurer, Dr. John
Voss, and the editor, Mrs. G. N. Oliver, were
received and after brief discussion approved.
Finances of the Academy were in sound con¬
dition and the editor was making continued
effort to keep the publications prompt, though
war conditions had led to some unavoidable
delays.

Personnel for the committees to be appointed
Friday were discussed and names suggested.

Junior Academy affairs in the experienced
hands of A. R. Moore were reported. Mr. Moore
told the council briefly how club awards had
been worked out and stated that suitable in¬
signia at a very reasonable price had been ob¬
tained. The meeting with the senior Academy
in 1943 had been impossible because of trans¬
portation limitations, but exhibits and meetings
were being held in local areas, with judging and
awarding of prizes.

Dr. L. J. Thomas made a brief statement on
the plans for cooperation with Science Clubs of
America which had not yet been completely
worked out by the A. A. A. S. committee, of
which he is chairman. Meetings of the national
committee had been impossible to arrange for
the current year.

The secretary reported several invitations
from various groups for the 1944 annual meeting.
The council seemed agreed that the invitation
from Northern Illinois State Teachers College
at DeKalb seemed especially appropriate, but
the decision to accept this invitation was re¬
ferred to the new council to be considered at its
first meeting on Saturday, May 8.

No further business being before the group,
the council was adjourned at 8:15 p.m.

(Signed) R. F. Paton, Secretary

264

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

REPORTS of the 36th ANNUAL MEETING

Illinois College and McMurray College, Jacksonville, Illinois
May 7-8, 1943

The preliminary business meeting of the Illinois
State Academy of Science, assembled in annual
session at Jacksonville, Illinois, May 7 and 8,
1943, was called to order by President F. M.
Fryxell at 9:30 a.m. in Jones Chapel, on the
Illinois College campus. The business of the
meeting consisted solely of the announcement of
committees appointed by the President for the
transaction of the immediate business of the
Academy. These committees were:

Nominating Committee: E. L. Stover, chair¬
man, T. FI. Frison, G. D. Fuller, H. K. Gloyd,
V. O. Graham, and Gilbert Wright.

Resolutions Committee: Clarence Bonnell,
chairman, J. S. Ayars, and W. F. Bailey.

Auditing Committee: J. Q. Sapp, chairman,
A. R. Buis, and W. W. Thomas.

The committees having been instructed to
report at the final business meeting, necessary
announcements regarding meetings, meals and
the Saturday inspection tours were made and
adjournment until the final business meeting at
5:00 p.m. was voted.

The final business meeting was called to order
by President F. M. Fryxell at 5:00 p.m. in room
l7 of the Science Building on the MacMurray
College campus

Reading of the minutes of the preliminary
business meeting was dispensed with, since no
business other than the appointment of tem¬
porary committees had been transacted.

The Treasurer, John Voss, made a brief report
of income and expenditures and distributed to
all persons present copies of a statement of the
current financial condition of the Academy. He
spoke of a small decrease in membership from a
year ago, but emphasized that the financial
status is better than a year ago and, in fact, is
the best in the history of the organization.

Chairman J. G. Sapp reported for the Audit¬
ing Committee, finding the accounts of the
Treasurer in order and correct and a balance of
31274.91 on deposit at the Commercial Mer¬
chants National Bank and Trust Company, in
Peoria. Upon motion and vote, the report of the
Auditing Committee was unanimously accept¬
ed; it was ordered to be filed with the Secre¬
tary for printing in the transactions.

The reports of officers, standing committees,
and special committees were called for by the
President. The Secretary pointed out that writ¬
ten reports of all committees were in his hands
and that, since all reports would be printed in
the June number of the Academy’s Trans¬
actions, verbal reports could be omitted at this

meeting unless special requests arose from the
assembly. No such requests being put forward,
the President ordered the omission of the reports
of these committees.

The reports of temporary committees were
then called for by the President.

Chairman E. L. Stover reported for the
nominating committee, presenting a full slate
of officers, committee chairmen, and committee
members. Further nominations from the floor
were called for by the President. No such nomi¬
nations being advanced, the Secretary was in¬
structed, upon motion and vote, to cgst a unani-
mous#ballot for all persons placed in nomination
by the Nominating Committee.

Chairman Clarence Bonnell reported for the
Resolutions Committee, reading separately the
resolutions formulated by the Committee. Each
resolution was discussed from the floor and, upon
motion and vote, approved and ordered to be
printed in the Academy’s Transactions.

There being no further business, the formal
meeting of the Academy was adjourned until
1944, the date and place to be selected by the
Council.

(Signed) R. F. Paton, Secretary

LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS

With characteristic modesty, Dr. Willis
De Ryke, chairman of the Committee on Local
Arrangements, has preferred to let the work of
his committee speak for itself in the convenience
and efficient working of all arrangements made
for the thirty-sixth annual meeting of the Acad¬
emy at Jacksonville on May 7 and 8, 1943.

Arrangements with the Dunlap Hotel pro¬
vided cordial welcome, quick service, and a
pleasant atmosphere for Academy members as
they arrived and during their stay. Luncheon
arrangements and room assignments for com¬
mittee and council meetings had been provided
in advance and were in all cases well serviced,
comfortable and adequate. The Committee’s
work and the hotel’s cooperation were especially
evident in provisions for the Social Science
luncheon and the staging of the annual banquet
which were successfully served at reasonable cost
to the members and guests of the Academy
under the trying conditions of war-time food
rationing.

Arrangements made for the morning sessions
at Illinois College included the provision of a
sroom in the Fanner Memorial Library for
registration and the making of luncheon and
banquet reservations, the use of the Jones Chapej

36th Annual Meeting , Jacksonville , 1943

265

for the preliminary business meeting and the
general session of the Academy, and the opening
for inspection of the oldest college building in
Illinois, built in 1829, and the scene of William
Jennings Bryan’s early oratorical efforts as a
literary society member.

For the sectional meetings and the final busi¬
ness meeting, arrangements were made for the
use of Science Hall on the MacMurray College
campus, at least eleven class rooms and labora¬
tories being placed at the disposal of the Acad¬
emy for the entire afternoon. An especially
pleasant feature was the arrangement for the
Academy’s noon luncheon in the private dining
hall of the President of MacMurray College,
where service by MacMurray College was plan¬
ned for over eighty persons.

For the annual lecture, the large auditorium
in Jacksonviloe High School provided ample
seating for the Academy attendance and was so
closely located to the hotel that members had
no difficulty in attending both the banquet and
the lecture.

Of great interest, both in anticipation and in
fulfillment, were the inspection trips to the State
School for the Blind, the State School for the
Deaf, and the State Hospital for the Insane, at
each of which special demonstrations had been
arranged. In spite of gasoline restrictions, ade¬
quate transportation to these institutions was
provided through the use of busses, local auto¬
mobiles, and the cars of Academy members.

In all of the arrangements Dr. De Ryke en¬
listed the full, active, and enthusiastic cooper¬
ation of all the administrative officers and
staffs of the colleges and institutions established
in Jacksonville. From his own institution, Illi¬
nois College, he had the active support of
President H. Gary Hudson and Dean Earnest
Hildner, and from MacMurray College he en¬
listed the support of President Clarence P.
McClelland and several members of the faculty.
From other organizations he drew also, enlisting
Dr. James L. Smith of the State Hospital for the
Insane, D. T. Cloud of the State School for the
Deaf, R. W. Woolston of the State School for
the Blind, and Derrell Blodget, Acting Super¬
intendent of Shcools, each of whom, as managing
officer of his institution, contributed so valuably
to the success of the meeting as to merit special
attention from the Resolutions Committee.
Toward the hospitable atmosphere, as well as in
other ways, the civic clubs of Jacksonville —
Exchange, Kiwanis, Lions and Rotary — the
Chamber of Commerce and the city government
also contributed.

PUBLICITY

Serving as publicity chairman, Miss Grace
Tickle, of MacMurray College, made use of the
MacMurray College News Service, directed by
Mr. Harold Gibson, for the distribution of news
releases regarding the meeting of the Academy.
Two releases went to 96 Illinois dailies.

One news release, dated for April 18, 1943,
announced the coming meeting of the Academy
in Jacksonville and gave in some detail the an-
anticipated program, naming the special speak¬
ers and events. This release was used by the
Jacksonville Daily Journal and, undoubetdly
other newspapers.

A second release, dated for April 21, 1943,
reiterated the announcement of the meeting and
gave special attention to the scheduled address
by Academy President F. M. Fryxell, on Ameri¬
can Science and the Phillipines.

A third release, dated for April 28, 1943, pub¬
licised the appearance of Dr. Carl P. Russell of
the National Park Service and Dr. Edson S.
Bastin of the University of Chicago as special
guest speakers.

The press of Jacksonville gave constant and
interested coverage of the sessions and devoted
290 column inches to reports on the meetings and
business transactions of the Academy.

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS
OF THE COLLEGIATE SECTION

At the initial meeting of the Collegiate Section
in Urbana on the Illinois campus in May, 1942,
a committee of ten was chosen to draft a con¬
stitution for the Section. The chairman of this
committee was Mrs. Martha Leavenworth, then
a junior in the Botany Department of the Uni¬
versity of Illinois. The committee drafted most
of the constitution immediately after that busi¬
ness meeting and it was completed and slightly
revised later by Mrs. Leavenworth and H. R.
Wanless. This constitution was presented to the
persons assembled at the business meeting at
Jacksonville on May 7, 1943, and was unani¬
mously adopted. The constitution is printed as a
part of this report.

CONSTITUTION of the COLLEGIATE
SECTION

Article I — Name

The name of this organization shall be the
Collegiate Section.

Article II — Purpose

The purpose of this organization shall be to
promote scientific interest among the colleges
and universities of Illinois and to assist the
Illinois Academy of Science in its program by
constituting a section.

Article III — Membership

Any science club, society, or interested group
not organized into a society in any college or
university in Illinois shall be eligible for mem¬
bership.

Article IV — Delegates

Each organization or group shall be allowed
one delegate as a voting representative to the
business meetings.

266

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

Article V — Council

Section 1. The powers and authority of this
organization shall be vested in a
council of ten members, representing
different colleges or universities.

Sectiox 2. The members of the council shall be
selected as is practicable, from
schools not represented on the coun¬
cil during the previous year.

Section 3 The members of the council shall
elect a chairman who shall serve
for the current year.

Section 4. The council shall transact such busi¬
ness as seems necessary and ex¬
pedient for the perpetuation and
advancement of the organization.

Article VI — Meetings

Section 1. The annual meeting shall be held
at the time and place of the annual
meeting of the Illinois State Aca¬
demy of Science.

Section 2. The annual meeting shall consist of
sectional meetings for the presen¬
tation of papers and reports and a
business meeting for the selection of
the council and the transaction of
business.

Article VII — Amendments

This Constitution may be amended at a
regular meeting of the organization by a two-
thirds majority of the delegates attending and
voting at the business meeting. Such amend¬
ments shall become effective on their approval
by the Council of the Collegiate Section, or, if
the Council does not approve the amendment, it
shall become effective following a two-thirds ma¬
jority of the delegates attending and voting at
the business session of the year following that in
which said amendment was proposed.

Letters were sent by Mrs. Leavenworth and
H. R. Wanless to science teachers in about fifty
colleges in Illinois in December and in March,
requesting papers for this year’s program at
Jacksonville. A radio talk on the Collegiate
Section was presented over station WILL on
December 14. As a result of the letters a total of
fifteen papers were offered for the Jacksonville
program.

Mrs. Leavenworth graduated from the Uni¬
versity of Illinois in February of 1943 and as she
then left the state she was unable to be present
and preside at the Jacksonville meeting. The
following students of MacMurray College served
as co-chairmen of the meeting: Miss Marjory
Merrill, senior in biology, and Miss Eleanor
Garvin, senior in chemistry.

All of the fifteen papers announced were pre¬
sented. The attendance at the meeting was as
large as forty during a part of the time and well
over twentythroughout the meeting. The follow¬
ing persons were chosen members of the council
for the following year:

Brian Neville, Loyola University, Chicago.

Frances Haas, Rosary College, River Forest.

Betty O’Connor, College of St. Francis,
Joliet.

Elizabeth Ann Livesay, University of
Illinois, Urbana.

MacMurray College representative to be
named.

(Signed). H. R. Wanless, Coordinator

REPORT OF THE EDITOR

Quarterly issues of the Transactions appeared

during the year as follows:

June, 1942 vol. 34, No. 4. 24 pages. Contains
a record of minutes of the four Council
meetings; business transacted and reports
made by officers, committees and delegates
at the annual meeting held in Urbana in
May 1942; Junior Academy listing of
awards. Cost: $163.75. Paid with Academy
funds.

September, 1942 vol. 35, No. 1. 24 pages. 13
illustrations. Contains special papers pre¬
sented at the Urbana meeting, and mem¬
oirs. Cost: $297.46. Paid out of the State
appropriation.

December, 1942 vol. 35, No. 2. 220 pages. 40
illustrations. Contains 83 papers submitted
by 92 authors (10 articles had two or more
authors) from the annual program for the
Urbana meeting. 46 other papers from that
program are listed by title only. Cost:
$1039. Paid out of the State appropriation,
augmented by $180 from the Illinois State
Museum fund for publications; this loan
will be paid after July 1st.

March, 1943 vol. 35, No. 3. 12 pages. Program
of papers for the May meeting in Jackson¬
ville May 7-8, 1943. Cost: $93.85. Paid
with Academy funds.

(Signed) Grace Needham Oliver, Editor.

REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN

Publication appropriations for 1;943-1.944 have
been approved and it appears likely that they
will suff er no severe reduction. A printing deficit
of $180.00 was covered by the Museum during
the past year. Since reduced budget requires
more exact apportionment of available funds,
printing expenses during the coming biennium
must be kept within the amount stipulated for
Academy use — $3000 for the two years.

Quarterly issues, volume 34, No. 4, to volume
35, No. 3, were sent out through the State Mul¬
tigraph Bureau. Approximately two hundred

36th Annual Meeting , Jacksonville , 1943

267

copies of each issue are in storage at the Museum.
These, together with other back issues, are con¬
stantly drawn upon to supply needed copies by
libraries and individuals. While Transactions
addressed to Canada and other Allied nations
have been sent out, those addressed to European
institutions are held for the duration of the War.

Members having back issues of volumes be¬
fore volume 23 who desire to dispose of their
copies are invited to get in touch with the Li¬
brarian, as many requests are received for out-
of-print numbers.

Several scientific societies were added to the
exchange mailing list during the past year.

Through its exchange relationship, the Acad¬
emy Library now contains a number of valuable
serial publications. Members who would like to
borrow from this library are invited to do so at
any time.

Respectfully submitted,

(Signed) Gilbert Wright, Librarian.

REPORT OF TREASURER
For the fiscal year May 1, 1942 to April 30, 1943

Receipts

Balance on hand April 30,

1942..... . . . $1068.54

Dues and initiation fees:

Annual members . $693.40

Affiliated societies . 11.00 704.40

Editorial and excess pages fees 132.55

Research grants by the

A.A.A.S . 226.50

Interest from Forbes and

Meyer real estate . 9.00

Junior Academy:

Dues . $ 86.10

Sustaining members. . . . 200.00 286.10

$2427.09

Expenditures

Officers’ expenses .

.$ 41.93

Section Chairmen expenses. .

. 71.39

113.32

Postage and printing, Treas

urer’s office .

25.82

Postage and transportation of

I ransactions .

23.45

Printing of Transactions . . . .

269.55

Expenses of Secretary .

43.68

Lecture .

26.96

Expenses of Editor .

10.50

Conservation Council .

2.00

Bank charge .

.06

Research grants:

W. M. Reed .

$ 75.00

W. W. Crawford .

50.00

C. C. Hoff .

50.00

M. E. Britton .

51.50

226.50

Secretary, honorarium .

150.00

Editor, honorarium .

150.00

Junior Academy:

Officers’ expenses .

$ 46.39

Ribbons .

7.70

Printing .

. 16.25

Science Aids Service . . . .

40.00

110.34

$1152.18

Balance in Commercial Mer¬
chants National Bank
and Trust Company of
Peoria . 1274.91

$2427.09

The membership of the Academy consists of
62 life members, 51 new members, 19 sustaining
members, 539 members paid up to and including
the year 1943, 106 members one year in arrears,
58 members two years in arrears, and 54 mem¬
bers three years in arrears.

The total membership not including the mem¬
bers who are three years in arrears is 835.

During the year 9 members have resigned, 5
have died, and 60 have removed leaving no for¬
warding address.

The Academy has added 8 new Junior Acade¬
mies, 26 are fully paid up, 16 are one year in
arrears, 13 two years in arrears, and 6 three years
in arrears.

The present financial status is better than a
year ago and it is the best in the history of the
organization. Although the membership is less
than a year ago, the increase in the balance is
chiefly due to the light expenses incurred when
the annual meeting was held at the University
of Illinois.

We are very grateful to the sustaining mem¬
bers and especially to the Illinois High School
Association for their generous support of the
Junior Academy.

Respectfully submitted,

(Signed) John Voss, Treasurer.

This is to certify that we have examined the
preceding accounts for the year May 1, 1942,
to April 30, 1943, and find them correct. The
balance of $1274.91 is on deposit with the Com¬
mercial Merchants National Bank and Trust
Company of Peoria, Illinois.

(Signed) John Q. Sapp, Chairman
A. R. Buis
Walter W. Thomas

268

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES

The nominating committee submitted to the
final business meeting of the Academy, in annual
session at Jacksonville, on May 7, a slate of
officers, delegates, committee members for
1943-1944. There being no other nominations
advanced from the floor, the Secretary was in¬
structed by motion and vote to cast a unani¬
mous ballot electing the persons named by the
nominating committee to various offices and
committees.

See page 258 for officers; p. 260 for committees
and delegates.

Respectfully submitted,

(Signed) E. L. Stover, Chairman.

The Publications Committee wishes to report
that of the 83 authors publishing in the Decem¬
ber issue, 60 were already members at the time
the program was being formulated, 23 were not,
but became members subsequently. This in¬
formation may be of interest to the membership
chairman, and to the secretary, who might wish
to follow up new memberships with a systematic
campaign for life members, or at least for second-
and third-year memberships.

In an effort to facilitate earlier printing of the
December issue, this committee, at the sugges¬
tion of the editor, will meet early in June instead
of August to consider papers submitted for con¬
sideration. Thus any necessary re-working, and
the editing, can be done in time to send out both
the September and the December manuscripts
concurrently. This will allow, therefore, more
leeway for both the printer, who this past winter
was unusually crowded with unexpected legis¬
lative printing, and the editor, who had ex¬
tensive difficulty contacting authors widely
dispersed on account of the war.

(Signed) F. M. Fryxell

Neil E. Stevens
R. F. Paton
H. J. Van Cleave

The Committee on Research Grants recomend-
ed that the research grant fund of $210.50 re¬
turned to the Illinois State Academy of Science
from dues paid the American Association for the
Advancement of Science be distributed in the
following manner:

1. To Drs. I. A. Koten (Chemistry), H. J.
Eigenbrodt (Biology), and C. L. Bieber (Geo¬
logy), of North Central College for the purchase
of a Fisher AC Model Electrophotometer to be
used cooperatively in the determination of cer¬
tain mineral elements in plant and animal
tissues, and in Trenton Rock, $165.00.

2. To Dr. C. W. Bennett (Chemistry) of
Western Illinois State Teachers College to
study the action of nitric acid upon 9-acetamino-
fluorene, $45.50.

Respectfully submitted,

(Signed) L. H. Tiffany, Chairman

COMMITTEE ON HIGH SCHOOL
SCIENCE CLUBS

The annual meeting of the Junior Academy of
Science was not held this year with the State
Academy of Science at Jacksonville. In accord¬
ance with the plan adopted by the committee
on high-school science clubs individual schools
were encouraged to hold their own meetings to
which nearby schools could be invited, with ex¬
hibits judged by three qualified teachers, at
least one of whom should be an Academy mem¬
ber. Six schools held local meetings at which
other schools were in attendance. The schools
are Normal Community H. S., Chester H. S.,
Aviston Community H. S., East Rockford
Senior H. S., J. Sterling Morton H. S., and Uni¬
versity H. S., Carbondale. The usual Junior
Academy certificates were awarded.

A special vote of thanks is extended to Mr.
Albert Willis, Mr. Louis A. Astell, Dr. Lyell J.
Thomas, and Dr. R. F. Paton for their assistance
in promoting this year’s program.

The annual election of student officers was
held by mail and the following officers were
elected for 1943-44.

President: Joan Siegfried — Chester High
School.

Vice-President: Frederick Wood, Mt. Car¬
mel High school.

Secretary: Carol Kudra — -J. S. Morton High
School.

A . A. A. S. Honorary Delegates :

Norbert Haake — Aviston Community High
School.

Bettie Johnson — Galesburg High School.

(Signed) Allen R. Moore,

General Chairman
S. Aleta McEvoy,

Assistant General Chairman.

The Committee on Resolutions, on its own

behalf and on behalf of several members of the
Academy, submits for the approval of the mem¬
bership the following resolutions:

1. A resolution regarding the conservation of
National Park resources.

36th Annual Meeting , Jacksonville , 1943

269

Whereas: Under the stress of war there is a
tendency on the part of production interests to
be precipitate in the use of irreplaceable natural
resources such as are represented in the super¬
lative values of the National parks and monu¬
ments, and

Whereas: Search usually discloses sources of
minerals, forage, and timber outside of these
great museums of the out-of-doors, which can
serve equally well in the war emergency,

Be it resolved: (1) that the Academy applauds
the action of the Secretary of the Iuterior in the
reaffirmation of the National Park Service policy
of eliminating grazing from the National parks
and monuments. It is the conviction of the
Academy that the people of this nation desire
to retain the National parks in their nautral
condition. Further extension of grazing in these
areas, therefore, should be prohibited unless and
until it is demonstrated that there is no alter¬
native and that the sacrifice of the park and
monument biota will have to be made in the aid
of winning the war.

(2) That the Academy recognizes the fact that
the shortage of Sitka Spruce for airplane manu¬
facture may be a threat to the safety of the
virgin forests in Olympic National Parks. This
park serves its highest public use by preserving
for future generations a remnant of the vast
forests that once were the glory of the Pacific
Northwest. The spruce supplies of Oregon,
Washington, and Alaska outside of national
parks and monuments should be utilized first.
If necessary, spruce logging operations outside
of the parks should be subsidized by the govern¬
ment before the Olympic forests are further
mutilated. Necessity , not convenience, must be
the criterion.

(3) That the Academy heartily approves of
the recent establishment of Jackson Hole
National monument adjacent to the Grand
Teton National Park. This area, rich in history
and abounding in scientific and scenic values,
complements the national park system in a
manner most gratifying to all national con¬
servation interests. It has a capacity to stimu¬
late national pride in and understanding of our
natural heritage and cultural tradition. Recog¬
nition of its unique values now is timely.

2. A resolution regarding education in the
sciences.

Whereas: The present national emergency has
called attention to the importance of sound
education in the sciences, and

Whereas: Sound education in the sciences will
continue to be of fundamental importance fol¬
lowing the war, and

Whereas: Such education can be given only
by well trained teachers of science.

Be it resolved. (1) That the Illinois Academy
of Science, through its executive council, form a
representative committee whose responsibility
it shall be to formulate plans and policies con¬
cerning the preparation and certification of the
teachers of the sciences in the schools of Illinois,
to the end that thoroughness of preparation and
ability in teaching standards be maintained at
the very highest possible level consistent with
the present situation, and

(2) That the Committee so formed shall seek
to cooperate with the Office of the State Super¬
intendent of Public Instruction in bringing such
plans and policies into actual practice at the
earliest possible time.

3. A resolution regarding mobilization of
scientific personnel.

Be it resolved: (1) That, although the Illinois
State Academy of Science wholeheartedly is in
favor of science and scientists doing all they can
towards winning the war, it is opposed to the
proposed federal legislation, known as the Kil-
gore-Patman bill, S. 102, for mobilization of
scientific and technical personnel and facilities,
because, under the guise of advancing the use of
science and technology in the war effort and for
prosperity in peace, the bill actuallyplaces scient¬
ists and technologists under undesirable regimen¬
tation and political control, and

(2) That this resolution be conveyed to all
Illinois congressmen.

4. A resolution in appreciation of the annual
meeting arrangements.

Whereas: Under the exceptional difficulties
imposed by the present war-time emergency,
the City of Jacksonville, the Colleges and staffe
institutions, and numerous persons have con¬
tributed to the holding of a successful annual
meeting of the Academy.

Be it resolved: (1) That the Academy extends
its sincere appreciation of all the efforts put
forth in its behalf to

The City of Jacksonville, including the City
government, the Jacksonville Board of Educa¬
tion and Acting Superintendent Darrel Blod¬
gett, and the Jacksonville press;

Illinois College, its President, Dr. Gary H.
Hudson, and its Dean, Dr. Earnest Hildner;

MacMurray College, its President, Dr. Clar¬
ence P. MacClelland, and the several members
of its staff who cooperated;

The State School for the Deaf, its Managing
Officer, D. F. Cloud, and its staff;

270

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

The State School for the Blind, its Managing
Officer, R. W. Woolston, and its staff;

The State Hospital for the Insane, its Manag¬
ing Officer, Dr. James L. Smith, and its staff;
and

The Committee on Local Arrangements, com¬
posed of Dr. Willis De Ryke, chairman, Miss
Grace Tickle, publicity, Dr. W. F. Bailey, and
Miss Helen Kamm; and

(2) That the Secretary be instructed to convey
this appreciation in writing to each of the above
named institutions and persons.

5. A resolution in appreciation of the services
of the retiring Secretary.

Whereas: Dr. Robert F. Paton, Associate
Professor of Physics in the University of Illinois,
has served the Academy as Secretary since May,
1937, and

Whereas: During his six year’s of service in
the office of Secretary he has faithfully accom¬
plished the duties of his office with efficiency, to
the satisfaction and pleasure of the numerous
officers and committees of the Academy function¬
ing during that period, and to the satisfaction of
the entire membership of the Academy.

Be it resolved: That the Academy, assembled
in annual session, expresses in one voice its
appreciation of his outstanding service, its
regret that he cannot continue to serve as its
Secretary, and its confidence that he will succeed
in accomplishing the many new duties imposed
on him by current war demands.

6. A resolution regarding deceased members.

Whereas: Death has removed from our midst
the following valued members of the Academy:

Dr. William S. Bayley, Department of Geol¬
ogy, The University of Illinois, Urbana,

Dr. Charles J. Chamberlain, Department
of Botany, The University of Chicago,
Chicago,

Dr. William A. Noyes, Department of
Chemistry, The University of Illinois,
Urbana,

Dr. Earnest A. Pribram, Loyola University
School of Medicine, Chicago, and

Miss Harriet Strong, Downers Grove,

Be it resolved: (1) That the Academy expresses
its grief over their passing, and

(2) That it extends its sincere sympathy to
their families, to whom the Secretary is directed
to write letters indicating our sense of loss while
we extend our sincere sympathy.

(Signed) Clarence Bonnell, Chairman

Committee on Affiliation. A letter was sent to
all members of the Committee asking them to

suggest societies which might be eligible for
affiliation. In letters to science teachers at the
colleges and universities of Illinois regarding the
Collegiate Section it was suggested that science
clubs, societies, or unorganized groups of under¬
graduate science students might be encouraged
to affiliate with the Academy. It was later re¬
ported that a science club at Principia College,
Elsah, Illinois, is applying for affiliation.

It was reported in several letters that science
clubs have been suspended or are largely in¬
active because of the loss of a large proportion
of the sciefice students to the armed forces and
the pressure of accelerated programs and special¬
ized war courses.

It seems likely that there will be many science
clubs which will wish to affiliate with the Acad¬
emy when the universities and colleges are again
able to resume normal programs.

($igned) Harold R. Wanless, Chairman

The Committee on Conservation of Archaeo¬
logical and Historical Sites has held no meet¬
ings during the year, as no critical situations
have been brought to its attention. The main
service which the Committee can render at this
time is to be ready to take positive action when
any of our important sites are endangered.

(Signed) FAY-Cooper Cole, Chairman

The Committee on Legislation and Finance

will hold its next session at the time of the annual
meeting of the Academy. Its chairman has been
in constant touch with the State Museum
through which the Society’s Transactions are
published, and it appears that this arrangement
will be continued for the next biennium.

(Signed) Fay-Cooper Cole, Chairman

The Committee on the Budget begs to make
the following progress report:

Your attention is called to the fact that some
of these items are further elaborated in the report
of the Treasurer. On May 1, 1943, the Treas¬
urer’s accounts showed a sizeable balance on
hand, which indicates that the Academy is in
good financial condition. The Committee, how¬
ever, wishes to point out the existence of several
factors which will undoubetdly influence the
future of the budget. These trends are very
clear: First, fewer new annual members are
being added to the roll. Second, during this year
there have been some resignations because of
restriction on travel and increase in duties
associated with the job of the resigning members.
There have been some noticeable increases in
the costs of operation. While these are, at the
present, small, we should anticipate further in¬
creased costs in the operation of the Academy.
The Committee further calls your attention to
the needs which should be projected in terms of
two or more years. With the anticipation of
this decreased income, it is obvious that we
should exert more effort to maintain our mem-

36th Annual Meeting , Jacksonville , 1943

271

bership roll; if it is possible, to continue the
campaign for new members. There is consider¬
able need for more sustaining members. The
Committee, therefore, recommends that the
Academy:

I. Continue its effort to maintain the roll
of annual membership.

II. Set up a special committee to add new
sustaining members to the roll.

(Signed) C. L. Furrow, Chairman ,

Knox College, Galesburg,

W. H. Voskuil,

State Geological Survey, Urbana,

John Voss,

Manual Training High School,
Peoria.

The Committee on Membership during 1943
has mailed out 2,000 copies of the invitation and
application for membership. These were directed
to college and university faculties and students
and to the teachers in a few high schools who
were not reached in our last year’s correspond
ence. It is our hope that the Academy may con¬
tinue to grow in membership and influence.

(Signed) John E Coe, Chairman.

The Committee on Pre-Medical Training

submits the following report of its first year of
work.

The Secretary of the Illinois State Academy
of Science requested the formation of this com¬
mittee late in 1942, on authorization of the
Executive Committee. The general purpose was
to study the present status of pre-medical train¬
ing. At the meeting of the Academy in May,
1942, it was tentatively planned that this be
made the subject of a symposium at the meeting
for 1943. On account of the unsettled state of
affairs just now, it has required most of the
intervening time to secure the personnel in¬
dicated below. Even yet it seems that there
might be a better balance, in that there is no
chemist represented, no clinical representative
from any other medical school than the Uni¬
versity of Illinois, and probably insufficient
representation from the smaller colleges, pos¬
sibly also from the high schools. Members are
urged to make suggestions as to additional
personnel as early as possible.

L. I. Bockstahler, Department of Physics,
Northwestern University, Evanston.

Harvey De Bruine, Professor of Biology, Elm¬
hurst College, Elmhurst.

Edmund F. Foley, M. D., Associate Professor
of Medicine, University of Illinois College
of Medicine, Chicago.

B. Vincent Hall, Department of Zoology,
University of Illinois, Urbana.

P. K. Houdek, Secretary-Treasurer, National
Association of Biology Teachers, Township
High School, Robinson.

A. B. Luckhardt, M D , Professor of Physiol¬
ogy, University of Illinois College of Medi¬
cine, Chicago.

John T. Reynolds, M. D., Department of
Surgery, University of Illinois College of
Medicine, Chicago.

C. I. Reed, Chairman, Professor of Physiology,
University of Illinois College of Medicine,
Chicago.

The chairman has, in addition to enlisting
personnel, consulted many persons who are
vitally interested in this problem and has for¬
mulated a tentative working program which is
subject to modification according to the will of
the committee.

1. Earlier planning for a medical career has
been urged strongly by several. On the other
hand, numbers of medical students object to
this on the grounds that it might tend to narrow
still further the scope of cultural training. Stu¬
dents have even emphasized the desirability of
more knowledge of astronomy, geology, geog¬
raphy, genetics, botany, etc.

2. It has been urged that certain subjects be
removed from the medical curriculum and
placed in the premedical curricula, to be re¬
placed by advanced applied courses. This would
apply to portions of physiology and anatomy,
all of biochemistry, also part of bacteriology.
The time thus vacated would be given over to
applied courses in these same fields.

There is much to commend these suggestions
but there is again the objection that they would
necessitate the displacement of other subject
matter downward into Junior College or High
School. Could we risk such changes?

3. There are many complaints from the
medical schools about the training of students
in one or another subject. Perhaps the most con-v
sistent comment is that the students are less
thoroughly trained in physics and languages
than they are in chemistry and biology. If this
is true theremay be many reasons for it other
than those justifiably calling for criticism of
educators. Your comments are solicited on the
following points:

(a) Are deficiencies in scholastic attainment
on the part of incoming medical students to be
properly blamed on the quality of instruction in
college or high school or are they due to other
social factors?

(b) Do such deficiencies actually exist in
comparison to other disciplines?

4. Disregarding the present state which is
only temporary, can we arrive at any evidence
as to whether the period of specialized pre¬
medical training should be increased, decraesed,

272

Illinois Academy of Science Transactions

or unchanged? Most medical men consulted to
date have expressed the belief that the PM
period should be at least 4 years. Many students
are convinced that 2 years are sufficient. Lay¬
men in general feel that doctors should have
more cultural training.

5. One authoritative commentator has said,
“I believe that meeicine has definite need for
men who have had unusual training in such
fields as mathematics, physics, economics,
psychology, sociology and English, as well as
biology and chemistry. I am not particularly
interested in a student taking a fourth year in
his premedical training if he has not developed
some special interest during his previous three
years in college.”

Is the need indicated here sufficient to justify
adapting the entire program to it?

6. Has anyone further suggestions as to further
additions to personnel or direction of enlarge¬
ment of the committee?

7. It does not appear to be practical to attempt
a meeting of the committee until the work has
progressed further.

8. All additional comments and suggestions
will be incorporated into the program, if possible.

9. It seems best, at the moment, to confine
activities to gathering evidence from additilnal
sources, and from that formulating a further
outline of action. However, that judgment is
open to your respective comments. Please feel
free to comment on every point. Any final
recommendation or report must be thoroughly
representative. I would like to have your re
actions as soon as possible in order to make a
further report to the Executive Committee of the
Academy before the next annual meeting.

Respectfully submitted,

(Signed) C. I. Reed, Chairman.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE
ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
INDEX TO VOLUME 35

1942 - 1943

NOTE— Listings are by author and key word in subject. The number preceding
colon and page number indicates the quarterly issue of the Transactions in which
the item is to be found, i.e., September (1), December (2), and June (4). The
March (3) issue is not indexed as it represents only titles of papers to be given
at the annual meeting and other notices pertaining thereto.

A

Academy business

A.A.A.S. research grants for 1943-44.
4:268.

Annual meeting (36th) at Jackson¬
ville, May 1943: Council meeting
minutes; secretary’s reports; local
arrangements; publicity; collegiate
section; reports of other officers,
committees, and delegates. 4:261-
272.

Memoirs

Frank Collins Baker. 1:20.
Eugene Davenport. 1:22.

Frank Smith. 1:24.

Section chairmen’s reports (35th an¬
nual meeting, Urbana 1942).

Agriculture (C. H. Oathout). 2:31.
Anthropology (D. E. Wray). 2:49.
Botany (J. F. Stanfield). 2:57.
Chemistry (N. D. Cheronis). 2:87.
Geography (J. Van Riper). 2:107.
Geology (A. H. Sutton). 2:129.
Physics (F. L. Verwiebe). 2:149.
Psychology and Education (J. H.
Hughes). 2:159.

Social Science (C. W. Schroeder).
2:171.

Zoology (O. Park). 2:189.
Acid-base terminology, new. Bennett.
2:88-9.

Angler’s catch at Lake Chautauqua
near Havana, Illinois, with compara¬
tive data on hoopnet samples. Han¬
sen. 2:197-204.

Animal nutrition, new sources of min¬
eral elements. Elmslie and Bunting.
2:95-6.

Archaeological horizons in southern
Illinois. Bennett and Maxwell. 2:50.
Arvan, P. G., with Cheronis, N. D.,
Semimicro methods in the teaching
of chemistry. 2:90-1.

B

Baker, Frank Collins (memoir). 1:20.
Balduf, W.V., Interrelations of insect¬
eating insects. 2:224-30.

Balduf, W. V., New records for three
Illinoisan orthoptera. 2:190-2.

Barton, T. F., Saxicultural district of
the Sudbury area. 2:108-10.

Bennett, C. W., New acid-base termin¬
ology. 2:88-9.

Bennett, J. W. and Maxwell, M., Arch¬
aeological horizons in southern Illi¬
nois. 2:50.

Bennett, M. A., Effect of testosterone
propionate on territoriality of ring
doves. 2:193-4.

Betatron. Kerst. 1:13-16.

Bieber, C. L., The “Trenton” near
Morris, Illinois. 2:130-1.

Biological sciences, stimulating an in¬
terest in history of. Thomson. 2:219-
21.

Black Sea and its borderlands. Blan¬
chard. 2:111-2.

Blanchard, W. O., The Black Sea and
its borderlands. 2:111-2.

Bloom, L. R., with Tykociner, J. T.,
Wave forms of phase-shifted sine
pulses and their applications. 2:156-
8.

Booth, A. W., Soils and population —
Decatur County, Georgia. 2:113-5.

Britton, M. E., Notes on the distribu¬
tion of some rarely reported species
of Oedogonium. 2:58-9.

Bunting, W. R., with Elmslie, W. P.,
Sturdy, R. A., and Cutter, P. R., New
sources of mineral elements in
animal nutrition. 2:95-6.

Burgess, E. W., The fate of the family.
2:172-3.

Burlison, W. L., and Fuelleman, R. F.,
What are we doing with castor
beans? 2:39-41.

Burlison with Fuelleman, Germina¬
tion studies of Bromegrass seed,

Bromus inermis Leyss. 2:32-4.

C

Canaries, color discrimination in. Shoe¬
maker. 2: 217-9.

Castor beans, what are we doing with?
Burlison and Fuelleman. 2:39-41.

Cat, precaval anomalies. Sanders 2:216.

Chemical composition of farm crops as
affected by soil type and treatment.
Snider. 2:36-8.

Chemistry, semimicro methods in
teaching. Cheronis and Arvan. 2:90-1.

Chemistry, suitable curricula for high
school. Preising. 2:102-3.

[ 275 ]

276

T ransactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science

Chemistry teachers, role in national de¬
fense. Ronneberg. 2:104-5.

Chemistry texts for high school level
review of recent. Dewalt. 2:92-5
Cheronis, N. D., and Arvin P. G., Semi¬
micro methods in the teaching of
chemistry. 2:90-1.

Chester index ostracodes. Cooper. 2:135
Chester type localities, subsurface
stratigraphic sections near. Tippie.
2:141-4.

Chicago and the down state. Philip
2:176-80.

Chlorophyll in treatment of athlete’s
foot. Foster and Grater. 2:196.

Clay products, manufacture in Lower
Wabash Valley. Cutshall. 2:118-20.
Clear Lake village material, additional.
Schoenbeck. 2:54-5.

Cohee, G. V., Use of the Glen Dean
limestone as a structural key hori¬
zon in the Illinois Basin. 2:132-4
Colonial question. Cox. 2:116-7.

Conover, R. A., and Stevens, N. E., A
Penicillium “disease” of ink. 2:59.
Conservation research program of Illi¬
nois Natural History Survey. Frison.

1 :5-12.

Cooper, C. L., Chester index ostracodes.
2:135.

Cox> Flemin, The colonial question.
2:116-7.

Croker, Dorothy, A key to the Illinois
species of Solidago. 2:62-3.

Cross, A. T., with Hoskins, J. H., New
interpretations of Sphenophyllostachys
based on a petrified specimen from
an Iowa coal ball. 2:68-9.

Cutshall, Alden, The manufacture of
clay products in the Lower Wabash
Valley. 2:118-20.

Cutter, P. R., with Elmslie, W. P., Bunt¬
ing, W. R., and Sturdy, R. A., New
sources of mineral elements in ani¬
mal nutrition. 2:95-6.

Cyclocephala abrupta in Illinois. Riegel.
2:215.

D-E

Dairy cattle, results of experiments in
improvements of pastures. Nevens.
2:35-6.

Davenport, Eugene (memoir). 1:22.

De Long, G. C., The uses and produc¬
tion of tung oil. 2:121-3.

Dewalt, C. W., Review of recent chem¬
istry texts for use in the teaching of
chemistry at the high school level.
2:92-5.

Drought of central U.S., summer and
autumn 1940. Lathrop. 2:126-7
Dungan, G. H., Relative photosynthetic
capacity of stalks, leaf sheaths, and
leaf blades m maize as measured by
the contribution each makes to the
development of the grain. 2:42-4.
Education for out-of-school rural youth
Lmdstrom. 2:47-8.

Education, primitive, with reference
the Ibo of Nigeria. Okala. 2:51-3.
Elementary school, what can (it) dc
prepare for winning the peace? Re
er. 2:167-9.

Elmslie, W. P., Bunting, W. R., Stur
R. A., Cutter, Paul, R., New sour
of mineral elements in animal nu
tion. 2:95-6.

Epidermal cell walls beneath the ir
rib of a holly leaf, microanaly
McMenamin. 2:69-70.

F

Family, is (it) passing? Timmc
2:185-7.

Family, the fate of. Burgess. 2:172-3.
Family, the fate of. Schroeder. 2:182
Farm planning, using slope map
basis for. Graham. 2:46.

Federal regulation of business ent
prise. Jolley. 2:174-5.

Feldman, A. W.a Trees and shrubs
Champaign County, Illinois. 2:60-1
Frison, Theodore H., Conservation
search program of the Illinois Na
ral History Survey. Presidential P
dress. 1:5-12.

Frog’s egg, pseudo-cleavage of. L
and Robinson. 2:207-8.

Foster, F. C., and Grater, W. C., Chloi
phyll in the treatment of Athlet
Foot. 2:196.

Fuelleman, R. F., and Burlison, W.
Germination studies of Bromegn
seed, Bromus inermis Leyss. 2:32
Fuelleman, R. F., with Burlison, W.
What are we doing with cast
beans? 2:39-41.

G

Galston, Arthur, The nitrogen conte
of oat chloroplasts. 2:66-7.
Germination studies of bromegra
seed, Bromus inermis. Leyss. Fuel!
man and Burlison. 2:32-4.

Giudice, V. J. Del., Zapatera spoila;
of olives. 2:195.

Glacial drift in DuPage County, II
nois, thickness. Mason. 2:136-7.
Glassman, Sidney, A taxonomic stuc
of the Illinois species of Rume
2:63-5.

Glen Dean limestone, use as structur
key horizon in Illinois basin. Cohe
2:132-4.

Gould, H. W., What the colleges i
Illinois are doing for national d<
fense. 2:97-100.

Graham, Burdette, Using the slope ms
as a basis for farm planning. 2:46.
Grater, W. C., with Foster, F. C
Chlorophyll in the treatment (
athlete’s foot. 2:196.

Griffith, C. R., Warfare b e t w e e
human nature fictions. 2:160-3.
Gueffroy, E. M., The Murngin: an es
ample of human geography. 2:123-!

Index to Volume 35

277

H-K

Handwriting as a factor in credit anal¬
ysis. Laughlin. 2:164-6.

Hansen, Donald F., The anglers’ catch
at Lake Chautauqua near Havana,
Illinois, with comparative data on
hoopnet samples. 2:197-204.

Hearts, comparative pharmacology of
myogenic and neurogenic. Prosser.
2:212.

Hili H. C., Jr., and Robinson, T. W.,
Pseudo-cleavage of the frog’s egg.
2:207-8.

Hoff, C. Clayton, Locality records of
some Hydracarina from Illinois.
2:205-6.

Hoogstraal, Harry, A contribution to
the exploration of Mexico. 2:209-11.

Hoogstraal, Harry, Insect relations with
plants. 2:231-5.

Horsepower in foot poundals, why not
express. Ronneberg. 2:152-4.

Hoskins, J. H., and Cross, A. T., New
interpretations of Sphenophyllo-
stachys based on a petrified specimen
from an Iowa coal ball. 2:68-9.

Hydracarina, locality records (Illinois).
Hoff. 2:205-6.

Hymenopappus, white -bracted, still
grows in Illinois. Tehon. 2:78.

Inglis, A. F., A demonstration radio
set. 2:150.

Insect-eating insects, interrelations of.
Balduf. 2:24-30.

Insect relations with plants. Hoog-
straal 2*231—5

Insects as vectors of plant pathogens.
Tehon 2:236-43.

Jolley, V. D., Federal regulation of
business enterprise. 2:174-5.

Jones, G. N., A checklist of the vascular
plants of the University of Illinois
woodlands. 2:71-2.

Kerst, D. W., The betatron. 1:13-16.

L-M

Lathrop, H. O., The drought of central
United States, summer and autumn,
1940. 2:126-7.

Laughlin, W. R., Handwriting as a fac¬
tor in credit analysis. 2:164-6.

Lindstrom, D. E., Education for out-of¬
school rural youth. 2:47-8.

Maize, relative photosynthetic capacity
of stalks, leaf sheaths, and leaf blades
as measured by contribution to de¬
velopment of grain. Dungan. 2:42-4.

Mason, A. C., Thickness of glacial drift
in DuPage County, Illinois. 2:136-7.

Maxwell, M., and Bennett, J. W., Arch¬
aeological horizons in southern Illi¬
nois. 2:50.

McMenamin, J. P., A microanalysis of
the epidermal cell walls beneath the
midrib of the holly leaf. 2:69-70.

Mexico, contribution to exploration of.
Hoogstraal. 2:209-11.

Moeller, Therald, Demonstration of un¬
stable anionic complex formation by
the method of electrometric titration.
2:100-1.

Murngin: example of human geo¬
graphy. Gueffroy. 2:123-5.

N-O

National defense, what colleges of Illi¬
nois are doing. Gould. 2:97-100.

Naturalist in the South Seas. Schmidt.
1:17-19.

Nevens, W. B., Results of experiments
in improvement of pastures for dairy
CcittJ.0 2 35-6

Noggle, G. R., The rate of transpiration
in two oats varieties grown under
varying soil moisture levels. 2:73-4.

Oat chloroplasts, nitrogen content. Gal-
ston. 2:66-7.

Oats, effects of naphthalene acetic acid
upon growth and composition, (pre¬
lim. study). Stephenson. 2:83-4.

Oats varieties, rate of transpiration
grown under varying soil moisture
levels. Noggle. 2:73-4.

Oedogonium, notes on distribution of

some rarely reported species. Britton.
2:58-9.

Okala, J. B. C. Etuka, The problem of
primitive education with particular
reference to the Ibo of Nigeria.
2:51-3. . .

Olives zapatera spoilage of. Giudice.
2:195.

Orthoptera, new records for three Illi¬
noisan. Balduf. 2:190-2.

P

Penicillium “disease” of ink. Conover.
259

Pennsylvanian (Upper) cyclothems,
rhythms in. Weller 2:145-6.

Pennsylvanian (Upper), fossiliferous
zones in Vermillion and Edgar
counties, Illinois. Wilson. 2:156-7.

Philip, W. B., Chicago and the down
state. 2:176-80.

Phytoplankton of Crab Orchard Lake.

Populations, hamlet and village, in
Illinois. Ratcliffe. 2:181-2.

Power supply, a demonstration. Rails-
back. 2: 151.

Welch. 2:81-2.

Preising, Sister M. Joan, Suitable
curricula for high school chemistry.
2T02-3.

Prosser, C. Ladd, Comparative pharma¬
cology of myogenic and neurogenic
hearts. 2:212.

R

Radio set, a demonstration. Inglis. 2:150.

Railsback, O. L., A demonstration
power supply. 2:151.

Rana pipiens, induced ovulation in. III.
Robinson. 2:213-4.

Ratcliffe, S. C., Hamlet and village
populations in Illinois. 2:181-2.

Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science

Reeder, E. H., What can the elementary
school do to prepare for winning the
peace? 2:167-9.

Riboflavin (vitamin B-2) content of
plant materials, prelim, studies. Wat¬
son. 2:84-5.

Riegel, Garland T., Cyclocephala abrup-

la in Illinois (Coleop.: Scarab.). 2:215.
Robertson, Percival, Bituminous mat-
ter in Warsaw geodes. 2:138-40.
Robinson, T. W., Induced ovulation in
Rana pipiens III. 2:213-4.

Robinson, T. W., with Hill, H. C., Jr.
Pseudo-cleavage of the frog’s egg’
2:207-8.

Ronneberg, C. E., The role of the chem¬
istry teachers in national defense.
2:104-5.

Ronneberg, C. E., Why not express
the horsepower in foot-poundals?
2:152-4.

Rumex, taxonomic study of the Illinois
species. Glassman. 2:63-5.

S

Sanders, J. M., Precaval anomalies of
the cat. 2:216.

Schmidt, Karl P., A naturalist in the
South Seas. 1:17-19.

Schoenbeck, Ethel, Additional Clear
Lake Village material. 2:54-5.
Schroeder, C. W., The fate of the
family. 2:183-4.

Shoemaker, H. H., Color discrimina¬
tion in canaries. 2:217-9.

Smith, C. R., Normal daily tempera¬
tures for Aurora by comparison
with Chicago. 2:154-5.

Smith, Frank (memoir). 1:24.

Snider, H. J., The chemical composi¬
tion of farm crops as affected by
soil type and treatment. 2:36-8.

Soils and population, Decatur County,
Georgia. Booth. 2:113-5.

Solidago, key to Illinois species. Crok-
er. 2:62-3.

Sphenophyllosiachys, new interpreta¬
tions based on a petrified specimen
from an Iowa coal ball. Hoskins
and Cross. 2:68-9.

Stanfield, J. F., Some growth responses
of Soja and Vinca to vitamins. 2:75-
7.

Stephenson, R. B., A preliminary in¬
vestigation of the effects of naphtha¬
lene asetic acid upon the growth and
composition of oats. 2:83-4.

Stevens, N. E., with Conover, R. A., A
penicillium “disease” of ink. 2:59.
Sturdy, R. A. with Elmslie, W. P., Bunt¬
ing, W. R., and Cutter, P. R., New
sources of mineral elements in ani¬
mal nutrition. 2:95-6.

Sudbury area, saxicultural district of.
Barton. 2:108-10.

T-V

Tehon, L. R., Insects as vectors of plant
pathogens. 2:236-43.

Tehon, L. R., White-bracted Hym«
pappus still grows in Illinois. 2-
Temperatures, Aurora and Chic
compared. Smith. 2:154-5.
Testosterone propionate, effect on
ritoriality of ring doves. Benn
2 . 1 93-4.

Thomson, Stewart Craig, Stimulal
an interest in the history of
biological sciences. 2:219-21.
Timmons, B. F., Is the family passii
2:185-7.

Tippie, F. E., Subsurface stratigrap
sections near type Chester localii
in southwestern Illinois. 2:141-4.
Trees and shrubs of Champaign Coi
ty, Ill. Feldman. 2:60-1.

“Trenton” (formation) near Morris, I
nois. Bieber. 2:130-1.

Tung oil. DeLong. 2:121-3.
Tykociner, J. T., and Bloom, L.
Wave forms of phase shifted s
pulses and their application. 2:15(
Unstable anionic complex formati
demonstration by method of elect
metric titration. Moeller. 2:100-1.
Van Cleave, Harley J., Zoologi
courses in the early days of 1
University of Illinois. 2:222-3.
Vascular plants of the University
Illinois woodlands. Jones. 2:71-2.
Vitamins, some growth responses
r Soja and Vinca. Stanfield. 2:75-7.
Voigt, J. W., A preliminary invests
tion of the effect of the descaling
winter buds on their growth in e;
central Illinois. 2:79-80.

W-Z

Warfare between human nature f
tions. Griffith. 2:160-3.

War production and soil conservatic
Whalin. 2:44-5.

Warsaw geodes, bituminous matter :

Robertson. 2:138-40.

Watson, S. A., Preliminary studies »
riboflavin (vitamin B-2) content
plant materials. 2:84-5.

Wave forms of phase-shifted sine pu]
es and their applications. Tykocin
and Bloom. 2:156-8.

Welch, W. B., A study of the phyt
plankton, Crab Orchard Lake. 2:81-
Weller, J. M., Rhythms in Upper Pen:

sylvanian cyclothems. 2:145-6.
Whalin, O. L., War production and sc
conservation in Illinois. 2:44-5.
Wilson, G. M., Fossiliferous zones of tl
Upper Pennsylvanian of Vermillic
and Edgar counties, Illinois. 2: 146-
Winter buds, effect of descaling o
their growth in east-central Illinoi
Voigt. 2:79-80.

Zoological courses (early), Universit
of Illinois. Van Cleave. 2:222-3.