>- ■< LI B RA HY OF THE UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS 50G xu v. 40-45 c-op. 4 „*» ■ SEOtOGY OAK ST, HDSP DIVERSITY Or ILLINOIS LIBRARY .AT Ilf® ANA-CHAMPAIGN k. geology Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. GEOLOGY LIBRARY University of Illinois Library Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from BHL-SIL-FEDLINK https://archive.org/details/transactions4043illi TRANSACTIONS Dwight H. Green, Governor STATE OF ILLINOIS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE VOLUME 40 1947 Fortieth Annual Meeting Peoria, Illinois 1947 PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS Illinois State Academy of Science Affiliated with the Illinois State Museum Division, Centennial Building Springfield, Illinois December 1, 1947 geology TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Publications are available to members and non¬ members alike upon payment of $1.00 per annual volume plus delivery charges, this fee being pay¬ able to the treasurer. Scientific societies and Libraries sending publica¬ tions in exchange are supplied with back issues with¬ out charge where a reciprocal service is rendered. The Academy sometimes receives requests for old issues that are out of print. If you have old copies that you wish to dispose of, please write to the Librarian. STATE OF ILLINOIS Dwight H. Green, Governor TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE VOLUME 40 1947 Fortieth Annual Meeting Peoria, Illinois May, 1947 PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS Illinois State Academy of Science Affiliated with the Illinois State Museum Division, Centennial Building Springfield, Illinois December 1, 1947 THE LIBRARY OF THE MAR 2 4 1948 UNIVERSITY CV STATE OF ILLINOIS Dwight H. Green, Governor DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION Frank G. Thompson, Director ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM DIVISION John C. McGregor, Acting Chief ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Affiliated with the ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM; * OFFICERS, COUNCIL, SECTION CHAIRMEN COMMITTEES FOR 1946-1947 I. Officers PRESIDENT: Leo R. Tehon, Illinois State Nat¬ ural History Survey, Urbana. FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT : E. L. Stover., Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston. SECOND VICE-PRESIDENT : W. W. Grimm, Bradley University, Peoria. SECRETARY : Hurst H. Shoemaker, University of Illinois, Urbana. TREASURER: John Voss, Manual Training High School, Peoria. LIBRARIAN : Gilbert Wright, Illinois State Mu¬ seum, Springfield. EDITOR : Dorothy E. Rose, Illinois State Geo¬ logical Survey, Urbana. COLLEGIATE SECTION COORDINATOR: Harold R. Wanless, University of Illinois, Urbana. JUNIOR ACADEMY GENERAL REPRESENTA¬ TIVES: Northern Area: David H. Thompson, Cook County Forest Preserve, River Forest. Central Area: J. C. Chiddix, 201 N. School St., Normal. Southern Area: Mary Creager, Chester High. School, Chester. II. Counqil The ACADEMY COUNCIL consists of the officers named above, the two most recent past presidents : A. E. Emerson, University of Chicago, Chi¬ cago, Otis B. Young, Southern Illinois Normal Uni¬ versity, Carbon dale, Past Secretary : R. F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana. III. Delegates DELEGATE TO THE CONSERVATION COUN- DELEGATE TO THE A.A.A.S. : Robert F. Paton, CIL: Lyell J. Thomas, University of Illi- University of Illinois, Urbana. nois, Urbana. IV. Section Chairmen ANTHROPOLOGY : Claude U. Stone, Peoria. BOTANY : R. 0. Freeland, Chairman, Northwest¬ ern University, Evanston. CHEMISTRY : H. E. Phipps, Eastern Illinois , State Teachers College, Charleston. GEOGRAPHY : Thomas F. Barton, Southern Illi¬ nois Normal University, Carbondale. GEOLOGY : Edward C. Dapples, Northwestern University, Evanston. PHYSICS : Paul E. Martin, Wheaton College, Wheaton. PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION : Douglas Lawson, Southern Illinois Normal Univer¬ sity, Carbondale. SOCIAL SCIENCE : S. R. Kamm, Wheaton College Wheaton. ZOOLOGY : Milton W. Sanderson, Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana. Committees 5 (b 6^ *\C> AFFILIATIONS: Percival Robertson,, Chairman, Principia College, Elsah. Ildrem P. Daniel, Lake View High School, Chicago. Howard K. Gloyd, Chicago Academy of Sci¬ ences, Chicago. Leslie Hedrick, Illinois Institute of Technol¬ ogy, Chicago. Robert S. Platt, University of Chicago, Chi¬ cago. Glenn W. Warner, 7633 Calumet Ave., Chi¬ cago. BUDGET : Clarence L. Furrow, Chairman, Knox College, Galesburg. Leo R. Tehon, Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana. John Voss, Manual Training High School, Peoria. Otis B. Young, Southern Illinois Normal Uni¬ versity, Carbondale. Alfred E. Emerson, University of Chicago, Chicago. Hurst H. Shoemaker, University of Illinois, Urbana. CONSERVATION : Lyell J. Thomas, Chairman, University of Illinois, Urbana. Warder C. Allee, University of Chicago, Chi¬ cago. Verne 0. Graham, 4028 Grace St., Chicago. William H. Haas, Northwestern University, Evanston. L. A. Holmes, Illinois State Normal Univer¬ sity, Normal. David V. Lansden, Cairo. Morris M. Leighton, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. Carl P. Russell, National Park Service, Chi¬ cago. Raymond S. Smith, University of Illinois, Urbana. Ernest L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Teach¬ ers College, Charleston. Lee E. Yeager, United States Fish and Wild Life Service, Chicago. Thomas Barton, 807 W. Mill St., Carbondale. Claude U. Stone, 210 W. Armstrong St., Peoria. CONSERVATION OF ARCHEOLOGICAL AND HIS¬ TORICAL SITES : Fay-Cooper Cole, Chair¬ man, University of Chicago, Chicago. Melville J. Herskovits, Northwestern Uni¬ versity, Evanston. Morris M. Leighton, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. John B. Ruyle, 1 Main St., Champaign. Bruce Merwin, Southern Illinois Normal Uni¬ versity, Carbondale. Carl G. Hartman, University of Illinois, Urbana. Frank W. Aldrich, 1506 E. Washington St., Bloomington. ECOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY: Arthur G. Vestal, Chairman, University of Illinois, Urbana. LEGISLATION AND FINANCE: F’ay-Cooper Cole, Chairman, University of Chicago, Chicago. Morris M. Leighton, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. John C. McGregor, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. Leo R. Tehon, Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana. Lyell J. Thomas, University of Illinois, Urbana. Carl G. Hartman, University of Illinois, Urbana. Frank W. Aldrich, 1506 E. Washington St., Bloomington. MEMBERSHIP : John H. Garland, Chairman, University of Illinois, Urbana. Gideon H. Boewe, Illinois State Natural His¬ tory Survey, Urbana. Nicholas D. Cheronis, 5556 Ardmore Ave., Chicago. Durward L. Eaton, Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb. Carl E. Ekblad, Moline High School, Moline. George E. Ekblaw, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. W. H. Eller, 308 Sherman Ave., Macomb. Wilbur W. Grimm, 109 N. Glenwood, Peoria. G. N. Hufford, 116 Sesser, Joliet. Karl K. Johnson, National College of Educa¬ tion, Evanston. G. N. Jones, University of Illinois, Urbana. Troy L. Pewe, Augustana College, Rock Island. Wellington D. Jones, University of Chicago, Chicago. Orlando Park, Northwestern University. Evanston. W. Malcolm Reid, Monmouth College, Mon¬ mouth. Hiram F. Thut, Eastern Illinois State Teach¬ ers College, Charleston. Walter B. Welch, Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale. Charles J. Wideman, Loyola University, Chi¬ cago. Martha Scott, Southern Illinois Normal Uni¬ versity, Carbondale. PRE-MEDICAL TRAINING : Carlos I. Reed, Chairman, University of Illinois, College of Medicine, Chicago. Lester I. Bochstahler, Northwestern Univer¬ sity, Evanston. Harvey DeBruine, Elmhurst College, Elm¬ hurst. G. H. Gardner, School of Medicine, North¬ western University, Evanston. B. Vincent Hall, University of Illinois, Urbana. Thesle T. Job, Loyola University Medical School, Chicago. A. B. Luckhardt, University of Chicago, Chicago. J. Roscoe Miller, Northwestern University, School of Medicine, Evanston. K. A. VanLente, Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale. PUBLICATIONS: The President. The Secretary. Gilbert H. Cady, Illinois State Geological Sur¬ vey, Urbana. Howard K. Gloyd, Chicago Academy of Sci¬ ences, Chicago. Neil E. Stevens, University of Illinois, Urbana. Willard M. Gersbacher, Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale. RESEARCH GRANTS: Robert F. Paton, Chair¬ man, University of Illinois, Urbana. Ralph O. Freeland, Northwestern University, Evanston. B. S. Hopkins, University of Illinois, Urbana. Sister Mary O’Hanlon, Rosary College, River Forest. Karl P. Schmidt, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. Otis B. Young, Southern Illinois Normal Uni¬ versity, Carbondale. TEACHER TRAINING: Ernest L. Stover, Chair¬ man, Eastern Illinois State Teachers Col¬ lege, Charleston. D. M. Delo, 998 N. Prairie St., Galesburg. J. Voss, Manual Training High School, Peoria. J. W. Neckers, 108 S. Maple, Carbondale. Committees — continued Orlando Park, Northwestern University, Evanston. Robert F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana. Charlotte Zimmerschied, Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale. COLLEGIATE SECTION: H. R. Wanless, Co¬ ordinator, University of Illinois, Urbana. Audrey H. Lindsey, University High School, Urbana. Sister Mary O’Hanlon, Rosary College, River Forest. Sister Joan Preising, College of St. Francis, Joliet. Percival Robertson, Principia College of Liberal Arts, Elsah. Charles J. Wideman, Loyola University, Chi¬ cago. LIVING MEMORIALS: Lyell J. Thomas, Chair¬ man, University of Illinois, Urbana. J. Nelson Spaeth, University of Illinois, Urbana. Anton J. Tomasek, State Department of Con¬ servation, Springfield. Morris M. Leighton, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. Claude* U. Stone, 210 W. Armstrong St., Peoria. STATE MUSEUM BUILDING: Percival Robert¬ son, Chairman, Principia College, Elsah. Clarence L. Furrow, Knox College, Gales¬ burg. Frank W. Aldrich, 1506 E. Washington St., Bloomington. E. L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston. Fredrick C. Holtz, Sangamon Electric Co., Springfield. RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT PROJECT: Otis B. Young, Chairman, Southern Illinois Nor¬ mal University, Carbondale. John C. McGregor, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. Harold R. Wanless, University of Illinois, Urbana. Percival Robertson, Principia College, Elsah. Bruce Merwin, Southern Illinois Normal Uni¬ versity, Carbondale. Leo R. Tehon, Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana. SUSTAINING MEMBERSHIP: Alfred E. Emer¬ son, Chairman, University of Chicago, Chi¬ cago. Audrey H. Lindsey, University High School, Urbana. HISTORY OF ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE: George D. Fuller, Chairman, University of Chicago, Chicago. Clarence Bonnell, Township High School, Harrisburg. William M. Bailey, 506 S. Poplar, Carbondale, Otts B. Young, Southern Illinois Normal Uni¬ versity, Carbondale. ILLINOIS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE: Lewis H. Tiffany, Chairman, Northwestern Univer¬ sity, Evanston. Alfred E. Emerson, University of Chicago, Chicago. John O. McGregor, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. Junior Academy of Science GENERAL CHAIRMAN : Mary D. Creager, Ches¬ ter High School, Chester. ASSISTANT CHAIRMAN: Kathryn M. Sturm, Decatur High School, Decatur. CHAIRMAN OF EXHIBITS: Roy E. Dively, Normal Community High School, Normal. ASSISTANT CHAIRMAN : George Porter, J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero. CHAIRMAN OF JUDGING: Elizabeth M. Wells, Washington Junior High School, Rock Island. Student Officers President. Dick Johnson, Hitchcock Junior High School, Galesburg. First Vice-President : Evelyn Holonyak, Edwardsville High School, Edwardsville. Second Vice-President: Betty Zimmers, Gol- conda Community High School, Golconda. Secretary : Marzie Cary, Immaculate High School, Chicago. A.A.A.S. Honorary Members: Betty Lee Warnack, Decatur High School, Decatur. Billy Wakeland, University High School, Carbondale. (44833) cillliM4 [4] TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE /olume 40 1947 Contents MORNING ADDRESS Page McGregor, J. C., Archeology and social change . ^ ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY Horner, George R., An upper Mississippi house-pit from the Fisher village site: Further evidence . . . ‘ ’ ' V ’ ' W i ‘ Maxwell, Moreau S., The succession of woodland horizons m the Carbondale ^ Schoenbeck, E.,A seven-pound copper axe among 1946 Hopewell discoveries 36 BOTANY Arzeni, Charles B., Some Bryophytes of Coles and Clark counties. .. . . . 44 Puller, George D., Additions to the flora of Sangamon County Illinois ..... . 50 Tones, George Neville, A revised checklist of the vascular plants of the Uni- versity of Illinois woodlands . . • • • • ; - • y* - V ' ; ' * 1 . £7 Peterson, Carroll J., A method for cytological investigation of algae . Schoenbeck, E., Houstonia minima in Peoria County. . . 50 3ibert, Marvin, The control of weeds on a typical prairie farm . 01 Spooner, Harry L., Yirginius H. Chase, Peoria botanist . Winterringer, Glen, The Acanthaceae of Illinois . 16 CHEMISTRY Cagle, F. Wm, Jr., The use of partial differentials for the estimation of errors in volumetric analysis . . . Deanin, Rudolph, The chemistry of synthetic rubber . 84 GEOGRAPHY Garland, John H., Occupance patterns of the lower Illinois Valley. . . 95 Lounsbury, John Frederick, The pottery industry in McDonough and Warren counties, Illinois . . • • • y • • • • Pewe, Troy L., Teaching of conservation of natural resources in Illinois colleges and universities . . . ; * ' * « . 11 a Reith, John W., Lake Michigan ports: A classification by items of traffic . lib GEOLOGY I Atherton, Elwood, Some Chester outcrop and subsurface sections in south¬ eastern Illinois . . . Bieber, C. L., Structural trends in the Pecatonica quadrangle based upon Decorah stratigraphy . . . . • • * ; . . ^ ScHWEiTzm, Geo. K. and Chapman, Carleton A., Geological applications ot the ionic potential . . Shrode, Raymond S., Unusual oolite grains from the Ste. Genevieve limestone 14U PHYSICS ! Walker, H. L. and Baskal, M., Endurance limit of a free-cutting brass rod - 146 PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION ! White, David Manning, Sex deviations in the selection of masculine and feminine words in poetry . Contents — continued SOCIAL SCIENCE Cavan, Ruth Shonle, Old age in a city of 100,000 . 156 Gardner, Lynford A., A basic defect in the Illinois Constitution . 171 ZOOLOGY Fawver, Ben J., Bird population of an Illinois floodplain forest . 178 Hoffmeister, Donald F., A concentration of Lemming mice (Synaptomys cooperi) in central Illinois . 190 Milum, Vern G., Grooming dance and associated activities of the honeybee colony . 194 Mohr, Carl O., Major fluctuations of some Illinois mammal populations . 197 Walton, A. C., Parasites of the Hylidae (Amphibia-Hylinae). VI . 205 Wantland, Wayne W. and Martin, Paul, An investigation of some possible sources of trichina infection in a central Illinois community . 215 Webb, Glenn R., Studies of the sex-organs of mating polygyrid landsnails . . . . 218 Wetzel, R. M., Additional records of Illinois mammals . 228 COLLEGIATE SECTION Papers presented at 40th annual meeting . 234 MEMORIAL Albert Edward Edgecombe, by Hanford Tiffany . 236 ACADEMY BUSINESS Secretary’s report for the year 1946-1947 . 237 [6] Illinois State Academy of Science 7 Leo R. Tehon, President, 1946-1947 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 9 MORNING ADDRESS ARCHEOLOGY AND SOCIAL CHANGE J. C. McGREGOR Illinois State Museum, Springfield First Vice-President, Illinois State Academy of Science Just a year ago the retiring presi¬ dent, Dr. Emerson, read before this academy a thought provoking paper on the biological basis of social cooperation, wherein he stressed the crucial social problems then* confronting humanity, suggesting I certain biological and ecological prin¬ ciples which it was felt may bear on the interrelations of human so- | ciety. The same appalling problems still confront ns, with little change. | Such being the case it may be profit¬ able to continue this general discus¬ sion, somewhat in the nature of a running symposium, by bringing to the attention of this group the con¬ tributions of another field, that of archeology. Man has undoubtedly been a sub¬ ject of consuming interest to man since the beginning of human his¬ tory, and there is little doubt that the human species has been sub¬ jected to a more searching examina¬ tion than any other animal species. Every individual must necessarily spend a lifetime in the study of other people ; yet with all this re¬ search and accumulated knowledge, society is repeatedly confronted with crises of various sorts, of which the present is beyond any question the most filled with promise of dire consequence. Many of us have heard the implied, or specific charge, that social science has failed miserably to keep stride with the development of the physical sciences. Even if it be admitted that such a charge is true, and it probably is, it is somewhat unjust at a time when the physical sciences have en¬ joyed a war time stimulation far beyond their normal status, even in the present age. However, if a social atomic bomb is to be exploded in time to neutralize the effects of the physical atomic bomb, social thought must be revised as radically and put into effect as forcefully as thinking and action in the physical sciences. But society is resistant to social change, and if the necessary immediate readjustment is to be ef¬ fected every effort must be made now to determine how such evolu¬ tionary processes function. This paper does not attempt to answer all the social problems which are so urgently crying for solution ; it rather points up the possible contributions of one small field to a better understanding of the mechan¬ ics of change. To do so, not only must the biological sciences be called upon for assistance, but all the phy¬ sical and social sciences must be mobilized as well. 10 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Archeological Aims and Methods It has long been my conviction that the fundamentals of a complex society are generally obscured by the proliferation of incidentals, for it is so easy for an abundance of fas¬ cinating trees to obscure the broad outlines of the forest. Also, if we are ever to understand the operation of complex society, and all society is more or less complex, we must first study the more simple society and resolve it to understandable funda¬ mentals. This principle has been subscribed to by a long and illus¬ trious list of anthropologists, and is today reflected in the work of Red- field on the mechanics of social change the Maya are now undergo¬ ing, and by Kluckhohn in his long range Navaho studies at Ramah, New Mexico. However, such studies are limited to a comparatively short span of ob¬ servable time, and if we are to have the desirable depth of perspective of the evolution of simple society, so as to understand the mechanics of broad social change, we must of necessity employ history. Unfortunately it is a well known fact that simple so¬ ciety almost universally has no writ¬ ten history, and it is therefore neces¬ sary to turn to archeology to sup¬ ply the missing pages in the record of the story of man. Kluckhohn has expressed a criti¬ cal attitude toward archeology when in 1940 lie said:1 “Do researches which require large funds for their support require no social justifica¬ tion other than that of quenching 1 Kluckhohn, Clyde, “The Conceptual Structure in Middle American Studies,” From, “The Maya and their Neighbors,” D. Appleton-Century Company, Inc., 35 W. 32nd St., N. Y. 1, New York, 1940. Page 43. (Permission to quote given in letter of May 12, 1947.) certain thirsts for knowledge on th< part of a relatively small number o: citizens? If archeologists and eth nologists have hardly begun to asl, themselves the tough-minded quer\ — so what?, evidence is not lacking that this question has occurred t( research foundations and othei sources of financial support. Per; sonally, I suspect that unless arche ologists treat their work quite firmly as part of a general attempt to un derstand social behavior they will before many generations, find them selves classed with Aldous Huxley ’d figure who devoted his life to writ ing a history of the three-prongec| fork.” Just what is the case of archeol ogy, and where does it stand among) the sciences of the study of mao today ? If we are willing at the outset td admit that the immediate aim of archeology is the re-creation of his! tory from prehistoric data, and ard willing to let universal laws become!* evident as a result of the study ol these historical sequences, we majt now proceed to a more careful ex¬ amination of how history may bd wrung from prehistory. The activi-' ties of man are apparent in twej broad categories. 1. The material remains which result from his ef¬ forts at production or creation These are known as material traits! and in our own society are rather! fully represented by salable articles 2. The mental attitudes, or non-j) material traits, which consist of sucbi elusive qualities as the folkways! mores, laws, rules and regulations which control human relations. It is obvious that the source data1 of true archeology, lacking all writ! Archeology and Social Change 11 ten history, is confined wholly to material traits, and because they are perishable many data are limited to the more resistant of even these traits. The preservation of any ma¬ terial through centuries depends on many factors, and at best only a small portion of any group survives. Thus, at the outset, the archeologist is limited to laboring with only a part of the tools available to other branches of social study. However, as will be demonstrated later, it is sometimes possible, through analogy with living groups, to suggest cer¬ tain non-material traits. One of the most vexing problems confronting every archeologist is the ordering of his data into relative and absolute temporal sequences. By comparison the equally necessary technique of arranging traits into typological sequences is a very sim¬ ple matter. The most common and most satisfactory method of estab¬ lishing relative chronology is by a study of stratigraphy, although other disciplines, such as geology i and paleontology, chemistry in soil analysis, and even artifact sequences may also be of aid. In the South¬ west, tree-ring dating revolutionized | archeological research, and is in fact I of such importance that I would like ; to take a few minutes to discuss it | in some detail. Dr. A. E. Douglass, a southwest- j ern astronomer, in 1905 began study of tree growth, as reflected in their ring sizes, in an effort to correlate sun spot cycles with growth. With | comparatively little effort, once suit- j able material was made available, he | was able to demonstrate that rings grown in certain years were more or less consistently small, or large. However, he was unable to extend this record back for more than four or five hundred years. Additional material, this time from prehistoric and ruined south¬ western dwellings, was next secured. An examination of numbers of these specimens indicated that they also carried consistent ring growth pat¬ terns, which could be cross-dated to form floating chronologies. The en¬ suing search for specimens which would bridge the gaps and so pro¬ duce one long chronology is a saga of exceptionally fascinating interest. Suffice it for our present purpose only to report that a continuous tree-ring sequence is now available for the Southwest from A. D. 11 to the present. This span covers all major periods of well represented culture stages of the prehistoric in¬ habitants of this area, and has made it possible to speak of events in past time in terms of years in our own calendar. The most immediate and obvious result of this dating was that almost every previous estimate of archeological dates had to be re¬ vised downwards, or shortened, in some cases radically. Here then, is evidence that culture changes more rapidly than might be expected. Many of you will be interested to learn that the Tree Ring Laboratory at the University of Chicago has, within the past few months, released dates on Kincaid, an archeological site in southern Illinois, which fall within the 16th century A.D.2 Ar¬ cheologists are already busily en¬ gaged in interpreting these dates in terms of other sites from which 2 Paper read by Robert E. Bell at the December 1946 Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, and affiliated societies, Chicago, Illi¬ nois. 12 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions trade material came to Kincaid, and in estimating expanded dating. For example, it has been suggested that the Middle Mississippi occupation at Kincaid probably began about A. D. 1450 and lasted to about A. D. 1630. Through the identification of trade objects the famous Cahokia Mounds may be dated as of a somewhat simi¬ lar span. Thus with additional tree ring research it may be safely pre¬ dicted that other both earlier and later sites and cultures will soon be dated, and so may be assigned to an absolute chronology. Before turning to a serious ex¬ amination of one archeological area, two other important methods should be briefly characterized. Extensive surface survey, occasionally supple¬ mented by small-scale excavation testing, has proved one of the most effective and productive of archeo¬ logical techniques. It depends on type descriptions of various arti¬ facts and artifact typologies, and on relative or absolute chronology. Sys¬ tematic survey, and the thorough di¬ gestion of its products, will add one more most important and funda¬ mental field of knowledge to the study ; that of geographic distribu¬ tion. This prepares the background for the presentation and ordering of the available data. If any mass of raw data is to be evaluated and interpreted, it must be arranged according to some pre¬ determined systematic pattern. Any attempt to arrange archeological material in preparation for inter¬ pretation involves what might be considered four dimensions. Traits, which are physical representations of past events, must be ordered first in some scheme which places them in a two-dimensional geographic plane, and in a third crossing temp¬ oral sequence. I have elsewhere suggested a simple physical method by which this ordering may be ac¬ complished.3 If several cabinets con¬ taining a series of drawers are em¬ ployed, each cabinet representing a particular geographic area and each drawer a pre-determined time pe¬ riod, artifacts may be placed in their appropriate case and drawer. By simply pulling out all drawers of one level, and then successive levels, it is possible to demonstrate where and when a given artifact occurred, where it spread, and when it disap¬ peared. But this is not in itself the creation of history from prehistory, for a fourth dimension must be added. A simple definition of history has already been suggested; it now is imperative that history be further defined. One of the tenets of an¬ thropology is that any social struc¬ ture, like any physical structure, is more than a simple sum of its con¬ stituent parts. Certainly, therefore, history must be more than the sim¬ ple ordering of determined traits, or events, in their proper temporal and spacial niches. It must be the inter¬ pretation of the interrelationship of these events in terms of social pat¬ terns and principles. It is the de¬ termination of the why and how, in so far as possible, of the interrela¬ tionship of events that adds zest to archeological, and in fact all anthro¬ pological studies, and will in the end result in an understanding of the dynamics of culture, or culture change, growth, and modification. 3 McGregor, John C., “Southwestern Archaeo¬ logy.” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1941, Page 55. Archeology and Social Change 13 This is the fourth dimension just re¬ ferred to. These, briefly and somewhat schematically stated, are the aims and methods of archeology. Almost nothing has been said about tech¬ niques, for they have little bearing on the discussion to follow. What has been, and is now being accomplished, by these means? Prehistoric History of the Southwest Of all the areas of the world where archeological research has been undertaken, probably our own American Southwest is the most significant. This statement is based on several facts not generally appreciated. Systematic and in¬ tensive archeological research has been energetically prosecuted there for more than six decades. The arid physical environment, combined with a physiography which has pro¬ vided many natural caves and shel¬ ters attractive to man as habitations, has made possible the preservation of articles which otherwise would have deteriorated. The arid envir¬ onment has also tied man closer to the soil than in many other areas in the world, and has called forth in¬ genuity in the adaptation of life to a variety of physical and ecological environments. Thus a number of somewhat diversified evolutionary lines are represented. Of more importance is the fact* that here is found a social evolution which spans all stages, without break, from an exceedingly simple semisedentary-seminomadic way of life, to the highly compact, wholly sedentary stage represented today by the living Pueblo groups. As descendents of their prehistoric an¬ cestors in the same area, these latter people supply much of the informa¬ tion, which through analogy, makes possible interpretation and compre¬ hension of events indicated by arti¬ facts in prehistoric horizons. There is also the unique contribution of tree-ring dating, already mentioned which has made possible the specific dating of all major stages in the un¬ folding of Southwestern cultures. It is these reasons, plus the fact that I am most familiar with the achievements of this area, that prompt me to turn to this field as a source of material to illustrate this discussion. As a logical beginning the following simple summary of Southwestern history is offered.4 The earliest known evidence of man in the Southwest consists of stone artifacts which through vari¬ ous geological and paleontological processes have been correlated with now extinct mammals, and dated as on the order of some fifteen thou¬ sand years old. The famous Folsom Culture is probably the best known of these early finds. Unfortunately this and other related finds of some¬ what comparable age lack any human remains, and they consist of such an impoverished trait complex that little is known concerning them, beyond a few tools, and the fact that the people appear to have been purely nomadic hunters. The first more completely repre¬ sented culture is the Cochise, known from southeastern Arizona. Stone work was expanded by these people to include what is probably the earliest use of grinding stones by 4 In a paper such as this, questions still some¬ what controversial must be treated as though settled. 14 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions any group in America, perhaps in the world, for they have been dated by Antevs as of about ten thousand years old. These people lived in the pluvial, or immediately postglacial period, and their remains are com¬ monly found as camps on the bor¬ ders of long since dry lakes. Two human skeletons, probably assign¬ able to this period, have been found, but have not as yet been studied and reported. None of these early cultures is sufficiently rich to make possible much in the way of interpretation, but by the time of Christ other peo¬ ple living in the southern portion of Arizona and New Mexico were well established, and are more fully rep¬ resented and known. These have been designated as the Mogollones, and at this early period they had pottery, had built more or less per¬ manent homes, practiced an econ¬ omy divided between hunting, gath¬ ering, and a simple agriculture, and were individuals of some conse¬ quence. At about this same time another related group invaded the desert country of southern Arizona to es¬ tablish a long dynasty of rich cul¬ tural development. These people are known as the Hohokam. They were sedentary individuals with per¬ manent homes, pottery, a more or less specialized stone industry, and were faced with the necessity of adaptation to a decidedly inhospit¬ able environment. Because of the exceeding aridity of this region they settled along the permanent streams and in the foothills of the isolated mountain ranges where water was assured. Slightly later, probably in the third or fourth century A. D., the Basket Makers settled in the north¬ ern portion of Arizona and southern Utah. They were seminomadic, practiced only simple agriculture, and relied for subsistence on gather¬ ing and hunting. Because of their way of life they constructed no per¬ manent homes in the early portion of their reign, and lacking pottery they turned their interests and energies to the production of con¬ tainers and objects of soft materials, such as fibers, in which they excelled for their time. With these three groups ac¬ counted for we have the basis of what has commonly been accepted as the three roots, or fundamental cultures, of the Southwest. From them, as the centuries gradually un¬ rolled, and perhaps stimulated by occasional outside influence, all of the later cultures sprang. Perhaps these^ three roots should even be re¬ duced to two by combining Mogol- lon and Hohokam as two stems un¬ der one root, the Cochise. By A. D. 700, the three same groups were still represented in the Southwest, although a fourth, the Patayan, may have become further differentiated, or introduced into the area along the Colorado River. Lit¬ tle is known about it. Mogollon was thoroughly entrenched, and al¬ though it had achieved comparative¬ ly little evolutionary progress with¬ in itself, it was exerting consider¬ able influence on other groups, es¬ pecially to the north and northwest. As they moved northward they came into contact, sometimes violently, sometimes apparently peacefully, with the resident Basket Makers, and to them contributed the bow Archeology and Social Change 15 and arrow, at least the rudiments of pottery making: techniques, and the principles of house construction. At this time the Hohokam were busily engaged in building the extensive system of canals that was to charac¬ terize their existence and make pos¬ sible an expansive agriculture in the most arid portion of the Southwest. They had also established contacts with Mexico, as is testified to by shared trade, and such mutual traits as ball courts. Three hundred years later, or by A. D. 1000, the picture had changed more or less radically. The Hoho¬ kam people had about reached their peak. They have been mentioned first because Hohokam represents an even continuation of preceding de¬ velopments. In the north the result of the Basket Maker - Mogollon contact seems to have been the development of what is known as Pueblo Culture, most spectacularly in the four cor¬ ners area, where large multiroomed pueblos had been evolved, the pat¬ tern of economy firmly established as one of a highly sedentary agricul¬ tural nature, and pottery had de¬ veloped to an equally rigid pattern. On the other hand the Mogol- lones had suffered reverses. Appar¬ ently having shot their bolt north¬ ward to the Basket Makers they began to wane as a distinct entity, and with the southward expansion of Pueblo influence more and more took on a Pueblo cast. The general economy was also shifting from a hunting to a more sedentary type. During the fourteenth century many radical changes took place in the Southwest, probably the most striking of which is directly trace¬ able to the great drought, a period of about twenty years at the end of the century, which tree rings have demonstrated was a time of very little rainfall. This occasioned a mass movement of Pueblo people southward and eastward, where they pressed on others, forcing them still farther south and east. At this time Pueblo Culture had reached a high level of development, and as it moved south and eastward it was modified by every local group with which it came in contact, but on the whole retained its major works of art and general culture with little change. What remained of Mogollon was quite overshadowed by the march of Pueblo Culture. The descendants of the Mogollones were being forced into the southwestern corner of New Mexico, where they were to have one last florescence as Mimbres. Far to the south the Hohokam were also feeling the pressure of Pueblo contact, and the most re¬ markable observation which may be made about them at this time is that they apparently existed peace¬ fully, but quite independently, side by side with Pueblo culture and people. The Hohokam had defi¬ nitely passed their peak, and were making no more contributions to Southwestern development, while they clung tenaciously to most of the features of their own way of life. What became of these several groups is a matter of consuming in¬ terest to archeologists today. The remnants of the Mogollones moved first into southwestern New Mexico, and there is some evidence that they eventually migrated on into north- 16 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions ern Mexico, but what then became of them is unknown. Many of the Pueblo people remained in the north, and are represented today by their descendants in Arizona and New Mexico, but those who moved far south to mingle with the Hoho- kam simply seem to have disappear¬ ed. Perhaps they once more moved north when conditions there again became advantageous. Most fascinat¬ ing problem is the final disposition of the Hohokam, for their ultimate fate is shrouded in the deepest mys¬ tery of all. Perhaps they moved west to the Colorado River, there to become members of the Yuman speaking groups, or remained in the Gila and Salt River valleys to be absorbed into the Pima and later arrivals into this area. Three hundred years later, or by A. D. 1600, about the present pat¬ tern of occupation of the major In¬ dian groups in the Southwest was at least roughly formed. The Pueblo Indians were firmly entrenched in approximately their present homes in northern Arizona and New Mexi¬ co, and there is much evidence to lead us to believe the nomadic Apache and Navaho bands had ar¬ rived, and were rapidly becoming established. Since from this time on written records supply the necessary data for historical reconstruction, this summary outline of history can be terminated at this point. However, major outlines rest on the meticulous demonstration of in¬ numerable bits of history. It is therefore proposed, in the remain¬ der of this paper, to examine a few of these small historical fragments, to see how they have been arrived at, and of what they consist. Physiographic Provinces Some years ago it was my privi¬ lege to be briefly associated with J. W. Hoover, geographer of Tempe State College. At that time he was greatly interested in establishing Southwestern geographic provinces, and I was immediately struck by the fact that in most cases these prov¬ inces seemed to coincide with the areas of prehistoric culture as then understood. Continued research has more clearly confirmed this as¬ sociation. The Southwest may be readily di¬ vided into major physical areas, with the northern and central por¬ tion composed of a high flat piUteau, dissected into broad valleys by only a few streams, and with many box canyons. This is bordered on all sides, except the extreme north, by a continuous area of dissected moun¬ tain country, or on the east by moun¬ tain ranges. South and west of this band is the typical arid desert, again with only a few major streams in broad valleys, and to the east the high plains. The three roots, prev¬ iously described, are assignable in broad measure to these separate regions. The Hohokam had their entire development, in fact complete existence, in the desert area. The Mogollones, except for early sporadic and late migratory movements while under pressure, were dwellers of the mountain region. The Basket Maker, and later the Pueblo develop¬ ment, was almost entirely confined to the plateau area, with the excep¬ tion of the rather brief southward expansion already discussed. These broad provinces are oi course divisible into many regions, each with characteristic peculiar! Archeology and Social Change 17 ties, and each with its own distinc¬ tive variant of the broader culture pattern. However, for the moment, it would be most profitable to limit our discussion to a consideration of the effect of environment on the broader groups. Probably the most clearly marked effect of environ¬ ment on culture is found in the desert area and on the history of the Hohokam. With their invasion of this uninviting environment they at once committed themselves to a cul¬ ture adaptation to an unusual situa¬ tion. The main streams, the Gila and Salt rivers, predetermined the major pattern of their settlements, and as soon as population concentra¬ tions reached any dimensions, de¬ manded the use of irrigation in the prosecution of agriculture. With thinly scattered populations flood- water irrigation sufficed, but as per¬ manent populations increased irri¬ gation was developed, until ditches supplied water to a total acreage ap¬ proaching that under cultivation at the beginning of this century in the same area. The development of such en¬ gineering projects thoroughly tied the people to the soil, rooting them in one location, so long as this meth¬ od of agriculture was locally ef¬ fective. As a result the develop¬ ment of Hohokam culture followed a long and regular path, with its in¬ ception at about the beginning of the Christian era, and reaching a peak sometime about the eleventh or twelfth centuries A. D. A grad¬ ual decline then set in, and by prob¬ ably A.D. 1450 they had reached the point of extinction, or had been ab¬ sorbed by other groups. This grad¬ ual development to a high level and then decline might be considered characteristic of a firmly entrenched and smugly satisfied group. Opposed to this is the Mogollon, which was limited to the mountain section, and was, because of the op¬ portunities offered on every side, more preoccupied with hunting as a means of subsistence than any of the later groups. This apparent rest¬ lessness and fluidity, early led these people northward to contact and in¬ fluence the Basket Makers, and later made them easy prey to the solid advance of the Pueblo people and culture. With a lack of abundant natural resources to supply large concentrations of population, and their persistent adherence to an out¬ moded way of life, their eventual as¬ similation, or dispersion, was a fore¬ gone conclusion. On the other hand the early con¬ version of the Basket Makers to a new mode of existence, prodded by the necessity stimulus of the en¬ croachments of Mogollon, with the resultant population concentrations and the development of a permanent agriculture and elaborate social structure, assured their perpetua¬ tion. Here, as is always the case, the transition period, though ob¬ viously difficult, was one of great stimulation. A new sedentary way of life was substituted for an old seminomadic form, and as soon as the new pattern had been set, with for the first time security and abun¬ dance of leisure, advance was very rapid. Population increase, and social and technical stability, then led naturally to geographic expan¬ sion, with continual additional stimulus. It was, therefore, not un¬ til the arrival of overwhelming ag- Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 18 gressive foreign European elements that Pueblo culture was forced to re¬ treat, consolidate, isolate, and in at least some characteristics stagnate. Cross-Dating Sites Much more, and in many cases in great detail, could be said on this line, and shortly one or two other examples of social processes will be considered more microscopically, but just now it becomes necessary to examine another technique. Con¬ tinued reference has been made to dates, yet it is a matter of general knowledge that tree ring dates in the Southwest are largely confined to the Plateau area, and there to the more datable kinds of conifers. Also, the earliest date so far secured in as¬ sociation with human culture stages is an early Basket Maker beam, found in Dupont Cave in Nevada, and dated as A. D. 217. How then may dates be assigned to the Hoho- kam stages, particularly in their earlier portions at about the begin¬ ning of the Christian era? The most intensive work of dat¬ ing, and correlation of dates with culture stages, has been that done by the Museum of Northern Arizona in the general vicinity of Flagstaff. Here it is demonstrated that the average rate of human cultural evo¬ lution resulted in distinguishable differences about every two hundred years. Once datings had been estab¬ lished for local groups it was then possible, by an involved process which I have referred to as “seria- tion,” and through the establish¬ ment of cross finds, to date sites and cultures where no tree ring dates were available. For this cross-dat¬ ing it was early recognized that pot¬ tery was of the utmost aid, in that once made it was practically inde- l structible, was on the whole abun¬ dant, was subject to continual fad changes, and might be easily collect¬ ed, stored, and studied. It is by , these means — cross-dating through I trade pottery, and projection of dates according to what appears to : be an established pattern rate of de¬ velopment— that dates have been as¬ signed with some evidential basis to early periods, and also to sites with- I out the tree ring area. Culture Evolution Cycles However, one of the most obvious results of this study of Southwest¬ ern archeology is that the develop¬ ment and change of human culture is not unilateral, and over long periods is not uniformly continuous. Rather, the history of one culture is that it tends comparatively to fluctuate with various periods of rise and regression, though in every case to gradually rise to a peak, and then more or less gradually decline. The problem now is to attempt to determine, in a few selected cases, why such a pattern forms. Perhaps one of the most common causes of decline is the failure of in¬ dividuals, and society, to readjust to changing environmental condi¬ tions. Halseth, and others, working on the problem of Hohokam decline have suggested it is associated with the difficulties which developed in their irrigation projects. He has suggested specifically that .continued spreading of water over the land waterlogged it. The evaporation of quantities of water from the soil, in the arid atmosphere, led to the depo¬ sition of a layer of lime, known lo¬ cally as caliche, anywhere -from a foot to two or three feet below the Archeology and Social Change 19 surface. When this had formed a seal beneath the soil, water could no longer penetrate beyond this seal but rapidly evaporated, thus render¬ ing the lands useless to further agri¬ culture. This is a problem still con¬ fronting irrigation farmers in this same area. Such an explanation in conjunction with theories of inva¬ sion, which are based on convincing evidence, and perhaps several cycles of continued stream erosion as a re¬ sult of serious droughts, which made necessary the repeated removal up- : stream of canal inlets, may be the answer of the tip of balance from progression to regression. Culture Contacts One of the most important factors contributing to the evolution of cul¬ ture is contacts. This may be dem¬ onstrated in any one of a number of cases in Southwestern prehistory, is demonstrable in history throughout the world, and is in op¬ eration on a grand scale today. The effect of Basket Maker and Mogollon contact has already been pointed out and discussed. Another example, also taken from the work of the Mu¬ seum of Northern Arizona, demon¬ strates how a natural phenomenon may cause a social upheaval. Some years ago it was learned that sometime in the eleventh cen¬ tury A. D., a volcano, something like Paricutin in Mexico, erupted and covered the surface of the ground for many square miles with a layer of volcanic ash. This ash, like that I at Pompeii, covered old dwellings, but soon after it had been distrib¬ uted through wind action to a more even and thinner cover people began to move back into the area. Shortly the movement became almost a land rush, in which elements of all the major roots were represented; Ho- hokam from the south and west, Mo¬ gollon from the south and east, and Pueblo from the North. Unfortu¬ nately it was directly in the Center of this horrible mixture that this mu¬ seum first began serious work, and it can be imagined what a scramble of confusing problems had to be resolv¬ ed before any semblance of order could be established in our data. However, it was from this amazing congenial mixture of population that almost immediately a culture of unusually rich character sprang. An incidental practical result, of immediate application to modern practices, came from one phase of this study. In an effort to determine why the cinder covered area was so attractive to humans a study of tree growth in the cinder field was un¬ dertaken, and compared to that out¬ side it. It was learned that the fine dark cinders formed a mulch above the clay soil, acting to conserve moisture and at the same time ab¬ sorb heat ; that tree species sharply dipped down into the cinder areas, in some cases a thousand feet from their normal environments ; and that & cinder depth of some eight or ten inches was the optimum condition for growth. This information was passed on to the local agricultural adviser, and you can hardly imagine my surprise the next summer when I came upon luxuriant corn fields growing at seven thousand feet from extensive cinder flats, where the farmer had only to plant and reap his harvest, since cultivation was not only impractical but unneces¬ sary. 20 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Culture Isolation In general the evidence from the Southwest is that at no time, and among no people, was there any ex¬ tended or extensive isolation. Sev¬ eral excellent recent studies of prehistoric trade have shown that contacts were far flung. Many con¬ tacts were continuous over long periods. Not only was trade exten¬ sive, but physical contact, often re¬ sulting in physical and social mix¬ tures were common. There is evi¬ dence of mutual influence between Mexico and the Hohokam. Early contacts, even the exchange of such artifacts as pots, between the Hoho¬ kam and Mogollon has been demon¬ strated by detailed mineralogical studies. The Mogollon and Basket Maker contact has been repeatedly stressed, as has the later Pueblo con¬ tact with Mogollon. It should also be noted that extensive studies have been made and several papers writ¬ ten on the important influence ex¬ erted on the Pueblo development by Hohokam, and on the later Pueblo contact with and influence on Hohokam. The important lesson to be learned here is that cultural en¬ richment has always resulted to one or both of the participating groups. Another exceedingly important point affecting the development and change of culture is the need of available leisure time. When a group is continually confronted with the necessity of procuring a bare exist¬ ence, cultural advance requires great individual effort. It was not until the Basket Makers became con¬ verted to a sedentary agricultural existence that they made any radi¬ cally marked development, then it suddenly blossomed. Mogollon was probably limited, certainly retarded, because of persistently clinging to a hunting economy. Economic, social, and war pres¬ sure from without a group is un¬ doubtedly another factor strongly influencing social development. It has the effect of consolidation from within to combat the pressure from without. However, it may induce stagnation, as apparently happened when pressure of nomadic tribes his¬ torically induced the Pueblos to con¬ solidate into a few defensible large villages. Or, under other circum¬ stances, it may be responsible for a marked broadening of horizons, such as was the case of the Basket Mak¬ ers, but this seems to be dependent upon tribal intermixture. Just what influence on cultural change vigorous individual leader¬ ship may have is still a matter of debate. Archeology can contribute little or nothing to the question of whether the man is the result of the times or can develop the times. His¬ tory and ethnology combine in two illustrations to shed some slight light on this question. Archeologi¬ cal research at Sikyatki, an ancient and ruined Hopi Pueblo, was fol¬ lowed with much interest by the first mesa Indians. One of these was a pottery maker, Nampeyo, and she was so struck with the designs of the ancient pots that she, almost alone, by copying them, inaugurated a revolution in the pottery of these people. A similar result was ob¬ served when Indians visiting the Museum of Northern Arizona were fascinated by still older pottery de¬ signs, and again introduced a reviv¬ al of style among their people. But this question is dependent upon an- Archeology and Social Change 21 other, that of the acceptance or re¬ jection of proffered traits. Trait Acceptance There is much archeological and ethnological evidence that any su¬ perior trait will be readily accepted if in so doing it does not thereby dis¬ rupt other associated and integrated traits and traditions. The steel axe was readily accepted as a substitute for the stone axe, the steel knife and the copper or iron pot for the stone knife and pottery vessel, but the Christian religion was either flatly rejected or only superficially accept¬ ed. Religion has its roots deep in the total culture of the people, with ramifications in every phase of ac¬ tivity. Archeology, like history, gives every evidence of the reluc¬ tance of religions to change. As ex¬ ample the writer found an individ¬ ual buried in a small pueblo just west of Flagstaff, accompanied by sufficient obviously ceremonial para¬ phernalia that the ceremony repre¬ sented could be identified by modern Hopi Indians. He was interred sometime early in the twelfth cen¬ tury, so here is evidence of a reli¬ gious ceremony which persisted for more than eight hundred years with little or no change. We may there¬ fore speak with some conviction of stable and unstable institutions and practices. Revolutions, Crises, Barriers, Frontiers Not long ago Gordon Childe wrote a book entitled “What Happened in History,”5 and in it suggested that the main stream of cultural history followed a pattern which might be characterized in four stages. Of 5 Childe, Gordon, “What Happened in History.” Penguin Books, Inc., New York, 1946. more interest at the moment is his concept that these developmental stages are separated by revolutions; the first and second by what he calls the Neolithic or food-producing rev¬ olution, the second and third by the urban revolution, and the third and fourth by the industrial revolution. Thifc concept of revolution is close¬ ly allied, though on a grander scale, to what Colton has called a crisis,6 To understand what he means by a crisis it is necessary to explain what he has in mind when he refers to frontiers and barriers. When foci, which are minute temporal, areal, and cultural divisions of roots, are plotted on maps for given periods, frontiers become evident. In north central Arizona in the vicinity of Flagstaff he has worked out in great detail at least seven such frontiers. All have different qualities, some be¬ ing relatively stable over a period of years, while others are fluid, with one group advancing at the expense of another. After having examined the char¬ acter of all these frontiers Colton concludes that any geographical condition which makes an area un¬ favorable for human occupation may become a frontier, although it may be that no natural barriers are present. One such non-barrier fron¬ tier remained almost static for near¬ ly 600 years. He visualizes a fron¬ tier as a semi-membrane, against which traits, ideas, and even people are beating like molecules in a liq¬ uid. People diffuse slowly through frontiers on trading or other excur¬ sions, whereas, as has been sug- 6 Colton, Harold S., “The Sinagua. A Summary of the Archaeology of the Region of Flagstaff, Arizona.” Bull. 22, Museum of Northern Arizona. Flagstaff, Arizona, 1946. pp. 300-301. 22 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions gested, certain traits easily diffuse through these zones. A crisis is then described as the breaking of this membrane, when both people and ideas freely flow across the frontier. Archeologically this is the most obvious type of crisis, but there surely must be many other less obvious types. Pop¬ ulation shifts are probably only the outward evidence of the internal cause, or the true crisis. A sugges¬ tion of what a few of these causes may have been might be undertaken at this point. If all of the tree-ring dates from the Southwest are plotted, it be¬ comes evident that certain periods saw more construction of new dwell¬ ings, or repair of old ones, than others. Based upon what must be admitted as far from an ideal quan¬ tity of tree ring evidence it would appear that about A.D. 700, slightly past 900, about 1100 or 1130, and near 1300 are the most apparent dis¬ ruptive periods. When this informa¬ tion is tested against the results of archeological survey, a much more complete pattern o f population shifting becomes evident. Unfortunately there is too little information available to enlarge up¬ on his problem before about A. D. 1100, which incidentally appears to have been one of the most crucial dates of American history, but from that time on to the present it is fair¬ ly full. Considering only the area most intensively studied, that in the north central portion of Arizona, it may be seen that at about 1130 the Tsegi and Chaco canyons were abandoned, while the Wupatki, Kayenta, Hopi country, Winona and adjacent areas, were occupied. At about A. D. 1250 the Tsegi Can¬ yon and Mesa Verde areas were re¬ occupied, while Wupatki, Citadel, and parts of the Hopi Country were abandoned. At about A. D. 1300 the entire San Juan, Little Colo¬ rado, and San Francisco peaks areas were abandoned, and the Hopi Country, the upper Little Colorado and the Verde Valley were inten¬ sively occupied. By A. D. 1400, or thereabouts, all of the Pueblo people had been gathered into the Hopi and Zuni villages from the Verde Valley, the Winslow area, and from the Hopi Butte country north to the Jeddito Valley. Crises Causes Just what the motivating causes of all these movements were it is im¬ possible to determine at present, but some suggestions may be made. Some time ago A. E. Douglass per¬ sonally outlined to me what he called the human cycle of site occu¬ pation. It was not new with him, but I have never been able to trace it to its proper source. This theory consists of the knowledge that new occupants in a virgin area will in¬ variably choose a spot of precarious natural balance. This is usually at the edge of a forest, to supply con¬ struction and fuel, and an open or grassland area, to make possible agriculture. Occupation of the site, with the attendant stripping off of the cover, disturbs this balance, with the result that erosion sets in, the water table lowers, occupation be¬ comes impossible, and the people move. When nature has once more re-created a balance the same region may, and often is, once more oc¬ cupied. Archeology and Social Change 23 There is much actual evidence, in cutting and filling of wash beds in canyons, that this is exactly what happened in the very areas which have just been characterized. Cer¬ tainly such a cycle is demonstrated in the Tsegi Canyon system, the Chaco Canyon, and in parts of the Little Colorado Valley. However, humans are loath to make any change, and will usually resist it to the last possible moment. What is the actual trigger event that casts the last die is more difficult of deter¬ mination. It may be a drought, or continued droughts, such as is known to have taken place in the late fourteenth century. It may be a cinder fall, such as that described for the Flagstaff area, which inau¬ gurated widespread movements of people. Or it may be even so simple a matter as the interpretation of a dream on the part of one individual in a position of great influence. So many more ideas of such fas¬ cinating possibility have sprung from the recent study of Southwest¬ ern archeology that I should like to be able to continue with a discussion of them, but this is impossible now. By way of conclusion it might be profitable to briefly review the sev¬ eral points covered, and to summar¬ ize them. For convenience they are listed in order as discussed. Summary 1. Social development, when suf¬ ficient data are available, is found to have made strides more rapid than is generally otherwise believed to have been true, at least once a certain minimum level is attained. 2. Culture units tend to be con¬ fined to certain physiographic or en¬ vironmental areas. 3. In turn physiographic and ecological environments by their nature tend to restrict or to encour¬ age the advance of culture. 4. The evolution of culture is not lineal but fluctuating, although on the whole gradually rising to a peak, after which, in all specific cases, de¬ cline sets in. 5. Cultural decline is commonly traceable to the failure of individ¬ uals and society to readjust to changing environmental conditions. 6. Cultural evolution is greatly stimulated by contacts ; the closer the contact, on the whole, the more rapid the advance, and cultural en¬ richment often results to both par¬ ticipating groups. 7. Pressure from without a group may advance cultural evolution "within the group, by consolidation and pointing up purpose, but con¬ versely it may so force a group in upon itself as to retard it. 8. Leisure time is a necessary ad¬ junct of cultural development. 9. Cultural isolation has not ex¬ isted to any extent in the past, and exists almost not at all today. 10. Vigorous individual leader¬ ship in pioneering advances may in some rare cases have influenced so¬ cial development. 11. New ideas and objects, even concepts, offered a group will be readily accepted only if they are superior, or promise reward, and if they may be accepted without up¬ setting social integration. 12. Frontiers may or may not be determined by physical barriers. 13. Some frontiers remain stable for long periods, while others are constantly shifting. 24 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 14. Traits, ideas, and even peo¬ ple may slowly diffuse across fron¬ tiers, usually to the mutual benefit and stimulus of the parties involved. 15. When a natural or artificial barrier breaks down, a crisis de¬ velops at that frontier. 16. Crises may be the result of causes other than the breaking down of barriers and shifting of frontiers, for the “human occupation cycle” may also give rise to a local crisis, as may drought, or any other natur¬ al or social disruptive agency. All of this is very well, and I be¬ lieve it has given some sort of answer to the question of “so what ? ’ ’ raised by Kluckhohn, and quoted early in this paper, but we as individuals are concerned with the problems of the present, as well as a long time pros¬ pect of the future. Considering what is likely to result from the re¬ cent war in the immediate future there is some cause for optimism. Not only will physical science and technology advance, and be applied to problems of the convenience and productiveness of our daily lives, but the mass displacement of people throughout the world is sure to have a stimulating and advantageous ef¬ fect on the development of culture. Displaced persons of superior quali¬ ty will be drawn to the United States, because of our high standard of living and abundant opportuni¬ ties. This will result in a great stimulus, which should mean, if the lessons of history and archeology are any indication, that we will soon lead the world in culture, as well as physical production, and in all other fields. ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY CLAUDE U. STONE, Chairman Peoria 1. An Upper Mississippi House-pit from the Fisher Site: George R. Horner, Wheaton College, Wheaton. 2. Hopewellian Dress and Personal Ornaments in Illinois: Thorne Deuel, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. 3. A Consideration of Traits and Traditions in Archaeology: John C. Mc¬ Gregor, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. 4. Culture Relations at the Spiro Site, LeFlore County, Oklahoma: Kenneth G. Orr, University of Chicago, Chicago. 5. Paper: Byron W. Knoblocic, Quincy. 6. A Seven-pound Copper Axe among 1946 Hopewell Discoveries: E. Schoen- beck, Peoria. 7. The Succession of Woodland Horizons in the Carbondale Area: Moreau S. Maxwell, Logan Museum, Beloit College, Beloit, Wisconsin. Not published. 26 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 40, 1947 AN UPPER-MISSISSIPPI HOUSE-PIT FROM THE FISHER VILLAGE SITE: FURTHER EVIDENCE GEORGE R. HORNER Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois The Fisher site is located on the the village was built, made excavat- east bank of the Des Plaines River, ing exceedingly difficult. A similar which is one mile above the Kanka- procedure was repeated starting on kee River into which the Des Plainest 4 t^e north-east line, at square 20L3- flows, both forming the Illinois 25L3. This trench continued to the River. The Fisher site was form- southwest, on a ten-foot face, until erly a large Indian village. the 20L1-25L1 squares were reached. Formal archaeological work was A field notebook record was kept begun by George Langford in 1906, of each day’s proceedings, recording 1927 ; and later work was done from the bench-mark, recovered objects, 1931 to 1941 by the Illinois State and other data pertinent to excava- Museum and the University of Chi- tion procedure and interpretation, cago. Wheaton college excavated a Photographic records in black and house-pit (No. 48), located in the white, color, and colored motion northwest portion of the village dur- pictures were made as the excava- ing June-July 1946. tion progressed. Recovered objects Wheaton’s purpose for excavat- were kept in paper bags, each bag ing this house-pit was two-fold: marked to represent a square. Tii- (1) To contribute to the general angulation was measured on all re¬ knowledge of the site, and (2) To covered objects. The entire house- make further study into the se- pit was not excavated, quence problem relating to Lang- For those unfamiliar with the ford grit-tempered ware and Fisher term ‘ ‘house-pit, ” we define it as a shallow foundation, 12 to 18 inches deep, made by clearing the top-soil, providing a clean level place for the shell-tempered ware. Method Our excavating technique was to floor tiie dwelling. The soil from stake the house-site area, in five- tpe q00r was pded around the edges foot squares, using transit, level, of the follndation, giving it an ap- the 25R1-25-0 squares were reached, cavated by the University of Chi- The glaciated limestone, over which cago and described by J. V . Griffin Upper-Mississippi House-Pit 27 (1944). The function of the double walls has not been determined. In¬ side the walls, on the floor of the house, were twin post-holes set at opposite angles suggesting uprights to support the roof. Other posts were recovered by the party. All were completely charred and partly disintegrated. It was not possible to take any of them out intact. The average post was five inches wide and 18 inches long. The broader butt ends showed incisions, probably made by a stone axe. Quantities of charred wood were found scattered over all of the floor. Such a large quantity may indicate that the structure was destroyed by fire. This wood has been identified as sul¬ fur-budded or bitter-nut hickory (Cary a cordiformis ) by John Leedy of the botany department of Wheaton college. There is a mod¬ ern stand of this variety of hickory about nine-tenths of a mile south- east of the village site. There were no stone artifacts re¬ covered except for one small triangu¬ lar projectile point, fashioned from buff-colored chert, and two rejects of similar flint. A stone pestle (red granite) and mortar was found on floor level in the center of the house- pit. It seemed to have been used to break and grind flint into grit as an a-tempering for pottery, rather than to produce flour. Unusually large amounts of red and yellow hematite (ocher) covered the house floor. Its use has not been determined. The clay industry was well repre¬ sented by more than 680 pot sherds. A larger proportion of the pottery was found within the house walls, on the house floor, and in the eleven refuse pits. A smaller proportion was recovered outside of the walls. Inasmuch as the house-pits have been disturbed by cultivation and consequent erosion, no particular significance can be attached to pot¬ tery distribution except at floor level which was below the plough-line. Here, as in the pits, a careful analy¬ sis did not uncover any particular distribution pattern. Of the total pottery — 687 sherds — 565 or 82 percent were plain sherds ; 63 or 9 percent were deco¬ rated sherds ; and 45 or 7 percent were rim sherds. Of the total sherds, 409 or 60 percent were a col¬ or which ranged from buff to or¬ ange-buff, and 270 or 39 percent were gray in color (not including the smoke stains). Both the gray and buff sherds were well mixed in both horizontal and vertical dis¬ tribution. Of the non-decorative techniques, paddle-cord impression was predominant. Of the decorative techniques incision by ‘ ‘ antler horn ’ ’ was predominant with ‘ ‘ thumb ’ ’ im¬ pression following. These decorative techniques are typical of the Upper-Mississippi pat¬ tern; for example, a thumb impres¬ sion around the shoulder of the pot, or simple geometric motifs of paral¬ lel or curved lines. However there is one most significant exception : all of the sherds are Langford grit-tem¬ per with no known sherd containing Fisher shell-tempering. This should be noted with particular signifi¬ cance. No human osseous material was recovered, although we recovered large amounts of animal and fish bones as well as clam shells. These have not been identified. None wras fashioned into cultural objects. In 28 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions a brief account, the foregoing is a resume of the type of objects re¬ covered. Problems Although there are a number of problems suggested by the excava¬ tion, this paper considers only the problem of sequence based upon pot¬ tery tempering. It remains as one of the large problems at the Fisher site. Does Langford grit-tempered precede, follow, or is it contempor¬ ary with Fisher shell-tempered ware? Or stating the problem as a cultural equation : What is the rela¬ tion of Woodland culture pattern to the Upper-Mississippi culture pat¬ tern? Discussion Investigators George Langford and James B. Griffin, the latter bas¬ ing his discussions on the notebooks of the former, established a sequence according to the levels inside of the mounds. According to them the upper level (the top of the mound) contained both shell-tempered and grit-tempered ware ; below, there was shell-tempered ware but no grit- tempered ware. From their conclu¬ sions shell-tempered ware preceded grit-tempered ware at the Fisher site. However Deuel (1940) as quoted by John Griffin (1944) felt that grit- tempered pottery preceded shell- tempered pottery, and according to John Griffin, Langford and J. B. Griffin interpreted the material in¬ correctly.1 John Griffin (1944), from a re¬ port of the pottery from house-pit 15, states: “that only Upper-Missis¬ sippi sherds were found within the house, in the wall trenches, and in the postholes. ” The aplastic isn’t defined but we assume that the pot¬ tery of the two types is meant — shell and grit temper — and that these found together are typical ‘ ‘ in part.” House-pit 15 is quite near the West mound and is apparently contemporary with its upper level. According to the conclusions of former archaeologists we have one of two choices in relation to house- pit 48 : (1) Either the house-pit rep¬ resents a pre-shell-temper or early culture manifestation; or (2) it rep¬ resents a post-shell-temper or late culture manifestation. Conclusions Considering all of the traits diag¬ nostic to the Upper-Mississippi pat¬ tern, evidence from the investiga¬ tions of Langford and J. B. Griffin, and the added evidence of house-pit 48, it would certainly seem that shell- tempered pottery preceded grit-tem¬ pered pottery at the Fisher site. The sequence from bottom to top is : 3. grit 2. shell and grit 1. shell This does not exclude the possibility of a very early Woodland culture, before the Mississippian. for this general area ; it has not shown up yet at the Fisher site. What can be inferred beyond this is difficult to say. House-pit 48 and the cluster of nine other house-pits seem to form a nucleus apart from the main village area built around the two large mounds according to the map published by the Universi¬ ty of Chicago (1940) of the site. One notes that this smaller nucleus had 1 Personal communication to the author from J. B. Griffin, 1946. Upper-Mississippi House-Pit 29 I two small mounds of its own; the northwest and the north-northwest mounds. If this map is accurate i (there are no recognizable traces of ; those mounds today), this group of | house-pits apart from the main group, may well represent a later period for this part of Fisher site, with this section belonging to the Oneota aspect. However, one must I be cautious in making generalities from pottery evidence alone. A clarification of the movements iof the proto-historic Woodland ‘tribes from the East into this gen¬ eral area (Illinois) may help to ] clear some of the problems in con¬ junction with this site, particularly in connection with the seemingly strong late woodland culture pene¬ tration which may have caused the “Fisher people” to give up shell- I tempering for grit-tempering. Some of these problems may be solved if further excavations can be made in the “Woodland” section bordering the river area, as well as in the “historic village” section where sequence problems could be nailed down at this end of history. None of these problems will be solved unless the archaeological work can be completed within the lext five years. The present owner if the site, in line with his business — sand and gravel — will reduce this area, one of the most important sites in Northern Illinois, to a hole in the ground. Bibliography Cole, Fay-Cooper and Deuel, Thorne 1937, Rediscovering Illinois, Univer¬ sity of Chicago Press. Deuel, Thorne 1940, “Archaeological field work of the Illinois State Museum,” Quarterly Bull. Illinois State Archaeological Soc., vol. Ill, No. 1. Egg an, Fred R. 1932, “Archaeology of Will County,” Trans. Illinois State Academy of Sci., vol. 25, No. 4. Griffin, James Bennett 1943, The Fort Ancient Aspect. Uni¬ versity of Michigan Press. Griffin, John Wallace 1944, “New Evidence from the Fisher Site,” Trans. Illinois State Acad., Science, vol. 37. Langford, George 1927, “The Fisher mound group, suc¬ cessive aboriginal occupations near the mouth of the Illinois River,” American Anthropologist, vol. 29, No. 3. 1928, “Stratified Indian mounds in Will County,” Trans. Illinois State Academy of Science, vol. 20. 1930, “The Fisher mound and village site,” Trans. Illinois State Academy of Science, vol. 22. McKern, Will C. 1933, “Local types and the regional distribution of pottery-bearing cul¬ tures,” Trans. Illinois State Acad¬ emy of Science vol. 25, No. 4. 1945, Preliminary Report on the Upper Mississippi Phase in Wisconsin, Bul¬ letin of the Public Museum of the city of Milwaukee. 30 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 THE SUCCESSION OF WOODLAND HORIZONS IN THE CARBONDALE AREA MOREAU S. MAXWELL Logan Museum , Beloit College, Beloit, Wisconsin During the summers of 1938 and 1939 excavation was carried on by the Department of Anthropology of the University of Chicago at the Cove Hollow Rock Shelter in Jack- son County, at the suggestion of Mr. Irvin Peithman of Carbondale.1 At the close of the 1939 season excava¬ tions were continued on a twelve- month program until the fall of 1941 by the W.P.A. Museum Exten¬ sion Project under the sponsorship of the Southern Illinois Normal Uni¬ versity, the State Museum at Springfield, and the University of Chicago. Six village sites in Jack- son and Williamson counties were excavated, and an extensive surface survey was made of these two coun¬ ties. As a result of this work, evi¬ dence was found of an archaic pre¬ pottery culture, four stages of Woodland culture, and manifesta¬ tions of the Middle Mississippi cul¬ ture. This paper describes and in¬ terprets five of the six horizons thus established. No component of the archaic pat¬ tern has been found in stratigraphic relationship with other cultures in the Carbondale region. However, a number of small open camp sites, with no depth of village debris, have yielded a distinctive complex of arti¬ facts. This complex includes the bell-shaped pestle; nutting stones; bannerstones, or atlatl weights ; caches of large, parallel-sided chert blades; long diagonal-notched pro¬ jectile. points; grooved axes, and possibly the hematite plummet; Typologically this complex equate: with similar material found in siti and recognized as belonging to < pre-pottery horizon in the shel heaps of Indian Knoll in Kentucky Wheeler Basin in Tennessee, am Pickwick Basin in Alabama.2 Mor recently artifacts belonging to thi complex have been found in Massa County at the Faulkner Site.3 Here a hunting and gathering group, us ing no pottery and hunting primari ly with the atlatl and spear, definite ly preceded the first pottery usin:1 group of the Baumer Focus. Ther is a close similarity between arti facts of the Faulkner Focus, and th camp site materials from the vicin ity of Carbondale. As additions evidence, the only portion of grooved axe to be found in the ex tensive excavations around Carbor dale was found in the lowest level q the Crab Orchard village, under!} ing the oldest pottery type in th area. The type site for the oldest foci} in which pottery was present ws the first village site excavated ^ Crab Orchard. Here, on a sma knoll approximately two hundre yards from Crab Orchard Creel was a small village originally cove: ing roughly four hundred squai feet. The village refuse, or middei was a homogeneous black lay* which extended downward from tv to four feet, and which contrasts strongly with the yellow sterile cla Woodland Horizons in Carbondale Area 31 beneath it. Throughout the village area numerous round straight-sided pits with flat bottoms had been sunk one to two feet into the basic clay. Originally, in all probability, they were approximately three feet deep, and were utilized as storage pits. Later they apparently became re¬ ceptacles for trash, many of them possibly remaining open for a num¬ ber of years, from the evidence of pottery style changes represented in the refuse. The pottery of this first Wood¬ land complex, which has been called the Crab Orchard Focus, is rather distinctive, although it demonstrates a definite generic relationship with the pottery of the Baumer Focus in Massac and Pope counties.4 The paste is thick, rather porous, and red to reddish-brown. The temper¬ ing material is uniformly crushed rock, quartzite, or feldspar, with temper particles ranging up to six mm. in size. In the lowest levels at Crab Orchard two forms of surface treatment appear to be associated with the same ware. The first is cord roughened, with long vertical single cord impressions, applied with a cord-wrapped paddle, or pos¬ sibly rolled on with a cord- wrapped i dowel. This type of surface treat¬ ment was apparently of short dura¬ tion, and lasted only during the be¬ ginning phases of the Crab Orchard Focus. The second surface treat¬ ment consists of impressing the sur¬ face with a small segment of woven fabric, possibly a part of a plain plaited, or plain twined wicker basket. This gives the jar the ap¬ pearance of having been formed in¬ side a basket. However, the irregu- arity of the impressions and the fact that some jars show a vertical warp impression on the interior of the jar, indicate that a small woven mat was used in malleating the clay. Occasionally these impressions are made in imitation of the woven fab¬ ric by the use of a cord-wrapped dowel. This ware has been called Crab Orchard Fabric Marked. The most common pottery shape in this focus is a long, conoidal jar with a slightly constricted neck and a flattened base. This flattened base is significant in that it appears to demonstrate a cultural relationship with the flat-based fabric-marked jars found at the Ledbetter Site in west Tennessee5 and with flat based jars from Adena Sites.6 The earlier flat bases are hardly functional, being only two inches in diameter for jars twenty or more inches in height. Later, the flat bases were increased to an average of six inches in dia¬ meter. The projectile points belonging to the Crab Orchard Focus are pre¬ dominantly large and broad, with slightly excurvate sides, straight shoulders, and small straight or slightly expanding tangs. Although not common, the most distinctive point for this period is small,, with a small shallow notch, often cn only one side, a straight parallel sided tang greater than half of the over-all length of the point, termin¬ ating in an excurvate base. Flake and core knives, scrapers, and chop¬ ping tools are common. A few small ovoid hoes were found, with the characteristic dirt polish on the blades. However, these were prob¬ ably used to dig the numerous pits rather than in agricultural pursuits. Celts, which were rare, were short 32 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions and broad with irregularly tapering polls. Although the stone artifacts over¬ shadow the bone in numbers, a dis¬ tinctive bone complex appears in the various components of this focus. This is significant, for due to soil conditions, no bone artifacts were re¬ covered in the Baumer Focus to the south. Sharpened splinter awls of mammal and bird bone, and sharp¬ ened antler tines are common. Less common are deer metatarsal awls in which the joint has been utilized as a handle. Two large antler “drifts” or flaking hammers and one drilled handle were found. Although the antler projectile points actually found were rare, their relative fre¬ quency in the complex is apparent from the number of discarded antler blanks, which were cut in such a fashion that a tanged tine would be available for use as a projectile point. The four finished points which were found were uniformly long, with rather shallow sockets and tri¬ angular tangs. The sockets had been gouged out of the soft interior of the antler with a sharp tool. As yet there has been no indica¬ tion of house structure in connection with any of the Carbondale Wood¬ land horizons. However, in the Baumer Focus, square houses were found,7 and we may assume that semi-permanent houses were built in Crab Orchard Focus. Burials in the Crab Orchard Focus were of the bundle type, placed in irregular pits. There was evidence of the cremation of two infants in small round fire- pits. The similarities between the Crab Orchard Focus in the first stage of its development and the Baumer Focus are quite marked. Surface treatment and vessel shape are alike, although Baumer pottery is pre- dominantly limestone-tempered, whereas Crab Orchard is predom¬ inantly quartzite or feldspar. Projec¬ tile point types in both foci are simi¬ lar. In particular one common type with weak shoulder, expanding or parallel-sided tang, and excurvate base demonstrates a link with the Adena of Kentucky.8 A second stage of development of the Crab Orchard Focus has been noted in a number of components along the Crab Orchard Creek. This is marked by the intrusion of Hope- well influences in the basic Crab Or¬ chard Focus. Rim sherds of the type classified as Type 3 by Cole and Deuel9 appear. Cut and drilled ani¬ mal jaws and teeth ; stone reel¬ shaped gorgets ; round and diagonal¬ ly notched projectile points; caches of ovate ‘ ‘ hornstone ’ ’ disks and frag ments of unworked copper, galena and mica are found in this level. Il is significant to note that Hopewel did not supplant the Crab Orcharc Focus, but merely added new ele ments to the basic culture. Hope well design techniques were copiec in the Crab Orchard ware, and w< find cross-hatching and punctatinj of the rim and channel collars 01 Crab Orchard Fabric Marked jars Zoned decoration, trailed and fim line incising, and punctate and den tate stamping are all present. Recently a conical mound near th Mississippi River east of Carbondal has been found to contain a Hope well burial. Here, on the Twenhofe Site, an extended burial was founc covered with a blanket of rive pearls; two pairs of copper ea Woodland Horizons in Carbondale Area 33 spools; an ovate fluorspar gorget; armlets and wristlets of rectangular shell gorgets, and Illinois Hopewell and Crab Orchard Fabric Marked pottery. A surface survey of the adjacent village site showed a high percentage of Illinois Hopewell sherds and Crab Orchard Fabric Marked sherds. Two interpretations of this situa¬ tion can be made. Either a Hope- well group came down the Missis¬ sippi from the Illinois River center and settled on the Twenhofel Site, or the burial mound represents the ceremonial aspect of a highly in¬ fluenced Crab Orchard Woodland group. Either possibility argues for the contemporaneity of Illinois Hopewell and Crab Orchard. After the influence of Illinois Hopewell had waned, one ceramic trait, apparently introduced by the Hopewell culture, persisted in Crab Orchard pottery. This was the tech¬ nique of punching a single or double row of holes parallel to the rim from the interior of the jar, producing a row of nodes around the exterior. This appears in Crab Orchard Fab¬ ric Marked and a later pottery type tentatively classified as Crab Or¬ chard Cord Marked. In the stratified Raymond Site, a second Woodland horizon appears in later levels above Crab Orchard ma¬ terial. This has been designated as the Raymond Focus. The similarity of this focus to the Lewis Focus in Massac and Pope counties is strik¬ ing.10 Both represent a meager cul¬ ture with few artifacts, and in the case of the Raymond Focus, a deca¬ dence of ceramic technique. The pottery is crude, with more or less straight sides and round bases. Occasionally the rim is punched and noded, and often the lip is notched. The vessel walls are much thinner than were those of the Crab Orchard wares, and the paste is harder. The temper appears to be equally a baked clay, or grit, with a consider¬ able amount of sand included in the paste. The Crab Orchard pottery was formed by coiling but the Ray¬ mond pottery was made by the pad¬ dle and anvil method. The surface in every case was marked with single cords, presumably with a corcl-wrap- ped paddle. The predominant projectile point in this focus is a long slender point with a straight shoulder and a con¬ tracting tang. Knives are crude parallel-sided blades with a straight base. One long bar amulet, or atlatl weight, and three small ovoid celts were found. The bone complex in¬ cludes only splinter awls and sharp¬ ened antler tips. No burials or houses were found which could be related to this focus. The third Woodland group in the Carbondale area belongs to the Dil- linger Focus. This manifestation, post-dating in stratified sites both Crab Orchard and Raymond, shows a strong combination of Middle Mis¬ sissippi influences with an indig¬ enous Woodland base. The con¬ temporaneity of this focus with cen¬ tral and northern Illinois foci such as Maples Mills, Pere Marquette, and Jersey Bluff has been demon¬ strated, and the Dillinger Focus has been placed in the Tampico Phase of the Woodland Pattern.11 The pottery here is predominately grit-tempered and secondarily clay- grit tempered, with no sand included in the paste. The surface is cord 34 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions marked, with the impressions of tightly twisted cords running verti¬ cally to the shoulder. From the shoulder to the round base the cord impressions are checkered. The ves¬ sel forms in the Dillinger Cord Marked ware are more varied than the older Woodland forms. A large globular jar with a slightly con¬ stricted neck is the predominant shape. However, bowls and “salt pans” are frequent. A fillet is usu¬ ally applied around the exterior of the rim, and the lip notched or raised to two or four lugs. Occasion¬ ally four to eight small nodes are added to the fillet at the lip in widely spaced groups. Two pottery variants are worthy of notice. The first is a small thick-walled conoidal tetrapod- al vase, similar to fragments found on the surface of the village site at Cahokia in the Jersey Bluff Focus12 and at the Pere Marquette Site.13 The second is a small very thin- walled jar decorated with thin ap¬ plied fillets which have been punc¬ tated. Other pottery artifacts were small dippers, a grit-tempered pot¬ tery trowel, an obtuse angle pipe, pottery disks, and a plummet-like object. The stone complex also shows the weight of Mississippi influence. Al¬ though there are many of the large Woodland projectile points, the pre¬ dominant form is a small unnotched, or side-notched triangle. Drills are small with expanded straight bases ; flake knives are predominantly ovoid, and celts are thin, with paral¬ lel sides. Crude stone discoidals are present. In general the stone com¬ plex has been reduced in variety, and the bone complex expanded. Al¬ though splinter awls are common, the characteristic awl for the Dillinger Focus is a cut deer metatarsal, the joint serving for a handle. Bone chisels, antler punches, and bone fish hooks are common. Antler projec-, tile points in this focus are signifi¬ cantly different from those found in the Crab Orchard Focus. They are much smaller, with ovate tangs, and the socket has been drilled and reamed, rather than gouged. Bone tallies cut from large bird bones are common. Tubular and flat bone beads are present but rare. As in the earlier Woodland cul-> tures, round flat -based pits had beeni dug throughout the village area. The refuse from these pits demonstrated a wide range of fauna, from the field mouse and mole to the wapiti. Oc¬ casional burned and cracked human femori indicated a possible cannibal¬ ism. Fish appeared to play a greater 1 role in the diet of these people than of the earlier Woodland groups. Although wattle and daub bricks were frequent in the refuse pits, there was no positive evidence of permanent houses. A survey along the Mississippi bluffs indicated that the dead of this focus were buried in slab box graves along the Missis¬ sippi. However, information regard¬ ing the burial complex must depend upon further excavation. The exact position of the Dillinger ,i Focus in regard to Middle Missis¬ sippi has not been determined. Ce¬ ramic traits and artifacts show a gen¬ eralized Mississippi influence which cannot be related definitely to either Old Village, Trappist or Spoon River Foci. Recently Maples Mills and Old Village pottery were found in association, underlying a Spoon River component at the Gerren Site Woodland Horizons in Carbondale Area 35 in Fulton County.14 This would in¬ dicate that the Dillinger Focus pos¬ sibly preceeds the climax of Middle Mississippi development along the river. The Dillinger Focus may have persisted through the relatively short Middle Mississippi period. However, the absence of specialized Trappist or Spoon River traits would seem to make this question¬ able. Further information is needed on the ceremonial aspects of the focus. This will undoubtedly come from a more complete study of the burial complex along the Mississippi River bluffs. References 1. Peithman, Irvin and Barton, Thomas F. Evidences of Early Woodland Culture at Chalk Bluff Rock Shelter, Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., vol. 31, no. 2, 1938. 2. Webb, William S., Indian Knoll, Univ. Kentucky Reports in Anth. and Arch., vol. IV, no. 3, part I, 1946. 3. MacNeish, Richard S., The Faulk¬ ner Site, MS, Univ. Chicago, 1945. 4. Willis, Roger K., The Baumer Focus, Society for Am. Arch. Note¬ book, vol. 2, no. 2, p. 28, Mimeo., 1941. 5. Whiteford, Andrew H., personal communication. 6. Webb, William S., The C. and 0. Mound, Univ. Kentucky Reports in Anth. and Arch., vol. V, no. 4, p. 345, 1943. 7. Willis, Roger K., op .cit. 8. Webb, William S., The Riley Mound, Univ. Kentucky Reports in Anth. and Arch. vol. V, no. 7, p. 644., 1943. 9. Cole, Fay-Cooper and Thorne Deuel, Rediscovering Illinois, The Univ. Chicago Press, 1937. 10. MacNeish, Richard, S., The Estab¬ lishment of the Lewis Focus, Master’s thesis, Univ. Chicago, 1944. 11. Maxwell, Moreau S., The Designa¬ tion of the Dillinger Focus, Master’s thesis, Univ. Chicago, 1946. 12. Titterington, Paul F., The Cahokia Mound Group and its Village Site Materials, St. Louis, 1938. 13. Rinaldo, J. B., The Pere Marquette Park Sites, Master’s thesis, Univ. Chicago, 1937. 14. Wray, D. E., Temporal Variations in the Spoon River Focus, paper de¬ livered at American Anthropological Association Meetings, 1947. 36 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 40, 1947 A SEVEN-POUND COPPER AXE AMONG 1946 HOPEWELL DISCOVERIES E. SCHOENBECK Peoria Academy of Science Four burials in a Fulton County mound, with their accompanying burial goods which include as an out¬ standing item, a 7-pound copper axe, are among the 1946 Hopewell discov¬ eries of Mr. and Mrs. George Schoen- beck, members of Peoria Academy of Science, to be reported in this paper. Other discoveries described briefly include material from three addi¬ tional sites near the mound : a Hope- well village site, a Mississippi village site, and a Mississippi burial site. Recorded, also, as of interest, is an¬ other Hopewell find from the Steu¬ ben village site. The first Fulton County discover¬ ies were made September 22, 1946, when a fresh road-cut was investi¬ gated. The cut affected four adja¬ cent sites, all of which had been previously recorded by Cole and Deuel in “Rediscovering Illinois/’1 as among the mound and village sites of the general Sister Creeks group. These sites were designated as F° 60 (unit No. 60 in the Fulton County survey), a Hopewellian Mound; Fv 49, a Hopewellian village termed the Whitnah village ; Fv 47, a Mississip¬ pi village; and F° 48, a Mississip- pian burial place. Hopewell Mound First, brief exploration was done at the Hopewell mound, considered the most important site, and results suggested there should be a full in¬ 1 Cole, Fay-Cooper, and Deuel, Thorne, Redis- 'Tovering Illinois: Univ. of Chicago, 1937. vestigation. A report was made to Dr. Thorne Deuel, Director of Illi¬ nois State Museum, and work was withheld. At the other sites, all with material conspicuously exposed, ! some work was done. After Dr. Deuel stated the mu¬ seum could not undertake explora¬ tion of the mound and after road work had again exposed and de¬ stroyed still more material, the Schoenbecks, three weeks later, made a limited excavation. A few days after the excavating, more road work destruction occurred when a sign¬ post was placed inside the face of the mound. The large copper axe was one of five that accompanied the three orig¬ inal burials in the mound. Four of them, surrounded by bark as though wrapped in it and the bark pre¬ served by the copper, occupied the same relative position, under the base of the skull, with the small end protruding to the left of the head. The fifth one was lower, possibly by the hand of the skeleton having the big axe. All axes are covered with verdi gris, but exposed areas on the large one show a high polish. Each was but a part of the burial goods, which included several types of shell and pearl beads, cut human and animal jaws, worked bear canines, and stone gorgets. No Hopewell pipes, mica, copper other than the axes, Hope- well flint blades, or other chert arti- Seven-Pound Copper Axe 37 Fig. 1.— Hopewell mound in foreground, Hopewell village at base of bluff, Mississippian sites on bluff. facts were found, though such might have been in the destroyed areas. Weight of the large axe is seven pounds. Measurements are : length, 12% inches or 32 centimeters ; width of blade, 3% inches or 8.1 centi¬ meters; width of poll, 1% inches or 2.8 centimeters. Thickness at center is 1 inch or 2.4 centimeters. The other four measure and weigh as follows : Length Blade width Poll width Weight (in.) 8 (in.) 3!4 (in.) 2 2i/2 lbs. 6% 2% 1% 1 lb. 1 oz. 5Vs 2 %. 14 oz. 5% 2 1 5/16 11 oz. Only the northwest quarter of the mound remains, the rest of it having been cut away by road building. Its two sloping cut faces, each with a ditch at base, meet at approximately the mound center, where the burials lay. A low remnant of the mound showed on the far side of the new road, from the east face, but it has | since been buried under a fill. The ! south face measures about 40 feet j and the east one about 60 feet, their exact outer ends being hard to deter- ; mine. The mound height is about 6 feet above the burial floor. In the east face appeared a yery definite sloping black layer, *3 to 4 inches thick, which is possibly an old sod line on the top of an original mound. It showed for a length of 9 feet; its upper end was one foot below the present top, and the other was several feet lower and disap¬ peared over the burial area., It sug¬ gested that the top of -the original mound dropped over the general burial area and that a new top had been built up later. First burial evidence was seen at the east end of the south face as a fairly distinct, gray horizontal line or layer, 1 to l1/^ inches deep, ex¬ tending westward about 9 feet, which suggested and later proved to be a floor. Small fragments of bone were in the ditch. Shallow^ digging revealed three skeletons on the floor, with heads -to the north, approximately, and a dug- in burial at a higher level and fur¬ ther west, with head to the east. There were amounts of white bone ash on an inclined area to the north of the burials, and lastly two de- 38 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions posits of remains on the other sides of the two ditches, which may, or may not, have been in original posi¬ tion. Two of the three skeletons on the floor lay extended, but lower parts had been cut away at about the hip line by the road machinery. The third one, which lay to the right and west of the extended ones, was flexed and had been cut through just above the ankles. The skeleton of the higher, dug-in burial was flexed and, lying in an east-west direction be¬ hind the cut face, was undisturbed. The floor was a layer of bark. This bark mass separated and broke away freely, offering a sharp cleavage line. Soil beneath the layer was a gray- brown mottled clay, and a higher level for this clay in the area north of the burials and ash suggests the bark floor was a sunken one. Soil covering the three skeletons was a black, dense, very hard soil like a gumbo or a swamp muck, so verv hard when dried by the air as to seem impenetrable. No sand floor was located. Bones were exceedingly soft. The combined extremes of hardness of soil and softness of bones made dig¬ ging most difficult and caused more or less unavoidable destruction of burial material, particularly of bones. Particles of white ash were seen on the east face immediately north of the head of the east skeleton and shallow digging exposed several ir¬ regular layer-like deposits of this ash. The layers sloped downward to the west but how far they ex¬ tended is not known. Soil lay be¬ tween the ash layers. No evidence of fire on the area, i.e. no baked soil, red-burned soil, charcoal or charred bone could be seen, though bits of charcoal were in the soil further north. The ash extends eastward across the ditch and suggests there may have been more burials there. Some grave goods, part of which were found in the first shallow ex¬ ploration and part found in the ditch following additional road work, have been tentatively assigned to two burials, according to location and other considerations. It was fortunate that the first items were obtained when they were because the later ditch work removed the front area of the mound. The skeleton having the large axe lay extended upon its back, with the other extended one to its left and the flexed one to the right. Eighty barrel-shaped shell beads were around the neck and a portion of a perforated split bear canine, notch¬ ed on inner edge, lay near them. This tooth was so tightly imbedded in the soil that it was brought out inside of a chunk of soil and extricated later. White material, possibly powdered shell beads, was inside the jaws, in , the mouth. A piece of red ochre, a fragment of obsidian and one in¬ cised pottery sherd were in the soil. Five copper-stained and copper- preserved pearl beads, one a 9/16 inch hemispherical one and the other four smaller cylindrical-shaped ones, were in the soil by lower left arm. Two more of the smaller beads were found later. The 11-ounce axe pro¬ vided the stain on the beads and probably on another barrel-shaped bead found in ditch. Beside the axe were two large bear canines, each with two probably decorative per¬ forations in the front and a complete Seven-Pound Copper Axe 39 perforation in the top, probably for suspension. Lower on the arm were two small split bear canines, with notched edges perforated at the top, and bearing eight shallow decorative perforations arranged in two hori¬ zontal rows of four each. With these smaller canines were portions of eight cut and perforated human jaws, six left ones and two right ones. Here too was a portion of a human jaw with teeth, showing no cut, and a number of loose teeth. By the right arm were two large bear canines, cut crosswise through the middle and beveled; at this cut the nerve canal showed enlargement into a perforation. The skelton to the left lay in a similar position, but in a slightly NW-SE direction, with face turned to the left — the upper part more than the lower — and the lower jaw split up and down, suggesting weight and pressure and probably some movement of upper face. Pelvic bones were in place and vertebrae were in alignment. Two copper axes, 6% and 5% in¬ ches long, were under the head, the larger one lower on the skull than the other. At the throat were 394 pearl and shell beads (made from columellae of marine shells) of varying size and shape. Two large perforated bear canines were, one on each side, under the jaw. Perfora¬ tions consisted of two oblique ones in the face and a lengthwise one in top. Two notched and sharpened human canines were on the chest. The mouth of this skeleton also contained the white material, probably shell. Fragments of a reel-shaped, per¬ forated, gray shale2 gorget lay in 2 Identified by Ruth Browne, Geology Instructor, Bradley University, Peoria, Ill. the soil, low on the body an^. close to the cut mound face, and other frag¬ ments were in the ditch. Twenty in all, they make almost a complete specimen. With the fragments in the ditch were fragments of another perforated gorget of white lime¬ stone,2 extremely weathered and de¬ teriorated by ground water action. The flexed skeleton lay on its right side, in a NE-SW direction, but with head turned slightly to the left. A wide 8-inch 2% pound axe was un¬ der the head. A portion of a perfor¬ ated cut bear jaw with six jaw teeth lay east of the body, behind the back, at shoulder level. Lower leg bones protruded from the face of the mound. The dug-in burial lay in an E-W position at a level about fifteen in¬ ches higher than the other burials and further to the west. The upper part of skeleton lay on its back, with head bent sharply forward onto chest. The skull was intact and in fair condition, better preserved than others. Teeth were well worn down. The occipital bone bore a very pro¬ nounced protuberance. Legs were bent, with knees high up and to the right of the pelvis. The skeleton gave the appearance of having been crowded into too small a hole. Six¬ teen split bear canines, 3 entire and 13 broken, one cut human jaw and a number of young teeth caps were im¬ bedded in chest. Pottery sherds found in outer mound soil and in ditches include AVoodland Plain and Woodland Cord-roughened; thin leached Plain and Cord-roughened; Havana Zoned or Alternate Area ; Incised ; Dentate Stamped having horizontal band with plain band at top and incising 40 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions and other with horizontal oblong teeth ; gritty-tempered, wide-incised body similar to C. and D.’s No. 1 type; and Sister Creek Punctate in three variations. Each of the small compact masses of burial material across the ditches seems to be isolated and may have been deposited there in a block by grader. The south one, which in¬ cluded a skull, lay at a depth below that of the bark floor in mound, so that if it were a burial it would have been a subfloor burial. Upper leg bones, which may belong to extended mound burials, and other bones are now weathering out of the soil on the road edge. Hopewell Village The Hopewell village lying on both sides of the new road going up the bluff, and extending well up the bluff face, has a freshly scraped area on the east side. From the village have been obtained perforated clam¬ shell hoes; a broken clay platform pipe ; a cut perforated deer-bone game bone ; clam shells ; deer teeth ; broken birdbone awl ; drumhead mouth plate ; grooved sharpening stone; pitted stones; otoliths; por¬ tion of limonite spade ; worked frag¬ ment of turtle carapace; points and flake knives; chert scrapers; cut, hollowed, antler tip projectile point ; celt fragment and many fish and other animal bones. Around 100 rims and 86 lower rims and decorated sherds, including 5 Mississippi rims, have been col¬ lected. Represented are Naples Den¬ tate Stamped ; Crescent Dentate Stamped ; Barred Ovoid Dentate Stamped; Woodland Plain with boss ; Incurved Plain with sand tem¬ pering ; Alternate Area or Havana Zoned ; Incised ; Hopewell Rocked and punctated rim ; Bar stamped ; Incised ; Hopewell Crosshatched Rim ; Imitation Hopewell Cross- hatched ; Sister Creek Punctate, some with boss ; Clear Lake Corded- paddle-edge Stamped, both the heavy and the thin with wide-inter- valed cord-roughening; and Maples Mills, or Cord Decorated (Gooden Cord Impressed).' The Maples Mills ware shows a later Woodland occupation than the Hopewell ; the Mississippi sherds and a Mississippi pit dug down through the Hopewell village show a still later occupation. It is a strat¬ ified village site, with the Hopewell the strongest occupation. Mississippian Burial Place At the Mississippi burial place on bluff, simple burials were exposed well down the bluff slope. There was little burial goods. Bones were in excellent condition. Mississippian Village Pits of the Mississippi village were found on top of burials, to the north of them and to the south. One on the lower slope of bluff, dug down through the Hopewell village, was exposed in the wall of the west road¬ side ditch. A Mississippian globular bowl containing black soil and many fish and other fine bones, protruded from ditch wall at a 2^2 foot depth below Hopewell village floor. Two other pits show on the ditch wall. A horizontal burnt log, which a little digging showed to extend some distance, was located in the face of a side road-cut on the bluff, at a depth of 12 to 15 inches. Sherds and a portion of a small pot, a part wreath- Seven-Pound Copper Axe 41 Fig. 2. — Front and profile view of Steuben effigy. ered out and a part remaining, were by it. An item of interest from a pit above burials was a cut, hollow bird- bone containing another bone as fine as a darning needle and sharply pointed. Both were broken off to¬ gether at one end, possibly by road machinery. Considerable pottery was obtained from pits on bluff top. Included was a bowl with a bottom shaped like a wooden chopping bowl, topped by a very wide, flaring rim, decorated on inside, and flaring at about a 45° angle. Steuben Village Effigy Another Hopewell discovery, made May 5, 1946, is a carved and incised human head effigy of argillaceous sandstone3 from the Steuben Village 3 Identified by Harold Lucy, head of Geology department, Bradley University, Peoria, Ill. site located on the Illinois River, in Steuben township, Marshall County, about 23 miles north of Peoria. The head is skillfully, effectively done. It is a portion of some larger ob¬ ject, possibly a figurine, and meas¬ ures in height 22 millimeters. Details offered by the effigy include the type of features and facial contour ; the shape of the head and the shaved scalp ; the elaborately ornamented or highly conventionalized ear ; and the indication of some accouterment breaking the line between neck and left shoulder. The site is recorded as site 22 in the Peoria Academy of Science Sur¬ vey, copies of which are also in hands of University of Chicago and the Illinois State Museum. It is a sloping gravelly floodplain, lying on west bank of Illinois River, between 42 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions river and high bluff. Lower area is occasionally flooded and the whole is subject to very much erosion. Abundant material has been ex posed by cultivation for many years, particularly on several gravel ridges. Artifacts were excavated from a stratum exposed in the bank of a creek at a depth of over six feet. The stratum was immediately overlain by 4 inches of gravel. A portion of a human skeleton with bones in posi¬ tion and other material including shells, bones, etc. was found in the bed of the creek, at a slightly deeper level, likely of the same occupation period. These finds indicate that the creek, which now runs along the south side of the recognizable village area, did not exist in this particular location at the time of this occupa¬ tion. Whether this deeper occupa¬ tion level shows a buried sloping sur¬ face for the village now exposed on higher ground to the north or an earlier occupation has not yet been determined. The pottery dug out is Woodland. The head was found on the freshly cultivated surface of the field follow¬ ing a plowing of increased depth which brought up a correspondingly increased amount of material. Most of the material was from a previous¬ ly undisturbed depth as evidenced by an abundance of rotten, quickly deteriorating bones and shells, long depleted from the usual cultivation depth. A bird, of pink chert, is an¬ other effigy from this site. BOTANY R. 0. FREELAND, Chairman Northwestern University, Evanston 1. Virginius H. Chase, Peoria Botanist: Harry L. Spooner, Peoria Historical Society, Peoria. * 2. The Conspicuous Groups of Clavarioid Fleshy Fungi: Maxwell Doty, Northwestern University, Evanston. 3. Some Bryophytes of Coles and Clark Counties: Charles B. Arzeni, Charleston. * 4. The True Irish Shamrock: John B. Murphy, DePaul University, Chicago. 5. The Control of Weeds on a Typical Prairie Farm: Marvin R. Sibert, London Mills High School, London Mills. * 6. A New Species of Oedogonium from New Zealand: L. H. Tiffany, North¬ western University, Evanton. 7. A Method for Cytological Investigation of Algae: Carroll J. Peterson, North Park College, Chicago. * 8. The Growth of Conifers on Prairie Soil: Ralph W. Lorenz and J. Nelson Spaeth, University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana. * 9. Absorption of Streptomycin through the Root System and Its Transfer to Other Organs: 0. D. Morgan and H. W. Anderson, University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana. *10. A Decade of Experimenting with Colchicine: 0. J. Eigsti, Northwestern University, Evanston. *11. Chromosome Studies by the Colchicine Pollen-tube Method: O. J. Eigsti and Carol Silver, Northwestern University, Evanston. *12. Chromosomal Morphology in Polygonatum: O. J. Eigsti and Jeanne Tom- have, Northwestern University, Evanston. *13. The Late Blight Problem: G. H. Boewe, Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana. *14. Carbon Dioxide Concentrations at Near-soil Levels of the Atmosphere of Illinois Forests and Grasslands: Harry J. Fuller, University of Illinois, Urbana. *15. The Use of Thermocouples in Soil Temperature Studies: Max E. Britton, Northwestern University, Evanston. 16. Additions to the Check List of the Vascular Plants of Sangamon County, Illinois: George D. Fuller, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. (Read by title.) 17. Houstonia minima in Peoria County: E. Schoenbeck, Peoria Academy of Science, Peoria. 18. The Acanthaceae of Illinois: Glen S. Winterringer, University of Illinois, Urbana. 19. A Revised Check List of the Vascular Plants of the University of Illinois Woodlands: G. Neville Jones, University of Illinois, Urbana. (Read by title.) Not published. [43] 44 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 SOME BRYOPHYTES OF COLES AND CLARK COUNTIES CHARLES B. ARZENI Eastern Illinois State Teacher's College, Charleston Introduction The following list of Bryophytes was compiled over a period of two and one half years. The sandstone outcrops on the banks of the Embar¬ rass River, Fox Ridge State Park, and the hanging bogs east of Char¬ leston have been the chief collecting grounds in Coles County. These areas provide various types of habi¬ tat — the bog-inhabiting Riccardia pinguis and Campylium stellatum may be found only a few steps from the xeric species of Grimmia. Many collections were taken from the me- sophytic ravines and woods which are widespread in this area. It was interesting to find that the campus of the Eastern Illinois State Teach¬ er’s College contributed 51 species of Musci and four Hepatics, making a total of 55 species collected. Two of the mosses collected here are newly reported for the state. Most of my collecting in Clark County was confined to the Rocky Branch area in the southeastern part of the county. This region is especial¬ ly rich in Hepatics, and the sand¬ stone banks provide 40 of the 42 liverworts reported. Three species of Sphagna, Jungermannia, Tricho- lea, and a great number of Musci flourish here. The East-Central Illi¬ nois Bryophytes are probably best represented in this area. At the 1934 Academy meeting, Miss Hague and Miss Stella Holmes (Barrick) presented a “List of the Bryophytes of Coles and Crawford Counties.” Of the 31 mosses given in this list, I have not been able to collect Climacium kindbergii and' Amblystegiella confervoides. I was unable to obtain packets of these.1 The Brachythecium acutum was in¬ correctly identified, and turned out to be Leptodictyum riparium ; the Mnium rostratum (Schrad.) report¬ ed is Mnium affine. No species name was given for the Poly trichum in this check-list ; however, the most common species in Coles County is P. oliioense. R. H. Vaughan reported 72 mosses and 14 liverworts at the 1941 Acade¬ my meeting. This list appeared in the “Bryophytes of the Rocky Branch Region of Clhrk County, Illi¬ nois.” I have been unable to collect Hookeria acutifolia, Plectocolea cre- nuliformis, M niu m spinulosum, Brachythecium acutum, Fissidens viridulus, and Fissidens osmundio- ides, which appeared in this list. Of the 172 Bryophytes collected from Coles and Clark counties, 19 are newly reported for the state in this list. All the available literature on Illinois Bryophytes was referred to. Packets of these are deposited in the herbarium of the Eastern Illinois State Teacher’s College, and in the author’s personal collection. All the specimens have been checked by H. S. Conard, except the Sphagna which were checked by H. L. Blom- quist. I wish to express my thanks to II. S. Conard, H. L. Blomquist, A. J. Sharp, E. L. Stover, H. F. Thut, S. M. Hague, Mrs. F. E. Barrick, R. H. Bryophytes of Coles and Clark Counties 45 Vaughan, E. Meadows, and the many other friends who helped me collect and packet material. Names thus starred (*) are newly reported for Illinois in this list. MU SGI SPHAGNACEAE *S \phagnum palustre L. (Clark). Very common on moist sandstone banks beside stream. * Sphagnum tenerum Sull. & Lesq. (Clark). Common on the wet sand¬ stone banks. Sphagnum squarrosum Crome (Clark). Rare, and growing intermingled with S. tenerum. Reported collected in 1889 in the “Report of the Depart¬ ment of Natural History of North¬ western University.” The only data given was that it was collected near Canton, Illinois. TETRAPHIDACEAE Tetraphis pellucida Hedw. (Coles, Clark). POLYTRICHACEAE Atrichum angustatum (Brid.) Bry. Eur. (Coles, Clark). Atrichum undulatum (Hedw.) Beauv. (Coles, Clark). Pogonatum pensilvanicum (Hedw.) Paris. (Coles, Clark). Polytrichum commune Hedw. (Coles, Clark). Rare on hillsides in woods. Poly trichum juniperinum Hedw. (Clark, Coles). Not common, on dry soil. Polytrichum ohioense Ren. & Card. (Coles, Clark). Very common. Polytrichum piliferum Hedw. (Clark). Rare and sterile; dry soil. FISSIDENTACEAE Fissidens cristatus Wils. (Clark, Coles). Fissidens exiguus Sull. (Coles, Clark). Fissidens minutulus Sull. (Coles, Clark). Fissidens ohtusifolius Wils. (Coles, Clark). Common on partly sub¬ merged rocks in Embarrass River. As far as I know, the only other report for this moss in the state was by Wolf in Fulton county. Fissidens osmundiodes Hedw. (Clark). Reported by R. H. Vaughan in Clark county. I have not collected it. Fissidens suhhasilaris Hedw. (Coles, Clark). Fissidens taxifolius Hedw. (Coles, Clark). Fissidens viridulus (Web. & Mohr) Wahlenb. Reported for Clark county by R. H. Vaughan. DITRICHACEAE Ceratodon purpureus (Hedw.) Brid. (Coles, Clark). Ditrichum pallidum (Hedw.) Hampe (Coles, Clark). Ditrichum pusillum (Hedw.) E. G. Brit¬ ton (Coles, Clark). Pleuridium suhulatum (Hedw.) Lindb. (Coles, Clark). DICRANACEAE Brothera Leana (Sull.) C. Mull. (Coles). Reported previously by Wolf & Hall in Fulton and Menard coun¬ ties, and by Drexler in Champaign county. Dicranella heteromalla (Hedw.) Schimp. (Coles, Clark). Dicranella rufescens (Smith) Schimp. (Coles, Clark). Dicranella varia (Hedw.) Schimp. (Coles, Clark). Dicranum flagellare Hedw. (Clark. , Very rare on moist soil along stream bank at Rocky Branch. Dicranum scoparium Hedw. (Coles, Clark). Dicranum rugosum (Hoffm.) Brid. This is D. undulatum (Ehrh.) Sturm. Very rare in Clark county. LEUCOBRYACEAE Leucohryum glaucum (Hedw.) Schimp. (Coles, Clark). BUXBAUMIACEAE Diphyscium foliosum (Hedw.) Mohr. (Coles, Clark). POTTIACEAE Barhula fallax Hedw. (Coles, Clark). Barbula unguiculata Hedw. (Coles, Clark) . Desmatodon ohtusifolius (Schwaegr.) Jur. (Coles, Clark). Desmatodon Porteri James (Coles, Clark). Not common, on dry sand¬ stone rocks. Didymodon recurvirostris (Hedw.) Jennings (Coles, Clark). Gymnostomum calcareum Nees & Horn* sch. (Clark). Tortella humilis (Hedw.) (Coles, Clark). Tortula mucronifolia Schwaegr. (Coles, Clark). Weisia viridula Hedw. (Coles, Clark). 46 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions GRIMMIACEAE Grimmia apocarpa Hedw. (Coles, Clark). *Grimmia laevigata (Brid.) Brid. (Clark). Rare on dry sandstone banks at Rocky Branch. Hedwigia ciliata Hedw. (Coles, Clark). EPHEMERACEAE Ephemerum crassinervinum (Schwaegr) C. Mull. (Coles, Clark). Common among the cattails at the edge of ponds. * Ephemerum spinulosum Schimp. (Coles, Clark). Common on moist soil in fields and at the edge of streams. * Ephemerum spinulosum var. hystrix (Lindb. ) Grout (Coles). Not com¬ mon, and growing intermingled with the previous plants. *Ephemerum spinulosum var. Texanum Grout (Coles). Rare and growing with E. spinulosum. Fruiting ma¬ terial taken from the wet mud around the campus lake, Eastern Illinois State Teacher’s College. FUNARIACEAE Aphanorhegma serratum (Hook. & Wils.) Sull. (Coles, Clark). Funaria hygrometrica Hedw. (Coles, Clark). Physcomitrium turbinatum (Mx.) Brid. (Coles, Clark). ORTHOTRICHACEAE Drummondia prorepens (Hedw.) Jen¬ nings (Coles, Clark). On the bark of maples — not common. Orthotrichum ohioense Sull. & Lesq. (Coles). Not common on the bark of white oak. Orthotrichum pumilum Dicks. (Coles, Clark). Very common in both coun¬ ties. Orthotrichum strangulatum Schwaegr. (Coles, Clark). Not common on dry rocks. TIMMIACEAE Timmia megapolitana Hedw. (Clark). Not common. AULACOMNIACEAE Aulacomnium heterostichum (Hedw.) Bry. Eur. (Coles, Clark). Aulacomnium palustre (Web. & Mohr) Schwaegr. (Clark). Rare along shaded stream banks. BARTRAMIACEAE Bartramia pomiformis Hedw. (Coles, Clark). BRYACEAE Bryum argentum (L.) Hedw. (Coles, Clark). Bryum caespiticium (L.) Hedw. (Coles, Clark) . Bryum pendulum (Hornsch.) Schimp. (Clark). Not common on sandstone rocks. Bryum pseudotriquetrum (Hedw.) Schwaegr. (Coles, Clark). Leptobryum pyriforme (Hedw.) Schimp. (Coles, Clark). Pohlia nutans (Hedw.) Lindb. (Coles, Clark) . Pohlia Wahlenbergii (Web. & Mohr) Andrews (Coles, Clark). Plants collected in Coles county producing antheridial heads. Rhodobryum roseum (Bry. Eur.) Limpr. (Coles, Clark). MNIACEAE Mnium affine Bland. (Coles, Clark). Mnium affine var. rugicum B & S (Coles, Clark). Mnium cuspidatum Hedw. (Coles, Clark). Mnium punctatum Hedw. (Coles, Clark). Mnium serratum Brid. (Coles, Clark). Mnium spinulosum Bry. Eur. Reported at Rocky Branch, Clark county by R. H. Vaughan. I have not collected it. HYPNACEAE Amblystegiella confervoides (Brid.) Loeske. Reported for Coles county by Miss Hague and Miss S. Holmes (Barrick) . Amblystegium compactum (C. Mull.) Aust. (Clark). Not common in stream bed. Amblystegium Juratzkanum Schimp. (Clark) . Amblystegium serpens (Hedw.) Bry. Eur. (Coles, Clark). Amblystegium varium (Hedw.) Lindb. (Coles, Clark). Brachythecium acutum (Mitt.) Sull. Reported in Clark county by R. H. Vaughan. Brachythecium flagellare (Hedw.) Jen¬ nings (Coles, Clark). Common on shaded banks. Brachythecium oxycladon (Brid.) Jaeg¬ er & Sauerb. (Coles, Clark). Brachythecium oxycladon var. denta- tum (Lesq. & James) Grout (Clark). Common on moist soil; preferring stream banks. Brachythecium rivulare Bry. Eur. (Clark). Bryophytes of Coles and Clark Counties 47 Brachythecium salebrosum (Web. & Mohr) Bry. Eur. (Coles, Clark). * Brother ella recurvans (Mx.) Fleisch. (Coles, Clark). Not common on rot¬ ten logs at Fox Ridge State Park. Bryhnia graminicolor (Brid.) Grout (Clark, Coles). Calliergonella cuspidata (Brid.) Loeske (Clark, Coles). Rare in hanging bogs. Calliergonella Schreberi (Bry. Eur.) Grout (Coles, Clark). Campylium chry sophy Hum (Brid.) Bryhn (Coles, Clark). ^Campylium chrysophyllum var. brevi - folium (Ren. & Card.) Grout (Clark). Common on moist banks. Leaves all swept to one side. Campylium hispidulum (Brid.) Mitt. (Coles, Clark). Campylium stellatum (Hedw.) Lange & C. Jens. (Coles). Rare in hanging bogs at “Foltz’s”. Chamberlainia acuminata (Hedw.) Grout (Coles, Clark). Cirriphyllum Boscii (Schwaegr.) Grout (Coles, Clark). Climacium amercanum Brid. (Coles, Clark). Climacium Kindbergii (Ren. & Card.) Grout. Reported by Miss S. Hague and Miss S. Holmes (Barrick) for Coles county. Cratoneuron filicinum (Hedw.) Roth (Coles, Clark). Not common on old logs and in bogs. Bog plants with¬ out paraphyllia! Entodon cladorrhizans (Hedw.) C. Mull. (Coles, Clark). Endodon compressus (Hedw.) C. Muell. (Coles, Clark). Eontodon seductrix (Hedw.) C. Muell. (Coles, Clark). Eurhynchium Mans (Hedw.) Jaeger & Sauerb. (Coles, Clark). Eurhynchium serrulatum (Hedw.) Kindb. (Coles, Clark). Heterophy Ilium Haldanianum (Grev.) Kindb. (Coles, Clark). Homomallium adnatum (Hedw.) Broth (Coles, Clark). Hygroamblystegium fluviatile (Hedw.) Loeske (Clark). Hygroamblystegium irriguum (Wils.) Loeske (Coles, Clark). Hygroamblystegium orthocladon (Beauv.) Grout (Coles, Clark). Hypnum curvifolium Hedw. (Coles, Clark). Common at Rocky Branch. Hypnum imponens Hedw. (Clark). Rare on moist soil. Hypnum Patientiae Lindb. (Coles, Clark). Very common everywhere. 'Hypnum reptile Mx. (Clark). Rare on rotten logs. Leptodictyum riparium (Heaw.) Warnst. (Coles, Clark). Leptodictyum riparium forma flacci- dum (L & J) (Coles). Growing sub¬ merged; capsules taken in January. Leptodictyum trichopodium (Schultz) Warnst. (Coles, Clark). Plagiothecium denticulatum (Hedw.) Bry. Eur. (Clark). Plagiothecium geophilum (Aust.) Grout (Clark). Not common on the moist soil along stream. Plagiothecium Roeseanum (Hampe) Bry. Eur. (Clark). Rare at Rocky Branch. Plagiothecium deplanatum (Sull.) Grout (Coles, Clark). Not common in crevices in the sandstone banks. Platygyrium repens (Brid.) Bry. Eur. (Coles, Clark). Sematophyllum carolinianum (C. Muell.) E. G. Britton (Coles, Clark). As far as I know, this is the second report for this moss in Illinois. LESKEACEAE Anomodon attenuatus (Hedw.) Huben. (Coles, Clark). Anomodon minor (Beauv.) Lindb. (Coles, Clark). Anomodon rostratus (Hedw.) Schimp. (Coles, Clark). Leskea obscura Hedw. (Coles, Clark). Leskea polycarpa Hedw. (Coles, Clark). Leskea gracilescens Hedw. (Coles, Clark) . Lindbergia brachyptera var. Austinii (Sull.) Grout (Coles, Clark). Thelia asprella Sull. (Coles, Clark). *Thuidium abietinum (Brid.) Bry. Eur. (Clark). Rare on dry soil. Thuidium delicatulum (Hedw.) Mitt. (Coles, Clark) . Thuidium pygmaeum Bry. Eur. (Clark). Thiudium recognitum (Hedw.) Lindb. (Coles, Clark). Thuidium virginianum (Brid.) Lindb. (Coles, Clark). HOOKERIACEAE Hookeria acutifolia Hook. Reported at Rocky Branch by R. H. Vaughan. LEUCODONTACEAE Leptodon trichomitrion (Hedw.) Mohr (Coles, Clark). Leucodon julaceus (Hedw.) Sull. (Coles, Clark). * Leucodon brachypus Brid. (Coles). Rare on bark of trees. 48 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions FABRONIACEAE *Fabronia Ravenelli Sull. (Coles). Not common on the bark of white oak in moist woods. HEPATIC AE PTILIDIACEAE Ptilidium pulcherrimum (Web.) Hampe (Coles, Clark). Not common on rotten logs along sides of ravines. Blepharostoma trichophyllum (L.) Dumort. (Coles, Clark). Very abun¬ dant at Rocky Branch on sandstone. *Tricholea tomentella (Ehrh.) Dum. (Clark). Common on the moist banks along stream. LEPIDOZIACEAE *Bazzania trilobata (L.) S. F. Gray (Clark). Very rare on the sand¬ stone banks. *Lepidozia reptans (L.) Dumort. (Clark). Rare on rotten logs. CALYPOGEIACEAE Calypogeia Trichomanis (L.) Corda (Coles, Clark). CEPHALOZIACEAE Cephalozia connivens (Dicks.) Lindb. (Coles, Clark). Common on moist, rotten logs. Cephalozia media Lindb. (Clark). Com¬ mon on shaded sandstone. Nowellia curvifolia (Dicks.) Mitt. Rare on rotten wood at Rocky Branch. HARPANTHACEAE Lophocolea heterophylla (Schrad.) Dumort. (Coles, Clark). Lophocolea minor (Lehm.) Nees (Clark). Rare on soil and old wood. Harpanthus scutatus (Web. & Mohr) Spruce (Clark). Not common, and growing intermingled with Cephal¬ ozia media and Blepharostoma trich¬ ophyllum. JUNGERMANNIACEAE *Lophozia incisa (Schrad.) Dum. D’Obs. (Clark). Common on the moist sand¬ stone banks, and growing with Plec- tocolea. Jungermannia lanceolata L. (Coles, Clark). Not common, and growing among the Sphagna. *Plectocolea crenulata (Smith) Evans (Clark). Not common on the moist soil on sandstone banks. *Plectocolea crenuliformis (Aust.) Mitt. Reported at Rocky Branch by R. H. Vaughan. Plectocolea hyalina (Lyell) Mitt. (Clark). Not common. Plectocolea fossombronioides (Aust.) Mitt. As far as I know, this is the second report for the state. Not common at Rocky Branch. PLAGIOCHILACEAE Plagiochila asplenioides (L.) Dumort. (Clark, Coles). SCAPANIACEAE Scapania nemorosa (L.) Dumort. (Clark, Coles). PORELLACEAE Porella platyphylloidea (Schwein.) Lindb. (Clark, Coles). RADULACEAE Radula complanata (L. ) Dumort. (Coles, Clark). Not common at the base of trees. FRULLANIACEAE Frullania Asagrayana Mont. (Coles). Rare on the bark of white oak. Frullania eboracensis Gdttsche. (Coles, Clark) . Frullania inf lata Gottsche. (Coles, Clark). Frullania riparia Hampe (Coles, Clark). Common on moist sand¬ stone. Frullania squarrosa (R. Bl. & N.) Dum¬ ort. (Clark). On shaded banks; preferring moist sandstone. Common. LEJEUNEACEAE *Lejeunea cavifolia (Ehrh.) Lindb. (Clark). Rare on rotten wood. PELLIACEAE Pellia epiphylla (L.) Corda (Coles, Clark). Very common on moist soil and rocks. BLASIACEAE Blasia pusilla L. (Clark). Very com¬ mon on sandy soil. RICCARDIACEAE Riccardia pinguis (L.) S. F. Gray (Coles). Not common among the cattails in hanging bogs. MARCHANTIACEAE Marchantia polymorpha L. (Coles, Clark). Preissia quadrata (Scop.) Nees (Clark). Not common on sandstone rocks. Conocephalum conicum (L.) Dumort. (Coles, Clark). Bryophytes of Coles and Clark Counties 49 REBOULIACEAE Reboulia hemisphaerica (L.) Raddi (Coles, Clark). Mannia fragrans (Balb.) Frye & Clark (Clark). Common at Rocky Branch. Asterella tenella (L.) Beauv. (Coles, Clark). Common on dry soil. RICCIACEAE Riccia fluitans L. (Coles, Clark). Not common on moist soil along river bank. Ricciocarpus natans (L.) Corda (Coles, Clark). Not common on moist soil. ANTHOCEROTACEAE Anthoceros laevis L. (Coles, Clark). Common on clayey soil. * Anthoceros crispulus (Mont.) Douin (Clark). Common on wet rocks. Notothylas orbicularis (Schwein.) (Coles, Clark). Common on moist soil. 50 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SANGAMON COUNTY, ILLINOIS GEORGE D. FULLER Illinois State Museum, Springfield, and University of Chicago In 1943 a check list of the vascular plants of Sangamon County was published (1) in which some 870 species were named. Now it seems desirable to make certain corrections and additions to the list, especially since there appeared in 1945 a Flora of Illinois by G. Neville Jones (2). During the past five years at least 40 additional species have been collected in the county. Mrs. Lola Carter has been particularly active in this field and has added a dozen species to the Springfield area. Not¬ able among these are the rare fern, Woodsia obtusa, the little rattle-box Crotalaria sagittalis and two rare thistles, the Hill’s thistle, Cirsium hillii and the tall wood thistle, Cir¬ sium altissimum. Members of the Nature League of Springfield have contributed several species, some of which are rather rare. Norman Reeder, an amateur bot¬ anist and a specialist in the grass family, has revised and corrected the list of grasses and has added 20 spe¬ cies, some of them rare in Illinois. A similar revision of the sedge family would be desirable and it would add many species to the flora of the county. A further study of several species has made it necessary to drop a few species and to rectify a few errone¬ ous determinations. The present re¬ sults seem to show that there are 912 known species of vascular plants growing in Sangamon County and indicate that the total flora of the county will not fall much short of a thousand species. Polypodiaceae Pteridium latisculum (Desv.) Hieron. Woodsia obtusa (Spreng.) Torr. Typhaceae Typha angustifolia L. Alismaceae Sagittaria brevirostra Mack. & Bush Gramineae Festuca elatior L. Festuca. obtusa Spreng. Poa chapmaniana Scribn. Poa nemoralis L. Poa palustris L. Poa sylvestris Gray Agropyron smithii Rydb. Sphenopholis obtusata (Michx.) Scribn. Danthonia spicata (L.) Beauv. Agrostis hyemalis (Walt.) BSP. Alopecurus carolinianus Walt. Muhlenbergia schreberi Gmel. Muhlenbergia sobolifera (Muhl.) Trin. Sporobolus asper (Michx.) Kunth. Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) Gray Sporobolus neglectus Nash. Paspalum pubescens Muhl. Panicum lanuginosum Ell. Panicum tennesseense Ashe Setaria verticillata (L.) Beauv. Cenchrus pauciflorus Benth. Andropogon virginicus L. Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Cyperaceae Cyperus houghtonii Torr. Araceae Acorus calamus L. Juncaceae Juncus torreyi Cov. Betulaceae Corylus americana Walt. Amaranthaceae Froelichia campestris Small Polygonaceae Rumex obtusifolius L. Elatinaceae Elatina brachysperma Gray Ranunculaceae Ranunculus sceleratus L. Ranunculus flabellaris Raf. Flora of Sangamon County 51 Cruciferae Alliaria officinalis Andrez. Rosaceae Instead of Geum macrophyllum read Geum laciniatum Murr. Leguminoseae Crotolaria sagittalis L. Umbelliferae Erigenia bulbosa (Michx.) Nutt. Primulaceae Aster tataricus L. Asclepiadaceae Asclepias tuberosa L. Convolvulaceae Cuscuta cephalanthi Engelm. Labiatae Lamium purpureum L. Scutellaria ambigua Nutt. Compositae Aster tataricus L. Antennaria neglecta Greene Carduus nutans L. Cirsium altissimum (L.) Spreng. Cirsium hillii (Canby) Fern. Helianthus tuberosus L. The following* species have been reported as occurring in Sangamon County but careful search has failed to find them. Sanicula trifoliata Bickn. Hydrophyllum macrophyllum Nutt. Lobelia kalmii L. Anaphalis margaritacea Gray Iva xanthifolia Nutt. References 1. Fuller, George D., A check list of the vascular plants of Sangamon County, Illinois: Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., vol. 36: pp. 91-99, 1943. 2. Jones, G. Neville, Flora of Illinois: Amer. Midland Nat. Monog. No. 2: 1-317, 1945. 52 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 40, 1947 A REVISED CHECKLIST OF THE VASCULAR PLANTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS WOODLANDS GEORGE NEVILLE JONES University of Illinois, Urbana It is nearly five years since the publication of the first checklist of the vascular plants of the University woodlands,1 * and copies of that list are no longer available. Therefore it seems desirable at this time to pre¬ sent a new and revised list. The University of Illinois wood¬ lands, situated a few miles northeast of Urbana, Champaign County, Illi¬ nois, consist of approximately 100 acres of natural woods, fenced and maintained by the University of Illi¬ nois as a permanent preserve of wild life for scientific purposes. This property consists of two separate areas about one mile apart, the Brownfield Woods, and the Trelease (formerly University) Woods. The following checklist is based chiefly upon the collections of the writer during the years 1939 to 1947 . The specimens upon which the rec¬ ords are based have been deposited in the Herbarium of the University of Illinois. A few other species not included in this list have been attrib¬ uted to these woodlands, but since reports of these plants are not based upon specimens they have been left out. The present revision includes the names of the families as w7ell as common names for most of the species. It includes 274 species in 189 genera and 76 families. 1 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 35: 71-72 (1942). Division I. Pteridophyta. Ferns and Fern -allies Ophioglossaceae Presl — Adder’s-tongue < Family Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw. — Rattlesnake Fern. Polypodiaceae R.Br. — Fern Family Athyrium pycnocarpon (Spreng.) Tidestr— Glade Fern Cystopteris fragilis (L.) Bernh. — Brittle 1 Fern Division II. Sperm atophyta. Seed Plants Subdivision II. Angiospermae. Flowering Plants Class I. Monocotyledoneae Gramineae Juss. — Grass Family Bromus tectorum L. — Cheat Cinna arundinacea L. — Wood Reed Grass Dactylis glomerata L. — Orchard Grass Diarrhena americana Beauv. Digitaria Sanguinalis (L.) Scop. — Com¬ mon Crab Grass Echinochloa crusgallii (L.) Beauv.— Barnyard Grass Elymus villosus Muhl. — Slender Wild Rye Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Link — Stink Grass Festuca obtusa Spreng. — Nodding Fescue Glyceria striata (Lam.) Hitchc. — Meadow Grass Hystrix patula Moench. — Bottlebrush Grass Leersia virginica Willd. — White Grass Muhlenbergia mexicana (L.) Trin. — Wirestem Grass 1 Muhlenbergia scherberi J. F. Gmel. Nimble Will Panicum capillare L. — Witch Grass Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx. Spreading Witch Grass Phleum pratense L. — Timothy Poa compressa L. — Canada Blue Grass Poa pratensis L. — Kentucky Blue Grass Poa sylvestris A. Gray — Woodland Blue Grass Setaria lutescens (Weig.) F. T. Hubb. Yellow Foxtail Checklist of Vascular Plants 53 Sporobolus heterolepis A. Gray — Sand Dropseed Sporobolus vaginiflorus (Torr.) Wood —Sheathing Dropseed Cyperaceae J.St.Hil. — Sedge Family Carex albursina Sheld. Carex blanda Dewey Carex bromoides Schkuhr. Carex gravida Bailey ( Carex grayii Carey Carex grisea Wahl. Carex hirtifolia Mack. Carex rosea Schkuhr. Araceae Necker — Arum Family Arisaema atrorubens (Ait.) Bl. — Jack- in-the-Pulpit. Indian Turnip Arisaema dracontium (L.) Schott — Green Dragon. Dragonroot Ccmmelinarceae Reichenb. — Spiderwort Family Tradescantia subaspera Ker — Spider- wort Juncaceae Vent/ — Rush Family Juncus tenuis Willd. Liliaceae Adans. — Lily Family Allium canadense L. — Wild Garlic Allium tricoccum Ait. — Wild Leek Asparagus officinalis L. — Asparagus Erythronium albidum Nutt. — White Trout-lily Lilium michiganense Farw. — Wild Lily Polygonatum pubescens (Willd.) Pursh. — Solomon’s-seal Smilacina racemosa (L.) Desf. — Large False Solomon’s-seal Smilacina stellata (L.) Desf. — Small False Solomon’s seal Smilax ecirrhata (Engelm.) Wats. — Upright Smilax Smilax hispida Muhl. — Common Green¬ brier Smilax lasioneuron Hook. — Carrion Flower Trillium gleasoni Fern. — White Trillium Trillium recurvatum Beck — Purple Trillium j Uvularia grandiflora Sm. — Bellwort Iridaceae Lindl. — Iris Family Iris shrevei Small — Iris Orchidaceae Lindl. — Orchid Family I Aplectrum hyemale (Muhl.) Torr. — Puttyroot Orchis spectabilis L. — Showy Orchis Triphora trianthophora (Sw.) Rydb. — Nodding Pogonia Class II. Dicotyledoneae Juss. Salicaceae Lindl. — Willow Family Populus deltoides Marsh. — Cottonwood Betulaceae Agardh. — Birch Family Carpinus caroliniana Walt. — Muscle Tree Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K.Koch — Ironwood Corylus americana Walt. — Hazel Juglandaceae Lindl— Walnut Family Juglans cinerea L. — Butternut Juglans nigra L. — Black Walnut Carya Qordiformis (Wang.) K.Koch — Yellowbud Hickory Carya ovata (Mill.) K. Koch — Shagbark Hickory Carya laciniosa (Michx.f.) Loud. — Big Shagbark Hickory Fagaceae A.Br. — Beech Family Quercus bicolor Willd. — Swamp White Oak Quercus imbricaria Michx. — Shingle Oak Quercus macrocarpa Michx. — Bur Oak Quercus muhlenbergii Engelm. — Chin¬ quapin Oak Quercus rubra L. — Red Oak (Q. borealis Michx.f.) Ulmaceae Mirb. — Elm Family Celtis occidentalis L. — Hackberry Ulmus americana L. — American Elm Ulmus fulva Michx. — Slippery Elm Moraceae Lindl. — Mulberry Family Maclura pomifera (Raf. ) Schneid. — Osage-orange. Hedge-apple Morus alba L. — White Mulberry Morus rubra L. — Red Mulberry Cannabinaceae Lindl. — Hemp Family Humulus americanus Nutt. — American Hop Cannabis sativa L. — Common Hemp. Marijuana Urticaceae Reichenb. — Nettle Family Urtica procera Muhl. — Common Nettle Laportea canadensis (L.) Gaud. — Wood Nettle Parietaria pennsylvanica Muhl. — Pellitory Pilea pumila (L.) A.Gray — Clearweed Aristolochiaceae Blume — Birthwort Family Asarum reflexum Bickn. — Wild Ginger Polygonaceae Lindl.: — Buckwheat Family Polygonum pennsylvanicum L. — Smartweed Polygonum persicaria L. — Lady’s Thumb Polygonum punctatum Ell. — Water Smartweed Polygonum scandens L. — Climbing False-buckwheat Polygonum virginianum L. — Virginia Knotweed 54 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Rumex acetosella L. — Field Sorrel. Sour Dock Rumex crispus L. — Curly Dock Chenopodiaceae Dum. — Goosefoot Family Chenopodium album L. — Lamb’s Quarter Chenopodium standleyanum Aellen (C. boscianum of auth.) Amaranthaceae J.St.Hil. — Amaranth Family Amaranthus retroflexus L— Rough Pig¬ weed Phytolaccaceae Lindl. — Pokeweed Family Phytolacca americana L. — Pokeweed Portulacaceae Reichenb. — Purslane Family Claytonia virginica L. — Spring Beauty Caryophyllaceae Reichenb. — Pink Family Cerastium vulgatum L. — Common Mouse-ear Chickweed Silene antirrhina L. — Sleepy Catchfly Silene stellata (L.) Ait. — Starry Catchfly Stellaria media (L.) — Vill. — Common Chickweed Annonaceae DC. — Custard-apple Family Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal— Pawpaw Ranunculaceae Juss.— Buttercup Family Actaea alba (L.) Mill.— White Bane- berry. Doll’s Eyes Anemone canadensis L. — Meadow Anemone Anemone virginiana L. — Tall Anemone Hepatica acutiloba DC.— Hepatica Hydrastis canadensis L. — Goldenseal Isopyrum biternatum (Raf.) T.&G. — False Rue-anemone Ranunculus abortivus L. — Small- flowered Buttercup Ranunculus septentrionalis Poir. — Marsh Buttercup Thalictrum dioicum L. — Early Meadow- rue Thalictrum revolutum DC. — Waxy Meadow-rue Berberidaceae T.&G. — Barberry Family Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx. — Blue Cohosh Podophyllum peltatum L. — May-apple. Mandrake Menispermaceae DC. — Moonseed Family Menispermum canadense L. — Moonseed Lauraceae Lindl. — Laurel Family Lindera benzoin (L.) Bl.— Spice-bush Papaveraceae B.Juss. — Poppy Family Sanguinaria canadensis L. — Bloodroot Fumariaceae DC. — Fumitory Family Dicentra canadensis (Goldie) Walp. — Squirrel-corn Dicentra cucullaria (L.) Bernh. — Dutchman’s-breeches Cruciferae B.Juss.— Mustard Family Barbarea vulgaris R.Br. — Wintercress Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic. — Shepherd’s Purse Cardamine bulbosa (Schreb.) BSP. Bulbous Cress Cardamine douglassii (Torr.) Britt. Purple Cress Dentaria laciniata Muhl. — Toothwort Iodanthus pinnatifidus (Michx.) Steud. Lepidium virginicum L. — Common Peppercress Grossulariaceae Dum. — Gooseberry Family Ribes americanum Mill. — American Black Currant Ribes missouriense Nutt. — Missouri Gooseberry Platanaceae Lindl. — Plane-tree Family Platanus occidentalis L— Sycamore Rosaceae Juss. — Rose Family Agrimonia pubescens Wallr. — Agrimony Crataegus crusgalli L. — Cockspur Thorn Crataegus mollis (T.&G.) Scheele Fragaria virginiana Duch. — Wild Strawberry Geum canadense Jacq. — White Avens Geum vernum (Raf.) T.&G. Spring Avens „ Malus coronaria (L.) Mill. — Wild Sweet Crabapple Malus ioensis (Wood) Britt. — Iowa Ci*ctbcippl0 Prunus americana Marsh.— Wild Plum Prunus serotina Ehrh. — Wild Black Cherry Prunus virginiana L. — Common Choke- cherry Rosa setigera Michx. — Climbing Rose Rubus argutus Link — Tall Blackberry Rubus occidentalis L. — Black Raspberry Leguminosae Juss. — Pea Family Cassia fasciculata Michx.— Partridge- pea Cercis canadensis L. — Redbud Desmodium glutinosum (Muhl.) Wood Desmodium canescens (L.) DC. Gleditsia triacanthos L. — Honey Locust Cymnocladus dioica (L.) K.Koch — Ken¬ tucky Coffee-tree Checklist of Vascular Plants 55 Melilotus officinalis (L. ) Lam. — Yellow Sweet Clover Robinia pseudoacacia L. — Common Locust Trifolium pratense L. — Red Clover Trifolium repens L. — White Clover Geraniaceae J.St.Hil. — Geranium Family Geranium maculatum L. — Wild Geranium Oxalidaceae Lindl. — Wood-sorrel Family Oxalis stricta L. — Upright Yellow Wood- sorrel Oxalis cymosa Small — Common Wood- sorrel Balsaminaceae Lindl. — Jewel-weed Family Impatiens biflora Walt. — Spotted Touch- me-not Impatiens pallida Nutt. — Pale Touch-me- not Euphorbiaceae J.St.Hil. — Spurge Family Acalypha rhomboidea Raf. — Three- seeded Mercury. Chamaesyce maculata (L.) Small — Nod¬ ding Spurge Limnanthaceae Lindl. Floerkia proserpinacoides Willd. — False Mermaid Rutaceae Juss. — Rue Family Zanthoxylum americanum Mill. — Prick- ly-ash Anacardiaceae Lindl. — Sumac Family Rhus radicans L. — Poison-ivy Ce^astraceae Lindl. — Staff-tree Family Celastrus scandens L.— Climbing Bitter¬ sweet Eunonymus atropurpureus Jacq. — Wahoo Hippocastanaceae T.&G.— Horse- chestnut Family Aesculus glabra Willd.— Ohio Buck-eye Staphyleaceae DC. — Bladdernut Family Staphylea trifolia L. — American Blad¬ dernut Aceraceae Lindl.— Maple Family . Acer negundo L. — Box-elder Acer nigrum Michx.f.— Black Maple Acer saccharum Marsh.— Sugar Maple Acer saccharinum L.— Silver Maple Vitaceae Lindl. — Grape Family Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. — Virginia Creeper Vitis vulpina L.— Frost Grape Tiliaceae Juss. — Linden Family Tilia americana L. — American Linden. Basswood Malvaceae Neck. — Mallow Family Abutilon theophrasti Medic. — Butter- print. Velvet-leaf. Violaceae DC. — Violet Family Viola eriocarpa Schw. — Common Yellow Violet Viola papilionacea Pursh. — Butterfly Violet Viola sororia Willd. — Downy Blue Violet Araliaceae Vent. — Ginseng Family Panax quinquefolium L. — Ginseng Onagraceae Dum. — Evening-primrose Family Circaea latifolia Hill — Enchanter’s Night Shade Oenothera biennis L. — Common Eve¬ ning-primrose Umbelliferae B.Juss. — Parsley Family Chaerophyllum procumbens (L.) Crantz Cryptotaenia canadensis (L.) DC. — Honewort Daucus carota L. — Carrot Osmorhiza claytoni (Michx.) Clarke Osmorhiza longistylis (Torr.) DC. Pastinaca sativa L. — Parsnip Sanicula canadensis L. — Snakeroot Zizia aurea (L.) K.Koch — Meadow- parsnip Cornaceae Link — Dogwood Family Cornus racemosa Lam. — Gray Dogwood Primulaceae Vent. — Primrose Family Samolus parviflorus Raf. — Brookweed Lysimachia ciliata L. — Fringed Loose¬ strife Oleaceae Lindl.— Olive Family Fraxinus americana L. — White Ash Fraxinus lanceolata Borkh. — Green Ash Fraxinus quadrangulata Michx. - Blue Ash Convolvulaceae Vent. — Morning-glory Family Cuscuta gronovii Willd. — Dodder Ipomoea hederacea Jacq. — Ivy-leaved Morning-glory Asclepiadaceae Lindl. — Milkweed Family Asclepias syriaca L. — Common Milkweed Polemoniaceae DC. — Phlox Family Phlox divaricata L. — Blue Phlox Hydrophyllaceae Lindl. — Waterleaf Family Ellisia nyctelea L. Hydrophyllum appendiculatum Michx. Hydrophyllum canadense L. Hydrophyllum virginianum L. Boraginaceae Lindl. — Borage Family Lappula virginiana (L. ) Greene Mertensia virginica fL 1 Pers. — Blue¬ bells 56 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Verbenaceae J.St.Hil. — Verbena Family Verbena urticaefolia L. — White Vervain Labiatae B.Juss.— Mint Family Agastache nepetoides (L. ) Kuntze Blephilia hirsuta (Pursh) Benth. Glecoma heterophylla Waldst. & Kit. — Ground-ivy Leonurus cardiaca L. — Motherwort Marrubium vulgare L.— Common Hore- hound Nepeta cataria L. — Catnip Prunella vulgaris L. — Selfheal Scutellaria lateriflora L. — Blue Skull- cap Stachys tenuifolia Willd. — Smooth Hedgenettle. Teucrium canadense L. — Wood-sage Solanaceae Pers. — Nightshade Family Solanum carolinense L. — Horse-nettle Solanum nigrum L. — Black Nightshade Scrophulariaceae Lindl. — Figwort Family Collinsia verna Nutt. — Blue-eyed Mary Mimulus alatus Ait.— Monkey Flower Scrophularia marilandica L. — Figwort Veibascum blattaria L. — Moth Mullein Verbascum thapsus L. — Common Mullein Veronica arvensis L. — Corn Speedwell Veronica peregrina L. — Purslane Speed¬ well Veronicastrum virginicum (L.) Farw. — Culver-root Bignoniaceae Pers. — Trumpet-creeper Family Campsis radicans (L.) Seem. — Trumpet- creeper Acanthaceae J.St.Hil.— Acanthus Family Ruellia strepens L. — Smooth Ruellia Plantaginaceae Lindl. — Plantain Family Plantago lanceolata L. — Buckhorn Plantain Plantago rugelii Dene. — Common Plantain Phrymaceae Schauer — Lopseed Family Phryma leptostachya L. — Lopseed Rubiaceae B.Juss — Madder Family Galium aparine L. — Goose-grass Galium concinnum T.&G. — Shining Bed- straw Galium obtusum Bigel — Stiff Bedstraw Caprifoliaceae Vent. — Honeysuckle Family Sambucus canadensis L. — Common Elder Viburnum lentago L. — Nannyberry Viburnum prunifolium L. — Blackhaw Campanulaceae Juss. — Bellflower Family Campanula americana L. Lobeliaceae Dum. — Lobelia Family Lobelia inflata L. — Indian-tobacco Lobelia siphilitica L. — Blue Cardinal- flower Compositae Adans.— Composite Family | Achillea millefolium L. — Yarrow j Actinomeris alternifolia (L.) DC. — Yel¬ low Ironweed Ambrosia elatior L. — Common Ragweed Ambrosia trifida L.— Giant Ragweed Arctium minus (Hill) Bernh. — Common i Burdock Aster pantotrichus Blake — Missouri Aster Aster pilosus Willd. — Heath Aster Aster sagittifolius Wedem. — Arrow¬ leaved Aster Aster shortii Lindl. — Short’s Aster Bidens vulgata Greene — Common Beggar-ticks Cacalia muhlenbergii (Sch. — Bip.) Fern — Indian-plantain Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Airy-Shaw— Bull Thistle Cirsium arvense (L. ) Scop. — Canada Thistle Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. — Whitetop Erigeron canadensis L. — Horseweed Erigeron philadelphicus L. — Philadel¬ phia Fleabane Eupatorium purpureum L. — Joe-pye Weed Eupatorium rugosum Houtt. — White Snakeroot Helianthus strumosus L. — Sunflower Helianthus tuberosus L. Lactuca biennis (Moench) Fern. — Tall Blue Lettuce Lactuca canadensis L. — Wild Lettuce Lactuca floridana (L. ) Gaertn. Lactuca scariola L. — Prickly Lettuce Polymnia canadensis L. — Leafcup Rudbeckia laciniata L. — Goldenglow Rudbeckia triloba L. — Brown-eyed Susan Solidago altissima L.— Tall Goldenrod Solidago nemoralis Ait. — Field Golden- rod Solidago rugosa Mill. — Rough-leaved Goldenrod Solidago latifolia L. — Broad-leaved Goldenrod Taraxacum officinale Weber — Common Dandelion Taraxacum laevigatum (Willd.) DC. — Red-seeded Dandelion Vernonia missurica Raf. — Ironweed Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 57 A METHOD FOR CYTOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF ALGAE CARROLL J. PETERSON North Park College, Chicago The pollen tube technique used for cytological studies of the microgame- tophyte of Angiosperms was adapted for cytological and morphological studies of algae. This method mainly follows that outlined by Eigsti (1940) for the procedures used in cultivating pollen tubes and the staining and permanent mount tech¬ nique used in cytological investiga¬ tions (Eigsti, 1942). The many hours and many steps necessary in present day methods have stimulated this technique for fast permanent mounts requiring a rather simple procedure. In classes studying morphology and cytology of algae, time would not allow a con¬ sideration of personal investigation by the student. It is with two objec¬ tives that this report is given. (1) To introduce a new method for de¬ tailed cytological investigation of algae on the part of experienced technicians, and (2) to point out to teachers of cytology that this method can easily be introduced as a means of personal investigation by the student. Vigorous stocks of algae provide the best material. When nuclear phases are desired, examination at various intervals throughout a 24- hour day can be used to acquire proper stages of cells in division. The desired quantity of the alga should be transferred to a glass slide with a minimum amount of water or fixative. Before the alga has any opportunity to dry out, a thin film of agar imbedding solution is added to the alga mount on the slide. The agar must be liquid at the time of application to the slide and all ar¬ rangement of the alga in the agar must be accomplished before the agar solidifies. Only an amount necessary to cover the alga is desired. The imbedding solution consists of 1 gram of agar and 5 grams of su¬ crose completely dissolved by boiling in 100 ml of distilled water. The agar mixture is applied to the slide at a temperature of about 40° C. Any agar remaining can be sterilized and kept for subsequent use. A constant temperature water bath for the agar facilitates the operations at Ihe time the mounts are prepared. As soon as the agar and alga are on the slide, allow the film to dry. Drying is necessary to prevent the film from loosening from the slide as the slide is immersed in reagents used to stain and dehydrate the material. The amount of drying is best judged from experience and is dependent upon the species of alga used. Certain gelatinous forms can withstand drying for several hours. As a general rule, however, the dry¬ ing process is accomplished within 30 or 15 minutes. The staining series is made up as follows : 3 . Aceto-carmine The aceto-carmine stain is made by reflux condensing for 5 hours at a slow rate one teaspoon of carmine to 100 cc of 45% acetic acid. It is 58 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. i _ Composite photomicrograph of two focal planes of a nuclear division figure of Rhizoclonium X8700. 8. Glacial Acetic Acid This is a destaining agent also, j and the length of time the slide is in this acid will depend on the length of time the material was stained. If the slide remained in aceto-carmine 20 minutes and in the 45% acetic acid 2 minutes, one minute in this acid is sufficient. (Note : the amount of staining and destaining will neces- sarily vary for different types of algae.) recommended that a minimum time of 20 minutes be given for this stain. The slides may remain in this stain for 24 hours without evident harm¬ ful results. 2. 45% Acetic Acid This is a destaining solution, and the length of time the slide is in this solution will depend on the length of time the material was in aceto-car¬ mine. If the slide remained in the aceto-carmine for 20 minutes, it is recommended that two minutes in this solution is sufficient. Cytological Investigation of Algae 59 4. % Glacial Acetic Acid y2 n Butyl Alcohol The slide should remain for 10 minutes in this solution 5. n Butyl Alcohol The slide should remain for 15 minutes in this solution. 6. Light Green in Clove Oil An optional counterstain for mak¬ ing whole mounts of algae. 7. y2 n Butyl Alcohol y2 Xylol The slide should remain for a minimum of 10 minutes in this solu¬ tion. No harmful effects are noted if the slide remains for several hours. 8. Xylol Several changes of xylol are de¬ sirable. The slides may be mounted in bal¬ sam for a permanent mount directly from the xylol. The results from this method have been most gratifying when using plankton forms and many filamen¬ tous Chlorophyta. While experi¬ menting with this method, species of Rhizoclonium and Cladophora were used, as the nuclei are proportion¬ ately large. After the method was mastered, the genera of Spirogyra, Zygnema, Oedogonium, Stigeoclo- nium and Mougeotia were tried with good results. In Cladophora and Rhizoclonium, many stages of nuclear division were observed. In the Myxophyceae excellent re¬ sults were obtained using Oscilla- toria, Lynghya, Chroococcus, Meris- mopedia and Gloeotrichia. Many of the diatoms were processed and ex¬ cellent results were obtained. Bibliography O. J. Eigsti, Methods for Growing Pollen Tubes for Physiological and Cyto¬ logical Studies: Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science, Vol. XX, 1940. 0. J. Eigsti, A Cytological Investigation of Polygonatum Using the Colchicine- Pollen Tube Technique: American Journal of Botany, Vol. 29, No. 8, 626- 636, October, 1942. 60 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 40, 1947 HOUSTON1A MINIMA IN PEORIA COUNTY E. SCHOENBECK Peoria Academy of Science This paper reports the occurrence of Houstonia minima in Peoria County. This species is not listed in the Illinois State Natural History Survey’s “Fieldbook of Illinois Wildflowers,” published in 1936, and George Neville Jones in his “Flora of Illinois,” published in 1945, cites only one instance of a collection in Knox County by Vir- ginius H. Chase of Peoria. Britton and Brown in “Illustrated Flora of Northern United States and Can¬ ada,” when giving habitat areas, mentions Illinois in parentheses fol¬ lowed by a question mark. The writer considers therefore that any record of its existence in Illinois should be of interest. The species was found in full bloom, growing in thousands, on April 1, 1945, by Mr. and Mrs. George Schoenbeck, on the Edward Petty farm, located in Hollis town¬ ship, section 8, on the west branch of LaMarsh Creek. This farm is twelve miles south of Peoria and about four miles west of route 24. The plants grew in poor soil on a bald bluff overlooking LaMarsh Creek and grew so thick as to make a blue haze over the surface of the ground. The height was only 1 to iy2 inches. The area is a pasture. The discoverey was immediately reported to Dr. John Voss, Peoria botanist and flower photographer, and director of the Peoria Academy of Science, who made photographs ; and to Virginius H. Chase, director of the botany section of Peoria Acad¬ emy of Science, who was furnished specimens ; also to the botany section of the State Academy of Science at the May meeting. This year, 1947, it first started to bloom April 24tli, flowers being very scattered among the many plants. Upon report of the discovery, April 1, 1945, it was learned that the species had been collected in fruit by Chase on May 15, 1933, from a lowland slope one mile east of the Petty farm and east of the older Crescent Mine, a location from which it has long since disappeared, he states. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 61 THE CONTROL OF WEEDS ON A TYPICAL PRAIRIE FARM1 MARVIN SIBERT London Mills, Illinois This paper is concerned with the control of weeds on a typical prairie farm in west central Illinois, called “Prairie Farm” in this re¬ port. “A weed is a plant out of place.” This definition includes not only the typical forms, but also those that under certain conditions are grown as valuable crops but when found with other crops are detrimental. A.ny plant able to grow successfully with crop plants may be looked upon as a potential weed. Perhaps half of our most noxious veeds are those introduced from for¬ eign countries. In Europe, for ex¬ ample, where the soils have been in- ensively cultivated for centuries, mly those weeds that are extremely lardy are able to endure the condi- ions of cultivation and grow suc- :essfully with crops. When seeds of hese crops were brought to America vhere large farms with much waste ands were abundant and cultivation ras often less intensive, the foreign Feeds accompanying the crop seeds Fere able to thrive. Tehon (’37) discusses the reasons Fhy certain weeds in Illinois are lassed as pernicious and widespread ontrol measures are needed. He 1 The author wishes to acknowledge his sincere )preciation to H. D. Waggoner for help and en- mragement, suggestion of the problem and for udance in its study; to Roy M. Sallee for mak- g the photographs; to Mary Bennett and R. M. yers of the biology department of Western Illi- ns state Teachers College for aid in the prepara- on of the manuscript. This paper is a condensa- «« thesis presented as a partial requirement r tne degree of Master of Science which has been ■posited in the library of the Western Illinois •ate Teachers College, Macomb, Illinois. states the conditions under which these weeds do the most damage, the ways in which weeds cause injury, and discusses methods used to con¬ trol them. However, it is to be noted that none of the thirteen weeds listed by Tehon as the most noxious in Illinois is included in the list of the seven worst weeds on Prairie Farm. Wilson ( ’44) has made an analy¬ sis of the control of noxious plants. He lists the following characteristics of weeds considered as noxious : (a) Persistence and vigor of growth. (b) Poisonous properties of herbage or fruits. (c) Possession of spines or thorns injurious to animals. Description of Prairie Farm The farm chosen for this study consists of 161 acres of gently roll¬ ing, rich prairie land situated five miles south of Adair in Eldorado Township in west central Illinois. Most of the soil is brown silt loam with a few small areas of black silt loam. The entire farm is very fer¬ tile so that weeds as well as crops grow luxuriantly. The present owner acquired the farm in 1941 and immediately began laying out the fields as shown in Fig. 1. There are no division fences on the south 80 acres ; permanent mark¬ ers on both the north and south edges divided this part into three equal fields. The other fields are di- 62 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions vided by permanent fences with gates as shown in Fig. 1. Drainage tile run from all the low places to a ditch which passes through the northwest corner of the farm. There is a flow of water in the ditch during the entire year. General Methods In order to analyze the program of weed control used on Prairie Farm, approximately 150 weeds on the farm and in the general vicinity were collected, classified, and pressed for a permanent record. Frequent visits were made to the farm during the years 1943 to 1945 for observa¬ tions. Conferences were held with the tenant and owner concerning procedures and results. Photographs were taken to record significant con¬ ditions and changes. Control of Weeds 63 Fig. 2. — A field just across the fence from Prairie Farm. It illustrates conditions in 1941. Changes Brought by the Control Measures Used PRAIRIE FARM AS IT APPEARED IN 1941 When the farm was purchased there was no doubt of its fertility, but its productivity was low in everything except weeds, which were everywhere. All fields were badly infested. Weeds were along the fences, in the rows and in between I the crop rows. Figure 2 illustrates the condition of some of the fields. The seven most noxious weeds are Listed in table 1. Immediately upon acquiring the | farm, the new owner began a defi¬ nite system of crop rotation. This usually consisted of corn ; soy beans ; oats and clover. Modifications were made if clover or other crops failed. An intensive program of weed eradi¬ cation and control was also started. At all times much attention was given to clean farming. Weeds were destroyed before seeds could ma¬ ture ; in the corn fields with a hoe, in soy beans by pulling, and in clover and oats by cutting at harvest time. The seven most noxious weeds (table 1) can be divided into two groups : group “ A ” consists of milk weed, Indian hemp and hedge bind¬ weed. This group is difficult to con¬ trol because they grow from under- Table 1. — The Seven Most Noxious Scientific Name *Abutilon theophrasti Medic *Amaranthus retroflexus L. Apocynum cannabinum L. Asclepias syrica L. Convolvulus sepium L. *Ec,hinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. Polygonum pennsylvanicum L. Weeds on Prairie Farm Common Name Velvet Leaf Rough Pigweed Indian Hemp Common Milkweed Hedge Bindweed Barnyard Grass Pennsylvania Smartweed All plants *TncIi( ates were classified according to Gray (’08). that weed is of foreign origin. 64 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 3_ — Field of soy beans in 1945. Not a weed could be found in this field. ground parts in which considerable food is stored. Group “B” includes the remaining weeds ; pigweed, Pennsylvania smartweed, velvet leaf, and barnyard grass. These weeds reproduce by seeds. It was easier to eradicate the weeds in group “B” than those in group “A”, but it was more difficult to keep them under control. The most effective method found for eradication of milkweed and In¬ dian hemp was by pulling the plants and breaking off the stem several inches below the surface of the soil, thus preventing food storage re¬ quired to promote growth the next year. The hedge bindweed was cut with a hoe for the same reason. In group “ B ” the weeds were cut in the blossom stage or a little later, thus preventing the maturing of seeds. This cutting had to be repeated sev¬ eral times each year. In addition there was careful preparation of the seed bed and cultivation of the vari¬ ous crops as required. AFTER FOUR YEARS In 1945 as a result of the program of eradication and cultivation there were few weeds on Prairie Farm, especially those having underground food storage regions. The milkweed had almost entirely disappeared. It was estimated that there was a de¬ crease of more than 90 percent in the numbers of Indian hemp and hedge bindweed. In a field of rowed soy beans it was almost impossible to find a weed (fig. 3.) Weeds were ! also much reduced in the corn fields. It required considerable search to locate any hedge bindweed. In 1941 it would have been difficult to find a single corn stalk without bindweed. J It must be noted that it was neces¬ sary to continue the weed control measures. In 1945 the tenant failed , to cultivate a corn field across the rows and cultivated only twice in the rows during the growing season. The result was a considerable growth of weeds in the rows of corn. These weeds probably came from seeds in the soil, as it has been shown that ; Control of Weeds 65 weed seeds may survive for many years. Conclusions 1. It is possible in a period of five years to eradicate or control many of the noxious weeds of a typical prairie farm in west central Illinois. 2. Control can be accomplished only by carefully planned, intensive work. 3. To maintain control of the weeds it is necessary to continue a planned type of crop rotation and cultivation because one year of poor cultivation may undo the work of several years. 4. If cultivation is to result in the destruction of weeds, it should begin sufficiently early in their de¬ velopment to prevent their becoming well established. Literature Cited Robinson, B. L. and M. L. Feknald, Gray’s New Manual of Botany: Ameri¬ can Book Co., Chicago, 1908. Tehon, L. R., Rout the weeds: Ill. Nat. Hist. Survey. Circ. 28, 1937. Wilson, H. K., Control of noxious weeds: Bot. Rev. 10 (5) : 279-326, 1944. 66 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Virginius H. Chase Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 40, 1947 67 VIRGINIUS H. CHASE, PEORIA BOTANIST HARRY L. SPOONER Peoria Academy of Science, Peoria Yirginius Heber Chase was born Januhry 8, 1876, at Wady Petra, Stark County, Illinois, the son of Heber and Emma Brain Chase. He is of the eighth generation from Aquila Chase, a sailing master honored by a stone tablet in the New England Historic Genealogical Building in Boston, Massachusetts, as being the first pilot at the mouth of the Merrimac River. Aquila Chase took up land in Hampton, New Hampshire in 1640. In studying the family tree, the only record of a member being arrested for a misdemeanor is that of Aquila himself, his wife, and her brother ‘ * for gathering pease on the first day of the week.” Since this all took place in a Puritan village back in 1646, perhaps the family may be said to have outlived the disgrace. Many in the Chase line have left honorable records. For instance, the children of Deacon Dudley Chase, who represented the fifth generation from Aquila, include a physician ; a successful lawyer ; a bank president ; a judge of the Supreme Court of Vermont, United States Senator and a member of the Council of New Hampshire, who was the father of Lincoln’s Secretary of the Treasury, Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase ; and of Philander Chase, the first Episco¬ pal Bishop of Ohio and founder of Kenyon College and later the first Bishop of Illinois and founder of Jubilee College. While we refer to Virginius Chase as a botanist, he does not as¬ pire to that title, but would rather be considered as of the old school of naturalists, getting his joy of life from reading the book of Nature and sharing it with his friends, as did Gilbert White of Selborne and Henry D. Thoreau of Walden, and if he has a motto, it probably is that of Thomas Paine, “The world is my country and to do good is my mission.” He would not deny it if you ac¬ cused him of being a collector of the most incurable type — in fact, he would prove it to you. His first lesson in botany came at the age of three, when he toddled out to the garden and tried to eat a pret¬ ty red pepper. Perhaps Mr. Chase is not a scientist, for scientists say nothing is ever proved by a single experiment and Chase did not repeat this one. To this day, the odor and flavor of peppers of any kind are still repulsive to him. We find the old saying, “as the twig is bent, the tree’s inclined,” well exemplified in Mr. Chase ’s case. As a child at his grandmother’s home, he was allowed to look at a large prehistoric stone axe that his grandfather had found and to han¬ dle a large pink arrowhead. Then there was a woven covered basket that a sailor, a great uncle, had brought back on his last voyage from Calcutta, India, which was filled with shells from tropic seas. A few years later, the inspection of the collection of birds’ eggs of Ernest Chamberlain at Robin’s Nest 68 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Farm, proved a greater attraction than the whole World’s Fair did in 1893. At the age of five, a few days of frantic effort covered the bottom of a cardboard box with pinned butter¬ flies, grasshoppers and beetles. A few weeks later, pests well known to all entomologists had reduced the collection to dust and that was the end of that. Permission to collect birds’ eggs was not received until some years later, in district school days. To this day, he will tell you the greatest thrill of his whole life was when he climbed the old cottonwood tree in the south pasture and saw and col¬ lected his first set of crow’s eggs. His days in district No. 9 school are chiefly remembered by the noon trips to the forty or more acres of original prairie sod a half mile to the east, with its undulating surface, where Cypripedium candidum grew by hundreds, Dodecatheon meadia by millions and Phlox maculata by the acre. Across the road from this were five acres which were almost a solid growth of Iris. Birds’ eggs were the objects of the trips, but in case he might be tardy when the one o 'clock bell rang, a large bouquet or an armload of the choicest flowers were always taken back to keep the teacher in good humor, and some¬ how he says it always worked. Eggs of redwing blackbirds in the Iris and of meadowlarks and Bob Whites in the grass were abundant. The finding of the eggs of the upland plover was a rare thrill and to find those of the kildeer a constant dare. To find the eggs of the migratory shrike was a rare treat and after be¬ ing away twenty years, he was much Virginius H. Chase 19 years of age pleased to find a pair, probably de¬ scendants of those he had robbed years ago, were again nesting in the same clump of trees. In going home from school, a slight detour gave a quarter of a mile of dense bottomland thicket to explore, where he found nesting black-crowned night herons and lit¬ tle green herons, yellow-breasted chats and the commoner species. It was mostly a thicket of Prunus americana and Mains ioensis, roofed over with Vitis riparia. In the open¬ ings, Trillium recurvatum and Mer- tensia were the most abundant of flowers. After district school days, two winters at Princeville academy ended all formal education. Then a few weeks ’ instruction in tele- Virginius H. Chase, Peoria Botanist 69 graphy at Wyoming and Chase took charge of the telegraph office and railroad station at Wady Petra. With short hours and much leis¬ ure, the boy was ready for new worlds to conquer, for the commoner birds’ eggs were already in his col¬ lection and others seemed to have been beyond walking distance. At the World’s Pair of 1893, he first saw a herbarium specimen and that settled it — a herbarium was the thing he wanted and must have. His mother’s old Gray’s Manual she had used at Kansas University when she studied under the famous Dr. Snow looked intriguing but seemed beyond his comprehension, and his mother appeared to have for¬ gotten the little learned in the few weeks of school. His aunt, Agnes Chase, at that time knew no botany, but with mutual interest they tackled the problem together. The night Agnes succeeded in running down Campanula americana by her¬ self, the game was on for them both, and for that matter, still is. For the first few years, Agnes in Chicago, a proof reader on the Chi¬ cago Inter Ocean, and Virginius at Wady Petra, in the railroad station, collected at every opportunity, and by exchange of fresh material by mail, verified each other* s deter¬ minations. Mr. Chase’s correspondence with Hill, Ruth, Porter, Wooten, Brain- erd, Lunell, Sargent, Henderson, Wheeler, Bicknell, Beal and others, and exchanges of specimens with Na¬ tional Herbarium, Gray Herbarium, Missouri Botanical Garden, Gleason at the University of Illinois and others made life worth while. Chase collected plants of Viola for Brainerd’s garden experiments, and grafts, fresh flowers and hundreds of herbarium specimens of Cratae¬ gus for Sargent to use in his historic round-up of that genus. Prof. Sar¬ gent came to Wady Petra to per¬ sonally see the type trees of his new species — Crataegus peoriensis and Crataegus pratensis — growing, and also trees of Crataegus illinoensis, which Ashe had recently described from material collected by Chase. Opinions differ, but Chase still thinks Sargent, with his field studies, knew more abo^it Crataegus than any who have come since. An incident Chase will always re¬ member was when he put in a good part of two days trying to run down a plant with distinctly parallel- veined leaves, as all good monocoty- ledonous plants are supposed to have, even to reading over the de¬ scription of every species in that group, only to have to give up in despair. Months later by accident he stumbled on the name of yucci- folium and found his plant was an Eryngium placed among the JJmbel- liferrae — a booby trap others no doubt have fallen into even though they don’t confess. Mr. Chase and Frank E. McDon¬ ald, another Peoria botanist, were good friends, and after selling his herbarium to the University of Illi¬ nois, McDonald gave Chase his large herbarium case and his book of notes and plant records. After McDon¬ ald’s death, Chase bought his botani¬ cal library and later Mrs. McDonald gave him the moss herbarium of 2000 specimens McDonald had made during the last years of his life. After turning over the telegraph office to a younger brother, Chase 70 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions built a grain elevator and con¬ ducted a successful business in lum¬ ber, drain tile, coal and feed at Wady Petra for five years. Then, the rest of the family having moved to Kansas, Chase traded his interests in Wady Petra for Kansas land and in three years found himself penni¬ less and in debt. Then followed a year with a pro¬ duce dealer and wholesale grocer at Paragould, Arkansas, then a few months with an Illinois well driller, and five years in Peoria grocery stores working ten hours a day and sixteen on Saturday. The next 28 years were spent in the P. & P. U. railroad freight house at Peoria with practically no vaca¬ tions, and during two world wars working seven days a week and nine to ten hours a day, so one may per¬ haps be able to forgive him if he did not get much done. He did act as president of the local Audubon So¬ ciety, Boy Scout Committeeman, Boy Scout Commissioner and Exam¬ iner in Bird Study and Botany for the Boy Scouts. In addition to his collecting in Illi¬ nois, may be mentioned some 150 species in Butler county, Kansas and 664 numbers collected in a hurried trip of only 24 days with Dr. C. D. Sneller via Bad Lands of South Da¬ kota, Black Hills, and Yellowstone National Park to Craters of the Moon and back by way of Montana and Minnesota. A set of the plants collected at the Craters of the Moon was mounted, labeled and presented to the super¬ intendent of the monument as the nucleus of a herbarium to show those species growing within its boundary. Two hundred fifty specimens from this trip went to the National Her¬ barium and a full set to the Peoria Academy of Science. In 1939 Mr. Chase went as botani¬ cal collector to Mexico with the sec¬ ond Hoogstraal scientific expedition from the University of Illinois. In spite of a wreck, which deprived the expedition of its leader and forced it to travel with no windshield and only a tarpaulin to protect the speci¬ mens, Chase managed to bring back ten sets of herbarium specimens. The first set was given to the Field Mu¬ seum for identification, and Dr. Standley declared it to be the best prepared lot he had ever seen come out of Mexico. Another set was given to the Peoria Academy of Science. A set of 160 grasses was presented to the National Herbar¬ ium. To help defray expenses of the ex¬ pedition, sets were sold to Gray Herbarium, University of Michigan, Missouri Botanical Garden, Car¬ negie Desert Museum, U. S. Division of Plant Industry, New York Bo¬ tanical Garden, and University of Illinois — in all, approximately 5000 sheets. The finding of Syringantha loran- thoides, a tall shrub, collected only once before since it was originally collected nearly a hundred years be¬ fore; collecting Bouteloua heteros- tega, which had never before been collected on continental America, and P a s p alum malacophyllum, which had been collected in North America but once, in Yucatan; and collecting Muhlenbergia thurberi for the first time in Neuvo Leon, as well as two unnamed species, was quite gratifying as that particular region Virginius H. Chase , Peoria Botanist 71 had been considered pretty well worked before. In an old publication, “ Birds,” issued by Nature Study Publishing; Co., Chicago, one of the first publi¬ cations to use crude color photog¬ raphy, one may find pictured the nests of orchard oriole and rose¬ breasted grosbeak made from nests collected by Chase and sent to the Chicago Academy of Science while Prank Baker was curator and Wood¬ ruff, taxidermist. Mr. Chase’s first published item, ‘‘A Battle of Ants,” appeared in Popular Science of December, 1897. A brief sketch of the life of Frank E. McDonald was published in Rho- dora of September, 1920. Between 1923 and 1926 twenty issues of the Peoria Star contained timely column articles on nature study of local interest. For the program of the meeting of the Illinois State Academy of Science in Peoria in 1931 he pre¬ sented a sketch of the life of Dr. Frederick Brendel. Two years later, when the Peoria Academy of Science organized sections for special studies, he was placed at the head of the section on Botany and Dr. C. D. Sneller, then president, said, “Of course Chase must be custodian — he has it as an enzyme in his blood, ” and he has held the two appoint¬ ments ever since. He also served as president of the Peoria Academy in 1937. As publicity for the Academy, un¬ der the heading of “Nature Ram¬ bles,” the Peoria Star published each Sunday between 1933 and 1936 a total of 130 articles on many lines of nature study by Chase. Two years ago, Mr. Chase donated to the University of Illinois all dup¬ licate herbarium specimens on hand, some 8000 sheets. His private herbarium contains 18,240 sheets of ferns and sperma- tophytes of the United States, 1061 sheets of foreign plants, and 2107 packets of mosses and hepatics, a total of 21,408 specimens. Besides these, he has prepared and mounted 6571 sheets for the Peoria Academy collection. His special interest at the present time is a seed collection put up in two-dram vials — now only in the sec¬ ond hundred. His private collection of shells — marine, land, and fresh water, ex¬ ceeds 200 species. Of fossils from coal vein No. 2 of the famous Mazon region he has representatives of a good portion of the known species and also a fair collection from local stripping of coal No. 5 and coal No. 6 in marine fossils. His personally collected Indian artifacts number more than 2000. Of new species of plants to his credit he has: Psaronius peo.riensis and Psaronius septentrionalis, two species of fossil fern bark of Peoria county, presum¬ ably of Permian age, described by Gillette in Botanical Gazette, Vol. 49, Sep. 1937 ; Xanthium chasei, a new cockle bur from Tazewell county, Illinois, de¬ scribed by M. L. Fernald in Rho- dora, Yol. 48, April, 1946 ; Galium juniperinum, a bedstraw from Neuvo Leon, Mexico, described by P. C. Standley in Botanical Series, Field Museum of Natural History, Yol. 22, June 12, 1940 ; Bouteloua chasei, a grass from Neuvo Leon, Mexico, described by 72 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Jason Swallen in Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, Vol. 56, page 81, Sep. 10, 1943 ; Crataegus illinoensis , a red haw from Stark County, Illinois describ¬ ed by W. W. Ashe in Journal of Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Vol. XVI, Feb. 1900 ; Crataegus peoriensis, a red haw from Stark and Peoria counties, Illi¬ nois, described by C. S. Sargent in Botanical Gazette, Vol. XXXI, Jan¬ uary, 1901 ; Crataegus pratensis, another species of red haw from the same region, de¬ scribed by Sargent in the same issue as the preceding. From living and herbarium mate¬ rial collected by Mr. Chase, two hy¬ brid violets, Viola pedatifida x sa- gittdta and Viola pedatifida xsororia were described by Ezra Brainerd in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, Vol. 40, June, 1913. In publishing Panicum praecocius, Hitchcock and Chase, in Bhodora, Vol. 8, 1906, took V. H. Chase’s number 649, collected at Wady Petra, Illinois, as the type specimen. That Mr. Chase has many loyal friends is attested by the fact that at Bradley University, Peoria, will be found the name of Virginius H. Chase on the Roll of Distinction, placed “in recognition of his contri¬ butions to the study of Systematic Botany, especially with reference to the Flora of Illinois.” He has also been elected a life member of the Peoria Academy of Science. Now, having recently retired, he says at last he hopes to get started doing something! Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 40, 1947 73 THE ACANTHACEAE OF ILLINOIS GLEN WINTERRINGER University of Illinois, Urbana This study deals with the genera and species of the Acanthaceae1 known to occur in Illinois. It is in¬ tended to present an account of the members of this family, with a means of their identification. Atten¬ tion has been given to the study of Euellia, with special regard to the status of Euellia humilis Nutt, and E. ciliosa Pursh. The data for the study of geographical distribution, and taxonomic characters of genera and species have been taken from specimens in the herbarium of the University of Illinois and that of the Illinois State Natural History Sur¬ vey. The writer wishes to express grati¬ tude for the privilege of using facili¬ ties of the Natural History Library of the University of Illinois. Gener¬ ous assistance furnished by Dr. G. N. Jones of the botany department as to bibliographical material, suggestions for style of arrangement, and taxo¬ nomic concepts involved has been valuable. Thanks are due L. R. Tehon and R. A. Evers of the Natur¬ al History Survey for making avail¬ able many of the herbarium speci¬ mens used in this study. Keys are provided for the identi¬ fication of the genera and the spec¬ ies. The statements of geographi¬ cal range have been based upon P.A. Rydberg’s Flora of the Prairies and Plains of Central North America, (1932). 1 Acanthaceae, a family of 175 genera and about 2000 species. Key to the Illinois Genera 1. Corolla two-lipped, fertile stamens 2; plants growing in water or along muddy shores; leaves entire, lance¬ olate . Dianthera I. Corolla nearly regular, fertile sta¬ mens 4; plants of drier habitat; leaves broader . Ruellia Dianthera americana L. Sp. PI. 27 (1753). Lapham (1857) 526; Patterson (1874) II, (1876) 28; Brendel (1887) 86; Huett (1897) 112; Pepoon (1927) 471; Mc- Dougall (1936) 315; Fuller (1943) 98; Jones (1945) 233. Justicia americana (L.) Vahl, Symb. Bot. 2: 15 (1791). Type locality: “Habitat in Virginia.” Range: Common along muddy shores of streams, and margins of shallow ponds and lakes from Quebec to Wiscon¬ sin and south to Kansas, Texas, and Georgia. Flowering from July to Sep¬ tember. Adams County: Burton Creek near the cave, 4 June 1943, R. A. Evers 1138. Waters of Camp Creek, 29 May 1932, Pepoon & Barrett 2241. Champaign County: Wet bank along Salt Fork near Sidney, 3 October 1940, G. N. Jones 13216; 20 July 1940, G. N. Jones 12460. Urbana, 7 July 1886, Waite. In ditch, St. Joseph, 24 July 1928, Mc- Dougall 152. Sandy bottom, shallow water Middle Fork of Vermilion River, 18 October 1928, Tehon & Thompson 2246. Coles County: Paradise Lake, in water two feet deep, 8 June 1929, D. H. Thompson 2244. Cook County: Palos Park, 6 June 1906, H. C. Cowles. Fayette County: Dismal Creek, north¬ east of Farina, 14 July 1940, Louise O’Dell 375. Grundy County: Mazon Creek, 12 June 1932, Pepoon & Barrett 5183. Hardin County: River strand plant on limestone boulder in Ohio River near Elizabethtown, 24 June 1931, J. Schopf 2243. Henderson County: Oquawka, H. N. Patterson. Jefferson County: Margin of pond, 1 June 1932, Pepoon & Barrett 5233. 74 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Kankakee County: Kankakee River northwest of Kankakee, 3 August 1912, Sherff 1603. Sandy flats along Kankakee River, 19 June 1937, R. A. Schneider 2250. LaSalle County: Little Vermilion River at Troy Grove, 8 September 1931, Pepoon & Foster 970. Livingston County: Pontiac, 25 July 1944, G. D. Fuller 9146. Macon County: Lake Decatur, upper end, 26 July 1929, W. Luce. Macoupin County: Carlinville, 2 July 1890, W. E. Andrews. Gravelly and sandy soil near Carlinville, 13 July 1940, G D. Fuller 2248. Carlinville, 23 August 1882, C. Robertson 2252. Pope County: In Big Grand Pierre Creek northeast of Golconda, 19 July 1941, G. H. Boewe. Two miles east of Herod, 7 July 1931, J. Schopf 2242. Union County. Mill Creek, 1 June 1932, Pepoon & Barrett 4520 Vermilion County: Seymour & Butts, 24 June 1880. Wabash County: Wabash River at Mt. Carmel, 8 June 1894, J. Schneck. Sandy shore, Wabash River, 10 June 1932, Pepoon & Barrett 5139. Wayne County: Shallow water, 13 June 1944, G. D. Fuller 8709. Williamson County: Grassy Creek at Devil’s Kitchen, 2 June 1941, McCree 806. Key to the Illinois Species of Ruellia 1. Stem simple to slightly branched, leaves lanceolate, oblong to ovate. 2. Calyx segments lanceolate, 2-4 mm. broad, capsule glabrous. . . . . R. strepens 2. Calyx segments 0.5-1 mm. wide, tapering to the tip, capsule pilose: flowers on slender pedun¬ cles . R. pedunculata 1. Stem decumbent with bushy habit, leaves narrow, oblong, lanceolate, the tips blunt or rounded, coarsely villous; calyx 1.5-2. 5 cm. long; cap¬ sule glabrous . R. humilis Because of variations among some of the specimens of B. humilis Nutt., naming of intergrading varieties and forms has been omitted from the present treatment of Illinois species of this genus. Neglect of orig¬ inal descriptions may be a basic rea¬ son for the fact that much confusion seems to have existed for a century over the correct identification of B. humilis Nutt, and B. ciliosa Pursh. Many careful and reliable taxono¬ mists have failed to note the obvious differences between B. ciliosa, as we have ordinarily identified it, and the original description by Pursh. As pointed out by Fernald (1945), the name B. ciliosa Pursh should be re¬ tained for a plant of the southeast¬ ern states and the Gulf Coast re¬ gions. Ruellia strepens L. Sp. PI. 634 (1753) ; Schneck (1876) 546; Patterson (1876) 29; Brendel (1887) 55; Gates (1926) 230; Pepoon (1927) 471; McDougall & Liebtag (1928) 231; Stover (1930) 25; McDougall (1936) 316; Jones (1942) 72; Fuller (1943) 98; Fernald (1945) 16; Jones (1945) 234. Dipteracanthus strepens (L.) Nees in Linnaea 16: 292 (1842); Lapham (1857) 526; Forbes (1870) 318. Hygrophila illinoiensis Wood ex. A. Gray, Syn. FI. N. Am. 21: 327 (1878), erroneously assigned to Bull. Torr. Club 5: 41 (1874). Ruellia strepens var. cleistantha A. Gray, Syn. FI. N. Am. 1: 327 (1878). Ruellia strepens f. cleistantha (A. Gray) S. McCoy in Am. Bot. 43: 24 (1937). Type locality: “Habitat in Virginia, Carolina.” Range: Common in alluvial soil throughout Illinois, and from Penn¬ sylvania to Iowa and south to Texas and Florida; flowering in Illinois from June to August. Scott McCoy’s paper (Am. Bot. 43: 24, 1937) gives an interesting account of observations from a specimen of Ruellia strepens transplanted to his garden. In June the plant bore flowers typical of the species and in autumn produced cleistogamous flowers. Three specimens examined by the writer revealed that those collected from mid-August to November bore capsules closely packed in the axils of the upper leaves. Adams County: Moist alluvial soil, eight miles south of Quincy, 8 September 1943, G. D. Fuller 3005. Calhoun County: Along roadway through timber, Pere Marquette Study Acanthaceae of Illinois 75 Area, 11 October 1939, G. H. Boewe. Steep talus below Kampsville, 30 May 1933, Pepoon & Barrett 4399. Champaign County: Sangamon River 15 miles west of Urbana, 21 June 1942, N. R. Piesbergen. University Woods near Urbana, 18 October 1941, G. N. Jones 15008. Roadside, Urbana, 6 July 1928, W. B. McDougall 52. Woods, Ur¬ bana, 17 June 1880, Seymour & Butts. Thicket, “St. Joe to Sidney,” 16 Septem¬ ber 1889, G. P. Clinton. Woods along Salt Fork River, near Urbana, 3 October 1943, G. N. Jones 16316. Near Urbana, 19 June 1941, G. N. Jones 13909. Grassy roadside, near Urbana, 28 June 1940, G. N. Jones 11818. Sangamon River bot¬ toms near Mahomet, 29 September 1940, G. N. Jones 13120. Fulton County: Sandy ground, Liver¬ pool, 6 August 1891, H. S. Pepoon. Hancock County. Crooked Creek bot¬ tom, 10 September 1916, F. C. Gates. Kankakee County: Rich soil, 2 June 1872, E. J. Hill. Livingston County: Moist woods, five miles south of Pontiac, 26 July 1944, G. D. Fuller 9196. Macoupin County: Carlinville, 19 June 1882, C. Robertson 2277. Carlin¬ ville, 19 August 1889, W. E. Andrews. Carlinville, 19 June 1889, W. E. Andrews. Macon County: Decatur, May 1896, I. W. Clokey. Three miles east of Decatur, cleared hill top, 30 May 1915, I. W. Clokey 2486. Menard County: Moist ravine, New Salem, 10 September 1940, G. D. Fuller 3015. Peoria County: Peoria, dry open woods, July 1892, F. E. McDonald. Rich woods, Peoria, July 1901, F. E. Mc¬ Donald. Low grounds, Peoria, July 1887, F. E. McDonald. (Without num¬ ber or date) Peoria, F. Brendel as Dipteracanthus strepens. Pike County: East Hannibal, 3 June 1913, J. Davis 4623, Pulaski County: Swampy ground one mile north of Ullin, 5 June 1941, G. H. Boewe. Richland County: Near Olney. “Bird* haven,” 8 October 1920, R. Ridgway 1320. Sangamon County: Rich soil, Salis¬ bury Township, 18 August 1941, G. D. Fuller 6537. St. Clair County: Mascoutah (with¬ out number or date) W. Welch as Dipteracanthus strepens. Union County: Rich soil, woods, 25 September 1940, G. D. Fuller 334. Wabash County: In cut-over wooded area about one mile north of Bellmont, 29 May 1941, G. H. Boewe. Crawfish Bridge, 4 July 1893, J. Schneck. Gleck’s field, 8 June 1878, J. Schneck. Mt. Car¬ mel; a specimen in which the “flower is a deeper red and has a smaller flower, especially in the expanded portion, than the regular form.” July 1880, J. Schneck. Ruellia pedunculata Torr. ex. A. Gray, Syn. FI. N. Am. 21: 325 (1878). Britton and Brown (1913) 3: 242; McDougall (1936) 316; Fuller (1943) 98; Jones (1945) 234. Type locality: “Dry woods in W. Louisiana, J. Hale. Arkansas, Bigelow, Mrs. Harris.” Range: In dry, open woods in south¬ ern Illinois to Oklahoma, eastern Texas and Louisiana. Flowering from June to August and commonly called the Stalked Ruellia. Alexander County: Rich woods two and one-half miles south of Diswood, 27 September 1931, Pepoon & Barrett 695. Johnson County: Dry soil, Tunnel Hill, 26 May 1902, J. Schneck. Pulaski County: In open woods on top of dry hill one and one-half miles northwest of Ullin, 18 June 1941, G. H. Boewe. Saline County: On a rocky slope of Swartz Hill in northeast Saline County, 12 September 1931, Pepoon & Foster 1405. Union County: Anna, 13 August 1880, A. B. Seymour. In the shady wood edge, along roads, 13 June 1927, G. L. Stout 2271. In open woods one mile north¬ east of the city limit of Anna, 29 August 1931, J. Schopf 1557. Open woods back of peach orchard, one mile northeast of city limit of Anna, 29 August 1931, J. Schopf 1544. Ruellia humilis Nutt, in Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. 5: 182 (1837). Dipteracanthus ciliosus (Pursh) Nees in Linnaea 16: 294 (1842); Lapham (1857) 526; Forbes (1870) 318. Dipteracanthus noctiflorus p humilis (Nutt.) Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 123 (1847). R. ciliosa, var. longiflora A. Gray, Syn. FI. 2: 236 (1878). R. ciliosa var. humilis (Nutt.) Britt, in Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 9: 185 (1890). R. ciliosa sensu Mead (1846) 119; Babcock (1872) 146; Patterson (1874) 11; Hyatt (1875) 67; Patterson (1876) 28; Schneck (1876) 546; Brendel (1887) 55; Higley & Raddin (1891) 90; Huett (1897) 112; Snare & Hicks (1898) 16; Gleason (1907) 187; Gleason (1910) 166; Thone (1925) 105; Pepoon (1927) 471; 76 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions McDougall (1936) 316; Jones (1945) 234. — Not R. ciliosa Pursh (1814). R. caroliniensis sensu Fuller (1943) 98. Non (Walt) Steud. R. humilis var. typica, Fern, in Rho- dora 47; 54 (1945). R. humilis forma grisea, Fern, in 1. c. 54. R. humilis var. frondosa, Fern, in 1. c. 54. R. humilis var. longiflora (A. Gray). Fern, in 1. c. 56. R. humilis var. expansa, Fern, in 1. c. 58. Type locality: “Hab. On rocks in the upland forests and prairies.” (Type or isotype, an Arkansas specimen from Nuttall in the Torrey Herbarium). Range: In dry soil, along roads, on grassy banks, and dry slopes from south¬ ern Michigan to southeastern Nebraska, Iowa, and Missouri, and southward to eastern Texas, Louisiana, and north¬ western Florida. Flowering in Illinois from June to September. In this study the following char¬ acters have been used in order to separate the intergrading varieties and forms of this species: leaf shape, length of internode, kind and degree of pubes¬ cence, length and shape of sepals, and length of corolla. According to Nut- tail’s description of R. humilis, the plants are erect, hirsute, the leaves oblong-ovate, sessile, the peduncles 1-3- flowered, and the tube of the corolla twice the length of the laciniate, filiform calyx lobes. The leaves were indicated as “very similar to those of R. strepens, but sessile and not perfectly entire.” The flowers were said to be pale blue and commonly two inches long. Ruellia humilis forma grisea Fern., with a more extreme pubescence than R. humilis var. typica, is scattered through the range of the latter. In R. humilis var. longi¬ flora (A. Gray) Fern, the corolla is indicated as five to eight centimeters long, the veins and the margins of the leaves copiously villous-hirsute. R. humilis var. expansa Fern, has leaves described as ovate to ovate-oblong. They vary somewhat in size but agree in de¬ gree of pubescence. Cass County: Sandy soil at edge of timber, five and one-half miles south of Beardstown, 27 June 1941, G. H. Boewe. Champaign County: Urbana, 15 July 1878, A. B. Seymour. Urbana, 13 July 1880, A. B. Seymour. Urbana, 25 June 1897, G. P. Clinton. Grassy bank near Urbana, 1 August 1940, G. N. Jones 12686. Near Urbana, 20 July 1940, G. N. Jones 12531. Near Urbana, 10 Sep¬ tember 1939, G. N. Jones 10714. Near Urbana, 24 June 1942, N. R. Piesbergen. Grassy bank near Urbana, 1 July 1940, G. N. Jones 12250. One mile east of Mayview, 18 June 1942, G. H. Boewe. One-half mile northeast of Rantoul, 1 July 1942, G. H. Boewe. Christian County: One and one-half miles northeast of Stonington, 24 June 1942, G. H. Boewe. Cook County: Calumet, dry hills (without name), 12 July 1865. Sandy soil, Custer Park (without date), W. S. Moffatt 570. Dry rocky places, Lemont, 29 June 1898, A. Chase 877. Dry rocky ground, Lemont, 29 June 1898, E. J. Hill. Cumberland County: Hazel Dell Area, July 1939, C. S. Spooner. Douglas County: Areola, 2 July 1939, C. Mohr. Hancock County: Prairie along Wa¬ bash R. R., 11 September 1916, F. C. Gates. Henderson County: Sandy, open places, 27 May 1932, Pepoon & Barrett. Jasper County: East of Wheeler, 9 June 1941, G. H. Boewe. Jefferson County: Southeast of Cen- tralia, 25 July 1930, L. Campbell & C. Alexopoulos. Kankakee County: Three miles north¬ west of Bonfield, 18 July 1943, G. N. Jones 15942. Sandy swales, 11 June 1932, H. S. Pepoon 2258. Macon County: Stevens Creek at Wa¬ bash, openings in timber, 1 July 1915, I. W. Clokey 2429. Macoupin County: Carlinville, 21 June 1889, W. E. Andrews. Carlinville, moist soil in partial shade, 13 July 1940, G. D. Fuller 2249. Mason County: Havana, 13 June 1894, T. J. Burrill. Havana, 27 June 1910, F. C. Gates 3471. 25 June 1942, G. H. Boewe. Havana, low, sandy forest, 12 July 1940, G. D. Fuller 2231. Morgan County: Near Manchester, 30 May 1932, Pepoon & Barrett. Ogle County: Oregon, “Liberty Hill,” dry soil, 7 August 1883, M. Waite. Byron, dry hillsides, 17 August 1895, W. S. Mof¬ fatt 455. Oregon, rocky banks, 18 Au¬ gust 1895, W. S. Moffatt 455. Open woods White Pines State Park, 8 July 1942, G. D. Fuller 3435-0. Peoria County: Peoria, dry prairies, July (date incomplete) F. E. McDonald. Pike County: Along a steep wooded creek bank, 1 July 1943, G. H. Boewe. Roadside east of El Dara, 22 June 1931, L. R. Tehon. Pope County: Rocky dry wooded hill¬ side northeast of Golconda, 19 June 1941, Acanthaceae of Illinois 77 G. H. Boewe. Growing in oak-elm woods, 3 July 1931, J. Schopf 348. Shelby County: Roadside two miles east of Windsor, 25 June 1940, G. H. Boewe. Two miles east of Tower Hill, 24 June 1941, G. H. Boewe. Stark County: Gravel slope near Wady Petra, 9 July 1900, V. H. Chase 673. Tazewell County: Sunny, sandy banks south of Pekin, 17 July 1932, Pepoon & Barrett. Union County: Cobden, 25 July 1886, F. S. Earle. Pine Hill, rocky, shaded hillside, 11 September 1940, G. D. Fuller 266. Vermilion County: Along Vermilion River between Oakwood and Collison, 23 June 1940, G. N. Jones 11620. Wabash County: Dry, hard soil, 20 June 1902, J. Schneck. Winnebago County: Above Rockford, 23 June 1933, H. S. Pepoon. Summary A study has been made of the genera and species of Acanthaceae occurring in Illinois, and keys have been provided for their identifica¬ tion. A county distribution of the species is included. Only one species of Dianthera, D. americana, is known to occur in Illi¬ nois. Justicia humilis Michx. FI. Bor. Am. 1: 8 (1803), was reported from southern Illinois by E. J. Palm¬ er (1921) 134 as Dianthera ovata Walt. However, there appear to be no Illinois specimens in the herbar¬ ium of the Missouri Botanical Gar¬ den, where Palmer deposited his specimens, to substantiate this re¬ port. Three species of Ruellia , R. strepens, R. pedunculata, and R. humilis, are discussed, with support¬ ing citations of Illinois specimens. Ruellia ciliosa Pursh is a plant of the southeastern and Gulf-coastal regions. The writer follows M. L. Fernald in substituting the name R. humilis Nutt, for the northern¬ ranging species commonly found in Illinois, and formerly incorrectly known as R. ciliosa Pursh. References Babcock, H. H. 1872. The Flora of Chicago and Vicinity. The Lens 1: 144-150. Brendel, F. 1887. Flora Peoriana. 89 pp. Peoria, Illinois. Britton, N. L., and A. Brown. 1913. An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Canada, and the Brit¬ ish Possessions. Ed. 2. 3 vols. New York Botanical Garden, N. Y. Fernald, M. L. 1945. Ruellia in the East¬ ern United States. Rhodora 47: 1-38; 47-63; 69-90. Forbes, S. A. 1870. Botanical Notes. Am. Bot. & Ent. 2: 318. Fuller, G. D. 1943. A Preliminary Check list of the Vascular Plants of Sanga¬ mon Co., Illinois. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 36: 91-99. Gates, F. C. 1926. Contributions to the Flora of Hancock County, Illinois. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 18: 225-234. Gleason, H. A. 1910. The Vegetation of the Inland Sand Deposits of Illinois. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist. 9: 23-174. Gray, A. 1878. Synoptical Flora of North America. 21: 325-327. Higley, W. K., and C. S. Raddin. 1891. The Flora of Cook County, Illinois, and a Part of Lake County, Indiana. Bull. Chi. Acad. Sci. 2: 1-168. Huett, J. W. 1897. An Essay Toward a Natural History of LaSalle County, Illinois. Part I — Botany. Flora La- Sallensis. 136 pp. Fair-Dealer Print, Ottawa, Illinois. Hyatt, J. 1875. Western Plants Ob¬ served Near Chicago and Peoria. Bull. Torr. Club 6: 66-68. Jones, G. N. 1942. A Checklist of the Vascular Plants of the University of Illinois Woodlands. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 35: 71-72. - 1945. Flora of Illinois. 317 pp. The University Press. Notre Dame, Indiana. Lapham, I. A. 1857. Catalogue of the Plants of the State of Illinois. Trans. Ill. State Agr. Soc. 2: 492-550. McCoy, S. 1937. American Botanist. 43: 22-24. McDougall, W. B., and Charlotte Lieb- tag. 1928. Symbiosis in a Deciduous Forest. 3. Bot. Gaz. 86: 226-234. McDougall, W. B. 1936. Fieldbook of Illinois Wild Flowers. 406 pp. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Man. I. Urbana, Illinois. 78 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Mead, S. B. 1846. Catalogue of Plants Growing Spontaneously in the State of Illinois, the Principal Part near Augusta, Hancock County. Prairie Farmer 6: 93; 119-122. Nuttall, T. 1818. The Genera of N. A. Plants. Vol. 2: 44. Philadelphia, Penn¬ sylvania. - 1837. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 5: 182-183. Palmer, E. J. 1921. Botanical Recon¬ naissance of Southern Illinois. Journ. Arnold Arb. 2: 129-153. Patterson, H. N. 1874. Plants Collected in the Vicinity of Oquawka, Hender¬ son County. 18 pp. Oquawka, Illinois. - 1876. Catalogue of the Phaenogamous and Vascular Crypto- gamous Plants of Illinois, Native and Introduced. 54 pp. Spectator Print, Oquawka, Illinois. Pepoon, H. S. 1927. An Annotated Flora of the Chicago Area. Chicago Acad. Sci. 8: 1-554. Schneck, J. 1876. Catalogue of the Flora of the Wabash Valley Below the Mouth of White River. Geol. Surv. Ind. Ann. Rept. 7 (1875): 504-579. Stover, E. L. 1930. A Mesophytic Ra¬ vine, Rocky Branch. Teachers’ Coll. Bull, of the Eastern Ill. State Teach¬ ers’ Coll., Charleston, No. 110: 1-26. Thone, F. 1925. Preliminary Check List of the Vascular Plants of Illinois State Park at Starved Rock, LaSalle Coun¬ ty. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 17: 100-106. CHEMISTRY H. E. PHIPPS, Chairman Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston * 1. Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Agriculture: Gustav Egloff, Universal Oil Products Company, Chicago. * 2. Catalysis in the Oxidation of Oxalic Acid by Nitric Acid: J. H. Reedy, University of Illinois, Urbana. * 3. Research Projects for Senior Chemistry Students: Sister Mary Martinette, B.V.M., Mundelein College, Chicago. * 4. A Bomb in a Test-tube: G. Frederick Smith, University of Illinois, Urbana. (slides) * 5. Electron Microscope in Analytical Chemistry: Robert B. Fischer, Univer¬ sity of Illinois, Urbana. (slides) * 6. Nutritional Studies on the Yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe: Frank M. Clark, University of Illinois, Urbana. 7. Chemistry of Synthetic Rubber: Rudolph Deanin, University of Illinois, Urbana. (slides) 8. The Use of Partial Differentials for the Estimation of Errors in Volumetric Analysis: F. Wm. Cagle, Jr., University of Illinois, Urbana. *Not. published. [79] 80 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 40, 1947 THE USE OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIALS FOR THE ESTIMATION OF ERRORS IN VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS* F. Wm. CAGLE, Jr. University of Illinois, Urbana This work was undertaken to de¬ termine what accuracy might be ob¬ tained in carefully conducted volu¬ metric analysis. It is desirable to have such data in view of the im¬ mense popularity which volumetric schemes enjoy. Development of Formulae First let us develop partial differ¬ ential expressions for probable error in volumetric analysis.1 We shall derive these from the usual forms of the equations used for the calcula¬ tions of volumetric results. The following symbols shall have the meanings assigned : S = Sample weight in grams. ml = Volume of standard solu¬ tion in milliliters, e = Milliequivalent weight of substance sought or primary standard weighed. N = Normality of standard solu¬ tion. If a sample of S (in grams) of a standard substance, whose milliequi¬ valent weight is e, reacts stoichio- metrically with a volume ml (in mil¬ liliters) of a solution, we may say that the normality, N, of the solution is given by : S N = - (I) ml X e We may then write (e is a constant) : *The material in this paper has been taken from a thesis presented to the Graduate School of the University of Illinois in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree or Master of Science (1945). It is presented with the permission of the Dean of the Graduate School and Professor G. L. Clark, under whose direction it was prepared. 1 s dN= - 3S - d (ml) ml X e (ml)2 X e (II) Now let us divide II by I to obtain expression III : dN 3S 3 (ml) - = - (III) N S ml If a weighed quantity, S, of a sample of milliequivalent weight, e, should require ml uri GUtters- of a standard solution of normality, N, for stoichiometric reaction, we may calculate percentage purity by form¬ ula IV: ml X N X e X 100 '% = - (IV) s By the scheme described above we can obtain expression V : N X e X 100 d%= - 0 (ml) + S ml X e X 100 ml X N X e X 100 - 3N - 0S S S2 (V) Combining expressions V and IV we derive VI : d% 0(ml) ^N 0S - =. - + - (VI) % ml sN S If two solutions, one of volume, ml and normality, N, and the other of volume, ml', and normality, N', re¬ act stoichiometically, we may write expression VII : N X ml = N' X ml' (VII) From this we may write expression VIII : Partial Differentials in Volumetric Analysis 81 ml' N' dN = - £N'H - 3 (ml') — ml ml N(ml') - 3 (ml) (VIII) (ml)2 Dividing VIII by VII we obtain IX : dN 0N' 3 (ml') 3 (ml) - = - + - N N' ml' ml (IX) It is necessary to give some consid¬ eration to the evaluation of the sep¬ arate terms in equations III, VI, and 3S IX. The term — is estimated from S a knowledge of the sensitivity of the balance upon which the samples are 3 (ml) weighed. The term - is esti- ml mated by careful weight calibrations of the burettes used. The pipets were standardized by the United States Bureau of Standards, and their er¬ ror could be obtained directly from the certificate provided. In the case 0N' of equation IX, - is required. This N' is evaluated from previous calcula¬ tions with equation III. Application to Experimental Data Table 1 contains data on the stand¬ ardization of perchlorato - cerate solutions with samples of sodium ox¬ alate. The over-all reaction is : 2 H2 Ce (C104)6 + Na.,C.>04 = 2 C02 + 2Ce(C104)3 + 6 Na C104 A sample of about 0.25 gram of pure dry sodium oxalate is accur¬ ately weighed on a balance of known sensitivity and dissolved in about 100 milliliters of 2N perchloric acid. This solution is then titrated (in the cold) with the unknown solution of perchloratocerate from a previously calibrated burette with the ferrous complex of 5-nitro-(l,10)-phenan- throline as the indicator. Samples 4 through 7 were taken from publi¬ cation 2 listed in References with the knowledge and permission of the author. Examples 1, 2, 3, and 4 in Table 2 concern the quantitative oxidation of sucrose by a perehlorato-cerate solution in 4N perchloric acid.2 The over-all reaction is : C12H22014 + 26 H,Ce(C104)6 + 12H20 = 11 H2C02 + COo + 26Ce(C104)3 + 78 HC104. “ Examples 5, 6 and 7 in Table 2 represent data obtained for the titra¬ tion of a weighed sample of purified ceric ammonium nitrate titrated with sodium oxalate in 2N perchloric acid. Table 3 contains data on the stand¬ ardization of a perchlorato-cerate solution with a standard solution of sodium oxalate and the reverse of this standardization. It will be noted that in each table values of maximum, minimum, and average values for the terms eval¬ uated are given. These are obtained by summing the individual terms to get the largest and the smallest sum¬ mation and finally averaging these two values. This average calculated error is usually quite close to the ob¬ served variations in the analyses as inspection of the tabulated data will show. (M CO lO CO L- I II | r-KMCO^iOCON 82 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions References 1. If one is unfamiliar with this use of the partial differential expression, a standard textbook on calculus should be consulted. The following is rec¬ ommended: Granville, Smith, and Longley, Ele ments of the Differential and In tegral Calculus: Ginn and Com pany, New York, 1943. Revised Ed 2. Smith, G. F., Cerate Oxidimetry: G Frederick Smith Chemical Co., Co lumbus, Ohio, 1942. Table 1. — Standardization of Cerate Standard Na2C204 Wt. in grams as as s Titrating solution Vol. in milliliters 9 (ml) a (ml) ml N 0.2500 + 0.0003 + 0 0012 36.90 ±0.04 + 0.0011 0.1012 0.2517 + 0.0012 37.15 11 + 0.0010 0.1011 0.2503 11 + 0.0012 34.81 11 + 0.0011 0.1010 0.1132 ” + 0.0026 34.81 ±0.06 + 0.0017 0.04856 0.1092 11 + 0.0027 33.63 11 + 0.0017 0.04849 0.0883 11 + 0.0034 27.16 1 1 + 0.0022 0.04855 0.0958 11 + 0.0031 26.46 11 + 0.0023 0.04856 Table 2. — Experimental Data inter¬ Wt. of sample g- as as s 1. 0.01250 ±0.0003 ±0.024 2. ” ” 3. 0.03371 ” ±0.0089 4. ” ” 5. 2 . 5000 ” ±0.00012 6. }} 7. >> 11 Titrating solution Vol. in milliliters 3 (ml) a (ml) (ml) N 8.90 11 ±0.06 11 ±0.0067 0.1051 11 24.50 11 ±0.0025 11 24.44 11 11 11 44.19 ±0.04 ±0.00091 0.1031 44.16 11 11 11 44.18 11 table 3. — Experimental Data inter- ml' a(ml') a(ml') ml' ml a (ml) a(ml) ml N' aN' "n7 1. 23.01 ±0.02 0.00087 25.00 ±0.002 ±0.00008 0.1051 0 . 002 2. 23.02 11 11 11 11 ” 3. 23.01 ” 11 11 ” 4. 47.02 11 0.00042 50.00 11 ±0.00004 0.1012 0.001 5. 11 11 ” ” 11 11 ” 6. 47.03 11 11 Partial Differentials in Volumetric Analysis 83 Solutions With Primary Standard Na2C204 Max. dN Min. Av. Max. dN Min. Av. ±2.3xl0-3 + 0.1x10-3 ±1.2x10-3 ±2.3xl0“4 ±0. lxlO-4 + 1 . 2xl0-4 ±2.2 ” ±0.2 ” + 1.2 ” ±2.2 ” ±0.2 ” ±1.2 ” + 2.3 ” ±0.1 ” + 1.2 ” + 2.3 ” ±0.1 ” ±1.2 ” ±4.3xl0-3 ±0.9 ” ±2.6 ” ±2. Ixl0~4 ±0.44xl0-5 ±1.3 ” + 4.4 ” ±1.0 ” + 2.7 ” ±2.1 ” ±0.48 ” ±1.3 ” ±6.6 ” + 1.2 ” + 3.9 ” ±3.2 ” ±0.58 ” ±1.9 ” ±6.4 ” ±0.8 ” ±3.6 ” + 3.1 ” ±0.39 ” ±1.7 ” preted By Means of Equation VI aN ~N~ % (Approx.) Max. d% % Min. Av. Max. d% Min. Av. + 0.0020 98.48 ±0.022 ±0.012 0.017 ±2.2 + 1.2 ±1.7 98.49 77 ” ” ” 77 ” 100.28 ±0.013 ±0.0044 ±0.008 ±1.3 ±0.4 ±0.8 77 100.52 77 ” 77 77 7 7 ±0.00052 99.92 + 1 . 5x10-3 ±0.27x10-3 ±0.9x10-3 ±0.15 ±0.027 ±0.09 77 99.88 7 7 ” 77 ” 77 77 99.91 77 }> 77 77 preted By Means of Equation IX N Max. dN N Min. Av. Max. dN Min. Av. 0.09673 ±0.0022 ±0.0018 ±0.002 ±2.1xl0-4 ±1.7xl0-4 + 1 .9xl0-4 0.09678 77 ” 77 77 7 7 77 0.09673 ” 77 7 7 77 ” 0.09517 ±0.0014 ±0.0005 7) ±0.0009 ±1.3xl0-4 ±0.4xl0-4 77 ±0.8xl0-4 77 0.09518 77 7) 77 ” 77 84 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 THE CHEMISTRY OF SYNTHETIC RUBBER* RUDOLPH DEANIN** University of Illinois, Urbana Introduction In 1835 an obscure German chem¬ ist named Himly heated a sample of natural rubber and distilled out a volatile colorless liquid which was later named isoprene.1 During the next half century, sev¬ eral men reported the repolymeriza¬ tion of isoprene.1, 2’ 3 Then in 1882 Sir William Tilden suggested that if another and more economical source of isoprene were available, commer¬ cial polymerization of isoprene to synthetic rubber might be possible.3 While isoprene itself was not read¬ ily available in large quantities, sev¬ eral similar substances were. Pyrolysis of Natural Rubber Isoprene Unit Isoprene Unit Isoprene Unit -CH, — C=CH — CH2 CH, -CH2 — C=CH — CH2- CH, -CH— C=CH— CH2 CH, CH3 2 ^C=0 + Mg- ch3 Pyrolysis 1 CH,=C — CH=CH2 + CH2=C— CH=CH2 + CH,=C — CH=CH2 CH3 ch3 ch3 Isoprene Preparation of Dienes 2,3-Dimethylbutadiene Mg CH, / \ CH, OH OH \? V II ;C - U H20 CH3— C - C— CH3 Pyrolysis CH2=C - C=CH2 / \ — * i l - * I i ch3 ch3 ch3 ch3 ch3 ch3 Butadiene 3C + CaO - >CaC2 - >HC=CH CH3CHO - >cn3CHCH2CHO - >CH2=CH— CH=CH, !oh 2C2H5OH - »ch2=ch— ch=ch2 Petroleum Catalytic Cracking *Most of the investigations discussed in this report were carried out under the sponsorship of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, Office of Rubber Reserve, in connection with the Govern¬ ment Synthetic Rubber Program. The author has tried to give credit to the many research chemists ch2=ce— ch=ch2 of the industrial, research foundation, and univer¬ sity laboratories cooperating with this program, whose work is summarized briefly here. **Present address: Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation, Morristown, New Jersey. Synthetic Rubber 85 Isoprene .oleum Catalytic Cracking For example, bimolecular reduc¬ tion of acetone produced pinacol hy¬ drate, which was then dehydrated to 2, 3-dimethylbutadiene ; this formed the basis of the German syn¬ thetic “Methyl Rubber” during the first World War. Later 1, 3-buta¬ diene became available from several sources in large quantities and is now the most important material in synthetic rubber production. Very Other Synthetic Rubbers CH„=C — CH=CH, ■ I Cl 2-Chlorobutadiene - -CH — C=CH— CH,- - l_ ci Neoprene CH, CH,=C — > - -CH., — C CH3 Isobutylene CH., Cl— CH,— CH2— Cl Ethylene Dichloride CH, Vistanex S S~ II II -CH— CH— S— S- Sodium Tetrasulfide Thiokol CH2=CH - Vinyl Chloride --CH— CH— I Cl ch3 SiCl, + CH3MgCl - > Cl— Si— Cl I ch3 Silicon Tetrachloride Silicone CH2=C— CH— CH2 ch3 recently even isoprene became com¬ mercially available, but contempo¬ rary industrial practice heavily fav¬ ors the use of butadiene for general purpose synthetic rubber.4 Several other types of synthetic rubber are produced in small amounts because they have special physical properties which make them useful in particular applications.4 For example, Neoprene has high oil resistance, and many of its uses in rubber hose, gloves, industrial shoes, and power transmission belts depend upon this. Vistanex or Butyl Rub¬ ber is very impermeable to gases and resistant to aging, making it valu¬ able for use in inner tubes. Thiokol ’s uses for rubber hose and cable insu¬ lation depend upon its resistance to aging and solvents. Koroseal pro¬ vides transparent elastic films for many purposes. Silicone greatly outlasts other rubbers in high tem¬ perature gaskets and similar uses. The present discussion, however, will be limited to butadiene polymers, which form the major portion of synthetic rubber production today. The GR-S Polymerization System The physical properties of buta¬ diene synthetic rubber are improved greatly by copolymerizing butadiene with various vinyl comonomers. 86 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Comonomers — CH=CH, Monochlorostyrene ^>-ch=ch. Cyanostyrene CH, p - (N,N - Dimethylsul fonamido) styrene --CH=CH2 2-Methyl - 4-methoxy - 5-isopropylstyrene CH, CH CH, CH, Acrylonitrile Methacrylonitrile CH,=CH — C=N CH,=C — C=N CH, CH, Dimethyl Vinylethinyl Carbinol CH2=CH — C=C — C — OH CH, While styrene is the most common comonomer in GR-S rubber, many substituted styrenes have been used experimentally to determine whether they may produce improved syn¬ thetic rubber.5 For example, mono- chlorostyrene is available in moder¬ ate quantities and has produced tires which wear considerably longer than GR-S. One p- cyanostyrene copoly¬ mer produced excellent preliminary tests, but this comonomer is so diffi¬ cult to prepare that no further stud¬ ies of it have been attempted. At¬ tempts to produce superior synthetic rubber have led to the investigation of even such complex comonomers as 2>-(N, N-dimethylsulfonamido) sty¬ rene and 2-methyl-4-methoxy-5-iso- propylstyrene. Acrylonitrile is another comono¬ mer frequently used in industry. Preliminary studies indicate that methacrylonitrile may be far supe¬ rior for tires, but this comonomer is practically unavailable for further tests at present.6 Dimethyl vinyl¬ ethinyl carbinol is an example of an¬ other comonomer which may offer the possibility of improving physical properties.7 Butadiene copolymerizes very slowly, even under the influence of heat and pressure. With the addition of proper catalysts — or activators — the polymerization reaction may be Catalysis of Butadiene Polymerization Thermal * /> ^ CEL: : CH : CH \ : CH2 CH, : CH : :CH:CH2 Alkali Metal Na- + CH2 : : CH : CH : : CH2 Na : CH, : CH : : CH :CH/ 2Na • -f CH2 : : CH : CH : : CH2 Metal Alkyl -> Na : CH2 : CH : : CH : CH2 : Na Na : R + CH2 : : CH : CH : : CH2 - > Na : CH2 : CH : : CH : CH, : R “Acidic” Metal Halide Cl Cl Cl : Al + CH2 : : CH : CH : : CH2 Cl Cl : A1 : CH2 : CH : : CH : CH2 Cl Free Radical X • + CH, : : CH : CH : ; CH, +X : CH2 : CH : : CH : CH2 • Synthetic Rubber 87 carried out readily under a wide variety of conditions. Thus alkali metals,8 alkali metal alkyls,9 or so-called “acidic” metal halides10 may be used to activate the carbon-carbon double bonds and thus catalyze extremely rapid butadiene polymerization. The synthetic rub¬ ber industry has generally preferred to use activators which decompose to yield free radicals which initiate the polymerization reaction. Free Radical Activators o o II II H— O— S— O— O— S— O— H K,Fe(CN), + RSH ROOH + Other Ingredients 02+ •J^F^,,Fey,,,(P207)r'"] “*r -f RSH While a number of types of activa¬ tors have been developed,7’ 11 the chemistry of activation is very ob¬ scure and poorly understood. A sur¬ vey of some of the activators fre¬ quently used indicates that most of them are good oxidizing agents, and suggests that initiation of polymeri¬ zation may involve some oxidation reaction ; but the specificity of these activator systems emphasizes the complexity and obscurity of this re¬ action. The polymerization may be car¬ ried out in the vapor or bulk (liquid) phase,8 in solution, 9’ 10 sus¬ pension, or emulsion12. While the Russian synthetic rub¬ ber industry has concentrated upon vapor or liquid phase polymerization of butadiene using sodium catalyst, American and German synthetic rubber production is based upon emulsion copolymerization of buta¬ diene with other comonomers, using free radical activators. To disperse the organic monomer liquid in water various emulsifiers have been used. In America ordinary fatty acid soaps13 and certain rosin soaps (es¬ sentially sodium dehydroabietate)14 are most commonly used, and other emulsifiers such as amine soaps have also been investigated.15 In Ger¬ many, scarcity of natural soaps led to the use of various synthetic emul¬ sifiers, such as Mersolat and Nekal.16 Polymerization Media VAPOR BULK SOLUTION SUSPENSION EMULSION Monomer Monomer Monomer Monomer Monomer Comonomer Comonomer Comonomer Comonomer Solvent Water Protective Colloid Water Emulsifier Catalyst Catalysts Catalyst Catalysts Catalysts Modifier 88 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions American Emulsifiers Sodium Stearate CH3(CH2)K,C— O German Emulsifiers Nekal Na + Mersolat C14_17H29_ .•sof] Na+ The GR-S Polymerization Reaction When soap dissolves in water it forms plate-shaped or spherical mi¬ celles.17 The monomer is emulsified as drop¬ lets of organic liquid surrounded by soap molecules and suspended in the aqueous phase. Monomer in these droplets diffuses gradually into the soap micelle, where intimate inter¬ phase contact permits the activators to initiate the polymerization reac¬ tion. As the reaction proceeds, con¬ tinuous diffusion of monomer into the micelle and polymerization there converts the micelle into a polymer- monomer particle surrounded by a layer of soap molecules which stabi¬ lize the latex. Eventually the mono¬ mer droplets are all consumed, and only the polymer-monomer particles remain. Then further polymeriza¬ tion of the monomer decreases its concentration in the particles, and the rate of polymerization decreases gradually as the reaction approaches completion.18 EMULSION STRUCTURE WATER WATER SOAP MICELLE EMULSION POLYMERIZATION POLYMER-MONOMER DROPLETS MICELLE LATEX PARTICLES Fig. 1 Sy7ithetic Rubber RATE OF POLYMERIZATION 89 As the polymerization reaction proceeds, the concentrations of the reactants and the physical conditions of the system change, and the mole¬ cular structure and physical prop¬ erties of the resulting polymer vary continuously.19 The growing poly¬ mer molecule may attack another polymer molecule, probably at the carbon-hydrogen bond adjacent to a vinyl group, and this chain trans¬ fer reaction produces a new free rad¬ ical which grows into a cross-linked three-dimensional molecule.20 ! 1 ! - • + H : CH - > H + • CH - » — _ _ CH Repetition of this cross-linking re¬ action produces a “pincushion” shape polymer molecule. If a modifying agent is used to regulate the growth of these cross- linked molecules, it terminates the growing molecules by a chain trans¬ fer reaction.21 . + RS ; H - * -s^:H + KS - *RS_ — As the modifier is consumed during the reaction, its concentration de¬ creases and its effectiveness becomes less and less. The decreased fre¬ quency of chain transfer permits the molecular weight to rise, but it also permits more extensive cross-linking to form large three-dimensional molecules which are insoluble in benzene and are known as gel.22 As the modifier concentration is de¬ creased, gel formation increases rap¬ idly. Molecular weight, which is measured by the intrinsic viscosity of the dilute benzene solution, in¬ creases as the modifier concentration decreases, as long as the rubber is entirely soluble; but when part of the rubber is excluded from the benzene solution as gel, the intrinsic PERCENT CELL 90 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions MOLECULAR STRUCTURE VS. CONV ERS ION PERCENT CONVERSION Fig. 3. viscosity drops, while the actual molecular weight probably rises very rapidly. Physical Properties of GR-S Synthetic Rubber Corresponding with these changes in molecular structure there is a gradual change in physical proper¬ ties.23 As the molecular weight in¬ creases, the synthetic polymer re¬ sembles natural rubber more closely and the physical properties improve. Extensive gel formation however produces a structure quite different from natural rubber, and has a detri¬ mental effect on physical properties. At high conversions, when gel formation becomes serious, Mooney viscosity increases, while processa¬ bility and ease of breakdown de¬ crease ; these all indicate the forma¬ tion of tough rubber which is diffi¬ cult to process. Rebound (resili¬ ence) improves ; but tensile strength, elastic elongation, rate of crack growth during flexing, and modulus all become worse, signifying a deteri¬ oration of rubber-like properties. Thus polymerization conditions must be carefully controlled to produce i polymers with the desired physical I properties. Even at its best, however, syn- I thetic rubber is very different from 1 natural rubber, and much of this j difference is believed to be due to dif- | ferences in molecular structure.24 Natural rubber contains a 2-methyl I group placed at regular intervals | along the polymer chain, while poly- 1 butadiene does not. The position of i monomer units in the polymer chain is very regular in natural rubber, 1 whereas it is a random mixture of 1, 2- and 1, 4-addition in synthetic .1 rubber, and would be even worse in synthetic polyisoprene. The occas- ' ional units of vinyl monomers add to the heterogeneity of the synthetic rubber molecule. Furthermore, in natural rubber the arrangement of the atoms at the double bonds is al¬ ways cis , while in synthetic rubber it is a mixture of cis and trans25 Natural rubber contains long linear molecules, while synthetic rubber contains a heterogeneous mixture of cross-linked three-dimensional molec¬ ular structures. Finally the molec- Synthetic Rubber Molecular Differences Between Natural and Synthetic Rubber 91 Natural Rubber - CH2— C=CH— CH2 — CH2— C=CH— CH2 _ ch3 ch3 Synthetic Rubber - CH2— CH=CH— CH2 — CH2— CH=CH— CH2 _ - CH2— CH— CH„— CH— CH2— CH - I 'l 'I CH CH CH II II II ch2 ch2 ch2 - CH— CII=CH— CH2 - CH— CH2 - X Cis Trans ular weight distribution is very different in the natural and syn¬ thetic polymers: natural rubber is more homogeneous, has less low- molecular weight material and a higher average molecular weight; while synthetic rubber has more low- molecular weight material, is more heterogeneous, and has a lower aver¬ age molecular weight.22, 26 All these MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION differences contribute to the great difference between the two in proces¬ sability and physical properties. Consequently we cannot call buta¬ diene polymers “rubber substi¬ tutes” in the sense that they must resemble and replace natural rubber. Rather, we must recognize that syn¬ thetic polymers are distinctly differ¬ ent from natural rubber, and that therefore their processing, physical properties, and resulting uses must be designed to use them to best ad¬ vantage, rather than merely to make them a bad substitute for something entirely different. During the war years, the urgent need for a rubber substitute prevented this functional approach ; and consequently the future of synthetic rubber, in com¬ petition with natural rubber, is still uncertain. On the other hand, the special synthetics, which were de¬ veloped and applied specifically 92 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions where they were superior, are cer¬ tainly here to stay, and will become more and more important as they are developed further by industrial research. References 1. F. K. Himly, Liebigs Ann. Chem. 27, 40 (1838). 2. A. Bouchakdat, J. Pharm., 23, 454 (1837). 3. W. A. Tilden, Chem. News, 46, 120 (1882). 4. Modern Plastics Encyclopedia, 1242- 1266 (1946). 5. C. S. Marvel, G. E. Inskeep, Rudolph Deanin, A. E. Juve, C. H. SCHROEDER, AND M. M. GOFF, Ind. Eng. Chem. 39, 1486 (1947); and forthcoming publications. 6. R. L. Frank, C. E. Adams, J. R. Blegen, P. V. Smith, A. E. Juve, C. H. Schroeder, and M. M. Goff, Forthcoming Publication. 7. H. W. Starkweather, P. O. Bare, A. S. Carter, F. B. Hill, Jr., V. R. Hurka, C. J. Mighton, P. A. Sand¬ ers, H. W. Walker, and M. A. Youker, Ind. Eng. Chem., 39, 210 (1947). 8. a. C. S. Marvel, W. J. Bailey, and G. E. Inskeep, J. Poly. Sci., 1, 275 (1946). b. Anselm Talalay and Michel Magat, “Synthetic Rubber From Alcohol,” Interscience, New York, 1945. 9. a. Karl Ziegler, F. Dersch, and H. Wollthan, Ann. 511, 13 (1934). b. A. A. Morton, E. E. Magat, and R. L. Letsinger, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 69, 950 (1947). 10. C. R. Morgan, Forthcoming publica¬ tion. 11. a. David Craig, U. S. Patent, 2,362,- 052 (1944). b. W. D. Stewart and B. M. G. Zwicker, U. S. Patient 2,380,617 (1945). c. I. M. Kolthoff, Private communi¬ cation to the Office of Rubber Reserve. d. O. C. Keplinger, Private com¬ munication to the Office of Rub¬ ber Reserve. e. C. C. Marvel, Forthcoming pub¬ lication. f. W. R. Reynolds, Private com¬ munication to the Office of Rub- : ber Reserve. g. E. R. Weidlein, Jr., Chem. Eng. | News, 24, 771 (1946). 12. W. P. Hohenstein and H. Mark, 1 J. Poly. Sci., 1, 127, 549 (1946). 13. W. L. Semon, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., j 24, 33 (1947). 14. G. R. CUTHBERTSON, W. S. COE, AND |l J. L. Brady, Ind. Eng. Chem., 38, I 975 (1946). 15. a. C. F. Fryling, U. S. Patent 2,379,431 (1945). b. Muhlhausen and W. Becker, j| U. S. Patent 2,305,025, (1942). 16. P. B. Item 5521, Office of the Publi- I cation Board, Department of Com- I merce, Washington 25, D. C. 17. a. W. D. Harkins, J. Chem. Phys., j 13, 381 (1945). D. W. D. Harkins, J. Chem. Phys., j 14, 47 (1946). c. W. D. Harkins and R. S. Stearns, i J. Chem. Phys., 14, 215 (1946). d. W. D. Harkins, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 69, 1428 (1947). 18. J. W. McBain and R. B. Dean, Private communication to the Office of Rubber Reserve. 19. a. F. T. Wall, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 67, 1929 (1945). b. F. T. Wall and L. F. Beste. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 69, 1761 (1947). 20. H. S. Taylor and A. V. Tobolsky, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 67, 2063 (1945). 21. a. F. T. Wall, F. W. Banes, and J G. D. Sands, J. Am. Chem. Soc., I 68, 1429 (1946). b. H. R. Snyder, J. M. Stewart, R. E. Allen, and R. J. Dearborn, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 68, 1422 (1946). 22. L. B. Sebrell, Ind. Eng. Chem., 35, 736 (1943). 23. A. M. Borders, Private Communica¬ tion to the Office of Rubber Re¬ serve. 24. Norman Rabjohn, C. E. Bryan, G. E. Inskeep, H. W. Johnston, and J. Keith Lawson, J. Am. Chem. Soc.. 69, 314 (1947). 25. P. J. Flory, Private communication to the Office of Rubber Reserve. 26. H. C. Tingey, R. H. Ewart, and G. E. Hulse, Private communication to the Office of Rubber Reserve. GEOGRAPHY THOMAS P. BARTON, Chairman Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale * 1. Magnesium— The Metal for Motion: W. O. Blanchard, University of Illinois,- Urbana. (slides) * 2. * 3. 4. * 5. 6. * 7. * 8. * 9. 10. 11. *Not The Papaya Industry of the United States: Harold A. Classen, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. Geography of the Irrigated Lands of the Roswell-Artesia Basin: Joseph C. Buford, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. Lake Michigan Ports— A Classification, by Items of Trade: John W. Reith Northwestern University, Evanston. The Illinois Waterways as a Medium of Fuel Transportation: Nina T. Hamrick, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. Occupance Patterns of the Lower Illinois Valley: John H Garland University of Illinois, Urbana. Some Aspects of the Northeastern Illinois Dairy Region: George C De Long, University of Illinois, Urbana. Fundamentals of Mineral Conservation: Walter H. Voskuil, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. Urban Settlements on Hokkaido: Alden Cutshall, University of Illinois, urbana. The Pottery Industry in McDonough and Warren Counties, Illinois: John Frederick Lounsbury, University of Illinois, Urbana. Teaching of Conservation of Natural Resources in Universities : Troy L. PIswe, Augustana College sented at 39th Annual Meeting.) Illinois Colleges and Rock Island. (Pre- published. [93] 94 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 1. — Occupance patterns of the Lower Illinois Valley. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 95 OCCUPANCE PATTERNS OF THE LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY JOHN H. University of From the confluence of the Kan¬ kakee and the DesPlaines rivers to the Mississippi River, approximately 250 miles to the southwest, flows the Illinois River in a valley which is one of the significant features of the geo¬ graphic patterns of the State. The several sections of the valley which extend entirely across the Central Division of Illinois form the north¬ ern and western boundaries of the Eastern and Southwestern Districts. From the Kankakee-DesPlaines con¬ fluence to the Bureau bend is the Upper Illinois Valley whereas the Middle Illinois Valley extends from Bureau to Pekin. These two sec¬ tions are a part of the Eastern Dis¬ trict. The Lower Illinois Valley, which extends from Pekin to the Mississippi, a distance of 140 miles, is a portion of the Southwestern Dis¬ trict (fig. 1). The Lower Illinois Valley is com¬ posed of two well-marked and con- ! trasting segments. The Upper Seg¬ ment, which extends from Pekin to Beardstown, consists of a lake stud¬ ded valley trough occupied by the braided river channel and a broad series of sand terraces interspersed with poorly drained depressions. These sandy terraces, with a maxi¬ mum width of twenty miles, occupy the left side of the valley from the Shelbyville moraine to the Sanga¬ mon River whose meandering course has been canalized and straightened from its confluence with Salt Creek to the Illinois River. The Lower GARLAND Illinois, Urbana Segment, from Beardstown to the Mississippi River, consists of a north-south valley trough which be¬ comes narrower and deeper with dis¬ tance down stream until it swings away from the narrow ridge that is Calhoun County and merges with the wide eastward trending Missis¬ sippi trough. Cultural Patterns The Lower Valley is decidedly one of the problem areas of the State as well as a zone of conflict concerning the solution of those problems. The conflicting agents include the State, the twelve counties which line both sides of the river, several organized drainage districts, and the Army Engineers. The latter are concerned with drainage, navigation, and flood control. Within the area lives a small dominantly rural population. Pekin, at the northern apex of the valley with a population of about 20,000, is the largest urban center, whereas, Havana (4000) and Beardstown (6500), river towns spaced at thirty mile intervals down the valley, are the only other towns with popula¬ tions over 2500. Twenty incorpo¬ rated towns of less than 2500 people, thirty unincorporated villages, and scattered rural habitations make up the rest of the population pattern. Human interests and activities are concerned largely with the land of the valley and with the river itself. Outside of Pekin and the Orchard 96 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions and Kingston Mines across the river, manufacturing and mining are of little significance. Farming domi¬ nates the valley with as many as one quarter of the gainfully employed population engaged in that activity. The Upper Segment of the valley is a commercial grain area and the Lower Segment an area of general mixed agriculture, which in general is the less prosperous of the two as is indicated by federal income tax returns. Based upon 1940 returns, before the base was lowered and the rates increased to meet wartime con¬ ditions, less than 8% of the popula¬ tion of the Lower Valley received a yearly income sufficiently large to be taxed by the federal government. This figure varied from a high of 13% in the Pekin district of the Up¬ per Segment to a low of less than 3% in the lower portion of the Lower Segment. There is no other area, with the possible exception of the Ohio Bor¬ der, where fishing and lumbering en¬ gage the activity of as many people as in the Lower Illinois valley. The braided and impounded Upper Seg¬ ment is a more notable area for com¬ mercial fishing than the Lower Seg¬ ment. These river activities do not produce large incomes nor do they contribute to a high standard of living. In a land of alluvial river bottoms, poor drainage, and flood menace, economic returns are low and the handicaps numerous. Al¬ though the river is a portion of a navigational link between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes, no advantages accrue to the Lower Val¬ ley as the decadent river towns at¬ test. Flood is a constant menace to the towns and rural areas alike, and drainage of the low flat lands is a necessity to agricultural utilization over much of the area. The Upper Segment Although alike as far as the gen¬ eral problems are concerned, the Up¬ per Segment of the valley presents some sharp contrasts to the Lower Segment. In the former, population and transportation patterns empha¬ size the two contrasting physical features, the valley trough and the broad terrace. The three largest towns, Pekin, Havana, and Beards- town, are evenly spaced at positions where the broad terrace meets a nar¬ row portion of the river thus afford¬ ing a satisfactory crossing of the valley trough by railroads and high¬ ways. Seven railroads and two high¬ ways focus on Pekin on its terrace site between the Shelbyville moraine and the valley bottom. Four of the railroads cross the terrace from the south, and two of them cross the river as does one highway. Havana is served by several rail¬ roads, one of which terminates on the river front. The highway, how¬ ever, crosses the river there and fol¬ lows the river bluff both up and down bn the west side of the river. At Beardstown, at the lower end of the Upper Segment, both the high¬ way and two railroads cross the river. Small river front towns are con¬ spicuously lacking in the Upper Seg¬ ment of the valley. On the broad terrace, alignments of small towns and villages conform to the railroad pattern. One follows the inner edge of a sandy terrace between Pekin and Havana, another occupies the c-utwash of the Shelbyville moraine Occupance Patterns 97 at the extreme eastern margin of the area, and a scattered group of vil¬ lage alignments radiate southward from Havana. In the valley trough a line of bluff-side villages connected by a valley highway occupy tribu¬ tary valley mouth sites. However, the largest tributary, Spoon Creek, which joins the Illinois River direct¬ ly opposite Havana, is not the site of a town. VALLEY BOTTOM OCCUPANCE Although the Upper Segment of the valley is a portion of the cash grain area of the State, a variety of land uses prevail. On the alluvial bottom lands, drainage is the out¬ standing problem. Organized drain¬ age districts have dug ditches, built levees, and installed pumping sta¬ tions to improve portions of the val¬ ley bottom which are consistently in corn crops. Improved valley bot¬ tom drainage, however, does not pre¬ vent or control floods and much of the land is unused. Lakes and vege¬ tation choked sloughs, some of which are set aside as wild life refuges, are conspicuous elements of the valley bottom, whereas roads and farm¬ steads are limited to the bluff side margins and to the intermittent areas that have been ditched and drained. BROAD TERRACE OCCUPANCE The broad terrace on the left side of the Upper Segment presents a dif¬ ferent pattern of occupance. Well- drained sandy terraces contrast with adjacent sloughs and depressions in which drainage ditches and levees have been constructed by organized drainage districts. The Sangamon and Mackinaw rivers and Quiver Creek flow through portions of the depressions which divide the area into a series of terraces. The Mack¬ inaw describes a sharp arc from the Shelbyville moraine to the Illinois River about two and one-half miles below Pekin, separating the terrace site of the city from the remainder of the sandy outwash which lies along the margin of the moraine from the Illinois River to the vicin¬ ity of Emden. Three of the railroads follow this terrace to Pekin, and along them is one of the alignments of villages. • From the Mackinaw River to Quiver Creek, about four miles above Havana, is a crescent-shaped sandy terrace that is separated from the outwash area adjacent to the Shel¬ byville moraine by an extensive de¬ pression which has been ditched and drains into Quiver Creek. The rail¬ road from Pekin to Havana follows the inner margin of the terrace along which the towns are aligned at a dis¬ tance of four to six miles from the river. Farmsteads, many of which are old, are scattered over both ter¬ race and depression. The cash grain farming of the Grand Prairie ex¬ tends over the Shelbyville moraine and into the Upper Segment of the valley. Corn is the major crop al¬ though small grain, especially wheat, is much more important on the lighter soils of the terraces than it is .on the heavy soils of the depressions. About 4500 acres of the sandy ter¬ race, above Quiver Creek between Forest City and Clear Lake on the valley bottom, are given over to the Mason County State Forest. From Quiver Creek to the Sanga¬ mon is another extensive terrace which is interrupted in several places by depressions which have 98 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions been ditched into the Sangamon. At a point near the upper end, where the Illinois River flows against the terrace, is the town of Havana from which railroads and highways radi¬ ate. Although there is much unused land, cash grain farmsteads are scat¬ tered over the entire terrace. The southern edge of the broad terrace is marked by the Sangamon River, which enters the area from the south and follows the flat bottom of the narrow valley trough west¬ ward to the Illinois River. The meandering course of the river has been straightened and, except for the lower ten miles, has been enclosed by levees leaving oxbows and mean¬ der scars scattered over the valley floor. The boundary between Mason and Cass counties, which followed the original course of the river, now follows a devious path back and forth across the river. Roads and farmsteads are not numerous on the valley floor of the Sangamon. The Lower Segment Beardstown marks the end of the Upper Segment and the beginning of the Lower. At that point the valley narrows to about ten miles in width, and the levees, which enclose the val¬ ley trough throughout most of its lower course, are established on both sides of the river. On the right side they begin at Fulton County line about twenty miles above Beards¬ town. On the left side the levee begins in the Sangamon Valley and extends to the river front entirely enclosing the valley floor on which Beardstown is situated. Drainage from the area is pumped from ditches into the river at the site of the new LaGrange lock and dam six miles below the town. From a width of ten miles the Lower Segment narrows to less than two and one-half miles and the river bluffs rise to several hundred feet above the valley floor. The river pursues a direct course on the right side of the valley leaving only a nar¬ row strip of valley floor on that side, especially in the lower narrow course. Except for LaMoine River and McGees Creek in the upper por¬ tion of the Segment, the tributaries on the right side of the valley consist of short narrow valleys locally known as “ hollows.” The floor on the left side of the valley is consid¬ erably wider and is interrupted at regular intervals by Indian, Apple, Big Sandy, and Macoupin creeks. The left valley floor is protected by a levee from Beardstown to Ma¬ coupin Creek, but since the river flows on the right side of the valley only the upper twenty-five miles of that side are protected. Ditches and pumping stations drain much of the valley bottom on both sides of the river except in times of high water on the Illinois when much of the bot¬ tom land is flooded. Corn and hay crops are produced on the alluvium of the valley bottom, although graded unsurfaced roads and farm¬ steads are distributed over much of the bottom land, towns and villages and surfaced highways occupy the better drained position at the margin of the valley trough or the bluffs just above the valley. Meredosia (1000) and Naples (260) are river front towns on a low sandy terrace that extends about twenty-five miles down the left side of the valley from Beardstown. A railroad crosses the river at Mere¬ dosia as does another at a point five Occupance Patterns 99 miles below Naples. The rest of the villages are aligned on the bluff-side highway in the mouths of tributary valleys where spring freshets cause considerable damage. At Hillview in the valley of Hur¬ ricane Creek, forty miles above the Mississippi, a railroad crosses the Illinois River directly to Pearl in Hill Creek valley. Twelve miles far¬ ther down the valley at Eldred, a railroad spur enters the valley by way of a tributary, likewise known as Hurricane Creek, turns south¬ ward and terminates on the valley bottom nine miles farther down the valley opposite the town of Hardin, the county seat of Calhoun County. A large movable elevator type bridge, the last one down the valley, and an improved highway cross the valley there. In this manner the rail¬ road serves Calhoun County, which is the only county in the state with¬ out a railroad within its boundaries. Because of the better drained con¬ ditions of the right side of the valley the major highway has been con¬ structed on that side, but it does not follow the valley all of the way. At Hardin, about fifteen miles above the Mississippi the highway crosses the valley on the bridge noted above and continues southward to Pere Marquette State Park and the town of Grafton at the Illinois-Mississippi confluence. Pere Marquette State Park occupies about seven square miles on the wooded bluffs at the left side of the lower end of the Illinois Valley. Extra-Regional Relationships Grafton, a town of 1100, holds the same relative position to the Illinois Valley that Cairo holds to the Ohio, both of which are indicative of the general significance of rivers as high¬ ways in America. Like the Ohio, the Illinois River is part of a national navigational system under the juris¬ diction of the Army Engineers who dredge its channel and erect dams and levees. As such the Lower Illi¬ nois Valley, along with the rest of the river, assumes national signifi¬ cance. That the national relations are of little consequence to the local area is obvious. Like the Ohio, the Lower Illinois Valley is subject to high water and infrequent disaster- ous floods; these are of significance to the local area. The river is used for sanitary drainage as well as for navigation on an extra-regional basis; it is a source of water supply and fish within the area. It is quite unsatisfactory to consider the Lower Valley as a corridor in the complete geographic sense, yet many of the corridor problems are there. The major one is the conflict of indige¬ nous and extra-regional interests. Although indigenous interests are in many instances based upon unfortu¬ nate natural environmental associa¬ tions which result in poverty, it is unjust to condemn without exhaust¬ ive consideration of all facts con¬ cerned and without offering advan¬ tageous alternatives. The extent to which occupance is satisfactorily readjusted to natural environmental conditions by all people concerned, the greater will be our state and na¬ tional advancement toward a long enduring maturity. River valleys are included among our problem areas, and the Lower Illinois Valley is not one of the exceptions. 100 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 THE POTTERY INDUSTRY IN McDONOUGH AND WARREN COUNTIES, ILLINOIS* JOHN FREDERICK LOUNSBURY University of Illinois, Urbana The production of clays and clay products in Illinois is valued at ap¬ proximately $32,000,000 annually. This is the third largest mineral in¬ dustry in the State following coal and petroleum. In 1946, the pro¬ duction of pottery and whiteware in Illinois accounted for about one- third of the total value of all clay products made in the state. Illinois is surpassed by Ohio, New Jersey, New York, California, and Pennsyl¬ vania in the manufacture of pottery. The potteries in Illinois are con¬ centrated in two general areas. The largest, in terms of numbers of es¬ tablishments, is the Chicago area. In Chicago itself, Antioch, Dundee, Crystal Lake, and Elgin, there are eighteen concerns manufacturing a variety of products. It can be gen¬ erally stated that the large market and excellent transportation are the chief factors for the concentration of potteries in this area. The potteries in smaller towns near Chicago utilize the large market, but lower taxes, in¬ telligent labor and, in some cases, financial support from the towns, in¬ fluenced their establishment in the perimeter of Chicago. The remaining potteries in the state, with the exception of the Case Manufacturing Company in Robin¬ son which produces sanitary ware, are located in western Illinois. The potteries in western Illinois *This paper is a revised portion of a thesis pre¬ sented for the degree of Master of Science in Geography at the University of Illinois, August 1946. can be divided into three groups de¬ termined by factors which controlled their original establishment. The first group are those potteries lo¬ cated in White Hall. The basic and dominant condition which de¬ termined their location was the ex¬ istence of excellent stoneware clays in and around White Hall and the proximity of coal. These clays were found in abundance and in such a state that mining could be done easi¬ ly. The existing clay banks at¬ tracted potters who began to manu¬ facture stoneware, and the two pot¬ teries of today, Ruckell’s Pottery Company and The White Hall Sewer Pipe and Stoneware Com¬ pany, are the result of these natural resources. Also the establishment of the Illinois China Company in Lin¬ coln can be traced to the stoneware plant in Roodhouse where again the fine White Hall stoneware cla3^s were utilized. The second group of potteries is located farther north at Macomb and Monmouth. Again, clays of the Pottsville formation, found in the vicinity of Colchester, were of such quality that potters were attracted, and they established potteries using only the local clays. Because of the potteries, a concentration of semi¬ skilled workmen gradually became concentrated in this area, and the town of Macomb and adjacent vil¬ lages, with a large number of their population engaged in clay working industries or indirectly dependent Illinois Pottery Industry 101 upon them, became ceramic conscious. With existing plants and trained labor, it was a natural step to im¬ prove upon their products, and grad¬ ually fine clays and materials were brought in. However, the local clay was the dominant factor in their early establishment. The potteries of this group are the Macomb Pot¬ tery, Illinois Electric Porcelain in Macomb and Western Stoneware in Monmouth. The third group consists of di¬ versified potteries which have no common physical factor in their early establishment. The physical environment played a subordinate role and human factors were decisive in their location. These varied fac¬ tors would have to be discussed as they apply to the individual pottery. This group consists of the Abingdon Potteries Incorporated located in Abingdon and the Morton Pottery Company in Morton. The Potteries of Monmouth and Macomb THE MACOMB POTTERY In Macomb the former Buckeye Pottery Company, makers of stone¬ ware, was taken over in 1939 by the Haeger Potteries. The name changed to the Macomb Pottery and it began to make the Haeger style of art pot¬ tery. The old Buckeye Pottery made only stoneware products and utilized only the local clay found in abund¬ ance near Colchester. The competi¬ tion from China and finer grades of earthenware had forced the Buckeye Pottery Company into the state of bankruptcy in 1938. Over sixty years ago in Dundee, Illinois, the Haeger family began to manufacture brick using the local clays. Gradually the kilns were used in burning other forms of pottery until today no brick is made at all and the entire output is art pottery. Art pottery, a relatively new trend, is noticeable in the pottery field today, and it can generally be stated that the comparatively newer potteries produce art ware. In the older pottery centers of Ohio and New Jersey, more dinnerware and sanitary ware are made. In these older potteries a tremendous amount of this type of ware was and is pro¬ duced, and consequently the more recent potteries had a greater com¬ mercial opportunity in the making of art pottery. This can be seen in the great numbers of art potteries in the southern California area. This area is the most recent pottery cen¬ ter to be developed and at present is experiencing a rapid expansion. Another factor in the more recent impetus in the the manufacture of art ware is the result of the War. The seizure of Moravia, Bohemia, and Slovakia by Germany decreased our imports from those areas as early as 1939. Later, at the outbreak of the war, little pottery made in the European centers came to this coun¬ try. Also during this period changes in duty rates and regulations gov¬ erning imports further decreased the small amount of European pottery coming to this country. The war, of course, also halted all importation of Japanese ware and seriously de¬ creased that made in China. The lack of foreign products and result¬ ing competition resulted in a large expansion of the ceramic industry in this country, especially in the gift and art ware fields. Many potteries began to make art ware in addition 102 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions to their main products, and new pot¬ teries sprang up to meet the domes¬ tic need. Haeger Potteries diversified its line to include a great deal of ware of the type formerly made in Japan and Czechoslovakia. The pottery experienced a rapid rise in produc¬ tion and soon outgrew its building in Dundee. The Buckeye Pottery in Macomb, with its buildings and ma¬ chines intact, and the semi skilled labor in the city, was therefore an excellent location in which to over¬ flow. Further, Macomb, from its beginning, has been ceramic con¬ scious due to the fine local clay and relatively large clay working popu¬ lation. The city was anxious for the pottery to resume operation after the Buckeye pottery declared bank¬ ruptcy and made a cash donation to the Haeger Pottery to take Over the plant. The Haeger Potteries are the world’s largest producers of art ware and the markets are nation wide. Some pottery is exported to Canada, Hawaii, Phillipines, South America, England and other coun¬ tries of the world. Sales offices are located throughout the country, and the majority of the pottery is sold through their own sales organiza¬ tion ; jobbers market a small amount. The finished products are transport¬ ed primarily by the C. B. & Q. Rail¬ road. Trucks transport an ever in¬ creasing amount, usually when the distances are short. The plant employs an average of 160 people. The amount of local labor is practically 100 percent, how¬ ever, a small number of supervisors and administrators came from the pottery in Dundee. The skilled work¬ men represent about 15 percent of the total labor. They are for the most part mould makers and decora¬ tors. The designers, of which some are internationally famous, are located in Dundee, not in Macomb. Their designs are sent to Macomb where they are utilized in producing Haeger pottery. The plant has the capacity to produce 8,000 pieces of art pottery daily. MATERIALS USED IN ART POTTERY Years ago only the Colchester clay was the basic material used in the manufacture of stoneware. But to¬ day, materials are brought in from afar and the local clays are no longer used. The factory is situated on the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad and the raw materials are brought in by rail. Kaolin is brought in from Georgia. Over three-fourths of the kaolin produced in the United States comes from a belt extending from Taylor County in western Georgia to Richmond County in the eastern part of the state extending into South Carolina. Kaolin is used in the manufacture of art ware to impart whiteness to the products be¬ ing made and to give refractoriness to the products. Ball clay is also used in large amounts in the produc¬ tion of art ware. It is of sediment¬ ary origin and usually more or less colored by impurities. These im¬ purities tend to make the clay plastic and permit its moulding. Ninety- five percent of the ball clay pro¬ duced in the United States comes from a belt extending from Graves County in southwestern Kentucky to Weakley, Henry, and Carrol coun¬ ties in Tennessee. Feldspar is used as a component of white wares and semi-porcelain serving as a flux Illinois Pottery Industry 103 binding the mass together. It is obtained from the Black Hill region of South Dakota. Quartz is used to prevent excessive shrinkage and ob¬ tained from LaSalle County, Illinois. Small amounts of special glazing material of various types are used depending on the type of ware being made. The kilns burn natural gas piped from Texas. Oil can be used as a fuel if necessary and is obtained a few miles south in the vicinity of Colmar. THE ILLINOIS ELECTRIC PORCELAIN COMPANY There is only one pottery in west¬ ern Illinois which makes electric porcelain. It is the Illinois Electric Porcelain Company located in Macomb. In 1884, C. W. Kettron came to Macomb from the southern part of the country. He learned his trade as a potter in Mississippi, and in Macomb he worked as a turner pro¬ ducing stoneware items of various shapes and sizes. In a few years Kettron went to Ohio, and worked in and observed many of the potteries located around the pottery center of the United States — East Liverpool. Here he saw a relatively new trend in the field of ceramics — the produc¬ tion of electric appliances. He be¬ lieved that with the harnessing of electrical power, a great market for electric porcelain would arise. He returned to Macomb, dissolved his interests in the stoneware establish¬ ment, and interested the already ceramic-minded citizens of Macomb in this new and promising . field of pottery. In Macomb there were the existing kilns which could be con¬ verted easily to the firing of porce¬ lain, the large supply of semi-skilled labor and the complete lack of com¬ petition, as the nearest plant pro¬ ducing electric appliances was hun¬ dreds of miles distant. A few highly skilled technicians were brought to Macomb from East Liverpool to form the nucleus of the new concern. C. W. Kettron was the principal figure in the establishment of the Illinois Electric Porcelain Company in 1910, and his son, H. P. Kettron, is the president of the company to¬ day. The raw materials in the manu¬ facture of electric porcelain are of unusually high standards. The only local material used is the Colchester clay which is utilized in making sag¬ gers. All other materials are trans¬ ported from greater distances. The kaolin is an extremely fine grade im¬ ported from south England which is mined close to the English Chan¬ nel. At present, no kaolin yet pro¬ duced in the United States is quite equal to the English clay in the necessary qualities needed to pro¬ duce electric porcelain. The ball clay is obtained in Kentucky. The feldspar is brought from the Abing¬ don Potteries Inc. who grind the feldspar which is mined in the Black Hills of South Dakota. The flint is ground from fine quartz obtained in Ottawa, Illinois. The glazing mate¬ rials consist of ball clays, feldspar, flint, and other secret ingredients. Most plants add small, but varying amounts of talc, soda ash, silicate of soda, dextrose, etc. to accomplish cor¬ rect special characteristics. The materials are brought in by the C., B. & Q. Railroad which has a spur leading to the factory door. The fuel used for firing is crude oil ob¬ tained in fields in the vicinity of Colmar. 104 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions The market for electric porcelain is country wide, and some goes to Europe, Canada, and South Amer¬ ica. The company has sales offices throughout the United States and in Europe, and the products are mar¬ keted through their own sales or¬ ganization. The finished products are transported primarily by the C., B. & Q. Railroad. However, if time is a critical factor, trucks usu¬ ally handle the transportation. Dur¬ ing the war air express was fre¬ quently used. The products were trucked to Moline and then shipped to their destination by air. Critical items in this way could reach any section of the country on the same day they were shipped from the factory. The establishment employs 300 to 350 people all of whom come from Macomb or the adjacent country. The amount of highly skilled labor is approximately 15 percent. About 75 percent of the labor is semi¬ skilled. The workmen learn their trade at the plant. The plant produces about 7,000 tons of electrical porcelain annually in the form of insulators, knobs and cleats, switch covers, and chemical porcelain such as valves and pipes of various types. THE WESTERN STONEWARE COMPANY Years ago, it was believed that coal could be found in the vicinity of Monmouth, the home of Western Stoneware Company. In search of coal, a clay was discovered which was of excellent grade for the manu¬ facture of tile and brick. Because of this clay, the Monmouth Mining and Manufacturing Company was established in 1872 and began to manufacture tile and sewer pipe and a smaller quantity of brick. Twenty years later a number of men, of whom William Hannah was the principal figure, organized the Mon¬ mouth Pottery which utilized the nearby clay and produced stoneware jars, jugs, churns, etc. From these two concerns, in 1900 the Western Stoneware Company was establish¬ ed. It was a stock company and was fostered by the local men who had developed the two preceding clay working industries. The clays near Monmouth were still used in the be¬ ginning, but later a superior stone¬ ware clay was found in the Pottsville formation in the vicinity of Colches¬ ter. The company leased hundreds of acres in this area and began to mine the clay and transport it to Monmouth. Today clay from the same mines is used in the production of stoneware. The Colchester clay is brought in by rail to the factory at the rate of about a carload daily. The site of the industry is on the C., B. & Q. and the Minneapolis and St. Louis Rail¬ ways. The C., B. & Q. transports the clay from the Colchester area. In 1927 the company began to make art pottery along with the stoneware products. This necessitated bring¬ ing other materials from other sec¬ tions of the country. The manu¬ facture of art pottery demanded kaolin which was obtained from Georgia, ball clay from Kentucky, flint from LaSalle County, Illinois, and feldspar from the southeast, primarily North Carolina. Both railways, but primarily the Minne¬ apolis and St. Louis, bring in these raw materials. Stoneware is the principal prod¬ uct produced and the art pottery, Illinois Pottery Industry 105 though increasing, is secondary. The fuel for the kilns is crude oil obtained from the relatively old oil fields in the vicinity of Colmar. The markets for the finished prod¬ ucts are country wide. The majority of the pottery reaches the market by the company’s sales organization which has sales offices located in many sections. The major portion of pottery is transported by the C., B. & Q. with the Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad handling a smaller amount. When the products are transported but a short distance, trucks often are used. The company employs approxi¬ mately 400 people of which 15 per¬ cent are skilled. The skilled labor again consists of the mould makers, designers, and decorators. The labor is all from in and around Monmouth. The skilled workmen learn their trade by experience in the factory. The plant produces 1000 carloads of ware annually of which the ma¬ jority is flower and garden ware. The company uses the trade name of “Maple Leaf” for their stoneware. The company has also a small branch operating in Macomb which makes only terra cotta flower pots. The clay used is of local origin, and the products are made by stamping or pressing the clay into shape and then firing the ware at a low degree of temperature. The plant employs about twenty men, all of whom are from Macomb. It is unlikely that in the relatively near future new potteries will be established in western Illinois. How¬ ever, the existing potteries produc¬ ing art ware and specialty products should experience a slight expansion within the next few years. It has been mentioned that the only physical factors to attract new industries are the stoneware clays, but the existing potteries more than meet the local need. In other types of pottery, materials would have to be brought in from great distances and also the markets are relatively far. Freight rates and transporta¬ tion in Western Illinois are not such that they in themselves would at¬ tract industry. The only induce- nient or positive factor would seem to be a comparatively large financial bonus from a specific district or town. The existing stoneware pot¬ teries of the State, excluding West¬ ern Stoneware Company, should re¬ main about the same. The products produced are of relatively low value, and therefore the markets are re¬ stricted to a definite locality. Also the potteries should be located near the source of clay. Transportation costs are in this case a limiting fac¬ tor. In the case of Western Stone¬ ware Company they are almost fully dependent upon the florist trade, and they should experience the same trend as the art ware pottery. It has been mentioned that art ware has experienced a great rise in production to meet the increasing domestic needs since the war. No doubt in the near future, some art ware will be imported from Europe and China. However, importations probably will never reach such rela¬ tive proportions as existed before the war. The art ware potteries, how¬ ever, will manufacture an increasing variety of products, and many ex¬ periments and changes will take place in art ware in an effort to keep the domestic markets. It is interest¬ ing to note that in times of depres- 106 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions si on art ware potteries are the first to suffer and usually are the hardest hit, but, on the other hand, in pros¬ perous eras the demand for art ware increases out of proportion to other types of pottery. Electric porcelain is related to construction and improvements in rural areas. The Rural Electrifica¬ tion Administration, a federal act to extend electricity in rural areas all over the country, did much to in¬ crease demands for electric porce¬ lain. Also a great deal of porcelain is being sent to Europe and other countries engaged in reconstruction and internal development. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 107 TEACHING OF CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES IN ILLINOIS COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES TROY L. PEWE* Augustana College , Rock Island Introduction Statement of purpose. — The pur¬ pose of this paper is to evaluate the part that the Colleges and Universi¬ ties of Illinois are doing in promot¬ ing education in the field of con¬ servation of natural resources. Conservation seeks to gain for so¬ ciety the most efficient development and wise utilization of our natural resources. In the settling and build¬ ing of this nation, the people of the United States have proceeded to waste and destroy our natural en¬ dowment at an unprecedented rate ; however, partially through the efforts of the conservation minded men of the nation, this onslaught has not proceeded to the point of self destruction. It is fortunate that the conservation movement began to gain power when it did so as to slightly retard the vast wasteful in¬ roads made into the nation’s re¬ sources. Even in Colonial times there was evidence of interests in con¬ servation, but the real significant beginnings are not noted until the latter part of the 19th century. In 1873 and again in 1890 the American Association for the Advancement of Science presented a petition to con¬ gress urging them to take action to conserve the natural resources of the nation. Probably as the result of * Now geologist, U. S. Geological Survey, Stan¬ ford University, California. these petitions, there was established in 1891 the Bureau of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture and the first National Forest Reserve was set aside. Under the leadership of Theodore Roosevelt, the nation made tremen¬ dous advances in conservation of natural resources. A great land¬ mark was the Conference of Gov¬ ernors that Roosevelt called in 1908. This meeting marks the beginning of 41 State Conservation Commissions. It is true that great losses were sustained before the destructive wave was somewhat retarded. The great hordes of passenger pigeons have been swept from the skies for¬ ever and only a few remnants are left of the huge forests which once blanketed the nation. The small groups of buffalo left in the West can’t even echo the glory that once was theirs as they roamed the Great Plains by the hundreds of thousands. The objectives of conservation vary within the field. Conservation of the non-renewable resources like iron, zinc, coal and petroleum con¬ sists mainly of insuring non-waste¬ ful mining conditions, efficient use of the product and the saving of the scrap. Renewable resources like forests and wildlife can and should be renewed by close control. Soil is a resource that can be easily dam¬ aged but need not be if proper con- servational practices are employed. 108 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions SHAWNEE NATIONAL FOREST YM& STATE FORESTS (|2) STATE PARKS 1. Black Hawk 12. Kickapoo 2. Campbell's Island 13. Spitler Woods 3. Palisades 14. New Salem 4. Apple River Canyon 15. Fox Ridge 5. White Pines Forest 16. Lincoln Log Cabin 6. Chain-O'Lakes 17. Pere Marquette 7. Buffalo Rock 18. Cahokia Mounds 8. Starved Rock 19. Fort Chartres 9. Illini 20. Kaskaskia 10. Gebhard Woods 21. Giant City 11. Jubilee College 22. Cave in Rock 23. Fort Massac Fig. 1. — Map of Illinois showing the location of National Forests, State Forests and State Parks. (Information obtained from 1945 Official Highway Map of Illinois.) Teaching of Conservation of Natural Resources 109 Areas of exceptional beauty and scientific interest should be set aside for the use of all the people of the State by creating and guarding State Parks and Monuments (fig. 1). Conservation of natural resources is a huge field of great national im¬ port, and its advancement depends upon the cooperation of everyone. But whole-hearted cooperation is im¬ possible unless the people of the na¬ tion are aware of the conservation problems and practices. As emphasized by all conservation organizations, private or public, for wildlife, tree, soil, or National Park conservation, the most favorable method to promote the conservation movement and to acquaint people of the problems and practices of con¬ servation is through education. The schools of the nation provide the best media by which to spread this information ; they are the educa¬ tional organs of the country. It is the privilege of every student to know the principles of conserva¬ tion, the agencies trying to promote them and the results obtained through correct conservation prac¬ tices. The students of today, who will be the nations leaders tomorrow, should be at least exposed to a gen¬ eral course in conservation of natur¬ al resources some time during their training. These leaders will have a more understanding background and will be better equipped to serve the country. They should at least know the seriousness of sediment control in streams (fig. 2), require¬ ments and problems of the National Forests, and the type of control necessary over strategic minerals. But the leaders cannot advise or lead unless the people of the nation are themselves acquainted with the sub¬ ject of conservation of natural re¬ sources. This learning is becoming more widespread every year but it is still in its infancy. Many groups are interested in conservation and have vigorous campaigns of education, but none of these groups reach as many people as do the schools. It is true that the sportsmen of the coun¬ try realized very early the problem of conservation of wildlife and have succeeded to a remarkable degree in developing wildlife conservation through private organizations and public bureaus. It was not until 1910 when C. It. Van Hise published a volume en¬ titled “Conservation of Natural Re¬ sources in the United States’’1 was there a popular presentation of the subject. “For the first time this all important topic was presented to the general public in such a clear and concise manner that its true signifi¬ cance could be grasped.”2 Since that year only a few similar books have been written. It is true however that much has been written on the various separate phases of conservation in the last decade. The State of Illinois has done much in the promotion of conserva¬ tion of natural resources. Much was done prior to 1925 by the various branches of the State government, but it was in that year that the De¬ partment of Conservation was cre¬ ated and the State’s efforts in con¬ servation were unified. A brief sum¬ mary of the rights, powers, and du¬ ties of the present department is as follows :3 110 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 2. — Testing the suspended sediment content of the Galena River. The study of stream transported sediment is very important in soil conservation and in deciding the efficiency of such engineering structures as dams, and irriga¬ tion ditches. 1. To administer the Fish and Game Code of Illinois. 2. To take all necessary measures for the conservation, preservation, dis¬ tribution, introduction, propagation, and restoration of fishes, frogs, mus¬ sels, turtles, game, wild animals, wild fowls, birds, and forests. 3. To promote and encourage hunting, fishing, and forestry in the State. 4. To take necessary measures for the investigation and prevention of pol¬ lution of the waters of the State and to work in conjunction with other departments to this end. 5. To collect, publish, and disseminate ' statistics and information relating to these natural assets of the State, the activities of the Department, and the industries affected by con¬ servation and propagation. The Illinois Natural History Sur¬ vey is another State body which is important in promoting conserva¬ tion in Illinois. Its work dates back many years before the formation of its sister body, the Department of Conservation. Another state-wide group which acts in the interest of conservation of natural resources is the Commit¬ tee on Conservation of the Illinois State Academy of Science. Many conservation improvements have been brought about by the power of this group. The Department of Conservation of the State of Illinois has had summer instruction in conservation of natural resources for several years. During the summer of 1945, in their school at Lake Villa, Illinois, two 2-week courses were given to high school students and one 2-week Teaching of Conservation of Natural Resources 111 Fig. 3. — Growth of the adoption of a general course of conservation of natural resources by Illinois four-year colleges and universities. course was given to high school teachers throughout the State. Although this is very gratifying, this effort does not contact a large group and the courses cannot be very detailed in such a short time. The answer to the question of how to in¬ form the people of the vital import of national and state conservation of natural resources is through the schools. Students of college age are mature enough to grasp the gravity of con¬ servation problems, and therefore the colleges and universities are the ideal media by which to promote conservation education. The intro¬ duction of courses dealing entirely with conservation has been tried in some Illinois high schools but as yet without much success. Perhaps the only school, or at least one of the few, offering a conservation course as such to high school students is the University High School at Carbon- dale, Illinois.4 In a recent article by Y. L. Nickell,5 Superintendent of Public Instruction in Illinois, it is revealed the State has a broad program un¬ derway to promote conservation edu¬ cation in the elementary and high schools of Illinois. Survey of Illinois Colleges and Universities According to the listing of Illinois Colleges and Universities in the 1944 Bulletin of Accredited Higher Insti¬ tutions6 as published by the United States Office of Education, there are 84 such institutions of higher learn¬ ing in Illinois. Of these listed, many are art, music, theological or aeronautical schools and are therefore not in¬ cluded in this survey. After exclud¬ ing these types of institutions, there 112 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions remains 69 schools; 24 junior col¬ leges and 45 four-year schools and universities. To each was sent a questionnaire requesting informa¬ tion about the courses offered in the field of conservation of natural re¬ sources. The following questions were asked both of the general lib¬ eral arts course in conservation and of the advanced conservation course : 1. Name of the course, 2. the date of initiation, 3. how often the course is offered, 4. the number of meetings per week, and 5. the general content and enrollment. Returns were noted from 52 of the 69 institutions listed. In the event an institution did not return the in¬ quiry, information concerning courses at this school was gleaned from its bulletin or register. In¬ formation gained this way probably was not as complete as that from the mailed blank. The general course. — The most im¬ portant purpose of the survey was to note the adoption of the general conservation course in the liberal arts curriculum. Such a course is defined as one of at least a semester or quarter in length and devoted en¬ tirely to the study of conservation of naturaUresources such as soil, water, forests, minerals, wild life, etc. This is the course which is open to all of the students and is the most impor¬ tant one in promoting conservation. The advanced courses are for those deeply interested in the subject ; such courses do not touch a fraction of the number of students that the undergraduate general course does. It is in this elementary course that the student is introduced to the problems, practices, and importance of conservation. Also he then be¬ comes aware that many people are in the conservation endeavor and various societies have been organized in the concern of one phase or an¬ other of conservation. It is true that the subject of con¬ servation of natural resources is briefly mentioned in some courses in geology, biology, geography and eco¬ nomics ; but in such a course the mat¬ ter is treated only as a side issue and its true importance is probably not emphasized. A student would have i to take various courses and glean from each a small learning of con¬ servation to attain a fair background ; of the subject — a background that is very necessary and -«an be supplied by taking a good general course in conservation. According to the data compiled from the returned questionnaires, the earliest any such general con¬ servation course was taught in an Illinois college or university was in 1909 at the University of Chicago. Some state teachers colleges also adopted it quite early. It is re¬ vealed that 13 schools or 28 percent I of the four-year colleges and univer¬ sities included in the survey actually have a general conservation course in this curriculum (table 1). None of the junior colleges reported offer such a course ; if a computation were made including the junior colleges, the percentage of institutions of higher learning in Illinois offering a course in conservation of natural resources would be 18 percent. An alarmingly low figure ! Even if the junior colleges are excluded, the fig¬ ure of 28 percent is still very low. The survey reveals that most of the schools have not yet realized the importance of the subject and there- Teaching of Conservation of Natural Resources 113 Fig. 4. — Lower dell of Mattheissen State Park Nature Area in LaSalle County near Oglesby. The State has set this area aside as a nature preserve and wildlife sanctuary where the plant and animal life of Illinois may be saved for all time. fore have not initiated such a gen¬ eral course. But such a nationally important topic, which is becoming increasingly more important as time goes on and which was brought be¬ fore the public in many ways during the war, cannot be ignored. More schools are adopting such a course every year. The growth of the adop¬ tion of a general course of conserva¬ tion of natural resources by Illinois four-year colleges and universities is given in figure 3. The youth of to¬ day must be informed of the impor¬ tance and necessity of conserving our natural resources or the citizens of tomorrow will live in a depleted world. Future generations should not be forced to live in a world al¬ most void of natural resources be¬ cause the present citizens are ignor¬ ant of conservation problems. The fact that almost all colleges formally listed as “ Teachers Col¬ leges ’ ’ have adopted the general course is very encouraging. Future teachers with the advantage of hav¬ ing had such a course in conserva¬ tion, will be likely to urge the adop¬ tion of such a course into the cur¬ riculum of the school at which they may later teach. In addition to being offered in the regular curricu¬ lum, it may be stated that the gen¬ eral course is also offered in the summer session and as an extension course at one or two of the schools. According to census of opinion, twelve of the thirteen schools offer¬ ing the general course have placed it 114 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Table 1. — Accredited Higher Institutions in Illinois Offering Courses in CONSERVATON OF NATURAL RESOURCES (1945) School Offers a general course When initiated Offers advanced work University of Chicago, Chicago . X 1909 X Illinois State Normal University, Normal . X 1914 X Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb .... X 1920 Northwestern University, Evanston . X 1927 X Western Illinois State Teachers College, Macomb .... X 1928 The Principia College, Elsah . X 1933 Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston . . . X 1935 Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale . X 1936 X Rosary College, River Forest . X 1938 Augustana College, Rock Island . X 1940 Concordia Teachers College, River Forest . X 1943 McKendree College, Lebanon . X 1943 X Chicago Teachers College, Chicago . University of Illinois, Urbana . X 1944 X under the supervision of the depart¬ ment of geography or its equivalent. The advanced courses. — Advanced courses in conservation are here de¬ fined as those which devote all their time to only one phase of conserva¬ tion and cover it quite thoroughly in a semester or two. These courses are to be generally found only in the larger universities and are attended by students seriously interested in soil, forest, wildlife, etc., conserva¬ tion and probably plan to make it, directly or indirectly, their liveli¬ hood. These courses generally have certain prerequisites which keep the subject from the undergraduate stu¬ dent body. Six schools gave indication that the study of conservation of natural resources is carried beyond the gen¬ eral course. The University of Illi¬ nois, one of the largest schools in the nation, offers advanced training in soil conservation in the Agricultural School; a course in forestry is of¬ fered in the Liberal Arts School ; and a general study of the conservation of wildlife is listed but is open to only advanced zoology students. As far as known, the onty course in “Methods and Problems in Conser¬ vation” offered in an Illinois school is the one scheduled at Southern Illi¬ nois Normal University at Carbon- dale. Another factor to consider when discussing a school course is the stu¬ dent attendance. Most of the col¬ leges list 20 to 30 as the approximate pre-war size of the general conserva¬ tion classes ; the universities list slightly larger classes. These figures are perhaps average for elective courses in the various schools, maybe slightly below average. The only way to influence more students is to make the course a required one. It should not be listed as fulfilling the science requirement nor should it be placed as a substitute for another subject. Need it be listed as a substitute for anything? Surely a subject so im¬ portant as the future of a nation and Teaching of Conservation of Natural Resources 115 how to insure it should rank high on the list of subjects “required to know” or subjects needed for a liberal education. If the upward trend toward con¬ servation through education contin¬ ues, and surely it will, more edu¬ cators will awaken to its importance and in the end perhaps require that at least a general course in conserva¬ tion of natural resources be taken by every student. Illinois, with its tremendous wealth of natural resources (fig. 4) and its wonderful colleges and uni¬ versities, should be one of the lead¬ ing states in education of conserva¬ tion of natural resources. The stu¬ dents of the nation should be taught the importance of conservation of natural resources by being required to take at least a general course dur¬ ing their college days. It is the edu¬ cators duty to see that the youth is informed of the importance of con¬ servation to insure our national heri¬ tage for future generations. Conclusions 1. Twenty-eight percent of the four-year colleges and universities of Illinois offer the student a chance to become aware of the importance of conservation by offering a general course in conservation of natural re¬ sources. 2. As far as known, no junior college in Illinois offers such a course. 3. Six Illinois schools offer ad¬ vanced work in conservation of nat¬ ural resources. Acknowledgment The author wishes to express his appreciation to all the persons who took time from their busy schedules to submit data concerning conserva¬ tion courses at their respective schools. Figure 2 is reproduced through the courtesy of the Rock Island Office of the United States Army Engineers, and 4 through the courtesy of the Illinois Department of Conservation. The drafting was done by Mr. Nelson and Mr. Enge- land. Bibliography 1. Van Hise, Charles, Conservation of our Natural Resources: MacMil¬ lan Publishing Co., 1910. 2. Van Hise, Charles, and Havemeyer, Loomis, Conservation of our Natural Resources: (2nd ed.) MacMillan Publishing Co., 1937. 3. Illinois Blue Book: 1941-1942. p. 338. 4. Barton, Thomas, Personal commun¬ ication, 1945. 5. Nicicell, V. L., Conservation as Taught in Illinois Schools: Illinois Wildlife, Vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 6-7, 1945. 6. Accredited Higher Institutions: U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C., 1944. 116 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 40, 1947 LAKE MICHIGAN PORTS: A CLASSIFICATION BY ITEMS OF TRAFFIC JOHN W. REITH Northwestern University, Evanston Because ports are transfer points between two methods of transporta¬ tion, the materials which are han¬ dled by a port can be indicative of the activities of a port city and its hinterland. For example, the iron ore shipped from Escanaba reveals the great mining activities nearby. Also, the variety of items which flow through a port can indicate the value of the waterside position to the econ¬ omy of the port city. That these statements are true would hardly be denied, yet literature is lacking in methods of indicating the functional value of a port to its port city and hinterland.1 As a step in this direc¬ tion, this paper presents quantitative criteria for the classification of ports by items of traffic, and a classifica¬ tion of Lake Michigan ports based on that method. It is hoped that later studies may expand this idea and a contribution to the methodology of geography will result. Method The criteria for classification are derived from a study of the port sta¬ tistics published yearly by the War Department.2 To facilitate compari¬ sons, the data for the principal items 1 Several authors have discussed the value of ports to cities and the relation of ports to hinter¬ lands, but have not attempted to evaluate, by quantitative measurements, the classification of ports. See especially E. Van Cleef, Trade Centers and Trade Routes: D. Appleton-Century Co., Inc., New York, 1937, pp. 106-138 ; W. D. Jones and D. S. Whittlesey, An Introduction to Economic Geography : University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1925, pp. 347-358 ; J. R. Smith and M. O. Phillips, Industrial and Commercial Geography : Henry Holt and Company, New York, 3rd ed., 1946, pp. 755- 780. of traffic were reduced to percent¬ ages of the total traffic of the port and these percentages form the basis for the classification (table 1). Many of the ports can be classified easily on this basis, but borderline cases exist, especially among the larger ports which tend to have a greater variety of traffic than do smaller ports. However, large volume is no indication of great variety ; the fifth largest port in volume of tonnage has 94 percent of its traffic confined to one item. In reducing the principal items of traffic to percentages of the total traffic, items of like origin or related use such as sand, stone, and gravel, or gasoline and fuel oils created a problem. In order to classify a port in a category representative of its traffic, these items of like origin or related use have been combined and treated as one item. Another prob¬ lem has been the variety of items carried on the cars in car ferries. In all instances, the variety has been wide, and as the car ferries are es¬ sentially extensions of rail lines and (l no indication of the destination of the cars can be obtained from the statistics, a category of car ferry ports has been established to obviate classifying ports as General ports when they are merely shipping and receiving points for loaded cars. 2 U. S. War Department, Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers : Government Printing Oflice, Washington, annual. Lake Michigan Ports 117 Table 1. — Criteria of Classification Specialty ports (S): Ports with more than 80 percent of traffic confined to one item, and no other item constitut¬ ing 5 percent of the total traffic. Subtype (r) : Receiving port. Subtype (s): Shipping port. Combination ports (C): Ports at which not more than three items, each of which is at least 10 percent of the total, constitute 80 percent or more of the traffic. General ports (G): Ports at which no three items constitute as much as 80 percent of the total traffic. Classification In the classification, three princi¬ pal types of ports have been recog¬ nized and each type has been desig¬ nated by a letter (table 1). The two subtypes are applicable only to the Specialty ports, indicating the port’s function as a shipping or re¬ ceiving port. Specialty ports. — Specialty ports are the most numerous type, com¬ prising 57 percent of the total ports on the lake (figure 1). In view of the different functions of shipping and receiving ports to the port city and hinterland, subtypes have been adopted according to whether a port receives or ships the specialty item. Car Ferry ports are excluded from the subtype classification because of the cross-haul nature of their traffic. There are six different items of traffic which are handled by special¬ ty ports. Coal, the item found most frequently in port statistics of Lake Michigan cities, accounts for classifi¬ cation of nine ports as Specialty Re¬ ceiving ports (St. Ignace, Sister Bay, Two Rivers, Suttons Bay, Al- goma, DePere, Port Washington, Racine and Sheboygan). Since the cost of trans-shipping coal inland from the lake shore raises the cost prohibitively as a source of heat and power, further study of the activi¬ ties of these port cities will probably indicate a special industry based on the use of power. This is known to be true in at least one city, Port Washington, which has a large steam-electric generating station based on imported coal. The second most important in numjber are the fishing ports, all of which are small in tonnage handled. Six ports have their entire traffic confined to the receipt of fish (Big Saumico, Michigan City, Oconto, Pensaukee, Saugetuck, and White¬ hall). Car ferry ports are third most important in the number of ports classified as Specialty ports (Frankfort, Kewaunee, Ludington, Mackinaw City, and Manistique). They are both shipping and receiv¬ ing ports, as befits the type of traffic they handle. Stone ports are the fourth most important of the Specialty ports, with four devoted to shipping of the item (Buffington Harbor, Grand Haven, Port Inland, and Portage Lake). Two fresh fruit receiving ports (Leland and Northport) and one iron ore shipping port (Es- canaba) make up the remainder of the specialty classification. Combination ports. — In Combina¬ tion ports the items of traffic are di¬ verse, and yet the variety of items shipped or received at any one port indicates a concentration either in a few types of activities at the port city or the relative unimportance of waterside location to the city in the shipping and receiving of its prod¬ ucts. It was not found practical to use the sub-classifications of shipping 118 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Man i : Gladstone (C)« Escanaba(Ss)< Menominee (CL Tbrt ’.y i wi i n|1,v1/rl[S 1 » wi« ^ w Oconto(Sr)} // Leland(Si)4(SuHons Bay (Sr) PensaukeeJ^J XSfurgeon Bay (Cj jjjl /. , £ Traverse City (C) fAlgoma(Sr) [Frankfort (S) S&9m ico Green DePerell^r) */kewaunee(C) f Portage Lake(Ss) r) Two Rivers (Sr), Manitowoc(C) Sheboygann(Sr) Port Washington (Sr) MilwaukeeHC) Racine i(Sr) Kenosha«(C) Waukegan (C) C h fcago Calumet JP' Indiana H.(C)< ►Manistee (C) .udington(S) ^Whitehall (Sr) •Muskegon (G) GrandVHaven(Ss) •Holland(C) •Saugetuck(Sr) Soutly^Haven(C) ►St. Joseph (C) „ ^Michigan City (Sr) p Jary(C) Buffington Harbor (Sr) Petoskey(G) Charlevoix(C) A CLASSIFICATION OF PORTS ON LAKE MICHIGAN SCALE 25 50 75 (S) SPECIALTY PORTS (r) RECEIVING (s) SHIPPING (C) COMBINATION PORTS (G) GENERAL PORTS and receiving ports in this category because the items of traffic in some eases were both received and shipped. Fuels ports, handling coal and petroleum products, are the most numerous of the Combination ports, with four examples (Charlevoix, Gladstone, Holland, and Traverse City) followed closely by coal and stone ports with three examples (Kenosha, South Haven, and Manis¬ tee). Only two other ports of this classification handle the same types ■of items — Menominee and Manito¬ woc are both classified as car ferry, stone and coal ports. The other six ports classed as Combination ports are individual in the combination of items handled: iron ore, stone and coal (Gary) ; car ferry, coal, and petroleum products (Milwaukee) ; stone, coal, and petroleum products (St. Joseph) ; car ferry, stone, and petroleum products (Sturgeon Bay) ; iron ore, coal, and petroleum prod¬ ucts (Indiana Harbor) ; and coal and steel billets (Waukegan). General ports. — The five remain¬ ing ports on Lake Michigan for Lake Michigan Ports 119 which data are available are General ports (Chicago-Calumet, Green Bay, Petosky, St. James, and Muskegon). Each has a high percentage of its traffic confined to a few items, but a wide variety makes up the remain¬ der of their traffic. Two of these ports (St. James and Petosky) are small in total tonnage handled, and it is felt that both of these would be in a more specialized classification if more detailed statistics on them were available. The other three ports are truly General ports, re¬ ceiving and shipping a wide variety of goods. Distribution of Ports The map of Lake Michigan ports shows that few ports are closer than ten miles apart and that there are few stretches of shore line of more than fifty miles without a port. Around the lake from St. Ignace to Mackinaw City the midpoint in the number of ports is reached between Chicago and Waukegan. The line dividing the ports on the northern half of the lake from those on the southern half crosses the lake from north of Kewaunee on the western shore to south of Portage Lake on the eastern side. General ports are more or less evenly spaced around the lake. They are located at the head of Green Bay, the south end of Lake Michigan, in the middle and at the north end of the eastern shore, and on Beaver Island — situations, except for the last named, from which they serve a wide hinterland. The position of Milwaukee between the general ports of Chicago and Green Bay, with their overlapping hinterlands, helps l to explain the puzzling lack of vari¬ ety in its items of trade. In contrast to the even distribu¬ tion of the General ports is the con¬ centration of the Specialty and Com¬ bination ports. Of the twenty-four ports which are located in the north¬ ern part of the lake, exactly two- thirds are Specialty ports. This is 9 percent more than the average for the lake as a whole. Among these northern Specialty ports are the two fruit ports, the iron ore port, four of the six fishing ports, five of the nine coal ports, two of the five car ferry ports, and one of the four stone ports. Whereas the Specialty ports are concentrated on the northern part of the lake, a similar concentration of Combination ports is apparent in the southern part of the lake. Here are located two-thirds of the ports so classified. None of the ten Com¬ bination ports in the southern part of the lake has the same combination of items of trade, whereas three of the five ports classified in this cate¬ gory in the northern part of the lake are fuel ports — indicative, per¬ haps, of the broader economic base of the southern port cities or of larger hinterlands served by them. Conclusions The classification of ports on the basis of the number of items of trade into Specialty, Combination, and General ports presents a basis for the investigation and comparison of port cities and their hinterlands. It is not felt that this method should be an end product in itself, nor that the entire picture of a port’s function can be obtained by this classification. However, the method recommends itself, by directing attention through the items of traffic, to activities of the port city or its hinterland. GEOLOGY EDWARD C. DAPPLES, Chairman Northwestern University, Evanston 1. Structural Trends in the Pecatonica Quadrangle Based upon Decorah Stratigraphy: Charles L. Bieber, North Central College, Naperville, (slides) 2. Some Chester Outcrops and Subsurface Sections in Southeastern Illinois: Elwood Atherton, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. (slides) * 3. Correlation Problems of the “Benoist” Sand and Bethel Formation in South¬ ern Illinois: David H. Swann, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. (slides) * 4. Oil Well Spacing in Illinois During World War II: Alfred H. Bell, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. (slides) * 5. Moore’s Method: One Empirical Approach to the Interpretation of Resis¬ tivity Data: M. B. Buhle, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. (slides) * 6. Plant Microfossils from Clay Deposits in Union County, Illinois: R. M. Kosanke, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. (slides) * 7. Geological Conditions that may Cause Coal Mining Fatalities: Rolf W. Roley, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. (slides) 8. Unusual Oolite Grains from the Ste. Genevieve Limestone: Raymond S. Shrode, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. (slides) * 9. Observations on Temperature of Formation of Illinois Fluorite: R. M. Grogan, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. (slides) *10. A Study of the Refractive Indices of Opaque Isometric Minerals: M. Dar¬ win Quigley, Northwestern University, Evanston, (slides) 11. A Spectrographic Check on the Petrographic Method: Carleton A. Chap¬ man and Geo. K. Schweitzer, University of Illinois, Urbana. (slides) *12. Geological Applications of the Ionic Potential: Geo. K. Schweitzer and Carleton A. Chapman, University of Illinois, Urbana. (slides) *13. A Summary of Philippine Geology: H. L. Patton, University of Illinois, Urbana. *14. A Rockslide in the Snake River Range, Wyoming: William A. Oesterling, University of Illinois, Urbana. (slides) *15. The Distribution of Zircons in the Tuscaloosa Formation of North Caro¬ lina: Walter R. Ziebell, University of Illinois, Urbana. (slides) *16. A Treatment of the Effects of Hole Caving upon Resistivity Curves of Electric Logs: William E. McCommons, University of Illinois, Urbana (Read by title.) *Not published. [121] 122 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 40, 1947 SOME CHESTER OUTCROP AND SUBSURFACE SECTIONS IN SOUTHEASTERN ILLINOIS1 ELWOOD ATHERTON Illinois State Geological Survey, TJrbana Introduction This paper is intended to aid studies of the Chester series by pre¬ senting electric logs of several formations alongside the descrip¬ tions of corresponding cores or out¬ crops, and, for the basal Chester, in¬ soluble residue zones. For the elec¬ tric logs, lithologic interpretations are shown in the central columns. For 1 Published with permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois. the cores and outcrops, the rocks are described in some detail. Fine dash¬ ed lines extending from the electric log to the graphic log are meant to draw attention to the similarities of succession. The locations of all wells, outcrops, and cores are shown on the index map of southeastern Illinois (fig. 1). The Chester forma¬ tions illustrated include the Kinkaid, Degonia, Clore, Palestine, Menard, Golconda, and Renault (Downeys Fig. 1. — Locations of cores and outcrops Great Lakes Carbon — Tulley No. 2-A Byrd— Pittsburg (New Haven) Core Sec. 7, T. 7 S., R. 10 E., White Co. Sec. 18, T. 7 S., R. 10 E., White Co. PENNSYLVANIAN Chester Series 123 Fig. 2. — Kinkaid formation 124 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Bluff and Shetlerville) formations. Kinkaid Formation (Fig. 2) The Kinkaid formation in the “New Haven” core (drilled in 1913 and described by Savage2) is shown graphically with the corresponding portion of the electric log of a well about % mile to the northeast. The Kinkaid in the core is immedi¬ ately overlain by Pennsylvanian sandstone and conglomerate and is underlain by the Degonia shown in fig. 3. Outstanding features of the Kinkaid in both core and electric log are the massive upper and lower limestones. The intervening por¬ tion includes some limestone in its central and sandstone in its lower part. At the base are a few feet of green, red, and purple shales. Degonia Formation (Fig. 3) The “New Haven” core and elec¬ tric logs of nearby wells show three sandstone beds within 100 feet below the Kinkaid formation. Oil geolo¬ gists in this area generally put the upper two beds in the Degonia for¬ mation, and the third bed in the Clore formation, as is done here. It is possible that when the Degonia formation is traced in detail from the type locality in western Illinois across to this area, the bounds shown here may be modified. Clore Formation (Fig. 3) The Clore formation in this area consists mainly of shale, shaly lime¬ stone, and sandstone. The promin¬ ent sandstone in the upper part is known to oil geologists as the ‘ ‘ Clore sand.” Commonly more green shale is encountered than is reported from the “New Haven” core. Palestine Formation (Fig. 4) The Palestine formation in the 2 Technical files, State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois. “New Haven” core is 105 feet thick and consists of sandstone except for about 5 feet of shale and shaly sand¬ stone near the top, and minor shale laminae. The Palestine formation in southeastern Illinois generally is thinner than this, averaging about 55 feet, and it usually includes a larger proportion of shale. Menard Formation (Figs. 4 and 5) There is an unconformity below the Palestine formation, and in many parts of southeastern Illinois the Menard includes higher beds than are present in the “New Hav¬ en” core (fig. 4). The “massive Menard ? ’ occurs between the depths 2170'6" and 2205' in the core, and the “little Menard” between 2214'9" and 2219'9". The “little Menard” is often sandy in this part of the state. Few electric logs are available near the Menard outcrop described by L. E. Workman3 and shown in fig. 5. The formation is sufficiently uniform, however, for the electric log of the Smokey Oil-Barger No. 1 well, about 18 miles northeast of the outcrop, to show considerable simi¬ larity. Neither the upper nor the basal portions of the formation are exposed in the outcrop. The top of the “massive Menard” is at 63'11" in the outcrop. In the well the Menard is underlain by shaly sand¬ stone of the Waltersburg formation. Separation of the basal Menard shale from underlying Waltersburg shale is usually difficult. Some geol¬ ogists prefer to mark the base of the Menard formation by the base of the “little Menard” limestone. Golconda Formation (Fig. 6) The Golconda formation in south- 3 Field notes. L. E. Workman. State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois. Chester Series 125 Fig. 3. — Degonia and Clore formations 126 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions ' Chester Series 127 Fig. 5. — Menard formation 128 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Chester Series 129 eastern Illinois typically includes at the top dark gray, red, and green shales with thin, brown, sublitho- graphic dolomite. The bulk of the formation consists of a zone which is dominantly limestone, underlain by a zone which is dominantly shale. At the base is the “ Barlow limestone,” with sometimes a few feet of basal shale. The “Barlow” is a thin ex¬ tensive bed, often mapped to show subsurface structure. In the sec¬ tions illustrated, most of the upper shale zone was eroded before deposi¬ tion of the Hardinsburg formation. The “Barlow limestone” is shown in the electric log at the base of the Golconda. Samples show that in this well the “Barlow” is immediately underlain by dark gray silty shale and sandstone of the Cypress forma¬ tion. The lower part of the Gol¬ conda is not exposed in the outcrop section described by L. E. Work¬ man.3 The electric log is from a well lo¬ cated about 17 miles north of the outcrop. Renault (Downeys Bluff and Shetlerville) Formation (Figs. 7 and 8) The lower part of the Chester in Hardin County has been called the Renault formation. Frank Tippie4 correlates the upper part of the Re¬ nault with the basal Paint Creek of western Illinois, and has proposed the name “Downeys Bluff” for this member of the Paint Creek, based on the type section shown in fig. 8 and located at Downeys Bluff in NW1^, SE%, sec. 5, T. 13 S., R. 8 E. The 3 Field notes. L. E. Workman. State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois. 4 F. E. Tippie, Subsurface Stratigraphy of Lower Chester Formations in Parts of Illinois and Western Kentucky. Ill. State Geol. Survey, unpublished manuscript. remainder of the Renault is here re¬ ferred to as the Shetlerville mem¬ ber.5 The Downeys Bluff and Shetler¬ ville are illustrated by an electric log (fig. 7), the outcrop section at Shet¬ lerville6 (fig. 7), Tippie ’s type sec¬ tion for the Downeys Bluff4 (fig. 8), and the core6 (fig. 8) from which he describes insoluble residue zones of the Renault formation.7 Tippie subdivides the Renault into five zones, A to E, based on insoluble residues. These zones are shown for the core and approximated for the electric log and two outcrop sections. In the electric log (fig. 7) it is im¬ practicable to pick the contact of the Shetlerville on the underlying Levias member of the Ste. Genevieve formation, so the position of this contact is estimated. In the Parkin¬ son quarry section (fig. 7), the sub- lithographic limestone at 15 to 18.5 feet is correlated with the sublitho- graphic limestone at depth 223.8 feet in the core (fig. 8), and therefore is placed in the C zone of the Shetler¬ ville formation. Acknowledgments Mr. A. H. Cronk, Superintendent, Rosiclare Lead and Fluorspar Min¬ ing Company, Rosiclare, Illinois, has given permission to describe the lithology of part of the core from the Rosiclare Lead and Fluorspar Min¬ ing Company — A. C. No. 2 diamond drill hole. Thanks are extended to various members of the Illinois State Geological Survey for their help. 5 cf. Lexicon of Geologic Names of the U. S., U. S. G. S. Bull. .896, p. 1985. 6 Described by F. E. Tippie, Technical files, State Geological Survey, Urbana, Ill. 7 F. E. Tippie, Insoluble Residues of the Levias and Renault Formations in Hardin County, Illinois: Trans., Illinois State Acad. Sci., Vol. 36, No. 2, December 1943, p. 155. 130 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions c 1 Fig. 7. — Renault (Downeys Bluff and Shetlerville) formation Downeys Bluff Section Rosiclare Lead and Fluorspar Mng. — A Sec. 5, T. 13 S., R. 8 E., Hardin Co. No. 2 Core Sec. 32, T. 12 S., R. 8 E., Hardin Co. Chester Series 131 -Renault (Downeys Bluff and Shelterville) formation 132 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 40, 1947 STRUCTURAL TRENDS IN THE PECATONICA QUAD¬ RANGLE BASED UPON DECORAH STRATIGRAPHY C. L. BIEBER North Central College, Naperville The Pecatonica quadrangle in northern Illinois is located on the southern flanks of the Wisconsin arch. Rock exposures are plentiful in the north half of the area where the glacial drift cover is thin. South¬ eastward the drift thickens and bed¬ rock exposures are less numerous. The stratigraphic formation upon which this report is based, and upon which the structural trend map is drawn, is the relatively thin transi¬ tion zone between the Platteville and Galena formations, interpreted herein as Decorah. Rocks of Decorah age average from 10 to 20 feet thick over the crest of the Wisconsin arch in the Pecatonica quadrangle. The forma¬ tion comprises thin to medium- bedded fossiliferous dolomites, in¬ terspersed sparingly with blue-green shaly partings. The lower Decorah beds consist of a greenish-blue shaly facies which is distinctive when ex¬ posed on fresh surfaces. Locally the shaly phase is absent.1 Sovoerbyella is commonly present in the lower Decorah beds. Zones crowded with Dalmanella are scattered throughout the Decorah,2 but tend to be more plentiful upward. Ramose bryozoans 1 DuBois, E. P., Subsurface relations of the Maquoketa and “Trenton” formations in Illinois : Illinois Geol. Survey Rept. Inv. 105, pp. 21-23, 1945. 2 Bays, C. A. and Raasch, G. 0., Mohawkian re¬ lations in Wisconsin : Guidebook of the 9th. Ann. Field Conference Kansas Geol. Soc., p. 298, 1935. are concentrated locally with the Dalmanella zones. Lithologically, the upper beds of the Decorah grade into the buff-col¬ ored sugary and commonly cherty Galena (Prosser member). The De- corah-Galena contact cannot be drawn with certainty, but herein is taken to be where crowded Dalman¬ ella zones cease and green shaly partings give way to the typical Galena lithology. Dwarf forms of Receptaculites are scattered in the transitional upper Decorah horizon. The contact between Platteville and Decorah beds is drawn at the base of the blue-green shaly dolo¬ mite. The Spechts Ferry member of the Platteville formation is not sure¬ ly recognized in the area, but may be included in the dense, buff, locally cherty beds which commonly under¬ lie the Decorah. The Spechts Ferry member is reported in south central Wiconsin.3 The number three and four beds of the Harrison section may represent the Spechts Ferry member. At a roadside exposure in the north part of the quadrangle in the SW.% SW AA sec. 36, T. 29 N., R. 9 E., Pionodema subaequata is in shaly dolomite underlying De¬ corah beds. In the west part of the area, upper Platteville rocks near the Decorah contact exhibit buff to brown shaly partings on wavy bed¬ ding planes. 3 Bays, C. A. and Raasch, G. 0., op. cit. Structural Trends in Pecatonica Quadrangle 133 Roadside Quarry, Three Miles Southeast of Harrison, Center of Sec 36, T. 28 N., R. 11 E., Rockford Quadrangle Thickness Covered. Ft. In. 10. Dolomite, buff, massive, cherty, sugary, weathered . 6 9. Dolomite, buff, a few green shaly partings, weathers sugary; Dalmanella, bryozoans, fucoids . 10 8. Dolomite, gray, blue-green shaly partings common, beds 2 to 10 inches thick; fucoids profuse on the bedding planes below . 8 7. Dolomite, buff, massive, a few shaly partings at top, iron stains, sparingly fossiliferous . 1 6 6. Dolomite, thin-bedded, a few blue-green shaly partings, Dalmanella sparing . 0 8 5. Dolomite, buff to blue, blue wavy shaly partings, fossiliferous .... 0 7 4. Dolomite, buff, thin-bedded, brown shaly partings; siliceous, rot¬ ting, weathers white; fossiliferous in center with Sowerbyella and Holopea . 2 2 3. Dolomite, buff, chert common, beds 2 to 6 inches thick; a few solution pocks upward; small Strophomenids center . 10 2. Dolomite, buff, massive; Strophomena and Streptelasma . 2 6 1. Dolomite, buff, thin-bedded, iron stains; fucoids, small gastropods 3 Base of quarry Roadside Exposure, Three Miles Southeast of Rock City, East Bluff of Rock Run Creek, NW.Vi NW.14 Sec. 2, T. 27 N., R. 9 E., Pecatonica Quadrangle Covered. Thickness Ft. 13. Dolomite, buff, weathers sugary . 1 12. Dolomite, buff, a few traces of green shale, weathers sugary . 7 11. Dolomite, buff, greenish, shaly; Dalmanella common . 1 10. Dolomite, sugary, a few shaly partings; crinoid fragments, Soicerbyella, Strophomena, dwarf Receptaculites above . 4 9. Dolomite, buff, green, shaly . 3 8. Dolomite, weathers sugary; cf. Sowerbyella , cf. Pionodema . 5 7. Dolomite, partly covered, buff, beds two to six inches thick, chert sparing 8 6. Dolomite, buff, iron-stained, thin-bedded, fucoidal . 1 5. Dolomite, buff, scattered chert; silicified Streptelasma and Columnaria; solution pocks scattered . 4 4. Dolomite, buff, cherty . 1 3 .Dolomite, buff; silicified Streptelasma above . 6 2. Dolomite, buff, medium to fine grain; sparingly fossiliferous . 3 1. Dolomite, buff, fucoids sparing; Strophomena, Streptelasma, Leperditia profuse . 1 134 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Criteria found useful in determin¬ ing the relative placement of De¬ corah strata in the area follow : 1. Zones crowded with Dalman- ella, and scattered crinoid fragments with Glyptorthis. 2. An occasional dwarfed form of Receptaculites associated with, or a few feet above, the Dalmanella zones in transitional upper Decorah beds. 3. Leperditia cf. faculties com¬ monly scattered 8 to 15 feet below the Dalmanella zones. 4. Silicified fossils, scattered in upper Platteville, most common of which are Columnaria and Strepte- lasma corniculum. 5. Profuse fucoids scattered on the bedding planes mostly in the upper Platteville, but extending up into the Galena formation. 6. Blue-green shaly partings on wavy bedding planes, more common in lower Decorah strata. 7. Black and dark brown min¬ eral specks, probably manganese, with dendrites. 8. Locally, buff to brown shaly partings in upper Platteville beds. 9. Locally, Pionodema underly¬ ing Decorah shales. The base of the shaly dolomite De¬ corah formation can be identified at exposures with a fair degree of ac¬ curacy. The Platteville-Decorah contact is therefore used as a key horizon in mapping structural trends in the quadrangle. Outcrop elevations on the top of the Platte¬ ville, which provides most of the con¬ trol, are estimated from contour maps. Use of well logs is limited because the Decorah formation is not delimited in the older wells. Two maps are presented. Fig. 1 shows the approximate Platteville- Decorah contact. Fig. 2 shows struc¬ tural trends by contours drawn on the top of the Platteville formation. In general, the structural trends in the area follow maps drawn on the top of the Galena.4 The west part of the area shows a marked syn¬ cline with north-south axis, named herein the Rock Run syncline. The north center exhibits a gentle arch pitching southward at about 25 feet per mile. The axis is approximately north-south through the central part of the quadrangle and marks the south central margin of the Wiscon¬ sin arch. The village of Pecatonica is on the crest of the arch, near its southern extremity. In the extreme northeast a syncline trends north¬ west-southeast, the axis of which is near the village of Avon, Wisconsin. From the east-center margin of the quadrangle a small flexure pitches southeastward in the direction of Rockford. A structural sag is in the southern part of the quadrangle, whose long axis trends east-west. This feature is probably a part of structure referred to as the Ogle county line syncline.5 Strata exhibiting moderate dips of from 5° to 10° are at two loca¬ tions: (1) Three miles southeast of Rock City, east bluff of Rock Run Creek at roadside, NW. % NW. % sec. 2, T. 27 N., R. 9 E., and (2) two miles south southeast of Ridott, SE. % SE. % SW. % sec. 4, T. 26 N., R. 9 E. This latter location may represent slump in an area of solu¬ tion. 4 Horberg, Leland, Preglacial erosion surfaces in Illinois : Illinois Geol. Survey Rept. Inv. 118, p. 185, 1946. . . 5 Oady, G. H., Structure of the LaSalle anticline: Illinois Geol. Survey Bull. 36, p. 132, 1920. Structural Trends in Pecatonica Quadrangle 135 Generally, the area is one of gentle which nearly all exposures exhibit warping and southward pitch, in strata horizontal in attitude. Exten- 136 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions sion of structural trends studied northward across the state line into Wisconsin indicate cross structures present in the northern part of the South Wayne, Monroe, and Brod- head quadrangles. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 137 GEOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE IONIC POTENTIAL GEO. K. SCHWEITZER and CARLETON A. CHAPMAN University of Illinois, Urbana Introduction Quite frequently we are reminded that the 96 known chemical elements are too complex to be classified by reference to any single characteris¬ tic. The periodic classification gives us only qualitative ideas, and many attempts have been made to place the elements on a more quantitative scale. The role of ionic radii in the prop¬ erties of chemical compounds has been emphasized by many authors including Pauling, Goldschmidt, and Bragg. Another factor influencing the properties of chemical com¬ pounds is the oxidation number or charge which an ion carries. In order to obtain a more comprehen¬ sive view of an ion and its proper¬ ties, we must take into consideration both of these factors. Definition Increasing ionic charge and ionic radius act in opposite directions. That is, the lattice energy of a crys¬ tal is directly proportional to the charges and inversely proportional to the radii of the ions contained therein. From these considerations, Cartledge (1, 2) defined the ionic potential (0) as the charge on an ion divided by its radius. Table 1 gives a list of some common ions, their charges, radii, ionic potentials, and the square roots of their ionic potentials. Table 1. Ionic Potentials Ion Charge Radius * 0 y/ 0 Cs+ 1 1.65 0.61 0.78 Rb+ 1 1.49 0.67 0.82 K+ 1 1.33 0.75 0.87 Na+ 1 0.98 1.02 1.00 Ba+f 2 1.43 1.40 1.18 Pb++ 2 1.32 1.52 1.21 Sr++ 2 1.27 1.58 1.26 Li+ 1 0.78 1.67 1.30 Ca++ 2 1.06 1.89 1.38 Zn++ 2 0.83 2.40 1.55 Fe++ 2 0.83 2.40 1.55 M g++ 2 0.78 2.56 1.60 Th+4 4 1.10 3.63 1.91 Ce+4 4 1.02 3.92 1.98 Fe+++ 3 0.67 4.48 2.12 Zr+4 4 0.87 4.60 2.15 Pbf4 4 0.84 4.76 2.18 A1+++ 3 0.57 5.26 2 30 Be++ 2 0.34 5.90 2.43 Ti+4 4 0.68 5.90 2.43 Mo*6 6 0.62 9.7 3.11 Si+4 4 0 39 10.2 3.18 p+5 5 0.34 14.7 3.82 Bf++ 3 0 20 15 0 3.87 S^6 6 0.29 20.0 4.46 C+4 4 0.20 20.0 4.46 N+5 5 0.11 45.5 6.70 *The radii have been taken from V. M. Gold¬ schmidt, Br. 60, 1263 (1927). These values of the ionic potential may be related to many geological concepts, of which seven will be con¬ sidered. Applications 1. If the square root of the ionic potential (V0) of a cation is less than 2.2, the oxide formed will be basic; if V0 is between 2.2 and 3.1, the oxide will be amphoteric ; and if V0 is greater than 3.1, the oxide will be acidic. These data are sum¬ marized in Table 2 along with some examples. 138 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Table 2. — Acidic-Basic Character of Oxides V0 Nature of oxide Examples <2 2 . basic . Na20, K20, CaO, MgO A1203, BeO Si02, C02 2 2-3 1 . amphoteric . >3 I . . acidic . 2. When the V0 of the cation of a chloride is greater than 2.2., the chloride is volatile at a little above room temperature and one atmos¬ phere pressure. This means that the chlorides of silicon, germanium, ti¬ tanium, plumbic lead, etc. could be lost in volcanic eruptions. 3. The hardness of binary crystals increases as the ionic potentials of their constitutents increase. This phenomenon is illustrated in Table 3. 4. If the V0 of the cation of a carbonate or nitrate is greater than 2, the compound will not be stable ; if V0 is between 2 and 2.5, basic carbonates are formed which are soluble in carbonate solution. Thus, zirconium, aluminum, beryllium and others may be dissolved in carbonate solutions as basic carbonates. 5. Goldschmidt (3, 4) has di¬ vided the cations into three groups according to their ionic potentials. Group I consists of cations whose ionic potentials are less than 3 ; they remain in true ionic solution in the processes of weathering and trans¬ portation. An example of this is the presence of sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and strontium in sea water. Group II is made up of cations which have ionic poten¬ tials between 3 and 6. These ions are precipitated by hydrolysis, ex¬ amples being the presence of alumi¬ num and beryllium in clays. Ca¬ tions with ionic potentials greater than 6 comprise Group III. They form complex anions containing oxy¬ gen, some of them again being sol¬ uble. Examples of these are the sili¬ cates, phosphates, carbonates, bor¬ ates, and nitrates. 6. Elements whose ionic poten¬ tials are less than 2 are found to be easily collected and exchanged by natural zeolites. 7. Elements with high ionic po¬ tentials enrich in silicates. Gold¬ schmidt (4, 6) says that the limit is about 2.6 at ordinary temperature, but that the limit changes with the temperature. Table 3.— Hardness of Binary Crystals Compound NaF MgO ScN TiC TTnrrlnpSS nVToh^S^ . 3.2 6.5 7-8 8-9 . / (t\ /lof inn . 1.00 1.60 1.90 2.43 0.86 1.19 1.32 1.38 ♦Values for the anions are calculated by neglecting the negative sign to facilitate the taking of the square root. Geological Applications of Ionic Potential 139 Conclusions The concept of the ionic potential is very useful to the instructor as a teaching aid, and also to the research worker as a simple means of remem¬ bering various relations. The user is warned, though, because the idea is not infallible ; but it is neverthe¬ less applicable to many problems. Other references are provided for further reading. References 1. Cartledge, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 50, 2855 (1928). 2. Cartledge, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 52, 3076 (1930). 3. Goldschmidt, J. Chem. Soc. 1937, 655. 4. Goldschmidt, Skr. Norske Vid.- Akad. Oslo, Mat. Natwlv. KI. No. 4, (1937). 5. Sun, J., Chinese Chem. Soc. 5, 148 (1937). 6. Rankama, Suomen Geol. Toimi- kunta, Bull. Comm. geol. Pinlande, 126, 24 (1941). 140 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 UNUSUAL OOLITE GRAINS FROM THE STE. GENEVIEVE LIMESTONE* RAYMOND S. SHRODE Illinois State Geological Survey, TJrbana In connection with other studies of Illinois limestone resources it was noted that a massive bed of oolite, 6 to 8 feet thick, in the upper part of the Ste. Genevieve formation in the quarry at Anna, Illinois, contained oolite grains and other grains of un¬ usual character as compared to the common Ste. Genevieve type oolite grains, which are characterized by rounded centers, mostly of undeter¬ minable origin surrounded by one or more annular calcite deposits. Pic¬ tures of a number of these unusual grains are included. No attempt is made to interpret the origin of the grains themselves, or their broader significance in relation to the mode of formation or subsequent history of the Ste. Genevieve formation, be¬ cause the data now available are in¬ adequate, but some interesting pos¬ sibilities are self-evident from the pictures (figs. 1-6). The specimens studied were pre¬ pared by sawing and grinding a plane surface on each, and etching the surface with dilute hydrochloric acid. This produced a semi-polished finish which revealed well the tex¬ tural details of the specimens. Insol¬ uble impurities projected above the surfaces of the specimens. The figures shown are made from photo¬ micrographs taken by reflected light at magnifications of 12 to 30X, ex¬ cept as otherwise noted. The unusual grains observed may ^Published with the permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. be classified into five groups: (1) oolite grains with recognizable fos¬ sils as centers; (2) compound oolite grains; (3) grains composed of oolite rock; (4) oolite grains wTith clear crystalline calcite centers ; and (5). partial or disrupted grains. The number of photomicrographs shown for each type of grains is not neces¬ sarily proportional to the numbers occurring in the samples studied. Heinz Lowenstam of the Survey staff identified the fossils. Description of Figures Figure 1 is a photomicrograph of typical Ste. Genevieve oolite taken at a magnification of 10X. Some grains have large dark calcite cen¬ ters surrounded by a single ring of calcite. Others have smaller centers with one or more annular deposits around the center. The dark areas between the grains are also clear crystalline calcite in this figure and other figures which follow. Figure 2 shows grains of the type that have fossils as centers. In the upper left is an oolite grain com¬ posed of a foraminifera, possibly en- dothyra, surrounded by a single ring of calcite. In the lower left is a grain whose center is an arm plate of a crinoid having two annular de¬ posits around it. Grains with crin¬ oid arm plate centers are generally abundant in the Ste. Genevieve ool¬ ite. The grain in the upper right shows a longitudinal cross-section of a minute gastropod surrounded by a Oolite Grains from Ste. Genevieve Limestone 141 Fig. 1— Typical Ste. Genevieve oolite. Fig. 2. — Oolites with recognizable fossil centers. 142 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 3. — Oolites with recognizable fossil centers. single thick calcite ring. The grain at the lower right is a fossil, not posi¬ tively identified, but possibly a lon¬ gitudinal section of a crinoid stem showing a residual central canal. Note the thinness of the calcite ring around this fossil. This last photo¬ micrograph has a magnification of 12X as compared to 30X for the other grains shown. Figure No. 3 shows more grains with fossil centers. In the upper left is a cross-sectioned coral with a single calcite ring. A transverse cross section of a brachiopod with a single thin white calcite ring is shown in the lower left. The interior of the brachiopod contains other smaller oolite grains. In the upper right is another brachiopod in longi¬ tudinal cross section surrounded by a thick deposit of calcite, as is like¬ wise a piece of crinoid stem in the lower right, which is displayed in longitudinal cross section. All grains shown have a magnification of 30X. Figure No. 4 shows in the upper left a compound oolite grain having two well defined centers surrounded by annular calcite deposits. A third center appears on the right side of the grain. The outermost thin cal¬ cite ring surrounds this third center as well as the rest of the composite grain. The other grains shown in the figure are oolite rock. They have no annular deposits around them and appear to have been derived from a consolidated oolite which was being eroded at the time the bed from which these specimens came was deposited. The oolite grains within the fragments of oolite rock are of the type previously described as usual for the Ste. Genevieve for¬ mation. The photomicrographs in Oolite Grains from Ste. Genevieve Limestone 143 Fig. 5. — Compound oolite grain and grains with clear crystalline calcite centers. 144 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 6. — Partial grains and disrupted grains. this figure have a magnification of 12X, excepting the upper left which has 30X. Figure No. 5 shows in the upper left another compound grain with 3 centers, all enclosed by a calcite ring. The remainder of the figure illus¬ trates oolite grains with clear calcite centers, which in the photomicro¬ graphs are dark gray or nearly black. The grain in the lower left is one whose center is only half crystal¬ line calcite. The grain in the upper right appears to have had a brachio- pod, shown in longitudinal cross sec¬ tion, as its center. The white calcite envelope on the concave side of the shell is of unusual thickness. The grain in the lower right is of interest because of its angular outline. The photomicrographs in this figure have a magnification of .42X. . ** Figure No. 6 shows the disrupted and partial grain type. In the lower left disruption of the exterior por¬ tion of the grain is evident, probably as a result of the growth of crystal¬ line calcite, indicated by the dark area. The same phenomenon is shown in the grain at the lower right and in the upper left. Also in the upper left there appears the white calcite envelope of an oolite grain which has been broken and deformed and whose center is no longer evi¬ dent. Partial grains, which appear to be the result of the solution of one grain at its contact with another, are well shown on the left side of the lower left picture. In the upper right picture, a series of two partial grains are shown. In the whole grain projecting silica casts a shadow on the surface. The photo¬ micrographs in this figure have a magnification of 25X with the ex¬ ception of the upper right which has 10X. PHYSICS PAUL E. MARTIN, Chairman Wheaton College, Wheaton * 1. A Circuit for Comparing the Sensitivities of Galvonometers: Frederick H. Giles, Wheaton College, Wheaton. * 2. Oil Flotation of Illinois Coal Fines: Robert J. Piersol, Illinois State Geo¬ logical Survey, Urbana. * 3. Neutron Induced Radioactivity in Iron and Chromium: R. F. Paton and R. B. Duffield, University of Illinois, Urbana. * 4. Meteorological and Oceanographic Studies in the Istanbul Area: Roscoe E. Harris, Office of Naval Research, Chicago. * 5. A New Design for a Radio Antenna: Clayton Howard, Wheaton College, Wheaton. * 6. Great Probability of the Existence of Atoms with Negatively Charged Nuclei— Especially in Stars of High Density: O. B. Young, Southern Illi¬ nois Normal University, Carbondale. 7. The Endurance Limit of a Free-cutting Brass Rod: H. L. Walker and M. Baskal, University of Illinois, Urbana. * 8. Coefficient of Sound Absorption — A Stationary Wave Method in which no Exploring Device is Used: H. O. Taylor, Wheaton College, Wheaton. * 9. Recommendations for the Training and Certification of High School Sci¬ ence and Mathematics Teachers: Glen Warner, A.A.A.S. Cooperative Committee on Science Teaching, Chicago. *10. The Navy Program for Basic Research— Its Objectives and Scope: Roscoe E. Harris, Office of Naval Research, Chicago. *11. Illustrative Examples of Physics Problems for Pre-Medical Students: Lester Bochstahler, Northwestern University, Evanston. 'Not published. I 145] 146 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 ENDURANCE LIMIT OF A FREE-CUTTING BRASS ROD H. L. WALKER and M. BASKAL* University of Illinois, Urbana Free-cutting brass rod is the most important of all the leaded brasses. Each year millions of pounds are consumed in the manufacture of screws, nuts, bolts, door hinges, and general hardware of all kinds. This product has excellent plasticity with¬ in the temperature range of 1200° to 1450° F. and can be extruded into intricate shapes; however, it cannot be hot-rolled or forged because of its high lead content. It is usually fab¬ ricated by hot extruding and/ or cold drawing to size and shape. For best machining properties the product is furnished in the cold drawn condi¬ tion. Lead is virtually insoluble in al¬ loys of copper and zinc, and when present it occurs as finely divided and more or less evenly distributed globules of lead. The presence of lead in brass does not appreciably influence the mechanical strength or corrosion resistance of the parent alloy but it does drastically reduce the bending, cold-heading, and up¬ setting operations, which can be per¬ formed with comparative ease in most of the unleaded copper-zinc al¬ loys. The one reason why lead is added to brass is to improve its machinability. The presence of lead uniformly distributed in a brass al¬ loy causes chips to break off and, since the chips are practically undis¬ torted and are only momentarily in contact with the tool face, very little heat is transmitted to the cutting tool. Purpose of Investigation Free-cutting brass rod is essential- : ly common brass rod (63% Cu, 37% i Zn) to which approximately 3% Pb I has been added. The presence of lead does not appreciably influence the mechanical strength of the com¬ mon brass rod as is shown by the following data : Common brass rod, 62.7% Cu; Pb 0.03%; Zn balance, grain size 0.045 mm. diameter ready- 1 to-finish, cold drawn 30%, has a tensile strength of 70,000 psi. Free- cutting brass rod, 61.7% Cu; 3.35% Pb; 34.9% Zn, grain size 0.040 mm. diameter ready-to-finish, cold drawn approximately 30%, has a tensile strength of 67,000 psi. Because of the presence of lead particles in the microstructure of free-cutting brass rod there is an ex¬ cellent opportunity for the lead to act as stress-raisers and materially ; affect the endurance limit. There are only a limited number of references in the literature to the endurance limit of leaded brasses, therefore it was believed that such an investiga¬ tion would be of value. Apparatus All tests were made on a Farmer machine of rotating simple beam type, in which the outermost fibers of a solid cylindrical specimen are subjected to cycles of completely re¬ versed stress from tension to com¬ pression, under constant load. *An abstract of a thesis presented by M. Baskal I in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the 1 degree of Master of Science in Metallurgical En- j gineering, University of Illinois. Free-Cutting Brass Rod 147 Fig. 1. — Brass rod, cold drawn approxi¬ mately 30%. Structure shows grains of alpha and beta solid solution. The dark stringers are particles of undissolved lead. Average grain size 0.040 mm diameter. Etched with 1 part H202 plus 4 parts 50% NH4OH. Magnification 100 di¬ ameters. Fig. 2. — Brass rod annealed at 1050° F. for 2% hours. Elongated grains of cold-drawn condition have been replaced by strain free, equiaxed grains. Structure is essentially alpha solid solution grains with coalesced globules of lead. Grain size 0.040 mm diameter. Magnification 100 di¬ ameters. Etched in hydrogen peroxide plus ammonium hy¬ droxide. The specimens were of stan¬ dard size : 4.0 inches long, 0.300 -f- 0.003 inch minimum diameter, and 5.0 inch radius. The ends of the [ specimens were threaded internally to facilitate a tight grip in the chucks. The surface was polished parallel to the axis with No. 00 metallographic paper. Material and Procedure The free-cutting brass rod was of % inch diameter, cold-drawn ap¬ proximately 30%, with a ready-to- finish grain size of 0.040 mm. diam¬ eter. The chemical analysis was : Copper . 61.70% Lead . 3.35% Zinc . 34.90% 99.95% The structure of the bar in the as- received condition consisted of alpha and beta brass, plus particles of lead ; and the structure is illustrated in figure 1. A series of as-received brass speci¬ mens was given a heat treatment to eliminate beta brass and produce a grain size equal to the ready-to-finish grain size. The treatment consisted of heating to 1050° F., holding for 2% hours at that temperature in an electrical resistance furnace, fol¬ lowed by quenching in water. The grain size produced averaged 0.040 mm. diameter. The structure showed complete recrystallization but no ap¬ preciable beta phase, and is illus¬ trated in figure 2. Another series of brass specimens was heat treated to produce a grain size twice as large Total 148 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions phase. The heat treatment consisted of heating to 15003 F., holding for 31/2 hours at that temperature, cool¬ ing to 1050° F. and holding at 1050° F. for 7% hours, followed by quenching in water. The grain size produced averaged 0.080 mm. diam¬ eter. The structure showed com¬ plete recrystallization and coales¬ cence of the grains but no beta phase, and is illustrated in figure 3. The specimens were rough ma¬ chined, heat treated, finish ma¬ chined, and polished. An initial load of approximately 0.6 times the ten¬ sile strength was used. The load wTas continuously reduced until fail¬ ure did not take place in 50 million cj^cles of reversed stressing. The specimens annealed at the higher temperature, to produce a large grain size, could not be loaded with a load greater than 25,000 psi with¬ out causing plastic deformation when the load was applied. Table 1. — Fatigue and Mechanical Properties of Free-Cutting Brass Rod Material Rockwell B hardness Ultimate strength psi % Elongation in 1.2 inch gage length % . Reduction of area Endurance limit psi Cycles of stress Brass, cold drawn approx. 30%. Av. grain dia. 0.040 mm. 73 67,000 22.4 51.1 16,500 50x10® Brass annealed 2 14 hrs. at 1050° F. Av. grain dia. 0.040 mm . 17 52,000 64.1 51.6 18,000 50x10® Brass annealed 314 hrs. at 1500° F., cooled to 1050 0 F., held 714 hrs. Av. grain dia. 0.080 mm. 13 45,300 65.2 58.5 17,500 50x10® as the ready-to-finish grain size and to eliminate the presence of beta Fig. 3. — Brass rod annealed at 1500° F. for 3 y2 hours. Structure con¬ sists of alpha solid solution and globules of lead. Grain size 0.080 mm diameter. Magnifica¬ tion 100 diameters. Etched in hydrogen peroxide and ammon¬ ium hydroxide. Free-Cutting Brass Rod J 49 Fig. 4. — Stress versus cycles of stressing to produce failure in a free-cutting brass rod. Curve A. Cold-drawn approximately 30% reduction in area. Curve B. Annealed at 1050° F. Curve C. Annealed at 1500° F. Arrows indicate no failure for conditions of stress and cycles of stressing. Discussion of Results The mechanical properties of the free-cutting brass rod in the three conditions of testing are shown in table 1. The loss in hardness and strength, and increase in elongation with the first heat treatment, shows recrystallization was complete and coalescence of grains had taken place. When the grain size was doubled by coalescence, in the sec¬ ond heat treatment, a further loss in strength and hardness was found, but the ductility was less affected. The stress in pounds per square inch and the number of cycles of re¬ versed stressing, to produce failure, are tabulated in table 1 ; and the data are plotted in figure 4 in the conventional manner of stress vs. cycles of stressing on a semi-log¬ arithmic plot. The rod in the as-received condi¬ tion with approximately 30% cold deformation showed a continuously lowered stress for cycles of stressing up to 50,000,000 cycles. The slope of the curve for failure decreases at stresses of less than 25,000 psi. How¬ ever, with cycles of stressing up to 50,000,000 cycles the S-N curve had not become horizontal, and a stress 150 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions had not yet been reached in which it could be said a safe load had been reached for an infinitely large number of repeated cycles of stres¬ sing. The specimens which had been an¬ nealed for 2% hours at 1050° F., and with the same grain size as the ready - to-finish grain size before cold draw¬ ing, show an initially lower stress for a small number of cycles. The rela¬ tion of stress vs. cycles of stressing is linear from 200,000 to 10,000,000 cycles of stress. Curiously, the load¬ carrying ability of these specimens, for cycles of stressing greater than 1,000,000 and up to 50,000,000, is somewhat better than for the cold drawn specimens. The specimens which had been an¬ nealed for 3 y2 hours at 1500° F., followed by holding at 1050° F. for 7% hours, would not take an initial load in excess of 25,000 psi without plastically deforming under the load. The load-carrying ability of these specimens of large grain size was materially lower than for the cold drawn specimens, or for the specimens annealed at the lower tem¬ perature and with a grain size only half as large. The relation of stress vs. cycles of stressing is linear and parallel to the specimens of smaller grain size with cycles of stressing up to 5,000,000 cycles. At 5,000,000 cycles the slope of the curve de¬ creases and the curve is practically horizontal from 5,000,000 to 50,000,000 cycles. The three curves, for the three specimens in different conditions, practically meet at a constant value of stress for 50,000,000 cycles of stressing. Thus, it is indicated that for an infinitely large number of cycles the annealed rod has the abil¬ ity to carry as large a load as the cold drawn rod. Conclusions Based upon the results obtained in this experiment the following con¬ clusions may be summarized : 1. Cold drawing of leaded-brass does not increase the load-carrying ability of the metal for 50,000,000 cycles of reversed stress. 2. Based upon 50,000,000 cycles of reversed stressing there is no in¬ dicated safe load for an infinite num¬ ber of reversals of stressing, such as is exhibited by ferrous alloys. 3. Cold drawing a leaded-brass does increase the load-carrying abil¬ ity, under complete reversal of stres¬ sing, for cycles of stressing less than 1,000,000 cycles. 4. The endurance limit of leaded- brass is not affected by increasing the grain size from 0.040 to 0.080 mm. diameter, for a large number of stress cycles. 5. It may be safely concluded that the globules of insoluble lead found in leaded-brass tend to act as localized stress raisers and thus pre¬ vent the homogeneous distribution of stress across the matrix of the alloy. PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION DOUGLAS LAWSON, Chairman Southern Illinois Normal University , Carbondale * 1. Number Series as Intelligence Test Content: Arthur Hoehn, University of Illinois, Urbana. * 2. Basic Misunderstandings between Professors of Liberal Arts and of Edu¬ cation: Edwin H. Reeder, University of Illinois, Urbana. * 3. National Study of Teacher-education Scholarships: Eugene R. Fair, South¬ ern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale. * 4. Causes of Severe Reading Retardation: Helen Robinson, University of Chicago, Chicago. * 5. Testing our Tests of Physical Fitness: D. M. Hall, University of Illinois, Urbana. (movie and slides) * 6. Research in Progress in the Student Personnel Bureau at the University of Illinois: William M. Gilbert, University of Illinois, Urbana. * 7. The Counseling Services of the Student Personnel Bureau of the University of Illinois: Leo Helmer, University of Illinois, Urbana. * 8. Facts About the Teacher Situation in Illinois: J. W. Carrington, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. * 9. A View of the Illinois High School Student through a Statewide Testing Program: J. Thomas Hastings, University of Illinois, Urbana. *10. Relationships between the High School and College Editions of Certain Psychological Examinations: Don F. Thomann, University of Illinois, Urbana. *11. Predicting Teacher Success: Emily G. Dunn, Lindsey Morris, and James Goff, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. 12. Sex Deviatons in the Selection of Masculine and Feminine Words in Poetry: David Manning White, Bradley University, Peoria. * Not published. [151] 152 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 SEX DEVIATIONS IN THE SELECTION OF MASCULINE AND FEMININE WORDS IN POETRY DAVID MANNING WHITE Bradley University , Peoria The question as to whether words in the English language possess va¬ lences toward ‘ ‘ masculinity ’ ’ or “femininity” is, of course, a very complex one. At one time or an¬ other, however, almost everyone has heard someone say, or perhaps has thought to himself, this word has a distinctly feminine sound, or that word is certainly masculine. The purpose of this brief study is to examine the differences in the selection of “masculine” and “fem¬ inine” words by 100 male students and 100 female students at Bradley University. Although this is mere¬ ly a preliminary study, the results seem to indicate that an examination of the subject’s attitude toward words from poetry can serve as a projective technique in order to as¬ certain maleness or femaleness in the subject. The students who participated in this test were given a mimeographed sheet of paper with the three poems. The authors of the poems were, ob¬ viously, not given. The students were asked to designate whether they thought the poem was written by a man or woman. They were asked, secondly to list any words, which, in their opinion were mascu¬ line or feminine sounding. They were asked to list the masculine or feminine words which had been in¬ strumental in determining for them that the writer of the poem was a man or woman. The same students who took the poetry test were later given a second test. This is a preliminary test by Arthur Weider, Assistant Professor of Psychology at Bradley Univer¬ sity, which sets up a masculinity- femininity scale. This is done by filling out a work-interest blank, which is a disguised occupational preference blank, wherein the sub¬ ject encircles L (Like) or D (Dis¬ like) for a list of twenty occupa¬ tions. The subjects are asked to in¬ dicate in this list those which he likes or dislikes. A previous study of homosexuals incarcerated at Rikers Island, a penal institution in New York harbor, for asocial be¬ havior, as well as effeminate and homosexual subjects, demonstrated in a statistically reliable manner that certain occupations, e.g., interior decorator, dancer, window dresser, etc, were chosen by these homosex¬ uals with great frequency. This fact is utilized in the Weider scale for the purpose of deriving conclu¬ sions concerning the individual ?s ability to accept the male patterns of our society. Examining the selection of words from the poetry in a general way, it is interesting to note that in the list of feminine words chosen by male subjects the words lovely and de¬ sired have high frequencies, while neither word was in the correspond¬ ing female list. The strong feminine connotation of the word sea for male Sex Deviations in Selection of Words 153 subjects was not shared by the women. In only one word did both sexes concur ; both chose lilies as the most feminine word. Perhaps more significant are the female choices in this respect. The female choices of the feminine words suggest the spring season of the year. The period of growth and verdancy is perhaps strongest in the female mind as the symbol of fertility and motherhood. On the other hand, the female choice of masculine words reveals an almost diametric concept, one that suggests winter and hiemal dormancy. In both groups the word storms had a very high masculine fre¬ quency, as did the words hail and wind. How can such word choices serve as a projective technique in deter¬ mining maleness or femaleness in the subject? To validate the frequency lists the individual tests, i.e. select¬ ing the words from the poetry, were compared with the same subject’s score on the Weider masculinity- femininity scale For example, sub¬ ject A, female, 19 years old, had an M-F score of F-5, which indicates an adequate acceptance of female pat¬ terns. The words that she listed as feminine included lilies, silently and spring ; her masculine choices in¬ cluded storms and death. In only one word did she go over to the male lists. That was her choice of sea as a feminine word. Another female subject, age 20, had a very high F score on the F-M scale, an F 22, indicating a very strong acceptance of the female pat¬ terns and/or rejection of the male patterns. The four words she select¬ ed, lilies, green swell (in her femin¬ ine selections) and storms and scald¬ ing (in her masculine selections) are exclusively in the female fre¬ quency lists. Another female subject, age 22, had a score of M-8 on the M-F scale, indicating a deviation from the ac¬ ceptance of female patterns. Ac¬ cordingly, one could expect a selec¬ tion on her part of several words from the male frequency lists. Of the five words she listed, two of them came from the male lists, sea and de¬ sired, and the other three words were those k which were common to both groups, i.e., lilies, storms and wind. She chose no words from the female frequency lists. Collating the individual male tests with the same subject’s M-F scale produced similar results to the cases which I have just listed. It should be understood, however, that there were several cases, both male and female, in which the words selected did not follow the general trend. Although they showed a good acceptance of maleness or femaleness on the M-F tests, the subjects selected words from the opposite sex’s frequency list. However, it may be significant to point out that a very large percent¬ age of the subjects had a close cor¬ relation between their M-F scales and the words which they selected as masculine and feminine. Of the women tested 78 percent chose words from the frequency lists in propor¬ tion to their M-F scales, and 69 per¬ cent of the men did the same. As I have suggested, this study is merely the preliminary step in a very complex problem. If, however, further testing, perhaps with differ¬ ent and better poems, continues to indicate that there is a strong cor- 154 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions relation between the M-F scale and technique to further ascertain ac- the words selected, a test can be de- ceptance or deviation from the male vised which will serve as a projective or female patterns of our society. POEMS USED IN STUDY 1 I have desired to go Where spring not fail, To fields where flies no sharp and sided hail. And a few lilies blow. And I have asked to be Where no storms come, Where the green swell is in the haven dumb, And out of the swing of the sea. — Gerard Manley Hopkins 2 White sky, over the hemlocks bowed with snow Saw you not at the beginning of evening the antlered buck and his doe Standing in the orchard? I saw them. I saw them suddenly go, Tails up, with long leaps lovely and slow, Over the stone-wall into the wood of hemlocks bowed with snow. Now lies he here, his wild blood scalding the snow. How strange a thing is death, bringing to his knees, bringing to his antlers, The buck in the snow. How strange a thing,, .a mile away by now, it may be, Under the heavy hemlocks that as the moments pass Shift their loads a little, letting fall a feather of snow — Life, looking out attentive from the eyes of the doe. — Edna St. Vincent Millay 3 Now close the windows and hush all the fields; If the trees must, let them silently toss; No bird is singing now, and if there is, Be it my loss. It will be long ere the marshes resume. It will be long ere the earliest bird. So close all the windows and not hear the wind, And see all wind-stirred. — Robert Frost Lists of the five most frequently selected words in each category chosen by male and female students. Female Students Masculine Words 1/ storms (57) Male Masculine Words 1. wind (41) 2. storms (38) 3. hail (33) 4. snow ( 30 ) 5. blood (27) Students Feminine Words 1. lilies (54) 2. lovely (51) 3. desired (42) 4. sea (37) 5. feather (31) 2. hail (46) 3. scalding (39) 4. death (33) 5. wind (28) Feminine Words 1. lilies (48) 2. spring (41) 3. green swell (36) 4. silently (29) 5. feather (17) SOCIAL SCIENCE S. R. KAMM, Chairman Wheaton College , Wheaton * 1. The Autonomy of Scholarship: Daniel J. Boorstin, University of Chicago, Chicago. 2. Problems of Constitutional Reform in Illinois: Lynford A. Lardner, North¬ western University, Evanston. * 3. Culture Pattern of an Ethnic Island in Rural Wisconsin: Oscar F. Hoff¬ man, Elmhurst College, Elmhurst. * 4. Cultural Areas in Peoria: Clarence W. Schroeder, Bradley University, Peoria. 5. Problems of Old Age in a City of 100,000: Ruth Shonle Cavan, Rockford College, Rockford. * 6. Residential Development in Suburban Milwaukee County: Richard Dewey, University of Illinois, Urbana. *Not published. [155] 156 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 40, 1947 OLD AGE IN A CITY OF 100,000 RUTH SHONLE CAVAN Rockford College , Rockford Rockford is an industrial city in northern Illinois, which had a popu¬ lation in 1940 of approximately 85,000 within the city limits and 20,000 in the suburbs immediately adjacent to the city. Of the urban population, 6,458 were aged 65 and over and of the suburban popula¬ tion, 988. As is true of many cities, this community is just beginning to realize that old age presents many serious problems in addition to the economic one. An understanding of old age prob¬ lems, both psychological and social, must rest upon a factual survey of the type of old people in the com¬ munity and of their living arrange¬ ments and activities.1 The Census for 1940 gives an over-all picture of the type of old people who live in the community and where they live. Ad¬ ditional material comes from inter¬ views with 205 persons aged sixty and over and from community agen¬ cies, industries, and churches. In general, old age is a problem which has crept into the community unnoticed and which will not reach its full significance for some years to come. In Rockford, the percent¬ age of the population that is 65 years of age and over has increased from 5.1 in 1900 to 7.6 in 1940. For the suburbs in 1940 the percentage was 1 Much of the material used in this paper was assembled incidental to a study of social adjust¬ ment in old age made by the writer as Research Associate for the Subcommittee on Social Adjust¬ ment in Old Age of the Social Science Research Council ; additional material was secured by four senior students at Rockford College : Barbara Conklin, Joyce Gayle, Susan Eckels, and Elizabeth Siegfried. slightly lower, 7.0. In accordance with estimated future increases for the total United States, old people in Rockford will probably reach 11 or 12 percent of the population by 1980. 2 Old people in Rockford as in other cities represent an increasing group whose needs must receive attention if the community is to avoid having a fairly large segment of its adult population without integration in the community life. Whenever part of the population can be set off with some definite char¬ acteristic there is a tendency to think of the members of the group as all being very much alike and to apply stereotyped attitudes to them. Old people are not all alike. In fact they are as different in personal¬ ity and in social experiences as any other group of adults classified by age. In Rockford, which has several foreign-born communities, 45 per¬ cent of all persons 65 years of age and over are foreign-born ; 0.7 per¬ cent are Negroes. The foreign-born represent a far greater proportion of the old people than they do of the total population, for only 16 percent of the total population are foreign- born. The Negroes represent a smaller percentage, as 1.4 percent of the total population is Negro. The foreign-born in Rockford are essen¬ tially Swedish and Italian. The peak of immigration was sometime in the past so that the foreign-born repre- 2 Buieau of the Census, Population — Special Re¬ ports: Series P-46, No. 7. September 15, 1946. Old Age Problems 157 Fig. 1. — Percentage distribution of males and females aged 65 and over, by five year periods, for Rockford, Illinois, 1940. Based on Sixteenth Census of the United States, 1940, Population, Vol. IV. Part II, p. 614. sent an aging group. The Negroes came in primarily at the time of the first world war as young workers who have not reached old age. Any program which penalized foreign- born people would work a great hardship on almost half the old peo¬ ple in the community. Also any | program that overlooked the char- acteristic cultural, religious, and lan¬ guage patterns of the dominant for¬ eign-born groups would fail of its purpose. Although we tend to group every¬ one who is 65 and over into one cate¬ gory called old age, it is important to realize that actually this group has an age span that runs from 65 to 100 or 35 years. Two-fifths of the old people are between the ages of 65 and 69, that is, they are little different from the group that we think of as middle-aged. Many of them are still employed. We do not have the employment status by age groups for Rockford, but for the United States in 1940, 52.0 percent of the men and 8.6 percent of the women between ages 65 and 69 were employed. Twenty-nine percent of the old age group is aged 70-74 and of this group for the United States 35.4 percent of the men and 4.7 per¬ cent of the women are employed. One-fifth of the old age group is be¬ tween 75 and 79 years of age, and the proportion employed has de¬ creased greatly. Less than ten per¬ cent of the old age group is between 80 and 84 years of age and less than 5 percent over 85 (fig. 1). About one-third of all old people must therefore be thought of as able- bodied, employed, and independent. More than half are still reasonably active. The proportion that may be termed aged and that is in need of protective personal care as well as economic assistance is relatively small. Plans for housing, physical 158 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Percent 0 50 100 Males Females PIG 2. — Percentage of males and females by age periods for Rockford, Illinois, 1940. Based on Sixteenth Census of the United States, 1940, Population, Vol. IV, Part II, p. 626. care, recreation, and occupation should include a gradation that runs from facilities suitable to completely able and independent people to facil¬ ities for those who are physically and mentally helpless. Any one pro¬ gram would serve only a portion of the old age group. The old age group is unevenly di¬ vided between the sexes with women in the majority. For the total old age group there are 12 percent more women than men. Because the death rate is higher for men than for women, with each succeeding year the ratio of women to men becomes greater. At age 65-69 women are only slightly in excess of men. In Rockford at this age women consti¬ tute 51 percent of the group. By the time age 85 and over is reached, women constitute 60 per cent of the group (fig. 2). Aged women there¬ fore represent a special group. Although the death rate is higher for old men than for old women, it is high for both groups and these two facts combined create a very large number of widows and widowers, but especially of widows. As early as age 65-69, 41.7 percent of all women are widows as compared with 16.6 percent of men who are widow¬ ers. The proportion of both widows and widowers increases rapidly un¬ til, for age 85 and over, 84.9 percent of all women and 65.3 percent of all men are widowed (fig. 3). It is probable that some of those included with the married have been widowed Old Age Problems 159 0 25 50 75 100 Age 65-69 Percentage Age 70-74 Percentage Age 75-79 Percentage Age 80-84 Percentage Age 85 and over Percentage Widowed Fig. 3. Percentage distribution by marital status for males and females according to age periods for Rockford, Illinois, 1940. Because of the small number, divorces and separations are omitted. Based on Sixteenth Census of the United States, Population, Vol. IV, Part II, p. 620. j during old age but have remarried. [This statement applies especially to the men, who find remarriage simp¬ ler than do old women, and who of- jten marry persons not included in , the old age group. When these fig- ares are interpreted in human quali¬ ties, we are forced to think of old age as a period of increasing family disintegration through death of the husband or wife and therefore of loneliness, detachment from inti¬ mate family groups, and often the breakup of the family home and the 160 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Under 4 percent 4-6.9 percent B* 13-15.9 percent Central business district Fig. 4. — Percentage of the women in each enumeration district that was 65 years of age or older, Rockford, Illinois, 1940. Data from the Bureau of Census. necessity of adjustment to new liv¬ ing arrangements. Age 65 is coming to be accepted as the time for people to retire from active employment. Retirement usu¬ ally means lowered income and often a state of complete dependency either upon public agencies or upon adult children. The sources of support for old people in Rockford can only be estimated. About 13 percent of the group receives state Old-age Pen¬ sions, averaging $41 per month ; about 25 percent receives payments under Social Security benefits, aver¬ aging about $26 per month. Small groups of policemen, firemen, postal employees, and teachers receive pen¬ sions. Few of the industries have pension plans, although some are in- Old Age Problems 161 • • • • Under 4 percent 7 - 9.9 percent n Central business district 1 4 - 6.9 percent 10 - 12.9 percent Fig. 5. — Percentage of men in each enumeration district that was 65 years of age or older, Rockford, Illinois, 1940. Data from the Bureau of Census. augurating them. It seems to be a reasonable estimate that more than half of the old people are supported by their own earnings, savings, or ; their adult children. For many old people the entrance upon old age means the loss of economic security, lowered socio-economic status, move¬ ment to cramped living quarters, and drastic curtailment of social ac¬ tivities. Adjustment to these changes may be as serious as adjustment to the death of husband or wife. When for an elderly woman, the death of the husband coincides with loss of in¬ come, she may face adjustment to both loneliness and lower socio-eco¬ nomic status at the same time. Although health figures are not available for Rockford, we know 162 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions from general information and the National Health Survey that old people suffer from more illness than do younger people and also are sub¬ ject to many chronic diseases and physical defects. On the average, persons 65 years of age and over suf¬ fer about five weeks of disabling ill¬ ness per year.3 Chronic diseases and physical handicaps include arthritis, high blood pressure, heart disease, arteriosclerosis, failing sight and hearing, and general physical en- feeblement. All these handicaps in some way limit activity and partici¬ pation in social activities; many of them cause recurrent or chronic pain ; and some of them make the person bedfast or otherwise totally dependent upon others for physical care. Any plan for the care of the old or for occupations and recreation must be adjusted to different types and different degrees of physical dis¬ ability. Although there are no communi¬ ties composed solely of old people in the city of Rockford, neither are old people distributed evenly throughout the population. Maps were made to show the percentage of old people in each enumeration dis¬ trict used for the Census of 1940 (figs. 4 and 5). The communities with the lowest percentages of old people are on the outskirts of the city and in the suburbs. One area with a population of 167 people has only one old person. An area with 1217 has only 49 old people. In many only 3 or 4 percent are 65 or older. These are the communities most recently settled and into them have moved young couples with chil¬ 3 National Resources Planning Board, Human Conservation, the Story of our Wasted Resources: Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1943, pp. 92-93. dren. The old people constitute a higher percentage of the population in the areas near the business center of the city. A few of these areas have as high as 12 or 13 percent of the population who are 65 or older. These areas are the old part of the city. In the better class old areas old people live in homes which they have lived in and owned since their youth. Near the business center are also the rooms and flats over stores and the large homes converted into light housekeeping rooms where rents are low. Into these quarters move the old people whose income is low. Three or four families may share one bathroom and many of the old houses do not have central heat¬ ing. Some of the old people who have neVer had a high standard of living are content and happy; for others who at one time lived com¬ fortably but now have a small in¬ come the change has brought bitter¬ ness and resentment. Other old peo¬ ple live in hotels or in rooming houses near the center of the city, where they are conveniently near res¬ taurants, stores, and motion picture houses. Rockford requires an in¬ spection by the Health Department of all rooming houses which cater to six or more roomers. There are ninety rooming houses in Rockford, most of them within two-thirds of a mile of the central business district. Not all of these rooming houses serve old people, but some include a few old people and others are operated especially for them, with the land¬ ladies providing meals as well as rooms and a certain amount of care in case of illness. Some of these rooming houses and boarding homes that cater to the old charge as much Old Age Problems 163 as $125 per month; others will ac¬ cept the amount received by old-age pensioners, averaging $41 per month. The old people who are scat¬ tered throughout the residential dis¬ tricts live in their own homes, with their children, or in private families that take only one or two roomers and hence are not included in the official list of rooming houses with six or more roomers. The problem of housing for old people is revealed only partly by a study of the communities where they tend to congregate. The prevalence of chronic illness among old people has been mentioned. Chronic illness and the general enfeeblement that comes with advanced years create a special housing problem, for here is a group unable to live independently and at the same time not sufficiently ill to become hospital patients. Some of these ailing old people are cared for by adult children; others have no children; in other cases the com¬ plications of adapting a normal fam¬ ily life to the demands of a chronic invalid have become so great that continued care in the home of a son or daughter threatens the integ¬ rity of the family. Finances are also a complication, because the income of those on Old-age Pensions is low even though the state makes addi¬ tional grants to those in need of phy¬ sical care. No comprehensive planned attempt has been made in Rockford to provide for old chronic invalids. Nevertheless, various in¬ stitutions have developed out of the evident need, or already existing in¬ stitutions have adapted themselves to some degree to provision for chronic invalids. The institutions that help to meet the need fall into five types. 1. The County Farm does not limit its service to old people, but the old constitute most of the clients. The County Farm has four divisions. The division known as the Farm Home houses 45 people, including old people who have not yet reached the age of 65 when they are eligible for Old-age Pensions and those who for some other reason are not eli¬ gible. A convalescent ward cares for 42 people and there is a plan to increase the capacity to 100; this ward is planned for the chronically ill and caters for the most part to the old. There is also a hospital which can give care to 65 acutely ill persons; these are not all old. A small contagious ward is also op¬ erated in connection with the County Farm, but we are not concerned with this ward as few old people contract contagious diseases. When anyone enters the County Farm he must be a client of township relief ; this means that when an old-age pens- sioner enters he gives up his pen¬ sion from the State. When married couples enter the Farm Home they are placed in separate men’s and women’s wards. There is some agitation in the com¬ munity to induce the county board of supervisors to convert the Farm Home into a home for chronic in¬ valids, most of whom of course would be old people. The State of Illinois now makes provision for county farms to convert to hospitals for chronic cases and receive pay¬ ment for their clients from Old-age Pension funds of the State. The county must bring the physical equipment and personnel of the in- 164 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions stitution up to a given standard and meet certain standards of care. The State then pays a sum previously agreed upon for each old-age pen¬ sioner who finds it necessary to en¬ ter the institution. At present when old people on pensions enter the Farm Home they become clients of township relief. In some counties the county farms had closed when their clients left to receive pensions and live independently. The effect of the law was to induce counties to re-open their county farms and to modernize them. The Winnebago County Farm did not close and is now handling as many persons as it can. If a conversion was made the effect would be to provide care for more chronically ill and to assure a larger proportion of the income of the Farm from the state pension funds rather than from township funds. At the same time, other pro¬ visions might have to be made for any persons in the Farm Home not chronically ill or not eligible for the State Old-age Pension. 2. The second type of institution serving chronically ill old people is the private nursing home. These homes are operated as a business venture by women who make a living by caring for old people. There are at least six such nursing homes in Rockford, located in large old houses. A local ordinance provides for inspection of these nursing homes by the Health Department. The inspection covers all types of sanitation, lighting, ventilation, heating, care of food, number and types of nurses, and records kept. Fire safety provisions must also be met. It is extremely difficult for most of these nursing homes to meet the requirements and at the same time keep the fees charged low enough to make it possible to give care to the low income group. There is a tendency to subdivide rooms sometimes only by partitions which run part way to the ceiling and to place several persons in one room. The operators of some of the homes meet criticism of the physical as¬ pects by calling attention to the lim¬ ited needs of the old and by empha¬ sizing the response of their patients to sympathetic personal care. A few of the nursing homes charge higher fees and have more adequate facili¬ ties. 3. There is one small private hos¬ pital whose patients are mostly old persons who are chronic invalids. This hospital is organized as a non¬ profit institution and caters to about 25 people. Standards are high and if is well administered. 4. The fourth type of institution does not specifically solicit chroni¬ cally ill persons but by nature of the service given provides for many who are chronically ill. There are three privately financed institutional Homes in Rockford caring for a total of about 150 persons, not all from Rockford, however, as the larg¬ est of the three Homes serves the en¬ tire state. Each of these Homes has its own entrance requirements. One serves only those affiliated with a lodge ; another only those of one na¬ tionality background; two have en¬ trance fees. All three require that the resident be in good health at the time of entrance; but once accepted the resident is assured of adequate care through whatever illness may develop. Hence these Homes have a number of chronic invalids. Old Age Problems 165 Very few of the residents of these Homes are men and none are mar¬ ried couples. 5. The fifth type of institution that serves the chronically ill old person is the general or special hos¬ pital which serves all classes of the population, the old included. Rock¬ ford has three general hospitals, a private mental hospital, and a muni¬ cipal tuberculosis sanitarium. Each of these institutions has its quota of the old, and although the general hospitals dislike to take chronic cases because of the demand for facilities for acute cases they are not always able to avoid it. As we put together the various bits of information on housing and correlate them with the types of old people in the population, the two most acute needs not well met are sufficient care for the chronically ill and feeble old persons, and better provision for those still able to carry on alone but who are on Old-age Pensions or have other small incomes not large enough to provide com¬ fortable living quarters. There is also need for better provision for old couples. The classes of old people best provided for in the matter of housing are those with adequate private incomes, those cared for by their adult children, and those in in¬ stitutional Homes. Old people typically have more time than they know how to fill satis¬ factorily. Old men especially, after retirement, have unfilled days. Old women are in a similar position if they have been employed, if they en¬ ter a Home for the old, and often if they become members of a son’s or daughter’s household. The situa¬ tion is complicated by the lowered income of many of these people after retirement and also by decreasing strength which makes an expansion of activities difficult. The typical picture is of the old person sitting around or aimlessly puttering at al¬ most useless jobs or restlessly getting into other people’s way in trying to help. As age increases, it becomes more difficult for the old person to travel about the city , alone, and he drops first one type of contact and then another. If he cannot afford to pay dues or put money in the col¬ lection plate at church he drops out of organized groups soon after re¬ tirement. The need for activities is not met in any definite manner in Rockford — in fact it is scarcely rec¬ ognized as a need. Some community agencies more or less incidentally supply old people with occupations. This situation is true of the Goodwill Industries, whose function is to re¬ habilitate handicapped workers. At least during the war period when private employment was plentiful, most of their workers were over 60 years old. In a period of industrial expansion, as during the war, many industries employed old people, al¬ though none of the industries where interviews were held had a policy of employing old people. Some of the industries give recognition at com¬ pany dinners to employees who have been with the company for long periods of time. After retirement securing of paid employment is a matter for individual effort — no agency takes the initiative in help¬ ing old people find jobs. Likewise, no agency was found that definitely had a plan for helping old people find unpaid occupations. Four en¬ terprising old men regularly gave 166 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions volunteer work to the ration board during the war, but the initiative came from one of the old men who volunteered his services and brought in three friends. A sampling of churches did not reveal any effort to provide organizations for old people, although some churches more or less incidentally had organized activities that appealed to old people. In one church, for instance, a thriving Red Cross sewing group provides both productive work and a social outlet for a group of elderly and old women, but it was not begun with the idea that it would appeal to these women. There are no specifically old-age clubs, such as the Borrowed- Time Clubs or Three-quarter Cen¬ tury Clubs found in some cities. Re¬ tired teachers have a club. Other old people are in clubs which they, as young persons, organized and which now are old people’s clubs by virtue of the passage of time and the failure to take in new and younger members. The settlements and com¬ munity houses in the city have no special activities for the old, al¬ though the old are able to participate if they wish in the general activities for adults. Also the lodges, and men’s and women’s clubs and civic or social organizations have their contingent of members who have grown old. Although one often hears it said that old people should not be herded together into groups but should participate with younger peo¬ ple, nevertheless we also have to rec¬ ognize that often they are pushed aside in younger groups and have no opportunity to serve as officers, on committees, or actively in providing programs. In their own organiza¬ tions they may set their own pace and exercise initiative and authority. It seems that some of the outlets of old people should cater specifically to their interests and be limited to their abilities. For those who live into the later years and for many with chronic handicaps different types of occupa¬ tion and recreation are needed — those that can be brought to the old person at home or which can be car¬ ried out in the immediate neighbor¬ hood. There is no provision for such activities on a community basis. The nursing homes and institutional Homes do very little, although most of them provide for holidays, birth¬ days, and other special occasions. Sometimes groups from the commu¬ nity go in to sing or entertain. While this type of effort provides enter¬ tainment or amusement it is not of the type to give the old person the satisfaction of participating in an activity himself, or creating or pro¬ ducing something. In the institu¬ tions that were visited (several of them a number of times) the old peo¬ ple seemed to spend most of their time in their own rooms, behind closed doors, listening to the radio, reading, or in other solitary pur¬ suits. This isolation was not because of any pressure from those in charge of the institutions. It arose in part because of a desire for quiet, but also because of a lack of provision for in¬ teresting group activities. In time, old people become habituated to iso¬ lation and solitary activities and de¬ velop ingrown and egotistical per¬ sonalities which make it difficult for them to maintain satisfactory social contacts. The problem of participation in groups outside the house is acute for Old Age Problems 167 many old people. In one Home many old people were housebound unless someone called for them in a car or a matron took them in a car as the Home is several blocks from the bus line and there is no sidewalk. Even the residents of a Home near the center of the city were house¬ bound in winter unless some friend came for them, because they feared t . CO Academy o) ‘Eh a << f Science Transactions o o • o © CO >-1 CS 23,400 Feb. 13,000 15,600 3,900 2,600 35,100 Nov. 22,750 6,500 3,900 33,150 Actual catch April (H acre) 43 00 uo H o o 7th os 00 o o February ( lA acre) 24th CO L- i-i ’-| 23rd I> uo — 1 f 1 •> o3 | 02 73 PQ i CO (M © r-H X 0 53 I H (3 Du 02 1 s I cm g ■+3 | 1 02 "d rs_l fi O 1 CO CO CO CO i H o3 T3 x 1 02 X rH 02 X § 2 02 CM to C CO CM CO CO 02 — "i 02 x 30 o o 43 «*-i 02 3 (+-< c3 *53 3 13 X! 02 X 02 &H J-l -o Site index Feet Is m 3 "Ct ' 02 • 43 c3 0 cot- Stand 70 3 'C ■ 02 ’ 43 03 0 -3 o GGt> s s S'g I < 72 02 42) 02 T 4 ^lipm r % @8p * . / vL \ JCV/ Sl&wv/, nrn - i lirf SOURCE-SOIL REPORT N0.T,I9I3. ILL.A6R.EXP. STA. E-UPLAND TIMBER 501 LS □-UPLAND PRAIRIE SOILS ■-BOTTOM LAND SOILS Fig. 2. — Distribution of timber, prairie, and bottomland soils of McDonough County. (Compare with fig. 1.) Another map of the county was constructed based on the soils map of the county (Hopkins et al. 1913) to show the distribution of timber, prairie and bottomland soils (fig. 2). There is a close correlation with the map made by the 1856 surveyors. A less detailed map was made by Ves¬ tal (1931) from the same data for the entire state. Some idea of the relative abun¬ dance of important tree species per¬ haps can be obtained by tabulating the number of times that a tree was listed in locating corners of the county divisions. The trees in Town¬ ship 6 North and 3 West (Emmett) listed most often by the surveyors were white oak (49 times) and black oak (47 times) and other species 46 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions were listed altogether only 33 times. Table 1 gives a complete tabulation of all the trees listed. The present distribution of trees in this township is quite similar. Table 1. — Number of Times that Cer¬ tain Trees were Listed in Locating Section Corners in T. 5 N., R. 4 W. (Emmett) White oak . 49 Black oak . 47 Hickory . 15 Elm . 6 Birch . 3 Black Jack oak . 2 Spanish oak (?) . 1 Black walnut . 1 Sugar tree . 1 Maple . 1 Buckeye . 1 Mulberry . 1 Linden . 1 Township 4 North and 4 West (Lamoine) contains a considerable area of low lying land and in 1856 was mapped as containing four lakes and two areas of wet prairie as shown in figure 1. The trees listed by the surveyors indicate a wide dis¬ tribution of pin oak. Pin oak was listed 32 times and white oak 59 times and black oak 27 times. Table 2 gives the complete tabulation. Table 2. — Number of Times that Cer¬ tain Trees were Listed in Locating Section Corners in T. 4 N., R. 4 W. (Lamoine) White oak . 59 Pin oak . 32 Black oak . 27 Hickory . 26 Overcup oak (?) . 21 Maple . 9 Elm . 7 Red oak . 2 Hackberry . 2 Cottonwood . . 2 Buckeye . 1 Cherry . 1 Ironwood . 1 Linden . 1 Spanish oak (?) . 1 T. 7 N., R. 3 W. (Sciota) was shown as containing only a small tongue of timber extending up from the southwestern edge. Only 7 trees were used in locating division cor¬ ners (Table 3) and the survey rec¬ ords indicated that these were in the small areas mapped as timber. The Table 3. — Number of Times that Cer¬ tain Trees were Listed in Locating Section Corners in T. 7 N., R. 3 W. (Sciota) Hickory . 2 Pin oak . 2 Black oak . 1 White oak . 1 Linden . 1 boundaries of this timbered area are practically the same now as they were in 1856. The rest of the town¬ ship contains only a few scattered trees in the vicinity of farmhouses. A history of the county (Alex¬ ander, 1907) states that originally there was a “splendid growth of oak, maples and black walnut” and that the smaller trees included iron- wood, wild cherry, wild plum and others. In describing the open prai¬ ries at the time of early settlement it says, “And how delightful to recall even the fleeting visions and mem¬ ories of those primitive days; the rushes and lilies of the sloughs and ponds; the delicious wild strawber¬ ries ; the yellow ground cherries and other wild fruits that bloomed or ripened in the prairies of this fa¬ vored land, . . . the countless vari¬ eties of wild flowers that profusely decked and perfumed this home of early settlers. Truly what a flower garden and orchard this prairie country was, not excelled b}^ the modern creations of horticulture and floriculture!” A list of more than 100 flowering plants was in¬ cluded. Most of these are still found, but no collections of skunk cabbage, white trillium, red-berried elder, certain orchids and gentians which were listed have been made. 47 Vegetation of McDonough County Present Vegetation According to Telford et al. (1926) the original timber area decreased from 119,001 acres to 22,460 acres by 1924. The prairie has almost en¬ tirely disappeared. A small area of prairie was found recently a few miles from Macomb which included many typical prairie plants. Most of the area is well drained, but some is swampy. It is burned over nearly every year, but the sod is not plowed. Bunch flower (Melanthium virginicum ) and the fringed orchid (Habenaria leucophaea) both listed by Jones (1945) as rare in Illinois were found in considerable num¬ bers. Table 4 is a list of some of the plants that were collected here. These were included by Sampson (1921) in his list of plants in Illi¬ nois prairies. Of the 52 plants, 40 are included in his Andropogon fur- catus association. It is hoped to make a more complete study of this area. Shelf ord (1931) stated that, “ cut-off prairies in the western part of the Macomb district seem to likewise afford promise for detailed study. ’ ’ Table 4. — Some Prairie Plants Found in a McDonough County Prairie1 (See text for a fuller explanation) Equisetum arvense — Horsetail Andropogon furcatus — Tall blue stem Sorghastrum nutans — Indian grass Panicum virgatum — Switch grass Calamagrostis canadensis — Reed grass Spartina pectinata — Cord grass Hordeum jubatum — Foxtail grass Cyperus spp. — Cyperus Eleocharis sp. — Spike rush Carex spp. — Sedges Tradescantia canaliculata — Spiderwort Juncus spp. — Rushes Lilium michiganense — Wild lily Hypoxis hirsuta — Star-grass Salix humilis — Prairie willow Anemone canadensis — Meadow anemone Heuchera hispida — Alum root Fragaria virginiana — Wild strawberry Rosa Carolina — Wild rose 1 The nomenclature of Jones (1945) is followed in this paper. Baptisia leucantha — Wild indigo Desmodium sp. — Tick clover Oxalis violacea — Violet wood sorrel Euphorbia corollata Viola papilionacea — Common blue violet V. pedatifida — Prairie violet Lythrum alatum — Loosestrife Eryngium yuccaf olium — Rattlesnake master Lysimachia ciliata — Fringed loosestrife Apocynum cannabinum — Hemp dogbane Asclepias tuberosa — Butterfly-weed A. syriaca — Common milkweed A. verticillata — Horsetail milkweed Phlox glaberimma — Smooth phlox Lithospermum canescens — Gromwell Monarda fistulosa — Bergamont mint Pycnanthemum flexuosum — Mountain mint Ruellia ciliosa — Wild petunia Lobelia spicata — Lobelia Vernonia missurica— Ironweed Liatris sp. Blazing star Solidago spp. — Goldenrods Aster spp. — Asters Silphium lacinatum — Compass plant S. terebinathinaceum — Prairie dock S. integrifolium — Rosin-weed Parthenium integrifolium — American feverfew Echinacea pallida — Pale coneflower Ratibida pinnata — Helianthus grosseratus — Sunflower Coreopsis palmata Cacalia tuberosa — Indian plantain About five miles west of Macomb in T. 5 N., R. 4 W. (Emmett) is a rugged timbered area called Argyle Hollow. Some of it has been heavily pastured and all of it has been cut¬ over. More than 1,000 acres are be¬ ing acquired by the state for a park. Extensive reconnaissance and col¬ lecting has been done in the least dis¬ turbed areas as much of it will be inundated by a lake to be built soon. The dominant trees of the uplands are white and black oaks ( Quercus alia, Q. velutina) and shagbark hickory (Cary a ovata). Associated species include bur, post, black jack and shingle oaks ( Quercus macro¬ car pa, Q. stellata, Q. marilandica, Q. imbricaria ) , and pignut hickory (Cary a glabra). At the lower part of the ravines are sugar maple ( Acer saccharum) , elms (TJlmus ameri- cana, U. fulva), river birch (Betula 48 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions nigra), buckeye (Aesculus glabra), and yellowbud hickory (Carya cor- diformis). The underlying herbs in¬ clude trout lily (Erythronium amer- icanum), Dutchman’s breeches (Di¬ centra cucularia), bellwort (TJvula- ria grandiflora) , phlox (Phlox di- varicata), several ferns including the very common brittle fern ( Cys- topteris fragilis), maiden hair fern (Adiantum pedatum) , broad beech fern (Phegopteris hexagonaptera), ebony spleenwort ( Asplenium pla- ty neuron), and many others. The present trees are similar in their dis¬ tribution to that given by the sur¬ veyors in 1856 (Table 1). Summary 1. The original and present veg¬ etation of McDonough County, Illi¬ nois, is described. Data were secured by field observations, from histories of the county, from the survey rec¬ ords of 1856 which included maps of the timbered and prairie areas and lists of species of trees, and from soils maps. There was a close cor¬ relation between the soils of the county and the vegetation map of 1856. 2. A list of 52 prairie plants found in a relic area of prairie is given ; 40 of these have been in¬ cluded by Sampson (1921) in the Andropogon furcatus association. 3. The distribution of common plants in a timbered area is de¬ scribed. Literature Cited Case, H. C. M. and K. H. Meyers. 1934. Types of farming in Illinois. Univer. Ill. Agric. Exper. Sta. Bull. 403. 226 pp. Hambidge, G. (ed.) 1941. Climate and man. U. S. Dept, of Agric. Washing¬ ton, D. C. 1248 pp. Hopkins, C. D. et al. 1913. McDonough County soils. Univ. Ill. Agric. Exp. Sta. Soil Report No. 7. 46 pp. Jones, G. N. 1945. Flora of Illinois. Monograph No. 2, Am. Mid. Nat., Notre Dame, Ind. 317 pp. Laughberaugh, J. (Surveyor General). 1856. Field notes of McDonough County (Manuscript prepared in St. Louis, Mo.) On deposit in the court¬ house in Macomb. McLean, A. (ed.) 1907. Historical en¬ cyclopedia of Illinois and history of McDonough County. Miller, R. B. and L. R. Tehon. 1926. The native and naturalized trees of Illinois. Nat. Hist. Survey. Bull. 18. 339 pp. Sampson, H. C. 1921. An ecological survey of the prairie vegetation of Illinois. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 13: 523-577. Telford, C. J. 1926. Third report on a forest survey of Illinois. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 16: 102 pp. Vestal, A. G. 1931. A preliminary vegetation map of Illinois. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 23:204-217. Walters, J. S. et al. (ed.) 1885. History of McDonough County. Wright, P. G. 1947. Prairies of Mc¬ Donough County. (Unpublished re¬ port). Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 41, 1948 49 CHEMISTRY THE DYSONIAN SYSTEM OF ORGANIC NOTATION C. W. Bennett Western Illinois State College, Macomb In the spring of 1947, G. M. Dyson, an English chemist, pre¬ sented his new linear system of or¬ ganic notation before the American Chemical Society. It was reviewed in The Chemical and Engineering Newlj2 and in the Journal of the American Chemical Society3. Soon thereafter, Dyson published a small book4 giving more complete detail. He is not especially interested in superseding the present systems such as the Geneva but rather to make codification on punched cards more simple. Perhaps this is only a passing fancy, but it is so logical, so simple, and so useful that it may indeed be generally adopted. There¬ fore, it seems that every informed chemist should be conversant with it. In an address before the Ameri¬ can Chemical Society in April 1948, Dyson related that he had made some changes which would appear in his revised edition. In common with most English writers, his language is not as simple as we Americans are accustomed to. He uses the term “modulant” to refer to the number of atoms in groups. This is a full sized number (not a subscript or superscript) fol¬ lowing the symbol such as C8 which implies a straight chain of eight car¬ bons with the full number of hydro¬ gens, which, of course, is understood. C8 is, therefore, n-octane, C8H18. The term “locant” refers to a num¬ ber which precedes the group and gives its position in the system. Thus in C7.3C2, 7 and 2 are modulants and tell how many carbons; while 3 is a locant and tells where the C2 (ethyl group) is located in the seven carbon chain (heptane). C7.3C2 is, therefore, 3-ethyl heptane. Similar substituents on the same chain are numbered as in the Geneva system but without using any equivalent for di-, tri-, tetra-, etc. Thus C9.3,5C2 is 3,5-diethyl nonane. The largest branches are listed in de¬ creasing size. A denotes saturated rings. (Previ¬ ously Dyson used AC, but apparent¬ ly A signifies as much as AC.) A6 would be cyclohexane, C6H12. He is revising all the ring ciphers so they will be omitted here except for ben¬ zene which he formerly wrote B but now seems to write B6. B suggests aromatic character. E is used for double bonds, El, cis; E2, trans; E3, triple bonds. C4.1,3E is butadiene and C5.2E3 would be 2-pentyne. Q is used for -OH. Thus B6.1,3,5Q i s 1,3,5-trihydroxy benzene, C3.2C.2Q is tertiary butyl alcohol. Ethers are ciphered as C4.Q(C2) which is n-butyl ethyl ether. Since E means unsaturated, EQ is double bond oxygen as in alde¬ hydes and ketones. C4.EQ is n-bu- tyraldehyde, but C4.2EQ is bu- tanone. X denotes the =0 and -OH of the carbonyl group. Thus C3.X is CH3- CH2COOH for propionic acid and B6.CX(C2) for the ester, ethyl ben¬ zoate. N means amine as C4.N for n-butyl amine; C3.NC2 is ethyl propyl 50 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions amine. Amides as C3.EQ(N) for propionamide. N1 is nitroso; N2, nitro ; then B6.N.4N2 means p-nitroaniline. Halogens are shown by F, CL,BR, and I. B6.1,4I is p-di-iodobenzene. S and P with modifiers are nsed for B6.N.4N2 : B6 604 N 1000001 N2 1019999 Add 2 2020606 NO C H CgH0N2O2 or C0H4NH,NO2 those elements, sulfur and phosphor¬ us respectively. Carbohydrates are ciphered as C6.2 . . . 6QEQ.3L for d-glucose where 3L means that the third C has its -OH on the left. This may be shortened to G6.EQ.3L. These do not begin to exhaust the varieties of conventions used but are presented here to give an idea of the system. A very useful feature is the rapid method of calculating molecular formulas. The following is an abridged list of computing con- slants : A . . . . -2 N . 1000001 B6 . . . .604 N2 . 1019999 C . . . .102 Q . . .10000 E . . . . -2 X . . .19998 E3 . ... -4 Halogens . -1 Likewise the following would be calculated, for example : C2.Q.2N : C2 204 Q 10000 N 1000001 Add 2 1010207 NOCH C2H7NO or H„NC2H4OH : C3 306 E3 -4 X 19998 Add 2 20302 O CH C3H20o or HC=C-COOH The required numbers are added and pointed off two places at a time from the right to give the number of atoms of N, O, C, and H respectively reading from the left. Thus for : B6.N : B6 604 N 1000001 Add 2 1000607 NOCH C0H7N or CcH5NH2 References 1. Chemical and Engineering News, March 24, 1947, p. 847. 2. Ibid. May 5, 1947, p. 1251. 3. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 69, p. 728. (1947). 4. Dyson, G. M. New Notation and Enumeration System for Organic Compounds. New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1947, 63 p. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 41, 1948 51 QUANTIZED QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS W. P. CORTELYOU Roosevelt College, Chicago Description of the Course This paper is a description of a course in the systematic qualitative analysis of a solution for cations. The course was given by the author for several years at Valparaiso Uni¬ versity and has been given at Roosevelt College since the college was founded in the fall of 1945. The scheme of analysis is a modi¬ fication of one of the many H2S schemes. It was first derived from the procedures of Arthur and Smith. Its difference lies mainly in that it provides for a quantitative report for each cation present. The idea of quantitative reports in connection with qualitative analy¬ sis is by no means a new one but our method of handling them does ap¬ pear to be new. All unknowns are one per cent cation solutions. That is to say the total weight of the cations present is one per cent of the weight of the solution. Each solution has the con¬ centration that would result if one gram of an alloy were dissolved in an acid and diluted to 100 ml. It is important to note here that the concentration of the solution is not proportional to the number of cations present, as is recommended by many text book writers. By the method we recommend if several cations are present the concentration of each is lowered. The student is given a 5-10 ml. sample of the unknown solution. He is directed to take exactly 1.0 ml of this solution as the basis for his analysis. This is usually measured wTith a pipet but a 10 ml. graduate is accurate enough if carefully used. The student is assured that this 1.0 ml. sample of the unknown contains just 10 mg. of total cations, certain¬ ly within the limits of 9.5 to 10.5 mg. Furthermore, the student is as¬ sured that if more than one cation is present each will appear in even mg. units. For instance, one ml. of a solution containing Cu and Zn might contain 9 mg. of Cu and 1 mg. of Zn, or 8 mg. of Cu and 2 mg. of Zn, etc., but no quantities that would have to be expressed in fractions of mgs. per ml. This is the source of our title, “Quantized Qualitative Analysis.” The different cations appear only in quanta without frac¬ tions just as radiant energy does. Establishing this quanta rule is analagous to asking an analyst to find the major components in an al¬ loy and determine the percentage present to within ten percent of the total. Any component making up less than about five percent of the total would be disregarded. It may also be considered as quantitative analysis to one significant figure. The grade the student gets de¬ pends on how closely he comes in his report to the correct quantitative composition of the solution he analyzed. At first it might appear that this would involve too much concern on the part of the student and too great a burden in grading the reports. Actually neither of these things is true. Consider a set of unknowns in the copper subgroup and some possible student reports on them : 52 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Solutions Cations Hg Pb Bi Cu Cd Grade Unknown 1 . 0 50 0 50 0 Report la . 60 40 50+40 = 90 Report lb . 10 30 20 40 30+40 = 70 Report lc . 10 90 10+50 = 60 Unknown 2 . 20 30 30 10 10 Report 2a . 0 50 50 0 0 30+30 = 60 Report 2b . 30 20 10 20 20 20+20 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 70 Report 2c . 30 0 0 40 30 20 + 10 + 10 = 40 This system of grading has several characteristics. (1) It is easy to use. The grade is obtained by comparing the compo¬ sition and the report and adding to¬ gether the smaller of the two figures appearing under each cation. (2) Reporting ions not present or reporting them in excessive amounts is automatically penalized because then the student cannot report high enough percentages for the ions ac¬ tually present. (See report lb.) (3) A student will get a fair mark if the qualitative part of his work is correct even though he misses the quantitative answer be¬ yond all expectation. (See Reports lc and 2b.) (4) A student is not penalized so much for missing the minor com¬ ponents as for missing those present in large amounts. (See Reports 2a and 2c.) The preparation of the unknown solution is a simple matter. Stock solutions of salts of the usual 24 cations are prepared. In each solu¬ tion the concentration of the cation is one per cent (or 10 mg/ml). If the unknown is to contain only one cation, this stock solution also serves as the unknown. Other kinds of un¬ knowns are made by mixing these stock solutions in the proper propor¬ tions without otherwise diluting them. For instance, a solution con¬ taining 4 mg. of Cu and 6 mg. of Zn per ml. would be made by mixing 4 ml. of the Cu stock solution with , 6 ml. of the Zn stock solution. If a large number of unknowns are to be issued, it may be desirable to pre- - pare more concentrated stock solu¬ tions from which the above men- ! tioned dilute stock solutions can be i prepared. Most soluble salts are soluble to the extent of 100 mg. of . the cation per ml., but a few become saturated at a much lower concen- t tration. Some Details of the Analysis To perform the analysis the stu- j dent first makes the usual qualita- > tive separations using standard semi-micro techniques. When a given cation has been isolated one of several different quantitative tech¬ niques is applied. Most of these in- i volve comparison with standard so- lutions. These standard solutions : are prepared by diluting the stock ' solutions referred to above by a ratio of 10 to 1. Thus the student always I has access to a stock solution of each cation containing 1.0 mg. of the cation per ml., the minimum amount I of that cation that could be present Quantized Qualitative Analysis 53 in each unknown. If a large amount of' the cation is present in the un¬ known, the amount will be a simple multiple of the amount in the standard. The most common but most unsat¬ isfactory method of estimating amounts is by comparison of precipi¬ tate volumes. Eleven of the 24 cat¬ ions are handled in this fashion. They are Bi, Cd, As, Sb, Sn, Al, Zn, Ni, Mg, Na, K. For each of these that may be found present one mg. of the cation from one ml. of the stock is converted to the same pre¬ cipitated compound as occurs in the course of analysis and the volumes of the two precipitates compared, usually after centrifuging. Some consideration has been given to the use of graduated centrifuge tubes but these have not been tried. Amounts of Ag and Hg* are estimated by nephelometry. For estimates to the first significant fig¬ ure this does not require any special apparatus. The procedure is very simple. A 250 ml. beaker for the standard and a beaker of the same size for the unknown are placed over some reading matter. 200 ml. of distilled water is placed in each. The precipitating reagent is added to each beaker in equal amounts and a solution of the isolated cation is i added to the unknown beaker. As soon as the fogginess produced by the precipitate has reached a maxi¬ mum the standard solution is added to the standard beaker from a 10 ml. graduate, in 1 ml. units. The fog¬ giness in the two beakers is compar¬ ed by attempting to read the print through them. When enough stan¬ dard has been added to match the fogginess of the unknown the vol¬ ume of standard solution required is i read from the graduate. This vol¬ ume in ml. equals the number of mgs. of the cation in one ml. of the unknown solution. Amounts of Cu, Cr, Mn, and Fe ions are estimated by measuring the intensity of the color produced by some form of the ion. Here again no special equipment is used. The volume of isolated cation solution which matches one ml. of the stan¬ dard equals the number of mgs. of that cation in one ml. of the un¬ known. The amount of Pb, Ba, or Sr is estimated by separating or precipi¬ tating it as a chromate, washing out the excess chromate reagent, dissolv¬ ing the precipitate in HC1, and com¬ paring the color formed with that produced in the same way from a one mg. standard. Determining the amount of Co gives an opportunity to illustrate volumetric precipitation as a quan¬ titative analysis technique. The Co is precipitated by alpha-nitroso-beta- naphthol and the number of drops of reagent required to complete the precipitation is determined. Three drops of the reagent precipitates 0.10 mg. of Co (not 1.0 mg.). This means 300 drops would be required to precipitate the maximum amount of cobalt that could be present. Therefore one-tenth of the isolated cation is tested. This requires from 3 to 30 drops. This illustrates the point that some tests are so sensitive that practical estimates in a reason¬ able time or reasonable volume can be made only by diluting the cation after it is isolated. Such dilutions are required in estimating Mn, Co, and Ni. Ca is readily determined by an adaptation of the standard proced¬ ure in volumetric analysis where CaC204 is oxidized with KMn04. Of course, a sufficiently accurate esti¬ mate may be obtained by counting the drops of N/3 KMn04 solution re¬ quired. As before from 3 to 30 drops will be used. The amount of ammonium ion is readily obtained by treating one ml. 54 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions of the original solution with NaOH and distilling the NHS into cold water very much like the procedure in a semi-micro Kjeldahl determina¬ tion. The number of drops of an HC1 solution required to keep the distillate acidified is determined. Some Reasons for Making Quantitative Reports Nothing has been said thus far about the reasons for requiring stu¬ dents to make quantitative estima¬ tions in conjunction with qualitative analysis. In the first place, if a student does not estimate quantities he too easily gets the impression that concentra¬ tion has nothing to do with qualita¬ tive analysis, that it is possible to list all conceivable components as being simply “ present’’ or “ab¬ sent” in a given mixture. To be sure, the teacher who makes up the unknowns knows that the concen¬ trations have to be watched rather carefully, but too often this informa¬ tion is withheld from the student. Furthermore, it is usually custo¬ mary to emphasize the principles of chemical equilibrium in the theoreti¬ cal part of a course in qualitative analysis. Numerical calculations in¬ volving solubilities, solubility prod¬ ucts, and ionization constants take up much of the time of the course. Most of the value of these calcula¬ tions is lost if an attempt is made to apply them to solutions of unknown concentration. Likewise the typical student of qualitative analysis will have had only one or two semesters to practice calculations based on bal¬ anced chemical equations. He can¬ not get too much practice in quanti¬ tative thinking. Reasons for Using One Percent Solutions Some textbook writers recommend that stock solutions be made to a specified normality. To be sure this makes it easy to calculate equivalent quantities of reagents but it is com¬ pletely unrealistic since it is obvious¬ ly impossible for a practicing anal¬ yst to prepare an unknown solution so it will have a specified normality. However, an analyst faced with the problem of studying an unknown metal or alloy can prepare a one per¬ cent solution of this substance and that would seem to be the intelligent way to attack the problem. The concentration recommended here, one percent total cations, is somewhat more dilute than is com¬ monly used in semi-micro qualitative analysis but it gives good results. In normalities it gives a range of about 0.01 normal to 0.1 normal. It has proved advantageous to conduct many of the separations by adding 1.0 ml. of a 1.0 N solution of the re¬ quired reagent. It will be seen that this is from ten to a hundred times the equivalent amount, yet the re¬ agent itself is so dilute that a large excess does no harm to the solution. Thus it is often possible to eliminate time consuming procedures that re¬ quire the student to add a reagent drop by drop until a reaction is complete. Adjusting the acidity before pre¬ cipitating the first sulfide group is a simple matter in one percent solu¬ tions. One ml. of the solution is di¬ luted to 3 ml. and made neutral to litmus. Adding 1.0 ml. of 1 ON HC1 makes the solution about 0.25 N acid, a good condition for precipitating this group. The total concentration Quantized Qualitative Analysis 55 of the cations to be precipitated is so small that any reaction involving them has no important effect on the hydrogen ion concentration. Summary It is strongly recommended that students in qualitative analysis should be required to report the con¬ centration of each cation found to the nearest mg. per ml. and that each liquid unknown supplied to him should have a total cation con¬ centration of one percent (or 10 mg. per ml.). This gives the student a more rea¬ listic situation to deal with, makes it possible to grade his report more fairly, and provides for better appli¬ cation of the theory usually taught in conjunction with such a course. 56 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 41, 1948 A METHOD FOR RECALLING THE CONFIGURATIONS OF THE ALDOHEXOSES THEODORE G. KLOSE Loyola University, Chicago The use of mnemonics has been called upon to assist in remembering the projection formulas and, conse¬ quently, the configurations of the aldohexoses. Two words, gam and gat, formed from the first letters of the names of the six sugars ; galac¬ tose, allose, mannose, gulose, altrose and talose aid in reproducing their structures. In order to use this sys¬ tem of memory aid, a student must know the structure of the open chain form of d-glucose and the names of the other sugars. The method of reproducing the structures of the sugars is as follows : The projection formula for d-glucose is drawn (I) and from it is obtained a simpler method of representation (la) where the vertical line indicates the carbon chain, the arrow the alde¬ hyde group, the circle the hydroxy- methylene group and the short, hori¬ zontal lines the secondary hydroxyl groups. The d- or ^-configuration of a carbon atom is indicated by placing H-C=0 1 ,, H-C-OH 2 — I HO-C-H 3 — I H-C-OH 4 — formulas of the d-forms is sufficient. Therefore the horizontal line at car¬ bon atom five will be on the right in all eight forms. To obtain the three sugars from the word gam, the figures II, III and IV are drawn. Ia II Ila III Ilia IV IVa By interchanging the substitu¬ ents of d-glucose (Ia) at carbon atoms 4, 3, and 2 in that order and keeping the configuration at carbon 5 constant, the skeletal structures Ila, Ilia and IVa, corresponding to d-galactose, d-allose and d-mannose, are obtained. Using form II, the skelton form of d-glucose and the mnemonic, gat, it is easy to reproduce the structures for the next three aldohexoses. Mirror 1 Aim I H-C-OH 5 — I CH2OH 6 ( I ) ( Ia ) the horizontal line to the right or left of the vertical line, respectively. The configuration at carbon atom five in an aldohexose determines whether a sugar belongs to the d or l- series, therefore, molecule Ia must be of the d-form. Since the sugars under consideration exist in eight dl pairs, a knowledge of the projection 3 — 4 5 - i ) Ia V VI I I VII VIII 1 IX Interchanging the groups at car¬ bon atoms 4 and 3 in d-glucose yields d-gulose (V) ; at carbon atoms 3 and 2, d-altrose (VI) ; and at car¬ bons 4 and 2, d-talose (VII). (In the two dimensional drawing the transference is represented by mov- Configurations of the Aldohexoses 57 ing the short horizontal lines from one side of the vertical line to the other. ) The structures of d-allose and d- altrose should not be confused, since the former occurs first in the deriva¬ tion from d-glucose, and is first al¬ phabetically. The same reasoning applies to d-galactose and d-gulose. The eight h- isomer of the d-config- uration is d-idose (Villa), and while it does not fit in the mnemonic words, it is easy to reproduce from d-glucose by changing the configura¬ tions of carbon atoms 4, 3 and 2 simultaneously. It is well-known that the Z-config- uration of any sugar can be obtained by drawing the mirror image of the d-structure. Therefore, IX, the mir¬ ror image of VIII is Z-idose. Summary. A new system for re¬ calling the configurations of the six¬ teen isomeric aldohexoses has been devised as well as a method for draw¬ ing their structures. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 41, 1948 59 GEOGRAPHY OCCUPANCE OF THE MORAINE BORDER OF NORTHERN ILLINOIS JOHN H. GARLAND University of Illinois , Urbana The Terrain Between the valleys of the Fox on Ithe east and the Rock on the west lies the Moraine Border district of northern Illinois. North of the up¬ per Illinois Valley, which forms the southern limit of the district, the crescentic recessional moraines of Wisconsin glaciation converge and give to the area a pleasing rolling surface which is quite in contrast to the flat terrain of the Grand Prai¬ rie south of the Illinois valley. The broad Valparaiso moraine enters the I district from the east, the Blooming¬ ton moraine dominates the central portion, and the pre-Bloomington till extends westward toward the Rock Valley terminating in the White-Rock moraine (fig. 1). Physiographically the northeast¬ ern portion of the district lies within the Wheaton Morainal country, the southeast is a part of the Kankakee Plain, the northwest is a part of the 1 Rock River Hill country, and the r remaining central and southwest is the northern portion of the Bloom- i ington Ridged Plain into which ex- I tends an arm of the Green River Lowland.1 Prairie, interrupted at intervals by prairie groves, originally dom¬ inated the southern and western por¬ tions of the area ; whereas to the north and east it was covered by an extensive series of hard wood decid¬ 1 M. M. Leighton, Geo. E. Ekblaw, and Leland Horberg. “Physiographic Divisions of Illinois,” The Journal of Geology, Vol. 56, No. 1, January, 1948. uous forests. Like the Grand Prairie the wooded areas occupied the bet¬ ter drained lands, especially those in the drainage basins of the streams. Poorly drained uplands and extensive swails and sloughs on the featureless ground moraine plains created a drainage problem in this district almost as great as that of the Grand Prairie. Drainage ditches and field tile have trans¬ formed most of the wet areas into productive farm land leaving only local names of sloughs and prairies as reminders of the early poorly drained countryside. Although three major streams, the Rock, Fox, and Illinois, form three sides, the district consists of two drainage areas, the Northern and Southern sections (fig. 1). The Nor¬ thern section is chiefly the irregular drainage basin of the north and south branches of the Kishwaukee, which flows westward into the Rock. The tributaries of the Fox are very short and, with the exceptions of the lake region in the northeast, are of no significance to the Northern section. The Southern section is tributary to the Illinois, the major feature of which is the lower Fox River. Cultural Patterns Upon the terrain has been devel¬ oped a variety of oecupance patterns all of which are rural and agrarian. The variety and arrangement of the patterns are such, however, that the 60 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 1. — Physical patterns of the Moraine Border district. section is actually a land of transi¬ tion. Settlements Although the bordering valleys are zones of urbanization, the Mo¬ raine Border district is a land of towns and villages and evenly spread farmsteads. There are only 140 incorporated towns and cities in the entire district which includes parts of 12 counties (fig. 2). Of that number there are only ten large enough to be within the city classifi¬ cation of 2,500. Seven of these are in the Northern section and three in the Southern. Of the ten the two largest are DeKalb and Belvidere. In the Census of 1940 their respec¬ tive populations were 9,146 and 8,094 although recent estimates place them at 12,150 and 10.051. Four of the ten cities, Belvidere, Woodstock, Sycamore, and Prince¬ ton, are county seats. With the ex¬ ception of DeKalb and Sycamore, Occupance of the Moraine Border 61 Fig. 2. — Occupance patterns of the Moraine Border district. which are about seven miles apart, the cities are well spaced indicating a basic agrarian service center func¬ tion. It is well to note that DeKalb, the largest city, is the most indus¬ trial of all. The fact that the county court house is in Sycamore and the Northern Illinois State College is in DeKalb, a short distance away, indicates some of the rivalry arising from urban spacing. The towns and villages are aligned at five to eight mile intervals in a general east-west orientation. This obviously is due to the railroad net which in general extends across the district as a series of lines radiat¬ ing from the Chicago metropolitan district. Pre-railroad settlements reached by the railroads grew, wdiereas the rest disappeared with time as the post-railroad pattern of settlements crystallized. Only two railroads extend across the district in a north-south trend and they are small freight lines. 62 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions The original county and township survey gave to the district the tradi¬ tional checkerboard of section-line roads. Right of travel altered some of them, and the lack of surfacing material obliterated many more. With the development of the auto¬ mobile, the truck, and the bus, na¬ tional and state hard-surfaced high¬ ways were projected through the district, both from east to west and south to north. Although local inter¬ ests were desirous of perpetuating the pattern by routing the concrete highways through the small villages, the undesirability of routing fast traffic through villages has been demonstrated both as far as the traf¬ fic and the individual settlement is concerned. Thus patterns are being developed to by-pass villages by a short enough distance that neither the traffic nor the village is incon¬ venienced. Agricultural Patterns Although dominantly rural and agrarian, the Moraine Border dist¬ rict is a land of transition as far as farming types are concerned. Three critical farming type boundaries cross the district dividing it into four distinct areas.2 The first farm type boundary is the western limit of the dairy belt which divides the district from northwest to southeast. Within the northeastern part of the dairy land¬ scape is outstanding. Modern dairy barns and silos, herds of Holstein cows, well-fenced pastures, and fields of fodder are the agrarian oc- cupance features of the rolling mo¬ rainal land. Dairy farms are large, well-painted, well-kept and impos¬ ing in appearance, and most exact¬ ing in requirements. The towns and villages are col¬ lecting centers, in some of them are 2 H. O. M. Case and K. H. Meyer, Types of Farming in Illinois. Univ. of Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. 403, June 1934. dairy plants belonging to organiza- i tions located in the Chicago metro- j politan district toward which the | fresh milk moves daily. Collectors i truck the raw milk in cans from the ; dairy farms to collecting stations : from which glass-lined tank trucks j and trains continue it citywards, j The railroad is no longer as impor- j tant as it once was when each of j the several railroads radiating out ; through the milk producing region 1 ran at least one slow express daily, t known as the milk train, for the 1 purpose of transporting milk to the • metropolitan district. Distance, no doubt, is an impor- t tant factor in crystallizing this par¬ ticular pattern of occupance. Nat- I ural environmental conditions, al- i though advantageous within the t dairy farming zone, do not change ! markedly at the dairy boundary > which has remained constant for years. It is well to note that dairy J farming, although the finest type of ] agrarian adjustment, is highly spe- ! cialized, the equipment is enormous and expensive, and a fine dairy herd capable of demanding highest re- ; turns is not easy to build up. Thus f the area has crystallized as a dom- inant occupance feature of the Mo- j raine Border district. Near the western edge of the dis- j trict, approximately at the boundary j of the Wisconsin drift, is the bound- ! ary of mixed livestock farming. Beef cattle, hog, and dairy farm, » especially those selling to creamer- ies, dominate the area. Although f the crops in the fields are essentially ' the same over the entire Moraine \ Border district consisting of corn, ) small grain, hay and pasture, the commercial aspects are quite differ- j; ent. Distance from the Chicago metropolitan district is the signifi¬ cant factor. Loading chutes along the railroad in the villages and live- ! stock trucks on the highway take j the place of the daily milk truck. ; ' Occupance of the Moraine Border 63 The infrequence with which stock beef cattle, fat hogs, or even cans of cream are marketed is a vital factor. On the other hand the rolling ter¬ rain is a significant pasture land. The southeastern part of the dis¬ trict, especially the area between the Fox and Illinois rivers is a land of cash grain farming similar to the Grand Prairie south of the Illinois Valley. The deep black soil of the Kankakee plain is utilized as only the richest of soil can be for com¬ mercial grain farming. There the grain elevators are large, the barns are small, and grain is trucked to market. Between the livestock farming on the northwest and the cash grain farming on the southeast is a broad transition zone of both livestock and grain farming extending southwest- ward from the dairy boundary. In the same manner trend the reces¬ sional moraines of Wisconsin glacia¬ tion, the Bloomington, Cropsey, and Farm Ridge moraines, separated by extensive elongated areas of poorly drained ground moraine. Thus, be¬ yond the limits of profitable dairy marketing, the morainal ridges and interspersed plains are the sites of both livestock and cash grain farm¬ ing. Here both stock loading pens and grain elevators line the railroads in the little agricultural villages and livestock trucks traverse the high¬ ways. Although this portion of the Moraine Border district is too far from the Chicago metropolitan dis¬ trict for the daily shipment of fresh milk, it is the nearest area to the world’s largest stock yards for the periodic delivery of live hogs, sheep, and cattle. The extent to which por¬ tions of the district have been used to fatten cattle and western sheep is notable. The large sheep feeding yards are no longer as important as they once were and some have disap¬ peared entirely. It was within this portion of the district that a part of the government-sponsored wartime hemp growing was centered. Industrial Patterns In an agrarian structure such as that of the Moraine Border district, industry is of little significance. Here the major features are in keep¬ ing with the agricultural back¬ ground which the towns and villages serve. Canning factories account for the most widespread manufacturing activity of the district. Corn, peas, lima beans, tomatoes, pumpkins, and asparagus are among the vegetables packed by the canning companies which are most important in the Northern section especially in the larger towns. Belvidere, Marengo, Sycamore, and Rochelle are the sig¬ nificant canning factory towns. Al¬ though the canning activities are limited to the summer season, caus¬ ing a marked labor problem, veg¬ etable growing is carried on chiefly on farms owned outright or leased for terms of years by the canning companies. Among the industries of the dis¬ trict designed to use or to prepare perishable agricultural produce fur market are the dairies and cream¬ eries in the towns and villages, espe¬ cially in the dairy farming portion of the district. Similarly the hemp mills of the war period were con¬ structed to process hemp fibers. Gov¬ ernment mills were constructed near Earlville, Shabbona, and Kirk¬ land.3 Since the close of the war, these factories have been closed, offered for sale, and at least one has been converted to other industrial purposes. At an early date small shops and factories making farm machinery 3 John H. Garland, “Hemp — A Minor American Fiber Crop,” Economic Geography, Vol. 22, No. 2, April, 1946. 64 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions and other equipment for the agri¬ cultural countryside were wide¬ spread. Today most of these have disappeared as farm machinery manufacturing has become standard¬ ized and centralized in a few large companies. A few agricultural serv¬ ice manufacturers as well as those depending on a general market have developed in the large towns and cities. Notable among these are the manufacture of milking machines and dairy farm equipment at Har¬ vard and Deisel engines at Rochelle, wdiereas machine shops that make parts for farm machinery are wide¬ spread. The invention of barbed wire at DeKalb and the development and operation of the American Steel and Wire Company there for a num¬ ber of years gave to the largest city of the district the most industrial atmosphere. In a like manner the manufacture of sewing machines is outstanding in Belvidere, the second largest city. DeKalb was selected during the war for the site of an air¬ plane factory. Many other items such as tele¬ phone parts, electrical switches, cardboard boxes, dry cleaning ma¬ chinery, furniture, barber’s tools, yarn, typewriters, and the like are made in small factories in many of the towns and cities. The manufac¬ ture of nationally advertised pianos at DeKalb is one of the industries in which central position within the national market is significant. Although there are shreds of evi¬ dence that light industries are inter¬ ested in and are actually moving towards the towns and villages of the countryside which lies between the Rock River, Fox and Illinois valley industrial districts, the dom¬ inant note of the Moraine Border district is one of agricultural transi¬ tion which occupies a rolling terrain of variable glacial features. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 41, 1948 65 GEOLOGY COAL RESOURCES OF FRANKLIN COUNTY, ILLINOIS* GILBERT H. CADY State Geological Survey, Urbana Franklin County, Illinois, is unique as a coal producing area in several ways : It is the only coal producing county in the State which at the start of the century had pro¬ duced no coal and contained no coal mines. In 1946, however, this county produced more coal than any other county in the State — 14,470,904 tons or 23 percent of the total State pro¬ duction for that year. Its average production per mine in 1946 of 1,113,146 tons was exceeded only by Christian County where five mines produced an average of 1,279,882 tons. One mine in Franklin County attained the highest output in the State of 2,469,470 tons, a relative position which this mine has held for 8 years and for 20 out of 22 years prior to 1947. This same mine also holds the daily output record of the State of about 15,000 tons, a record, however, which was nearly equalled by a rival mine in the county. It had the fame, at one time at least, of being the world’s largest underground coal mine. Production in Franklin County is at present in the hands of five operating compa¬ nies, one mine being a captive mine owned by a railroad which takes all its production. Franklin County originally con¬ tained what appears to have been the State’s largest volume of coal with a sulphur content of less than 1.25. A considerable part of this coal contained less than 1 percent sulphur. It also contains the State’s * Published with permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. thickest known bed of coal, which is 9 to 14 feet thick over considerable areas. Franklin County has prob¬ ably been more thoroughly explored by the diamond drill than any other county in the State, but exploration has not often extended below No. 5 coal bed, only thirteen holes having been drilled to the greater depth, out of more than 300 that have been drilled. The coal mined in Franklin County is produced by fewer men per ton — 8.7 tons per man day in 1946 — than that produced by any other county in the State except Christian which had a rating of 11.5 tons per man day for the same year. The 1946 record in neighboring Saline County, in spite of the con¬ siderable strip-mine tonnage, was 6.5 tons per man day, and for Macoupin County 7.6 tons. Fulton County, on the other hand, where most of the coal comes from strip mines pro¬ duced coal in 1946 at the rate of 21.22 tons per man day. Many more persons are employed in the coal industry in Franklin County mines than in any other county of the State, 7,402 employees being reported for 1946. The county with the next largest mine pay roll is Macoupin with 2,693 employees. Railroads conveying coal out of Franklin County derive an annual revenue of about 20 million dollars from this service, assuming an aver¬ age freight payment of $2.00 per ton. In 1946 about 10 million tons of coal were shipped on four rail¬ roads serving the county, requiring 66 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 200,000 fifty-ton cars, or 4,000 fifty- car trains, or an average of more than 10 such train-loads daily dur¬ ing 1946. The fatality record of the mines in Franklin County has fallen from the high rate of 4.89 fatalities per million tons of coal produced be¬ tween 1911 and 1919 to an average of 1.11 fatalities per million tons between 1940 and 1946. This de¬ cline, although still higher than the State average of 0.4 in 1946, which is unusually low, has been brought about in spite of a highly hazardous, natural gassy condition in these mines, largely owing to the contribu¬ tions to mine safety made by one of the foremost mine safety engi¬ neers in the country and a notable citizen of the county, John E. Jones. The present methods of mine rock dusting in widespread use through¬ out the country are largely due to Mr. Jones’ ingenuity and persist¬ ence. Over against the numerous facts pointing to the great importance of the coal mining industry and the coal resources to this region are other facts that call for the evalu¬ ation of the permanence of this in¬ dustry and the availability of the coal resources. To what extent are these resources actual reserves of wealth and prosperity? The area of the county is rela¬ tively small. This is the 66th county in respect to size, having an area of 445 square miles (284,716 acres). Furthermore, in about 14 percent of the area or 60% square miles (38,- 685 acres) the No. 6 coal bed is re¬ garded as unworkable because the bed splits into unmineable thin parts. This leaves 384% square miles (246,031 acres) of the county underlain by workable No. 6 coal bed, assuming that a bed less than 6 feet in thickness at depths varying from about 750 to 850 feet is work¬ able. There is the further consideration that vigorous mining has been un¬ derway in this county about 45 years with a total output to the end of 1946 of 399,794,122 tons. The original supply of coal in the No. 6 coal bed has been estimated on Table 1. — Original Coal Resources in No. 6 Coal Bed in Franklin County Area in acres Percent of county Percent of produc¬ tive Estimate 1916 Coop. Bull 15 Estimate 1934 Estimate 1948 Percent area Millions of tons qq 1 4 Split coal area . Coal more than 8 ft. thick (Av. 9 ft. GO , OoO 113,970 92,162 39,962 40 47 1,814 54 assumed) . Coal 6-8 ft. thick (Av. 7 ft. as- 32 37 1,142 34 sumed) . Coal under 6 ft. (Av. 6 ft. as¬ sumed) . 14 16 424 12 TVUqI 284,716 3,718 3,282 3,381 Coal Resources of Franklin County 67 various bases from time to time (table 1) and appears to be about 3 1/3 billion tons, of which 424 mil¬ lion tons or 12 percent is probably less than 6 feet thick, 1,142 million tons or 34 percent is between 6 and 8 feet thick, and 1,814 million tons or 54 percent was more than 8 feet thick. A total of 30 percent of the area underlain by No. 6 coal bed in the county, exclusive of the split-coal area (table 2) (73,454 acres or 114.8 square miles) has been mined out or rendered unmineable (fig. 1) and this area contains essentially all the coal wuth less than 1 percent sulphur content and much of that with less than 1.25 percent sulphur. Most of the remaining supply of No. 6 coal bed lies in the eastern half of the county, and only two of the existing mines are probably so situated that they can mine the coal in this area within reasonable limits of cost. It is also significant that several mining ventures in the northeast part of the county north of or along the Illinois Central Rail¬ road from Benton southeastward, found it impossible to maintain pro¬ duction in competition with the more favorable conditions in the mines in the western part of the county. In spite of the evident realiza¬ tion on the part of the coal mining industry of the approaching deple¬ tion of the better and thicker por¬ tions of No. 6 coal bed in the western side of the county, no new mining ventures, as indicated by advanced drilling, seem to be underway in the northeastern part of the county. In this connection attention may well be called to what appears to be an area of relatively thick coal north of Logan and in the vicinity of Bes¬ sie in an area traversed almost down the center by a branch of the Illinois Central Railroad running from the vicinity of Akin to West Frankfort (fig. 1). The position of the area is also indicated on Fig. 2 as an area where the thickness of the interval between the No. 6 coal and the first limestone is more than 10 feet. Addi¬ tional drilling is necessary to prove the area but it seems to hold promise of being the only tract north of the Illinois Central Railroad branch to Eldorado in eastern Franklin Coun- Table 2. — Data on Depletion of No. 6 Coal Bed in Franklin County Acres Sq. Miles Total mineable area . 246,013 384.4 (Excluding split coal: 14% of county) Mined out area: A. Actual (25%) 61,649 96.3 B. Including barriers (30%) . 73,454 114.8 Total production in tons (to date of mine maps) . 385,401,214 tons Production in tons per acre: A. Actual mined-out area . 6,252 tons B. Including barriers . 5,247 tons Thickness of coal removed (in feet) : A. Actual mined-out area . 3.53 feet B. Including barriers . 2.96 feet Percentage of coal removed: A. Actual mined-out area 1. 9 ft. assumed average thickness . 39 percent 2. 8 y2 ft. assumed average thickness . 42 percent B. Including barriers 1. 9 ft. assumed average thickness . 33 percent 2. 8 y2 ft. assumed average thickness . 35 percent 68 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions ty where there are attractive possi¬ bilities from the viewpoint of pres¬ ent mining requirements. In connection with the depletion of resources in No. 6 coal bed in western Franklin County the char¬ acter of recovery is of interest. The prevailing idea concerning the re¬ covery as expressed by most engi¬ neers in the area is that this amounts to about 7,000 tons per acre. Assum¬ ing a weight for the coal of 1770 tons per acre foot (a figure long used by the State Geological Survey in coal resource studies) the recovery is equivalent to a bed almost exactly 4 feet thick (7080 tons). This re¬ covery has been in an area where the thickness of the No. 6 bed exceeds eight feet and not infrequently is 10 feet. It seems, therefore, even on the basis of the commonly accepted figure of 7,000 tons per acre that the recovery is less than 50 percent. Planimeter measurements of the mined-out area indicated on a small scale map (fig. 1) show that the total production of 385,401,214 tons (up to the date of the mine maps) had been taken from a mined-out area of 61,650 acres. This represents an average recovery of about 6,250 tons per acre (table 2), rather than 7,000 tons. Recovery is not uniform in differ¬ ent parts of the county. Consider the three separate, more or less in¬ dividually continuous areas, one in the south part of the county, one in the north part (but not including the detached mines near Sesser), and one in the eastern part (but not including the mine at Logan). The recovery (table 3) in the mined- Coal Resources of Franklin County 69 R 2 E R 3 E Fig. 2. — Map of Franklin County showing the distribution of variations in the interval between No. 6 coal bed and the first limestone above this coal bed, (10, 25, 50, and 100 feet) and the location of diamond-drill holes extending below No. 5 coal bed. Table 3. — Study of Depletion in Thkee Selected Mined-Out Areas in Franklin County Area in acres Total production in thousands of tons Production in tons per acre Coal removed (feet) North Tract Actual mined-out area . 13,356 85,745 6,420 3.63 Including barriers . 16,300 85,745 5,267 2.98 South Tract Actual mined-out area . 41,228 265,577 6,442 3.64 Including barriers . 48,000 265,577 5,533 3.12 East Tract Actual mined-out area . 3,411 17,275 5,064 2.86 Including barriers . 5,500 17,275 3,141 1.77 70 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions out southern part is at the rate of 3.64 feet, in the northern tract es¬ sentially the same, but in the east¬ ern area is only 2.86. These figures refer only to the actual mined-out area as bounded by the extreme face. If the total area is considered, bar¬ rier pillars, town site reserves, rail¬ road right-of-way pillars and un¬ mined irregularities such as those along the margin of the split coal area, the figures are smaller, being 3.12 feet for the southern area, 2.98 for the northern area, and 1.77 feet for the eastern area where abandon¬ ment of the mines will undoubtedly result in high barrier-pillar loss mar¬ ginal to any new operations. The character and thickness of the No. 6 coal bed bears a definite although not fully understood rela¬ tionship to the black shale and lime¬ stone caprock. Wherever the coal bed is separated from the black shale by less than about 10 feet of strata (usually by gray shale) the coal bed is rarely more than about 8 feet thick and commonly not more than 6 feet thick. The thin coal bed is characterized by a high sulphur content, usually more than 2 per¬ cent, The critical relationship, how¬ ever, is not that of thickness of bed but one apparently involving the proximity of the black shale. Be¬ cause of this very definite and well substantiated relationship it seems probable that the thin No. 6 coal bed in the eastern and northeastern part of the county, where the black shale and limestone lie close above the coal bed, will have a relatively high sulphur content from which it will probably be difficult but per¬ haps not impossible to produce the same high quality fuel as has been shipped out of Franklin County for many years. There is at least one other matter that affects the volume of coal re¬ serves to some extent. It is regarded as good practice to guard oil test holes by at least a 100-foot pillar, that is by a pillar not less than 200 feet in diameter. Where pools have developed in a mining area the mines and position of the drill holes are usually so planned as to reduce to a minimum the extra loss involved in an oversize pillar for an oil well or test hole. Where wells are drilled in abandoned mines or abandoned parts of mines no extra loss of coal is involved unless the well or wells get out of hand in the mine and cause disruption of mining and loss of coal or even of the mine. In the case of wildcat wells or drill-holes or where pools consist of only a few wells some loss of coal may be ex¬ pected, particularly if uncertainty exists in regard to the character of the plugging. In such a case it is advisable to provide a 200-foot rather than a 100-foot pillar around the drill-hole. A 100-foot pillar con¬ tains about 1277 tons per foot of coal or about 10,000 tons for an 8-foot bed. A 200-foot pillar would contain about three times as much. There are, up to date, in the order of 75 to 100 oil test holes in the largely un¬ developed eastern half of the county (fig. 3). Brief consideration may now be given to the resources present in Franklin County in beds other than No. 6. Of these coal No. 5 (fig. 4) which lies from 30 to about 100 feet below coal No. 6 is the most impor¬ tant and most widespread. Its con¬ tinuity is probably somewhat greater than that of No. 6 since it appears to be present under at least part of the ‘ ‘ split-coal ’ ’ area although to what extent is not well known. In general No. 5 bed is 3 to 4 feet thick, and fairly uniform in thickness. In the north part of the county there is one area where the bed is 5 feet thick, being nearly as thick as the No. 6 bed. The number of drill-holes that have penetrated to No. 5 bed is too small and the holes are too Coal Resources of Franklin County 71 Rl E R2E B3E R 4 E Fig. 3. — Structure of the top of No. 6 coal bed, location of oil pools, and of oil-test holes not in pools (wildcat holes). erratically distributed to justify statements as definite in regard to the quantity of coal present in this bed as can be made in regard to No. 6 coal bed. There is particular need for more information in the north¬ east part of the county and in the “split-coal” area. As a coal reserve, in the sense of a body of recoverable coal under prevailing mining conditions, the No. 5 bed has uncertain and rather doubtful value. It is very doubtful whether it can be recovered where it lies below areas of mined out No. 6 bed, particularly where the inter¬ val is less than about 50 feet. Un¬ less mining conditions change con¬ siderably, and this possibility of course exists, the value of No. 5 coal bed as a real reserve rates low. How¬ ever, in those parts of the county where the No. 6 and No. 5 bed lie 75 to 100 feet apart mining meth¬ ods may be devised, as new machines become available, so that both beds can be recovered simultaneously. It seems reasonable to regard as pos¬ sible the recovery of as high a pro¬ portion of the combined 10 feet of coal in the two beds as has been recovered from the single bed of the same thickness in western Franklin County. There are possibilities of improved recovery in the retreating method of mining that have not been explored but deserve trial. In any case, however, the No. 5 coal bed will probably not supply the natural premium quality of coal character- 72 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions DRILL HOLES TO NO.5 BED Fig. 4— Map showing drill-holes that have penetrated No. 5 bed, distribution of variation in the thickness of the No. 5 bed, and the distribution of interval be¬ tween No. 5 and No. 6 beds. istic of the No. 6 bed where it is now being mined. The amount of coal represented by the No. 5 coal bed in Franklin County, assuming that there are 309 square miles in which the bed aver¬ ages 3% feet thick (3 to 4 feet), 125 square miles in which it averages 41/2 feet (4 to 5 feet) and 11 square miles in which it averages 5 feet (5 feet plus) is as follows: Thickness Square Feet Miles Tons 3y2 309 1,225,123,200 4i/2 125 642,297,600 5 11 63,304,000 Total . 1,929,724,800 or roughly 2 billion tons. Of this 704,601,600 tons represent the coal bed where it is more than 4 feet thick. Of this area 60 square miles, in which there are 310,953,000 tons of coal, is in the area where No. 6 bed has already been mined out and the possibility of recovery of No. 5 coal is regarded by the writer as doubtful. This leaves about 400 mil¬ lion tons of coal thicker than 4 feet in the area where No. 6 coal has not yet been removed. Of this probably no more than about 200 million tons is recoverable, unless mining meth¬ ods change considerably, which is possible. In view of the very little informa¬ tion in regard to the thickness of No. 5 coal bed in the northeastern part of the county these estimates are based on an assumed thickness of 3% feet. This estimate involves the resources in this bed for about one-quarter of the area of the county. It may be hoped that fur- Coal Resources of Franklin County 73 Fig. 5. — Coal beds penetrated in five selected diamond-drill holes at scattered positions in Franklin County. ther drilling may find that this estimate is too conservative. The coal resources of the county are not completely represented by the No. 5 and No. 6 coal beds. There are no beds exceeding about 18 inches in thickness above the No. 6 bed. The Cutler coal bed, commonly present 30 to 40 feet above the Her¬ rin (caprock) limestone may occa¬ sionally reach 2 feet, but it is lenticular and generally unmineable. The accompanying chart (fig. 5) shows the position and thicknesses of coal beds below No. 6 bed in a group of diamond-drill holes that have been rather recently drilled here and there in the county. The amount of such deep drilling has been rela¬ tively small (fig. 2) and not scat¬ tered widely enough to provide a very satisfactory picture of the areal extent of the deep lying beds. The general conclusion that can be derived from the available informa¬ tion is that although occasionally coal beds 4 to 5 feet thick may be present and be penetrated in drilling, the beds are usually not thick and are characteristically lenticular and discontinuous. The two beds believed to have the widest distribution are known as the DeKoven and Davis lying between 250 and 300 feet be¬ low No. 6 bed. Even these are thin and become difficult to recognize toward the west, and even on the east side of the county are not likely to be more than 40 inches thick. The DeKoven, the upper bed of the two, is likely to be “cut out” by the over- lying Palzo sandstone. The well known Murphysboro coal bed of Jackson County has not been recog- 74 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions nized with certainty among the coal beds penetrated in Franklin Connty. It may be either the Stonefort or Bald Hill bed. It is not the DeKoven and Davis bed as was once thought. It is not probable that these lower coal beds will ever provide a basis for large coal mining industry such as that with which we are now famil¬ iar in Franklin County, although it cannot be said that none of these beds will ever be mined. Further drilling may discover considerable areas where one or more of these beds maintains a thickness of 4 to 5 feet. Furthermore, “ever” is a long time and man may get very des¬ perate for fuel. Underground gasification holds some possibility for utilizing the energy present in the thinner coal beds and in portions of the thicker beds where the quality is poor, such as in the split portions of the No. 6 coal bed. Once the No. 6 bed is en¬ tirely worked out adjacent to the “split-coal” area the development of gasification projects as a means of recovering the energy available in the split portions of the bed is a pos¬ sibility that should not be over¬ looked. The same procedure might be applied to No. 5 and lower beds where conditions might be suitable. It is very desirable that under¬ ground gasification be tried under conditions existing in the coal fields of the middle west in order to pro¬ vide a satisfactory basis for deter¬ mining its applicability to these coal beds. Conclusion The coal resources of Franklin County may be classified into four categories: First, those resources which represent coal which can be and probably will be recovered un¬ der present conditions of mining practice and competition, the cer¬ tain reserves ; second, those resources represented by coal 6 to 8 feet thick which probably will be recovered, the probable reserves; third, those resources represented by a coal bed less than 6 feet thick concerning which the possibilities are doubtful, the doubtful reserves; and, finally, those resources represented by beds too thin or irregular, or both, that probably never will be worked and therefore cannot be regarded as re¬ serves of energy or wealth. The definite or certain reserves are represented by the approxi¬ mately 897 million tons of coal in a bed 8 feet or more thick. The coal in this reserve is held very largely by two companies with a present combined output of about 10 mil¬ lion tons. By maintaining an un¬ usually high rate of recovery of about 55 percent at the same an¬ nual rate of production this body of coal should last another fifty years. It is not to be expected, however, that the man power re¬ quired to mine this volume of coal will continue at the present rate but that it will decrease. According¬ ly the mine pay-roll in the county will undoubtedly fall from year to year partly because of the complete depletion of some of the mines and as a result of more efficient recov¬ ery in terms of tons per man day. A stepping up of the production by these two mining companies would of course tend to maintain pay-roll volume, but would shorten the life of the field. The second category of reserves is represented by No. 6 bed where it is between 6 and 8 feet thick and by No. 5 bed where it is more than 4 feet thick. Consider No. 6 coal bed first: The probability of min¬ ing in this area containing approxi¬ mately a billion and one-quarter tons of coal is affected by the ab¬ sence of operating mines and the Coal Resources of Franklin County 75 more important unprofitable ex¬ perience of companies that have un¬ dertaken such mining in the past. In general this intermediate area of the No. 6 coal bed is intermediate in other ways than in geographical position. The coal is characterized by considerable variability in qual¬ ity and thickness, the sulphur con¬ tent varying in short distances from relatively low to relatively high. The roof conditions provide a haz¬ ard that mining companies will hesitate to face. The interval be¬ tween the coal bed and the caprock varies irregularly with lenticular bodies of gray shale commonly in¬ tervening between the coal bed and the black shale that usually lies im¬ mediately below the caprock. Cost of development will be increased by the need for more than the usual number of holes in order that ir¬ regularities may be sufficiently ex¬ plored. Successful operation of this 6 to 8-foot coal bed also calls for more technical study of the roof material than has yet been applied to such rock, but considerable and possibly the best information about conditions in the area will be ob¬ tained as the mines operating in the more favored reserve area ap¬ proach the margin of that area and encounter thinner coal and more irregular roof conditions. For the present at least it appears that the area of 6 to 8-foot coal should be written off as an immediate reserve, but the general thickness of the coal is such that a few improvements in mining or cleaning practice, or both, might very well throw it into the category of the immediate re¬ serve. With respect to No. 5 coal bed: The coal present in this bed lies in either the probable or doubtful re¬ serves. The portion of the bed con¬ cerning which there is undoubtedly the most interest is where the bed underlies the already worked out areas of No. 6 bed because it can be reached so easily from shafts now working in the upper bed. Some of these shafts actually extend to the No. 5 bed already. It would seem as though the No. 5 bed could be worked as cheaply while opera¬ tions are still active in No. 6 as after such operations cease, and failure to start such operations up to the present is not an encouraging indication of the workability of the bed. The area of greatest promise with respect to No. 5 bed appears to be the approximately 11 square miles in the northern part of the county where the bed is more than 5 feet thick. It would seem desirable if the coal should be explored in this tract to mine both No. 6 and No. 5 beds from the same shaft. The two beds are sufficiently widely spaced and the lower coal sufficient¬ ly thick so that it might be possible to work the lower and upper beds contemporaneously in a large area in the southeastern part of the county where No. 6 coal is over 6 feet thick. In the northeast part of the coun¬ ty where No. 6 coal is less than 6 feet thick both beds are 800 feet or more in depth and the coal re¬ sources in both beds rate no bet¬ ter than doubtful reserves al¬ though there has not been enough drilling for definite estimates. The coal present in the beds be¬ low No. 5 coal represents a doubtful reserve. Drilling to date does not provide information sufficient to justify including such coal beds that have been encountered in either of the high categories. In certain areas there seem to be lenti¬ cular fairly thick bodies of one or more of the coal beds below coal No. 5 but no two holes seem to have penetrated coal beds as much as four feet thick at the same strati¬ graphic position except possibly in 76 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions the case of the Davis coal. This bed seems to be that thick only in the southeastern part of the coun¬ ty. It is possible that some time one or more of these beds might be found suitable for underground gasification, but it is not probable that they will be mined by shafts, except possibly in very local areas. The present study of the status of coal resources and coal reserves in Franklin County points to the complete exhaustion of the high quality more easily mined No. 6 coal within the county in a matter of about 50 years or less. This depletion of No. 6 coal where it is more than 8 feet thiuk will un¬ doubtedly be accompanied by the gradual decrease in the number of individuals supported by the min¬ ing industry in the county. It is quite possible that this decrease may take place slowly enough to cause no particular hardship. Furthermore, there is a possibility that some of the slack, should any exist, may be taken up by the start of new operations in the coal lands underlain by No. 6 bed where it is between 6 and 8 feet thick. This possibility depends a good deal upon progress made in mining methods, in improved efficiency of mining machines, in the improved understanding of the behavior of roof materials, and on improve¬ ments in mechanical devices for converting the energy in the coal into mechanical energy. Encour¬ agement must be given to coal re¬ search in fields, such as geology, chemistry, and various branches of engineering impinging upon the coal mining industry and various aspects of coal utilization, includ¬ ing underground gasification. Summary of Resource Data for No. 6 Coal Bed in Franklin County Acres Percent Square miles Thp nrpfi of the COlintv . 284,716 38 , 685 445 The “split-coal” area . 14 60.5 Area exclusive of “split-coal” area . 246,031 86 384 . 5 Area in which No. 6 coal bed has been mined or rendered un- mineable . 73,454 112,139 26 114.8 Total area No. 6 coal bed unavailable either mined out or in “split-coal” area . 40 175.2 The available balance . 172,577 60 269.8 Of the available balance area (100%)_ No. 6 coal is less than 6 feet thick in . . . . . 39,962 23 62.4 No. 6 coal is 6-8 feet thick, excluding mined out area, in. . 90,396 52 141.2 The remaining area No. 6 more than 8 ft . 42,219 25 66.0 Converted into tonnages these data signify that The area of No. 6 less than 6 feet thick contains . 424,396,000 tons The area of No. 6 between 6 and 8 feet thick contains . 1,125,887,000 tons The area of No. 6 in which No. 6 coal is more than 8 feet thick, contains . 896,917,000 tons No. 5 Coal Bed The coal in No. 5 coal bed in Franklin County is approximately 2,000,000,000 tons. It ranges from a possible to a doubtful reserve. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 41, 1948 77 OIL ACCUMULATION IN THE CYPRESS SANDSTONE IN THE HERALD POOL, WHITE AND GALLATIN COUNTIES, ILLINOIS* NANCY McDURMITT State Geological Survey, Tlrloana Introduction The Herald pool is located in White and Gallatin counties in southern Illinois (fig. 1). The pool covers an area of approximately 1600 acres. Since its discovery in 1940, a total of 130 producing wells have been completed, of which 65* 1 have produced oil from the Cypress sandstone. This sandstone has been chosen for study, and the discus- tion following is confined to it. The Cypress is one of the lower formations of the Chester series. In the Herald pool area it consists of three sandstones, commonly with interbedded shales. The two lower sandstones are thick and fairly con¬ sistent, and sometimes separated by thin shale. It is the upper sandy zone which is productive in the Herald pool. It is an extremely variable zone of shale, sandy shale, and sandstone. The sandstone ranges from a tightly cemented sandstone to a clean permeable quartz sandstone, which is the pay zone. Normally the sandstone is overlain by shale or shaly sand¬ stone. Occasionally the whole up¬ per zone becomes a shale or shaly sandstone. In places there is no shale above the sandstone, so that it is directly overlain by the Bar- low limestone. However, in most cases, it is the shaly layer over the pay zone which forms the caprock. * Published with permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. 1 Secs. 27, 33, 34, 35,— 6S-9E ; Secs. 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 14, 15, 22, 23,— 7S-9E. Includes three wells producing from other forma¬ tions also. Structure The Herald pool is in the south¬ ern part of the Illinois basin. The structure of the pool consists of three ‘ 1 highs, ’ ’ with a general north- south trend. Figure 1 shows struc¬ ture contours on the base of the Bar- low limestone, that is the top of the Cypress formation. In general the Cypress production is controlled by these features. The northernmost anticline is the largest of the three and has on it the largest number of wells. Figure 2, (sec. 3, T. 7 S., R. 9 E.) shows oil accumulation in a simple structural trap. The wells high on the structure produce oil and water; those low on the structure are dry holes, often producing water with possible shows of oil. The closure of the pay is about 6 feet. The strata in the southern part of the pool are cut by a fault or fault zone, which strikes north and northeast and dips eastward about 50° to 65°. The fault there cuts a structural high on the Cypress. On the upthrown side — the west side — the pay dips westward from the fault (fig. 3, secs. 22, 23, T. 7 S., R. 9 E.). Several wells produce oil near the fault. It is probable that the trap is sealed by an impervious bed on the opposite face of the fault which is in contact with the pay. Deposition al Variations Although the Cypress production in the pool is generally controlled 78 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Oil Accumulation in Cypress Sandstone 79 structural trap. by structure, conspicuous devia¬ tions of the production pattern from the structure pattern indicate the presence of another significant factor — depositional variations. The shaly zone above the pay is of variable thickness. Changes in its thickness accentuate or nullify the effect of structure in forming traps. If the shale interval is fairly constant, the pay is high where the structure is high — as in the struc¬ tural trap shown in figure 2. If the shale thins where structure is low, the pay there may be high. In sec. 3, T. 7 S., R. 9 E. (figure 4) such variation of shale thickness is suf¬ ficient to form a trap where the structure is low. Producers are structurally low, dry holes that pro¬ duce water are structurally high. Another important depositional variation is a change in the per¬ meability of the pay. The sand¬ stone may become shaly or inter- bedded with numerous thin shale streaks; commonly the interstitial c c MW 3-75-9E SE Fig. 4. — C-C', cross-section showing ef¬ fect of varying thickness of overlying shale on the trap. \ Sh/ 22 (23 - 7 S - 9 E. NE Fig. 3. — B-B', cross-section of pay zone cut by fault. spaces of the sandstone are filled with siliceous cement; in sandstone that is poorly sorted, the smaller grains fill the spaces between the larger ones ; the sandstone may be lenticular. Such permeability changes are typical of Illinois “oil sands,” where lateral variation of beds occurs commonly within a few acres, often within a few feet. The distribution of producing wells on the anticline in sec. 34, T. 6 S., R. 9 E. is a striking illus¬ tration of the effect of permeability change, figure 5. There are many producers on the northwest flank of the anticline and several on the crest. On the highest part of the structure, however, are several dry holes. Sample studies show the pay in these wells to be shaly or cement¬ ed. The tight zone, cutting across the anticline, forms an effective seal for the oil accumulated along the flank of the structure. D D' MW 34-6S-9E. SE Fig. 5. — D-D', cross-section of pay zone sealed by tight zone. 80 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions The small anticline in secs. 10 and 11, T. 7 S., R. 9 E. is a structure almost completely dry because of tightness of the sandstone. Only one well produces on this structure. The pay zone in the other holes on the anticline, though high, is shaly. The tested permeability of the sand¬ stone in one of the highest wells averages only twelve millidarcies. Permeability of the pay in some producers in the pool averages eighty millidarcies. These are primary features, re¬ lated to conditions of deposition. In contrast, the structural features are the result of deformation. Depositional variations on pro¬ ducing structures account for a number of dry holes throughout the pool. Summary Production from the Cypress sandstone in the Herald pool shows the effect of both structural and stratigraphic features on oil ac¬ cumulation. There are examples in the pool of oil in the Cypress sandstone in the following types of traps : Simple structural trap. Trap sealed by an impervious bed at the fault contact. Trap closed by thickening of over- lying shale. Trap sealed by a tight zone in the pay across an anticline. There are also examples of areas high on structure which are. dry because of depositional variations : Thickening of overlying shale. Tightness of producing sandstone. Subsurface Oil Accumulation in Cypress Sandstone 81 Ph P O ° ^ 'S kT! > c3 03 ^pqpp P c CL3 o II ^P 3 o g 1-1 o a 02 cPh O a X cu ^02 O <13 03 03 o o co o o 0 3 ^ C s >5 >> fo1"© b^ bo bo b b o b qqPpPpPpPpPPpQ q; o a) 0 a) o q; a; q O4''ti‘O O’-iOO^h^h^hOO'— hhhh^ C1N(NINNIN(NWM(M(N(M(NC1(N Ol CM 04 04 04 04 Ol 04 Cl Cl O (N M C) Cl I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ‘OOOONKON'-tiOOOCCN 0001N003 050000NOO hiNh(NO)hhiNO)N(Nhh 04040404040404040404 04 0404 I I I I I i I I I I I I I CO O 00 03 04 (M I I rHTt<03(NOOCOSNM>OC003NrHCO(NO^iO^OOO'-iNN»OCOCOG003r-(^^ici C0CIC0C000l0‘0^*003^©(NH^C0rHCqrHl0rHC0IN-HrHrH03HO03OOOC0 CO CO 04 04 lOfO^^^^OOHiOOcOOSkOOO W^^^OCONIOCOOCOQOCOOIOO XXXXt^XXXXt-'-XXXXX 040404040404040404040404040404 lO^^rHNCOOOSOOO^^iO O(Nh(NhM(NhhMO0:o XXX4>t^r^4>r^t^t^t^XX NNM(MM(NIM(NIMIN(NN(N b- 04 00 04 CO 4 ^ 04 04 . . . 04 CO T3 TJ 73 T3 T3 TJ TJ T3 j] j! j! Is "c 'c C ^ ,-1 01 *-h o 0 q q q q o C a . . . • C A.g.g.g.g fl --<1 rr ” 2 j j r/1 W C3 S3 04 t*4 ^ 40 < 04 04 CO CO m cq PPP«pQOOOOHH<3■ c3 22 X! 05 X o 2 o 0:02 03 03 X X 2 CJ o © tn Sh-P OOo3 PPhPQ S £ 2'Sx'S £ g'S'S'S'S'O'E O hi ?H Sh Sh 03 ;qo p P 03 X 02 02 X X CO l> 04 04 HP 03 03 CO cc? CO X Table 1. _ Data fob Wells on Structure Map — Continued 82 Ph Q « b b o .2 ° “ > b b O O cs'-jl b > b a 3 *+-1 > 0 b ^ „ o O ITT1 tr cb ^ o3 o3 O bu CO b o , 03 i o O o CO Illinois Academy of Science Transactions coooooooooooooooo 222S coco OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO oooo ^T3rbT3bJ'brb,'bFbFbrbF'OraFbr'br'Cp'C ng ho ^ 'b ^ ►^'b 'b b "b >> >> >> >. oooooooooooopoppppoooofcoooo^^^^h^hhj i>> >> > .COCsqCqr^COCDOiOiOOqC'qCqoqb-^£GO^COL-©_.^ ■ lOX^COOSMNNOr-.. OtO'^tiO’— 0OC3C3^X c 03C0Xl>X03l>C0Xl>C^C^e25003OQ0^r;t0^b-Q0^^^g^Q0C0^Q0^^g^;O^| iSgilgglsiliilsliiiiiiiSsasasssss8888^ oq co ^ to co i> H ?h U ti oq co to co OOOOOO^OOOitH CJ o o o o Mocaitfitcai+jp+j+i ~ O O 00 00 OO -Q© o o cq co ^ ----- _, , iib bSsbSbSbSbSb t» . cg . go . go . b o3 b b b b , — i . — < ■ — \ • — i < — ; T t" 'C 'C 'S ' oq i-h cq co ^ to co oouOoo^^^^^ OCO00000000000000(DOqq . .,• Sy.u Jh.ti*' «T^b3 SSSSgSSSSSSSSSSSSz&Hii-^mmoo0)Ooo, >> r^i Wjj i> „ „ „ t, ^ o o o o o 4i4J+J-pfl :w or SalalSlpllaaaaaal^^iaaaaaaaai^ "b © C I x § j £ £ :* bf fecd| SlllgS|i|*|gSgg|gB|||B8J|l@gg|gg|«l gKSgSg8g8Sl®|lSg|gfe“2e»S*S”S8*”3*p; 88«S8S8g!tf@g«S8gKBa!S!8fc£!o8!g sa Ol 03 CCCE I> L- Subsurface Oil Accumulation in Cypress Sandstone 83 ^ Q o o > ? § % ®pqffl H P 8.2 & 3 P o f ° | ^ 0*2 s (S«« ?H ?H Ph 0) 0) GJ> 0) O O O O C O p P 3 2 P ,^73 . 1 .TS 73 73 73 ►. ^or>oooor> Sh Jh Si (1) D d o o o p 3 2 73 73 73 O b b° b g b g g g g b g g g b b b b b bg b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b QfifiQfiQftfiMpWfiQflPPfififlPQQPQQflflflPPQQPfiQflP r-cccoiccO’-'eoi>'^^Oii>co(M05 r^ooo303t'~ooooi>r'-ooooooooc3oo CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMOICMCM I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I i>oooooot^i>t'~ooc5ooi>i>.t^i> (MINNINlN^MlNWOMlNC'tNlN I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ©CM©T)HTtlOCI>CO»Oi— iNOOOO©HMNO0C^r- iiCOOCO^N'^P^^C'lNCOONOOOS ©r^00t^©00O3O3C3C3l>i-HO3COI>C3O3O3O3^HCM-H'*-HCOCOiat^TtHe0^COCO— iCOCOCMCOi-< 1> lO CO 03 O 03 o o 03 ic CO 1> CO CM 03 i> t- CM 00 CO 03 o CO LO CO 1^ CO X CO 1> CO C3 r- 04 ia • !>• t- oo o CM o CO CO co CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO 1^ cO • CO CO O r- CO CMCOOOC01>.COI>00 •HH^lOIMHHHHOMOOHffil •©©©©©©©©©©©©©COiO ■(NNNINNINNNNNIMIMNNN PQ !(Mi-H(MCOTtH»0'-H(MeOTtl o rtHtNi-IlN 8“ S-s mw 75 73 ^ CD p^. i CM 1-1 i(MWrt< •r* +3 +a += += '"oj l"c5 ""oS *03 '"c3 P P j5 bs*?^550 ^ b b ~r-| . . o ® a)

> >J >-5 P p p c ^ K*3 ^ TO o3 s3 oj fflffipqpq o . 73 P ’£ ■am p p p p ai 6 6 ai a -2 Clj Eb p _° *§ 5 _ o o PQ 73 73 * 03 • O O r< p o o s O £ £ g 73 73 73 73 O O O O o o o o £ £ £ ^ ® f *111 }.£l I |?|lplli|.s.sl^3333 o3ooooooo^^^^ d’H £feSw^Pk^^oSS^3oS3wS^0oood swSeesgwHfe HSp^fe C?S = := H H ^ r -> ^ ^ H r'i M &3 ^ r/) 1 ggfcgBlfcg^KgBSgggSgSSgjgBgSSgSIgSggfeSfeiSE w Table 1. — Data for Wells on Structure Map — Concluded 84 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions I ^ O ° >2 g a; o O -in o > ^ oj-th ag £ qmm c a a o o m o O a 'm >>>>>> S>> >, >> >, >> >> >> P(3QflPQpWPfiQfiQQQQfiflQPQQQGP£finQalPQ££c£| c p >» b c h >» o o ho ’ G o ‘o ^ lO CO 00 CO • o 02 O oo O CO O 00 o C CO oo CO OO 02 CO • 02 CO • IQ 02 • 02 O' CO 00 0 j_ VlJ 0.2 02 S* oj o3 oo 00 00 00 • 00 oo Cl 00 l> 00 "■t CM 00 00 • o o 02 • 00 1-H p: o oo r- CM 0 G ro CM CO CM • CM CM — CM CM CO w > o 1^ OJ — T— 1 TtH TfH •^t1 Tf rtH CO TjH CO rfl TjH CO TT1 Tt^ '3' M'cc; 02 02 00 x x x CO t- 1> 02 CO CM r- CM to t^- CO CO X T}H X CM 02 X X • f— CO L- • CO Ol • CO CO X X o i—i CO c i—l CM CM CO o - i—i CO t- X X 02 c • r— * O. o • X X • 2T- i— < X o CO •O CO CO CO ■ CO CO CO to co co CO CO co to to CO to CO • CO to - ■ to CO • *o CO to to to CM CM CM CM CM • CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM • CM CM • CM CM • »>»>»>» >?ij % tj "s b =1 w -e § s a a >. >. >. >. • • \ ’ ^ ^ . * HH^Sj^fSmpqJ^CQ^PQPQPQmff ® D ® H 4)^ oj 03 03 cSrSpSrCpC! . . m Q5 pG s s^fc tj fc.gssss s | g.fwwwwn o3o3ojcij533d3^^o3o3o3ejC:-l:HLpr4oOKi-^'- . . . 03 p G . . . . PQPQPQCQQ G’G’Q'O’C o o ^ ,CJ b/0 o o ^ G c3 c6 -i r-j 02 O pq bfl&f G ^ s i a § c G g g u m cj « S S S S 0) 02 0) CD bJD bfi bJO bfi 7Z CZ 7i Tj a c g g oi cj cZ oS •+j -t-^ -t-^> G G g 02 02 02 s a a 02 02 02 bfi bC bfi cj c3 oj g a a c3 c3 ^ ”oQ fn G > T, oo °SSSSSSSS S33 ® CCC cd 02 a a a o o » bO bC bJD c3 o3 o3 G c c cC G c5 ooc ^ ^ 03 3; G G G bO G G 3 o3 0) OPQ 03 :g Gi rs oxX G filjj*! h) cj « o d J^^OOOOUOOO x W o 12 ! > -3 -as ! ^“^{ZlS^SgggSlsiMg^^^^ggSjZjJZlBSZlSZlg^^g^JZJMSljZi 02 02 CZ2 0) L- t- Clau« Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 41, 1948 85 PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION EDUCATIONAL PLANS OF ILLINOIS HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN RELATION TO FINANCIAL SITUATION AND ACADEMIC APTITUDE DON THOMANN University of Illinois, Urbana This report is concerned with the plans of Illinois high school juniors and seniors to continue their formal education beyond the high school level; with their ability, both scho¬ lastic and financial, to make these plans effective; and with the impli¬ cations which arise out of the find¬ ings, both for our public educational system and for society at large. The data for this study were col¬ lected by the High School Testing Bureau at the University of Illinois, which each year directs the Illinois statewide testing program. The data include : first, the information supplied by the juniors and seniors themselves concerning their plans for continuing formal education be¬ yond the high school level ; second, the report which the high school principal makes on each student concerning his scholastic promise and his financial ability to continue education after high school gradua¬ tion; and, third, the scores which each student makes on the American Council on Education psychological examination. This test is primarily a measure of scholastic aptitude and is often used for guidance purposes in appraising the student ’s likeli¬ hood of success at the college level. It might be noted here that students ’ plans to continue formal education beyond the secondary school include plans for attending business college, vocational and trade schools, the junior college, or other types of edu¬ cational institutions as well as the standard four-year college and uni¬ versity. Almost two thirds of the public and private high schools in Illinois, exclusive of the public schools in Chicago, participate in the Illinois statewide testing program. Most high schools test at the junior level, so that data on well over 30,000 junior students are available each year. The Bureau also receives data each year on approximately 8,000 senior students. It is these juniors and seniors, or representative groups of them, on which the figures in the present report are based. Students’ Plans Of the high school juniors who participated in the statewide testing program during the current year, approximately 2,000 were selected on a stratified sampling basis as rep¬ resentative of the total group. The responses of these students show that approximately 66 percent have plans for continuing education be¬ yond the high school level. Thirty- three percent do not plan to seek further education, while about 1 percent are undecided. A break¬ down by sex shows no statistically significant difference in these figures and would indicate that sex is not an important factor in determining whether a student will plan to con- 86 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions tinue with his formal schooling. The direction of difference, however, favors a slightly greater proportion of junior girls than of junior boys who plan to continue. Data from three previous years, two of them since the war and one while the war was at its height, show only slightly lower percentages of junior students who plan to continue education beyond the high school than are shown in the figures of the current year. These figures range from 58 to 62 percent for the boys and from 62 to 65 percent for the girls. In other words, there is little variation in the percentage of jun¬ iors each year who plan to continue their formal education, although that variation which does exist points in the direction of an increase which currently includes almost two- thirds of all junior students in Illi¬ nois high schools. The educational plans of high school seniors have not yet been studied for the present year, but data from previous years indicate that what is true for the juniors is generally true for the seniors as well. A slightly greater proportion of senior boys than of junior boys plan to continue with their educa¬ tion, for at this level the figures range from 60 to 65 percent. On the other hand, a slightly smaller pro¬ portion of senior girls than of junior girls have further educational plans, so that in the senior group the pro¬ portion of boys who plan to continue education after high school gradua¬ tion is slightly greater than the proportion of girls, though the dif¬ ference is still not statistically sig¬ nificant. It is safe to generalize that among both boys and girls, at both the junior and senior levels, approx¬ imately two thirds of all Illinois high school students plan to carry on school work beyond the secondary level. Scholastic Aptitude How do these students with plans for further education stand scholas¬ tically? Are those who are most able to benefit by continuing educa¬ tion beyond high school the ones who plan to do so? These questions are important ones to ask if we are con¬ cerned with an educational system that meets the needs and abilities of every student and one that serves the best interests of society by pre¬ paring for responsible professional and leadership positions all those who have the ability to function at such levels in society. When we consider the report made by the high school principal on each student in the statewide testing program, we find there is a definite positive correlation between the scholastic promise of students and their plans for continuing edu¬ cation. In the current year approx¬ imately 83 percent of all junior girls planning further education are re¬ ported as possessing scholastic prom¬ ise, whereas, only 49 percent of the girls not planning further education are so reported. Among the junior boys the percentages are somewhat lower, being 70 percent of those planning to continue education and only 29 percent of those not plan¬ ning to continue. The figures from former years are similar, in every case a higher percentage of girls than boys being reported as showing scholastic promise and a higher per¬ centage of those with plans for fur¬ ther education than of those without plans being so reported. In every case, too, the percentage of those showing scholastic promise is higher for senior students than for juniors. The picture is always the same, how¬ ever, in showing a considerably higher proportion of students with scholastic promise among those who plan to continue their education be¬ yond the secondary school level than Educational Plans of High School Students 87 among the group of students who do not have such plans. Another way of determining the student’s aptitude for scholastic achievement beyond the high school level is the score he makes on the American Council psychological ex¬ amination, which is used in the statewide testing program. Current figures show that of those junior stu¬ dents who plan to continue educa¬ tion approximately 68 percent are in the upper half of scores on the A.C.E. psychological test. Only 37 percent of those who do not plan to continue stand in the upper half on the test. Putting it another way, of those students who stand in the up¬ per half on test scores approxi¬ mately 78 percent plan to continue education as compared with only 49 percent of those who stand in the lower half on test scores. These fig¬ ures vary somewhat from group to group but remain substantially the same for both boys and girls and for both junior and senior students. Likewise, they are fairly constant over a period of several years, al¬ though a slight trend might be noted in the direction of an increased num¬ ber planning to continue education both among the group in the upper half on test scores and among the group in the lower half. The significant fact in the figures presented thus far is not that those students who plan to continue edu¬ cation beyond the high school level are predominantly the ones who pos¬ sess scholastic promise or stand high on test scores. That is not an unex¬ pected discovery. But it is impor¬ tant to note that from 30 to 50 per¬ cent of those students who do not plan to continue further education possess the ability and promise of doing successful work at the college level. What is the reason that such a large proportion of students have no plans for pursuing further edu¬ cation even though they have the ability to do so, and even though our educational system purports to meet individual and societal needs by offering the maximum opportunity for development to all individuals'? Financial Ability of Students Perhaps one answer to the ques¬ tion just asked lies in the financial ability of students to continue schooling beyond the high school level. Our principals’ reports show that over 45 percent of all students are not able financially to continue with their education after high school graduation. Undoubtedly a large number of these also lack the scholastic ability or promise that would make it desirable for them to go on with advanced education. But the reports indicate that of those students who are rated as possessing scholastic promise, an average of over 35 percent, or one in three, does not have the financial ability to con¬ tinue his education beyond high school. Of those students who stand in the upper half on the A.C.E. psychological test, approximately one third are reported from families whose financial situation does not encourage them to make plans for further education. We can look at the figures in another way by comparing the group who have educational plans with the group who do not have such plans. In the latter group there is approximately twice as great a per¬ centage reported as having scholas¬ tic promise but lacking in financial ability as there is in the group plan¬ ning to continue education. Among the students who rank in the upper half on the A.C.E. test, over 60 per¬ cent of those who do not plan to continue are financially unable to do so, whereas less than 30 percent of those who do plan to continue education are reported in unfavor¬ able financial circumstances. These 88 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions figures would seem to indicate that lack of financial ability is one of the major reasons why many high school students do not plan to con¬ tinue their education beyond the secondary level, even though they possess the scholastic promise and aptitude for doing successful work at a higher level. Democratic Implications The figures presented thus far tell a story that carries meaning for our schools and for the community and nation at large. At the local school level the question of indi¬ vidual pupil guidance concerning educational matters involves: how especially to assist and encourage the student to continue with his edu¬ cation when he has the scholastic promise and ability but has made no plans to carry on beyond the high school level; how, too, to help the individual student overcome prob¬ lems which stand in the way of con¬ tinuing his education because of financial circumstances that are un¬ favorable to his continuance. These are problems that are local and spe¬ cific in nature, but above and beyond them are more important problems which concern our entire educational program and the part that our edu¬ cational system plays in the society in which we live. The fundamental purpose of the schools in a democratic society is promotion of the maximum develop¬ ment of every individual to the end that both individual and group wel¬ fare are served in the greatest pos¬ sible extent. If democracy is to triumph over communism and other forms of totalitarian society, it must do more than pay lip service to its ideals. As a nation we cannot afford to squander human resources by failing in our schools to achieve the optimum development of every indi¬ vidual in order that he may con¬ tribute his best to our democratic way of life. Yet when we find that over one third of our young people who possess capacities for growth and development beyond the high school level are unable to make plans for continuing their education be¬ cause of financial reasons, we realize that our educational system has a long way to go to meet individual needs and a long way to go to fulfill its function in society. The schools alone are not to be blamed, but educators themselves have the major responsibility in thinking through the problem and promoting an adequate solution for it. Our educational system may have to be expanded until the junior college becomes recognized as a fun¬ damental part of the free public school structure. It may be neces¬ sary to establish educational bene¬ fits for civilian youth, as President Stoddard of the University of Illi¬ nois has suggested, in order to provide an advanced educational program for all those who can bene¬ fit by it, regardless of their financial circumstances. Certainly the prob¬ lem is one which concerns our national government as well as the states. It is a problem for all of society to ponder, for it involves the fundamental democratic issue of whether every individual can ex¬ pect to achieve maximum personal growth and development or whether some, because of the circumstances into which they fall or are born, cannot expect the same opportuni¬ ties and advantages as others. The Illinois State Academy of Science is already recognizing the problem to a limited extent through its participation in the science talent search, which is sponsored each year by Westinghouse. The Academy en¬ deavors to secure scholarships in Illinois colleges and universities for top-ranking high school science stu¬ dents who have entered the national Educational Plans of High School Students 89 competitive program but have not been selected at that level. This effort is an example of what can be done in selecting students who show outstanding promise and giving them the opportunity and encour¬ agement to go on. It is a limited effort, however, for it is restricted to students interested only in the various fields of science. It does not purport to recognize financial need as one of the factors in the selec¬ tion of students for scholarships, although in some cases, undoubt¬ edly, selection for a scholarship pro¬ vides the opportunity without which talented students could not plan to continue their education. Perhaps a program of selection might be worked out which would give greater recognition to financial need but at the same time maintain present high standards in the recognition of sci¬ ence ability. Perhaps, too, the pro¬ gram could be adopted by other state and national groups for grant¬ ing recognition and aid to promising students in fields other than science. In this way, we might at least alle¬ viate the situation by providing greater opportunity for outstanding students regardless of their financial circumstances. In this paper, however, I do not presume to find an answer to the problem. I only wish to call to your attention that a problem does exist, and that our democratic values and welfare as a nation will suffer until a solution is found. The problem re¬ mains one of promoting greater democracy and the social good by finding an answer which will enable all high school students who possess scholastic ability to continue with their education at an advanced level without regard to their financial ability to carry them through such a program. I I Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 41, 1948 91 SOCIAL SCIENCE ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS OF TOWNSHIP GOVERNMENT IN DU PAGE COUNTY HAROLD GORDON Wheaton College, Wheaton Within Du Page County, Illi¬ nois, there are nine township govern¬ ments each of which has an independ¬ ent existence. They are all similar in organization and area and pro¬ vide practically identical services. Some of these townships have be¬ come almost entirely urban areas, while others remain predominantly rural in their population and atti¬ tudes. Basically there is no dis- cernable difference in the services provided by the two types. Both are interested primarily in the building and maintenance of roads, the dis¬ tribution of poor relief, and the i assessing of property for tax pur¬ poses., In addition to these basic interests there are other minor func¬ tions which vary from township to township. a Table I. — Population Characteristics York, Naperville and Winfield Town¬ ships, DuPage County, Illinois Township Total Population Rural % Urban % York .... 29,161 7.1 92.9 Naperville 3,616 28.9 71.1 Winfield . 6,857 42.8 57.2 (a) Source: U. S. Bureau of Census; 1940 Census, Vol. I, Population, p. 299. The primary function of the town¬ ship is to act as an administrative district for the county and state governments. The county depends upon the township for an accurate assessment of property. This assess¬ ment is used as the basis for deter¬ mining all tax rates within the county. In addition to providing the county with an assessment, the township is used as an election dis¬ trict for all county, state, and na¬ tional elections. The relations of the township are not confined to the county but ex¬ tend as far as the state government and even, in some instances, as far as the national government. This latter extension of relations deals primarily with roads while the for¬ mer deals with both roads and poor relief. There are a great many functions provided by statute which the town¬ ship is supposed to perform. Some of these are: repairing roads and bridges; maintenance of town cem¬ eteries; care of the poor and indi¬ gent ; preventing growth and spread of noxious weeds; promoting plant¬ ing and cultivation of trees along highways ; making rules and regula¬ tions concerning fences ; preventing the running at large of cattle, horses, mules, asses, swine, sheep and goats; establishing and maintaining pounds ; repairing and regulation of public wells, etc.1 Today, about the only functions actually carried on by the township are the maintenance of roads, the care of the poor and indigent, and the assessment of property. The other functions, while 1 Illinois Revised Statutes, 1945. 92 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions still in the statutes, are either obso¬ lete or simply ignored. The affairs of the township are administered by elected township officers, each of whom attends to the duties assigned him by law and co¬ operates with the other officers when it is necessary. The supervisor of the township is the general adminis¬ trative head and also treasurer. He is, in addition, a member of the county board and ex-officio overseer of the poor. The other elective offi¬ cers of the township are the town¬ ship clerk, assessor, highway com¬ missioner, and justices of the peace. A board of auditors composed of certain of these town officers is estab¬ lished to examine the township accounts. Most of the elected officers are paid on a per diem basis. The per diem rate is set by state statute. The supervisor is eligible to receive two separate payments; a per diem as supervisor and a salary as over¬ seer of the poor. The necessary funds for the oper¬ ation of the township are appropri¬ ated by the voters at the annual town meeting. The township budget is the financial plan for operating the township during the fiscal year. The official budget is drawn up by a budget committee, usually the board of town auditors, sometime prior to the time set by law for the town meeting. At least one public hearing is held on this budget prior to final action by the people at the town meeting. Notice of the hearing is given one week prior to the time set. This public hearing is often called for one hour prior to the town meet¬ ing. Because of this practice there is little real opportunity for an in¬ terested citizen to bring any effective protest concerning the budget. At the meeting copies of the budget are not available for examination and when it is read by the town clerk, as required by law, it is frequently read so rapidly that it is impossible to obtain adequate notes. After the budget is read, there is opportunity for the town’s people to ask ques¬ tions, or to propose amendments to the budget. Questions are seldom asked or amendments proposed, for the people present usually do not know enough about the budget to ask questions. If any citizen or group of citizens did wish to make a change, it would be illegal for them to propose an alternate budget. The only recourse that the citizens have is to amend the official budget. This method allows the revision of specific items, but a general revision by this procedure is practically im¬ possible. After opportunity for discussion and amendment the proposed budg¬ et is put to a vote. It takes only a simple majority of the voters pres¬ ent to pass the budget. This vote must either accept or reject the budget as a whole. If the voters present fail to approve a budget there can be no legal expenditure of any funds by the township officers. If the budget is accepted, there must also be voted a levy authorizing the procurement of the funds necessary to execute the budget, unless there is a sufficient balance left on hand from the previous year. The argument most frequently advanced in support of township government is that it gives the peo¬ ple a chance to exercise direct de¬ mocracy — that the people have an opportunity to come together once a year and either approve or disap¬ prove of their elected officers’ ac¬ tions. This is certainly in accord with the very best democratic tradi¬ tions of our country and in the past the town meeting was one of the political highlights of the year. However, today in actual practice, the people either are not interested in their democratic privileges or they do not feel close to their town¬ ship government. An average of Township Government in Du Page County 93 Table II. — Attendance at Town Meetings Du Page County, April 1947 Township Number of Registered Voters Attendance Per Cent Attending Meeting Addison . 6,796 17 0.25 Bloomingdale . bl ,704 (c) (c) Downers Grove . 16,742 4,841 23 0.14 Lisle . 28 0.58 Milton . 12,176 50 0.41 Nap^rvillp ^ . 2,222 775 16 0.72 Wayne . 12 1.55 Winfield . 4,522 15 0.33 York . 19,830 194 0.98 Totals . v67,904 355 0.51 (a) Source: Natale, Joseph, Local Government in Du Page County, Illinois, p. 184. (b) Bloomingdale not included in total. (c) Data not available. less than one-half of one percent of the registered voters in Du Page County attended the meetings in 1947. From the incomplete figures available for 1948 it appears that this percentage will be even lower. The budget adopted by the town meeting generally provides for two separate funds: the town fund and the poor relief fund. The town fund includes such items as compensa¬ tion for elected officials, election expenses, and all other general administrative expenses of the town¬ ship. The poor relief fund includes the funds necessary for the relief of the poor and for its administration, except the compensation for the overseer of the poor which is in¬ cluded in the town fund. Funds for the maintenance of roads are obtained through a sep¬ arate budget which is adopted in an entirely different manner. This budget is drawn up by the highway commissioner and then presented to the town clerk who calls a special road and bridge hearing. This hear¬ ing is set for some time other than that of the town meeting. A favorite time is 10 :15 on a weekday morning, thus making it inconvenient for per¬ sons to attend. Even if interested citizens should attend the hearing there is no way of forcing the com¬ missioner to amend his proposed budget. Since the road and bridge fund accounts for such a large proportion of the total town expenditure, 44.2 percent, it would seem reasonable Du Page County, Illinois, p. 43. 94 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions that it be drafted by a more repre¬ sentative group. In addition it would seem only natural that it should be acted upon at the town meeting when there are apt to be at least a few voters present. The full authority to contract bills and authorize specific expenditures lies with the township supervisor. The only exception to this is in the case of the road and bridge fund where the highway commissioner has this contractual authority. Thus the supervisor is the possessor of a large amount of financial authority. The electors of the township approve a budget at the annual town meeting, but once the appropriation is made, the actual expenditure of the money is left in the hands of one man. Theoretically there are checks upon the supervisor’s fiscal activity. One check is found in the board of town auditors, which has authority to examine and audit all charges against the township and to examine the accounts of the overseer of the poor. It will be noticed, however, that while authority is given to audit the charges against the town, there is no authority for this board to audit the township or poor relief accounts; they may merely examine them. Consider the composition of this board. It consists of the super¬ visor, whose accounts are being re¬ viewed, the township clerk and the justices of the peace. All of these are elected officials. There is not one outside impartial member on the board nor one representative of the taxpayers. It can easily be seen that the probability of a good sound re¬ view is certainly open to question. The other check is in the town clerk. The town clerk must countersign all warrants issued by the supervisor. By this counter signature the clerk is supposed to attest to the validity of the warant, but there is some question that he really has the au¬ thority to hold up an expenditure 1 authorized by the supervisor. We have noted earlier a rather J- lengthy list of duties which have [ been given by statute to the town- i ship. We also saw that of this I lengthy list only three or four are \ actually performed. This discrep- j ancy is the result of a change of em- i phasis on the part of township gov- l ernment. In the early history of the 1 state, many of them functions were a real necessity and were actively j administered. For example, the law ! provides that the township shall see that all fences bordering township ; roads are mended. This, in the days when farmers in the area kept large } amounts of live stock was very im- 1 portant. Today, with many of the townships predominantly urban, this practice has fallen into disuse. In another instance the law pro- i vides that the township shall repay farmers for any damage to livestock caused by wild dogs. To combat this menace the office of town pound- * master was created. The pound- f master was charged with the duty j of apprehending any and all wild i dogs found on town property. Today, the danger to livestock from wild 1 dogs is almost non-existent in Du Page County. However, in many of the townships the office of pound- i master is still a thriving institution with an annual appropriation for salary and expenses. Thus here and in many other instances, there is ample opportunity for the elected official to provide himself with extra funds or to provide patronage for his faithful friends. On the other side of the picture we have instances where these anti- quated township statutes have ere- a ted hardship. For example, take 1 the matter of highways. In 1920 York Township had some 40 miles of roads to maintain. The tax rates were set to produce ample funds for Township Government in DuPage County 95 this operation. Today, this same township has 80 miles of roads to maintain. Thus the number of miles of road has been doubled. In addi¬ tion to the doubled mileage, the type of road which must be provided for modern transportation is much more expensive. Yet, with all this increase in operating costs, there has been no corresponding increase in the tax revenue to provide the necessary additional funds. The authority for this increase in revenue would have to come from the state legislature. In contrast, Naperville Township has increased its roads from 40 miles in 1920 to only 44 miles today, so that its problem is not nearly so vexing. When we come to examine specific budgets and specific expenditures we find many things that make our task difficult. In the first place, there is no uniform system of book¬ keeping or accounting among the townships. This makes the matter of interpretation difficult unless the supervisor is willing to explain his particular system. Then when com¬ parisons are attempted there is fur¬ ther difficulty in placing expendi¬ tures under comparable headings, since expenditures for identical items may be listed under widely different titles. The first thing noted in an exam¬ ination of township finances is the varying tax rates. Furthermore, the township levies have steadily in¬ creased in many instances. In Na¬ perville Township for example, the levies per thousand dollars valuation increased from sixty three cents in 1942-43 to one dollar in 1946-47. In Addison Township the levies in¬ creased from thirty-eight cents in 1942-43 to ninety cents per thou¬ sand in 1946-47. There seems to be no good reason for this difference in rates since the services performed are similar in all the townships and are similar from year to year. Let us examine now, the expendi¬ tures of two typical townships. Two townships were chosen which, from a general overall view, appeared to be representative of the urban and rural townships of the county. Na¬ perville Township was chosen to represent the rural. Its population is in large part rural, there being only half of one incorporated village within the township limits. It also has the reputation of possessing a good, clean township government whose officials are businessmen of high reputation in the community. In contrast, the urban township of York was chosen. York township government is known to be in the hands of professional politicians who obtain their livelihood from their political jobs. In 1947-48 Naperville Township spent $4,792.61 on its town fund while York Township spent $33,- Table III. — Township Levies Per Thousand Dollars Valuation 1942 to 1947 Township 1942-43 1943-44 1944-45 1945-46 1946-47 Addison . SO. 38 SI. 05 SI. 07 SO. 66 SO. 90 Lisle . 1.38 1.29 1.26 1.22 1.40 Naperville . 0.63 0.57 0.95 0.97 1.00 York . 0.56 0.57 0.45 0.56 0.50 (a) Source: J. P. Natale, Local Government in Du Page County , Illinois, p. 41. 96 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions NAPERVILLE Fig. 2. — How the town fund tax dollar wa 1947-1948. Source: YORK , spent in Naperville and York townships, Township records. 068.23. Thus it is readily seen that the expenses of the nrban township are far greater than those of the rural. Yet the services performed by the two units are identical. A look at the individual items of expense reveals that in Naperville 90.6 percent of the total town fund expenditure went for compensation of elected town officers. In York Township only 45.9 percent of the total town fund went for such pur¬ poses. The elected officials of the townships receive compensation for regular and special services. The amount of this compensation is set by state statute. The seemingly large expenditure for compensation in Naperville is explained by the fact that the state sets the rate at which officers must be paid. This rate of compensation thus becomes a fixed overhead cost which must be carried by all townships, irrespective of their size, and the smaller the population the larger the percentage of total expenditure this fixed over¬ head becomes. But look at the other items of ex¬ penditure in the town fund. Exclu- Table IV. — Town Fund York and Naperville Townships 1947-48 Purpose Naperville York Total . $4,792.61 $33,058.23 (^otyvopti ti on of town officers . 4,352.15 15,184.12 FI potions . 217.00 2,588.90 Town offipprs PYOPnsp . 193.46 10,654.26 Tntoroot on o n ti pin!) t i on warrants . 596.49 Miscellaneous services . 30.00 4,034.46 (a) Source : Township records, Naperville and York Townships. Township Government in Du Page County 97 Table V. — Poor Relief Fund Expenditures by Purpose York and Naperville Townships 1947-48 Purpose Naperville York Total . $2,476.25 $15,270.08 Home relief . 1,058.96 540.61 876.68 7,944.69 3,008.03 1,330.12 170.42 110.00 2,706.82 Hospitalization . County home . Transient pauper relief . Burial of poor . Administrative costs . (a) Source : Township records, Naperville and York Townships. sive of the officers compensation, it costs the citizens of Naperville prac¬ tically nothing to run their township government. Take for example, the “town officers’ expense.” This ac¬ count includes such things as sta¬ tionery and office supplies, printing and publishing, office help, rent, office equipment, travel and trans¬ portation. All of these things cost the citizens of Naperville slightly under two hundred dollars or 4 per¬ cent of the total expenditure for the year. In York township the bill was nearly eleven thousand dollars or 32 percent of the total expenditure for the year. Even allowing for the larger population in York, this seems to be greatly out of propor¬ tion. A brief glance at the poor relief fund (Table V) will reveal the same situation. Here, where we are able to get an exact administra¬ tive cost exclusive of compensation to the overseer of the poor, we find that it cost the citizens of Naperville exactly nothing to administer their poor fund while the people of York had to pay twenty-seven hundred dollars. Now that we have seen some of the expenditures for our two townships let us look at the per capita costs of these two units. As we do this, keep in mind the fact that Naperville is run by businessmen who are not politicians in the usual sense of the word, but are men of high business standing who have the good of the community at heart. On the other hand, York is run by professional political machines. The first thing we note is that the total per capita cost of township government, ex¬ clusive of roads, is two dollars per person in Naperville while only one dollar and sixty-five cents in York. (See figure 3 on page 98.) Con¬ sidering conditions as they are known to exist, this does not seem logical. However, when we break these total figures down we once again see that it is the compensation of town officials which forces the figures out of line. If we look at the town fund expenditures, exclusive of compensation, we find the per capita cost in Naperville to be twelve cents as against sixty-one cents for York. This gives us a much truer picture of the conditions as they actually are. If we wish to check our figures we may use as a basis of comparison $1000 valuation of assessed prop¬ erty. When we do this, we find that our results are similar. They once more point to the high per capita 98 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Total per capita cost in dollars Fig. 3. — Per capita cost of government, Naperville and York townships, 1947-1948. Source: Township records. costs of officers compensation in Na¬ perville and the exceedingly high running expense in York. Briefly, let ns consider the ad¬ ministrative costs as compared to the value received for the expenditure of the poor relief fund. In York Township the total expenditures for poor relief were $15,270.08. To ad¬ minister this money it cost the tax payers $5,587.52. Thus, in order to get one dollar into the hands of the poor it cost thirty six and one-lialf cents. Slightly more than one third of the entire poor relief fund went for purposes of administration. In contrast look at Naperville. Here $2,476.25 was spent for relief and there were no administrative costs. Thus the tax payers received 100 percent value for their tax dol¬ lars. This is quite a contrast. You may well wonder how Naperville reached this state of perfection. You will remember that the town supervisor also serves ex-officio as overseer of the poor. In Naperville the super¬ visor drew his state allowed compen¬ sation. However, he refused to draw any compensation as overseer of the poor since he felt that the remunera- Table VI.— Pee Capita and Per $1000 Valuation Costs Town Fund a Naperville and York Townships 1947-48 Purpose Per Capita ’ j Per $1000 Valuation* Naperville York Naperville York Total . $1.32 | | $1 . 13| $32.20, $23.40 Compensation of town officers. . . Elections . Town officers expense . . Interest on anticipation war- rants . Miscellaneous services . 1.20 . 03 .05 .01 .12 .52 .09 .36 .02 .14 .61 l- 30.00 $1.00 1.00 .20 2.20 1 10.00 $2 . 00 8.00 .40 3.00 13.40 1 (a) Source: Township records, Napeiville (b) Note: Population of Naperville . Valuation of Nape.ville . Population of York . Valuation of York . and York Townships. . 3, 616 _ $11.3ol.7o3 . 29,161 . . .$132,899, 2. A Township Government in Du Page County 99 Percent Y/C\ Administrative cost I _ I Value received Fig. 4. — Percentage of administrative costs compared to value received, Naperville and York townships poor relief fund, 1947-1948. Source: Township records. tion received as supervisor was more than ample pay for both offices. At the same time this man carried on his duties as overseer in his own store thus saving the township any overhead expense for office costs. Nevertheless the fact remains that the per capita cost of township gov¬ ernment in Naperville is exceedingly high. From these facts there is but one conclusion to be drawn. This is that the township unit of govern¬ ment cannot perform economically in such a small area and with such a small population. Township ex¬ penses are disproportionately high for overhead and low for services re¬ ceived. Compensation accounts for from one-half to nine-tenths of the townships’ general expenditures. It has been shown in other studies of Illinois that, at a comparable service level, per capita costs of government were more than twice as great in counties with townships than in counties without townships,2 and that “township organization adds to the cost of government without the addition of a commensurate serv¬ ice.”3 There is no government func¬ tion performed by townships that other units of government could not perform more effectively. There is almost universal agree¬ ment that abolition of the midwest townships would make for better rural government. The Committee on County Government of the Na¬ tional Municipal League, said : “The objections to the retention of township government are many. There is evidence that the township places a burden on the taxpayer for which there is no commensurate return in services rendered. The major functions of gov¬ ernment essential in the rural areas cannot be maintained economically and efficiently by township units. ... In the administration of justice, health and welfare, highways, and finance, the township is no longer a satisfactory unit. . . . Finally, the township is an arti¬ ficial area which does not conform necessarily to trade or community areas.”4 The brief study herein presented merely adds further evidence to the support of this contention. 2 Hicks, H. S., County Organization vs. Toivnsliip Organization, 1932, (Mimeographed pamphlet). 8 Hunter, M. H., Costs of Township and County Government in Illinois, University of Illinois Bul¬ letin No. 45, 1933, Vol. XXX, No. 18, p. 31. 4 Bromage, A. W., Recommendations on Township Government (Report No. 3 of the Committee on County Government of the National Municipal League), Supplement to National Municipal Re¬ view, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, February, 1934, p. 139. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 41, 1948 101 ZOOLOGY A SUMMARY OF STUDIES ON THE AMBUSH BUG PHYMATA PENNSYLVANICA AMERICANA MELIN (Phymatidae Hemiptera) w. v. BALDUF University of Illinois, Urloana Method of Study . — The data on the life cycle and natural foods were largely obtained in the field, whereas those regarding variations in the in¬ stars and the weight patterns were secured from captives. Eggs, laid by females swept from wild flowers in September-October and subse¬ quently kept under natural condi¬ tions out-of-doors, yielded nymphs in January after exposure for 10 days to 80° Fahrenheit and about 80 per¬ cent relative humidity. Severe freez¬ ing and wetting proved necessary to produce hatching. The resulting nymphs and adults were kept indi¬ vidually in shell vials, each vial con¬ taining a strip of white blotting paper for support. The bugs were fed on quantitatively varied rations of adult Drosophila melanogaster L. and Musca domestica L. Recognition and Life Cycle. — The adult is about 2/5 inch long and colored yellow, brown, and green, with a black band across the repos¬ ing wings. Being phlegmatic in temperament, it is readily weighed on the open pan of the balance. Adults may be found from July to October by searching the fresh flow¬ ers of various plants, especially mountain mint and Compositae. During this period the eggs are laid shingle-fashion in masses and cov¬ ered with a golden flocculent matrix. I have not succeeded in finding the eggs in nature, but the females read¬ ily deposit them in the vials. Most adults die before November, leaving the eggs to bring the species through the winter. The nymphs hatch in May- June and complete their five instars by July. A feature of spe¬ cial interest is the delay in hatch¬ ing. Although the embryo develops within the first 10 days after ovi- position, it remains unhatched or dormant for nine months or less. Were this prolonged diapause elim¬ inated, the species might realize two generations, instead of one, in a year. Food and Feeding. — The adult may readily be seen sitting amid the floral parts with its anterior end elevated and alert to capture other insects that visit flowers to feed on nectar, pollen, petals and reproduc¬ tive structures. As the flowers age and no longer attract its insect food, the bug flies to fresh flowers and more adequate prey. No proof was found that the predator chooses flowers whose colors tend to conceal it. The food insects present are ob¬ viously the factors that induce the bug to remain in the flower. Both the nymphs and the adults are doubtlessly the most efficient predatory terrestrial Hemiptera in our area. They employ their extra¬ ordinary fore legs to seize their vic¬ tims by the mouthparts, antennae, legs or even the wings. So powerful is Phymata that it can hold with one front leg a fluttering moth of superi¬ or size, and, in not a few cases, is found holding two captives simul¬ taneously. However, the adult male 102 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions is decidedly less voracious than the somewhat larger, paler female, not only feeding less frequently but also, on the average, on smaller forms of insects. Relatively small captives are quickly inactivated and their bodies observably enlarged as Phymata pumps a fluid into them through its piercing-sucking mouthparts. This fluid, presumably of a salivary sort, seems both to deaden the victim and to liquefy the non-chitinous viscera. Subsequently this dissolved matter is sucked out, leaving the discarded small prey very light in weight and the abdominal segments telescoped sharply inward. In three years of field work, I re¬ moved 832 individual insects from the grasp of adult Phymata. These represented 195 species, 131 genera, 54 families and seven orders. Dis¬ tributed taxonomically, the number of individuals taken were: Coleop- tera, 82; Hymenoptera, 216; Lepi- doptera, 134 ; Diptera, 346 ; Neurop- tera, 1 ; Hemiptera, 52 ; and Homop- tera, 1. All the victims were adults, excepting one small geometrid loop- er and three hemipterous nymphs of the families Miridae, Nabidae, and Pentatomidae. Diet in Relation to Performance. — The relation between vital per¬ formance and quantity of food taken was studied by setting up series of 10 or 20 bugs in shell vials and pro¬ viding varying numbers of Droso¬ phila and Musca. Even the nymphs of the first instar quite readily cap¬ ture the larger Drosophila. In some series Musca was supplied to the nymphs in the fourth and fifth instars and the adults. The biological effects of these differen¬ tiated diets proved to be measurable in the following terms : percentage of survival among the nymphs, length of the instars, rate of growth ; weight, size, longevity, extent of sexual activity, and egg-production, among the adults. Six series of in¬ dividuals were maintained on dietar¬ ies graduated from the minimum barely adequate to bring a few nymphs to adulthood, to an opti¬ mum which yielded biological re¬ sults comparable with the normal performance of bugs in nature. For example, individuals that sucked out only 66 Drosophila required 187 days to complete the five instars, whereas nymphs that utilized the equivalent of 541 Drosophila grew to adulthood in an average of 50 days. Only one nymph of the low- fed series became adult, — a female, that lived but 15 days, weighed 0.0089 gram, and produced no trace of eggs. By contrast, 15 individuals of the above best-fed series became adults which lived an average of 68 days each ; the pairs coupled and mated freely and the seven females among them produced slightly more than 100 eggs each and averaged 0.0602 gram in weight. The data from the intermediate series showed that a female must ingest about 120 Drosophila in the nymphal stage and about 225 during adult life in order to attain that state of vigor necessary to the inception of sexual activity and oogenesis. As the diet¬ ary was increased, the nymphal life became proportionately shorter, adulthood longer and the productive functions, weight and size greater. A separate report was published that pertained to the effect of the varied diets on the duration of the instars. When the nymphs were supplied all the flies they can utilize in each and every instar, i.e. fed at a near-optimum rate, the five instars lasted the following average number of days: 7.40, 5.50, 5.60, 7.00 and 10.90 respectively, or a total of 36.40 days. These values, expressed in terms of the percent of time each instar represents in the entire Phymata Pennsylvanica Americana Melin 103 nymphal life, were : 20.35, 15.11, 15.38, 19.23 and 29.95, respectively. It will be seen that the first and fourth instars are equal in duration, as are also the second and third, while the fifth required as many days as the second and third com¬ bined. The data for 13 other series show that any instar may be at¬ tenuated to various degrees by re¬ ducing the diet. However, not all instars in the life of any one individ¬ ual may be so prolonged. That is, the capacity to extend any instar decidedly beyond the usual length depends on the amount of food utili- ized in one or more previous instars. While the extreme of flexibility in duration was probably not demon¬ strated in this study, the ability to far exceed the usual duration is surprisingly great. For instance, one series of eleven low-fed individ¬ uals required an average of 138.19 days for the nymphal stage, and one female completed that stage in 185 days. It scarcely need be added that these starved bugs produced no eggs and had a brief adult life. Economic Status. — This attempt to evaluate the economic status of Phymata was based on the 832 in¬ sects I had previously taken from the predator in the field. It lead to the deduction that Phymata is about as beneficial as destructive to our welfare. However, the principal merit of the undertaking was dis¬ closure of the fact that determina¬ tion of economic status is highly speculative and inconclusive. This is so because estimation of the eco¬ nomic importance of a predator, and particularly of one known to include 195 species of insect prey in its dietary, involves numerous vari¬ ables and also much ignorance of the essential facts in the bionomics of the victimized species. Only a few instances need to be indicated to iso cal the nature of these variables: (1) Differentials in the economic contributions made by the adults and the larvae of a prey species ; in one stage, the victimized species may be beneficial as by pollination or through destruction of weeds, whereas in another stage it may be injurious; (2) a phytophagous stage may consume a variety of plants, some cultivated, some weeds; (3) the two or more generations which a prey species may have in a year can vary greatly in their impor¬ tance owing to differences in the plant food, prey or hosts available to be attacked in each season; (4) the amount of harm or good per¬ formed by a species varies from year to year and from locality to locality ; and finally, (5) one individual of a species may function in a friendly capacity, another in a destructive way, e. g. one bee pollenizes the flower of an apple, another a thistle. Estimates must therefore differ sharply from time to time and place to place, even granting that all the data were at hand for each situation. Weight Pattern. — The discovery that ambush bugs obtained in the field varied greatly in weight prompted this inquiry into the amount, nature and causes of changes in weight during the life¬ time of captive individuals. By weighing each daily throughout its nymphal and adult life, a body of data was secured which made pos¬ sible the following characterization of the weight pattern.” It was learned that the weight- growth curve of any one instar is essentially like that of any other when the individual is fed at the same relative rate throughout the nymphal life. This curve has the form of an attenuated capital S. The daily weights show that each instar exhibits two rather distinct phases, (1) a feeding-growing phase and (2) a molting phase. The first be- 104 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions g’ins when the new cnticle has set and the nymph resumes feeding, which activity had ceased with the inception of the second phase. In approximately the first three- fourths of the instar, feeding is in¬ tense, the intensity decreasing stead¬ ily however from day to day. As a consequence of such feeding, the weight rises sharply in the early days of the instar, some individuals displaying increases of 100 percent over the previous day. As the body seems to become saturated with wastes, feeding falls off and eventu¬ ally ceases, with the result that the weight curve slopes off in the hours preceding the molt. Upon molting, the weight drops still more and sharply, the loss being approxi¬ mately 10 percent of the pre-molt weight. Not less than 80 percent of this loss is traceable to the evapora¬ tion of fluids from the moist new cuticle, the rest to the exuviae. A state of comparative dessication is created by these losses, and it is ap¬ parent that this state stimulates the intensive feeding and sharp upswing of weight characteristic of the feed¬ ing-growing aspect of the instar. The amount of increase in weight in any instar depends on the quanti¬ ty of food ingested and on the sex of the bug, the females generally being heavier than the males. The average newly -hatched Phymata weighs about 0.0003 gram. At the end of the first instar, the average weight of 42 individuals had in¬ creased to 0.00094 gram, the ex¬ tremes of variation being 0.0007 and 0.0014 gram. Corresponding values for the other four instars were : sec¬ ond, average, 0.0022, extremes, 0.0014 and 0.0040; third, 0.0065, 0.0041 and 0.0092; fourth, 0.0158, 0.0095 and 0.0231; fifth, 0.0317, 0.0193 and 0.0477 gram. Investigators concerned with the phenomena of weight in the growing stages of insects have adopted the “growth quotient” as a convenient device to express the amount of net increase achieved in the several in- stars and the nymphal stage as a whole. The growth quotient is the value obtained by dividing the final weight by the initial weight irre¬ spective of sex and diet. The quo¬ tients for the five successive instars of 28 individuals were thus: first, average 2.75, extremes 1.7 and 5.3; second, 2.62, -1.7 and 3.8; third, 2.46, -1.7 and 3.2; fourth, 2.49, -1.8 and 3.2 ; fifth, 2.1, -1.5 and 2.6. In the course of the entire nymphal life, the 28 individuals doubled their weights an average of 107.7 times, extremes 64.0 and 157.0. However, this great spread in extremes is re¬ duced much when each sex is con¬ sidered by itself. The males multi¬ plied their weights an average of only 83.0 times as compared with 132.5 times for the females. The extremes for the males were 64.0 and 102.0, for the females 103.0 and 157.0. In other terms, the male nymphs gained an average of about 8000 percent, the females about 13,000 percent. From their study of the Egyptian mantis, Sphodromantis hioculata Burm., Przibram and Megusar re¬ ported that the nymphs doubled their weight in each instar. This pattern of increase has come to be known as Przibram ’s principle of doubling. Reference to the average quotients cited above will show that Phymata did not conform to this principle, varying largely upward from it, the variations in the growth quotients depending on sex and the quantity of food provided. It is of interest also that the quotients se¬ cured from weights of the exuviae of well-fed Phymata correspond fairly well with those from the weights of the living nymphs already given. Like the nymphs, the adults dis¬ play weights that vary greatly with sex" and diet. The males of all Phymata Pennsylvanica Americana Melin 105 dietary series varied from a low of 0.0185 gram to a high of 0.0391 gram, and the females from 0.0315 to 0.0628 gram. Almost without ex¬ ception, the adult weighs least on its first day when it has suffered its extreme reduction due to recent molting and has not yet resumed feeding. The peak weight is attain¬ ed at various time points in adult¬ hood. If the nymph was under-fed, the adult lives only a few days and experiences its maximum weight on the day of molting or soon there¬ after. Such adults are very short¬ lived. But the better- to optimally- fed adults achieve their maxima gen¬ erally on or after the 10th day and may approach or reach the peak re¬ peatedly afterwards. If fed at an adequate rate, the female maintains her maximum or near-maximum weight until the day of death. The principal factors causing fluctua¬ tions are ingestion and egestion, and, in the female, oogenesis and oviposi- tion. The weight pattern of well-fed adults embraces three fairly distinct phases, the first characterized by a slump in weight due to the losses peculiar to the final nymphal molt, the second by a sharp climb in weight that results from several days of intense feeding, and the third by its generally long horizon¬ tal plane interrupted by secondary ascents and descents arising from feeding, egestion, oogenesis and ovi- position. Because the males feed less voraciously and the bulk of their sexual products is relatively minute their weight curve in the third phase is- subject to a lesser degree of verti¬ cal fluctuation than that of the fe¬ males. How Much Food is Required to Grow a Bug ? — The first step in the approach to this question was to de¬ termine how many Drosophila the nymphs sucked out in each of the five instars. Second, since it is im¬ practical to weigh each fly just be¬ fore and immediately after Phymata consumes its contents, I adopted an alternate method of securing the weight of substance the nymphs in¬ gested. This method consisted simp¬ ly of weighing (a) hundreds of whole living Drosophila and (b) hundreds of flies emptied of their contents by Phymata, whereupon the average weight of (b) was sub¬ tracted from the average of (a), the difference representing the bulk of food substance available in the aver¬ age Drosophila. This value proved to be 0.0007643 gram. It was then multiplied by the number of Droso¬ phila utilized, the product represent¬ ing the approximate amount of food substance utilized by an individual in any instar. In the following report of results, only the data from the third, fourth, and fifth instars are included, this for the reason that the small nymphs in the first two instars lack the capa¬ city to ingest all the substance from a fly in one feeding. The relatively small amount required to complete these early instars was determined by estimation based on observations. Several general theories are indi¬ cated by the data. First, the amount of food required by an individual to complete any instar or the whole nymphal stage is clearly affected by the rate at which food is supplied. To illustrate, each of eight bugs kept on a low diet ingested an average of 0.01290 gram while completing their fourth instar in 20 days, whereas each of 10 bugs kept on a more lib¬ eral diet consumed 0.04761 gram while completing the same instar in only 7.5 days. The data for the third and fifth instars and the whole nymphal life show this same kind of differences between low and more liberal diets. Second, when the amount of raw food ingested is compared with the net increase in weight achieved in 106 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions any instar it is found that the major part of the food, or approximately three-fourths to four-fifths, is sub¬ sequently eliminated as gas, vapor or feces, probably largely the latter, and the remainder, or one-fourth to one-fifth, is converted into somewhat permanent bodily substance. Third, the under-fed nymphs seem to utilize their food somewhat more efficiently than do the individuals supplied with an amount of food more nearly adequate to realize the innate vital potentialities of the species. That is, the proportion of wastes to permanent bodily struc¬ tures is greater in well-fed than in low-fed nymphs. As an illustration, note that eight bugs ingested 0.00727 gram in the course of their 9.0-day third instar : of this amount, an average of 73.15 per cent was ex¬ pended, 26.85 percent converted into body. By contrast, 10 other bugs ingested 0.02063 gram during their third instar of 6.4 days : of this amount, 78.46 percent was eliminat¬ ed, 21.54 per cent converted into body. References Balduf, W. V. 1939. Food habits of Phy- mata pennsylvanica americana. Melin. Can. Ent., March, 1939, pp. 66-74. Balduf, W.V. 1940. Ambush bug studies. A Summary. Trans. Ill. St. Acad. Sci., Vol. 33, No. 2, 1940, pp. 206-208. Balduf, W. V. 1940. More Ambush bug prey records, Bui. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. Vol. 35, No. 5, 1940, pp. 161-169. Balduf, W. V. 1941. Life history of Phymata pennsylvanica americana Melin (Phymatidae, Hemiptera). Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. 34, No. 1, 1941, pp. 204-214. Balduf, W. V. 1941. Quantitative dietary studies on Phymata. Jour. Econ. Ent., Vol. 34, No. 5, 1941, pp. 614-620. Balduf, W. V. 1942. Evaluating the eco¬ nomic status of Phymata. Jour. Econ. Ent., Vol. 35, No. 3, 1942, pp. 445-448. Balduf, W. V. 1943. Third annotated list of Phymata prey records. Ohio Jour. Sci., Vol. 43, No. 2, 1943, pp. 74-78. Balduf, W. V. 1947. The weights of Phy¬ mata pennsylvanica americana. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. 40, No. 4, 1947, pp. 576-587. Balduf, W. V. 1948. The instars of Phy¬ mata and Sinea. Ohio Jour. Sci., 1948. Balduf, W. V. How much food is re¬ quired to grow a bug. This study has not been published to date. Przibram, H. and F. Megusar. 1912. Wachstumsmessungen am Sphodro- mantis bioculata. 1. Lange und Masze, Aufzucht IV, Arch. Entw.-Mech. 34, 1912, 680-741. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 41, 1948 107 THE ZOOPLANKTON OF CRAB ORCHARD LAKE DURING THE FIRST YEAR, 1941-1942 TROY C. DORRIS Quincy College, Quincy, Illinois Introduction The dam at Crab Orchard Lake, east of Carbondale, Illinois, was first closed May 10, 1940, and com¬ pletely filled February 1, 1942. W. B. Welch, of Southern Illinois Uni¬ versity made periodic collections of the plankton from April 5, 1941 until April 3, 1942. He reported on the phytoplankton (Welch, 1942). Through his kindness, his collections were made available for the present study of the zooplank¬ ton. Thanks are due him for this and other favors and help, and to W. M. Gersbacher, of Southern Illi¬ nois University, for his advice and help. Fluctuations in Abundance The great value of making fre¬ quent (weekly) collections during the spring, summer, and autumn is clearly shown in the accompanying graph. Several important fluctua¬ tions appear, which from their short duration could probably not have been discovered by collections at longer intervals. Notable fluctu¬ ations in abundance which occurred are described below. (1) There was a great increase in numbers after the spring rains of 1941 had caused the surround¬ ing lowlands to be flooded, and the subsequent aging of this new water. Large amounts of food ma¬ terials were made available in the form of dead and decayed plants qn the flooded lands. If the in¬ crease in numbers was actually caused by an increase of food sup¬ ply, this organic debris must have been the source, since the plankton algae, which might have been a food source, showed no correspond¬ ing increase (Welch, 1942). In¬ deed, the only species of algae pres¬ ent in any quantity was a species of Asterionella. The other forms did not become abundant until later. (2) A very sudden decline in population occurred after the early spring peak. This may have oc¬ curred as a result of the stagnation of the new water, and a decline in the amount of oxygen, or an in¬ crease in the amount of hydrogen sulfide, or a change in the pH. The decay of the organic debris in the water might have been the indirect cause of this decline through its effect on the factors mentioned. An examination of the data shows a very marked decrease in the num¬ bers of individuals of most species in deep water after the first of June, when the general decline appears. It is probably in the deeper waters that a serious change in the factors mentioned would have had the most effect. The increase and decrease de¬ scribed here are probably phenom¬ ena to be observed only in new lakes at the time of the first flood¬ ing, or other situations where a large amount of organic debris ac¬ cumulates, as in lake bottoms which are exposed during long droughts. Eddy (1934) studied Lake Decatur in 1926, the second year after for¬ mation, and his graphs show no such increase or decrease, nor did it appear in the third or fourth years. There is no indication of Organisms per Liter 108 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Zooplankton of Oral Orchard Lake 109 this change in the few data avail¬ able for the second year at Crab Orchard Lake. (3) There were two sharp in¬ creases in abundance in mid-spring and late spring. Both increases were immediately followed by sharp de¬ cline. (4) Beginning about the first of July, the population increased and was held at a generally high level until about the middle of August. (5) A midsummer increase in abundance occurred about the mid¬ dle of August. This increase was more pronounced than either of those of the mid or late spring, but was shorter in duration. It is not¬ able that this increase occurred in nearly all species on August 22. (6) The increase of August 22 was followed by a very sharp de¬ cline, which continued into the winter with late fall and early winter populations at a low level. Seasonal Development The present study is of value in that it shows the trend of invasion and development from the first for¬ mation of the lake. Even in this early stage, seasonal and perennial predominants appear. In general, the data presented in this paper seem to correspond closely to the perennial and seasonal groups re¬ ported by Eddy. In some cases, however, there are differences. Where these differences occur, it is assumed for the present that such differences are a result of the im¬ maturity of the successional devel¬ opment, and are not real. In Eddy’s collections, some forms appeared earlier than others, and frequently had a different seasonal develop¬ ment in the early than in the later stages. Eddy’s listing of perennial and seasonal predominants is adopted here, even though there are some apparent discrepancies. Perennials Difflugia spp. Eddy lists D. lobostoma, and D. globulosa, both of which are probably present here, but it was not possible to make a consistent separa¬ tion. A species is present which ap¬ pears to be D. urceolata — Protozoan Polyarthra trigla Ehr. — Rotifer Keratella cochlearis var macracantha (Gosse) — Rotifer Synchaeta spp. — Rotifer Bosmina longirostris (0. F. M.) — Clado- ceran Yernals Notholca sp. ( longispina Kellicott?) — Rotifer Cyclops bicuspidatus Claus — Copepod Cyclops spp. — Copepod Estivals Filinia sp. — Rotifer Conochiloides sp. — Rotifer Daphnia longispina (O. F. M.) — Clado- ceran Diaptomus spp. — Copepod Serotinals Pedalia mira (Hudson) — Rotifer Diaphanosoma leuchtenbergianum Fischer — Cladoceran Ceriodaphnia lacustris Birge — Clado¬ ceran Ceriodaphnia sp. May be Moina listed by Eddy — Cladoceran Ceratium hirundinella O.F.M. — Proto¬ zoan Incidentals Cathypna sp. — Rotifer Monostyla sp. — Rotifer Ratulus spp. — Rotifer Noteus quadricornis Ehr. — Rotifer Chydorus sphaericus (O.F.M.) — Clado¬ ceran Nauplius — Copepod Plankton Community Development Eddy (1934) considers the only permanent freshwater communities to be found in streams. These com¬ munities reach the highest develop¬ ment in physiographically mature streams. Impounded waters, as in 110 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions the lake at Crab Orchard, duplicate the conditions of a mature stream to an extent that causes the plank¬ ton development to resemble that of a mature stream. This appears to be true at least in the earlier stages, but in later stages, the impounded lake resembles an abandoned stream channel. As such, it forms a de¬ velopmental stage in a land com¬ munity. The newly formed lake probably represents a secondary bare area, since many of the later predomin¬ ant organisms probably are present in the original stream. Upon the sudden increase of space, at flood¬ ing, with the attendant increase of available food materials in the sub¬ merged land vegetation, the zoo¬ plankton experiences a sudden rapid increase, as suggested by the data here presented. Later, condi¬ tions become stable at a lower level of productivity, and new forms in¬ vade until the typical stream com¬ munity is developed. Eddy suggested that fresh water communities may show an associa- tional difference. He found species of Brachionus to be prevalent in the waters he studied in southern Wis¬ consin and northern and central Illinois, but lacking in southern waters. The data studied here seem to corroborate his suggestion, since species of Brachionus were very poorly represented for a short time in the summer only. However, the data are not extensive enough to warrant any further discussion here on that subject. Summary This study of the net zooplankton of Crab Orchard Lake during the first year of filling before overflow¬ ing the spillway found a list of 21 genera with at least as many or more species of zooplankters. Seasonal aspect is developed, with a liiemal society absent or poorly developed, a poorly defined estival society, and well developed vernal and serotinal societies. A possible indication of the associational nature of stream communities is shown in the absence or scarcity of species of Brachionus, which is a predominant organism in more northern waters. Bibliography Eddy, Samuel, 1934. A Study of Fresh Water Plankton Communities. Illinois Biological Monographs. Vol. XII, No. 4. Urbana, Illinois. Harking, Harry K. 1913. Synopsis of the Rotatoris. United States National Museum, Bulletin 81. Washington, Government Printing Office. Pratt, H. S. and others. 1935. A Manual of the Common Invertebrate Animals Exclusive of Insects. The Blakiston Co., Philadelphia. Ward, Henry B., and George C.Whipple. 1918. Fresh Water Biology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York. Welch, Walter B. 1942. A Study of the Phytoplankton of Crab Orchard Lake. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science. Vol. 35, No. 2. December. Springfield, Ill. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 41, 1948 111 A MOSQUITO SURVEY OF LAKE BLOOMINGTON* HAROLD D. MANUEL Illinois State Normal University, Normal A survey was started in Septem¬ ber 1946 to determine the species of mosquitoes and their possible breeding places at Lake Blooming¬ ton, Bloomington, Illinois. Although only occasional visits were made between the months of January 1947 and May 1947, a thorough investiga¬ tion was made during the fall and summer months of the year 1946- 1947. Adult and larval stations were es¬ tablished at fifteen locations around the lake which covered an area of about twenty square miles. Parts of this territory are used for sum¬ mer camps, and many permanent shore camps and homes have been erected around the lake. The banks and nearby shores are wooded, but farming areas surround the lake be¬ yond the wooded area. It is from the draining of these fields and two large streams, Money Creek and Hickory Creek, that the lake receives the greater portion of its water sup¬ ply. Generally the stations chosen were small streams which were formed by drainage ditches and ponds which were formed by back¬ water of the lake. Two of the sta¬ tions were located at the edge of the lake. Although these stations by no means exhausted all of the breeding places of such a large area, they were typical of all of the places where mosquitoes might be found. The wooded area was inspected for pos¬ sible breeding places of tree-hole species of mosquitoes. Culverts, bridges, and buildings used as dwell- * This is an excerpt from a thesis presented in partial fulfillment for degree of Master of Science in Education at Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois. The author wishes to acknowl¬ edge the counsel of Dr. Donald T. Ries under whom this phase of the work was done. ing places for campers and visitors to the lake were inspected for adult mosquitoes. Larvae and pupae were collected by dipping and were brought into the laboratory for identification and rearing. Larvae in the second and third instar stages and pupae were reared into adults. Fourth instar larvae were mounted and identified. The purpose of the survey under¬ taken at Lake Bloomington was to establish what species of mosquitoes were present in that area. Collec¬ tions were made to determine the relative annual abundance of the various species with information as to breeding places and the extent of the control of the problem. The larvae of Anopheles quadri- maculatus Say and Anopheles punc- tipennis (Say) were found in slow moving fresh water. At some sta¬ tions these larvae disappeared w7hen the water in the pools became stag¬ nant during the summer drought. This was believed due to the stagna¬ tion of the water because at the same inspection time larvae were found in moving water a short distance from the pool. Adults of A. quadri- maculatus were located abundantly in culverts near streams where the larvae were found. The adults were collected in larger numbers than the larvae of this species. Anopheles punctipennis has a va¬ riety of feeding places but prefers margins of pools and streams and edges of the lake. This species was found breeding at seven of the fif¬ teen stations inspected. Although in most cases the water was moving slowly where they were found, at two locations the water had become 112 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions stagnated. The larvae were feeding cn the algae which grows in the streams and ponds. Although this species was found in greater num¬ bers in the larval stages, the A. quadrimaculatus outnumbered this species in the adult collections. Other species which were found in the adult stage included Anopheles barberi Coquillet, Culex pipiens Linneaus, Culex restuans (Theo- baldi), Culex apicalis Adams, Culex salinarius Coquillet, Aedes vexans (Neigen), and Aedes canadensis (Theobaldi) . Of the genus Culex the species C. apicalis was found in greater numbers both in the adult and larval stages. This genus was found breed¬ ing in much the same waters as the Anophelines but at stations where water seemed most stagnant the Culicines persisted while the An¬ ophelines died out. The species C. o.picalis was found abundantly in all the stations inspected both in the fall of the year and summer. The larvae were more abundant than the adults. C. salinarius were found in very small numbers. This species was found in grassy pools. The lar¬ vae of this species were found at one station. C. restuans was found in the fall of the year in a pool that was littered with decaying leaves. Of the genus Aedes, A. vexans was found more abundantly than the other species. The principal breeding places were temporary ruts that had filled with rainfall and grassy lands that contained a temporary water supply. The larvae of A. canadensis were found rather sparsely in the fall of the year and only at one station in the spring. This was the earliest species collected in the larval stage. The spring of 1947 was unseasonably cold thus limiting the development of other species. During a warm period in April this species was found in a grassy area where pools had formed from recent rainfall. The pools were small, but many larvae were present. There has been no attempt in this survey to make a complete study of the mosquito problem at Lake Bloomington, since there was in¬ sufficient time to apply to the many problems to be solved. Due to late¬ ness in starting the problem, the sur¬ vey is incomplete for the month of August and nearly so for the month of September; thus leaving without inspection the two months in which the incidence of mosquitoes is high¬ est. Tables were made giving a count of the relative abundance, and can be used as evidence of the pre¬ dominance of different species. Only those which were brought into the laboratory for identification were recorded. A list of the larvae collected in the order of their abundance : Anopheles punctipennis Culex apicalis Aedes vexans Anopheles quadrimaculatus Aedes canadensis Culex pipiens Culex restuans Culex salinarius A list of the female and adult in order of their abundance : Anopheles quadrimaculatus Anopheles punctipennis Culex apicalis Anopheles barberi Culex restuans Culex pipiens Culex salinarius Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 41, 1948 113 SEX AND THE ALTITUDE OF FLIGHT IN CYCLOCEPHALA ( Coleoptera : Searalmeidae ) 1 GARLAND T. RIEGEL University of Illinois , Urbana Several years ago (1941) I pub¬ lished in these Transactions a short discussion of the two beetles, Cyclo- cephala immaculata (Oliv.)2 and C. borealis Arrow, as they occurred one year at Urbana. I had found that these insects were attracted to light traps in the ratio of 10.3 females to 1 male. This was just the reverse of the situation reported by Neis- wander (1938) in Ohio, who had worked with borealis and found that, over the season, 7 males appeared in his traps to 1 female. Unfortunately, neither paper gave the height of the light traps from the ground. My traps were suspended from telephone poles over the tops of apple trees at a height of 10 to 12 feet. In correspondence Neiswander informed me that his traps had been operated at a height of about 5 feet, and although his traps were rather low, on occasion he did get more females than males in a single night’s collection, but that the sex ratio in recent years would probably run even higher than 7 males to 1 female. It may be that the occa¬ sional preponderance of females at the lower levels is due to a weather factor, somewhat similar to that ob¬ served by Wellington (1944) in the case of Culex. 1 Contributions from the Entomological Labora¬ tories of the University of Illinois, No. 284. Pub¬ lished by permission of the Graduate College. I wish to thank M. W. Sanderson, Illinois Natural History Survey, for generous permission to use his unpublished data, and W. R. Horsfall, Univer¬ sity of Illinois, for various suggestions. 2 It appears that it may be necessary to call this species C. tenuicutis (Casey), as the true immacu¬ lata is said to be confined to the West Indies (see Arrow, 1947). Also in 1941 there appeared the study by Johnson of his work in Connecticut with C. borealis. John¬ son, who stated that his traps were placed directly on the ground, found that the ratio of the sexes was 272.6 males to 1 female. He gave a de¬ scription of the mating habits of the beetles, pointing out that mating takes place at dusk or at night, on or near the ground shortly after emergence from the soil. Hayes (1918) in describing the mating of immaculata said that it ‘ ‘ takes place in the daytime [dusk?], and in life- history cages was several times ob¬ served on the surface of the soil.” Ritcher (1944) has stated that the life cycle and biology of the two species are similar. M. W. Sanderson made light trap collections at Fayetteville, Arkansas, in 1940, 1941 and 1942. His trap was hung between 7 and 8 feet high. He kept a record of all Cyclo- cephala, males and females separ¬ ately, that were taken each night. The species of Cyclocephala collected was imm,aculata (with a very few robusta Lee.). In 1940 he operated the trap from June 19 to August 29 and took Cyclocephala between June 19 and August 17. In 1941, the only complete season Dr. Sanderson op¬ erated the trap, the operating dates were from April 11 to October 31 inclusive and Cyclocephala appear¬ ed from June 6 to October 1. During 1942 the trap was on from April 4 to August 28, and the beetles were taken between June 8 and August 19. In 1940 the sex ratio was 4.96 114 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions males to 1 female, in 1941 it was 3.01 males to 1 female, and in 1942 the ratio was 2.37 males to 1 female. Only the ratio for the complete sea¬ son of 1941 is shown in the tabula¬ tion below. When considered in relation to the elevation of the traps from the ground, these apparently divergent observations on the sex ratio of Cy- clocephala in four localities indicate that there is a flight stratification of the sexes. Thus we have a nice correlation between the height of the light trap and the ratio of males to females taken : Place Trap above ground (in feet) Ratio of sexes Males Females Conn.. . . . 1 272 to 1 Ohio . 5 7 to 1 Ark . 7-8 3 to 1 Ill . 10-12 1 to 10 It seems from what we know of the habits of these insects that the males begin emerging from the soil in advance of the females. Mating takes place as soon as the females appear near, at, or just above the surface of the ground. It may be that the males ordinarily restrict their flight to within a few feet of the ground in their search for the females, as Johnson (op. cit.) has reported that the males “ usually fly from 1 to 2 feet above the ground,” and also that the males seem more active in the mating behavior. After mating it may be that the females become more active and fly higher in a sort of dispersal flight. As the adults are believed not to feed, it could hardly be a flight to find food. I have checked many of the females taken at the 10-12 foot level, and all were found to be carrying eggs. It is quite apparent that there is the likelihood of misleading results in the use of light traps for checking on the difference between sexes in altitude of flight where the species is strongly attracted to artificial light. We do not know that the two sexes are attracted equally. Hayes (1925) has noted that, in a related subfami¬ ly, the males of Phyllophaga are commonly considered to be more abundant at lights than the females. In his study this was found to be true in 19 species, while in 3 species the females were more common at lights than the males. Further, if the sexes were equally attracted to lights, and if there was a stratifica¬ tion in the flight of the sexes, the in¬ fluence of light traps would upset the stratification to a greater or les¬ ser extent. On the other hand we cannot ignore the distinct differ¬ ences between these four Cyclo- cephala studies which were based on hundreds of specimens trapped. We know little about how far these beetles can be attracted by a light. It may be only a short distance, and they may come into the effective range of the light in a hit or miss manner during a somewhat aimless flight. To summarize, on the basis of four studies involving the use of light traps, there is evidence that (1) male Cyclocephala beetles tend to remain near the ground, while (2) the females tend to fly at a higher level, and (3) are probably not at¬ tracted to artificial light until some time after mating. Literature Cited Arrow, G. J. 1947. A few notes on West Indian dynastine beetles and descriptions of two new species. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 14 (111): 221-224. Hayes. W. P. 1918. Studies on the life- history of two Kansas Scarabaeidae (Coleop.). Jour. Econ. Ent. 11 (1): 136-144. Flight in Cyclocephala 115 - - . 1925. A comparative study of the history of certain phytophagous scarabaeid beetles. Tech. Bui. Kans. Agr. Exp. Sta. 16, 146 pp., illus. Johnson, J. P. 1941. Cyclocephala ( Ochrosidia ) borealis in Connecticut. Jour. Agr. Res. 62 (2) : 79-86, illus. Neiswandek, C. R. 1938. The annual white grub, Ochrosidia villosa Burm., in Ohio lawns. Jour. Econ. Ent. 31 (3): 340-344, illus. Riegel, G. T. 1941. Relative abundance of Cyclocephala immaculata and C. borealis at Urbana. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 34 (2): 234-235, illus. Ritcher, P. 0. 1944. Dynastinae of North America with descriptions of the larvae and keys to genera and species (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) . Bui. Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta. 467, 56 pp., Lius. Wellington, W. G. 1944. The effect of ground temperature inversions upon the flight activity of Culex sp. (Dip- tera, Culicidae). Canad. Ent. 76 (11) : 223. , ERRATA “Additional Records of Illinois Mammals,” R. M. Wetzel, Trans. Illinois State Acad. Sci. 40:228-233, 1947: Lines 21 and 22, page 232, right hand column, under Neotoma floridana illinoensis Howell. Illinois Wood Rat, which read “ Alexander — Horseshoe Lake (Olive Branch), 1 INHS.” should read “ Union — Wolf Lake, 1 (skin only INHS).” 116 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions CLARENCE BONNELL 1863-1947 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 41, 1948 117 MEMORIALS CLARENCE BONNELL 1863-1947 Clarence Bonnell, educator, natur¬ alist, and author, was a native of Christian County, Illinois, and died June 21, 1947 at the age of 74 in Del Rio, Texas, of a heart attack while enroute home from the Rotary Inter¬ national Convention at Los Angeles. Mr. Bonnell was for 43 years the assistant principal and head of the science department of the high school at Harrisburg, Illinois. He was president of the Salina County Historical Society, was a director of the Southern Illinois Historical So¬ ciety, and a member of the Illinois State Academy of Science of which he was a past president. He was on the Board of Directors of the Friends of Our Native Landscape, 1927-30. He was also author of two books, “ Little Journeys from Har¬ risburg, ” and “The Illinois Ozarks. ’ 9 He was active in promoting State Parks in the southern part of Illi¬ nois and one of his greatest civic achievements was the long-time planning of a township park at Har¬ risburg which was built in an area made worthless as residential prop¬ erty by the subsidence of worked-out coal mines. This area, through his foresight, has been converted into a modern park with lagoons in the sunken areas and landscaped accord¬ ing to his proposals. A son, Dr. Ellis Bonnell, of San Francisco, a psychiatrist who served as a medical officer overseas in World War II, and a daughter, Miss Mildred Bonnell, a food economist, who has just served with the UNRRA for two years in China, sur¬ vive. George D. Fuller 118 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions TERENCE THOMAS QUIRKE 1886-1947 Memorials 119 TERENCE THOMAS QUIRKE 1886-1947 Terence Thomas Quirke was born at Brighton, Sussex, England on July 23, 1886. After secondary school training at Bancroft School, he came to the United States as a youth of 17 and attended the Uni¬ versity of North Dakota where he graduated in mining engineering in 1912. He did graduate work at the University of Chicago, serving as re¬ search assistant to Professor R. D. Salisbury and completing work for the doctorate degree in 1915. While ax Chicago Quirke started summer field work on the pre-Cambrian rocks of the Canadian shield for the Geological Survey of Canada, and continued in this field of research until 1931. Upon receiving his de¬ gree he accepted a position at the University of Minnesota, teaching structural, economic and field geol¬ ogy. In 1919 he was brought to the University of Illinois as chairman of the department of geology. He con¬ tinued at Illinois until his death, serving as departmental chairman until 1928. His teaching covered engineering geology and mineral- ogy, petrology, structural and eco¬ nomic geology. His Canadian research led to the discovery that the Huronian meta¬ morphosed sediments north of Lake Huron seemed to grade eastward into granites which had been called Laurentian and considered much older than the Huronian. This dis¬ covery not only altered the correla¬ tion which had been made within the Canadian shield but it also sug¬ gested that large masses of granite ii! ay form by a process of granitiza- tion of pre-existing rocks. This con¬ cept has had much additional sup¬ port in recent years and “the origin of granite” was the subject of a full day symposium before the Geologi¬ cal Society of America last Christ¬ mas. Other noteworthy contribu¬ tions by Quirke were the develop- men of an ingenious device for pro¬ jecting optic figures, and researches in various titanium compounds. After the Geological Survey of Canada discontinued the employ¬ ment of other than Canadian citi¬ zens in 1931, he took part in num¬ erous investigations of mineral pros¬ pects in Canada, Vermont, Cuba and the southeastern United States. He was the author of 34 books, bulletins, journal articles and geologic maps. He joined the Illinois Academy of Science in 1921, and presented five papers before the geology section at various meetings. He was chairman of the geology section in 1944-46 and a member of the research develop¬ ment committee. In addition he be¬ longed to several other professional geological and engineering societies. Quirke will be remembered for his great contributions to pre-Cambrian geology, for his interesting lectures, and for the high ethical standards which he impressed on the genera¬ tions of young men students who came under his direction. He was active until the day of his death, having taught classes in the morning and attended a Rotary Club lunch¬ eon at noon that day, August 19, 1947. Harold R. Wanless 120 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions THOMAS EDMUND SAVAGE 1866-1947 Memorials 121 THOMAS EDMUND SAVAGE 1866-1947 Thomas Edmund Savage was born on a farm near Salem, Iowa, in 1866. His education included attendance at Whittier College, Iowa Wesleyan 1 College, and the University of Iowa, where he received his bachelor’s de¬ gree in 1897 and master’s in 1899. He received the doctorate in geology i from Yale in 1909. He served as high school principal at Mt. Pleasant, Iowa from 1895 to 1896, and was professor of biology and geology at Western College from 1899 to 1903. He joined the staff of the Iowa Geological Survey in 1903, where he served as Assist¬ ant State Geologist until 1906. He came to the University of Illinois in 1906 as a member of the department of geology and for many years com¬ bined his teaching career with sum¬ mer work on the Illinois Geological Survey which had been reactivated 1 in 1905, only one year before Sav¬ age’s arrival in Illinois. Savage’s field of research was the sedimentary rocks of the Paleozoic ' era and the life record revealed by their contained fossils. He concen¬ trated especially on the rocks and faunas of the Silurian and Devonian periods, but also worked extensively on the Pennsylvanian. His classi¬ fication of the Silurian and Devo¬ nian rocks of Illinois and their cor¬ relation with other areas has been the standard for the Mississippi Val¬ ley for many years. Although his field work was largely in the Missis¬ sippi Valley, one notable exception was his study of the rocks along the I shores of Hudson and James Bays, Canada, in 1916. In addition to his special strati- i graphic and faunal studies Savage left a great monument to his career in reports on the areal geology of several counties in Iowa and at least ten quadrangles in Illinois with an aggregate area of nearly 2000 square miles. Savage joined the Illinois State Academy of Science during its first year and regularly participated in its programs for many years start¬ ing with the second annual meeting. Altogether he appeared on the pro¬ grams of 15 annual meetings. He was chairman of the geology section in 1931. He was also a member of many other professional geological societies and during his life pub¬ lished 69 papers. For 28 years of active service he taught courses in historical geology, paleontology and stratigraphy at the University of Illinois. Many of his students now occupy prominent places in the geological profession. During his later years he became interested in the geologists’ view of evolution and the relation between the evolutionary doctrine and religi¬ ous faith. He believed that the ac¬ ceptance of evolution was possible along with the retention of firm Christian faith and gave addresses and wrote articles on this theme. After his retirement in 1934 he was spared for 13 additional years dur¬ ing which his health permitted travel, community activity and geo¬ logic research. After a brief illness he died November 22, 1947. He will be remembered as a kindly and scholarly teacher and as one who contributed much to unravel¬ ling the complex threads of the earth’s past history. Harold R. Wanless warn Illinois Academy of Science Transactions JOHN VOSS 1895-1948 Memorials 123 JOHN VOSS 1895-1948 With the passing of John Voss, Peoria lost a beloved teacher and a good citizen, and Illinois lost a keen and hard working scientist. He was born in Peoria on December 24, 1895, and died at his home on March 20, 1948 after an illness of several months. His early education was in the public schools of Peoria and in the Bradley Institute, and afterwards at Knox College, Galesburg, where lie was graduated with the Degree of B. S. After teaching in Elgin, Roseville, and Arlington Heights, and serving for a short time in World War I, he returned to his native city and to its Manual Train¬ ing High School where he taught biology and mathematics from 1924 to 1934. He was appointed principal of Washington School in 1935, and in 1937 he became the principal of the Manual Training High School where he served until his fatal illness in 1947. Under his administration numerous improvements were made in this school. Continuing his formal education, largely during his summer vaca¬ tions, he entered the University of Chicago where he received the de¬ grees of M. S. in 1925, and Ph.D. in 1933. John Voss was a charter member of the Peoria Academy of Science, and gave it outstanding service from its organization in 1930. He served as Vice President, President, and as Director, and was elected to an hon¬ orary membership on February 10, 1948. He was a member of the Illinois Slate Academy of Science from 1928 and was a regular attendant at its meetings. He served as Treasurer from 1937 to 1947. As a scientist John Voss has made outstanding contributions to the past history of the vegetation of Illi¬ nois during the Yarmouth, Sanga¬ mon, and Early Wisconsin inter¬ glacial periods as revealed by his studies of the fossil pollen of the peat deposits in the state. A thoroughly trained plant ecolo¬ gist, John Voss carried his scientific spirit into his hobbies. He was a skillful photographer, and his flower photographs of the local flora have brought distinction to his communi¬ ty, and honorary mention in a na¬ tional competition. He was a Fel¬ low of the A.A.A.S, belonged to the Ecological Society of America, the Botanical Society of America, the Torrey Botanical Club, and was also a member of Sigma Xi. John Voss will be remembered by his hundreds of students as a belov¬ ed teacher, by his acquaintances as a dependable friend, and by his fel¬ low scientists for his modesty and his untiring pursuit of truth. Dr. Voss is survived by his widow, Marie, a son Eugene J. Voss of Peoria, two grand daughters, and two brothers, Henry and Fred of Peoria. George D. Fuller 124 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions ISABEL S. SMITH 1864-1948 Isabel S. Smith was born at Hills¬ dale, Michigan, on October 22, 1864, and died at Oberlin, Ohio on Janu¬ ary 19, 1948. After some years of teaching in high schools in Ohio, she became an Assistant in Botany at Oberlin Col¬ lege from which institution she was graduated with the degree of A. B. in 1901. In 1903 she went to Illinois College at Jacksonville, Illinois where she remained for 24 years, ad¬ vancing from the rank of Instructor in Biology to that of Professor of Botany and Dean of Women. Dur¬ ing her stay at Illinois College she found time for further study at the University of Chicago from which institution she was granted the de¬ grees of M. S. in 1905 and of Ph. D. in 1922. She was a charter member of the Illinois State Academy of Science in 1907 and soon became a life member. She was Vice-President of the Acad¬ emy in 1919. She was also a mem¬ ber of the Botanical Society of America. Upon her retirement from teach¬ ing at Illinois College in 1927, she made her home at Oberlin, Ohio, where she was made assistant Cura¬ tor of the Herbarium of Oberlin Col¬ lege, an activity that she maintained for many years. She was an efficient teacher, a close friend of all her students and a botanist who knew the plant life of the community in which she lived. George D. Fuller Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 41, 1948 125 ACADEMY BUSINESS SECRETARY’S REPORT ON THE BUSINESS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE For the Year May 3, 1947 to May 8, 1948 Compiled by Hurst H. Shoemaker, Secretary The loss to the academy in the death of Dr. John Yoss, Treasurer, on March 20, 1948 was great. Dr. W. W. Grimm, who had so generously assisted in the work during the illness of Dr. Voss, was appointed to serve out his term of office. The academy held its 41st annual meeting in Benton on May 7 and 8. There were 134 papers presented in the 10 senior and 2 collegiate sections to a record attendance of 500 persons. The annual banquet speaker on Friday eve¬ ning was Kenneth A. Reid, Executive Director of the Izaak Walton League, who spoke on “Land and Water Manage¬ ment in the Public Interest.” Eugene S. Richardson, Jr., of the Chicago Natural j History Museum, spoke Friday after¬ noon before 350 Junior Academy mem¬ bers on “Major Features of Earth Structure.” On Saturday more than 100 ' persons took part in biological, geologi¬ cal, industrial, and archaeological field trips. 1. COUNCIL MEETINGS There were four council meetings ! during the year. At the first meeting, May 3, 1947 in Peoria, Illinois, Clarence Bonnell’s invitation to hold the next an- i nual meeting in Harrisburg was accept¬ ed. Because of Mr. Bonnell’s death dur¬ ing the summer, the question of a meeting place was re-opened. At the second meeting in Urbana, October 25, 1947, with President Stover presiding the council accepted an invi- ! tation extended by Mr. B. Floyd Smith to hold the annual meeting in Benton. Dr. Neil Stevens and Editor Rose pre¬ sented reasons why the publications committee was unable to carry out the council’s decision at Peoria to print in the Transactions abstracts of papers not accepted for full publication. As a sub¬ stitute, for this year, the council voted to print brief abstracts of all papers in this year’s program. When it was learned how much higher the printing costs would be than anticipated, a quick poll of the available council members was taken and a substitution was made. This was to suggest that chairmen of each section mimeograph the abstracts and distribute them at the annual meet¬ ing. Because of the general increase in prices and the fact that our dues had remained at the original one dollar for 40 years, the council voted to circulate the membership on the question of an increase in dues. President Stover called the third council meeting which met in Urbana, January 17, 1948. The meeting was de¬ voted largely to plans for the annual meeting. Dr. Mills offered the services of the Natural History Survey in con¬ ducting the biological field trips. The council unanimously voted to sponsor the recordings of the “Science on the Air” programs which they hoped would be financed by the University Extension. President Stover presided at the fourth council meeting held in Benton, May 6, 1948. The council approved the ranking of the papers for publication by the sections and left the method of rank¬ ing to the section chairman. The coun¬ cil unanimously passed a motion to combine the committee on science talent search selection with the committee on science talent search scholarships. Con¬ sideration was given to the appointment of a permanent publicity chairman, but action was deferred. A motion was passed that the Council recommend an increase in annual dues to $2.00 to be voted on at the business meeting the following day. 126 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 2. GENERAL BUSINESS MEETING ports were heard from the acting treas- A short preliminary business meeting urer, the editor, and chairmen of the was held at 9:30 a. m., May 7, 1948, at committees on auditing, conservation, which appointments were made to com- resolutions, necrology, and nominations, mittees on nominations, resolutions, au- It was announced that Knox College, at diting, and necrology. At the second Galesburg had invited the Academy to business meeting held at 5:00 p. m., re- hold its next annual meeting there. REPORT OF TREASURER For the Year May 1, 1947 to April 30, 1948 Receipts Balance on hand April 30, 1947 . $ 1,537.69 Dues and initiation fees: Annual members . $ 725.00 Life member . 25.00 Affiliated societies . 11.00 - 761.00 Interest on Forbes and Meyer real estate . 18.00 Interest from U. S. Savings Bonds . 5.00 Sale of Transactions . 3.10 Sale of reprints . 97.65 Libraries . 7.00 Research Grant by the A. A. A. S . 408.00 Junior Academy: Dues . $ 100 Sustaining memberships . 10.00 - 11.00 Total Receipts . $ 2.84S.44 Expenditures Council dinner and breakfast — Peoria . $ 67.00 Local Chairman’s expenses — Peoria . 66.53 Section Chairmen’s expenses . 12.60 Treasurer’s office expenses . 14.50 Secretary’s office expenses . 4.17 Editor’s expenses . 17.00 Librarian’s expenses . 59.80 Transporting Transactions — 2 years . 9.35 Corporation registration . 1.00 Conservation Council . 3.00 Printing . 228.25 Secretary, honorarium . 125.00 Editor, honorarium . 150.00 Research grants — C. W. Bennett, $75.00; W. M. Reid, $75.00; H. F. Thut, $50.00; Sr. M. Joan, $83.00; P. E. Martin, $125.00 . 408.00 Flowers for Dr. John Voss . 10.85 Junior Academy . 83.38 Total Expenditures . $ 1.260.43 Less Outstanding Checks . 423.57 $ 836.86 Balance in Commercial Bank of Peoria . 2,011.58 $ 2.848.44 Statement of Resources , April SO, lD'/S Palance in the Commercial Bank of Peoria . . . . $ 2.011.58 Certificate of interest for Meyer Block Leasehold . Value Unknown Certificate of interest for Forbes Building . Value Unknown United States Savings Bonds, Series G . 200.00 Total Resources $ 2.211.58 Academy Business 127 The membership of the Academy con¬ sists of 61 life members, 97 new annual members, 17 sustaining members, 509 members paid up to and including the year 1948, 214 members one year in arrears, 42 members two years in ar¬ rears. The total membership is 843. During the year 14 members have re¬ signed, 4 were deceased and 35 moved, leaving no forwarding address. Respectfully submitted, John Voss, Treasurer (deceased) W. W. Grimm, ad interim Treasurer REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON AUDITING To the Illinois State Academy of Science: Your committee on auditing respect¬ fully submits the following report: We have examined the records of the Treasurer, John Voss, and the ad in¬ terim Treasurer, W. W. Grimm, for the year May 1, 1947 to April 30, 1948, and find them correct. The present financial | status of the Academy is as follows: | Cash on deposit with the Commercial National Bank of Peoria . $ 2,011.58 i Series G, U. S. Savings bonds two . 200.00 Meyer Block Leasehold Certi¬ ficate No. 15 (value un¬ known) . 0.00 Forbes Building Certificate No. 13 (value unknown) . . 0.00 Assets . $ 2,211.58 Less outstanding checks . 423.57 Real Assets . $ 1,788.01 (Signed) A. G. Adamson, Chairman E. SCIIOENBECK L. P. Elliott REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH GRANTS Following is a list of projects approv¬ ed by the Committee on Research Grants: William M. Bailey . $ 60.50 Southern Illinois University, 506 S. Popular, Carbondale, Ill. Bernard Greenberg . 25.00 Roosevelt, Chicago 5, Ill. J. V. Karabinos . 45.00 St. Procopius College, Lisle, Ill. R. Maurice Myers . 40.00 Western Illinois State College, Macomb, Ill. James M. Sanders . 45.00 Chicago Teachers College, 6800 Stewart Ave., Chi¬ cago 21, Ill. Sister M. Christine . 45.00 Mundelein College, Chicago 40, Ill. Total . $ 260.50 (Signed) J. W. Necicers, Acting Chairman, Research Grants Committee REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Resolution No. 1 Whereas the Illinois State Museum is performing a valuable educational function both by its instructive exhibits in its present location, and also by num¬ erous loan exhibits circulated through the schools of the state; and Whereas it is obvious that the pres¬ ent quarters of the museum are exces¬ sively cramped, inconveniently located, and altogether inadequate for the proper performance of its useful purposes; and Whereas the Illinois State Legisla¬ ture has already appropriated funds for the acquisition of a site for an adequate museum building, and for the prepara¬ tion of suitable plans for such a build¬ ing; and Whereas the plans now drawn up for the new building have received wide praise from museum people over the nation, and the execution of these plans would provide the citizens of Illinois with what would probably be the most effective, though not the most costly, state museum in the country; Therefore, the Illinois State Academy of Science reaffirms its approval and 128 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions support of this museum building pro¬ ject, and resolves to take such steps as seem appropiiate, to acquaint the gov¬ ernor of the state and other executive and legislative officers, that would be in position to cooperate, of its conviction that they will serve the best interests of the state by appropriating adequate funds at an early date for the erection of the proposed museum building. Resolution No. 2 Whereas, the State of Illinois is known to contain small natural areas distinct and precious by reason of their unique ecological features and rare species of plants and animals, and Whereas, these areas are too small for inclusion in the State Park System as now visualized, and Whereas, these areas are threatened with impairment or destruction by the inroads of industry, agriculture or other developments, therefore Be It Resolved, that the Council of the Illinois Academy of Science refer to the proper committee of the Academy the question of (1) finding some ad¬ ministrative state agency interested in the acquisition of such widely separated areas, (2) proposing some way of ad¬ ministering and protecting them, and (3) devising some method of selecting deserving sites, formulating specifica¬ tions which the sites should meet, and assuring that the purpose for which the sites are set aside be actually preserved. Resolution No. 3 The Illinois State Academy of Sci¬ ence, at its annual business meeting held at Benton, Illinois, May 7, 1948, voted to favor the establishment of a permanent nonpartisan Conservation Commission of the State of Illinois. Resolution No. 4 The Illinois State Academy of Science is pleased hereby to express its apprecia¬ tion to the Benton Chamber of Com¬ merce, the Board of Education, the Superintendent of Schools, Mr. B. Floyd Smith and his committee on local arrangements, the Benton Baptist Church, and to any other persons or groups who served in any way to pro¬ vide housing, meeting places, project¬ ing equipment, excellent musical enter¬ tainment, direction and transportation on field trips, and other services and equipment necessary to the happiness of members and visitors and to the success of the annual meeting of the Academy Jdeld at Benton, Illinois, May 7 and 8, 1948. Resolution No. 5 Resolved, that the Secretary of the Illinois State Academy of Science write a letter of appreciation to Mrs. John Voss, Mrs. Ethel Schoenbeck, and Dr. Wilbur W. Grimm, all of Peoria, Illinois, for their valuable assistance to Dr. John Voss in the management of his work as treasurer of the Academy during his illness in the past year, 1947-1948. Resolution No. 6 Resolved, that the Secretary of the Illinois State Academy of Science is hereby directed to write a letter to Mr. Robert Ingli, Director of Visual-Aids, Southern Illinois University, Carbon- dale, Illinois, expressing the apprecia¬ tion of the Academy for his indispen¬ sable services in providing and setting up projectional equipment required in the presentation of lectures and papers at the annual meeting of the Academy held at Benton, Illinois, May 7, 1948. MM 01 :\_ AZ. '?A STATE OF ILLINOIS Adlai E. Stevenson, Governor TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE VOLUME 42 1949 Forty-Second Annual Meeting Galesburg, Illinois May, 1949 PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS Illinois State Academy of Science AFFILIATED WITH THE Illinois State Museum Division, Centennial Building . \ Springfield, Illinois December 31, 1949 Ox GEOLOGY LIBRARY, TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE (1) Any organization, institution, or individual who wishes to get the current Transactions must be¬ come a member of the Academy by payment of the annual dues. (2) All previous volumes or portions of volumes con¬ taining scientific papers can be purchased for the amount of the current Academy dues. Address orders or payments to : W. W. Grimm, Treasurer, Illinois State Academy of Science, Bradley University, Peoria, Illinois. (3) For possible exchange privileges, write to : Director, Illinois State Museum, Springfield, Illinois. (85479) STATE OF ILLINOIS Adlai E. Stevenson, Governor TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE VOLUME 42 1949 Forty-Second Annual Meeting Galesburg, Illinois May, 1949 PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS Illinois State Academy of Science AFFILIATED WITH THE Illinois State Museum Division, Centennial Building Springfield, Illinois December 31, 1949 STATE OF ILLINOIS Adlai E. Stevenson, Governor DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION Noble J. Puffer, Director ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM DIVISON Thorne Deuel, Chief ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AFFILIATED with the ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM OFFICERS, COMMITTEES AND DELEGATES 1948-1949 I. Officers PRESIDENT: Robert F. Paton, University of Illi¬ nois, Urbana. FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT : Claude U. Stone, Peoria . SECOND VICE-PRESIDENT: George H. Reed, Knox College, Galesburg. SECRETARY, Hurst H. Shoemaker, University of Illinois, Urbana. TREASURER: Wilbur W. Grimm, Bradley Univer¬ sity, Peoria. LIBRARIAN : Thorne Deuel, State Museum, Spring- field. EDITOR : Dorothy E. Rose, State Geological Sur¬ vey, Urbana. COLLEGIATE SECTION COORDINATOR: Harry J. Fuller, University of Illinois, Urbana. JUNIOR ACADEMY REPRESENTATIVE: George S. Porter, J. Sterling Morton High School and Junior College, Cicero. II. Council The ACADEMY COUNCIL consists of the officers named above, the two most recent past presidents : Ernest L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Col¬ lege, Charleston. Leo R. Tehon, Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana. Past Secretary : Hurst Shoemaker, University of Illinois, Urbana. III. Section Chairmen ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY: C. C. Burford, Urbana. BOTANY : R. M. Myers, Western Illinois State College, Macomb. CHEMISTRY : W. P. Cortelyou, Roosevelt College, Chicago. GEOGRAPHY : John F'. Lounsbury, Northwestern University, Evanston. GEOLOGY : Percival Robertson, Principia Col¬ lege, Elsah. PHYSICS: A. Frances Johnson, Rockford College, Rockford. PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION: D. M. Hall, University of Illinois, Urbana. SOCIAL SCIENCE : Lynford A. Lardner, North¬ western University, Evanston. ZOOLOGY : James M. Sanders, Chicago Teachers College, Chicago. COLLEGIATE SECTION: Harry J. Fuller, Co¬ ordinator, University of Illinois, Urbana. IV. Committees AFFILIATIONS: Percival Robertson, Chairman, Principia College, Elsah. Ildrem P. Daniel, Lake View High School, Chicago. Howard K. Gloyd, Chicago Academy of Sci¬ ences, Chicago. Leslie Hedrick, Illinois Institute of Technol¬ ogy, Chicago. Robert S. Platt, University of Chicago, Chi¬ cago. Glenn W. Warner, Wilson Junior College, Chi¬ cago. BUDGET: Clarence L. Furrow, Chairman, Knox College, Galesburg. Wilbur W. Grimm, Bradley University, Peoria. Leo R. Tehon, State Natural History Survey, Urbana. Ernest L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Col¬ lege, Charleston. CONSERVATION: Harlow B. Mills, Chairman, State Natural History Survey, Urbana. Lyell J. Thomas, University of Illinois, Urbana. Warder C. Allee, University of Chicago, Chi¬ cago. Verne 0. Graham, 4028 Grace St., Chicago. William H. Haas, Northwestern University, Evanston. L. A. Holmes, Illinois State Normal Univer¬ sity, Normal. [2] 2/eof. V. 4-0^ David Lansden, Cairo. Morris M. Leighton,, State Geological Survey, U rbana. Raymond S. Smith, University of Illinois, Urbana. Ernest L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Col¬ lege, Charleston. Floyd Cunningham, Carbondale. Claude U. Stone, 210 W. Armstrong, Peoria. Royal McClelland, 508 W. Charles St., Cham¬ paign. CONSERVATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL SITES: John B. Ruyle, Chairman, 1 Main St., Champaign. Fay-Cooper Cole, University of Chicago, Chi¬ cago. Morris M. Leighton, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Claude U. Stone, 210 W. Armstrong, Peoria. George R. Horner, Wheaton College, Wheaton. C. C. Burford, 907 S. Orchard, Urbana. Edgar Zook, Fairbury. Wayne C. Townley, Unity Building, Bloom¬ ington. John Hauberg, 23d St. Hill, Rock Island. L. F. Gumbart, Macomb. Irvin Peithman, Carbondale. Frank W. Aldrich, 1506 East Washington St., Bloomington. ECOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY: Arthur G. Vestal, Chairman, University of Illinois, Urbana. HISTORY OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE: William M. Bailey, Chair¬ man, 506 S. Poplar, Carbondale. r J George D. Fuller, University of Chicago, Chicago. >c Otis B. Young, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. LA LEGISLATION AND FINANCE : Karl P. Schmidt, Chairman, Chicago Museum of Natural His¬ tory, Chicago. Morris M. Leighton, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Frank W. Aldrich, 1506 E. Washington St., Bloomington. IVING MEMORIALS: Lyell J. Thomas, Chair¬ man, University of Illinois, Urbana. J. Nelson Spaeth, University of Illinois, >JsJ Urbana. \ E. E. Nuttila, State Forester, Springfield. 'v H. E. Hudson, State Water Survey, Urbana. George E. Ekblaw, State Geological Survey, Urbana. George W. Bennett, State Natural History Survey, Urbana. .Membership: John H. Garland, Chairman, Uni- versity of Illinois, Urbana. Gideon H. Boewe, State Natural History Sur¬ vey, Urbana. - cj Durward L. Eaton, Northern Illinois State College, DeKalb. George E. Ekblaw, State Geological Survey, Urbana. W. H. Eller, 308 Sherman Ave., Macomb. N G. N. Jones, University of Illinois, Urbana. Wellington D. Jones, University of Chicago, Chicago. Orlando Park, Northwestern University, Kvans- N.I ton. 1\ Hiram F. Thut, Eastern Illinois State College, Charleston. ^ Walter B. Welch, Southern Illinois Univer¬ sity, Carbondale. L. W. Miller, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. Charles J. Widemann, Loyola University, Chicago. PRE-MEDICAL TRAINING: Carlos I. Reed, Chair¬ man, University of Illinois College of Medi¬ cine, Chicago. Harold J. Eigenbrodt, North Central, Naper¬ ville. G. H. Gardner, School of Medicine, North¬ western University, Evanston. B. Vincent Hall, University of Illinois, Ur¬ bana. Thesle T. Job, Loyola University Medical School, Chicago. A. B. Luckhardt, University of Chicago, Chi¬ cago. J. Roscoe Miller, School of Medicine, North¬ western University, Evanston. F. J. Mullin, Dean of Medical Students, Uni¬ versity of Chicago, Chicago. PUBLICATIONS : The President, Robert F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana. The Secretary, Hurst H. Shoemaker., Univer¬ sity of Illinois, Urbana. Howard K. Gloyd, Chicago Academy of Sci¬ ences, Chicago. H. Bowen Willman, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Leo.R. Tehon, State Natural History Survey, -LTrbana. Willard R. Gersbacher, Southern Illinois Uni¬ versity, Carbondale. PUBLIC RELATIONS: Claude U. Stone, Chair¬ man, 210 W. Armstrong St., Peoria. Harlow B. Mills, State Natural History Sur¬ vey, Urbana. RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT: Otis B. Young, Chairman, Southern Illinois University, Car¬ bondale. John C. McGregor, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. Harold R. Wanless, University of Illinois, Ur¬ bana. Claude U. Stone, 210 W. Armstrong, Peoria. Percival Robertson, Principia College, Elsah. Bruce Merwin, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. Carlos Reed, University of Illinois, College of Medicine, Chicago. Harlow B. Mills, State Natural History Sur¬ vey, Urbana. RESEARCH GRANTS : Ralph O. Freeland, Chair¬ man, Northwestern University, Evanston. B. S. Hopkins, University of Illinois, Urbana. Sister Mary O’Hanlon, Rosary College, River Forest. H. R. Wanless, University of Illinois, Urbana. Sister Joan Preising, College of St. Francis, Joliet. Percival Robertson, Principia College, Elsah. Charles J. Widemann, Loyola University, Chi¬ cago. William Marberry, Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale. SCIENCE TALENT: Lyell J. Thomas, Chairman, University of Illinois, Urbana. J. T. Hastings, University of Illinois, Urbana. E. F. Potthoff, University of Illinois, Urbana. R. F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana. E. L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State College, Charleston. F. H. Reed, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Hobart Smith, University of Illinois, Urbana. SUSTAINING MEMBERSHIPS: Leo R. Tehon, Chairman, Natural History Survey, Urbana. Robert L. Smith, Herrin High School, Herrin. Audrey H. Lindsey, University High School, Urbana. [3] STATE MUSEUM BUILDING: Percival Robert¬ son, Chairman, Principia College, Elsah. Clarence L. Furrow, Knox College, Galesburg. Frank W. Aldrich, 1506 E. Washington, Bloomington. Ernest L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Col¬ lege, Charleston. Frederick C. Holtz, Sangamon Electric Com¬ pany, Springfield. Delegates DELEGATE TO THE CONSERVATION COUNCIL: DELEGATE TO THE A.A.A.S. : Ernest L. Stover, Verne 0. Graham, 4028 Grace St., Chicago. Eastern Illinois State College, Charleston. Junior Academy of Science GENERAL CHAIRMAN: George S. Porter, J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero. ASSISTANT CHAIRMAN : Robert L. Smith, Township High School, Herrin. CHAIRMAN OF EXHIBITS: Joan Hunter, High School, Edwardsville. ASSISTANT CHAIRMAN OF EXHIBITS: Elroy Smith, High School, Galesburg. CHAIRMAN OF JUDGING: Elinor Stoldt, High School, Jacksonville. ASSISTANT CHAIRMAN OF JUDGING: H. W. Crall, Western Illinois State College, Ma¬ comb. AREA REPRESENTATIVES: Northern: James Hayashi, Northern Illinois State College, DeKalb. Western: H. W. Crall, Western Illinois State College, Macomb. Eastern : Mrs. Mary Creager, University High School, Charleston. Southern : C. A. Gross, University High School, Carbondale. Central : J. C. Chiddix, Normal Community High School, Normal. SENIOR ACADEMY ADVISOR: Lyell J. Thomas, University of Illinois, Urbana. Student Officers President: Clyde Hippard, J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero. Vice-President : Bob Harris, Township High School, Herrin. Secretary: Jo Ann Meinieke, High School, Taylorville. A.A.A.S. Honorary Members : Tom Snoure, Hitchcock Junior High School, Chicago ; Gloria Korvaloski, Immaculata High School, Chicago. [4] CONTENTS Page ADDRESSES Paton, R. F., Available Energy . Sanford, Charles W., The “Who” in the High School Science Program . Spalding, Willard B., Training of Teachers for Tomorrow’s World . PROGRAM Papers Presented at the 42nd Annual Meeting . ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY Gillette, Charles E., Late Woodland occupations of the Fisher Site, Will County, Illinois . Schoenbeck, E., More data on Hopewell sites in Peoria region . BOTANY Bailey, William M., Initial report of the vascular plants of Southern Illinois Fell, Egbert W., and George B. Fell, Ferns of Rock River Valley in Illinois. . Kaeiser, Margaret, Embryo development of the pond cypress ( Taxodium as- cendens (Brongn.) . • • • • • . Fuller, George D., Egbert W. Fell, and George B. Fell, Check list of the vas¬ cular plants of Winnebago County, Illinois . CHEMISTRY Sister Mary Marguerite Christine, B.V.M., Place of science in general educa¬ tion . GEOGRAPHY Garland, John H., Occupance of the Mississippi border of Southern Illinois. . . . Smith, L. Marjorie, The pulp and paper industry of the Lake states . GEOLOGY Grogan, Robert M., Present state of knowledge regarding the pre-Cambrian crystallines of Illinois . Knodle, Robert D., Factors affecting measurement of permeability of uncon¬ solidated glacial material . Lowenstam, Heinz A., Facies analyses of the Niagaran rocks . Shrode, Raymond S., Physical characteristics of the oolite grains of the Ste. Genevieve formation . PHYSICS Conklin, Richard L., Investigation of a gamma-proton process in beryllium . . . Roberts, Howard C., and Richard E. Wendt, Electronic aids to control and measurement . Silkett, A. F., and Mae A. Driscoll, Simple circuit for measuring variations in electrical resistance of a human being under emotional stress . SOCIOLOGY Houser, Frank E., The structure and institutionalization of a protest group. . . Tudor, William J., Southern Illinois — a cultural area . 9 12 21 30 35 41 47 56 63 68 80 85 91 97 103 113 116 120 123 128 130 140 ZOOLOGY Page Black, John D., Changing fish populations as an index to pollution and soil erosion . 145 Braun Garwood A., and George I. Dynstra, A survey of the Ur ionidae of the upper reaches of the Mackinaw River . 149 Goldberg, Robert J., Notes on the biology of a common gastrotrich of the Chicago area . 152 Mittler, Sidney, Genetic variation in populations of Drosophila Melanogaster in the Chicago area . 156 Nelson, Russel E„ Incidence of Trypanosoma infection in small mammals of Champaign County, Illinois . 159 Walton, A. C., Parasites of Ranidae (Amphibia). XIV . 161 COLLEGIATE SECTION Reid, W. Malcom, Shirley Jean Nice, and Rhoda Cooper McIntyre, Certain factors which influence activation of the hexacanth embryo of the fowl tapeworm Raillietina cesticillus . 165 MEMORIALS Charles Tobias Knipp . 169 Margaret Engstrom . 171 ACADEMY BUSINESS Secretary’s Report for 1948-1949 173 Illinois Slate Academy of Science 7 Robert F. Paton, President, 1948-1949 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 42, 1949 9 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS AVAILABLE ENERGY R. F. PATON President , Illinois State Academy of Science There is much current writing and discussion about energy and, in par¬ ticular, the atomic and nuclear vari¬ ety. Concerning the concept of en¬ ergy, there is some careless thinking and frequent misconception. For we live in a universe filled with many different forms of energy which are never destroyed but which may be transformed. When energy is needed for any purpose, it must be supplied in a form suitable for the job intend¬ ed. It is customary to think of such energy as available energy and to ignore other forms as if they did not exist, simply because they are not available. To illustrate this, consider the im¬ mense amount of energy in an ocean. Such a supply is usually thought of as heat energy. Some of this energy goes to melt icebergs ; is replenished by absorption of light from the sun ; but cannot be used to propel a boat. To be available to operate a boat, the energy must be at a higher tempera¬ ture than the ocean. Hence, the energy from burning fuel is avail¬ able, in part at least, to drive the engine in the boat. Fuel energy available for heating and for operating engines has been stored in the earth by plants and the like, having originally come from the sun. The sun sends out energy at such a tremendous rate that if all that strikes the earth could be re¬ tained and stored, there would be enough in a few weeks to equal all that stored as gas, oil, coal, and oil- shale over the millions of years that the sun has been shining on the earth. This seems surprising, but plants are very inefficient at trapping and stor¬ ing solar energy, yet no other gen¬ eral means has ever been devised. Solar energy is given off by our sun, whose effective surface temperature is about 6000° C. This is almost too hot to be used in an engine, but is so very diffuse that only about 2 cal¬ ories per square centimeter per min¬ ute is received from the sun at the earth. To be available, energy must have appropriate temperature and con¬ centration. In an engine, tempera¬ tures as high as 2000° C can be read¬ ily managed. Higher temperatures soon become troublesome, for there are no satisfactory materials for building engines which will be dur¬ able at such temperatures. Energy coming from known chemical reac¬ tions can maintain temperatures of a few thousand degrees. In internal combustion engines, turbines, and rockets, such energy is used for pro¬ pulsion or transformation into elec¬ trical form. Suppose Qx to be the heat of some chemical reaction in some mixture 10 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions such as a hydrocarbon and oxygen. This energy may be thought of as a quantity supplied to an engine. Re¬ ceiving this energy allows the engine to do an amount of work, W. A large part of Qx is, however, always discarded, as hot gases for instance in an internal combustion engine, and also in cooling devices designed to assimilate the discarded part of Qx under circumstances as favorable as practicable. Calling the discarded energy Q2f the law of conservation of energy — also known as the first law of thermodynamics — says that Qx=w+Q2 (1) When fuels are burned in a fur¬ nace and used for heating, Qx is evolved at say 1500° C, W is zero, and Q , is equal to Qx, appearing as heat at the temperature level desired, say 20° C. Qx is available for use as heating energy only if its tempera¬ ture is above 20° C. All the heat in the ocean cannot supply even heat to a boat unless the ocean tempera¬ ture is higher than that desired in the boat. It is a characteristic of all heat energy that it cannot, of it¬ self, flow uphill in temperature. This, in a superficial way, is a statement of the second law of thermodynamics. The process suggested in equation ( 1 ) is not an entirely reversible proc¬ ess. However, heat to an amount Q 2 can be taken out of the inside of a refrigerator, for example by sup¬ plying an appropriate amount of work W with a motor or some equiv¬ alent device. The result of this pro¬ cess is Q2+W=Qx (2) The heat Qx is rejected by the hot coil of a refrigerator to its surround¬ ings while Q2 is removed from the inside. Qx is greater than Q2 by an amount W. Equation (2) gives, in principle, the heat pump. In winter, for instance, Q., may be taken from the water in a deep well, an amount W added to it with a suitable motor, and the entire amount Qx used to heat the house. The only part of this energy which is supplied by a commercial fuel is W. Since Q2 types of heat energy are available in essentially limitless supply, great savings on the more costly type of energy, represented by W, can be accomplished by using sources whose supply of Q2 is almost available. In the ideal engine, it is possible to get work W from heat Qx to an amount q rpi Qi — Q«>=W where — = — (3) Q2 t2 Tx and T2 are the absolute tempera¬ tures of the hot, Qx, source and the cold, Q2, source respectively. Any actual engine will not do as well as equation (3). The efficiency of an engine is given by W Q— Q2 T, — To - = - < - (4) Qi Qi T, In a case where fuel maintains Tx at say 10,000°K (K = °C on abso¬ lute scale) and a cooler takes reject¬ ed heat at 500° C, the efficiency will 10,000—500 always be less than - = 10,000 95 percent but may approach this 95 percent in an ideal case. (See equation 4). This brings us to the atomic prob¬ lem. In the bomb, temperatures of 100,000,000°K are probable. But the efficiency of an engine run by such energy will be conceivably equal to Available Energy 11 100,000,000—500 - = 99.9995 percent 100,000,000 at best. This is very little better than the 95 percent efficiency. Fur¬ ther more, there is no material for construction which will hold together at even the 10,000°K. To use atomic nuclear energy, massive installations are necessary to lower the tempera¬ ture of this energy to below the 10,000°K level before it can be used for practical purposes. Only a very few processes above the 10,000°K level are of any interest to the every¬ day world. One of these, the de¬ struction by atomic bomb, we almost wish had never been discovered. Mankind lives at around 300° C. Processes involving energy at tem¬ peratures far from this value are dangerous and apt to be highly de¬ structive. They are the really un¬ available types of energy. There is a vast supply of energy just below the 300 °K level in this earth everywhere about us. Using a heat pump, it is quite possible to make this energy available, and in¬ creasingly engineering is making it practical to utilize this energy for heating purposes. The plant which traps solar energy in fuel form main¬ tains itself in this earth at suitable temperature and in a very real sense is able to trap the solar energy in a usable form. Solar energy traps de¬ signed to bypass the plant will sure¬ ly use the heat pump also, for the solar energy comes from such a high temperature source that, to a large percentage, it may be thought of as a W form and is correspondingly use¬ ful if sufficiently concentrated. The only practical advantage of nuclear energy is that it can be tre¬ mendously concentrated, though so far the process has been tremendous¬ ly expensive. New processes un¬ known and unimagined as yet must be discovered if the possibilities of nuclear energy which can be asso¬ ciated with temperatures above 10,000°K are to prove useful. These energies will then be “available” in the usual sense. 12 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 42, 1949 MORNING ADDRESS THE “WHO” IN THE HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE PROGRAM* CHARLES W. SANFORD Director, Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program and Coordinator of Teacher Education, University of Illinois All of you are aware of the struc¬ ture of the Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program. It is spon¬ sored by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Vernon L. Nickell, in cooperation with colleges and universities and 38 lay and pro¬ fessional organizations. Among the cooperating organizations are the Illinois Association of Chemistry Teachers, represented by T. A. Nel¬ son of LaGrange, the Illinois Asso¬ ciation of Teachers of Biology, rep¬ resented by J. S. Tucker of Cen- tralia, and the newly organized or re-organized Illinois Council of Mathematics Teachers represented by Miss Gertrude Hendrix of East¬ ern Illinois State College. Numerous unanswered questions regarding “The Who in the High School Science Program” and other similar items were largely respon¬ sible for the decision by the steering committee of the Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program that assistance and encouragement should be given to every participating school and community to get the facts about itself that are basic to curriculum revision. The committee correctly insisted that we have, for too long, * Portions of this article are quoted from the following i-eference: Sanford, Charles W. “Challeng¬ ing Developments in the Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program”, The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals” , Volume 33, Number 162, April, 1949, p. 57-65. made curriculum changes on the basis of hunches or as a result of super-salesmanship by someone. The implementation of this deci¬ sion to ferret out the facts called for the structuring of a series of local factual studies designed to locate answers regarding “Who?”, and in addition, “What?”, “When?”, and “How?”. Pour studies concerned largely with the “Who?” and “What?” were variously conducted in 135 Illinois high schools during the past year. Before turning to an analysis of these studies, it may be apropos to state that we are not unmindful of the many accomplishments of our schools. The high schools have in¬ creased their holding power ; virtual equality obtains among the educa¬ tional opportunities afforded to boys and girls and men and women ; teach¬ ers are better trained ; physical plants have been improved; better textbooks are available ; improved in¬ structional equipment is used, in¬ cluding many audio-visual aids; the instructional program has been en¬ riched by the addition of work in such areas as health, physical educa¬ tion, art, music, agriculture, home economics, work experience, social and personal relationships, and con¬ servation; advances have been made in relating the subjects taught to High School Science Program 13 life ; and education is now generally looked upon as a continuous process lasting throughout life, with few per¬ sons regarding education as complet¬ ed when a certain age has been reached. These accomplishments, and others which might be cited, show that change is possible. All of us are well aware of the forces that have oper¬ ated in producing these changes; moreover, all of us realize that many of these same forces, and others, are presently pointing to the necessity for further changes. These accom¬ plishments demand our admiration, but we must, if we are realistic, look long and hard at certain problems that now obtain and at certain facts which we now have. One such problem is this : “Is the holding power of our schools satis¬ factory in terms of accepted demo¬ cratic goals?” Let us look first at some national figures.1 For every 1000 pupils in the fifth grade in 1932-33, 786, or about 78 per cent, entered the ninth grade in 1936-37. Thus, our 4-year high school consist¬ ing of grades 9-12 had no chance at all to work with 22 per cent of the youth of high school age. Of the original 1000, 664, some 66 per cent, found their way into the tenth grade ; 570, or 57 per cent, entered the eleventh grade; 510, 51 per cent, started the twelfth grade ; and 455, approximately 45 per cent, were graduated. Certainly we can clearly see in these data substantiation for Provost Griffith’s recent statement that American education • . has given too little to too few.” Of the original 1000 fifth grade pupils 160, i su-aH^ical Summary of Education, Oh. I, U. S. Office of Education, Biennial Survey of Education, 1942-44, p 31. or 16 per cent, entered some college and 47, about 4 per cent, were grad¬ uated in 1944. In the belief that national figures of this type ordinarily do not, and should not, convince persons con¬ nected with a local school that its holding power is deficient, the steer¬ ing committee for the ISSCP de¬ cided to conduct a holding power study in a number of Illinois schools. The committee correctly reasoned that evidence must be obtained re¬ garding local withdrawals if reasons for these withdrawals are to be ex¬ amined and corrected. As a conse¬ quence, during the past year, a hold¬ ing power study was conducted in 76 representative Illinois high schools. Three assumptions underlay this study : 1. That the secondary school is ex¬ pected to serve all the children of all the people, and that the school can serve most adequately those children who are in school. 2. That the types of children who have dropped out of school in the past are the types most likely to drop out in the future, if present prac¬ tices remain unchanged. 3. That the school, by changing its practices, can influence children to remain in school. In each school, information was obtained to help us determine what proportion of all enrollees dropped out of school, at what times they dropped out, and what kinds of stu¬ dents they were in terms of such factors as economic status, I. Q., school success, course of study pur¬ sued, extent and nature of participa¬ tion in extra-curricular activities, distance of the home from the school, behavior problems, and out-of-school 14 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions employment. Perhaps it is significant to note that all of these 76 schools had stated that they wanted to par¬ ticipate in this study. This same policy operates in all phases of the ISSCP. The program is in every respect voluntary ; a school may par¬ ticipate or not, as it wishes. Our composite findings from this study revealed that in Illinois boys dropped out in larger proportions than girls; that almost all of the drop-outs were receiving, when they withdrew, very low marks ; that chil¬ dren from lower-income families dropped out in much larger numbers than those in the middle- and upper- income groups; that there was no appreciable difference in the holding power of small and large high schools, and so on. They also re¬ vealed that while Illinois schools have a better holding power than was cit¬ ed for the country as a whole, there is still much to be done to increase holding power in Illinois. The range in drop-outs was from less than one to as many as eight for every ten who were graduated. On the aver¬ age, for every ten who received diplomas, approximately three had dropped out. Since the study included only those pupils who started in the ninth grade, we can safely say that, for every ten who were graduated, considerably more than three youths of secondary school age were not in school. These state-wide summaries and others, to¬ gether with data for each local school, have been returned to par¬ ticipating schools for use in the for¬ mulation of hypotheses regarding local curriculum changes which may lead to an increase in holding power. Certainly the data for each school furnish convincing evidence regard¬ ing vulnerable points for intensive study looking toward promising change. With these drop-out figures for Illinois and the United States before us, let us look at the picture in sci¬ ence. Three sources provide a fairly good picture, though we must say that the picture needs to be defined even more clearly. First, we cannot offer high school science to youth who are not enrolled in any type of private or public secondary school. The national picture was present¬ ed earlier. It indicated that, in round numbers, between 30 and 40 percent of the youth of high school age are not in school, and as a con¬ sequence, are receiving no instruc¬ tion in science. “In 1940-41, the best year of our history as far as liigh-school enrollments are con¬ cerned, only 73 per cent of our youth of high-school age were enrolled in high schools.”2 In addition to these data and those presented for 76 high schools in Illi¬ nois, we might look at the summaries in the annual statistical reports of the Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. They indicate that during the year of July 1, 1939 to June 30, 1940, 3 there were 103,239 pupils in the fifth grades of our pub¬ lic schools; in the period of July 1, 1946 to June 30, 1947, 4 there were 62,841 in the twelfth grades. Thus, 40,398 were lost between the fifth and the twelfth grades. 2 Life Adjustment Education for Every Youth. Federal Security Agency, U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C., 1948, p. 11. 3 Annual Statistical Re/port of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, State of Illinois for the Year Ended June 30, 1940. Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Illinois, No. 328, p. 252. 4 Annual Statistical Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, State of Illinois for the Year Ended June 30, 1947. Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Illinois, Circular Series A, No. 47, p. 352. High School Science Program 15 Second, a random sample of 114 Illinois public high schools ranging in size from 32 to 2,018, with a pro¬ portionately larger number of schools included below 250, in accordance with the proportion which obtains between small and large high schools in Illinois, indicated that in 1947-48, 19 percent of all high school students were taking general science, 19 per¬ cent biology, 6 percent physics, and 7 percent chemistry. The popula¬ tion of these 114 schools was 27,878, approximately 9 percent of those attending all Illinois public high schools. Third, college-bound students probably take more work in science than those who do not enter some university. In an effort to discover how many students entering the Uni¬ versity of Illinois had completed courses in science in high school, a study was made of the high school records of 100 students who entered the University in September 1948. Of this group, 63 had completed one unit in biology ; 70, one unit in phys¬ ics; 62, one unit in chemistry; and 80, one unit in some other science, usually general science. Thirteen students had completed a total of one unit in science ; 28, twTo units ; 31, three; and 28, four. The average number of units of science taken by these 100 students was 2.74. These data indicate clearly (1) that all of us are confronted with a major task in trying to keep in school a larger proportion of the youth of secondary school age and (2) that all of us need to examine very criti¬ cally our present science offerings, especially the work in the 9th and 10th grades. Is the traditional course in general science adequate for the large number who will receive no more? If not, what should be off¬ ered? How may we be reasonably sure that what we propose is ade¬ quate ? Certainly all of us will take every step within our power to de¬ crease the number of drop-outs; but while we are doing so, we have to be realistic and work with what we have. Let us look at both of these ques¬ tions. It was stated earlier that many Illinois high schools are at¬ tempting to increase their holding power through self-study projects followed by the testing of locally formulated hypotheses. One of these projects was concerned with the ques¬ tion, “Are the costs connected with certain phases of the school’s pro¬ gram depriving some youth of the very experiences they need ? ’ ’ Also, we might ask whether or not the facts indicate that costs are the cause of some of our drop-outs. Many Illinois high schools attempted to obtain, during the past year, the facts concerning the identity and the amount of the full range of these costs. For want of a better name we called them “hidden tuition costs.” Our composite findings in 79 repre¬ sentative schools, and here I am in¬ cluding grades 7-12, indicated that science textbooks were most common¬ ly rented to pupils, that pupils pur¬ chased their books in from about a third to somewhat over half of the schools, and that it was only in the two lower grades, grades 7 and 8, that over 10 percent of the institu¬ tions provided free textbooks. Two out of every five high schools re¬ quired eleventh and twelfth grade pupils to pay a special fee, assess¬ ment, or deposit in science courses, but this practice was much less fre- 16 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions quent at the lower grade levels. From about two-thirds to over nine- tenths of the schools, depending up¬ on the grade level of the course, required pupils to purchase special materials or items of equipment in science. The median costs to pupils who attended schools in which text¬ books were purchased by the pupils was $2.50 for seventh grade science, $2.40 for eighth grade science, $3.10 for ninth grade science, $3.90 for tenth grade science, $3.60 for elev¬ enth grade science, and $3.75 for twelfth grade science. The lowest costs reported were nothing in grades 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, and $0.50 in grade twelve. The highest costs to pupils who attended a school in which text¬ books were purchased by the pupils was $2.76 for seventh grade science, $2.90 for eighth grade science, $3.85 for ninth grade science, $7.50 for tenth grade science, $6.60 for elev¬ enth grade science, and $10.25 for twelfth grade science. The median costs of belonging to the biology and science clubs were $2.50 and $1.25, respectively; the highs were $7.50 and $39.90 respectively. Similar data were obtained for all subjects and extra-class activities offered in these schools. Obviously, these state-wide sum¬ maries have relatively little signifi¬ cance except as they may serve as a basis for comparisons and as they may serve to stimulate local investi¬ gations leading to adjustments and corrections. Each school, then, must analyze the implications of cost facts of the type mentioned. Do high costs lower the holding power of the school? Do the costs of certain ac¬ tivities and of certain subjects mean that some pupils who need those activities do not participate in them ? If so, how can we answer the charge that the school is not serving equally well all of the children of all of the people ? One of my colleagues at the University of Illinois, Professor Harold C. Hand, has very neatly pointed, in the following words, to answers for these questions : 1. The school is by definition an edu¬ cational institution. 2. As such, it cannot legitimately per¬ mit, much less sponsor, any activity (whether class or extra-class, formal or informal) which is not educative in nature. 3. If the activities permitted or spon¬ sored are educative in nature, no public school in a democracy can justify mak¬ ing the accident of birth in an economic (or any other) sense determine who shall and who shall not benefit from said educative activities. s Next, let us examine briefly the questions posed earlier, namely, “Is the traditional course in general sci¬ ence adequate for the majority who will receive no other work in sci¬ ence?” “If not, what should be offered?” “How may we be reason¬ ably sure that the ‘what’ we propose is adequate?” Means are suggested for obtaining answers to these ques¬ tions in the Guide to the Study of the Curriculum in the Secondary Schools of Illinois. I quote from the Guide. The first and most fundamental policy being followed in the ISSCP is that cur¬ riculum improvement is a grass roots job, that any changes which may take place should be the result of the work of teachers, administrators, and lay per¬ sons in local schools. Although con¬ sultants from outside local schools will be available to provide assistance as needed, the real source of power in the operation will come from local schools rather than from outside. 5 Hand, Harold C., Principal Findings of the 19Jf7-19-!fS Basic Studies of the Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program. Circular Series A, No. 51, Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program Bulletin No. 2, Office of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Illinois. Mav, 1949, p. 64. High School Science Program 17 The purpose of the school is to provide learning experiences so that the needs of youth and the requirements of society may be met effectively. The means of accomplishing that end, that is, the selection of what learning experiences may best meet youth and societal needs, constitutes a basic task of curriculum makers. Curriculum construction might, there¬ fore, be viewed in part as a sifting pro¬ cess wherein a selection from all possi¬ ble learning experiences is made. What youth need and what society seem to require may constitute the sieve. All of the accumulated social and cultural heritage is available to those who teach. The teacher must select those experi¬ ences which will be most profitable to youth and adults. Since all youth have certain needs in common and the social setting presents certain requirements common to all citi¬ zens in a democracy, a portion of the school day may be devoted to these “com¬ mon learnings” of all youth. This would not change the policy of providing a wide offering of other subjects on an elective basis. a The Guide suggests certain basic needs of high school youth, and it presents several statements of the purposes of the high school. In the Follow-Up Study which is presently underway in 100 high schools, we have defined 55 problems of high school youth which stem from these needs. Needs, purposes, and prob¬ lems must be considered, but they only introduce us to the “ specifics” to be used in the classroom. Cer¬ tainly the introduction is a basic one, but it points only to the kinds of pupil activities which go on in the classroom. At this point we have found that the consultants from the colleges and universities who are co¬ operating with the Illinois Second¬ ary School Curriculum Program render their greatest service. 6 Houston, Victor M., Sanford, Charles W., and Trump, J. Lloyd, Guide to the Study of the Cur¬ riculum in the Secondary Schools of Illinois. Cir¬ cular Series A, No. 51, Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program Bulletin No. 1, Office of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Spring- field. Illinois. August, 1948, pp. 9 and 10. At the present time, as most of you know, the ISSCP is cooperating with 33 selected school systems in attempt¬ ing to develop 58 projects. These projects are concerned with the im¬ provement of existing courses in English, mathematics, science, social studies, etc. ; with enrichment in broad fields; with development of common learnings courses ; and with projects which cut across subject lines. The ISSCP does not suggest any one type of curriculum improvement project as best for a given school. Decisions of this type should be made by teachers, administrators, and others working together to improve the curriculum in local schools. Each school is encouraged to start where it is, with what it has, and on that in which it is vitally interested. A team of consultants from the colleges, universities, State Depart¬ ment, and other high schools cooper¬ ate with persons affiliated with local schools in attempting to develop superior programs. If and when superior programs have been devel¬ oped, the local teachers and admin¬ istrators will help other schools on similar projects. Moreover, as the local projects are being developed, teachers and administrators from other schools are encouraged to study what is going on. The findings from the basic stud¬ ies conducted in these schools are of inestimable value in building a broadly based local concensus re¬ garding what needs to be done and in furnishing numerous “specifics” which merit attention. It would be premature, after only one and a half years of work, to try to relate many of the emphases and 18 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions re-directions that are taking form in these projects. However, several have become crystal clear. They are : 1. The energies of onr faculties and of others who are interested in secondary education must be di¬ rected toward meeting more ade¬ quately the needs of all youth, not the needs of one or two or three groups of youth. 2. In those schools in which de¬ velopmental projects are underway, emphasis is being placed on real- life problems. 3. Whenever such problems are stressed, we find in the schools more and more emphasis on good work habits, how to work with others, un¬ derstanding ourselves, developing a zeal for the democratic way of life, conservation, health, problems of community, state, national, and in¬ ternational concern, and the choice of appropriate school subjects. 4. Whenever such problems are stressed we also find more and more attention given to sharpening the guidance program to the end of iden¬ tifying as early as possible the inter¬ ests and abilities of students so that there may be provided learning ex¬ periences which will be of greatest value. I wish that time permitted a de¬ velopment of this problem as it re¬ lates to locating youth with superior abilities, keeping them in school, and providing curricular experiences of maximum value. 5. It is becoming increasingly ob¬ vious that curriculum change is a ‘ ‘ grass-roots ’ ’ proposition. Persons from outside a given school system may be ready and anxious to cooper¬ ate with local schools, but little is accomplished unless the dynamic for local projects obtains within the local group. 6. Curriculum work which is effec¬ tive calls for a high order of coopera¬ tion. At the local school level, this cooperation means participation by many members of the faculty ; ideal¬ ly, by all members of the faculty. It also means participation by school board members, by parents, by lay¬ men who are not parents, and by pupils. 7. I hope I am correct in the ob¬ servation that the schools, at least most of them, which have develop¬ mental projects underway have agreed that meeting the needs of all youth of secondary school age be¬ comes a reality only when those con¬ cerned are obsessed with the notion that all youth of high school age are the business and concern of the high school. We must accept this notion or face the alternative. The alterna¬ tive is that we shall let some other agency assume a part of the respon¬ sibility — another NYA perhaps. Another study in the series spon¬ sored by the ISSCP was concerned with the question, “Are pupils in our high schools participating in ex¬ tracurricular activities according to their needs, interests, and abilities ? ’ ’ Do certain factors operate which make participation selective in one or more respects? In the study which we conducted, we related extent of participation with sex, age, grade in school, loca¬ tion of school, mode of transport, ac¬ celeration-retardation, and socio-eco¬ nomic status. The data were then analyzed on the basis of each of the factors noted. The only factor iden¬ tified which was associated with the number of participations was socio- High School Science Program 19 economic status, the accident of birth in an economic sense. In all types of participation, there was less participation by children from low income families, somewhat more by children from middle in¬ come families, and by far the most by children from upper income fam¬ ilies. A fourth study was concerned with the problem, ‘ ‘ Are the available guid¬ ance services both adequate and ef¬ fective?” In all, or nearly all, schools some pattern of organized personnel services has been devel¬ oped for students. These services may be concerned with the educa¬ tional, occupational, social, and per¬ sonal adjustments of young people. Our investigation was carried on in 96 schools. We used three instru¬ ments, namely, the North Central Association Check List of Elements in a Minimum and an Extended Pro¬ gram of Guidance and Counseling, the Illinois Revision of the Kefauver- Hand Guidance Test, and the Ross L. Mooney Problem Check List. Our findings indicated that the major concerns of girls were in the area of Personal-Psychological Relations : “Losing my temper,” “Nervous¬ ness,” “Worrying,” “Can’t make up my mind about things,” “Can’t see the value of daily things I do,” etc. The boys were most concerned with problems of Adjustment to School Work: “Taking wrong sub¬ jects,” “Not getting studies done on time,” “Worrying about grades,” “Slow in reading,” “Trouble in using the library,” “Can’t see that school is doing me any good,” etc. Both boys and girls were bothered about problems concerned with Cur¬ riculum and Teaching Procedures : “Dull classes,” “Made to take sub¬ jects I don’t like,” “Poor place to study at home, ” “ Textbooks hard to understand, ” “ Teachers too theoreti¬ cal,” “Wanting subjects I’m not al¬ lowed to take,” etc., as well as prob¬ lems concerned with The Future — Vocational and Educational : “Need¬ ing to decide on an occupation,” “Not knowing what I really want,” “Concerned over military service,” “Deciding whether or not to go to college,” etc. Typically, twelfth grade pupils exhibited about 75 per¬ cent knowledge of vocational trends and of the nature of the work in¬ volved in a sampling of representa¬ tive occupations and a 67 percent knowledge regarding unfounded be¬ liefs which lead to unfortunate voca¬ tional and educational choices. So much for the 1947-48 studies which were variously conducted in 135 high schools. Copy for the in¬ ventories, tests, and schedules for conducting each of these studies has been set up in manual form. The manuals will be available on or about June l.7 A fifth study in the series of stud¬ ies basic to curriculum improvement, the Follow-Up Study, was initiated on February 15, 1949. 7 Allen, Charles M., How to Conduct the Holding Power Study. Circular Series A, No. 51, Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program Bulletin No. 3, Office of the State Superintendent of Public In¬ struction, Springfield, Illinois. May, 1949. Hand, Harold C., How to Conduct the Hidden Tuition Costs Study. Circular Series A, No. 51, Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program Bul¬ letin No. 4, Office of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Illinois. May, 1949. Hand, Harold C., How to Conduct the Participa¬ tion in Extra-Class Activities Study. Circular Series A, No. 51, Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program Bulletin No. 5, Office of the State Super¬ intendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Illinois. May, 1949. Lovelass, Harry D., How to Conduct the Study of the Guidance Services of the School. Circular Series A, No. 51, Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program Bulletin No. 6, Office of the State Super¬ intendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Illinois. May, 1949. 20 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions This study is concerned with two problems, ‘ ‘ How may we build a strengthened teacher-pupil-school- patron consensus regarding the ‘ need-meeting’ function of the sec¬ ondary school ? ’ ’ and ‘ 1 How may we appraise the extent to which the local school is, or is not, now meeting the real-life needs of its secondary-school youth ? ’ ’ The five instruments, each of the check-type, which were de¬ signed for use in this Follow-Up Study, and which are now being used in 100 schools, focus attention upon 55 real-life problems of youth vari¬ ously subsumed under the categories of “ Earning a Living;” “Develop¬ ing an Effective Personality;” “Liv¬ ing Healthfully and Safely ; 3 3 “Man¬ aging Personal Finances Wisely;” “Spending Leisure Time Whole¬ somely and Enjoyably;” “Taking an Effective Part in Civic Affairs;” “Preparing for Marriage, Home Making, and Parenthood;” and “Making Effective Use of Education¬ al Opportunties. ” Teachers, pupils, parents and lay¬ men who are not parents are asked anonymously to indicate whether or not the high school should help pupils with each problem cited. If the response is in the affirmative, they are asked to state how impor¬ tant it is for the school to provide such help. Teachers are also asked to evaluate the extent to which they believe graduates typically received help on each problem. Graduates are requested to indicate which of the problems they are experiencing, how much of the help they needed for each problem they obtained in high school, and how effectively they believe they are meeting each prob¬ lem. In closing, I should like to state that the Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program is truly grate¬ ful to the Academy for the attention it is giving in this program, and through other activities, to the im¬ provement of the high school sci¬ ence program. Many of the findings that I have reported this morning are discouraging, but of this I am sure — if we all work together and cooperate with the teachers of other instructional areas — the situation will improve rapidly. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 42, 1949 21 EVENING ADDRESS TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR TOMORROW’S WORLD WILLARD B. SPALDING University of Illinois, Urbana Many persons in the profession of training teachers do not like to have the word ‘ ‘ training ’ ’ used to de¬ scribe their activities. It is, however, an old term that has been used for decades. Currently many persons are endeavoring to replace it with the word “education.” They do this because they see some connota¬ tions in the word “training” which they do not like, particularly when they think of training an animal or training an athlete. They think of a seal clapping his fins or of a boxer beating down an opponent. Neither idea seems to be related to the activi¬ ties of the teacher in the classroom. Before abandoning a long-used and well-understood term, we should look at some of the connotations of the substitute. An “educated” per¬ son is one who, in the common par¬ lance, knows a lot about a lot. He is a person who has read widely, traveled widely, and experienced much. His skills are many, but rudimentary. He is somewhat of a dilettante. A “trained” person is educated, of course, but he is also able to in¬ tegrate his knowledge and his experi¬ ences around a single purpose. If he is a doctor, he integrates his knowledge toward curing the ills of the body. If he is an engineer, he integrates his knowledge toward the design and construction of machines, of structures, or of roads. This con¬ notation of integration of knowledge to an end makes it important to re¬ tain the old term and to speak al¬ ways of training teachers as we would speak of training any other professional person. Change Inevitable I have used the term “tomorrow’s schools ’ ’ because education inevit¬ ably looks ahead. The child who enters kindergarten in September of 1949 will graduate from high school in 1962, and from the university in 1966. What kind of world lies ahead of him? What problems must he solve when his schooling is ended? These are important questions for all of us, but especially important for those who train teachers. Changes take place rapidly. There are great advances in technology. During the period of 16-17 years that lie ahead before the beginning kindergartener takes his place in adult life, a lot is going to happen. We can see this most readily by look¬ ing at the past before we look at the future. We can go back to 1932 and com¬ pare what happened then with what happens now in 1949. There has been great development in electron¬ ics. Radar can detect mobile ob¬ jects in the air and has many other uses. Television is just beginning to 22 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions have its impact upon American life. Great mathematical problems which could not be solved within available time are solved by so-called mechan¬ ical brains. All of these changes centering around electronics have taken place within the 17 years that have elapsed since 1932. In the area of transportation, streamlined trains, just beginning to be heard of in 1932, are now com¬ mon. There are new airplanes, like the flying wing, with jet propulsion engines that were not even widely developed in laboratories 17 years ago. Trains and trucks use the diesel engine which was not adapted for such use until recently. In the area of communication, “ Pocket Books” sell widely through¬ out all parts of the nation. We have seen the growth and development of picture magazines, the coming of age of talking pictures, and a be¬ ginning use of facsimile reproduc¬ tion. These are but a few of the changes in material things which have affected our way of living. In organized society, since the early days of 1932, there has come the growth of social security, old age pensions, the rise of the unions to power, and open attacks by govern¬ mental agencies on intolerance and prejudice. Our age is characterized by increased use of government in an increasing number of areas of human endeavor. Government yardsticks, for example, have been set up to measure private industry. Govern¬ ment planning enters more and more into the control of our physical en¬ vironment and the direction of our activities as citizens. These are the things which have gone on, but they tell us little about what changes lie ahead. The rate of both social and technological change is something like a geometric pro¬ gression. The more that man knows about the physical nature of the uni¬ verse, the more he can find out. The more and better material things he creates, the more he can create. The more that man improves his rela¬ tionships with his fellows, the. more he can do to improve them. Attitude Toward Change Man cannot predict exactly what is going to happen, but he can be sure that there will be tremendous speeding up in both technological and social change. He can also state with some certainty that the rate of technological change will continue to be somewhat greater than the rate of social change. The problem of lag in adaptation of our society to tech¬ nology becomes increasingly acute. Man is reluctant to change his accus¬ tomed ways of doing. He doesn’t seek to change his relationships to his government or to unorganized groups of his fellows with anything like the degree of eagerness with which he seeks to change his auto¬ mobile when a new model comes out. He is reluctant to believe that the increasing speed of technological change makes social change not only inevitable but desirable. When he does begin to understand the need for social change, he does not trans¬ late his understanding into action. As man observes the world, it is soon clear to him that there are com¬ peting systems of ideas about what is good in government, in the pro¬ duction of material things, and in the use and ownership of them. Ideas are not destroyed readily. The con¬ flict of ideologies which exists today will continue through at least the Teachers For Tomorrow’s World 23 two decades which lie before us. It may differ in the degree of inten¬ sity with which it is carried on. It may change its nature somewhat, as new ideas come into the picture, but the conflict will remain. Rapid technological change and rapid social change will be taking place in an atmosphere which is charged with the emotions arising from ideological conflicts. In the midst of the maelstrom sits the mod¬ ern American, bewildered by what goes on and attempting to prevent many things from happening. Change seems to him to be undesir¬ able. He tends to resist it at every turn. One of the great problems for edu¬ cation is the development of a gen¬ eration of persons who understand that change is ordinary, who recog¬ nize that change is inevitable, who begin to examine their environment and to initiate changes in order to improve it. One result of man’s fearful atti¬ tude toward change is a change-re¬ sisting school rather than a school which facilitates changes. One of the major reasons for the critical social lag is the vicious circle in which one change-resisting genera¬ tion makes the schools produce an¬ other change-resisting generation, which in turn prevents the schools from changing. Schools must recog¬ nize that a major responsibility is the development of an intelligent atti¬ tude toward change among their stu¬ dents, and this is not accomplished by teaching which reverently adheres to traditional, rote memorization procedures which fail to provide many opportunities for problem¬ solving. Role of the Teacher What is the role of the teacher in such a school? The teacher is sev¬ eral persons in one. First, he is a part of the environment of the chil¬ dren who attend school. His per¬ sonality impinges upon the person¬ alities of his students each day. What he does, what he is, what he thinks, how he dresses, how he appears, what he feels, and all of the other facets of his personality affect the way in which children learn what they learn. In the second place, the teacher is a manipulator of the student’s en¬ vironment even while he is a part of it. He arranges the time of day at which each activity takes place. He selects and uses printed materials, pictures, and visual aids. He plans the emotional climate of the class¬ room. He decides whether there are to be democratic, autocratic, laissez faire, or some other kind of relation¬ ships. In the third place, he is a scholar of the nature of society. He under¬ stands both social trends and social development. He sees cause and effect at work in human relationships and understands how to bring about the effects he desires. He is a stu¬ dent of the internal dynamics and structure of organized and unorgan¬ ized groups of persons. He under¬ stands the ways in which govern¬ ments operate. In the fourth place, he is a scholar of the nature of man. He knows how man learns. He understands the physiology of human growth. He knows the relation of physiological readiness in learning. He under¬ stands the way in which attitudes, appreciations, and emotions are de- 24 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions veloped; in short, he understands with considerable thoroughness the human animal with which he deals. In the fifth place, he is a profes¬ sional person in a difficult area. The problems of the teacher are far more intricate and complex than those of any other profession. A human being cannot be placed in a test tube or a betatron and examined. He cannot be planted in the soil so that his growth and development can be watched. Whatever is done to him in order to observe him, changes him wdiile the observing takes place. No technique can be used for long, be¬ cause he adapts to it. So it is with methods of teaching. It is extremely difficult to know what method of teaching is best in a given situation, and having found the method, it soon becomes obsolete, Man is an adaptive animal. What¬ ever is done to him leads to changes in his behavior so that he can escape from the doing. What is a good method with the student today may be a poor method with him three years later because he has learned to adapt to it. The teacher, as a pro¬ fessional, must know the methods which look to be good at the time that he is trained. He must also be versed in the procedures whereby he can invent better methods when he finds that familiar ones no longer work in practice. Youth's Basic Needs Unless the teacher may be char¬ acterized in these ways, he will achieve comparatively little success in helping all youth of secondary school age meet the sorts of basic needs which are outlined in the Guide to the Study of the Curricu¬ lum in the Secondary Schools of Illi¬ nois. An examination of any one of these youth needs will illustrate the complexity of the teacher’s job. The fifth need cited is : Acquiring knowledge of, practice in, and zeal for democratic processes: a. Learning to be intelligently criti¬ cal of the social heritage. (1) Possessing an understanding of and belief in our culture. (2) Being able to gather the facts regarding society and evaluat¬ ing them. (3) Developing ability to be inde¬ pendent in arriving at judg¬ ments; must not merely imi¬ tate a teacher or leader. (4) Being able to propose a plan and see the consequences if the plan is adopted. b. Seeing and utilizing opportunities for participation in community ac¬ tivities outside of the school. c. Achieving appropriate understand¬ ing of and relationships with mi¬ nority (or majority) groups. d. Developing an understanding of the necessity for international peace together with some knowl¬ edge of how to further it. e. Understanding relationships be¬ tween the sciences and human destiny. Training the Science Teacher The scientists of America have studied the problem of training the science teacher. Their report was published in 1942. Participants in the project included the National Committee on Science Teaching, the American Council of Science Teach¬ ers, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Ameri¬ can Chemical Society, the American Nature Study Society, the National Association of Biology Teachers, and several other scientific groups. In discussing aspects of our pres¬ ent culture, their report states : There is likely to be little disagree¬ ment with the statement that our cul¬ ture is witnessing one of the most rapid developments and changes in the history of Western civilization. There can be no quarrel with the proposition that Teachers For Tomorrow’s World 25 science — invention and technology — has been largely responsible for this unpre¬ cedented growth. Almost overnight, it seems, we have been whisked from an age of agrarianism and simple capital¬ ism to an age of industrialism and cor¬ porate ownership. The change has been so rapid that we have not yet developed a terminology suitable for discussing with facility the new order of things. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that there are at present many divergent ideologies. Nor is it surprising that men of science are becoming self-analyti¬ cal, that scientists are attempting to de¬ velop critical philosophies, to under¬ stand the potentialities inherent in the methods and accomplishments of sci¬ ence. They recognize a responsibility, not only for their own immediate dis¬ cipline, but also for the employment of their discoveries in the betterment of man’s lot. . . . Meanwhile the youth of today is fac¬ ing a world of contradictions — of want in the midst of plenty, of fear in an age of potential security, of greed and selfish interest in a society supposedly influ¬ enced by the ethics of Christianity, of class stratification and restraint of hu¬ man rights in a political democracy, and of wars and recurring crises in the “scientific” twentieth century. It is amid these confusions that the teacher of science must help young people solve their problems. Aims of General Education After describing these problems of our culture, the scientists then look at the problem of training a teacher, first, as an individual and a citizen : The teacher is first of all a person. To the extent that he is intelligent, in¬ formed, conscious of social issues, and happily adjusted in his life and his views, he may become an outstanding teacher. This is true for all teachers regardless of field, and it should be noted that the general education proposed in this chapter is thought of in terms of all teachers and, for that matter, of all persons living in a democracy. But it seems especially important that those accepting the responsibility for giving science instruction be provided with this education. The prospective teacher should ac¬ quire a sufficient range of understanding to insure his social acceptance in the community where he teaches. He should merit recognition as a person generally well informed and should be able to accept and handle a position of respon¬ sibility in the community. He must have avocational interests and the ability to enjoy and appreciate a variety of intellectual and aesthetic pursuits. He must understand human beings, their customs, and their institu¬ tions, and recognize the roots of local prejudices and provincial mores in bio¬ logical and cultural variants. To work effectively and sympathetically with community problems, he will need to recognize institutions in relation to their origins and in comparison with the similar and the greatly different in¬ stitutions which have obtained in other times and places. And, above all, he should have had the advantages of guid¬ ance and study to aid him in the devel¬ opment of a personally and socially sat¬ isfactory conception of life. I. THE TEACHER SHOULD HAVE AN UNDERSTANDING OF AMERICAN CULTURAL GROUPS. The American science teacher lives and works in the midst of a cultural complex composed of many shifting socio-economic, racial, ethnic, national, and religious groups. In times of crisis, intolerance, misun¬ derstanding, and fear arise among cul¬ tural grouns and these stresses are seized upon bv demagogues and those seeking to further special interests. America, as well as Europe, is faced with fallaci¬ ous doctrines and common misunder¬ standings regarding the superiorities or inferiorities of various groups. Most of these conclusions disregard the fact that range of individual difference within any population is demonstrably great with respect to almost any character; that to think of all individuals in terms of an average or in terms of other in¬ dividuals is almost certain to result in error. Such conc’usions convey the idea of political or racial units all of whose members possess given charcters. II. THE TEACHER SHOULD UN¬ DERSTAND THE VARIATIONS IN IN¬ STITUTIONAL FORMS OF PAST AND PRESENT SOCIETIES. Today, more than ever before, it is imperative that those responsible for the education of youth defend and expand democracy and aid in actualizing our democratic vision. The science-trained teacher will recog¬ nize that the American forms of life can best be defended on the basis that they are operating in such ways that we de- 26 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions rive satisfaction, security, and personal and national well-being from them. Fur¬ thermore, they should be inspected and modified on the pragmatic basis of how well they are functioning, or can be made to do so, for the wellbeing of the nation and its individuals. . . . III. THE TEACHER SHOULD UN¬ DERSTAND THE POTENTIAL RELA¬ TION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH TO DEMOCRACY. Society has already be¬ come so integrally scientific in the ma¬ terial sense that the expression, impact of science on society , is nearly mean¬ ingless. There is no aspect of human activity that organized science has not modified; but intellectually, we can hardly be called scientific. In large part science has remained subordinate to private interest and is called upon to do its part but to remain in the background; it is the indispensable handmaiden of our industrial expansion but could hard¬ ly be said at present to be offering in¬ tellectual direction to society commen¬ surate with its potentialities. IV. THE TEACHER SHOULD UN¬ DERSTAND HIMSELF AND HIS STU¬ DENTS, THEIR PARENTS, AND OTHERS IN THE COMMUNITY. That understanding of human beings is neces¬ sary for success as a teacher is a propo¬ sition likely to encounter little opposi¬ tion. Basically it is the theme of every section in this chapter. This under¬ standing is in part a background of gen¬ eral understanding of human beings, their characteristics, their development, and the factors which influence these. In part it is an understanding by the teacher of himself and the individual children and adults with whom he works. V. THE TEACHER SHOULD DE¬ VELOP LEISURE-TIME ACTIVITIES AND AESTHETIC SATISFACTIONS. It is the belief of the Subcommittee that the problems of leisure-time activities and the goal of developing aesthetic satisfactions should be more carefully considered in the education of teachers. The Subcommittee agrees with the state¬ ment that ‘the word (aesthetic) should not only apply to something that hap¬ pens in museums. ’i Many take the posi¬ tion that teachers should have contacts with, and develop appreciations and abilities in, various areas of aesthetics. The National Survey of Education of Teachers revealed that only about one third of the teachers from teachers’ colleges, liberal arts colleges, and uni¬ versities had had any work at all in the fine arts in either high school or college.1 2 Appreciation and creative ability in the arts need not, of course, originate or develop within the confines of institutions, but the establishments of early contacts may engender the de¬ velopment of appreciations and abilities which would otherwise remain dormant. VI. THE TEACHER SHOULD DE¬ VELOP A SATISFACTORY CONCEP¬ TION OF LIFE. Many adolescents pass through a period of adjustment and orientation among conflicting religious and ethical concepts. Emotional dis¬ turbance often results when an individ¬ ual experiences apparent contradictions between the faith to which he has clung and the logic that is associated with science. It seems important that the teacher, particularly the teacher who deals with the subject matter and the method of science, should be aware of the perplexities that exist in the minds of young people, and should develop for himself a consistent and workable phi¬ losophy of life that will enable him to give sound guidance and counsel to those in his charge. These are the six aims of general education which scholars from sci¬ entific societies believe should become part of the aims for preparation of teaching of science. They should be¬ come part of the aims for the prep¬ aration of teachers for almost any field. General education is related to the first aspect of being a teacher — that of being a part of the environment of the children in school, of being a personality which impinges at each moment upon the personalities of students. This education will enable them to develop the personalities which will be most helpful to them as individuals and citizens, and most wholesome for the students with whom they work. 1 Progressive Education Assn., Commission on Secondary School Curriculum. Science in General Education, p. 126. D. Appleton-Centur3r Co., New Yo-k, 1938. 2 Evenden, E. S. Summary and Interpretation: National Survey of the Education of Teachers, Vol. 6, U. S. Office of Education. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1932. Teachers For Tomorrow’s World 27 Broad Versus Specialized Knowledge A second area in teacher training deals with an area of specialization of knowledge with what he needs to know about the subject which he is going to teach. Before looking at this area, it is necessary to under¬ stand clearly what American schools are for. According to President Henry Hill of George Peabody Col¬ lege for Teachers : The purpose of the American high school, in the words of an Englishman who sees this more clearly than most of our college professors, is to provide such training and education and prac¬ tice as seem necessary for the induction of all young men and women in the mores of the society in which they will move. To think that the chief purpose of the American high school is to pro¬ duce scholarship is to make the whole matter ridiculous, and seriously inter¬ feres with getting on with the really fundamental, abiding, difficult problems before us.3 4 And again, from the report of the American Association for the Ad¬ vancement of Science, we find the following statement : The majority of students in high school need the kind of science courses which fit their present interests and their future needs as citizens. Such courses must be well taught to be suc¬ cessful with thorough treatment of top¬ ics taken up and with application to consumer prob’ems, personal and public health, the use and conservation of natural resources, international rela¬ tions and so on. 4 This report goes on to state fur¬ ther that many colleges have adopted standards of concentration in the major department which make it dif¬ ficult and often impossible for under¬ graduates to secure good preparation for teaching in as many as three sciences. While present standards 3 Hill, Henry H. “The Teacher Must Learn His Craft.” The Peabody Reflective, March, 1949, p. 83. 4 Arrerican Association for the Advancement of Science, Cooperative Committee on Science Teach¬ ing, mimeo., 1946, p. 109. may be appropriate for the future research scientist, they are not good for the future high school teacher. Colleges should provide opportunity for a concentration which shall not lie in one department but which shall spread not too thinly over at least three subjects in the sciences and mathematics. These comments of the American Academy of Science are true of the preparation of teachers in almost every area. The typical curriculum of a large university or liberal arts college is directed toward the train¬ ing of specialists and not toward the training of high school teachers. The course offerings which are presented point toward the preparation of in¬ dividuals who know more and more about less and less. They do not in¬ clude the broad general problems of a whole field. They may be neces¬ sary to produce persons capable of scholarly research and the advance¬ ment of knowledge, but there should be some way to select these individ¬ uals, and to educate them separately. As Henry Hill has said : Our attempt ‘to educate everybody’ is unique in world history. It is perhaps more an education involving attitudes, and emotions and skills than scholarship and intellect. I have always seriously doubted whether as many as five per cent of the earth’s inhabitants had either the capabilities or the interest to be¬ come scholars.5 It is about time that institutions of higher education recognized this hard fact of life and set up an edu¬ cational program which would en¬ able scholars to move ahead and, at the same time, enable those who are not scholars to receive the broad, rich education within any subject matter field which will make them 5 Hill. Henry H. “The Teacher Must Learn His Craft.” The Peabody Reflective, March, 1949, p. 83. 28 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions far better citizens and far better teachers than any of us. What the prospective teacher needs is broad knowledge in a sub¬ ject matter field rather than highly specialized knowledge. He needs to be trained within any area so that he understands its broad scope and its interrelationships. Only this train¬ ing will enable him to acquaint stu¬ dents with its scope and relation¬ ships. Social Culture The third area in which a teacher must be trained is in that of under¬ standing the nature of society. Much of what has been mentioned earlier under general education fits in here, and I will not dwell upon it further, but merely repeat that it is an area which needs attention. Human Nature The fourth area is that of training in the nature of man. It is here that anthropology, sociology, and most particularly psychology should make great contributions. The teacher must have a thorough grounding in the nature of human nature, in the human sciences, so that he will un¬ derstand how man ticks, what makes him tick, and how to make him tick in different ways. Professional Methods A fifth area of education is related to the manipulation of the environ¬ ment by the teacher. It is the field of professional methods of teaching. These should come late in the edu¬ cation of the teacher, but they should arise out of constant and continuous observation of schools in action, out of the study of the nature of human nature, and out of the nature of society. It is frequently assumed that methods are related to what is taught rather than whom is taught. Colleges and universities multiply methods courses incredibly. There are methods of teaching arithmetic, methods of teaching algebra, meth¬ ods of teaching mathematics, meth¬ ods of teaching biology, methods of teaching chemistry, methods of teaching French, methods of teach¬ ing Latin, and so on and on, down through the long list of subjects that are offered in the typical American high school. Nowhere do I know of a course in methods of teaching stu¬ dents, yet they, and they alone, are taught. Methods of teaching, while they may be accepted verbally, become effective only as they are practiced. There must be long and continued opportunities for prospective teach¬ ers to do this under the observation of master teachers who can give them criticism, advice, and assistance. An intensely practical reason for modifying teacher training programs in these ways stems from the very vigorous activities of the Illinois Sec¬ ondary School Curriculum Program. If I am any judge of what is hap¬ pening, the schools are developing programs which will call for teach¬ ers who must, if they are to be suc¬ cessful, possess training of the type described. Summary In summary, the training of teach¬ ers is a complex and difficult task. If it is to be effective, it must pro¬ duce an individual whose knowledge is integrated toward helping stu¬ dents to learn. It must produce per¬ sons who are aware of the need for Teachers For Tomorrow’s World 29 change, and who seek to develop this awarness in others. To do this, it makes use of broad general educa¬ tion in order that teachers may have desirable personalities. It includes subject area courses which are di¬ rected toward an understanding of people and relationships. It includes thorough grounding in the human sciences. It includes long practice in using methods of teaching stu¬ dents. I have attempted to indicate what, in my judgment, might be a better program for training teachers for tomorrow ’s schools. One of the more intangible, but most important, at¬ tributes of the superior teacher has been left until the last for purposes of emphasis — the terribly urgent need for a better citizenry which comes from the great social problems of tomorrow. When these problems are enhanced in complexity and danger by atomic energy, they can¬ not be met by skill and competence alone. A deep and abiding sense of the importance of teaching must be left within the heart and mind and spirit of each graduate. There must, of course, be love for children, affec¬ tion and respect for fellow teachers, a desire to secure increasingly great¬ er competence and belief in the es¬ sential human values of democracy. These are important, but of them¬ selves they are not enough. They must be coupled with a fierce de¬ termination, a kind of missionary zeal to make the world a better and a safer place for man because of what is done in school. Developing this spirit is the great task of every institution which is training teach¬ ers. In it, we cannot and we will not fail. 30 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 42, 1499 PROGRAM FOR THE 42nd ANNUAL MEETING PAPERS PRESENTED ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY C. C. BURFORD, Chairman Urbana *1. More Data on the Hopewell in the Peoria Region: Ethel Schoenbeck, Peoria. 2. Folsom Points in Illinois: William Smail, Loogootee. 3. You Can Still Find Them: Dr. Dan Morse, Peoria. 4. News and Comments— The Contemporary Archaeological Picture: Claude U. Stone, Peoria. 5. The New Building, Illinois State Museum: Thorne Deuel, Springfield. 6. Sauk and Fox Indian Ceremonials, Black Hawk State Park, Rock Island, Illinois: John H. Hauberg and Russell P. Neuwerk, Rock Island and Moline. 7. Ceramic Series in the Illinois River Area: John C. McGregor, University of Illinois, Urbana. *8. The Non-Mississippi Manifestations at the Fisher Site: Charles E. Gillette, University of Chicago, Chicago. 9. Results of Two Seasons of Archaeological Work in the Starved Rock Area: Graduate Students, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago, Chicago. A. Introduction: Kenneth G. Orr. B. A Non-Pottery Manifestation: William Mayer-Oakes. C. The Earlier Woodland Manifestations: Elaine Bluhm. D. Possible Interrelations of the Heally and Fisher Manifestations: Molly Allee. E. The Fort Ancient Manifestations: Gordon Keller. F. Problems of the European Occupation: Richard S. Hagan. G. Significance of the Cultural Stratigraphy: Kenneth G. Orr. 10. Pictures of Archaeological, Historical, and Scenic Locales in Southern Illinois: Irvin Peithman, Carbondale. BOTANY R. M. MYERS, Chairman Western Illinois State College, Macomb *1. Initial Report on the Vascular Plants of Southern Illinois: Wm. M. Bailey, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. 2. Sanctuaries: Jens Jensen, The Clearing, Ellison Bay, Wisconsin. *3. The Ferns of the Rock River Valley in Illinois: E. W. Fell and George B. Fell. Junior author, U. S. Soil Conservation Service, Rockford. *4. A Checklist of the Vascular Plants of Winnebago County: George D. Fuller, E. W. Fell, and George B. Fell. Senior author, Illinois State Museum and University of Chicago, 5. Antibiotic Studies with Verticillium albo-atrum: L. R. Tehon and J. C. Carter, Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana. *6. Embryo Development of the Pond Cypress (Taxodium ascendens Brongn.): Margaret Kaeiser, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. 7. The Ralph Emerson Preserve, Rockford, Illinois — an Outdoor Botanical Laboratory for Rockford College: Evelyn I. Fernald, Rockford College, Rockford. 8. Intra-inbred Selections in Maize: O. J. Eigsti, Northwestern University, Evanston. Published in this volume. 31 Program of Meeting CHEMISTRY W.# P. CORTELYOU, Chariman Roosevelt College, Chicago 1. Decomposition Potentials to Identify Sugars: G. W. Thiessen and Vada Treloar Tschaepe, Monmouth College, Monmouth. 2. The Periodic Chart and the Total Number of Elements: Frank O. Green and Bernard S. Jackson, Wheaton College, Wheaton. 3. Report on the New National Cooperative Undergraduate Chemical Research Program : E. H. Cortelyou, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago. 4. Factors Influencing Undergraduates Research: Ward V. Evans, Frank P. Cassaretto, and Theodore G. Klose, Loyola University, Chicago. *5. The Place of Science in General Education: Sister Mary Marguerite Christine, BVM, Mundelein College, Chicago. 6. Seminar — The Future of the Chemistry Section of the Illinois Academy of Science: Panel Discussion. Speakers to be announced. GEOGRAPHY JOHN F. LOUNSBURY, Chairman Northwestern University, Evanston 1. The Panama Canal Scheduled for a Major Operation: W. O. Blanchard, University of Illinois, Urbana. 2. Geographic Aspects of the New Political Structure of India: Alfred W. Booth, Uni¬ versity of Illinois, Urbana. 3. The German Potash Industry and its Recent Development: Vernon Brockman, Northwestern University, Evanston. 4. A preliminary Investigation of the Population Cluster in the Lake St. John-Saguenay Valley: Voris V. King, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. 5. Developments in Finland’s Economy Brought About by World War II: Lauri J. Niemuela, Northwestern University, Evanston. 6. Polar Eskimos of Greenland and Their Environment: William E. Powers, North¬ western University, Evanston. 7. The Russian Doukhabors in West Kootenay, British Columbia: Malcolm E. Robin¬ son, Northwestern University, Evanston. *8. The Pulp and Paper Industry in the Lake States — A Study in Industrial Location: L. Majorie Smith, Northwestern University, Evanston. 9. Transportation into the Fountain Square Shopping Center of Evanston, Illinois: Jack A. Bradley, Evanston Community College, Evanston. 10. The Illinois Coal Market: Willis L. Busch, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. *11. Occupance of the Southern District of Southern Illinois: John H. Garland, University of Illinois, Urbana. 12. The Calumet Area Industrial Terminal: Nina T. Hamrick, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. 13. The Climatic Regions of Illinois: John L. Page, University of Illinois, Urbana. 14. Relationships of Southern Illinois Orchards to Physical Factors: Dalias A. Price, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. 15. Farm Management and Conservation in DeKalb County, Illinois: Martin W. Reine- mann, Northern Illinois State College, DeKalb. GEOLOGY PERCIVAL ROBERTSON, Chairman Prindpa College, Elsah *1. The Present State of Knowledge Regarding the Pre-Cambrian Crystallines of Illinois: Robert M. Grogan, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. * Published in this volume. 32 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions *2. Facies Analyses of Niagaran Rocks in Illinois: H. A. Lowenstam, University of Chi¬ cago, Chicago. 3. The Late Cenozoic History of Southern Illinois: Morris M. Leighton and Harold B. Willman, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. *4. Physical Characteristics of the Oolite Grains of the Ste. Genevieve Formation: Ray¬ mond S. Shrode, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. 5. Scenic Geology of Southern Illinois Ozarks: L. O. Trigg, Eldorado. *6. Factors Affecting Laboratory Measurement of Permeability of Unconsolidated Glacial Material: Robert D. Knodle, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. 7 . Geological and Geophysical Studies of the Glacial Groundwater Aquifers in the Cham- paign-Urbana Area: Merlyn B. Buhle and John W. Foster, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. 8. The Warsaw Formation in the Subsurface of Western Illinois: Donald B. Saxby, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. 9. The Neda Iron Ore in Northeastern Illinois: L. E. Workman, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. PHYSICS A. FRANCES JOHNSON, Chairman Rockford College, Rockford 1. Some Problems in Low Temperature Physics: Lester I. Bockstahler, Northwestern University, Evanston. *2. Investigation of a Gamma-Proton Process in Beryllium: Richard L. Conklin, Uni¬ versity of Illinois, Urbana. 3. Neutron Cross-section Measurements at the Argonne Chain-reacting Pile: D. J. Hughes, Argonne National Laboratory, Chicago. 4. The Modern Teaching of Modern Physics — A Proposal: O. L. Railsback, Eastern Illinois State College, Charleston. 5. Microwave Diathermy: Julia F. Herrick, Mayo Foundation, University of Minne¬ sota, Rochester, Minnesota. *6. A Simple Circuit for Measuring Variations in Electrical Resistance of a Human Being Under Emotional Stress: A. F. Silkett and Mae A. Driscoll, University of Illinois, Navy Pier, Chicago. 7. Physics Applied to Watchmaking: C. N. Challacombe, Elgin National Watch Com¬ pany, Elgin. *8. Electronic Aids to Control and Measurement: Howard C. Roberts and Richard E. Wendt, Jr., University of Illinois, Urbana. 9. Quantitative Experiments on Normal and Oblique Precession: Philip A. Constanti- nidies, Wilson Branch Chicago City Junior College, Chicago. 10. The Role of Stops in Simple Optical Systems: Lee W. Gildart, Northwestern Uni¬ versity, Evanston. 11. Some Factors in Determining a Student’s Grade in a Science Course: Paul E. Martin, Wheaton College, Wheaton. 12. A Semantic Approach to the Elementary Laboratory: Andrew Longacre, University of Illinois, Urbana. PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION D. M. HALL, Chairman University of Illinois, Urbana Theme: Developmental Projects in Science Education in Illinois Schools. 1. The Role of Science in the Common Learnings Program: Louise Riddle, Oakwood Township High School. 2. What we are doing in Biological Science: Charlotte Grant, Oak Park Township High School, and F. G. Weber, West Senior High School, Rockford. 3. What we are doing in Physical Sciences: Ralph Edwards, Streator Township High School, Streator, and Robert F. Seamon, University High School, Urbana. * Published in this volume. Program of Meeting 33 Panel Discussion: The Implications for Teacher Training. R Will Burnett, Professor of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana. Biarne Ullsvik, Professor of Mathematics, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. John D. Mees, Principal and Instructor in Biology, University High School, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. 1 tt • •+ L. Wallace Miller, Professor of Biological Science, Illinois State Normal University, T. A. Nelson, Instructor in Chemistry, Lyons Township High School and Junior College, LaGrange. . T11. . TT R. F. Paton, Professor of Physics, University of Illinois, Urbana. SOCIAL SCIENCE LYNFORD A. LARDNER, Chairman Northwestern University , Evanston 1. An Integrated Approach to Industrial Problems: Donald E. Wray, University of 2 Problem of the Sociology of Knowledge: Godfrey Delatour, Visiting Professor from Columbia University at the University at Illinois Urbana. 3. Rationalism, Empiricism, and Sociology: Robert Bierstedt, University of Illinois, 4. SomeGProblems of Methodology in Anthropology: Oscar Lewis, University of Illinois, 5 AnbEvaluative Study of the Group Work Process in an Interstitial Urban Area (Chicago’s West Side) : LeRoy L. Kohler, Bradley University, Peoria. *6. The Structure and Institutionalization of a Protest Group: F. E. Houser, Wheaton College, Wheaton. ^ . 7 Comments on the Current Work of the Illinois State Revenue Laws Commission: Vernon G. Morrison, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. *8. Southern Illinois, A Cultural Area: William J. Tudor, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. 2. *3. *4 *6. 7. 8. 9. *10. 11. *12. ZOOLOGY JAMES M. SANDERS, Chairman Chicago Teachers College, Chicago Problems of the Small Animal Colony: Bertrand A. Wright, The Armour Labora- RobertC Kenmcott and the Chicago Area Herpetofauna: Albert G. Smith, Loyola A^urvey^f^h^Umonidae of the Upper Reaches of the Mackinaw River: Garwood A. Braun, University of Illinois, Urbana. . Genetic Variation in Populations of Drosophila melanogaster in the Chicago Area. Sidney Mittler, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago . Data on the Sex-biology of Two Arionid Slugs : Glenn R. Webb, University of Illinois, Parasites of the Ranidae (Amphibia) XIV: A. C. Walton, Knox College, Galesburg Arthropods of Medical Interest Collected in the Mediterranean Area (An Annotated List): Garland T. Riegel, Eastern Illinois State College, Charleston. Effects of Orchidectomy in Golden Hamsters: Willis E. McCray and Charles L. Foote, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. . , Tir . Some Instances of Diapause among Insects: W. V. Balduf, University of Illinois, XT rbS/iiS/ Notes on the Biology of a Common Gastrotricha of the Chicago Area, Lepidoderma squmatum (Dujardin): Robert J. Goldberg, Chicago City Junior College, Chicago A Quantitative Study of the Relation between the Resting and Acting Potential of the Frog Eye: Stewart W. Freyburger, University of Illinois, Urbana. Incidence of Trypanosoma Infection in Small Rodents of Champaign County, Illinois. Russell E. Nelson, University of Illinois, Urbana. * Published in this volume. 34 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions COLLEGIATE SECTION HARRY J. FULLER, Coordinator University of Illinois, Urbana CAROLE WILHELMI, Chairman College of St. Francis, Joliet A— BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 1. Most Common Rotifera of Lake Michigan Collected in the Chicago Area- Wilmn Lehman and Frances Fazio, Mundelein College, Chicago. g " a ' SLFrancS j“ieLmbry°mC DeveloPment of a Chick: Willye Thomas, College of 3' EvaTnstomqUe f°r Anaerobic Methods: Joseph Gray, Northwestern University, !' AgS1^ Tissues of Drosophila at Difw 5. The Anatomy of Molgula: Joseph Fisher, Loyola University, Chicago 7. Asthma Brought Up to Date: Margeunte Bonner, College of St. Francis Joliet tf ThS LSeCvde-' M^T 0j£trich;d“ Hypotricha) at Different Stages Chicago . “ Cy M y J Kornetzke and Marilyn Tucker, Mundelein College, *9' CoUege^Monmouth. °f Activating TaPeworm Embryos: Shirley Nice, Monmouth 10' Co7gebeMoP^mo°uThCr0graphy the Hand Camera: Frank Ktch> Monmouth “• Monmouth. Bi°logical SPecimens ™ Plastics: Janet Boles, Monmouth College, 12’ hemoglobin Percentages in College Students in the Spring Compared with Early Fall Readings: Jane Martin, Monmouth College, Monmouth 1 y B PHYSICAL AND EARTH SCIENCES, AND MATHEMATICS ?rhiL?p“iConegtlsa0h0tter °reek *"“> **** Cou nty’ IUi“- E- Gene Smith, Medical Application of Radioactivity: Anne Bannon, College of St Francis Joliet Results of a project for the Volumetric Determination of Bismuth- Bruce Ki’rkman Southern Illinois University, Carbondale ^irkman, ^nHtvtw°f we m°rph^inikf Substances in Fresh Horse-Radish: Rosemarv Legenza and Vivian Walkosz, Mundelein College, Chicago. g a andi™rl: Douglas S. Fairgrieve, Principia College, Elsah Titration of Periodates: William Ulrich, Southern Illinois Universitv, Carbondale : Published ip this volume. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 42, 1949 35 ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY LATE WOODLAND OCCUPATIONS OF THE FISHER SITE, WILL COUNTY, ILLINOIS CHARLES E. GILLETTE University of Chicago, Chicago The Fisher Site is situated on the south bank of the Des Plaines River about a mile upstream from where it joins the Kankakee to form the Illinois River. The site originally consisted of twelve burial mounds and a series of probable house pits. Throughout the site there occur bur¬ ials which show no cultural affilia¬ tions, and therefore are not consid¬ ered in the study. In 1906 George Langford began his diggings at this site and found it to be of sufficient importance to be of interest to midwestern archaeolog¬ ists. His work on the site continued intermittently until 1929. He sub¬ sequently gave his materials and notes to the University of Chicago, where they have formed the basis of further research and study of the Fisher Site. In the two larger mounds Lang¬ ford found definite evidences of stratigraphy. Each mound was divid¬ ed into three levels, the upper, the middle, and the lower. The upper and middle levels were each separ¬ ated from the one beneath by a dark seam, which he interpreted to be old ground surfaces. The depth of burial was not significant, but the relative age could be determined by tracing the burial fill to one of the three levels, and determining if either or both of the black seams had been pierced. In the lower level Langford found burials without artifacts. He sub¬ divided this level into two parts, on the basis of burial type and fill. Some were carefully flexed burials lying on the left side with grave fill indistinguishable from the surround¬ ing gravel. This fact led him to call them ‘ ‘ concealed burials. ’ ’ The other burials in the lower level were “sprawling’- in position, lacking orientation or any semblance of plan¬ ned arrangement. In these the grave fill was very slightly discolored by black soil, and he called them “semi- concealed.” In all cases where the “concealed” and the “semi-con- cealed” burials were found in close association with each other, the form¬ er were always beneath. In the middle level Langford found extended burials with grave goods. Although much of the ma¬ terial is very similiar, he was able to separate them into two groups on the basis of pottery differences.. One group is marked by a decorated shell-tempered pottery, whereas the other group is marked by a less elab¬ orate grit-tempered pottery decor¬ ated with many of the same motifs found on the shell-tempered ware. 36 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. I. — Relative locations of features of the Fisher Site. The problems of the upper level are based, for the most part, on the inability of the excavators to ascer¬ tain the stratigraphy within this level. The burials are found in many positions, some with and some with¬ out artifacts. Langford distinguishes three different cultural horizons within this level. One is marked by a grit-tempered unornamented pot¬ tery, quite similar to the grit-tem¬ pered ware of the middle level. The second is a Late Woodland horizon marked by stray sherds and stemmed projectile points that are apparently present in the fill, rather than asso¬ ciated with the burials. The third is an Historic horizon which has no pottery, and is marked by trade ma¬ terials of European origin, and in some cases, flint projectile points and shell beads of Indian manufacture. Langford arbitrarily typed the materials from all of the other mounds and the pits on the Fisher Site, using as his pattern the strati¬ graphy and typology which he found in the two big mounds, as described above. His Gravel Pit Mounds, where he found a concentration of what he called Late Woodland, and his Southeast Mound where he found a concentration of the Historic, were dated as the last occupations of the Late Woodland at Fisher Site 37 site, since they showed similarities to two horizons of the upper level of the large mounds. In 1946 John W. Griffin studied Langford’s material and notes and selected for consideration two types of pottery, one with shell temper and one with grit temper, both with clear¬ ly defined Upper Mississippi affilia¬ tions. .These he subjected to further intensive study and found that they fell into three periods. Period A included the decorated shell-tem¬ pered ware, Period B included the decorated grit-tempered ware, and Period C included the undecorated grit-tempered ware. He considered this to be their chronological se¬ quence, which was also Langford’s conclusion on the Upper Mississippi material. The complete findings of Griffin’s study are found in his mas¬ ter’s thesis, University of Chicago, 1946. In 1940 a joint expedition of the Illinois State Museum, the Univer¬ sity of Chicago, and the W.P.A. en¬ tered the field under the direction of Gretchen Cutter Sharp. This ex¬ pedition was particularly interested in the relationships of Late Wood¬ land and Historic materials to the other manifestations on the site. So far the results have been published in only one article (Deuel, 1940). The present paper is concerned with a more intensive study of the same problem. The Late Woodland manifesta¬ tion on the Fisher Site is identified with pottery having the following characteristics : Grit temper, cord marking, reddish paste, jar form with rounded bottom, and ranging from low to hard firing. It occurs with and without a collar, with and without castellations, with and with¬ out a definite shoulder, and with and without notched lips. Lip notching was done with either plain or cord wrapped stick. Most examples have round mouths, but some occur with angular openings. The thickness ranges from 3.2 mm to 8.3 mm. No lugs, handles, or other appendages have been found. Decoration seems to be limited to punctates in parallel lines between the neck and shoulder. Langford reports two examples of parallel single cord impressions, but these sherds are not available for study. In the current study, the sherds found in the Gravel Pit Mound Wi°5 were analyzed and the Late Woodland pottery arbitrarily divid¬ ed into six classes. Class I One reconstructed pot and several sherds are characterized by low fir¬ ing, angular mouth, flaring rim (slightly thickened below the lip to give the effect of a collar ) , the gen¬ eral lack of a defined shoulder, and a relatively small size. Class II One reconstructed pot and several sherds have vertical rims, thickened below the lip to form a collar. This thickening is apparently due to a folding of the rim. It has a clearly defined shoulder and a character¬ istic change in direction of paddling at the shoulder. Above the shoulder the paddling is vertical, and below it it is diagonal. These pots are gen¬ erally larger in size than Class I. Class III The sherds in this group indicate pots small in size, with thin walls, 38 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions and without collars. There is con¬ siderable variety in all other char¬ acteristics. Class IV One large sherd is separated into this group by its similarity to Tam¬ pico pottery in its rim and shoulder form, and it is smaller in size than Class I and Class II. Classes V and VI These two classes show variations in decorative treatment. Class V sherds have parallel lines of punct- ates on the shoulder, while Class VI sherds have horizontal lines of single cord impressions. There were 415 Woodland sherds found in Wi°5. Because of the great homogeniety of the Woodland body sherds, and their close resemblance to the body sherds of the Langford Corded ( Period B), this classifica¬ tion is based upon the variations found in the rim and shoulder treat¬ ment of 73 rimsherds, 51 from Wi°5, and 22 from the Village Area. These six classes constitute the pottery of the Des Plaines Complex, which is a variant of the Tampico Phase. There are two evidences on the site that this Late Woodland pottery may be present at an earlier time than has heretofore been suspected. Lang¬ ford indicated in a cross section that the upper level of the larger mounds was a grey-brown earth, but that the middle level was a brown earth. The stratigraphy of Wi°5 is appar¬ ently similar to that of the two larg¬ er mounds — upper and middle levels divided by a black seam. Examples of the Late Woodland pottery have been found definitely beneath the black seam in Wi°5, in a brown earth stratum. In a test trench pit, both types of soil were present, but the Woodland sherds were in the brown earth which lay at the bottom of the pit. This would seem to indicate contemporaneous existence with Langford’s middle level, based on the similarity of the soil. Another indication of a probable earlier time level for this Late Wood¬ land pottery is burial East Mound 21 This burial is in the big East Mound, and had associated with it a pot similar to those of Class III. Lang¬ ford describes this burial as follows : “This excavation gave a fine wall section showing the black seam un¬ disturbed three feet below the mound surface. One and one-half feet be¬ low that was a thin dark seam over a five inch ash and dirt layer, and then another seam. The grave had been dug through the ash layer and the lower seam, but the upper seam was intact. ’ ’ This places it definitely in the middle, or brown earth strat¬ um of the big East Mound, and in¬ dicates the coexistence of this Late Woodland type pottery with John Griffin’s Period A pottery (shell- tempered Upper Mississippi) and his Period B pottery (decorated grit- tempered Upper Mississippi) be¬ cause they all occur in the same soil stratum. The major portion of the Late Woodland pottery found on the site is found in Wi°5. It seems to ap¬ pear as mound fill, and is not asso¬ ciated with the burials in the mound. One pot, which has been reconstruct¬ ed, was found scattered over an area fifteen feet by twei'dy feet, and above and below the black seam, where it had evidently been carried by in¬ trusive digging. Other sherds are Late Woodland at Fisher Site 39 similarly scattered over a wide area, both horizontally and vertically. Any reconstruction usually contained pieces from more than one square and level. The fact that sherds are found in the fill closely associated with undisturbed burials indicated that this pottery antedates the bur¬ ials, and probably the mound itself. Associated with the burials in this mound are artifacts, including bone harpoon points, and other bone and stone objects, whose cultural affilia¬ tion is at present unknown but they show similarities to Owasco. Let us now consider the cultural affiliations, in the Illinois area, of the Late Woodland pottery at this site. Collared pottery with an ang¬ ular mouth similar to Class I is found at the Corbin Site, at the Salt Well Site, at the Old Hotel Plaza Site, all in the Starved Rock area. Ethel Schoenbeck has reported a sherd similar to this type from the Clear Lake Site in Tazewell County (Schoenbeck, 1946, p. 389) and Bar¬ rett also reports them as present in the Azatlan material in Wisconsin (Barrett, 1933, pp. 319-20). The pottery with the round mouth and vertical rim (Class III) is sim¬ ilar to that found in the Gooden Mound in Fulton County (Cole and Deuel, 1937, p. 116), at the Mills Village Site in Joe Daviess County (Bennett, 1945, plate 30), and in the Azatlan material from Wisconsin (Barrett, 1933, pp. 308-10). Simi¬ lar materials found at the Boulder Site in Clinton County are classed by Elaine Bluhm as belonging to the Dillinger Focus (Bluhm, 1948). In summary we may say that the Late Woodland manifestation at the Fisher Site seems to be a post-Hope- wellian development. The Late Woodland of this particular type has to date been found only in the Illinois Area. It has definite rela¬ tionships to both the Dillinger Focus and the Maples Mills Focus. The pottery shows a definite influence from the Monks Mound Aspect of the Middle Mississippi Phase. It has in turn influenced the Langford pottery, where its. peculiar styles of grit tempering, cord marking, folded rim, and lip notching may be traced as survivals. REFERENCES Barrett, S. A. 1933— “Ancient Azatlan,” Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, Vol. XIII. Bennett, J. W. 1945 — Archaeological Explorations in Joe Daviess County, Illinois, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Bluhm, Elaine A. 1948 — “An Analysis of Boulder Sites: A Study of Early Hopewell Occupations in Illinois,” Unpub. M. A. Thesis, University of Chicago. Cole. Fay-Cooper, and Thorne Deuel. 1937 — Rediscovering Illinois, Univer¬ sity of Chicago Press, Chicago. Deuel, Thorne. 1940— “Archaelogical Field Work of the Illinois State Mu¬ seum,” Quarterly Bulletin of the Illi¬ nois State Archaeological Society, Vol. Ill, No. 1. Eggan, Fred K. 1932— “Archaeology of Will County,” Transactions, Illinois Academy of Science, Vol. 25, No. 4. Griffin. J. B. and R. G. Morgan. 1941 “Contributions to the Archaeology of the Illinois River Valley,” Amer. Phi¬ losophical Society Transaction, Vol. XXXII. No. 1, pp. 1-209. Griffin, J. W. 1944 — “New Evidence from the Fisher Site,” Transactions, Illinois Academy of Science, Vol. 25, No. 4. 1946 — “The Upper Mississippi Occupa¬ tions of the Fisher Site, Will County, Illinois,” Unpub. M. A. Thesis, Uni¬ versity of Chicago. Krogman, W. M. 1931— “Archaeology of the Chicago Area,” Transactions, Illi¬ nois Academy of Science, Vol. 23, No. 3. 40 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Langford, G. L. 1927 — “The Fisher Mound Group, Successive Aboriginal Occupations Near the Mouth of the Illinois River,” American Anthropol¬ ogist , Vol. 29, No. 3. 1928 — “Stratified Indian Mound in Will County,” Transactions, Illinois Academy of Science, Vol. 20. 1930 -“The Fisher Mound and Village Site,” Transactions, Illinois Academy of Science, Vol. 22. Maxwell, Moreau. 1946 — “A Designa¬ tion of the Dillinger Focus,” Unpub. M. A. Thesis, University of Chicago. Schoenbeck, Ethel. 1946 — “Cord Dec¬ orated Pottery in the General Peoria Region,” Transactions of the Illinois Academy of Science, Vol. 39. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 42, 1949 41 MORE DATA ON HOPEWELL SITES IN PEORIA REGION E. SCHOENBECK Peoria Academy of Science, Peoria This paper gives a preliminary list of objects found at the Rench Village site, north of Mossville, and gives a few comparisons with collec¬ tions from the Clear Lake and Steuben village sites, all Hopewell sites of the general Peoria region. It also reports several unrecorded items from Clear Lake and Steuben sites. Collections were made by Anson M. Simpson, and by Mr. and Mrs. George Schoenbeck, members of the Peoria Academy of Science. Rench Village Site Rench Village, listed as site No. 3 in the Peoria Academy survey, is about four miles north of Mossville, Peoria County, in Medina Township, sec. 15, T. 10 N.,' R. 8 E. It consists of about 20 acres of flat bottomland at the base of the bluff and north of Dickison Run, a small creek. It is part of the farm owned by Mrs. Bertha Purcell of Mossville, occupied by Floyd Rench, and present use in¬ cludes plowed fields, a vegetable garden, and a chicken yard. Indian mounds are located on the Sturm property on the bluff north of the Rench Village site. The Dickison Mounds are about two miles to the east and the Mossville Village site is about three miles to the south. The village and mounds were visit¬ ed by Fay-Cooper Cole and a group from the University of Chicago in 1941. Survey sheets are in the files of the University of Chicago and the Illinois State Museum at Spring¬ field. A brief report on the site, by A. M. Simpson, was given at the 1944 meeting of the Illinois Academy of Science at DeKalb, Illinois. It has been reported that the own¬ er made an early collection of ma¬ terial from the Rench Village site which he sold to a Peoria dealer. Simpson made his first collection in 1937. The Schoenbecks joined in surface collecting the same year, and several years later undertook a limit¬ ed amount of excavating. About fifty trips have been made, the last of which was on May 1, 1949. Other collectors from the Peoria Academy of Science include Leroy Elliott, Virginius Chase, Bob Poehls, Almon Buis, Dr. Dan Morse, and D. Morse, Jr. Excavations have covered an area of perhaps 120 square feet to a depth of about 5 feet — a limited area in comparison to excavations at Clear Lake. The upper depth was mostly bare of material, but several burials were found, and scattered among the village debris were human bones, in¬ cluding skulls and jaws. One skull was found by itself; there was one partial skeleton of a human embryo. At another location one adult burial occurred at a depth of only 18 inches, with village material all around. A thin rough slab of stone, four to five inches in diameter, lay beneath the skull. Part of the skeletal material from Rench Village, together with mater¬ ial from Clear Lake and Sister Creek 42 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Photograph by Barclay Photo Co. RENCH VILLAGE SITE First Row : Rim of Bossed, Channeled, “Brushed” pottery. Sherd of polished, thin, limestone-tempered Hopewell pottery with “brushed” marks in the zoned areas. Rim of thin, polished Hopewell with “brushed” marks placed horizontally. Rim of polished gray, incurved, similar to Marksville Plain. Shell spoon, with hinge removed. Shell hoe, perforated. Second Row : Types of points. Third Row : Pendant. Pipe bowl, highly polished. Stone artifact, with polished tip. One-half of polished stone ball. Copper bead or bangle. One-half pendant, unfinished, with two perforations — one from each side but not meeting. Grooved stone maul. Stone with two inverted cone-shaped pits. CLEAR CREEK AND STEUBEN SITES Fourth Row : Pipe from Clear Lake site. Pottery artifact, sectioned into six sections by rows of punctates, from Clear Lake. Chert ball, with many little planes on surface, Steuben Site. Hopewell Mound, was given to Thorne Deuel, Director of the Illi¬ nois State Museum, for a study of Hopewellian remains. Collections from the Rench Village site include pottery rims, body sherds, and pots; shell artifacts and refuse; stone items; chert artifacts and scraps; bone artifacts, refuse, and burials; copper bead or bangle; carbonized corn, corn cob, and acorn ; charcoal and mica. Howe-well Sites in Peoria Region 43 Pottery All pottery is Woodland, Hope- wellian, and cord-decorated, with the exception of one Mississippi rim and two sherds. Like the Steuben pottery, it is simpler than that from Clear Lake, lacking richness of vari¬ ation in decoration. The fine Hope- well is poorly represented, and the cord-decorated is present in only small amounts. Cord-decorated and Mississippian sherds were collected only from the plowed surface ; the other types were found both on the surface and in the excavations. Pot¬ tery fragments included 313 rims, hundreds of body sherds, and por¬ tions of nine pots, two of which have been projected. Dentate stamped1 is the dominant type, mostly of simple decoration. Punctate ware, dominant at Steuben, ranks second at Dench Village. Ware showing the cord-wrapped paddle- edge stamps, abundant at Clear Lake, is scarce here as at the Steuben site. The proportion of Woodland cord-roughened undecorated pottery is larger at Dench Village than at Clear Lake. The boss, found fre¬ quently at Clear Lake, is infrequent here as at Steuben site. The cord- decorated ware lacks certain dis¬ tinguishing characteristics of the Clear Lake pottery and seems closer to that of the Knoche Village, an al¬ most pure Maples Mills site. The dentate-stamped pottery col¬ lected includes 106 upper rims and 50 lower rims. Most designs are the simple repeated stamp. The rocked dentate stamp and the snowshoe ap¬ pear once each. Six rims are odds. 1 Designated by Cede and Deuel, in “Rediscover¬ ing Illinois,” as type No. 2, and by James B. Griffin, Curator of the Ceramic Repository, University of Michigan, as Naples Dentate-Stamped. The crescent stamp is found in three upper rims and one lower rim. The punctated ware, consisting of 91 upper rims and two lower rims, has mostly the simple two and three punctates, applied unevenly on both cord-roughened and smoothed sur¬ faces. Single punctates decorate the outer edge of the lip on 35 of the rims. Several rims are odds. Woodland cord-roughened pot¬ tery, with the cord-roughening ex¬ tending to the lip, is represented by 36 rims, all of which are undecor¬ ated except two that have bosses. Plain smooth rims, undecorated, number 33 ; two of them are sand- tempered, similar to a Clear Lake ware. Bar-stamped pottery is represent¬ ed by two upper rims that show a plain bar stamp on a smooth surface. Incised pottery included 11 upper rims, six lower rims and other sherds. Three upper rims, two lower rims, and two body sherds are similar to Cole and DeuePs No. 1 type or Black Sands incised, in which the in¬ cising was over cord-roughening, with boss and punctates. Two upper rims and four lower rims were simi¬ lar to Griffin’s Morton incised type of ware. Six upper rims and 21 sherds are unclassified. The cord-wrapped-stick stamp (Cole and Deuel’s term) appears on only eight rims, three of thin ware and five of heavy ware. This stamp is such as could be made by the edge of a cord-wrapped-paddle and is termed by the writer the corded- paddle-edge stamp. Some 28 body sherds show designs on alternate areas or in zones, such as are described for Cole and Deuel ’s No. 2 type pottery or Griffin’s Ha¬ vana zoned. 44 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Representatives of the finer Hope- well pottery and imitations included 14 rims and 11 body sherds. Hope- well channeled rims show horizontal incising or “ brushing’’ and rocked incising. Imitations are of Hope- well cross-hatched incised and the rocked stamp, such as can be made with the raw edge of a broken clam shell. One limestone-tempered pol¬ ished thin body sherd has incised and “ brushed” zoned areas. One rim is smooth, polished, and in¬ curved, similar to Markville Plain. Pot portions, sufficient to project the whole form, are mostly undecor¬ ated cord-roughened, both plain and punctate, but including two that are different. One is a ware not previ¬ ously reported in Illinois, so far as the writer knows. The fragments show a channeled bossed rim bear¬ ing horizontal ‘'brushed” markings and a body on which the same mark¬ ings were applied vertically to a smooth surface. The marks are par¬ allel grooves, long, straight, narrow, and shallow, such as might be made by a three- or four-tined fork with closely spaced sharp-cornered flat tines about 1/16 inch wide. The lip is rounded; diameter of mouth was 12 inches. The pottery is about % inch thick and seems similar to Cole and Deuel’s No. 2 or Woodland Plain ware in paste, tempering, etc. Two similar sherds were found at Clear Lake. The second was a roughly made, seemingly barrel-shaped pot. It had two irregular rows of punctates on the rim and zigzag incisings on the body. There were four cord-decorated rims, all with decoration on the inner side of the lip but only one with it on the outer rim. Tempering ma¬ terial includes a little of the black sharp-angled hornblende ; most is other grit. One rim bears the ear or node but not on a raised point. The Mississippian ware comprises one rim and two sherds. The rim is red-painted, smooth, curved such as that of a low bowl, and has a hole in it, made when the bowl Avas made and painted red, an unusual feature. One sherd is smooth and rather thick, the thinner sherd has been leached of its tempering. The Rench Village pottery com¬ plex, as known to date, seems closer to that of the Steuben site than to the Clear Lake. Factors considered are the simplicity of the dentate stamp design with its lack of varia¬ tion or elaboration ; the importance of the punctate ware; and the scar¬ city of the corded-paddle-edge decor¬ ation and of the boss. Shell Items Shell items include a number of large clam shell hoes, shell spoons, clam shells packed with soil contain¬ ing many fish scales, many refuse clam shells, and a large number of snail shells. The hoes have a %-inch round hole in the center, and a portion of the hinge has been smoothed off at the top. Bottoms are often worn down. These have been found at Clear Lake, Steuben, and the Sister Creek Whitnah Hopewellian village also, as well as at Mississippian vil¬ lages. Spoons were made from an¬ other species of shell, thin and smooth. Hinges were removed or smoothed down, and the dark sur¬ face on the back was partially re¬ moved. One spoon has a finely scalloped edge. Howewell Sites in Peoria Region 45 The clam shells packed with soil and fish scales are thought to have been used to scrape scales from fish. Similar ones were also found at Clear Lake. The refuse clam shells were found all over the village. Snail shells, all of the same species, were found in lots of 20 to 50 at a number of places in the excavations. Copper The only copper found was a cone-shaped bead or bangle of rolled sheet copper. A string of copper and shell beads was reported found about 1922 on the Charles Gauwitz farm across the road, probably a part of the Rench Village site. Stone Items Pitted stones, showing shallow rough peckings in the center on one or both sides, are numerous. A few stones have cone-shaped holes with smooth walls. Holes are about % inch deep. There were 30 celts, counting both whole and broken portions. Axes are represented by one blade, broken off at the groove. There are two grooved mauls, round or oval granite boulders encircled by grooves about an inch wide. There are the usual ball-shaped pecking stones, which are found at almost all villages; but the gouge, flat on one side and convex on the other, is rather rare. Several sand¬ stone sharpening stones were found, their straight grooves worn shallow or deep. There was one whole pendant and eight portion^. One unfinished pendant has two borings from op¬ posite sides, in the usual way, but they do not meet; edges and sur¬ faces are only partly smoothed. Clear Lake excavations have yielded fewer pendants than Rench Village, but the Steuben site is represented in the Schoenbeck collection by 16 portions. A rare item is half of a polished stone ball, 1% inches in diameter. The broken surface is also somewhat polished, particularly on the higher areas, as though from handling or smoothing. Another unusual item is a small oblong stone, two inches long, one side of which is flat and the other ridged, and which has a flat polished tip. Its name and use are unknown. There were also sev¬ eral roughly shaped flat blades, % inch thick, shaped around three edges and broken on the other. The only pipe found is half of a highly polished bowl. Chert Chert items included points, scrap¬ ers, flake knives, drills, and a bird effigy. Points are abundant, as they are at Steuben. Types of points include Woodland, Hopewell, Red Ocher, Maples Mills, and Mississip- pian. The smallest is % inches long, the largest is 3% inches, but the average is 1^2 to 2 inches long. The bird effigy is of white chert and is similar to two found at the Steuben site (one by the Schoenbecks and one by Elliott). Drills are winged. There are three types of scrapers, and chert scraps are plentiful. Bone Bone items, aside from burials, include several broken beamers; a few awls, both single and double pointed; and a quantity of animal bones — deer, elk, beaver, dog, fish. 46 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions and turtle. There were portions of large and small antlers, some of which had been cut. Two antler tips had been shaped to a point. Vegetables Remains Carbonized corn kernels were ex¬ cavated in two places ; some of them had small remnants of cob attached. Charcoal and a carbonized acorn were also found. Mica Material excavated included a two- inch fragment of mica. Unidentified A fragment of material % inch thick and about three by five inches in size, badly deteriorated, some¬ what resembles old leather or hide. It has not been identified. Clear Lake Site An unusual item from Clear Lake Village is a pottery disk, 5/16 inch thick and 1 3/16 inch in diameter, which has a punctate design on each side. Lines of circular punctates mark one surface into six sections, as a pie is cut; a line of punctates outlines the circumference of the other face. The side wall is smooth but the two faces are rough. Another recently collected item is an incomplete or broken disk pipe bowl, 2 3/16 inches in diameter with a inch stem hole centered in the disk. This brings the total number of Clear Lake pipes to seven, which represent at least five types. The “Brushed” ware that is re¬ ported in this paper for the Rench Village site is also here reported for the. Clear Lake site. Several grit- tempered sherds were identified some years ago by Griffin, but have been overlooked in the list of types re¬ ported. Sherds of small-sized buff -colored sand-tempered pottery with thinned and rounded lips are reported for the Clear Lake site. The surface is plain ; decoration includes an ir¬ regular gashing or incising, a low horizontal “welting,” and notches, but most of the sherds are undecor¬ ated. Steuben Site For the Steuben site there is re¬ ported a marble-like object, 11/16 inch in diameter, that appears to be of white chert. The surface con¬ sists of many small planes. It was found on the plowed surface. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 42, 1949 47 BOTANY INITIAL REPORT ON THE VASCULAR PLANTS OF SOUTHERN ILLINOIS WILLIAM M. BAILEY Southern Illinois University, Garhondale The part of the state commonly designated as Southern Illinois con¬ sists of the eleven southernmost counties, namely Jackson, William¬ son, Saline, Gallatin, Union, John¬ son, Pope, Hardin, Alexander, Pu¬ laski, and Massac. The area has 3,751 square miles. Two great rivers form its 'boundaries, the Ohio on the south and east, and the Mississippi on the west. The Ozark Hills extend east and west across the central part of the region. This name is applied because the range of hills was formed by the same general unlift that pro¬ duced the Ozark Mountains in Mis¬ souri. The Ozark Hills were formed from an escarpment at the southern edge of the Pennsylvanian rocks. These hills and their slopes are very much dissected by erosion. Immediately north of the Ozark Hills is the plain which is the oldest glaciated area in Illinois. South of the Ozark Hills is a low, flat plain, which is in the Mississippi embay- ment of the coastal plain of the Gulf of Mexico. Much of the vegetation of this plain is decidedly southern. To the areas described above may be added the Mississippi River, Ohio River, and Wabash River borders. The altitude of much of the plains north and south of the Ozark Hills is less than 400 feet above sea-level ; that of the Ozark Hills is generally between 600 and 800 feet. The two highest points are William’s Hill, in Pope County, with an altitude of 1065 feet, and Bald Knob, in Union County, with an altitude a little less than that of William’s Hill. The plain north of the Ozark Hills and the northern slopes of these hills are drained by two rivers, the Big Muddy River which flows south- westward into the Mississippi River and the Saline River which flows southeastward into the Ohio River. The plain south of the Ozark Hills and the southern slopes of the hills are also drained by two rivers, the Cache River and the Big Bay, both of which occupy an old channel of the Ohio River. The Cache River flows southwestward, and discharges its water into the Ohio a short dis¬ tance above the junction of the lat¬ ter with the Mississippi. The Big Bay flows southeastward into the Ohio. The soils of the greater part of Southern Illinois are not of very good quality. The fine texture and impervious subsoil of the upland soils prevent good drainage and aeration. During the winters the soil is unfrozen much of the time. There is much erosion and leaching by the winter as well as the summer and spring rains. The rapid leach¬ ing has resulted in soil acidity and in deficiency of mineral nutrients for plants.! 48 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Climate is the greatest factor in the development of soils and of vege¬ tation. Southern Illinois extends from 37 degrees to 38 degrees north latitude. The summers are hot, aver¬ aging about 80 degrees F. for July. The temperature for January aver¬ ages near the freezing point. The growing season has an average length of 190 days in the north part of the region to 210 days in the south part. The average annual rainfall of Southern Illinois ranges from 35 inches to 50 inches in different parts of the area. The highest rainfall of 45 to 50 inches occurs on the south slopes of the Ozark Hills. This high¬ er rainfall is probably caused by the cooling of the warm, damp winds from the south as they ascend these slopes. The vegetation in this area is more mesic than in other parts of the region. The heaviest rainfall is usually in the spring and early summer. In the later part of the summer the low pressure areas are sometimes so far north that the hot, dry subtropical winds blow across the region. The principal type of vegetation in Southern Illinois consists of the hardwood forests. On the hills and uplands the oaks and hickories are the dominant species, associated with elms, maples, ash, sycamore, wild black cherry, and other species. On the flood-plains of the streams are found mixed hardwood forests. Clearing the land for agricultural purposes, cutting the timber for com¬ mercial and domestic uses, and de¬ structive fires have resulted in the destruction of most of the virgin timber. The Shawnee National For¬ est in Southern Illinois has been es¬ tablished by the purchase of forest land and submarginal land by the United States Government, in order to protect the forests from destruc¬ tion and preserve them for future use, to protect the land with steep slopes from destructive erosion, and to alleviate destructive floods. Al¬ ready the forestry station at Jones¬ boro is more than paying expenses by the sale of timber. Only isolated, comparatively small areas of prairie vegetation occurred in Southern Illinois. A few small remnants of this prairie vegetation may still be found. In Southern Illinois there are numerous species of plants that are limited to the southern part of the state, so far as Illinois is concerned. Among these are the following: the Short-leaf Yellow Pine (Pinus echinata), on the bluffs just east of Wolf Lake, in the northwest part of Union County ; the Pink Azalea (Rhododendron roseum) in the same locality; the Winged Elm (TJlmus alata), the Cucumber Tree (Mag¬ nolia acuminata) , the Tulip Tree ( Liriodendron tulipifera), the Chest¬ nut Oak ( Quercus montana ) on the higher elevations of some of the hills of Atwood Ridge, in Union County; the Bald Cypress (Taxodium dis- tichum), Water Elm (Planer a aqua- tica), Tupelo Gum (Nyssa aquatica), Water Locust (Gleditsia aquatica), and Virginia Willow (Itea virgin- ica), in the swamps and low woods of the plain south of the Ozark Hills ; the Willow Oak (Quercus phellos) in Massac County; the Overcup Oak ( Quercus lyrata), in the south third of Illinois, in swamps and bottom¬ land woods; Schneck’s Oak (Quer¬ cus shumardii), in damp woods near streams ; Mississippi Hackberry (Celtis laevigata), in the southern third of Illinois, on bottom lands of 49 Vascular Plants of Southern Illinois large rivers; Catalpa speciosa, on bottom lands of the Ohio and Wa¬ bash Rivers; Sweet Gum Tree (Li- quidambar styraciflua) , in swampy woods ; Red Buckeye (Aesculus dis¬ color ), in Union County State For¬ est and the Forest at Horseshoe Lake, in Alexander County ; Farkleberry (Vaccinium arbor eum) , Southern Buckthorn (Bumelia lycioides), Mistletoe ( Phoradendron flaves- cens), parasitic on elms and other bottomland trees; Gray Polypody (Poly podium polypodioides) , a fern growing on rocks and trees in J ack- son County and southward; Filmy Fern (Trichomanes boschianum) , found in Jackson Hollow, Pope County ; Sedum pulchellum, on sand¬ stone rocks ; Southern Cane ( Arun - dinaria gig ant ea), on stream banks and in swamp places; wisteria (Wis¬ teria macrostachya) , and cross-vine (Bignonia capreolata) , near the Ohio River. In our explorations for vascular plants in Southern Illinois, we have collected more than 600 species. We are planning to continue this work. references Britton, Nathaniel Loro and Hon. Addison Brown. 19 1 3—Illustrated flora of the Northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions. Second Edition. The New York Bo¬ tanical Garden. 3 volumes. Fassett, Norman C. 1940 A manual of aquatic plants. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. 382 pp. Gray’s New Manual of Botany. Seventh edition. 1908 — American Book Co. 926 pp. Hall, Edward Emerson. 1940 — The geog¬ raphy of the interior low plateau and associated lowlands of southern Illi¬ nois. 109 pp. Jones, George Neville. 1945 — Flora of Illinois. Monograph No. 2, Am. Midi. Nat., Notre Dame, Ind. 317 pp. Miller, R. B. and L. R. Tehon. 1926— The native and naturalized trees of Illinois. Nat. History Survey Bull. 18. 339 pp. Sargent, Charles Sprague. 1933 — Man¬ ual of the trees of North America. Houghton Mifflin Co. 910 pp. List of Species Collected Equisetaceae Equisetum arvense L. Ophioglossaceae Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw. Polypodiaceae Adiantum pedatum L. Asplenium platy neuron (L.) Oakes Asplenium trichomanes L. Athyrium angustum (Willd.) Presl. Camptosorus rhizophyllus (L.) Link Cheilanthes lanosa (Michx.) D.C. Eaton Cystopteris fragilis (L.) Bernh. Diplazium pycnocarpon (Spreng.) Broun Dryopteris marginalis (L.) Gray Onoclea sensibilis L. Pellaea atropurpurea (L.) Link Phegopteris hexagonoptera (Michx.) Fee Poly podium polypodioides (L.) Watt Polypodium virginianum L. Polystichum acrostichoides (Michx.) Schott. Pteridium latiusculum (Desv.) Hieron. Woodsia obtusa (Spreng.) Torr. Pinaceae Pinus echinata Mill. Taxodiaceae Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich. Cupressaceae Juniperus virginiana L. Typhaceae Typha angustifolia L. Typha latifolia L. Sparganiaceae Sparganium eurycarpUm Engelm. Alismaceae Alisma subcordatum Raf. Echinodorus radicans (Nutt.) Engelm. Sagittaria graminea Michx. Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Hydrocharitaceae Limnobium spongia (Bose) Steud. Gramineae . Arundinaria gigantea (Walt.) Ghapm. Bromus tectorium L. Poa pratensis L. Eragrostis pectinacea (Michx.) Nees Eragrostis poaeoides (L.) Beauv. Uniola latifolia Michx. Triodia flava (L.) Smyth. Elymus virginicus L. Hystrix patula Moench. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. Paspalum circulare Nash 50 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Paspalum fluitans (Ell.) Kunth Panicum anceps Michx. Panicum polyanthes Schult. Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. Setaria lutescens (Weigel) F. T. Hubb. Cenchrus longispinus (Hack.) Fern. Andropogon virginicus L. Erianthus alopecuroides (L.) Ell. Erianthus contortus Ell. Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Cyperaceae Cyperus ovularis (Michx.) Torr. Cyperus ferruginescens Boeckl. Eleocharis obtusa (Willd.) Schult. Scirpus lineatus Michx. Carex vulpinoidea Michx. Carex projecta Mack. Carex grayii Carey Carex frankii Kunth Carex lupuliformis Sartw. Carex squarrosa L. Carex lurida Wahl. Araceae Arisaema atrorubens (Ait.) Blume Arisaema dracontium (L.) Schott Peltandra virginica (L.) Kunth Acorus calamus L. Commelinaceae Tradescantia canaliculata Raf. Tradescantia virginiana L. Commelina communis L. Juncaceae Juncus effusus L. Juncus macer S.F. Gray Juncus marginatus Rostk. Juncus torreyi Coville Juncus acuminatus Michx. Luzula multiflora (Ehrh.) Lej. Liliaceae Allium canadense L. Allium stellatum Ker Nothoscordum bivalve (L.) Britt. Hemerocallis fulva L. Erythronium americanum Ker Erythronium albidum Nutt. Camassia scillioides (Raf.) Cory Ornithogallum umbellatum L. Asparagus officinalis L. Smilacina racemosa (L.) Desf. Uvularia grandiflora Sm. Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.) Ell. Stenanthium gramineum (Ker) Morong. Trillium sessile L. Trillium recurvatum Beck Trillium grandiflorum (Mich.) Salisb. Smilax hispida Muhl. Smilax pulverulenta Michx. Amaryllidaceae Agave virginica L. Hypoxis hirsuta (L.) Coville Iridaceae Iris shrevei Small Iris fulva Ker Iris cristata Ait. Sisyrinchium albidum Raf. Orchidaceae Cypripedium parviflorum Salisb. Orchis spectabilis L. Habenaria peramoena Gray Calapogon pulchellus (Salisb.) R. Br. Liparis liliifolia (L.) Rich. Aplectrum hyemale (Muhl.) Torr. Corallorrhiza wisteriana Conrad Saururaceae Saururus cernuus L. Salicaceae Populus heterophylla L. Populus deltoides Marsh. Salix nigra Marsh. Salix cordata Muhl. Salix humilis Marsh. J uglandaceae Juglans cinerea L. Juglans nigra L. Carya illinoensis (Wang.) K. Koch Carya cordiformis (Wang.) K. Koch Carya tomentosa Nutt. Carya ovata (Mill.) K. Koch Betulaceae Betula nigra L. Alnus rugosa (Duroi) Spreng. Corylus americana Walt. Carpinus caroliniana Walt. Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch Fagaceae Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. Quercus imbricaria Michx. Quercus phellos L. Quercus marilandica Muench. Quercus rubra L. Quercus rubra, var. pagodaefolia Ashe Quercus borealis Michx. f. Quercus palustris Muench. Quercus shumardii Buckl. Quercus velutina Lam. Quercus alba L. Quercus stellata Wang. Quercus macrocarpa Michx. Quercus lyrata Walt. Quercus muhlenbergii Engelm. Quercus prinus L. Quercus montana Willd. Quercus bicolor Willd. Ulmaceae Ulmus americana L. Ulmus alata Michx. Ulmus fulva Michx. Planera aquatica (Walt.) J.F. Gmel. Celtis occidentalis L. Celtis laevigata Willd. Urticaceae Urtica chamaedryoides Pursh Boehmeria cylindrica (L.) Sw. Pilea pumila (L.) Gray Laportea canadensis (L.) Gaud. Vascular Plants of Southern Illinois 51 Santalaceae Comandra umbellata (L.) Nutt. Loranthaceae Phoradendron flavescens (Pursh) Mutt Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia tomentosa Sims Asarum reflexum Bickn. Polygonaceae Rumex acetosella L. Rumex altissimus Wood Rumex verticillatus L. Rumex crispus L. Rumex obtusifolius L. Rumex fueginus Phil. Polygonum aviculare L. Polygonum pennsylvanicum L. Polygonum lapathifolium L. Polygonum hydropiperoides Michx. Polygonum periscaria L. Polygonum virginianum L. Polygonum sagittatum L. Polygonum scandens L. Brunnichia cirrhosa Gaertn. Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album L. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Chenopodium hybridum L. Amaranthaceae Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthus retroflexus L. Amaranthus blitoides Wats. Froelichia campestris Small Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca americana L. Nyctaginaceae Mirabilis nyctaginea (Michx.) MacM. Portulacaceae Claytonia virginica L. Portulaca oleracea L. Caryophyllaceae Cerastium nutans Raf. Stellaria media (L.) Cyrill. Stellaria longifolia Muhl. Silene antirrhina L. Silene stellata (L.) Ait. Saponaria officinalis L. Magnoliaceae Magnolia acuminata L. Liriodendron tulipifera L. Annonaceae Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. Ranunculaceae Isopyrum biternatum (Raf.) T. & G. Aquilegia canadensis L. Actaea alba (L.) Mill. Delphinium tricorne Michx. Myosurus minimus L. Ranunculus flabellaris Raf. Ranunculus oblongifolius Ell. Ranunculus abortivus L. Ranunculus micranthus Nutt. Ranunculus pusillus Poir. Ranunculus septentrionalis Poir. Ranunculus fascicularis Muhl. Ranunculus hispidus Michx. Ranunculus parvulus L. Thalictrum revolutum DC. Anemone virginiana L. Anemonella thalictroides (L.) Spach. Hepatica acutiloba DC. Clematis pitcheri T. & G. Nelumbonaceae Nelumbo lutea (Willd.) Pers. Nymphaeaceae Nuphar advena Ait. Ceratophyllaceae Ceratophyllum demersum L. Berberidaceae Podophyllum peltatum L. Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx. Menispermaceae Cocculus carolinus (L.) DC. Lauraceae Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees Lindera benzoin (L.) Blume Papaveraceae Sanguinaria canadensis L. Stylophorum diphyllum (Michx.) Nutt Fumariaceae Dicentra cucullaria (L.) Bernh. Corydalis flavula (Raf.) DC. Cruciferae Brassica arvensis (L.) Rabenh. Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. Rorippa palustris (L.) Besser Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop. Sisymbrium altissimum L. Descurainia brachycarpa (Richards) O.E. Schulz Draba brachycarpa Nutt. Draba verna L. Dentaria laciniata Muhl. Cardamine bulbosa (Schreb.) BSP. Cardamine pennsylvanica Muhl. Cardamine arenicola Britt. Arabis virginica (L.) Poir. Arabis laevigata (Muhl.) Poir. Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. Nasturtium officinale R. Br. Neobeckia aquatica (Eaton) Greene Lepidium virginicum L. Thlaspi arvense L. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic. Capparidaceae Polanisia graveolens Raf. Crassulaceae Sedum pulchellum Michx. Sedum ternatum Michx. Sedum telephioides Michx. Penthorum sedoides L. 52 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Saxifragaceae Heuchera parviflora Bartl. Heuchera hirsuticaulis (Wheelock) Rydb. Saxifraga virginiensis Michx. Hydrangeaceae Hydrangea arborescens L. Grossulariaceae Ribes cynosbati L. Hamamelidaceae Liquidambar styraciflua L. Platanaceae Platanus occidentalis L. Rosaceae Gillenia stipulata (Muhl.) Trel. Potentilla recta L. Potentilla monspeliensis L. Potentilla simplex Michx. Geum canadense Jacq. Agrimonia rostellata Wallr. Rubus occidentalis L. Rubus allegheniensis Porter Rubus argutus Link Rubus flagellaris Willd. Amelanchier arborea (Michx. f.) Fern. Malus ioensis (Wood) Britt. Prunus americana Marsh. Prunus hortulana Bailey Prunus serotina Ehrh. Rosa setigera Michx. Rosa Carolina L. Leguminosae Desmanthus illinoensis Michx. MacM. Cercis canadensis L. Gymnocladus dioica (L.) K. Koch Gleditsia triacanthos L. Gleditsia aquatica Marsh. Cassia marilandica L. Cassia nictitans L. Baptisia leucantha T. & G. Crotalaria sagittalis L. Trifolium reflexum L. Trifolium repens L. Trifolium hybridum L. Trifolium pratense L. Trifolium procumbens L. Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. Melilotus alba Desr. Tephrosia virginiana (L.) Pers. Robinia pseudo-acacia L Desmodium pauciflorum (Nutt.) DC. Desmodium glutinosum (Muhl.) Wood Desmodium nudiflorum (L.) DC. Desmodium illinoense Gray Desmodium dillenii Dari. Desmodium marilandicum (L.) DC. Desmodium ciliare DC. Desmodium canadense (L.) DC. Lespedeza repens (L.) Bart. Lespedeza procumbens Michx. Lespedeza violacea (L.) Pers. Lespedeza virginica (L.) Britt. Lespedeza striata (Thunb.) H. & A. Stylosanthes biflora (L.) BSP. Apios americana Medic. Phaseolus polystachys (L.) BSP. Strophostyles helvola (L.) Britt. Strophostyles leiosperma (T. & G.) Piper Clitoria mariana L. Amphicarpa comosa (L.) G. Don Galactia mississippiensis (Vail) Rydb. Geraniaceae Geranium maculatum L. Geranium carolinianum L. Oxalidaceae Oxalis violacea L. Oxalis stricta L. Oxalis cymosa Small Linaceae Linum medium (Planch.) Britt. Balsaminaceae Impatiens biflora Walt. Impatiens pallida Nutt. Polygalaceae Polygala sanguinea L. Euphorbiaceae Croton capitatus Michx. Acalypha gracilens Gray Chamaesyce maculata (L.) Small Chamaesyce supina (Raf.) Moldenke Euphorbia corollata L. Euphorbia marginata Pursh Poinsettia dentata (Michx.) Small Celastraceae Celastrus scandens L. Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq. Aquifoliaceae Ilex decidua Walt. Anacardiaceae Rhus copallina L. Rhus glabra L. Rhus radicans L. Rhus aromatica Ait. Staphyleaceae Staphvlea trifolia L. Aceraceae Acer saccharinum L. Acer rubrum L. Acer saccharum Marsh. Acer nigrum Michx. f. Acer negundo L. Aesculaceae Aesculus glabra Willd. Aesculus discolor Pursh Rhamnaceae Ceanothus americanus L. Vitaceae Vitis aestivalis Michx. Ampelopsis arborea (L.) Koehne Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. Tiliaceae Tilia americana L. Vascular Plants of Southern Illinois 53 Malvaceae Sida spinosa L. Hibiscus militaris Cav. Hibiscus lasiocarpos Cav. Hypericaceae Hypericum punctatum Lam. Ascyrum multicaule Michx. Triadenum virginicum (L.) Raf. Violaceae Hybanthus concolor (Forst.) Spreng. Viola pedata L. Viola falcata Greene Viola papilionacea Pursh Viola missouriensis Greene Viola sororia Willd. Viola eriocarpa Schw. Viola striata Ait. Viola rafinesquii Greene Viola viarum Pollard Passifloraceae Passiflora lutea L. Lythraceae Rotala ramosior (L.) Koehne Decodon verticillatus (L.) Ell. Lythrum alatum Pursh Cuphea petiolata (L.) Koehne Onagraceae Jussiaea diffusa Forsk. Ludwigia alternifolia L. Oenothera biennis L. Oenothera laciniata Hill Oenothera pilosella Raf. Oenothera speciosa Nutt. Oenothera linifolia Nutt. Circeaea latifolia Hill Cornaceae Cornus racemosa Lam. Cornus florida L. Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. Nyssa aquatica L. Araliaceae Aralia spinosa L. Aralia racemosa L. Umbelliferae Eryngium yuccifolium Michx. Daucus carota L. Torilis japonicus (Houtt.) DC. Sanicula marilandica L. Sanicula canadensis L. Osmorhiza longistylis (Torr.) DC. Cryptotaenia canadensis (L.) DC. Erigenia bulbosa (Michx.) Nutt Chaerophyllum procumbens (L.) Crantz Conium maculatum L. Sium cicutaefolium Gmel. Cicuta maculata L. Thaspium sylvaticum (Benke) n. comb. Poly taenia nuttallii DC. Ericaceae Monotropa uniflora L. Rhododendron roseum (Loisel.) Rehd. Vaccinium vacillans Kalm Primulaceae Lysimachia nummularia L. Lysimachia ciliata L. Lysimachia lanceolata Walt. Dodecatheon meadia L. Dodecatheon frenchii (Vasey) Rydb. Ebenaceae Diospyros virginiana L. Styracaceae Sty rax americana Lam. Oleaceae Fraxinus americana L. Fraxinus lanceolata Borkh. Forestiera acuminata Poir. Loganiaceae Spigelia marylandica L. Gentianaceae Sabatia angularis (L.) Pursh Obolaria virginica L. Apocynaceae Amsonia tabernaemontana Walt. Apocynum cannabinum L. Asclepiadaceae Asclepias tuberosa L. Asclepias syriaca L. Asclepias purpurascens L. Asclepias incarnata L. Asclepias perennis Walt. Acerates hirtella Pennell Ampelamus albidus (Nutt.) Britt. Asclepiodora viridis (Walt.) Gray Convolvulaceae Convolvulus americanus (Sims) Greene Convolvulus arvensis L. Ipomoea pandurata (L.) G.F.W. Mey. Ipomoea lacunosa L. Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth Ipomoea hederacea Jacq. Cuscuta pentagona Engelm. Cuscuta polygonorum Engelm. Polemoniaceae Phlox paniculata L. Phlox glaberrima L. Phlox pilosa L. Phlox divaricata L. Phlox bifida Beck Polemonium reptans L. Hydrophyllaceae HycLrophyllum appendiculatum Michx. Phacelia bipinnatifida Michx. Phacelia purshii Buckl. Hydrolea afhnis Gray Boraginaceae Heliotropium indicum L. Mertensia virginica (L.) Link Myosotis verna Nutt. Lithospermum canescens (Michx.) Lehm. Lithospermum arvense L. Verbenaceae Verbena bracteata Lag. & Rodr. Verbena urticaefolia L. 54 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Verbena .stricta Vent. Verbena hastata L. Verbena simplex Lehm. Phyla lanceolata (Michx.) Greene Labiatae Teucrium canadense L. Scutellaria lateriflora L. Scutellaria ovata Hill Scutellaria ovalifolia Michx. Scutellaria incana Spreng. Scutellaria nervosa Pursh Marrubium vulgare L. Agastache nepetoides (L.) Ktze. Nepeta cataria L. Physostegia virginiana (L.) Benth. Prunella vulgaris IA Leonurus cardiaca L. Stachys tenuifolia Willd. Blephilia hirsuta (Pursh) Torr. Monarda bradburiana Beck Monarda fistulosa L. Hedeoma pulegioides (L.) Pers. Pycnanthemum pyenanthemoides (Leavenw.) Fern. Pycnanthemum flexuosum (Walt.) BSP. Cunila origanoides (L.) Britt. Lycopus rubellus Moench. Lycopus americanus Muhl. Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt. Solanaceae Physalis pubescens L. Datura stramonium L. Solanum carolinense L. Solanum rostratum Dunal Solanum nigrum L. Scrophulariaceae Verbascum thapsus L. Chelone obliqua L. Pentstemon hirsutus (L.) Willd. Pentstemon pallidus Small Pentstemon digitalis Nutt. Pentstemon tubaeflorus Nutt. Collinsia verna Nutt. Linaria vulgaris Mill. Lindernia dubia (L.) Pennell Gratiola virginiana L. Mimulus alatus Soland. Bacopa rotundifolia (Michx.) Wettst. Veronicastrum virginicum (L.) Farw. Veronica peregrina L. Veronica arvensis L. Aureolaria flava (L.) Farw. Gerardia paupercula Gray Gerardia tenuifolia Vahl Dasistoma macrophylla (Nutt.) Raf. Pedicularis canadensis L. Lentibulariaceae Utricularia gibba L. Orobanchaceae Epifagus virginiana (L.) Bart. Orobanche unifora L. Bignoniaceae Catalpa speciosa Warder Bignonia capreolata L. Campsis radicans (L.) Seem. Acanthaceae Ruellia ciliosa Pursh Ruellia pedunculata Torr. Phrymaceae Phryma leptostachya L. Plantaginaceae Plantago rugelii Dene. Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago aristata Michx. Rubiaceae Houstonia caerulea L. Houstonia lanceloata (Poir) Britt. Cephalanthus occidentalis L. Diodia teres Walt. Diodia virginiana L. Spermacoce glabra Michx. Galium aparine L. Galium circaezans Michx. Galium concinuum T. & G. Galium obtusum Bigel. Galium tinctorium L. Caprifoliaceae Sambucus canadensis L. Symphoricarpos orbiculatus Moench Lonicera japonica Thunb. Triosteum angustifolium L. Valerianaceae Valerianella radiata (L.) Dufr. Cucurbitaceae Sicyos angulatus L. Campanulaceae Campanula americana L. Campanula intercedens Witasek Specularia perfoliata (L.) A. DC. Lobeliaceae Lobelia cardinalis L. Lobelia siphilitica L. Lobelia inflata L. Compositae Iva ciliata Willd. Ambrosia elatior L. Ambrosia trifida L. Ambrosia bidentata Michx. Xanthium pennsylvanicum Wallr. Vernonia altissima Nutt. Vernonia missurica Raf. Elephantopus carolinianus Willd. Eupatorium purpureum L. Eupatorium serotinum Michx. Eupatorium rugosum Houtt. Eupatorium coelestinum L. Mikania scandens (L.) Willd. Liatris squarrosa (L.) Willd. Liatris bebbiana Rydb. Chrysopsis villosa (Pursh) Nutt. Solidago caesia L. Vascular Plant* of Southern Illinois Solidago rugosa Mill. Solidago nemoralis Ait. Solidago drummondii T. & G. Solidago altissima L. Solidago speciosa Nutt. Solidago speciosa rigidiuscula T. & G. Solidago rigida L. Boltonia asteroides (L.) L Her. Aster anomalus Engelm. Aster shortii Lindl. Aster cordifolius L. Aster drummondii Lindl. Aster sagittifolius Wedem. Aster novae angliae L. Aster turbinellus Lindl. Aster ericoides L. Aster salicifolius Lam. Aster interior Wieg. Aster lateriflorus (L.) Britt. Aster patens Ait. Erigeron pulchellus Michx. Erigeron philadelphicus L. Erigeron strigosus Muhl. Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. Erigeron divaricatus Michx. Erigeron canadensis L. Pluchea camphorata (L.) DC. Antennaria plantaginifolia Hook. Gnaphaiium obtusifolium L. Silphium terebinthinaceum Jacq. Silphium laciniatum L. Silphium Silphium integrifolium Michx. Silphium perfoliatum L. Parthenium integrifolium L. Heliopsis helianthoides (L.) Sweet Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. Rudbeckia hirta L. Rudbeckia subtomentosa Pursli Galinsoga ciliata (Raf.) Blake Helianthus strumosus L. Helianthus tuberosus L. Helianthus maximiliani Schrad. Actinomeris alternifolia (L.) DC. Verbesina helianthoides Michx. Coreopsis pubescens L. Coreopsis tripteris L. Bidens comosa (Gray) Wieg. Bidens aristosa (Michx.) Britt. Helenium nudiflorum Nutt. Helenium tenuifolium Nutt. Achillea millefolium L. Anthemis cotula L. Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L. Cacalia atriplicifolia L. Senecio plattensis Nutt. Senecio aureus L. Senecio glabellus Poir. Arctium minus (Hill) Bernh. Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Airy-Shaw Cirsium discolor (Muhl.) Spreng. Cirsium altissimum (L.) Spreng. Serinia oppositifolia (Raf.) Ktze. Krigia dandelion (L.) Nutt. Krigia biflora (Walt) Blake Lactuca scariola L. Lactuca canadensis L. Lactuca floridana (L.) Gaertn. Pyrrhopappus carolinianus (Walt.) DC. Taraxacum vulgare (Lam.) Schrank 56 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vot. 42, 1 949 FERNS OF ROCK RIVER VALLEY IN ILLINOIS* EGBERT W. FELL and GEORGE B. FELL Rockford, Illinois The purpose of this paper is to give some account of the fern hab¬ itats and of the present fern popu¬ lation of the drainage basin of Rock River from the Wisconsin state line to Dixon, a distance of fifty miles. The area includes Boone, Winne¬ bago, eastern Stephenson, western Ogle and a part of Lee Counties. This is a glaciated, partly wooded but mostly prairie area where the streams have cut hills, cliffs and ravines which with their bordering woods, the sandy area in northeast¬ ern Winnebago County and the sandstone area in Ogle County, pro¬ vide the diversification of soil and terrain necessary for the formation of differing fern habitats. The woods are mostly an oak-hickory associa¬ tion. The rock outcrops are small and infrequent except along Kish- waukee and Rock Rivers. They are of Galena dolomite and Plattville limestone except in Ogle County where there is a considerable ex¬ posure of St. Peter sandstone along Rock River. In northern Boone County there are peaty bog areas, and in the sand area in Winnebago County there are boggy areas with Sphagnum and northern plants that are not found elsewhere in this region. The fern habitats in the area are : sandstone outcrops and ravines, ex¬ posed and shaded ; limestone out¬ crops and ravines, exposed and , Thex field work was done by the authors ove the past five years with collaboration of George I Fuller whose help is greatly appreciated. shaded ; slough marshes and bog areas ; bottomland woods and upland woods. The species growing typi¬ cally on sandstone are Woodsia ob- tusa, Woodsia ilvensis, Poly podium virginianum, Dryopteris disjuncta and Dryopteris phegopteris. Those growing typically on limestone are Cystopteris bulbifera, Camptosorus rhizophyllus, Cryptogramma stelleri and Pellaea glabella. Typically in¬ habiting marshes and other wet places are Osmunda regalis, Osmun- da cinnamomea, Osmunda clayton- iana, Onoclea sensibilis, Pteretis siruthiopteris, Dryopteris tlielypteris and Dryopteris cristata. Typical of woods are Botrychium dissect urn, Botrychium obliquum, Botrychium multifidum, Botrychium virginia¬ num, Cystopteris fragilis, Polystich- um acrostichoides, Dryopteris hexa- gonoptera, Dryopteris marginalis, Dryopteris intermedia, Dryopteris spimdosa, Asplenium plat y neuron, Athyrium angustum, Atliy rium thelypterioides, Adiantum pedatum and Pteridium latiusculum. This list of species known to grow in this area does not account for all the ferns found in Northern Illinois, be¬ cause the unglaciated area in Jo Daviess County with its Fee fern and the Lake County bog with the Virginia chain fern are not includ¬ ed. Few of our species are common and there are only a few areas where ferns are abundant. Specimens of each species are deposited in the herbarium of the Illinois State Mu- Ferns of the Bock River Valley 57 seum. The nomenclature is that of Jones.1 Botrychium dissectum Spreng. The cut-leaved grape fern is known in only one station in this area. It grows in an upland black oak woods on the Winnebago-Boone County line where there is a colony of consider¬ able size in close association with the next species. The plants of both species in this colony are all small, equally fertile, equally bronzed, and look much alike except for the leaf cutting. In B. dissectum the leaf segments are laciniate but there is some variation in this. Botrychium okliquum Muhl. The oblique grape fern is generally dis¬ tributed over this area but is found less frequently than the next species. It is most frequent in the sand area of northern Winnebago County and in the sandstone area in Ogle Coun¬ ty. It is usually found as an indi¬ vidual but occasionally there are several plants in a small area. It is at times found in unusual situations, as an open pasture, a roadside, the middle of a parking space in a forest preserve. It is of thinner texture and the stem is more slender than in B. muliifidum. The leaf segments are few and the serrations are acute. Botrychium multifidum (S. G. Gmel.) Rupr. The leathery grape fern seems to be more frequent in this area than the preceding but is of the same distribution preferring the sandy areas. The ultimate leaf segments are crowded and are ob¬ tuse. The above three species have much in common. They inhabit woods, starting to grow in late June. The 1 Jones, G. N. ‘‘An Enumeration of Illinois Pteridophvta.” Am. Mid. Nat., Vol 39, No. 1, pp. 76-126, July 1947. blade is fully developed by Septem¬ ber. The sporophyll ripens and withers quickly but the blade per¬ sists over winter, often staying green and fresh until after the second year’s blade is well developed. We have had a number of grape ferns under observation for several years. Some of them are large, some small, and they seem to remain so although individual plants vary somewhat in size from year to year. The size of the plant has little to do with wheth¬ er it has spores. There seems to be no difference as to size, bronzing, or other growth habits. They are prac¬ tically identical except for the cut¬ ting of the leaf blades. Botrychium virginianum (L.) S. M. The rattlesnake fern is generally distributed and is common over the area, growing especially on sandy hillsides in woods, shade being the primary requirement, moisture sec¬ ondary. It starts to grow about April 20th in the average spring and is very sensitive to frost. There is a material difference in the size of plants, the small ones sporulating about as often as the large. In our area the difference in the fineness of leaf cutting is not marked enough to justify separation into varieties. Osmunda regalis L. The royal fern grows in the sandy area of northern Winnebago County but we have not found it elsewhere in this area. Though usually found with the two other osmundas in typical situations it is not uncommon for the two others to be plentiful and this fern absent. It does not cover a large area anywhere. Growth starts in late March. It sporulates better in the sun. In the field the brown sporophylls are conspicuous 58 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions but at a distance are easily mistaken for the fruiting panicles of Rumex. Osmunda cinnamomea L. The cinnamon fern is found in the north Winnebago County sand area but is much more plentiful and grows more robustly in shaded ravines in the Ogle County sandstone area where it is associated with 0. claytoniana. It is much less plentiful than the latter. It grows on the east face of Castle Rock in a dry exposed situa¬ tion where it is plentiful but the plants are small. Growth begins the latter part of March though it is quite sensitive to frost. The sporo- phylls grow, ripen and disappear quickly before the leaves are fully grown ; not all plants have spores every year. Osmunda claytoniana L. The in¬ terrupted fern is our most common osmunda. It grows preferably in wet sandy situations but it is also found on the wooded bank of Kish- waukee River in a limestone region. Its moisture requirement is less than that of the other osmundas but it does not grow as robustly in dry places. Growth starts about April 1st in an average season. Onoclea sensibilis L. The sensi¬ tive fern is found all over this area, and although a weed so far as looks and use are concerned it is nowhere common enough to be a nuisance. It prefers wet open places but is also found in woods that are not particu¬ larly wet. Growth starts about April 15th and being very sensitive to frost it often has to make several starts. Pteretis struthiopteris (Michx.) Nieuw. The ostrich fern is quite un¬ common here. In a ravine in the sandstone area in Ogle county are three colonies growing in the shade in a floodplain situation. It is not known to occur elsewhere in the area. It seems to sporulate better in the sun. It is readily found in winter by the stiffly erect sporophylls which form in late summer. Cyst opt eris fragilis (L.) Bernh. The brittle fern is common over the area. It is usually found in moist woods but also on shaded limestone and to a lesser extent on shaded sandstone. With the lady fern it is the first to appear in the spring and it is not very sensitive to frost. It does not stand our dry summers well and often dries up, starting again wThen rain and cooler weather come. There is an extreme variation in vegetative features in different situ¬ ations. Plants growing in loose soil in woods have long branching rhi¬ zomes and the growing point pro¬ trudes and is naked; on rock the growth is less luxuriant, the rhizome is short as is the growing point which is more or less covered with scales. Much sun causes prolific sporulation. Cyst opt eris bulbifera (L.) Bernh. The bulblet fern grows in this area wherever its favorite habitat, moist shaded limestone, occurs. It is also found on shaded stream banks, es¬ pecially in Kishwaukee River gorge. It grows less well on sandstone. Growth begins about April 1st. The young plants have red stipes which separate it in early infancy from C. fragilis. It is not subject to vegeta¬ tive variations except that, its moist¬ ure requirement being high, drought causes depauperate plants. Woodsia obtusa (Spreng.) Torr. The common woodsia is not common in this area. It is seldom found on limestone and here it does not grow on wooded hillsides to nearly the Ferns of the Rock River Valley 59 extent that it does in more southern counties. It grows on a high sandy slough bank in Boone County and on limestone in White Pines State Park, but otherwise it is confined to the sandstone area of Ogle County. It is not uncommon on partly shaded cliffs but grows larger when in hu¬ mus in woods. It is our only fern that grows throughout the winter. In the dry weather of late summer the plants may become dormant, the leaves turning yellowish and the edges curling back. Woodsia ilvensis (L.) R. Br. The rusty woodsia is found in a number of stations in the sandstone area of Ogle County but it does not occur elsewhere in this region. It is often accompanied by W. obtusa which it does not resemble enough to be con¬ fusing. It grows about four inches tall in compact mats on the top edge of exposed outcrops so that it is not difficult to find. In one place in the sandstone area it grows on a shaded sandy hillside and here it is larger than in its typical situation. It can be found in winter by its character¬ istic stubble. It is sensitive to late frosts but quickly starts growing again. In dry weather it tends to curl but is quickly rejuvenated by rain. Polystichum acrostichoides (Michx.) Schott. The Christmas fern has not been found by us in the area but there are specimens in the State Museum and University of Illi¬ nois herbaria from White Pines State Park in Ogle County. The nearest place outside this area that we have seen it is Starved Rack State Park in LaSalle County. Dryopteris disjuncta (Leleb.) Morton. The oak fern grows on a moist partly shaded sandstone out¬ crop near Oregon in Ogle County with Cornus canadensis, Trientalis borealis and Pinus strobus, northern species which are very rare here. This station is probably the same from which M. B. Waite 60 years ago collected his specimens that are now in the University of Illinois herb¬ arium. It is a small patch on a steep cliff, and the plants are healthy so its chances of continuing to survive are good. The nearest outside sta¬ tions are in Green County, Wiscon- son, and in St. Clair County, Illinois. Dryopteris phegopteris (L.) C. Chr. The long beech fern prefers wet shaded sandstone and is in such a situation in the two stations we have found in Ogle County where it is accompanied by Viola pallens which is rare here. Our plants do not look at all like D. hexagonoptera. The blade of D. phegopteris is defi¬ nitely smaller and narrower, it has a distinctly yellow cast, and is more hairy. The croziers are very woolly and brown. It starts growing earlier than D. spinulosa and D. intermedia. The bending of the blade and the deflexion of the inferior pinnae are noticeable very early. Dryopteris hexagonoptera (Michx.) C. Chr. The broad beech fern is found in one small station in a wooded ravine in the sandstone area of Ogle County. It is a much more robust plant than D. phegop¬ teris. The winging of the rachis be¬ tween the first and second pairs of pinnae is always so definite as to leave no doubt as to the species. The characteristic deflexion and turning forward and inward of the inferior pinnae is not seen in dried plants. 60 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Dryopteris thelypteris (L.) Gray. The marsh fern in this region grows mostly in the bog areas of northern Winnebago and Boone Counties in its proper habitat, but we have also found it in abnormal situations such as a dry sunny sandstone outcrop in Camp Lowden, Ogle County, in a rather dry woods in White Pines State Park, and in Winnebago Coun¬ ty, and on a dry railroad bank in Boone County. Under such condi¬ tions it sporulates sparingly and the blades are a different shape, the lower pinnae instead of being longer tend to shorten progressively and to become more remote, thus giving the appearance of D. noveborensis ; but the veins are forked. Growth be¬ gins the latter part of April and the leaves are still very immature in early June. The sporophylls de¬ velop the latter part of July, abun¬ dantly in open wet places but less so in dry places or in the shade. Dryopteris marginalis (L.) Gray. The marginal wood fern is found in this area only in White Pines State Park in Ogle County where the plants are large and healthy but are few. It is common at Starved Rock in LaSalle County and also occurs in Apple River Canyon State Park. The leaves stay green and erect all winter. The number of sori varies greatly on different plants without apparent cause. Dryopteris cristat a (L.) Gray. The crested wood fern grows in White Pines State Park and in a ravine near Oregon in Ogle County, in sev¬ eral places in Winnebago County but it is most abundant in the boggy area in northern Boone County. We have found it in woods and in ra¬ vines but for the most part it is a bog plant. There are never more than a few plants in one place. It is the first of the wood ferns to start growing in the spring. The sterile blades and the sterile part of partly fruited blades are evergreen. There is considerable difference in the length and width of the blades on different plants but otherwise there is no important variation. Dryopteris intermedia (Muhl.) Gray. The common wood fern is not the common one in this region. It is found in all our counties, the dis¬ tribution being much the same as of D. spinulosa but it is much less com¬ mon than the latter. The gradation with D. spinulosa is not apparent in our plants. It tends to grow in drier plices; the leaf is more finely divided and is thinner; the shorten¬ ing of the proximal inferior pinnule on the lowest pinna is definite, and the leaves of this plant do not flop over so quickly after freezing. Spring growth starts after April 15th. Dryopteris spinulosa (0. F. Muell.) Watt. The spinulose wood fern grows in moist woods and ra¬ vines in all our counties. We have found it in a bog in the open in northern Boone County. Robust plants have broad blades and the lower proximal pinnule on the basal pinna is much enlarged and elong¬ ated but there is no sharp dividing line between this and the typical form in our area. This fern starts growth the same time as D. inter¬ media. After the first hard frost the plant is inactive until spring, the bases of the stems soften and the leaves lie flat on the ground, staying green all winter. It is a coarser looking plant than D. intermedia. Ferns of the Rock River Valley 61 Poly podium virginianum L. The common polypody in this area is abundant on the sandstone in Ogle County but otherwise we have found it in only one small station, in a lime¬ stone situation in Kishwaukee River gorge in Winnebago County. Its vegetative characters are not subject to variation. Growth starts about April 1st, the fronds being well un¬ coiled when still quite small. Camptosorus rhizophyllus (L.) Link. The walking fern is found in all the counties of this area on moist shaded limestone. We have found it growing on sandstone on Franklin Creek in Lee County. In one of our largest stations in a Kishwaukee River ravine where the environment seems correct it is of a depauperate type, the plant having a juvenile appearance with blunt blades. In dry situations the edges of the blades are wavy and irregular. We have found but few blades lacking auri¬ cles. It is evergreen and spring growth starts about April 1st. Asplenium platy neuron (L. ) Oakes. The ebony spleenwort is quite uncommon in this area. We have found it in several places in Ogle County and in Boone County. Many years ago we found it in Win¬ nebago County but we are now un¬ able to locate it. Its favorite habitat here is shaded sandstone, but on Castle Rock in what looks like a fav¬ orable situation it is small compared with those growing in woods in a limestone area in White Pines State Park. Athyrium an g u stum (Willd.) Presl. The lady fern is a common fern here, growing in practically all moist woods, in ravines, at the edge of open marshy places, and by acci¬ dent on cliffs. There is a great varia¬ tion in the size of the plants, the color of the stipes, cutting of the blades, size and shape of the sori, etc., which seems to depend on en¬ vironmental conditions. Though the first with Cystopteris fragilis to start growing in the spring, it is very tender to fall frosts. It does not withstand hot dry weather. Athyrium thelypterioides (Michx.) Desv. The silvery glade fern is known in our area from Win¬ nebago and Ogle Counties. The near¬ est outside station that we know is Mississippi Palisades State Park. In our plants the lower surface of the pubescent. This and the silvery streaks the sori make very early in their development are the most noticeable field points. Cryptogramma stelleri (S. G. Gmel.) Prantl. The slender cliff brake is found across northern Illi¬ nois wherever its habitat, moist shad¬ ed limestone, occurs. It is in all our counties. We have not found it in Kishwaukee River gorge in places that look favorable. It is our small¬ est and most fragile fern. It is dif¬ ficult to find, for though it starts to grow early in April, the sterile blades have begun to turn yellow by late May and soon disappear. The sporophylls are a little more per¬ sistent but by the last of July they are very hard to find. In a mild wet fall a second growth of sterile leaves appears in October. Pellaea glabella Mett. The smooth cliff brake is found in this area on practically all exposed limestone out¬ crops. It also grows on small rocks on hillsides, in railroad cuts, in old quarries and on bridge abutments. It is evergreen in the sense that it 62 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions retains its peculiar bluish green color well into the second year. After the pinnules are shed the old stipes persist stiffly erect for years. It prefers a dry exposed situation but if the cliff is excessively dry the plants though plentiful are small. When it grows in a moist shady place the plants are larger and more abun¬ dant. We have found it growing on sandstone only once, on the river side of Castle Rock in Ogle County where it is of a depauperate type. Growth starts about April 1st, the leaves developing slowly. Adiantum pedatum L. The Maidenhair fern grows in large or small patches in most of the moist rich woods in this area but it is strangely absent from some woods that seem suitable. It occurs by accident on moist cliffs. Growth starts early in April and it is the last of our deciduous ferns to be killed by frost in the fall. It is not subject to variations except as to size. Pteridium latiusculum (Desv.) Hieron. The bracken is another common fern which is generally dis¬ tributed over this area, growing pref¬ erably in sandy oak woods but also along roadsides, railroads, and in brushy pastures. It spreads rapidly and forms large patches. It is a stately plant that starts to grow about April 1 by the appearance of three greenish balls on a stem which are very sensitive to frost, so it is not uncommon in a late spring for several starts to be made. This does not seem to retard the later develop¬ ment of the plant. The cutting of the leaves varies from plant to plant and even on the same rhizome. Vari¬ ations are not sufficient to justify separation into varieties. It is our one fern that is truly a weed. Summary The geography and topography of a well defined area in northern Illi¬ nois, the drainage basin of Rock River, is described and some account of the habitats and fern inhabitants of the area is given. The frequency of occurrence and distribution of each of the 31 species that we know to grow in the area are given. Some comments are made about the growth habits and the local pe¬ culiarities of each of the species as observed in the field. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 42, 1949 63 EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT OF THE POND CYPRESS (TAXODIUM ASCENDENS BRONGN .)* MARGARET KAEISER Southern Illinois University, Garhondale Collections of material for this study were made in Collier County, Florida, along the Tamiami Trail (U. S. Highway 94) in August of 1947 and May of 1948. Since it has been stated (Davis, 1943) that the pond cypress, Taxodium ascendens Brongn., growing in this region could possibly be a variety of the bald cypress, T. distichum (L.) Rich., care was used in the examina¬ tion of all trees sampled. Rehder (1947) makes use of the differences in the leaf shape and arrangement and habit of growth of the branch- lets in separating these two plants in his manual and recognizes T. ascendens as a valid species. Cer¬ tainly the subulate leaves, incurved and closely appressed to the twigs, and the more upright growth of the branchlets of the pond cypress are all characteristics in marked con¬ trast to the linear, spreading, two- ranked leaves and the more hori¬ zontal growth of branchlets of the bald cypress (Plate I). The May 1948 collections were used for study of proembryo and early embryo stages, and the August 1947 collections provided material for matured seed and cotyledon counts. Megagametophytes contain¬ ing proembryo stages were killed and fixed in F.A.A., sectioned ten mi¬ crons in thickness and stained with * Aided in part through a University Research Grant, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. The writer also wishes to thank Miss Esther S. Sayers for assistance in collecting material. Haidenhain ’s haemotoxylin and Orange G. Embryos in later stages were dissected and prepared accord¬ ing to the method used by Buchholz (1936). Terminology follows that of Buchholz (1946). The embryo pat¬ tern of development closely parallels that of T. distichum (Kaeiser, 1940). 1. roA Fig. 1. — Proembryo of Pond Cypress, T. ascendens. OT, open tier of cells; PROS, prosuspensor; El, embryo ini¬ tials. 64 Illinois Academy of Science Transactiojis Plate I. — Left, Leaf and branchlet arrangement in T. ascendens Brongn. Right, Leaf and branchlet arrangement in Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich. 65 Embryo Development of the Pond Cypress Proembryos were obtained of the stage shown in Figure 1. There is no rosette tier. The open tier (OT) has six cells. The prosnspensor tier (PROS) consists of six cells. At the bottom of the archegonium four em¬ bryo initials (El) are present. The proembryo at this stage occupies ap¬ proximately the lower one-third, of the archegonium. The embryo ini¬ tials are frequently arranged in tetrahedral fashion (Figs. 2, 2a, 2b). This organization is similar to . that found in T. distichum. There is no primary suspensor system. Of almost one hundred arche- gonial complexes examined which showed any subsequent development of embryos, the number of embryo systems of which each was developed from one proembryo ranged from one to four per archegonial complex. Most dissections revealed two or three separate embryo systems per archegonial complex. These resulted from separate fertilizations and are indicative of simple polyembryony. The prosuspensor cells elongate and push through the lower portion of the archegonium. Some elonga¬ tion is already apparent in Figure 1. They are often much coiled and twisted. Occasionally one or more may appear separated from the em¬ bryo initials (Fig. 2a). No other cell or cells appear to arise from these isolated prosuspensor cells. The open tiers of nuclei, incom¬ pletely separated by walls, are trans¬ itory. Their nuclei had disintegrat¬ ed in the later stages studied. is an early indication of cleavage polyembryony. Later stages in development of in¬ dividual embryos appeared as shown in Figures 4-6. Figures 4 and 5 show the formation of embryonal tubes (ET). The embryonal tubes, formed by divisions of the embryo initials, form a secondary suspensor system. Even in comparatively early stages of development of embryos from one embryo system, one of the embryos is usually larger in size, as shown in Figure 6. This figure shows only approximately one-third of the ex¬ tensive prosuspensor. In only one case of dissection of matured seeds was there found more than one embryo. (This would be indicative of simple polyembryony were it not for cleavage polyembry¬ ony which becomes manifest very soon.) In this case there was great discrepancy in size of the two em¬ bryos present within the megagame- tophyte and both appeared to be attached to the same prosuspensor system. In archegonial complexes examined that contained the sixteen- celled proembryos within the arch- egonia, it was noted that elongation of some of the prosuspensors was more advanced in some embryo sys¬ tems than in others within the same complex. Embryo initials of some more advanced systems were also found to be more deeply imbedded in the gametophyte than were their neighbors from adjacent archegonia because of the greater elongation of their prosuspensors. These obser¬ vations would suggest that the early rapid growth (elongation) of the prosuspensor cells of any one embryo well as the earlier pre- Figure 3 shows early divisions of the four embryo initials (El) of one embryo system. Each unit is to be regarded as a separate embryo. This system, as 66 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 2‘ 0ne embryo system showing elongated prosuspensor. A, archegonium; PROS, prosuspensor; El, four embryo initials. FlG;TS^;LoW1e1r portion of one embryo system showing one of four prosus¬ pensor (PROS) cells detached from embryo initials (El). FlG. 2b.— Lower portion of one embryo system showing three of four prosus- ceHs^EI) cells and characteristic tetrahedral arrangement of embryo initial 3.— Lower portion of one embyro system showing four prosuspensor cells (PROS) and four individual embryos (E). Early indication of cleavage poly- embryony. v J 4* La;ter stage of embryo development (E) showing one embryonal tube (El) ot secondary suspensor system. PROS, prosuspensor. Fig-J ^-—Similar to Fig. 4, with additional embryonal tubes. PROS, prosus¬ pensor; ET, embryonal tubes; E, embryo. Fig. 6. Approximately one-third of elongated prosuspensor shown. Note larger size ot one embryo showing early stage in development of secondary suspensor system (ET). A, archegonium; PROS, prosuspensor; ET, one of several embryonal tubes attached to largest embryo; E, one of four embryos. Embryo Development of the Pond Cypress 67 dominance in size of one of its em¬ bryos, are among the critical factors in determining which embryo shall ultimately survive. The matured embryo closely re¬ sembles that of T. distichum. Of five hundred seeds of T. ascen- dens selected at random from cones collected in August 1948, only 8.4 percent contained embryos. Of these matured embryos examined the num¬ ber of cotyledons per embryo varied from five to seven with 69.04 per¬ cent showing six. Similar counts made of T. distichum (Kaeiser, 1940) from Arkansas yielded 16.6 percent good seeds, although 45 per¬ cent has been reported by R. M. Fisher of the Thompson Tree Nurs¬ ery of Jonesboro, Illinois, for crops previous to 1939 in southern Illi¬ nois.^ The cotyledon counts made by the author on three hundred T. distichum seedlings showed a range of four to eight with the majority showing six. The low percentage of pond cypress seeds with embryos might possibly be explained on an environmental basis. In the regions where collections were made the plants are referred to as “scrub cypress” and are of generally small¬ er growth than T. distichum (Davis, 1943). LITERATURE CITED Buchholz, J. T. 1936— The Dissection, Staining, and Mounting of the Em¬ bryos of Conifers. Stain Tech. 13; 53-64. - . 1946 — Gymnosperms. Ency. Brit. Davis, John H., Jr. 1943— The Natural Features of Southern Florida. State of Fla. Dept, of Conservation. Geol. Bull. No. 25. Tallahassee. Kaeiser, Margaret. 1940— Morphology and Embryogeny of the Bald Cypress, Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Ill. Rehder, Alfred. 1947 — Manual of Culti¬ vated Trees and Shrubs. Macmillan Co. New York. * Personal correspondence. 68 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 42, 1949 CHECK LIST OF THE VASCULAR PLANTS OF WINNEBAGO COUNTY, ILLINOIS GEORGE D. FULLER, EGBERT W. FELL, and GEORGE B. FELL Illinois State Museum, Springfield Winnebago County is in the center of the northern boundary of the State of Illinois. It is traversed by the Rock River and two of its prin¬ cipal tributaries — the Kishwaukee and the Pecatonica — and Sugar River, a tributary of the Pecatonica, flows into the county from Wiscon¬ sin. Most of the county has moder¬ ate topography, the elevation rang¬ ing from 680 to 990 feet above sea level. The northwest corner is more hilly than the rest of the area. Most of the county is covered by glacial drift which was deposited by the ice-sheet of the Illinoian glacial period. The Wisconsin ice-sheet, with its border to the north and east, contributed extensive terraces of gla¬ cial ontwash gravel which filled the major stream valleys, in some places to a depth of more than 250 feet. The Belvidere lobe of the Early Wis¬ consin glaciation extended into the southeast corner of the county, cut¬ ting off the former valley of the Kishwaukee River and causing the stream to flow along the north edge of the glacier where it eroded a gorge in the bedrock about a hundred feet deep and several miles long. The lobe of ice also blocked the Rock River and caused it to form a new channel to the west of its former one, seen at Byron in Ogle County. Here, too, a gorge was cut into the bedrock, but not so clearly defined as along the Kishwaukee. There are small outcrops of bed¬ rock at a number of other widely scattered places in the county where streams have eroded new channels through the glacial drift. Some of the hilltops, especially in the west part of the area, are devoid of gla¬ cial drift and have rock directly beneath the soil. All of these out¬ crops are Galena dolomite except a small exposure of St. Peter sand¬ stone on the east bank of Sugar River. The area bounded by the Sugar, Pecatonica, and Rock rivers consists largely of sandy soil and dune sand. The geography and geology of the county have been de¬ scribed in detail by various authors of the Illinois Geological Survey (2, 10, 11). Like most of Illinois, in Winne¬ bago County the vegetation consisted of a mixture of prairie and decidu¬ ous forest. The forest vegetation was mostly concentrated above the Pecatonica River and along the south and east boundaries of the county. The central area was largely prairie. The soil survey (6) shows accurately the limits of the soils formed under prairie and forest conditions. The plant associations and habi¬ tats may be divided roughly into the following groups : forest, of which at least one area is predominantly sugar maple, others which were large¬ ly oak; prairie, ranging from low wet areas to dry hills; bogs, mainly sedge, but with several Sphagnum areas; swamps, especially along the Pecatonica River ; streams ; lime¬ stone outcrops; and sand. A num- Vascular Plants of Winnebago County ber of unusual northern species of plants can be found in the bog and rock outcrop areas. Agriculturally, the county is on the boundary between the corn belt and dairy country. Cultivation and grazing have profoundly modified the entire vegetation except for a very few small areas, yet there re¬ mains a remarkably diverse flora. The flora of the county has been studied by many botanists, begin¬ ning with Michael S. Bebb (1). Gleason (5), in 1910, reported on the Sugar River sand area vegeta¬ tion. The Nature Study Society of Rockford published lists of the woody plants of the area (8, 9). More re¬ cently Dr. Fernald, of Rockford Col¬ lege, has reviewed the work of form¬ er botanists (3) and published a list of the herbaceous plants (not includ¬ ing the ferns) of the county (4). As a part of the Rockford Museum Project of the W. P. A., Dr. Fernald directed the collection of more than 1,000 plants in the county during the seasons of 1939 and 1940. These were deposited, in the herbarium of Rockford College, duplicates being given to the Illinois State Herbarium at Springfield. During the last few year inten¬ sive study of the flora has been made by the junior authors and the col¬ lections thus obtained have been de¬ posited in the herbarium of the Illi¬ nois State Museum, Springfield, and on these specimens this list is based with a few exceptions that are in the herbarium of the Chicago Nat¬ ural History Museum and these ex¬ ceptions have been checked by the senior author. There are also a few that are in the herbarium of Rock¬ ford College which are marked with an asterisk (*) but have been re¬ ported in the previously published lists. The taxonomic arrangement and nomenclature follow Jones (7) with very few exceptions. Lycopodiaceae Lycopodium lucidulum Michx. Selaginellaceae Selaginella rupestris (L.) Spring. Equisetaceae Equisetum arvense L. laevigatum A. Br. ” prealtum Raf. Ophioglossaceae Botrychium dissectum Spreng. ” multifidum (Gmel.) Rupr. obliquum Muhl. ” 'virginianum (L.) Sw. Osmundaceae Osmunda cinnamomea L. claytoniana L. regalis L. Polypodiaceae Cystopteris bulbifera (L.) Bernh. fragilis (L.) Bernh. Onoclea sensibilis L. Dryopteris cristata (L.) Gray intermedia (Muhl.) Gray spinulosa (Muell.) Watt thelypteris (L.) Gray Polypodium virginianum L. Camptosorus rhizophyllus (L.) Link Asplenium platy neuron (L.) Oakes Athyrium angustum (Willd.) Presl. thelypteroides (Michx.) Desv. Cryptogramma stelleri (Gmell.) Prantl. Pellaea glabella Mett. Adiantum pedatum L. Pteridium latiusculum (Desv.) Hieron. Taxaceae Taxus canadensis Marsh. Pinaceae Pinus strobus L. Juniperus virginiana L. Typhacrae Typha angustifolia L. ” latifolia L. Sparganiaceae Sparganium americanum Nutt. eurycarpum Engelm. Potamogetonaceae Potamogeton americanus C. & S. foliosus Raf. lucens L. pectinatus L. Alismaceae Alisma subcordatum Raf. Sagittaria brevirostra Mack & Bush latifolia Willd. longirostra (Micheli) Sm.* 70 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Hydrocharitaceae Anacharis canadensis (Michx.) Planch. Gramineae Bromus ciliatus L. commutatus Schrad. * inermis Leyss kalmii Gray secalinus L. tectorum L. Festuca obtusa Spreng. ” octoflora Walt. Glyceria grandis Wats. septentrionalis Hitchc. * striata (Lam.) Hitchc. Poa annua L. ” compressa L. ” palustris L. * ” pratensis L. ” sylvestris Gray Eragrostis capillaris (L.) Nees. cilianensis (All.) Link frankii C.A. Mey hypnoides (Lam.) BSP pectinacea (Michx.) Nees. ” spectabilis (Pursh) Steud. Diarrhena americana Beauv. Dactylis glomerata L. Phragmites communis Trin. Triodia flava (L.) Smyth Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. ” smithii Rydb. Elymus canadensis L. villosus Muhl. ” virginicus L. Hystrix patula Moench. Hordeum jubatum L. Koeleria cristata (L.) Pers. Arrehnatherum elatius (L.) Mert. & Koch. Danthonia spicata (L.) Beauv. Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv. Calamovilfa longifolia (Hook.) Scribn. Agrostis alba L. hiemalis (Walt.) BSP. Cinna arundinacea L. Phleum pratense L. Alopecurus carolinianus Walt. Muhlenbergia foliosa (R. & S.) Trin. mexicana (L.) Trin. schreberi Gmel. Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) Gray heterolepis Gray ” neglectus Nash. Orzopsis asperifolia Michx. racemosa (Sm.) Ricker Stipa comata Trin. & Rupr. * ” spartea Trin. Aristida oligantha Michx. purpurascens Poir. * tuberculosa Nutt. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Spartina pectinata Link Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Torr. Hierochloe odorata (L.) Beauv.* Leersia oryzoides (L.) Sw. ” _ virginica Willd. Zizania aquatica L. Digitaria ischaemum (Schreb.) Muhl. sanguinalis (L.) Scop Panicum capillare L. clandestinum L.* dichotomum L. dichotomiflorum Michx. huachucae Ashe latifolium L. perlongum Nash.* scribnerianum Nash, villosissimum Nash, virgatum L. Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv. ” walteri (Pursh) Heller Setaria lutescens (Weigel) Hubb. ” viridis (L.) Beauv. Cenchrus longispinus (Hack.) Fern. Andropogon furcatus Muhl. scoparius Michx. Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash. Cyperaceae Cyperus aristatus Rottb. diandrus L. engelmannii Steud. esculentus L. ferruginescens Boeckl. filiculmis Vahl. houghtonii Torr. rivularis Kunth. schweinitzii Torr. strigosus L. Dulichium arundinaceum (L.) Britt. Eleocharis acicularis (L.) R. & S. compressa Sulliv. engelmannii Steud. obtusa (Willd.) Schult. ovata (Roth.) R. & S. palustris (L.) R. & S. quadrangulata (Michx.) R. & S. tenuis (Willd.) Schult. Bulbostylis capillaris (L.) Clarke Hemicarpa micrantha (Vahl.) Britt Fimbristylis autumnalis (L.) R. & S. Scirpus americanus Pers. ” atrovirens Muh. ” cyperinus (L.) Kunth. ” fluviatilis (Torr.) Gray* ” lineatus Michx. ” validus Vahl. Eriophorum angustifolium Honck. virginicum L. Rhynchospora alba (L.) Vahl. Scleria triglomerata Michx. Carex aurea Nutt. ” bebbii Olney ” bicknellii Britt. ” blanda Dewey ” buxbaumii Wahl. ” cephaloidea Dewey ” cephalophora Muhl. ” chordorrhiza Ehrh. * ” comosa Boott. ” conoidea Schkuhr. ” cristatella Britt ” crus-corvi Shuttlew Vascular Plants of Winnebago County 71 Carex davisii Schw. & Torr. ” festucacea Schk. * ” filiformis L. ” gracillima Schw. ” granularis Muhl. ” gravida Bailey ” grisea Wahl. ” grayii Carey ” hirtifolia Mack.* ” hystricina Muhl. ” interior Bailey ” lanuginosa Michx. ” laxiflora Lam. ” longirostris Torr. ” lupulina Muhl. ” lurida Wahl. ” muskingumensis Schw.* ” muhlenbergii Schk. ” pennsylvanica L. ” plantaginea Lam. ” pseudo-cyperus L. ” retrorsa Schwein. * ” richardsonii R. Br ” rostrata Stokes ” rosea Schk. ” scoparia Schk. ” shortiana Dewey ” sparganoides Muhl. * ” sprengelii Dewey ” stipata Muhl. ” straminea Willd. ” stricta Lam. ” tenera Dewey ” tribuloides Wahl. ” tuckermannii Dewey* ” varia Muhl. ” virescens Muhl. ” vulpinoidea Michx. Araceae Arisaema atrorubens (Ait.) Blume dracontium (L.) Schott. Symplocarpus foetidus (L.) Nutt. Acorus calamus L. Lemnaceae Lemna minor L. ” trisulca L. Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleiden Xyridaceae Xyris torta Sm. Commelinaceae Commelina communis L. virginica L. Tradescantia canaliculata Raf. virginiana L. Pontederiaceae Pontederia cordata L. Heteranthera dubia (Jacq.) MacM. Juncaceae Juncus acuminatus Michx. ” balticus var. littoralis Engelm. ” dudley Wieg. ” effusus L. ” greenei Oakes & Tuck. Juncus interior Wieg. ” macer S. F. Gray ” marginatus Rostk. ” nodosus L. ” scirpoides Lam. ” vaseyi Engelm. Luzula multiflora (Ehrh.) Lej. Liliaceae Hemerocallis fulva L. Allium canadense L. ” cernuum Roth. ” tricoccum Ait. Asparagus officinalis L. Camassia scillioides (Raf.) Cory Erythroniumllalbidum Nutt americanum Ker. Lilium michiganense Farw. ” umbellatum Pursh Maianthemum canadense var. interius Fern. Ornithogalum umbellatum L. Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.) Ell. Uvularia grandiflora Sm. Trillium gleasoni Fern. recur vatum Beck. Smilacina racemosa (L.) Desf. stellata (L.) Desf. Smilax ecirrhata (Engelm.) Wats. ” lasioneuron Hook. ” hispida Muhl. ” rotundifolia L. Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea villosa L. Amaryllidaceae Aletris farinosa L. Hypoxis hirsuta (L.) Coville Iridaceae Belamcanda chinensis (L.) DC Iris shrevei Small Sisyrinchium albidum Raf. angustifolium Mill. ” graminoides Bickn. Orchidaceae Cypripedium candidum Muhl. ” parviflorum Salisb. reginae Walt. Orchis spectabilis L. Habenaria bracteata (Muhl.) R. Br. ” lacera (Michx.) Lodd. leucophaea (Nutt.) Gray psycodes (L.) Spreng. Calopogon pulchellus (Salisb.) R. Br. Triphora trianthophora (Sw.) Rydb. Spiranthes cernua (L.) Rich. Goodyera pubescens (Willd.) R. Br. Liparis liliifolia (L.) Rich. Aplectrum hyemale (Muhl.) Torr. Corallorrhiza maculata Raf. Salicaceae Populus alba L. deltoides Marsh, grandidentata Michx. tremuloides Michx. 72 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Salix amygdaloides Anders. ” bebbiana Sarg. ” Candida Fluegge. ” cordata Muhl. ” discolor Muhl. ” fragilis L. ” glaucophylla Bebb. ” humilis Marsh. ” interior Rowlee ” lucida Muhl. ” nigra Marsh. ” pedicellaris Pursh. * ” petiolaris Sm. ” sericea Marsh. ” tristis Ait. Juglandaceae Juglans cinerea L. ” nigra L. Carya cordiformis (Wang.) K. Koch. ” ovata (Mill.) K. Koch. Betulaceae Alnus incana (L.) Moench. Corylus americana Walt. Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) Koch. Carpinus caroliniana Walt. Betula lutea Michx. f. ” glandulifera (Regel) Butler ” pumila L. Fagaceae Quercus alba L. ” bicolor Willd. borealis Michx. f. ellipsoidalis Hill macrocarpa Michx. muhlenbergia Engelm. palustris Muench. velutina Lam. Ulmaceae Ulums americana L. ” fulva Michx. Celtis occidentals L. Morus rubra L. Cannabinaceae Cannabis sativa L. Humulus americanus Nutt. Urticaceae Urtica procera Muhl. Boehmera cylindrica (L.) Sw. Pilea pumila (L.) Gray Laportea canadensis (L.) Gaud. Parietaria pennsylvanica Muhl. Santalaceae Comandra umbellata (L.) Nutt. Aristolochiaceae Asarum acuminatum (Ashe) Bickn. reflexum Bickn. Polygonaceae Rumex acetosella L. ” altissimus Wood ” britannica L. ” crispus L. ” orbiculatus Gray ” verticillatus L. Polygonum aviculare L. buxiforme Small coccineum Muhl. convolvulus L. hydropiper L. hydropiperoides Michx. lapathifolium L. orientale L. natans (Michx.) Eaton pennsylvanicum L. persicaria L. punctatum Ell. ramosissimum Michx. scandens L. ” sagittatum L. tenue Michx. virginianum L. Polygonella articulata (L.) Meis. Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album L. berlandieri Moq.* boscianum Moq. capitatum L. glaucum L. hybridum L. leptophyllum Nutt. * ” urbicum L. Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrad. Atriplex patula L. Salsola pestifer A. Nels. Amaranthaceae Amaranthus blitoides Wats. graecizans L. hybridus L. retroflexus L. spinosus L. Acnida altissima Riddell ” tamariscina (Nutt.) Wood. Froelichia gracilis Moq. Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca americana L. Nyctaginaceae Mirabilis nyctaginea (Michx.) MacM. Illecebraceae Paronychia canadensis (L.) Wood Scleranthus annuus L. Aizoaceae Mollugo verticillata L. Portulacaceae Talinum rugospermum Holz. Claytonia virginica L. Portulaca oleracea L. Caryophyllaceae Cerastium nutans Raf. vulgatum L. Stellaria aquatica (L.) Scop, longifolia Muhl. media (L.) Cyril. Arenaria lateriflora L. serpyllifolia L. stricta Michx. Agrostemma githago L. Vascular Plants of Winnebago County 73 Silene antirrhina L. ” cucubalus Wibel. ” dichotoma Ehrh. ” nivea (Nutt.) Otth. ” noctiflora L. ” stellata (L.) Ait. Lychnis alba Mill. Saponaria officinalis L. vaccaria L. Ranunculaceae Caltha palustris L. Hydrastis canadensis L. Isopyrum biternatum (Raf.) T. & G. Aquilegia canadensis L. Actaea alba (L.) Mill. ” rubra (Ait.) Willd. ” rubra var. neglecta Gill. Ranunculus abortivus L. acnis L. ” fascicularis Muhl. flabellaris Raf. ” hispidus Michx. pennsylvanicus L. f. recurvatus Poir. repens L. ” rhomboideus Goldie sceleratus L. septentrionalis Poir. ” trichophyllus Chaix. Thalictrum dasycarpum F. & L. dioicum L. revolutum DC. Anemone canadensis L. caroliniana Walt, cylindrica Gray ludoviciana Nutt, quinquefolia L. virginiana L. Anemonella thalictroides (L.) Spach. Hepatica acutiloba DC. americana (DC.) Ker. Clematis virginiana L. N ymphaeaceae Nuphar advena Ait. Nymphaea tuberosa Paine Berberidaceae Podophyllum peltatum L. Jeffersonia diphylla (L.) Pers. Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx. Menispermaceae Menispermum canadense L. Lauraceae Lindera benzoin (L.) Blume Papaveraceae Sanguinaria canadensis L. Fumariaceae Dicentra canadensis (Goldie) Walp. cucullaria (L.) Bernh. Corydalis flavula (Raf.) DC. montana Engelm. Fumaria officinalis L. Cruciferae Allaria officinalis Andrz. Brassica alba (L.) Rabenh. arvensis (L.) Raben. campestris L. juncea (L.) Cosson nigra (L.) Koch. Diplotaxis muralis (L.) DC. Rorippa palustris (L.) Bess. sessiflora (Nutt.) Hitchc. sylvestris (L.) Besser Sisymbrium altissimum L. officinale (L.) Scop. Conringia orientalis (L.) Dum. Erysimum cheiranthoides L. inconspicuum (Wats.) MacM. Hesperis matronalis L. Descurainia brachycarpa (Rich.) Schulz. Draba reptans (Lam.) Fern. Dentaria laciniata Muhl. Iodanthus pinnatifidus (Michx.) Steud. Cardamine bulbosa (Schreb.) BSP. douglassii (Torr.) Britt, pennsylvanica Muhl. Arabis canadensis L. ” confinis Wats. ” dentata T. & G. ” laevigata (Muhl.) Poir. ” lyrata L. ” pycnocarpa Hopkins Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. Nasturtium officinale R. Br. Armoracia aquatica (Eaton) Greene rusticana Gaertn. Berteroa incana (L.) DC. Camelina microcarpa Andrz. Lepidium campestre (L.) R. Br. perfoliatum L. virginicum L. Thlaspi arvense L. Capsella bursa-pastoria (L.) Medic. Capparidaceae Polanisia graveolens Raf. trachysperma T. & G. Crassulaceae Penthorum sedoides L. Parnassiaceae Parnassia glauca Raf. Saxifragaceae Heuchera hispida Pursh Mitella diphylla L. Sullivantia renifolia Rosend. Saxifraga pennsylvanica L. virginiana Michx. Grossulariaceae Ribes americanum Mill. ” cynosbati L. ” missouriense Nutt.* ” odoratum Wendl. Hamamelidaceae Hamamelis virginiana L. Platanaceae Platanus occidentalis L. 74 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Rosaceae Physocarpus opulifolius (L.) Maxim. Spiraea alba DuRoi ” tomentosa L. Aruncus dioicus (Walt.) Fern. Fragaria americana (Porter) Britt, virginiana Duch. Potentilla anserina L. argentea L. arguta Pursh fruticosa L. monspeliensis L. palustris (L.) Scop.* recta L. simplex Michx. Geum canadense Jacq. ” laciniatum Murr. ” strictum Ait. ” triflorum Pursh Agrimonia gryposepala Wallr. parviflora Ait. pubescens Wallr. rostellata Wallr. Rubus allegheniensis Porter ” flagellaris Willd. ” hispidus L. ” occidentalis L. ” pubescens Raf. ” strigosus Michx. ” spp. Rosa blanda Ait. ” Carolina L. ” palustris Marsh. ” suffulta Greene Amelanchier arborea (Michx. f.) Fern, laevis Wieg. spicata (Lam.) K. Koch. Pyrus communis L. Malus ioensis (Wood) Britt. Aronia melanocarpa (Michx.) Ell. ” prunifolia (Marsh.) Rehd. Crataegus calpodendron (Ehrh.) Medic, locuples Sarg. mollis (T. & G.) Scheele pedicellata Sarg. pruinosa (Wendl.) K. Koch, punctata Jacq. succulenta Link Prunus americana Marsh. ” lanata (Sudw.) M. & B. ” nigra L. ” pumila L. ” pennsylvanica L. ” serotina Ehrh. ” virginiana L. Leguminosae Desmanthus illinoensis (Michx.) MacM. Gymnocladus dioica (L.) K. Koch. Gleditsia triancanthos L. Cassia fasciculata Michx. ” hebecarpa Fern. Baptisia leucantha T. & G. leucophaea Nutt. Lupinus perennis L. Trifolium arvense L. hybridum L. pratense L. procumbens L. repens L. Melilotus alba Desr. officinalis (L.) Lam. Medicago lupulina L. sativa L. Psoralea tenuiflora Pursh Amorpha canescens Pursh fruticosa L. Petalostemum candidum (Willd.) Michx. ” purpureum (Vent.) Rydb. Tephrosia virginiana (L.) Pers. Robinia pseudoacacia L. Caragana arborescens Lam. Astragalus canadensis L. Desmodium canadense (L.) DC. canescens (L.) DC. dillenii Dari. glutinosum (Muhl.) Wood illinoense Gray nudiflorium (L.) D.C. paniculatum (L.) DC. Lespedeza capitata Michx. hirta (L.) Horn, intermidia (Wats.) Britt, repens (L.) Bart, violacea (L.) Pers. Vicia americana Muhl. ” caroliniana Walt. ” cracca L. * ” sativa L. ” villosa Roth. Lathyrus myrtifolius Muhl. ochroleucus Hook, plaustris L. venosus Muh. Apios americana Medic. Strophostyles helvola (L.) Britt. Amphicarpa bracteata (L.) Fern. comosa (L.) G. Don. Geraniaceae Geranium carolinianum L. maculatum L. sibiricum L. Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata L. ” cymosa Small ” stricta ” violacea L. Linaceae Linum sulcatum Riddell ” medium (Planch.) Britt. ” usitatissimum L. Balsaminaceae Impatiens biflora Walt. pallida Nutt. Limnanthaceae Floerkea proserpinacoides Willd. Vascular Plants of Winnebago County 75 Rutaceae Zanthoxylum americanum Mill. Ptelea trifoliata L. Polygalaceae Polygala cruciata L. incarnata L. polygama Walt, sanquinea L. senega L. verticillata L. Euphorbiaceae Acalypha virginica L. Euphorbia commutata Engelm. ” corollata Pursh cyparissias L. ” esula L. geyeri Engelm. humistrata Engelm.* ” maculata L. marginata Pursh ” obtusata Pursh peplus L. polygonfolia L. supina Raf. Poinsettia dentata (Michx.) Small heterophylla (L.) Small Callitrichaceae Callitriche heterophylla Pursh palustris L. Celastraceae Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq. obovatus Nutt. Celastrus scandens L. Aquifoliaceae Ilex verticillata (L.) Gray Anacardiaceae Rhus aromatica Ait. ” arenaria (Greene) Jones ” glabra L. ” radicans L. ” typhina L. Staphyleaceae Staphylea trifolia L. Aceraceae Acer nigrum Michx. f. ” negundo L. ” rubrum L. ” saccharum Marsh. ” saccharinum L. Rhamnaceae Rhamnus cathartica L. frangula L. lanceolata Pursh Ceanothus americanus L. ovatus Desf . Vitaceae Vitis aestivalis Michx. ” riparia Michx. ” vulpina L. Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. Tiliaceae Tilia americana L. Malvaceae Malva rotundifolia L. Callirhoe triangulata (Leav.) Gray Napaea dioica L. Sida spinosa L. Abutilon theophrasti Medic. Hibiscus trionum L. Hypericaceae Hypericum canadense L. ellipticum Hook. ” mutilum L. perforatum L. prolificum L. punctatum Lam. sphaerocarpum Michx. Sarothra gentianoides L. Triadenum virgincum (L.) Raf. Cistaceae Helianthemum canadense (L.) Michx. ” bicknellii Fern. Lechea leggettii Britt. & Hollick ” stricta Legg. ” tenuifolia Michx. ” villosa Ell. Violaceae Viola canadensis L. ” conspersa Reich. ” cucullata Ait. ” eriocarpa Schw. ” fimbriatula Sm. ” lanceolata L. ” nephrophylla Greene ” pallens (Banks) Brain. ” papilionacea Pursh ” pedata L. ” pedatifida Don. ” pubescens Ait. ” sagittata Ait. ” striata Ait. ” sororia Willd. Cactaceae Opuntia rafinesquii Engelm. Thymeleaceae Dirca palustris L. Lythraceae Rotala ramosior (L.) Koehne Ammania coccinea Rottb. Decodon verticillatus (L.) Ell.* Lythrum alatum Pursh salicaria L. Onagraceae Epilobium adenocaulon Hauss. augustifolium L. coloratum Muhl. leptophyllum Raf. strictum Muhl. Ludwigia alternifolia L. palustris (L.) Ell. polycarpa S. & P. Oenothera biennis L. laciniata Hill, pumila L. 76 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Oenothera rhombipetala Nutt. speciosa Nutt. Gaura biennis L. Circaea latifolia Hill Haloragidaceae Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michx. verticillatum L. Proserpinaca palustris L. Cornaceae Cornus alternifolia L. f. ” obliqua Raf. ” racemosa Lam. ” rugosa Lam. ” stolonifera Michx. Araliaceae Aralia nudicaulis L. ” racemosa L. Panax quinquefolium L. Umbelliferae Eryngium yuccifolium Michx. Daucus carota L. Sanicula canadensis L. gregaria Bickn. marilandica L. trifoliata Bickn. Osmorhiza claytoni (Michx.) Clark longistylis (Torr.) DC. Cryptotaenia canadensis (L.) DC. Chaerophyllum procumbens (L.) Crantz. Zizia aptera (Gray) Fern. ” aurea (L.) Koch. Taenidia integerrima (L.) Drude Sium suave Walt. Cicuta bulbifera L. ” maculata L. Thaspium sylvaticum (Benke) Jones barbinode (Michx.) Nutt. Polytaenia nuttallii DC. Angelica atropurpurea L. Heracleum lanatum Michx. Pastinaca sativa L. Coniosclinum chinense (L.) BSP. Oxypolis rigidor (L.) Raf. Carum carvi L. Ericaceae Chimaphila corymbosa Pursh Pyrola elliptica Nutt. ” secunda L. Monotropa uniflora L. Gaylussacia baccata (Wang.) K. Koch. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. Vaccinium angustifolium Ait. canadense Richards corymbosum L. Primulaceae Androsace occidentalis Pursh Trientalis borealis Raf. Lysimachia ciliata L. lanceolata Walt, nummularia L. quadriflora Sims, quadrifolia L. terrestris (L.) BSP. Lysimachia thyrsiflora L. vulgaris L. Dodecatheon meadia L. Oleaceae Fraxinus americana L. lanceolata Borkh. nigra Marsh, pennsylvanica Marsh, quadrangulata Michx. Gentianaceae Gentiana andrewsii Griseb. crinita Froel. flavida Gray procera Holm, puberula Michx. quinquefolia L. saponaria L. Bartonia virginica (L.) BSP. Nymphoides peltatum (Gmel.) Britten & Rendle Apocynaceae Apocynum androsaemifolium L. cannabinum L. pubescens R. Br. sibericum Jacq.* Asclepiadaceae Aslcepias amplexicaulis Sm. incarnata L. phytolaccoides Pursh purpurascens L. pulchra Ehrh. quadrifolia Jacq. sullivantii Engelm. syriaca L. tuberosa L. verticillata L. Acerates hirtella Pennell. languinosa Nutt, viridiflora (Raf.) Eaton* Convolvulaceae Convolullus arvensis L. sepium L. spithamaeus L. Cuscuta glomerata Choisy gronovii Willd. ” spp. Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth. Polemoniaceae Phlox bifida Beck. ” divaricata L. ” glaberrima L. ” pilosa L. Collomia linearis Nutt. Polemoniam reptans L. Hydrophyllaceae Hydrophyllum appendiculatum Michx. virginianum L. Ellisia nyctelea L. Boraginaceae Cynoglossum officinale L. Lappula echinata Gilib. virginiana (L.) Greene Vascular Plants of Winnebago County T Mertensia virginica (L.) Lmk Myosotis arvensis (L.) Hill ” scorpioides L. ” verna Nutt. Lithospermum angustifolium Michx. ” arvense L. ” canescens (Michx.) Lehm. ” croceum Fern. ” latifolium Michx. Onosmodium hispidissimum Mack. ” occidentale Mack. Verbenaceae Verbena bracteata Lag. & Rodr. ” hastata L. simplex Lehm. stricta Vent. ” urticaefolia L. Phyla lanceolata (Michx.) Greene Labiatae Teucrium canadense L. ” occidentale Gray Isanthus brachiatus (L.) BSP. Scutellaria ambigua Nutt. ” epilobiifolia Hamilt. " lateriflora L. ” ovata Hill ” parvula Michx. Marrubium vulgare L. Agastache nepetoides (L.) Ktze. ” scrophulariaefoha (Wdld.) Ktze. Nepeta cataria L. Physotegia speciosa Sweet Physostegia virginiana (L.) Benth. Glecoma hederacea L. Prunella vulgaris L. Leonurus cardiaca L. Stachys arenicola Britt. ” aspera Michx. cordata Ridd. germanica L. ” homotrichia (Fern.) Rydb. ” tenuifolia Willd. Salvia reflexa Hornem. Blephilia ciliata (L.) Raf. ” hirsuta (Pursh) Torr. Monarda fistulosa L. fistulosa f. alba punctata L. Hedeoma hispida Pursh ” pulegioides (L.) Pers. Pycnantheum flexuosum (Walt.) BSP. ” pilosum Nutt. ” virginianum (L.) D. & J. Ly copus americanus Muhl. ” rubellus Moench. uniflorus Michx. ” virginicus L. Mentha canadensis L. citrata Ehrh. gentilis L. Glabrior (Hook) Rydb. piperita L. spicata L. Solanaceae Solanum carolinense L. " dulcamara L. Solanum nigrum L. rostratum Dunal Physalis heterophylla Nees. lanceolata Michx. pubescens L. subglabrata M. & B. virginiana Mill. Lycium halimifolia Mill. Datura stramonium L. Scrophulariaceaeae Verbascum blattaria L. ” thapsus L. Chelone glabra L. Penstemon hirsutus (L.) Willd. ” digitalis Nutt. ” pallidus Small Collinsia verna Nutt. Scrophularia lanceolata Pursh ” marilandica L. Linaria canadensis (L.) Dum.-Cours. ” minor (L.) Desf. ” vulgaris Mill. Lindernia dubia (L.) Pennell Gratiola neglecta Torr. Leucospora multifida (Michx.) Nutt. Mimulus ringens L. Veronicastrum virgimcum (L.) harw. Veronica americana (Raf.) Schw. arvensis L. connata Raf. peregrina L. serpyllifolia L. Synthyris bullii (Eaton) Hell. Aureolaria flava (L.) Farw. ” grandiflora (Benth.) Pennell ” pedicularia (L.) Raf. Gerardia asper Dough ” gattingeri Small purpurea L. tenuifolia Vahl. Dasistoma macrophylla (Nutt.) Raf. Castilleja coccinea (L.) Spreng. sessiflora Pursh Pedicularis canadensis L. ” lnnnftolata Michx. Lentibulariaceae Utricularis vulgaris L. Orobanchaceae Orobanche uniflora L. Phrymaceae Phryma leptostachya L. Acanthaceae Dianthera americana L. Ruellia ciliosa Pursh Plantaginaceae Plantago aristata Michx. lanceolata L. major L. * purshii R. & S. ” rugelii Dene. Rubiaceae Houstonia lanceolata (Poir.) Britt. Cephalanthus occidentalis 1. Diodia teres Walt. 78 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Mitchella repens L. Galium aparine L. ” asprellum Michx. boreale L. ” circaezans Michx. concinnum T. & G. ” obtusum Bigel. tinctorium L. ” trifidum L. ” triflorum Michx. Caprifoliaceae Sambucus canadensis L. pubens Michx. Viburnum acerifolium L. affine Bush, lentago L. prunifolium L. rafinesquianum Schult. trilobum Marsh. Symphoricarpos occidentals Hook. rivularis Suksd. Lonicera dioica L. flava Sims. prolifera (Kirsch.) Rehd. Diervilla lonicera Mill. Triosteum aurantiacum Bickn. perfoliatum L. Valerianaceae Valeriana ciliata T. & G. Cucubitaceae Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) T. & G. Cucurbita foetidissima HBK. Sicyos angulatus L. Campanulaceae Campanula americana L. ” aparinoides Pursh. rotundifolium L. uliginosa Rydb. Specularia perfoliata (L.) A. DC. Lobeliaceae Lobelia cardinalis L. inflata L. ” kalmii L. siphilitica L. ” spicata Lam. Compositae Iva ciliata Willd. ” xanthifolia Nutt. Ambrosia coronopifolia T. & G. elatior L. ” _ trifida L. Xanthium commune Britt. Vernonia fasiculata Michx. Eupatorium altissimum L. maculatum L. perfoliatum L. purpureum L. rugosum Houtt. serotinum Michx. Kuhnia eupatorioides L. Liatris aspera Michx. ” bebbiana Rydb. ” cylindracea Michx. ” spicata (L.) Willd. Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal Solidago altissima L. canadensis L. glaberrima Martens hirtella (Greene) Bush juncea Ait latifolia L. ” media (Greene) Bush nemoralis Ait. riddellii Frank rigida L. serotina Ait. speciosa Nutt, ulmifolia Muhl. ” ^ uliginosa Nutt. Boltonia asteriodes (L.) L’Her. Aster anomalus Engelm. ” azurus Lindl. ” cordifolius L. drummondii Lindl. ” dumosus L. ” ericoides L. ” junceus Ait. ” laevis L. ” lateriflorus (L.) Britt. ” linariifolius L. novae-angliae L. oblongifolius Nutt, paniculatus Lam. pilosus Willd. ” prealtus Poir. ” prenanthoides Muhl. ptarmicoides (Nees.) T. & G. sagittifolius Wed. ” sericeus Vent. shortii Lindl. ” umbellatus Mill. ” vimineus Lam. * Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. canadensis L. divaricatus Michx. * philadelphicus L. pulchellus Michx. strigosus Muhl. Antennaria fallax Greene ” neglecta Greene neodioica Greene plantaginifolia Hook. Gnaphalium obusifolium L. Polymnia canadensis L. Silphium integrifolium Michx. laciniatum L. perfoliatum L. terebinthinaceum Jacq. Parthenium integrifolium L. Heliopsis helianthoides (L.) Sweet Rudbeckia hirta L. laciniata L. subtomentosa Pursh ” triloba L. Brauneria pallida (Nutt.) Britt. ” purpurea (DC.) Britt. Ratibida pinnata (Raf.) Blake ” columnifera (Nutt.) W. & S. Galinsoga ciliata (Raf.) Blake Vascular Plants of Winnebago County 79 Helianthus annuus L. decapetalus L. ” divaricatus L. ” giganteus L. ” grosseserratus Martens hirsutus Raf. L Mollis Lam. ” occidentalis Riddell ” petiolaris Nutt. ” rigidus (Cass.) Desf. ” strumosus L. tuberosus L. Coreopsis lanceolata L. palmata Nutt. Bidens aristosa (Michx.) Britt. ” comosa (Gray) Wieg. ” connata Muhl. ” coronata (L.) Britt. ” frondosa L. ” laevis (L.) BSP. Helenium autumnale L. Achillea millefolium L. Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L. Anthemis cotula L. tinctoria L. Tanacetum vulgare L. Artemisia annua L. biennis Willd. caudata Michx. dracunculoides Pursh gnaphaloides Nutt, serrata Nutt. Cacalia atriplicifolia L. ” muhlenbergii (Sch-Bip.) Fern. suaveolens L. ” tuberosa Nutt. Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf. Senecio arueus L. ” pauperculus Michx. ” plattensis Nutt. Arctium minus (Hill) Bern. Cirsium altissimum (L.) Spreng. arvense (L.) Scop, dicolor (Muhl.) Spreng. hillii (Canby) Fern, muticum Michx. vulgare (Savi) Airy-Shaw Centaurea cyanus L. maculosa Lam. nigra L. Tragopogon pratensis L. Krigia biflora (Walt.) Blake ” virginica (L.) Willd. Cichorium intybus L. Lactuca canadensis L. biennis (Moench) Fern, floridana (L.) Gaertn. pulchella (Pursh) DC. sagittifolia Ell. ” scariola L. Sonchus arvensis L. asper (L.) Hill oleraceus L. Prenanthes alba L. altissima L. aspera Michx. cripidinea Michx. racemosa Michx. Hieracium aurantiacum L. * canadense Michx. gronovii L. longipilum Torr. ” scabrum Michx. Agoseris cuspidata (Pursh) D. Dietr. Taraxacum vulgare (Lam.) Schrank ” lfl.pvig-atum (Willd.) DC. REFERENCES (1) Bebb, Michael S. 1860 — The flora of Ogle and Winnebago Counties. Prairie Farmer 22: 182-183. (2) Bretz, J Harlen. 1923 — Geology and mineral resources of the Kings quadrangle: Illinois Geol. Survey Bui. 43 (C): 205-304. (3) Fernald, Evelyn I. 1935 — A pre¬ liminary report of a study of the plants of Winnebago County, Illi¬ nois: Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 28 (2) : 89, (1936). ^ . (4) _ . 1940 — Preliminary check list of herbaceous plants of Winne¬ bago County, Illinois. Rockford College (mimeo.). 45 pp. (5) Gleason, H. A. 1910. The vegeta¬ tion of the inland sand deposits of Illinois: Illinois Sta. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 9 (3): 23-174. (6) Hopkins, Cyril G., et al. 1916. Winnebago County soils: Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta. Soil Rept. 12. 76 pp. (7) Jones, G. Neville. 1945 — Flora of Illinois: Amer. Midi. Nat. Monog. No. 2. 1-317. (8) Nature Study of Rockford. 1914. The trees of Rockford and vicin¬ ity. 11 pp. (9) - . 1916. Shrubs and vines of Rockford and vicinity. 23 pp. (10) Rolfe, Deette. 1929 — The Rock River country of northern Illi¬ nois: Illinois Geol. Survey Educ. Ser. 2. 59 pp. (11) Salisbury, Rollin D. and Harlin H. Barrows. 1918. The environ¬ ment of Camp Grant: Illinois Geol. Survey Bui. 39. 75 pp. 80 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 42, 1949 CHEMISTRY PLACE OF SCIENCE IN GENERAL EDUCATION SISTER MARY MARGUERITE CHRISTINE, B.V.M. Mundelein College , Chicago The emergence of the United States as a leading world power and the obvious lack of preparation on the part of our citizens and leaders for their widened responsibilities has resulted in the realization of a need for a common grasp and a common over-view in the handling of facts and ideas in many discrete and iso¬ lated fields of knowledge. This great need has been met by educators through general education. The term has many and vigorous antagonists, especially in the science field, main¬ ly because of a misconception and a misunderstanding of its fundamen¬ tal meaning. Defined very simply, general education is non-vocational ; it is that education which is the antithesis of a specialized education. However, general education is really a philosophy of education, and con¬ sequently has shades of meaning and application that are not so simply defined. In the East, the problem has been studied as “integrated” education, a term probably more readily acceptable to faculty mem¬ bers. There, general education is considered as only one phase of the broader integrated education be¬ cause general education is concerned with giving all students, regardless of the later area of specialization, a basic understanding of the sciences, social sciences, and the humanities, culminating in integrated knowledge. Whether we call it general or in¬ tegrated education, the educators in the scientific world have been chal¬ lenged : first, to devise suitable means of educating the layman, enabling him to have a better knowledge of science, a better understanding of its philosophy and methods, and a deep¬ er appreciation of its potentialities and its limitations; second, to sup¬ plement the efforts of the social scientists and the teachers in the humanities in the attainment of the common goals of integrated under¬ standing and appreciation. Whether or not this challenge be recognized or accepted depends on the open- mindedness and honesty of the scien¬ tists, and the rigorous, ruthless, and patient intellectual grasp of the many difficulties contingent on that challenge. During the past several years many scientists have expressed their opinions on this educational problem. Dr. Anton Carlson of the University of Chicago stated: If it be true that an understanding of the scientific method and the funda¬ mentals of the nature of man and the nature of the universe already achieved by the natural sciences is significant in a liberal college education, it would seem timely that we of the college facul¬ ties study this problem again, for I am satisfied that our nondescript “science requirement” for graduation usually falls short of the above goal. Stream¬ lining the natural sciences in the college in the direction of purely vocational and professional training will not bring that goal even within sight of the mine run Science in General Educations 81 of college students. . . . We ot the faculties must re-evaluate and recon¬ struct our entire college curriculum m the directions of essentials and mastery, and not primarily in the direction of speed, technical trades and professions, no matter how strong the myopic drive in the latter direction may grow. If we could discover the essential core of liberal education, then mastery, rather than speed would seem to be the goal.1 Along the same line, Dr. James R. Kilian, Jr., the President of Massachusetts Institute of Technol¬ ogy, recently stated the need for a broader general education for science students: Engineers, scientists, physicians and other professional men are often called upon to assume important positions of leadership in the community. Unless they are aware of the major issues of the world, they may find it difficult to give competent direction. . . . Colleges have a profound responsibility to de¬ velop men and women who are not only skilled technicians but alert, intelligent citizens.2 Dr. Kilian explained that the objec¬ tive of MIT is to educate top-flight engineers, scientists, and architects who may become community leaders. When technical education is too nar¬ row, it tends to restrict the develop¬ ment of leaders. He insists that pro¬ fessional schools everywhere place greater emphasis on the teaching of humanities. Twenty percent of the total curriculum of the scientist at MIT runs to humanities, and he be- lives that in the years to come there will be a substantial increase. There has always appeared to be a dichotomous viewpoint on science. Some scientists have exaggerated the need and importance of their sub¬ ject matter to such an extent that their schools are turning out bril- 1 Carlson, Anton J., “The Offerings and Facilities in the Natural Sciences in the Liberal Arts Col¬ leges,” North Central Association Quarterly , XVIII, No. 2. (October, 1943), 154. 2 Education in Review, New York Times, March 27, 1949. liant physicists and chemists with little background in cultural educa¬ tion or a vital preparation for living in a world of immediate social and economic problems. They use the scientific method in their field unfail¬ ingly and blindly but seem to be in¬ capable of making the transfer of training to their problems of life. As Professor Phillip Frank of Har¬ vard stated in the American Journal of Physics, The result of conventional science teaching has not been a critically minded type of scientist but just the opposite. This failure prevents the science graduate from playing in our cultural and public life the great part that is assigned to him by the ever mounting technical importance of science to hu¬ man society.3 To such scientists, science is the end-all of education. The other viewpoint on science teaching is that taken by many pro¬ fessors of the social sciences and the humanities, and by many scientific workers themselves. They look on science as a mere tool, a useful serv¬ ant of humanity and forget that it is an integral part of human knowl¬ edge. They confound science with technology. Science aims at a sys¬ tematic understanding of the world, while technology aims at the con¬ struction of consumers’ goods on the basis of such theoretical understand¬ ing. Fundamentally, the problem seems to be to influence all members of the faculty to appreciate the import¬ ance of each discipline and to so in¬ tegrate the subject matter that the foundation of each liberal arts stu¬ dent be soundly based on all the broad areas of learning. The com¬ mon criticism, as exemplified in the 3 Frank, Phillip, American Journal of Physics , XV (1947), 202. 82 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions statements of the men quoted above, has often been that the scientist has over-loaded his curriculum to a much greater and more obvious extent than the social scientist and the stu¬ dent in humanities. However, just as educators will insist (and rightly) that a scientist is not liberally edu¬ cated unless he has a good back¬ ground in history and socio-economic problems, so, too, no one who is ignorant of science in nearly all of its aspects can be considered an edu¬ cated person. Dr. Van Evera of George Wash¬ ington University recently discussed the position of chemistry in our pres¬ ent-day liberal arts education. He admits that the so-called liberal arts college no longer gives a liberal arts degree but rather a series of junior professional degrees and thus we do not truly have liberal education in the original sense of a hundred years ago, which was that education turned out men who used beautiful English naturally, who had a great breadth of knowledge, and who were quite practical in their approach to the problems of life. However, Dr. Van Evera states that the chemistry major’s curriculum of today with its requirements in history, sociology, economics, and English, is nearly as broad and fundamental as was that of the liberal arts student a hundred years ago. And thus he claims that the science major is a far more broadly trained man than is his classmate who has almost no science. This statement depends, of course, on the requirements of each chemis¬ try department for work in other fields versus the requirements in sci¬ ence for the non-science majors.4 4 Van Evera, Benjamin D., “Chemistry and Liberal Education,” Chemical and Engineering News, XXVI, No. 7 (February 16, 1948), 446. Consequently, as a result of these divergent viewpoints on the present status of science in the liberal arts college, the two-pronged challenge thrown to the scientists must be ac¬ cepted and studied. It is a problem that deserves immediate action, not one to be cast aside as the mere bick¬ ering of educationists. The first challenge was to plan courses for an integrated general education program that will enable the non-science major to obtain a better knowledge of science, a better understanding of its philosophy and methods, and a deeper appreciation of its potentialities and its limita¬ tions. Does the system of elemen¬ tary single-science courses given alike for majors and non-majors meet this demand? This question can be answered only in the light of the objectives of the course related to the general education of the stu¬ dent. Much discussion in regional work-shops and in national confer¬ ences has centered around this ques¬ tion, with the consequent develop¬ ment of basic general courses, schol¬ arly in character but selective in content, involving the integration of several sciences and based on the purpose of acquisition of certain broad aims. There is still a great deal of con¬ fusion surrounding the question of the proper content of a general course in science. A survey of what has been done along these lines has been edited by McGrath in Science in General Education .5 Twenty-one representative colleges and univer¬ sities have cooperated in the study and much valuable information is here available. No matter how many 5 McGrath, Earl J., Editor, Science in General Education, Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa, 1948. Science in General E ducation 83 and how varied the plans are that are studied the one criterion which is used in building a general course is : How much does the teacher have to give? Each general course is in¬ dividual and unique in method of approach, selection of material, the organization of the material and em¬ phasis. The only underlying com¬ mon denominator is the end and ob¬ jective of the general course, which is concisely stated in the fourth ob¬ jective quoted by the President’s Commission on Higher Education : To understand the common phenom¬ ena in one’s physical environment, to apply habits of scientific thought to both personal and civic problems, and to appreciate the implications of scientific discoveries for human wel¬ fare. Besides elementary science gen¬ eral courses, other science courses should be devised to be offered as electives to non-science majors, up¬ per classmen, so they can broaden their general background in science. These should not be laboratory courses, for a non-science major will not elect a subject that will take a considerable amount of time. He is interested in fundamental knowl¬ edge, not in techniques. We science teachers often offer the observation that our majors must be generally educated since they frequently elect subjects outside their field in their junior and senior years, and that the non-science majors seldom, if ever, elect anything in science to balance their general education. Though this is true, the fault prob¬ ably lies with us. We do not offer two and three hour courses in sci¬ ence with little or no prerequisites that any liberal arts student is in¬ vited to elect. Most of our science courses, if elementary, have long hours of laboratory work, and other¬ wise have heavy prerequisites. Now to the second part of the chal¬ lenge thrown to the scientists : along with the faculties in the other areas, they are to integrate subject matter into one whole, so that the student realizes his common goal of under¬ standing and appreciation. This is a plea to cut across departmental lines in order to unify learning, to build not only vertically through the subject matter structure of the course but to spread horizontally, reaching out for implications in other and allied fields, linking to¬ gether science with social science, with the humanities, with language, and with communications. General education courses are intended to im¬ part a broad point of view, looking at the subject matter in its relation to the whole range of man’s prac¬ tical and intellectual interests and as part of the essential background against which the problems of con¬ temporary civilization must find their solution. The suggestion has been offered that the general educa¬ tion of the science major be broad¬ ened by means of a course given in the senior year which would inte¬ grate related sciences and also show their relationship to non-science fields. Such a course, it is obvious, requires a generally educated teach¬ er, and it is thus inevitable that the course reflect the mind and person¬ ality of the teacher far more than the traditional purely departmental courses. The success of any of these general courses, the rigorousness with which they are handled, and the strict regard given to the prin- 84 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions ciples of exact, systematic inquiry, depend primarily and solely on the teacher. There is no reason, except in the individual teacher, why any general course should be accused of dragging down academic standards by being a “ watered-down” course. The many difficulties and advan¬ tages of such courses need to be ana¬ lyzed by individual institutions in the light of the needs of their stu¬ dents, the qualities of their faculties, and the purposes or objectives of their curricula. Only in this way will the challenge which the modern world has thrown to education be met. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 42, 1949 85 GEOGRAPHY OCCUPANCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI BORDER OF SOUTHERN ILLINOIS JOHN H. GARLAND University of Illinois, Urbana The Terrain About six miles below the Kaskas- kie cutoff the Mississippi River abruptly swings from the left to the right side of its steep walled valley trough, and there it remains for the next fifty miles of its course. At this point the river is deflected sharply to the right to form the Cape Girardeau bend, below which it traverses a narrow six-mile chan¬ nel through the hills to enter the broad alluvial plain below. This portion of the valley trough is the lower southern segment of the Mis¬ sissippi border, one of the geographic sections of the southern district of Southern Illinois. Physiographically, the southern district of Illinois is essentially that portion of the state south of the gla¬ cial boundary where the Ozark Pla¬ teau, the Interior Low Plateau, and the Coastal Plain provinces center. Geographically, the Mississippi bor¬ der is a valley trough conspicuously incised in the eastern margin of the Salem Plateau. The Fountain Bluff bend is the only part of the trough eroded in the Shawnee Hills. The valley trough, which is here about six miles wide, describes a broad flat arc to the east. Since the river fol¬ lows the right wall of the valley, which is the inside of the arc, the left or Illinois side of the valley is a broad alluvial bottom with a fall of about 0.4 foot per mile. Steep sided valley walls rising to a maxi¬ mum of about 350 feet above the alluvial floor sharply delimit the segment. The river itself, which varies in width from half a mile to l1/^ miles, is about 20 feet below the alluvial floor except at flood stage. Damag¬ ing floods occur in this segment of the valley about every seven years. The highest portion of the valley floor is the natural levee along the river upon which artificial levees have been constructed to protect the bottom lands from all but the most severe floods. From the natural levee the wide alluvial val¬ ley floor slopes gently toward the valley wall, forming swamps and poorly drained forested depressions adjacent to the steep valley wall. Drainage ditches have been con¬ structed in an attempt to reclaim the poorly drained alluvial land for agriculture. Big Muddy River, the only tributary of any significance, enters the valley trough from the northeast, and pursues a meandering course through the lowland along the left valley wall for about 15 miles before entering the Mississippi through the Grand Tower chute. Al¬ though this is the widest part of the entire segment, Fountain Bluff, a forest covered remnant of the Shaw- ( h 1 1 1 86 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions TOWNS AND VILLAGES HIGHWAYS RAILWAYS LEVEES DRAINAGE DITCHES VALLEY WALLS Fig. 1 87 Mississippi Border nee Hills three miles long and iy2 miles wide, rises above the alluvial floor at the river’s edge (fig. 1). Although physically similar through¬ out, Big Muddy River conveniently divides the segment at the point where it crosses the valley bottom. Above are the Fountain Bluff and Oakwood bottoms, whereas below the Big Muddy are the Union bottoms, Cape Girardeau bend, and the Thebes narrows. Cultural Patterns Although corridor-like in its phys¬ ical qualities, this segment of the Mississippi border is primarily a commercial agrarian ribbon pene¬ trating a subsistence hills land, and is secondarily a corridor. Corridor Qualities The corridor qualities of the south¬ ern segment of the Mississippi border are best exemplified by the nature of the several patterns of transpor¬ tation that occupy the valley trough. Water, rail, and highway routes par¬ allel one another up and down the valley essentially from East St. Louis to Cairo. Barge transporta¬ tion of bulky non-perishable freight on the river is undoubtedly the out¬ standing corridor quality since it is a portion of a major national route. Water transportation is of no major significance to the segment itself, al¬ though there are numerous landings along the waterfront. The railroads and the highways are better pre¬ pared to serve the agrarian valley floor. Of the several railroads that serve the valley only one, the Missouri Pacific, traverses the entire segment on its way from East St. Louis to of Southern Illinois Cairo. From one end of the other this railroad right-of-way occupies a well-graded mid-position on the wide valley bottom. The Illinois Central and a branch of the Missouri Pacific enter the valley trough through the valley of the Big Muddy (fig. 1). The Missouri Pacific joins directly with the valley route whereas the Illinois Central crosses the valley floor to the waterfront, traversing the narrow terrace between Fountain Bluff and the river through Grand Tower where the rail pattern makes contact with river navigation. Be¬ low the Big Muddy River the Illi¬ nois Central parallels the Missouri Pacific railroad down the center of the valley bottom to the narrows. There the Illinois Central follows the waterfront, whereas the Missouri Pacific describes two arcs through the hills, one above and one below Thebes, where they join in a Y and cross the Mississippi on the only rail¬ road bridge in the entire segment. For the last three miles the Missouri Pacific follows the waterfront as does the Chicago and Eastern Illinois which comes in over the Illinois Cen¬ tral tracks from the south to make contact with the waterfront. The major highways form a simi¬ lar pattern, making use of the same physical feature. The major high¬ way, State Route 3 from Cairo to East St. Louis, traverses the entire segment. South of the Big Muddy River the highway and the two rail¬ roads follow the same route up the center of the alluvial valley floor. North of the Big Muddy where the railroads separate, the highway con¬ tinues on a straight course up the valley along the eastern edge of Fountain Bluff directly to the valley 88 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions wall which it follows for the rest of the distance. State Route 146 from Cape Girardeau, Missouri, to Mur- physboro crosses the Mississippi on a toll bridge and joins State Route 3 which it follows to the mouth of the Big Muddy valley where it leaves the valley. Innumerable short un¬ improved roads, chiefly levee and trans-valley routes, complete the pat¬ tern of transportation. Settlements Within the segment are 20 towns and villages which vary in popula¬ tion from ten to 1,043. With the exception of two small villages all are on the railroad, indicating the commercial nature of the valley bot¬ tom agriculture. There are several railroad stations not connected with villages. Only four of the towns and villages are incorporated. Grand Tower with a population of 1,043 is the largest and Rockwood with only 246 is the smallest. Thebes, popula¬ tion 730 and the second largest town, like Grand Tower is a railroad town on the waterfront. Unlike Grand Tower, Thebes occupies the hills on the narrows at the lower end of the segment. Gorham, population 595, is a railroad junction. McClure, population 450, is the largest unin¬ corporated village. The other fif¬ teen villages are mere hamlets con¬ sisting only of the necessary func¬ tion of a commercial agrarian area. Only three of this group have a pop¬ ulation of 100 and more, and the largest, Gale, is only 200. Nine of the twenty towns and villages have post offices and only two, Grand Tower and Gorham, have banking facilities. One little hamlet, Neun- ert, with a population of 31, occu¬ pies a site on the valley floor un¬ touched by railroad, hardsurfaced highway, or river transportation. Agrarian Patterns As the little market towns ar¬ ranged at regular intervals along the railroads attest, commercial grain farming is the dominant economy of this segment of the Mississippi border. The deep alluvial soil of the valley floor is the basic natural en¬ vironmental item upon which this type of productive occupance is based. Recent alluvium and the prairie soils of the recent Wiscon¬ sin drift are the only types of areas in Illinois capable of withstanding the drain of continuous commercial grain cropping. Thus the entire seg¬ ment is one continuous ribbon of commercial grain farming, varying from place to place only in intensity and arrangement of details. Corn rotated with winter wheat constitute the basis of production, with alfalfa and other hay crops to feed the small livestock population a low second. Hogs are the most important animals although a few cows and work ani¬ mals are kept on each farm. Al¬ though most of the farms are mech¬ anized, heavy machinery is not used to the best advantage on poorly drained land. Especially on the smaller farms mules furnish most of the motive power. Much of the val¬ ley floor is poorly drained despite drainage ditches, leaving large tracts of tree lined swamps on the lowest portions of the valley floor. Valley Bottom Sectors North of Big Muddy River, which conveniently bisects the valley seg¬ ment at the place where it enters 89 Mississippi Border • the Mississippi, are two valley bot¬ tom sectors. From Rockwood to the Fountain Bluff bend, which lies di¬ rectly across the valley bottom from the mouth of the Bid Muddy valley, is the Fountain Bluff bottom. This sector of the valley bottom is ap¬ proximately sixteen miles long and about six miles wide. Although a levee, some places as far as a mile from the river, encloses the upper half of the sector behind which drain¬ age ditches carry water to the river, large tracts are swamps and marshes. Approximately half of the bottom land is cultivated. Winter wheat and corn constitute the major crops and are about equal in acreage. The production per acre of both crops is highest here of any place in the val¬ ley. The acreage of wheat is a little greater than that of corn. Hay crops and oats form a weak second to corn and wheat and are used as forage for the livestock since much of the grain is sold. Much of the soil is heavy clay which is difficult to cul¬ tivate under unfavorable moisture conditions and thus accounts for much unused arable land. Five small market towns spaced at approximately three mile inter¬ vals line the railroad in the center of the valley bottom whereas several more line the highway at the foot of the valley wall. Neunert is the cen¬ ter of a German farming community between the railroad and the river. Gorham or Fordyce at the railroad junction is the largest town in the sector. From the Fountain Bluff bend to the mouth of the Big Muddy is the Oakwood bottom, a sector about twelve miles long and six miles wide. Because of the position of Fountain of Southern Illinois Bluff on the waterfront and the rela¬ tively high natural levee along the remainder, protecting levees have not been built except to enclose the Big Muddy River on the south. Since settlement is limited to the wide nat¬ ural levee, the low bottom to the east, through which the Big Muddy mean¬ ders and into which the drainage of the sector is ditched, is allowed to flood in periods of danger to cities down-stream. Much of the sector, in¬ cluding Fountain Bluff but exclud¬ ing the southeastern natural levee, is within the limits of the Shawnee Na¬ tional Forest. Although less agricultural than any other sector, commercial grain farming of corn and winter wheat predominates in the cultivated por¬ tions of the valley bottom. Unlike the Fountain Bluff bottom to the north where wheat was slightly greater in acreage than corn, corn acreage exceeds wheat by about one- third. This is in part due to late floods and the necessity of replant¬ ing. Small market towns are conspicu¬ ously absent. Grand Tower, the largest town in the entire valley seg¬ ment, is an old river-town through which a railroad passes although the highway by-passes it about a mile to the east. South of the Big Muddy River is the Union Bottom sector which extends for about eighteen miles down the valley where it joins the Cape Girardeau bend, the inside of a sharp four mile bend of the Mis¬ sissippi. The entire area is enclosed by a levee from the valley bluff south of the Big Muddy to the valley bluff below the Cape Girardeau bend. Al¬ most the entire sector is drained into 90 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions a main ditch which parallels the left valley wall on the lowest part of the valley bottom and enters the Mis¬ sissippi through a small tributary stream at the point where the river approaches the left bluff below the Cape Girardeau bend. Commercial grain farming domi¬ nates the flat alluvial land. Unfenced fields of corn and winter wheat with small areas of hay are characteristic. Hogs are the most important live¬ stock. Small market villages spaced at about three mile intervals line the railroad and the highway which in this sector of the valley traverse the middle of the valley floor. South of the Cape Girardeau bend the river enters the Thebes narrows, a valley less than three quarters of a mile wide which extends for about six miles through the hills to the broad embayment below. The rail¬ roads and highway from the wide alluvial bottom concentrate in the narrow valley, and at Thebes a high level railroad crossing is made at the narrowest point in the valley. These are the essentials of the oc- cupance of a segment of the Missis¬ sippi border. The homogeneous val¬ ley trough is the basis upon which the occupance is organized. Prob¬ lems arising from unwise associa¬ tions of cultural and natural envir¬ onmental conditions are varied and conflicting. Commercial grain farm¬ ing is the major association with the recent alluvial soil, but it has its attendant problems of drainage and flooding. The transportation factors are associated with the well graded and orientated corridor. These are local or at best interregional consid¬ erations. Flood control and other problems related directly to the river are intraregional in nature, the solu¬ tion of which has very far-reaching ramifications. Thus the southern segment of the Mississippi border is essentially a fifty mile ribbon of commercial grain farming as well as a corridor of sec¬ ondary consideration associated with a wide alluvial valley bottom which is projected through the hills land of the southern district of Illinois. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 42, 1949 91 THE PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY OF THE LAKE STATES L. MARJORIE SMITH Northwestern University, Evanston Four regions of the United States are outstanding in the production of paper: (1) the Northeast; (2) the Pacific Northwest; (3) the South; and (4) the Lake States. Paper making in the first of the regions, the Northeast, dates back to 1690. 1 For more than a century the North¬ east held a virtual monopoly on American paper manufacturing. Three important factors influenced the location of the industry during that early period: (1) cheap power; (2) a large volume of clear and pure process water; and (3) proximity to large centers of population.2 The migration of the paper industry into the other three regions had to await ec momic developments in those legions and technological develop¬ ments in the industry. In the Lake States3 the earliest beginnings of the paper industry ap¬ peared around 1800. Development in this region was assisted by four forces : ( 1 ) construction of canals and steam railroads; (2) adoption of steam power; (3) demand creat¬ ed by the Civil War; and (4) tech¬ 1 “William Bradford, a printer, was one of the founders of the first paper mill in the British North American Colonies. In 1690 he, with William Rittenhouse and two others, started the first Ritten- house mill on Wissahickon Creek in Germantown, Pa.” (L. T. Stevenson, The Background and Eco¬ nomics of American Papermaking, [New York and London: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1940] p. 7.) 2 Cities furnished the raw material, rags, and supplied a market for the finished paper. nological advancement in the in¬ dustry. Construction of canals and steam railroads accelerated the growth of population in the region. In addi¬ tion, better connections with the large population centers in the Northeast and with sources of raw materials were provided. Adoption of steam power broke the industry’s dependence on water power sites. The Civil War created a shortage of paper and raw materials. This condition stimulated an interest in raw materials other than rags. These raw materials,4 some of which are abundant in the Lake States, were provided through chemical technological advancements in the industry. An analysis of the present-day industry in the Lake States demands consideration of several facets. Among these, the distribution of manufacturing plants in the indus¬ try and the technology employed in the manufacture of the product are of prime importance. To a geog¬ rapher, however, the chief interest lies in an explanation of the factors influencing the location of the com¬ ponent plants. 3 For the purpose of this paper the Lakes States are considered to include those states west of the Appalachian Plateau which border the Great Lakes. The region includes Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Mich¬ igan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. 4 Straw, wood hemp, jute, and cotton hull fiber. Table 1. — Statistical Comparison of Selected Mills Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 3 O O O O U1 k +--H B Sh C O ° o3 G O p_j ^ B't- h ^ G o.S o O 3O0S <2 £ G •2 ^ § ■+■3 > o rp a cs 33 jj Sj> o3 Q Z^O go 3 O ’ *S • N S«g W >>o3Ph£ g;s^Wof °|o§« o *o to CO , ^ CD 13 ,°3 ,®3 G of c3 > > > > > o3 o3 > > feiSfe (■£«(£ -3! c3 O Ph p$ Ph o ««« go *3 O o bJO &h O o S3 o3 s 03 X c3 G Q . -+p> cd ^ #g ’53 G o X to X 0 03 0 £ W pt| l-P •+;> 02 CD ® >Ph Is W o3 « QD H £o m O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O *.2 £ § o o o o o o o o o "o 0* o o o o o o o o o o o3 G n3 l_i a; r^-. Ph “ o iO o o o o o o »o LQ o' IO CO o •o' o' o~ co~ ^ 2 o-S Ph Ol ’—l 03 CO •o i‘w . _JW O g M "o c .55 "S of O * H w G Z3 sS § 6 -< G O-P H ~p o o p .p -3 «3 3 C o ° §■££§ o' g o G S « 5 W) oS G 3 8, sss^-sas* Pulp and Paper Industry 93 Scope of Industry Capital Investment . — The capital investment in the pulp and paper in¬ dustry of the Lake States totals al¬ most one hundred million dollars (fig.l).5 The three states of Wis¬ consin, Ohio, and Michigan account for more than three-fourths of the total investment.6 Of the remaining fourth, Illinois provided an invest¬ ment exceeding that of Minnesota and Indiana combined. Distribution of Plants. — P u 1 p mills are concentrated in two widely separated areas : Northern Wiscon¬ sin and Southwestern Ohio (fig. 2). Northern Wisconsin, the larger area, lias numerous mills along the Fox and upper Wisconsin rivers. Three mills in Upper Michigan and four 5 Statistics were compiled from the Thomas Reg¬ ister of American Manufactures — Seventh Edition, Yol. II, 1947. 0 Wisconsin, 29.5 per cent ; Ohio, 24.8 per cent ; Michigan, 22.5 per cent; Illinois, 12.0 per cent; Minnesota, 5.6 per cent ; and Indiana, 5.2 per cent. in Minnesota are on the periphery of the Wisconsin area. Southwest¬ ern Ohio, the smaller area, has its pulp mills concentrated in tiie Miami Valley. Isolated mills exist at Chicago and Detroit. The paper mills are concentrated within a rectangle which is 250 miles wide and runs on a northwest-south¬ east axis from central Minnesota through Ohio (fig. 3), Only eight paper mills lie outside this rectangle. The pattern is characterized by marked nucleation and linear dis¬ persion. Four nuclei are in; (1) the Fox River Valley ; (2) the Kala¬ mazoo River Valley; (3) Chicago; and (4) the Miami River Valley. Dispersed lines are coincident with three river valleys : (1) the Upper Mississippi; (2) the Upper Wiscon¬ sin ; and (3) the Middle Scioto. In addition, isolated plants are located in other river valleys and in areas served by cheap transportation. 94 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Production Practices Use of Water. — The marked con¬ centration of pulp mills and paper mills in river valleys reflects the heavy dependence upon the basic resource of water (Table 1). This resource plays a major role in pulp and paper production.7 In one pulping process8 water is played on huge grindstones to prevent burn¬ ing. Large quantities of water are employed in other processes which employ chemicals.9 In addition, water is used as the chief means of transport for carrying pulp to vari¬ ous stations throughout the plant. Power10 * * to run the plant depends 7 In a Cloquet, Minnesota, mill selected for this study, 37,000,000 gallons of water per day are used in a yearly production of 96,000 tons of paper. A Green Bay, Wisconsin, plant employs 33,000,000 gallons per day to manufacture 40,500 tons annually. 8 Paper is chiefly cellulose in some form. Cellu¬ lose is the chief constituent of the solid framework of all leafy green plants. Pulping processes, al¬ though numerous and diverse, are all concerned with changing the cellulose of plants to paper. (Stevenson, op. cit., p. 16.) upon water, whether it is steam, hydro-electric, or thermo-electric. T he importance of water, in another sense, is its use as a means of trans¬ portation for bringing raw materials to the plant and for carrying fin¬ ished products from the plant. It is especially important for bringing coal to many of the manufacturing sites. Use of Poiver. — Perhaps power oc¬ cupies the position of importance secondary only to water in the manufacture of paper. Giant ma¬ chines driven by thousands of units of power are necessary to produce the finished product. Mills com¬ monly have their own power pro¬ ducing units. Power used may be one or more of four types: (1) water; (2) hydro-electric ; (3) steam; or (4) thermo-electric. The latter two of these types depend up¬ on the use of coal. Use of Coal. — Mills annually use many thousand tons of coal per year (Table 1). West Virginia supplies most of the coal for the pulp and paper mills in the Lake States. The Great Lakes offer a cheap means of transportation which is utilized by many mills. Cheaper rates of trans¬ portation for these mills give them an advantage over mills which de¬ pend upon rail transportation for their coal supplies. Raw Materials. — Wood pulp11 constitutes most of the matrix pur¬ chased or manufactured for paper 0 Chemicals dissolve out all materials in the wood except cellulose. After the cellulose has been ex¬ tracted it is washed to remove the cooking liquor. 10 Early sites made use of water power. 11 A notable exception is an Appleton, Wisconsin, plant which was selected for this study. This plant manufactures fine personal and business writing paper from cotton fibre pulp. The pulp is made of cotton cuttings from garment factories and of cot¬ ton linters. The cotton cuttings come from distrib¬ utors in Chicago, New York, Rochester, and St. Louis. Cotton linters come from 450 cotton seed oil mills located throughout the south. 95 Pulp and Paper Industry making in the Lake States. Sources of supply for mills which purchase their wood pulp are: (1) Canada; (2) Scandinavia; (3) New Eng¬ land; (4) the Pacific Northwest; and (5) the Lake States. The mills which manufacture pulp utilize sev¬ eral woods12 from Canada, Wiscon¬ sin, Minnesota, and the Upper Pe¬ ninsula of Michigan. The supply in these areas, however, is not great. This condition, if not corrected by conservation measures, offers the only threat to continued advance¬ ment of the industry.13 Eleven minor materials are in¬ cluded in the manufacture of pulp and paper. The chemical pulping processes employ lime and limestone, alum, sulphur, soda ash, salt cake, chlorine, and sulphate aluminum (Table 2) . Filler of clay and starch and rosin size add body and finish to the paper. Some mills also make use of dyes. Transportation. — Three methods of transportation serve the mills: (1) rail; (2) water; and (3) truck. Finished products, representing a great diversification of types of paper and paper board, go to all parts of the United States and for¬ eign countries.14 The greatest amounts, however, are destined for cities in the Lake States region. Large total population in the region provides a ready market for much of the production. Table 2. — Source of Minor Raw Materials Lime and limestone Sulphur . Soda ash . Salt cake . Chlorine . Alum . Rosin size . Clay . Starch . Sulphate aluminum Dyes . . Michigan Wisconsin Illinois ... .Texas . Ohio . .Montana Canada .New York Michigan . Missouri .Wisconsin Alabama . . .Georgia . . . .Illinois Iowa .Wisconsin . . Delaware Factors Influencing Location of Mills The foregoing analysis of tech¬ nology employed in the production of pulp and paper demonstrates the factors which influence the location of mills. As in the early days of the industry, these locational factors primarily are: (1) a large volume of clear and pure water; (2) cheap power; (3) proximity to sources of the chief raw material; and (4) 12 Spruce, balsam, poplar, aspen, jack pine, birch, tamarack, and hemlock. 13 “The pulp and paper industry in the Lake State (the Lake States here include only Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota) is not self-sufficient in local sources of raw materials. In recent years the region has imported about one-fourth of the pulp wood it consumes — mostly spruce and balsam from Canada. Scandinavian countries contributed a small part of the region’s wood pulp needs prior to the late war and have resumed shipments on a limited basis. . . . The only new pulpwood logging areas of substantial size in the Lake States are in northern Minnesota, particularly within the boundaries of state and national forests. Seventy per cent of the Lake States’ remaining supply of jack pine is in Minnesota and 33% is within the boundaries of the Superior National Forest. . . The pulp and paper industry in the Lake States region is strategically located with regard to local and national markets. If sufficient attention is given to the problem of providing raw material, the industry can be main¬ tained indefinitely and may even expand. However, there must be a change of attitude on the part of the industry toward the use of raw materials. The forest must be treated as a renewable resource rather than as a mine. Also, pulp wood operations must be integrated with those of other forest users. “The 50 million acres of commercial forest land in the Lake States can meet the requirements of accessibility, productivity, and cheapness to re¬ produce if handled under proper management. More rapid forest growth rates in the South and West are offset by higher freight charges to national mar¬ kets. Under normal conditions of competition, the pulp and paper industry of the Lake States has as good, if not better, opportunities for permanent and sustained production as those of any other region ” ( Pulpwood Stands, Procurement, and Utili¬ zation [New York: Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, 1947] pp. 40, 43, and 51.) 14 Newsprint production has declined in the area. The high cost and increased scarcity of spruce has eliminated this product from the region. (Ibid., 40.) 96 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions proximity to markets. Transporta¬ tion facilities must be added to this list. Availability of unskilled labor is also an important consideration in the location of present-day mills. The Lake States area contains many sites which provide the chief factors influencing location of pulp and paper mills. At these sites mills have started, multiplied, and devel¬ oped to proportions which place this region among the four outstanding in the country in the production of pulp and paper. The Lake States region has a good chance for contin¬ ued and sustained production. The only real hazard to the future of the industry in the Lake States region lies in the possible failure to provide for the replenishment of pulp wood. BIBLIOGRAPHY Books and Articles Stevenson, L. T., The Background and Economics of American Papermak¬ ing. New York and London: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1940. Wright, Alfred J., “The Industrial Geography of the Middle Miami Val¬ ley, Ohio,” Michigan Papers in Geog¬ raphy. Vol. VI, 1936, pp. 401-427. Pamphlets and Bulletins The Story of News Print Paper. Pub¬ lished by the News Print Service Bureau. New York, 1936. Pulpwood Stands, Procurement, and Utilization. Published by the Tech¬ nical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry. New York, 1947. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 42, 1949 97 GEOLOGY PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING THE PRE-CAMBRIAN CRYSTALLINES OF ILLINOIS* ROBERT M. GROGAN State Geological Survey, Urbana The oldest sedimentary strata of Illinois rest on a foundation of igne¬ ous and metamorphic rocks which are commonly referred to as the pre- Cambrian crystallines or basement complex. Rocks of corresponding- age crop out in the nearby states of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri, but in Illinois they are buried under a variable thickness of later sediments and can be examin¬ ed only in cuttings or cores from deep wells. Six wells in Illinois penetrate these crystalline rocks, one each in Boone and DeKalb counties, two in Lee County, and two in Pike Coun¬ ty, figure 1. The four wells in the northern counties encountered gran¬ ite, but the two southern wells en¬ countered rhyolite porphyry and granophyre. From 3 to 639 feet of these ancient igneous rocks were cut in the various wells. All were drilled as oil tests and all but one, the Herndon Drilling Co. — Camp¬ bell well in Pike County, were drilled with cable tools. Data regarding the names of the wells and their locations, the depth and sea-level elevation of the tops of the crystalline rocks, and their thickness and character are given in table 1. The greatest and least depths are 3845 and 2221 feet re¬ spectively. In terms of elevation, * Published with permission of the Chief, Illinois state Geological Survey. the highest occurrence is 1401 feet below sea-level and the lowest is 3046 feet *below sea-level, range of 1645 feet. As a measure of the local re¬ lief involved, the difference in ele¬ vation of the crystalline surface is 356 feet in the two Lee County wells which are five miles apart, and 1088 feet in the two Pike County wells which are 8% miles apart. 98 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Table 1. — Pre-Cambrian Crystalline Rocks in Illinois Wells Name of well Location Top of crystalline rocks Thickness Depth in feet Sea-level elevation penetrated, feet Type of rock encountered 1. Northern Illinois Oil and Gas Co. Taylor No. 1 28-43N-3E Boone County 2925 -2105 73 Gray granite 2. Paul Schulte, Wyman No. 1 35-41 N-5E DeKalb County* 3845 \ -2935 639 Red granite 3. H. O. Carr, Vedovell No. 1 35-20N-10E Lee County 3465 -2690 187* Red granite and felsite 4. Amboy Oil and Gas Co., McElroy No. 1 30-20N-10E Lee County 3760 -3046 12 Red granite 5. Herndon Drilling Co., Campbell No. 1 15-4S-5W Pike County 3204 -2488 3 Red-brown rhyolite porphyry 6. Panhandle-Eastern, Mumford No. 1 21-5S-4W Pike County 2221 -1401 5 Red granophyre * As of April 26, 1949 ; well reported shut down. From the limited information pro¬ vided by the six wells and the char¬ acter of the topography of exposed and buried pre- Cambrian surfaces in nearby areas,1 it is inferred that the buried pre-Cambrian terrain in Illinois probably ranges from a broadly undulatory surface studded with scattered residual hills to one featured at least in part by close¬ spaced hills and valleys, and that a local relief of as much as 1000 feet may be a common situation. Re¬ gional warping and local faulting and folding in post-Cambrian time have doubtless modified the original 1 Buckley, E. R., Geology of the disseminated lead deposits of St. Francois and Washington Counties ; Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines, Vol. 9, Part 1., pp. 17-18, 1909. Weidman, Samuel, The geology of north central Wisconsin ; Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. His. Survey, Bull. No. 16, pp. 385-395, 1907. attitude of this terrain. It has been suggested that the crystalline sur¬ face becomes generally lower east¬ ward from the Ozark dome region of Missouri and southward from Wis¬ consin until it reaches depths greater than 11,000 feet below sea-level in southeast Illinois.2 Study of cuttings shows that with the exception of altered felsite en¬ countered in the H. O. Carr — Vedo- vell No. 1 well in Lee County, the crystalline rocks found in the four wells in the northern part of the State all are red or gray granites of medium to coarse-grained texture. The common essential minerals in- 2 Workman, L. E., and A. H. Bell, Deep drilling and deeper oil possibilities in Illinois ; Illinois Geol. Survey Rept. Inv. 139, p. 2060 and figure 14. Re¬ printed from Bull. Am. Assn. Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 32, No. 11, 1948. Pre-Cambrian Crystallines of Illinois 99 site from dike in granite from H. 0. Carr-Vedovell well, Lee County. Rec¬ tangular crystals represent altered feldspar; bundles of curving lines rep¬ resent crystallites arranged in flow- age pattern; black represents opaque minerals; and the rest is cryptocry¬ stalline material. Magnification 120X. elude quartz, orthoclase and micro- cline feldspar, and biotite. The common accessory minerals are apa¬ tite, zircon, rutile, magnetite, and ilmenite. Chlorite and epidote also occur in small amounts. Plagio- clase feldspar is present in such small amounts as to be practically an accessory mineral ; oligoclase and andesine are the varieties found. Hornblende is rare or lacking in all except the Northern Illinois Oil and Gas Co. — Taylor well in Boone County, in which it is abundant. The granite in the Taylor well also differs from the other granites in that it is grayer, contains abundant titanite, much of which is in large grains, and has andesine rather than oligoclase as its plagioclase feldspar. This difference in mineralogical character might result either from compositional variations within a single granite mass or from the pres¬ ence of a separate and different body of granite at the Taylor well locality. From a petrographer’s point of view, the most interesting feature of these northern wells is the altered felsite found in the granite in the H. O. Carr — Vedovell well, which because of its much different tex¬ tural character is presumed to oc¬ cur as dikes intrusive into the gran¬ ite. The well penetrated successive¬ ly 95 feet of granite, 35 feet of al¬ tered felsite, 52 feet of granite, 7 feet of altered felsite, and finally 3 feet of granite. The least-altered particles of felsite recovered in the cuttings are reddish and purplish brown in color, and as seen in thin section, figure 2, are composed of numerous tiny square to rectangu¬ lar crystals of altered feldspar in a matrix consisting of numerous crys¬ tallites and of cryptocrystalline ma¬ terial of indeterminate composition which may have been glass original¬ ly. The crystallites around many of the tiny feldspar crystals are ar¬ ranged in a pattern suggestive of flowage while the mass was still part¬ ly fluid. The felsite has been altered to a light green waxy clay, whose X-ray diffraction pattern is that of a mica- montmorillonite mixed layer mineral in which the proportion of mica to montmorillonite is about 5 to l.3 The progressive nature of this alteration, presumably by chemically active hot water which traversed fractures alongside or within the dikes, may be observed in the appearance of vari¬ ous fragments in the samples. It is reflected first in a change in color 3 X-ray analysis by W. F. Bradley, Chemist and Head, X-ray Division, Illinois Geological Survey. 100 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions are mostly magnetite and pyrite, and grains with longitudinal lining are biotite and muscovite. Large areas of quartz appear as single grains in plain light. Magnification 48X. from brownish to mottled shades of* tan and greenish gray and a slight decrease in hardness, then by in¬ creasing dominance of the green color and further decrease in hard¬ ness until in the final stage the en¬ tire mass is changed to soft green clay. In thin section the original microporphyritic texture of the fel- site is clearly preserved in the green clay, a further proof that the latter is an alteration product of the fels- ite. Additional evidence that this alteration was caused by hydro- thermal solutions is afforded by the presence of small fluorite crystals in the upper part of the uppermost dike and in the 45 to 50 feet of gran¬ ite overlying the dike, the somewhat altered appearance of the granite immediately above the uppermost dike, and the presence of moderately abundant pyrite in the green clay. Fig. 4. — Sketch of micropegmatitic tex¬ ture in granophyre from Panhandle- Eastern-Mumford well, Pike County. Quartz (clear) is intergrown with feldspar (dashed line pattern). Black grains are magnetite. Magnification 33X. The crystalline rocks in the Pike County wells are distinct petro- graphically from the granites found in the northern wells. The rock from the Herndon Drilling Co. — Camp¬ bell well is a purplish-brown rhyo¬ lite porphyry and that from the Mumford well a granophyre. Both of these rocks are fine-grained mem¬ bers of the granite clan and both are types common in the pre-Cam¬ brian exposures approximately 125 miles south in the St. Francis Moun¬ tain area of southeastern Missouri.4 The rhyolite porphyry in the Campbell well consists of large crys¬ tals of feldspar and quartz up to 7 millimeters long, comprising together about 20 percent of the rock, in a 4 Erasmus Haworth, Crystalline rocks of Missouri : Missouri Geol. Survey, Bulletin 8, pp. 81-222, 1895. Tarr, W. A., Intrusive relationship of the granite to the rhyolite (porphyry) of southeastern Mis¬ souri: Geol. Soc. America, Bull. 43, pp. 965-992, 1932. 101 Pre-Cambrian Crystallines of Illinois fine-grained, eqnigranular, fresh- looking groundmass consisting of 60 percent quartz and 40 percent ortho- clase feldspar, figure 3. Other min¬ erals present include minor amounts of muscovite and biotite mica, chlor¬ ite, pyrite, magnetite, hematite, zir¬ con, and garnet. The large feldspar crystals include microcline, otho- clase, and microperthite, and many of them have rectangular or partly rectangular outlines. The large quartz crystals are oval to lenticular in outline, and are made up of groups of interlocking smaller crystals. The edges of many of the large quartz grains are scalloped or embayed in the fashion commonly attributed to corrosion of early-formed crystals by the still-liquid portion of magma. Many of the large crystals have been fractured, either during flowage of the mass while partially liquid or as the result of later metamorphic shearing. The cracks in some of the crystals are filled with later quartz and in others by portions of the quartz-feldspar groundmass. Fur¬ ther evidence of flowage or shearing is faintly apparent in traces of band¬ ing caused by parallelism of the long axes of lenticular quartz grains and a slight color banding. In general, the equigranular mosaic texture of the groundmass and the completely random orientation of the micas sug¬ gest recrystallization as a result of metamorphism. The rock has been termed a recrystallized quartzite by some, but the large amount of feld¬ spar in the groundmass and the gen¬ eral non-detrital appearance of both the individual crystals and the rock as a whole make this interpretation questionable. The original character of the crys¬ talline rock from the Panhandle- Eastern — Mumford well, the other Pike County occurrence, is more dif¬ ficult to determine as the available samples consist entirely of fragments smaller than 1/8 inch. However, it is apparent that the rock is red in color and consists largely of quartz and the feldspars microcline and orthoclase. The very minor amount of accessory minerals includes mag¬ netite, chlorite, zircon, fluorite, and pyrite. The overall texture is an un¬ even medium-grained mosaic of quartz and feldspar with a few larg¬ er rectangular microcline crystals which probably are phenocrysts. Thus the rock is probably a por¬ phyry. The most conspicuous tex¬ tural feature is the abundance of an intergrowth of quartz and feldspar in micropegmatitic fashion, figure 4. Porphyries of the type described are commonly termed granophyres and this name is therefore applied to the rock from the Mumford well. In connection with the description of the crystalline rocks of Illinois, the Insane Asylum or City Sanitar¬ ium well in the city of St. Louis is of interest as it has been reported to have reached granite.5 This well was drilled in 1869, at which time its depth of 3843% feet, as originally reported, made it one of the deepest wells in the world. More recently the Missouri Geological Survey gives the total depth as 3883 feet6 * 8 from which it is inferred that the well was deepened sometime in its history. The original published log of the well reported that the last 40 feet 5 Broadhead, G. CM On the well at the Insane Asvlum, St. Louis County: Trans. Acad, of Sci. of St* Louis, Vol. 3, pp. 216-223, 1878. The occur¬ rence of granite in this well is also mentioned in in anonymous note in American Jour. Sci. 3rd Senes, Vol. 9, p. 61, 1875. 8 Communication from Edward L. Clark, State Geologist, February 25, 1949. 102 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions drilled was hard red granite because cuttings contained grains of red quartz and feldspar7 and this inter¬ pretation has been repeated in suc¬ ceeding publications that made ref¬ erence to the well. Lately the Mis¬ souri Geological Survey kindly sup¬ plied cuttings from the St. Louis well from depths of 3522 to 3848 to allow comparison of the reported granite with the granites in Illinois. Study of the samples indicates, how¬ ever, that no granite or other crys¬ talline rock was encountered, but that the material penetrated was en¬ tirely sandstone, in part feldspathic and shaly. Feldspar is present in the upper samples from 3522 to 3620, absent in the middle samples from 3620 to 3817, and increasingly abun¬ dant again in the lowermost samples. Mottled shale is present in various places. No mica was observed, nor any evidence that any of the quartz or feldspar grains came from the drilling of a quartzite or granitic rock. The most reasonable inter¬ pretation appears to be that the low¬ er part of the St. Louis well to a depth of 3848 feet penetrated a thick sandstone section containing occa¬ sional feldspathic sandstone beds and beds of mottled shale. 7 Broadhead, G. C., op. cit. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 42, 1949 103 FACTORS AFFECTING LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF PERMEABILITY OF UNCONSOLIDATED GLACIAL MATERIAL1 ROBERT D. KNODLE Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana Introduction Many noteworthy contributions have been made by scientific research on the flow of fluids through porous media. The work has been mainly in twTo categories, consolidated material and filtration materials, with less at¬ tention to unconsolidated water¬ bearing materials. Many of the same problems confront the worker in all three fields, and much of the infor¬ mation and many concepts are inter¬ changeable. There are, however, certain problems in the study of un¬ consolidated water-bearing deposits which are not encountered in the study of either filtration or consoli¬ dated material. The consolidated material tends to be more uniform in character (excluding materials with secondary porosity). Filtra¬ tion material may be sorted, strati¬ fied, and of varying shape to obtain the desired results or effects. In natural unconsolidated water-bear¬ ing material, a marked heterogeneity is usually encountered; therefore a more empirical approach is neces¬ sary in their study. Properties of Sediments Classification. — Numerous methods have been devised to describe and classify sediments. Some are ex- 1 Published with the permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois and based, in part, upon Master’s thesis, University of Illinois. tremely useful whereas others are of limited use and little practical value. A brief review of some of the criteria is necessary to ascertain those which are pertinent to the present study. Krumbein2 says of the mass prop¬ erties of sediments, “Just as the be¬ havior and functions of a complex organism are the sum of the behavior and functions of the component cells, so also is the character of the aggre¬ gate sediment (or any other particu¬ late substance) a summation of the characters of the individual particles or grains of which it is made.” Packing. — An important factor which exercises control over both porosity and permeability is pack¬ ing. Graton and Fraser3 have recog¬ nized two classifications of packing, systematic and random. They have recognized six basic patterns for sys¬ tematic packing, which range from loosest to closest packing. Random or disorderly packing is far more common in nature and therefore of more interest to the hydrologist and geologist. They further state4 that haphaz¬ ard packing being of higher porosity than tighter rhombohedral packing has a larger average size of voids; Krumbein, W. C. and Pettijohn, F. S., Manual of sedimentary petrology, p. 498, D. Appleton- Centurv Company, New York, 1939. Graton, L. C. and Fraser, H. J., Systematic packing of spheres with particular relation to porositv and permeability: Jour. Geol. vol. 43, pp. 485-800, 1935. 4 Op. Cit., p. 876. 104 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions therefore it has a higher permea¬ bility. Since most haphazard pack¬ ing is systemless, the voids are gen¬ erally of non-uniform size, produc¬ ing a higher permeability than sys¬ tematic packing of the same poro¬ sity. Porosity. — Porosity is the percent¬ age of pore space in the total volume of the sample, i.e., the space not oc¬ cupied by solid mineral matter. Fraser5 has listed the following sev¬ en factors which control the porosity 1. Absolute size of grain. 2. Non-uniformity in size of grain. 3. Proportions of various sizes of grains. 4. Shape of grain. Factors of more general nature in¬ clude : 5. Method of deposition. 6. Compaction during and follow¬ ing deposition. 7. Solidification. Size. — Slichter6 in his theoretical work came to the conclusion that the absolute size does not affect the por¬ osity. The factor which has been overlooked is that spherical particles were used instead of natural grains. Actually as grain size decreases, fric¬ tion, adhesion, and bridging become increasingly important because of the higher ratio of surface area to volume and mass. Therefore, the smaller the grain size, the greater the porosity. Lee and Ellis7 made determinations on 36 samples rang- 5 Frase^, H. J.. Experimental study of the por¬ osity and permeability of clastic sediments : Jour. Geol., vol. 43. p. 916,' 1931. of natural unconsolidated deposits. G Slichter, C. S. Theoretical investigation of the motion of groundwaters: U.S.G.S., Nineteenth An¬ nual Report, 1897-98. 7 Lee, C. H. and Ellis, A. J., Geoloew and 'r~onnd- woters of the western part of San Diego County, Cn’ifornin : U.S.G.S., Water Supply Paper 446, pp. 191-23, 1919. ing from coarse sand to silt with the following results in percentage of total voids: Coarse sand, 39-41 per¬ cent; medium sand, 41-48 percent; fine sand, 44-49 percent ; fine sandy loam, 50-59 percent. The average of the thirty-six samples was 45.1 percent. Smaller particles were found to give values ranging from 50 to 95 percent. The variety in grain size in pro¬ portion of various sizes and degree of assortment must be taken into consideration in any stud}7 of por¬ osity. A mechanical screen analysis can best express these variations. Hazen,8 in his experimental soil work, devised a method of gaining a simple quantitative expression of the degree of uniformity which he calls the uniformity coefficient. This is the ratio of the diameter of a grain that has 60 percent by weight of the sample finer than itself to the di¬ ameter of a grain that has 10 per¬ cent finer than itself. Kesults of other workers9 have shown that the values used by Hazen are not always applicable to all types of material. However, the variation is so slight that it does not seem necessar}7 to change the values. Hazen further noted that uniformity coefficient would range from a value of 1, if all particles were of the same size, to 20 or 30 for heterogeneous material ; that is, the coefficient increases as porosity decreases. A rough esti¬ mate of the open spaces can be made from the coefficient of uniformity. Sharp-grained materials having uni- 8 Hazen. Allen, Some physical properties of sands end travels with special reference to their use in fTtmtion : Mass. State Board of Health, 24th Ann. Rent., p. f0. a Te-zaghi, Karl and Peck, R. B., Soil mechanics in engineering practice, pp. 21-22, John Wiley and Sons. 1948. Measurement of Permeability 105 formity coefficients below a value of 2 have nearly 45 percent open space as ordinarily packed, and sands hav¬ ing coefficients below 3 as they occur in banks, or artificially settled in water, will usually have 40 percent open spaces. With more mixed ma¬ terials the closeness of packing in¬ creases until, with a uniformity co¬ efficient of 6 to 8, only 30 percent open space is obtained, and with ex¬ tremely high coefficients almost no open space is left. With round¬ grained water-worn sands the open space has been observed to be from 2 to 5 percent less than for sharp grains of similar size. Permeability. — Permeability as defined by Tolman10 is the capacity of water-bearing material to trans¬ mit water, measured by the quantity of water passing through a unit crosi-section in a unit time under a 100 percent hydraulic grade. Many factors influence the permeability, including size of interstitial open¬ ings, continuity of openings, surface tension, capillarity, size of grains, ab¬ solute viscosity of fluid (in centi- poises), and dissolved gas. It is be¬ yond the scope of this paper to delve into all the hydrologic aspects, but they should be recognized. Although dependent on porosity, there is no direct ratio between porosity and permeability. Terzaghi and Peck* 11 have stated that “when a soil is com¬ pressed or vibrated, the volume oc¬ cupied by its solid constituents re¬ mains practically unchanged, but the volume of voids decreases; as a consequence the permeability of the soil decreases.” 10 Idem, p. 114. 11 Idem, p. 44. With openings of capillary and sub-capillary size the molecular at¬ traction of water molecules is suf¬ ficient to “lock” the water in the interstitial spaces. Surface tension of fluids. — Sur¬ face tension in fine-grained sedi¬ ments exercises important control. It has been estimated by King12 that the surface area in a cubic foot of sand composed of particles 0.02 milli¬ meter in diameter is about 50,000 square feet. It is apparent that a considerable amount of water can be contained as a thin film on the sur¬ face of the grains of such fine ma¬ terial, and that molecular cohesion causes any remaining interstitial space to be filled with captive water. It can be demonstrated that in a given volume of material in which all factors other than size remain equal, the total interstitial space var¬ ies inversely with the size of the in¬ terstices. A half-inch sphere has one-fourth the surface area of a one- inch sphere, but a container of one cubic inch capacity will hold eight half-inch spheres which in effect doubles the interstitial surface. Shape. — The shape of particles is known to affect both porosity and permeability, but thorough quanti¬ tative work on this aspect has been meager. Shape studies. — Shape studies13 were conducted to see whether a measurable quantitative relationship exists between shape, porosity, and permeability. An arbitrary scale14 was set up based upon three shapes, 12 King, F. H., A text of physics of agriculture, Madison, Wis., p. 124, 1900. 13 Wadell, H., Sphericity and roundness of rock particles: Jour. Geol., vol. 41, pp. 310-331, 1933. 14 Rittenhouse, Gordon, Analytical methods as ap¬ plied in petrographic investigation of Appalachian Basin, U.S.G.S., Circular 22, March, 1948. 106 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions . 2 3 4: S|" Fig. 1. — Selected pebbles used as a guide in shape studies. rounded, semi-rounded, and angular. Three specimens were picked from the samples and photographed. This photograph (fig. 1) was used as a guide in further grain counts. A piece of metric cross-section paper placed between two pieces of lucite served to delineate a given area. Small portions of a sieved sample were placed on the ruled piece of lucite and examined under a microscope. Grains within a given area were counted and an estimate was made of the percentage of each of the three shapes. A less rapid but more accurate method would be to make counts from photomicrographs. Methods of Analysis It can be readily seen that to the hydrologist permeability is much more important than porosity. A sediment which possesses porosity but not permeability is useless as an aquifer. Numerous graphical and statisti¬ cal methods have been devised by various workers in an attempt to analyze sediments. A review and appraisal is desirable to ascertain which of these methods is pertinent to the present problem. Mechanical size analysis. — Two common and widely used statistical devices are the histogram and the cumulative curve. There are certain limitations and variations attendant to these methods, some of which are discussed below. Udden15 was among the first workers in the field of sedi¬ mentation to use histograms. He observed that histograms of sedi¬ ments varied considerably according to the type of sediment involved. Beach sands have well defined modes whereas glacial till fractions are widespread and irregular and often bi-modal. One of the greatest diffi¬ culties involved in the use of the histogram is caused by the choice of class intervals used in an analysis, i.e., its shape varies according to the particular class limits which are chosen. It is therefore quite possible to construct two very unlike histo¬ grams from the same sediment mere¬ ly by using different class intervals. The basic difficulty with the histo¬ gram is that it appears to illustrate continuous frequency distribution as though it were made of discrete classes. Hence the histogram may not furnish much visual information about the frequency distribution considered as a continuous variation of size. The use of the cumulative curve was prompted by the difficulties en¬ countered in the histogram. This curve remains fairly constant re¬ gardless of the class limits used, whereas the histogram is definitely affected by a choice of class limits. Thus the cumulative curve is a much more reliable index of the nature of continuous distribution of particles of sediment. Another advantage of 15 Udden, J. A., The mechanical composition of wind deposits, Augustana Library Publications, No. 1, 1898. Measurement of Permeability 107 this curve is the ease with which other statistical data may be derived from it. Size analysis coefficients. — One of the most valuable measures is that of the median, which is the mid-point in size distribution of the sediment of which one-half by weight is com¬ posed of particles of smaller di¬ ameter than the median and one- half is composed of particles larger than the median. This is readily ob¬ tained from the cumulative curve by noting the diameter at the inter¬ section of the 50 percent line and the curve. This value is used in the recommendations for well screens by the Illinois State Geological Survey. Skewness, or the measure of the degree of asymmetry of the cumula¬ tive curve, has been recommended by some as a method of ascertaining the sorting ; that is, a positive skewness indicates that a preponderance of the sample lies on the coarse side of the median. A negative skewness would indicate the opposite. The use of skewness currently has little practical application, mainly be¬ cause relatively little is known of this character of .sediments. Sam¬ pling errors, selective transporta¬ tion, and other factors often mani¬ fest themselves as skewness. Effective size was a term devel¬ oped by Hazen16 in his work on fil¬ tration sands to designate the diame¬ ter of the size particle of which they were 10 percent of the sample by weight smaller and 90 percent by weight larger. Although this meas¬ urement was derived for use on a certain sediment, it has with some modifications been quite generally accepted. The effective size is readi- 16 Idem, p. 432. ly obtained from the cumulative fre¬ quency curve by ascertaining the point at which the 90 percent line in¬ tersects the curve. Hazen justified the choice of effective size upon his observations that the finest 10 per¬ cent of a sample has as much effect on the properties as the coarsest 90 percent. Trask17 has proposed a method of expressing the measure of the aver¬ age quartile spread, the coefficient of sorting. It is determined by the square root of the third quartile dia¬ meter divided by the square root of the first quartile diameter. This method eliminates the size factor, that is, differences in coarseness be¬ tween samples or units of measures have no effect on the coefficient of sorting. This method gives a rela¬ tive idea of the sorting in terms of well sorted (less than 2.5), medium sorted (about 3.0), and poorly sort¬ ed (4.5 or more), but fails to give an accurate quantitative measure. Krumbein and Monk18 conducted experiments pn unconsolidated glac¬ ial sediments to determine the ef¬ fect of size perameters on permeabil¬ ity. The results of their work are of little value in this study because their samples were artificially com¬ pounded to fit a predetermined curve, that is, the sieve separates were mixed !so that the mean and standard deviations could be varied at will. Drilling and sampling techniques. The technique in obtaining well samples varies greatly from the tech¬ niques used in other methods of sam- 17 Trask, P. D., Origin and environments of source sediments of petroleum: Nat. Research Council, Rept. Comm, on Sed., pp. 67-76, 1932. 18 Krumbein, W. C. and Monk, G. D., Permeability as a function of size perameters of unconsolidated sand: Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Eng. Inc., Petroleum Technology, July, 1942. 108 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions pling. It is impossible to remove the material of well samples in an un¬ disturbed condition. Material which has slumped from higher levels in the well bore often contaminates the samples, and drilling bits often pul¬ verize or otherwise disintegrate par¬ ticles, thus distorting their true magnitude. The type of drilling tools, the methods used, the size (diameter) of the hole, and the type of well (test hole or producing well) must be considered in the study of any given sample. Most wells are drilled by one of three different methods — rotary, cable tool, and reverse hydraulic. Certain characteristics of each meth¬ od merit discussion. Cable tool or percussion drilling is accomplished by repeated raising and dropping of a bit and a heavy string of tools suspended on a cable or by driving casing and cleaning out the debris as the casing is forced downward, or often by a combina¬ tion of the two operations. It is difficult to obtain repre¬ sentative samples from cable tool bore holes. The upper portions are often drilled “dry,’- that is, with just enough water to facilitate dril¬ ling and bailing operations. When a water-bearing sand is encountered, the bore hole is loaded with fluid to, or in excess of, hydrostatic balance with the formation in order to pre¬ vent heaving. Heaving can cause drilling difficulties as well as con¬ tamination of samples. The con¬ stant influx of sand from a heaving formation makes it difficult or im¬ possible to ascertain the true posi¬ tion and character of the water-bear¬ ing zone. Excessive disintegration of material is often caused by cer¬ tain operations of the drilling pro¬ cedure. Casing set with a drive shoe tends to disturb the formation, and failure of the bailer to remove cut¬ tings exposes them to repeated blows from the drilling bit. The import¬ ance of a good and experienced dril¬ ler cannot be overemphasized. It is generally the driller who collects samples, and the validity of the sam¬ ples is largely dependent on his care, knowledge, and experience. In rotary drilling, mud is of prime importance. Many holes drilled in glacial drift utilize as drilling mud the clay material found in the upper portion of the drift, adding only water. When sandy zones are en¬ countered, additional fine-grained material, such as bentonitic clays, must be added by the driller to maintain the mud at the proper v/eight and viscosity and to remove the cuttings. In some cases, lime, cement, or other materials may be added to increase viscosity or weight. Care in removing samples is neces¬ sary. A device similar to a wire box is generally used to slow up the flow of mud sufficiently to allow even the finer parts of the sample to set¬ tle before the sample is removed. Hole size is an important consid¬ eration in the study of well samples. For example, in the large diameter wells drilled for the Illinois Water Service Company, a larger percent¬ age of coarse particles were brought up and a larger percentage of fine particles were washed away than in the 4-inch rotary test holes drilled on the same sites. As would be expected, informa¬ tion from a test hole tends to be more reliable. More care is taken in sam- Measurement of Permeability 109 Fig. 2— Device for measuring perme¬ ability of unconsolidated material. pling and in other techniques. In most final wells, production is the ultimate goal. Large diameter wells produce so much material that a considerable disposal problem re¬ sults, and it would be necessary to conduct a regular sample splitting procedure in order to obtain a rep¬ resentative sample. Results of Studies Permeability. — Samples used in the permeability experiments were composite samples derived from the entire water-bearing portion of Uni¬ versity of Illinois Well No. 10. A limited number of readings were taken on 60- and 80-mesh sands and BB shot. It was of interest to note the slight variation between loosest and closest packing in the case of the 60- and 80-mesh separates. When wet samples were introduced into the permeameter containing water, they settled in a state of closest packing and any attempts to lower the permeability were fruitless. Permeability testing.— Permeabil¬ ity was measured by allowing water under a 100 percent gradient to pass through a sample of known cross section and height, and measuring the amount which was passed in a given time. A permeameter was constructed of a Incite cylinder with an inside diameter of approximately 6.4 cm. and a length of 30 cm. A disc of lucite was bonded to the bot¬ tom of the tube and tapped for a % inch street el to which was con¬ nected a gate valve. Approximately one inch from the bottom of the tube a piece of 60-mesh wire was placed between two rings of lucite and re¬ inforced with hardware cloth. Above this screen two openings were tapped 10 cm. apart and connected to manometer tubes which were mounted on a board with metric scales (fig. 2). The major problem was obtaining uniform and accurate readings. To accomplish this a system of “aver¬ age readings” was devised. Mater¬ ial was introduced into the tube in a steady stream until the top mano¬ meter opening was covered. No at¬ tempt was made to pack the material further. Water was then introduced into the tube from the top until a steady stream was obtained at the outlet, at which time a reading was taken. This first reading was taken immediately after a continuous flow was obtained through the gate valve, and recorded the permeability of the material in loosest packing. After the permeability of the ma¬ terial was obtained in a condition of 110 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions loosest packing a “Vibra-Tool” was used to jar the material into the closest packing possible. The flow of water was stopped during the pack¬ ing process to prevent the possibility of channeling. When the closest pack¬ ing possible was obtained another reading was taken. The average of the two readings was then calculated, which, in the opinion of the writer, represents most closely the original permeability of the material in place in the ground. This conclusion was reached after it was demonstrated that it was possible to produce in the laboratory both looser and closer packing than a sediment possessed in nature. By using an average of loosest and closest packing it was possible to obtain more uniform re¬ sults than could be obtained by at¬ tempting to pack each sample to a uniform standard. Several experimental readings were made in order to develop a standard procedure which would give uniform results. It was found that false results could be obtained by surging the column of sediment and allowing a relatively complete sort¬ ing to take place in the tube. Chan¬ neling was common when higher ve¬ locities were used. These channels, when developed, allowed water to flow through the column of material in a quantity far greater than in unchanneled material. The necessity for a gate valve to control the rate of flow of water through the column of material be¬ came apparent immediately. Mater¬ ials of high permeability allowed turbulent flow to develop, introduc¬ ing error into the results. A high rate of flow also allowed sorting and channeling to occur, causing intoler¬ able errors. Several readings were taken on one sample allowing differ¬ ent amounts of water to flow through the tube in a given time ; in all cases the results were well within the limits of probable error. It was then decided to use as low a rate of flow as would register a head on the manometer gauges, thus minimizing any effects due to turbulent flow or sorting. Hydrologic tests.— A non-equili¬ brium formula for determining per¬ meability and transmissibility by well pumping tests has been devel¬ oped by Theis19 and others. This formula has been applied to a num¬ ber of well tests in Illinois and ap¬ parently gives a relatively reliable indication of the permeability and transmissibility of glacial drift aquif¬ ers in place. The values so obtained are controlled by the local natural variations in porosity and perme¬ ability (and packing) plus whatever changes may have been caused by drilling and development techniques at the particular site. In one in¬ stance in the Champaign-Urbana area, the calculated transmissibility based upon the Theis formula lies about half way between the limits of permeability determined in the laboratory for maximum open pack¬ ing and maximum closed packing determined with materials from the well. Other cases indicate that the aquifer transmissibility based upon such pumping tests can always be expected to be within such limits, but that the production from a well cannot be predicted from laboratory analysis. Several factors govern the amount of water which may be derived from 19 Idem, pp. 519-524. Ill Measurement of Permeability a formation. Of these, proper de¬ velopment of the well is of great im¬ portance. In sand and gravel strata it is quite possible to over-develop a well to a point where a failure is caused in the “roof” or overlying formation. If the overlying forma¬ tion is composed of clay or extremely fine sand, this material will enter the well bore, causing the material near the well to be clogged and re¬ duced in permeability. Over-devel¬ opment may also cause a bridging of the fine particles between the larger ones. This condition can be gener¬ ally remedied by surging, and is not considered as detrimental to the yield as roof failure. Under-development may also cause a low yield. This occurs when in¬ sufficient pumping and surging fails to cause relatively complete sorting. Size range of the particles and thickness of the formation have great effect on the yield of a well, as noted above. Material with great uniform¬ ity of particle size will not yield much more water after development than before. The amount of water available and the diameter of the well are im¬ portant factors in determining the yield of a well. If there is sufficient water, it is possible to utilize large diameter wells which are capable of transmitting larger quantities of water to the surface than wells of smaller diameter. A thick forma¬ tion for obvious reasons is capable of containing more water than a thin one. The factors concerning the devel¬ opment of wells are largely depend¬ ent on the skill and experience of the driller. In any study it is import¬ ant to take cognizance of this factor. In the shape studies conducted by the author, it was possible to deter¬ mine accurately the percentage of rounded, semi-rounded, and angular grains in any given sample. How¬ ever, in any consideration of porosity and permeability, the indeterminate factor of packing still remains. When dealing with uniform spherical par¬ ticles Graton and Fraser20 have shown that there are six types of systematic packing, and that por¬ osity and permeability are definitely related to packing. Instead of deal¬ ing with six combinations as in the ideal case, it appears that in glacial drift, which is neither uniform nor spherical, an infinite number of com¬ binations of packing can exist. Due to the extreme variability of size and shape, classification as to packing is meaningless. Therefore, any attempt to predict porosity and permeability of a finished well from laboratory samples by any mathematical or ex¬ perimental process is impracticable. Summary and Conclusions Experimental procedure in at¬ tempting to produce uniform per¬ meability readings illustrated very clearly that the permeability deter¬ minations in the laboratory are not indicative of the actual permeability in the formation surrounding the well bore. An experienced driller, by properly developing a well, causes its yield to differ greatly from those indicated by laboratory permeability results. The development of a well con¬ sists of increasing the permeability of the formation in the vicinity of the well bore, which may be done by pumping and surging to remove the 20 Idem, pp. 785-800. 112 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions fine particles from the vicinity of the well bore. The coarser sand or gravel remain behind the screen in the well bore. The entire water-bearing for¬ mation for a wide* area around the well is made more uniform in grain size, affording the greatest possible voids for the water to pass through. In proper development the size of the particles gradually decreases with distance from the well bore, and the particles become firmly lodged together and stabilized so that no further change occurs. It appears impossible to predict accur¬ ately the amount of water which may be derived from a well treated in such a manner, although experienced drillers can often make remarkably accurate estimates. After due consideration of exist¬ ing studies and in the light of the present study, it becomes apparent that there is no way to evaluate quantitatively and accurately the effects of such features as roundness, size, shape, porosity, and perme¬ ability in a heterogeneous or non- uniform material with respect to its ability to produce water. In all previous works of this nature the ma¬ terial studied was either artificial or the original character of the natural sediments was altered to conform to desired conditions. While these stud¬ ies are of academic interest they have been found to be of small value to the practicing groundwater geolo¬ gist. The use of compound samples was considered best because the produc¬ tion figures computed for a water well represent only the production obtained from the entire section rather than production from any single stratum. It is concluded that the use of grain shape in predicting the yield of a formation is not practical be¬ cause the effect of shape on perme¬ ability is exceeded by the effects of grain size and the manner of pack¬ ing. In evaluating the factors which control porosity, permeability, and well productivity from glacial drift aquifers, it is apparent that for any given texture the effect of packing is of sufficient magnitude to mini¬ mize the effects of all other factors, so that the primary influence on an aquifer’s productivity are the orig¬ inal conditions of deposition and its subsequent history as affecting its packing. Acknowledgement The author wishes to express his gratitude to Carl A. Bays, formerly Head of the Division of Ground- water and Geophysical Exploration of the State Geological Survey, for his many suggestions and the critical reading of the manuscript, to the in¬ dividual members of the ground- water division staff for consultation and suggestions, and to H. E. Hud¬ son and H. F. Smith, engineers of the State Water Survey Division, for data, suggestions, and criticism. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 42, 1949 113 FACIES ANALYSES OF THE NIAGARAN ROCKS IN ILLINOIS HEINZ A. LOWENSTAM University of Chicago, Chicago The Niagaran exposures in Illi¬ nois, which occur widely separated in the northeastern, northwestern, west-central, and southwestern parts of the State, contrast sharply in gross lithologic aspects as well as local facies development. The dif¬ ferences in gross lithology are basi¬ cally expressions of broad regional facies differentiations. These re¬ gional sedimentation conditions are greatly modified in the two north¬ ern outcrop sections by a local en¬ vironmental factor, the reefs, which formed local sediment sources. Complex small scale facies differen¬ tiation characterizes the reef enclos¬ ing strata here, indicating further the controlling effect that the reefs had on the sedimentation of the surrounding bottoms. These reef¬ bearing northern deposits stand out in sharp contrast to the reef-free southwestern Illinois deposits. The southwestern Illinois deposits con¬ sist entirely of normal shelf sedi¬ ments, whereas the reef -bearing por¬ tion of the northern Illinois sections embrace reef and inter-reef deposits. In broad environmental terms we may distinguish three major cate¬ gories in the facies analyses : normal shelf deposits, reef deposits, and in¬ ter-reef deposits. The normal shelf deposits consist principally of two recognizable source components: (1) terrigenous elastics, derived from the bordering land areas, and (2) skeletal debris, both calcareous and siliceous, sup¬ plied by the organisms that popu¬ lated the shelf bottoms. The terri¬ genous elastics were apparently de¬ rived chiefly from the Appalachian upland or its southern extensions, and to a minor extent from the Ozark Island that existed in Niaga¬ ran time. Only in the Ozark border¬ ing outcrop areas in southwestern Illinois do we find evidence of a major contribution of Ozark derived sediments. As to the other outcrop areas, their contributions appear to have been largely confined to the Joliet deposits of west central Illi¬ nois and the basal Joliet deposits of northeastern Illinois. There is no evidence at present to warrant the recognition of a chemical precipitate constituent in the carbonate fraction of the normal shelf deposits. The reef facies differs radically from the shelf facies, as well as the inter-reef facies, in that it con¬ stitutes isolated bodies of essentially pure carbonate rock which is entire¬ ly organic in origin except for the secondarily introduced magnesian element. The reef frame was erect¬ ed solely by reef-building organisms, principally stromatoporoids and tab¬ ulate corals, which produced rigid topographically raised structures that extended from the surrounding bottoms upward into the agitated surface waters. The interstices of the reef frame are largely filled with organic skeletal debris of reef dwell- 114 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions ing organisms and reef detritus, which occur commonly cemented in¬ to the frame by encrusting stroma- toporoids. The reef bodies are commonly found flanked by reef- derived detritus. Secondary dolo- mitization has greatly altered the original textures and largely ob¬ scured the organic character of the reef bodies. The inter-reef facies, up to the present ill-defined and interchange¬ ably referred to as normal or la- goonal facies, may be broadly de¬ fined as the deposits which accumu¬ lated within the orbit of the detritus laden wTaters of reef outwash. The inter-reef deposits thus embody two distinct source elements, a regional and a local reef-derived one, the lat¬ ter forming the most characteristic criterion for distinguishing the in¬ ter-reef facies from the normal shelf facies. With this as a background, the facies of the individual outcrops may be analyzed. Beginning with the northeastern Illinois outcrops, the Niagaran de¬ posits consist of a succession, of normal shelf deposits through the J oliet formation, which gradually gave way in the Waukesha transi¬ tion phase to reef and inter-reef de¬ velopment in the Racine-Guelph formations. The regional environ¬ mental factors which can be deduced from the gross character of the sedi¬ ments as a whole are fairly muddy waters (as indicated by the average of 15-20 percent terrigenous elas¬ tics) and soft muddy to sandy bot¬ toms, generally lying slightly below effective wave base. Reef growth started in sporadic form during Waukesha deposition, which is marked by semi-rough water condi¬ tions and the influx of coarse silt and very fine sand. Curiously enough the main phase of reef de¬ velopment came only after lowering of the sea bottom below wave base, implying that deeper bottoms and fairly muddy waters were not detri¬ mental to the Niagaran reef build¬ ers. Complex facies differentiation goes hand in hand with the main reef development, the inter-reef facies shifting horizontally and ver¬ tically in correspondence to the shifting reef spread. The inter-reef deposits are characterized by sharp horizontal facies differentiations ranging from quite muddy deposits of anaerobic through aerated quiet water facies all the way to rough- water deposits which are principally composed of reef -derived detritus. The inter-reef deposits thus con¬ trast sharply with the early Niaga¬ ran normal shelf deposits ; such facies changes as were gradually at¬ tained in time but not in space in the shelf deposits can be commonly found developed over short distances in the horizontal plane among the inter-reef deposits. In the northwestern Illinois sec¬ tion, the Niagaran deposits also con¬ sist of a succession of normal shelf deposits in the Waukesha formation, followed by reef and inter-reef de¬ velopment in the Racine-Port Byron sequence. The facies contrast be¬ tween normal shelf, reef, and inter¬ reef deposits is here less sharply de¬ fined, the chief contrasting features being sediment structures and facies shifts. This is primarily due to the negligible content of terrigenous elastics which average here less than 5 percent. Textural and composi- Facies of the Niagaran Rocks 115 tional criteria readily recognizable in limestones, which would aid in the analyses of a more detailed facies differentiation, have been ob¬ scured by secondary dolomitization. The broad environmental factors that characterize (and at the same time contrast) the northwestern and northeastern Illinois deposits are prevalent shallow-water bottoms, lo¬ cated largely above wave base, and clear water conditions. During the prevailing intervals of shallow water conditions, reef detritus was spread and redeposited entirely over the adjacent inter-reef bottoms, largely in the form of shifting sand bars rather than in detrital fans which, however, accumulated around reefs during periods of temporary sub¬ sidence below wave base. The Niagaran deposits of west- central Illinois, as far as preserved, underlying the pre-Middle Devonian erosion surface, consist entirely of normal shelf deposits. As even the most extensively preserved sections in the Grafton area do not extend upward into the horizons of the reef¬ bearing strata in the northern out¬ crop areas, it is uncertain whether reef and inter-reef facies were origi¬ nally present or not. The sections in the Hambury area consist of crinoidal limestone coquinas, of the semi rough-water type, whereas the Grafton deposits comprise dolomi- tized rough-water deposits at the base followed by semi rough-water deposits of the Waukesha facies type as developed in northeastern Illinois. The southwestern Illinois depos¬ its are represented in their entirety by normal shelf deposits in which the carbonates consist of limestone. Fol¬ lowing an intial phase of semi rough-water conditions marked by clastic semi coquinas, the bulk of the succeeding section is composed of muddy bottom, quiet water deposits, evidently laid down at greater depth than any of those of the other out¬ cropping areas. The prevailingly low density in burial population (con¬ sisting of small fragile forms) and lack of evidence of large scale re¬ duction of the terra rosa muds de¬ rived from the adjacent Ozark up¬ land point toward deposition under quiet water conditions, near or at the photosynthetic ceiling. Because of the pronounced muddiness, re¬ flected in the terrigenous clastic con¬ tent of about 40 percent, a consider¬ ably higher average than in any of the other areas, the photosynthetic ceiling was evidently above 600 feet, appreciably higher than its maxi¬ mum extent under clear water con¬ ditions. 116 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 42, 1949 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OOLITE GRAINS OF THE STE. GENEVIEVE FORMATION* * RAYMOND S. SHRODE Illinois State Geological Survey, TJrbana The usual hand specimens and thin sections of oolite afford randomly oriented cross-sections of the oolite grains and permit observation in one plane only. They give inade¬ quate information therefore regard¬ ing the size, shape, or roundness of the grains. It was found that “chalky” oolite could be success¬ fully disintegrated to yield a high percentage of discrete grains by a procedure known as the ‘ ‘ sodium sulfate soundness test”1 which dup¬ licates roughly the disruptive action of freezing water but produces dis¬ integration more rapidly. The quar¬ ry at Anna, Illinois, contains in its upper part a bed of Ste. Genevieve oolite 6% Ret thick which respond¬ ed well to this procedure. This paper describes the results of a study of the oolite grains freed from six samples taken from the bed, each sample representing a vertical thickness of about 12 inches. After disintegration each sample was screened into Wentworth size- scale fractions and weighed. The weight and number of oolite grains in a small weighed quantity of each size fraction was then determined and their particle size distribution calculated in percent by weight and percent by number. Two matters bear critically on the confidence with which subsequent data may be regarded, namely, is 1 A.S.T.M., Designation C88-46T. * Published with the permission of the Chief, Illi¬ nois State Geological Survey. the number of unbroken, discrete oolite grains proportionate to the number in the original sample, and to what extent did the disintegra¬ tion process reduce the size of the freed grains by exfoliation of con¬ centric deposits. Estimates of the abundance of oolite grains indicate that the number freed is roughly proportionate to the number in the original sample. Signs of exfolia¬ tion were generally absent in the dis¬ crete grains. This evidence and the excellent preservation of small fos¬ sils freed along with the oolite grains suggest that exfoliation was prob¬ ably not an important phenomenon. Size of Oolite Grains The results of particle size deter¬ minations on the oolite grains in the six samples are shown in Figure 1. Most of the grains are between 0.25 and 0.83 millimeter in diameter. In terms of the Wentworth size scale for sediments, the grains are prin¬ cipally medium and coarse grained if considered on the basis of percent by weight. However, in terms of percent by number the dominant size is medium grained. The particle-size histograms of the different samples show no consistent trend from the top of the bed down¬ ward. Mostly such variations as occur are between the medium- and coarse-grained grades. The bedding and other character¬ istics of the stratum from which the Oolite Grain of Ste. Genevieve Formation 117 V, yA m 2 •M m. I . it fl- IL |_ ilL 1 1 a 1 it ■ i a m 772 w i 12 12 12 Thickness Represented — INCHES 12 -1 y II Weighted Average Fig. i. — Particle-size distribution of oolite grains by weight and number. Reading from left to right the histograms progress from the top of the bed downward. samples studied were obtained show clearly that it is a clastic rock. The particle-size data indicate conditions of sedimentation which appear to be even more selective than those under which a medium- and coarse-grained sand would be deposited. The re¬ stricted size range of the majority of the grains, about 0.6 mm., may be the result of either a high degree of sorting by the transporting medium, limiting factors controlling the maxi¬ mum and minimum size of oolite grain development, or a combination of both. Erosion during transporta¬ tion might also be responsible, at least in part, for the grain-size dis¬ tribution. If this were true, very fine-sized oolite grains should be present. Also, some grains should show evidences of erosion, such as exposure of their internal structure. As neither of these phenomena was observed it is concluded that erosion of grains did not significantly af¬ fect particle-size distribution. Taken together, the foregoing data suggest that the source of the oolite grains was not far from their site of deposition, that they were trans¬ ported by relatively strong currents or waves, and that conditions in the area of oolite grain formation may have been such as to restrict maxi¬ mum and minimum oolite size, espec¬ ially the former. 118 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 2. — Typical oolite grains from the coarse size grade. X 10. Shape and Roundness of Oolite Grains Roundness determinations were made from photographs of 60 grains of each size category selected at ran¬ dom from the various samples. Fig¬ ure 2 shows grains of the coarse sand grade. Figure 3 gives the results of classification of the grains by Krumbein’s scale for roundness de¬ termination.2 The arithmetic mean roundness values on the chart are very similar and indicate little dif¬ 2 Krumbein, W. C., Measurement and geological significance of shape and roundness of sedimentary particles, Jour. Sed. Pet., vol. 11, pp. 64-72, 1941. ference in the over-all roundness of the size fractions. The coarse sand fraction, as shown by the histograms, is notably different from that of the other two size-grades. One dif¬ ference is the longer 0.9 roundness bar and the shorter 0.8 and 0.7 bars. This may be interpreted as being the result of increasing roundness ac¬ companying the growth of the oolite grains. The reason for the greater percentage of grains with 0.6 round¬ ness in the coarse sand grade is not understood. There is some evidence, however, which suggests that the centers in these oolite grains have 119 Oolite Grain of Ste. Arithmetic Mean Roundness .778 772 768 40- "1 30 © XI E c A 20- c Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois STATE OF ILLINOIS Adlai E. Stevenson, Governor TRANSACTIONS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE VOLUME 43 1950 Forty -Third Annual Meeting Rock Island, Illinois May, 1950 PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS Illinois State Academy of Science AFFILIATED WITH THE Illinois State Museum Division, Centennial Building Sfringfield, Illinois December 31, 1950 STATE OF ILLINOIS Adlai E. Stevenson, Governor DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION Noble J. Puffer, Director ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM DIVISION Thorne Deuel, Chief ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AFFILIATED WITH THE ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM OFFICERS, COMMITTEES AND DELEGATES 1949-1950 I. Officers PRESIDENT: Thorne Deuel, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT: Percival Robertson, Principia College, Elsah. SECOND VICE-PRESIDENT: F. M. Fryxell, Augustana College, Rock Island. SECRETARY : Leland Shanor, University of Illinois, Urbana. TREASURER: Wilbur W. Grimm, Bradley Uni¬ versity, Peoria. EDITOR: Dorothy E, Rose, State Geological Survey, Urbana. COLLEGIATE SECTION COORDINATOR: Harry J. Fuller, University of Illinois, Urbana. JUNIOR ACADEMY REPRESENTATIVE: George S. Porter, J. Sterling Morton High School and Junior College, Cicero. II. Council The ACADEMY COUNCIL consists of the officers Past secretary: named above, the two most recent past presidents: Hurst Shoemaker, University of Illinois, Ernest L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Col- Urbana. lege, Charleston. Robert F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana. III. Section Chairmen ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY: C. C. Burford, Urbana. BOTANY : R. A. Evers, Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana. CHEMISTRY: F. 0. Green, Wheaton College, Wheaton. GEOGRAPHY : William E. Powers, Northwest¬ ern University, Evanston. GEOLOGY: H. B. Willman, Illinois State Geo¬ logical Survey, Urbana. PHYSICS: Clarence R. Smith, Aurora College, Aurora. PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION: R. Will Burnett, Urbana. SOCIAL SCIENCE: Lewis Maverick, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. ZOOLOGY : Charles J. Wideman, Loyola Uni¬ versity, Chicago. COLLEGIATE SECTION: Harry J. Fuller, Co¬ ordinator, University of Illinois, Urbana. IV. Committees AFFILIATIONS : Percival Robertson, Chairman, Principia College, Elsah. Ildrem P. Daniel, Lake View High School, Chicago. Howard K. Gloyd, Chicago Academy of Sci¬ ence, Chicago. Leslie Hedrick, Illinois Institute of Tech¬ nology, Chicago. Glenn W. Warner, Wilson Junior College, Chicago. BUDGET: Wilbur W. Grimm, Chairman, Bradley University, Peoria. Clarence L. Furrow, Knox College, Gales¬ burg. Leo R. Tehon, State Natural History Survey, Urbana. Ernest L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Col¬ lege, Charleston. CONSERVATION : George B. Fell, Chairman, 302 Penfield PL, Rockford. Harlow B. Mills, State Natural History Survey, Urbana. Warder" C. Allee, University of Chicago, Chicago. Verne 0. Graham, 4028 Grace Street, Chi¬ cago. William H. Haas, Northwestern University, Evanston. L. A. Holmes, Illinois State Normal Univer¬ sity, Normal. Morris M. Leighton, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Raymond S. Smith, University of Illinois, Urbana. Hurst H. Shoemaker, University of Illinois, Urbana. [2] O ru V.4- ■4\ Floyd Cunningham, Carbondale. Claude U. Stone, 210 W. Armstrong, Peoria. Royal McClelland, 508 W. Charles Street, Champaign. CONSERVATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL SITES: John B. Ruyle, Chairman, 133 West Park, Champaign. Fay-Cooper Cole, University of Chicago, Chi¬ cago. Claude U. Stone, 210' W. Armstrong, Peoria. George R. Horner, Wheaton College, Wheaton. C. C. Burford, 907 S. Orchard, Urbana. Edgar Zook, Fairbury. John Hauberg, 23d Street Hill, Rock Island. Irvin Peithman, Carbondale. ECOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY : Arthur G. Vestal, Chairman, University of Illinois, Urbana. HISTORY OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE: William M. Bailey, Chair¬ man, 506 S. Poplar, Carbondale. George D. Fuller, University of Chicago, Chicago. Otts B. Young, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. LEGISLATION AND FINANCE: Morris M. Leighton, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Loren Woods, Chicago Museum of Natural History, Chicagol LIVING MEMORIALS: George E. Ekblaw, Chair¬ man, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Lyell J. Thomas, University of Illinois, - \ Urbana. \ j J. Nelson Spaeth, University of Illinois, Urbana. E. E. Nuuttila, State Forester, Springfield. H. E. Hudson, State Water Survey, Urbana. MEMBERSHIP : Gideon H. Boewe, Chairman, State Natural History Survey, Urbana. John H. Garland, University of Illinois, Urbana. Durward L. Eaton, Northern Illinois State \ College, DeKalb. George E. Ekblaw, State Geological Survey Urbana. W. H. Eller, 308 Sherman Avenue, Macomb G. N. Jones, University of Illinois, Urbana. Orlando Park, Northwestern University Evanston. Hiram F. Thut, Eastern Illinois State Col lege, Charleston. Walter B. Welch, Southern Illinois Univer sity, Carbondale. L. W. Miller, Illinois State Normal Univer sity, Normal. Charles J. Wideman, Loyola University, Chi cago. TEACHER TRAINING: Allen R. Moore, Chair man, J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero Ernest L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Col lege, Charleston. F. M. Fryxell, Augustana College, Rock Island, Illinois. J. W. Neckers, 108 S. Maple, Carbondale, Illinois. PRE-MEDICAL TRAINING: Carlos I. Reed, Chairman, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago. Harold J. Eigenbrodt, North Central, Naper¬ ville. G. H. Gardner, School of Medicine, North¬ western University, Evanston. V\ r-C C 4re^\. B. Vincent Hall, University of Illinois, Urbana. Thesle T. Job, Loyola University Medical School, Chicago. A. B. Luckhardt, University of Chicago, Chicago. J. Roscoe Miller, School of Medicine, North¬ western University, Evanston. F. J. Mullin, Dean of Medical Students, Uni¬ versity of Chicago, Chicago. J. Thomas Hastings, University of Illinois, Urbana. PUBLICATIONS: The President, Thobne Deuel, State Museum, Springfield. The Secretary, Leland Shanor, University of Illinois, Urbana. Robert F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana. H. Bowen Willman, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Leo R. Tehon, State Natural History Survey, Urbana. Dorothy E. Rose, Geological Survey, Urbana. PUBLIC RELATIONS: Walter H. Voskuil, Chairman, Geological Survey, Urbana. Claude U. Stone, 210 W. Armstrong Street, Peoria. Harlow B. Mills, State Natural History. Sur¬ vey, Urbana. RESEARCH GRANTS: C. Leplie Kanatzar, Chairman, MacMurray College, Jacksonville. Ralph O. Freeland, Northwestern University, Evanston. M. W. Sanderson, Natural History Survey, Urbana. Sister Mary O’Hanlon, Rosary College, River Forest. H. R. Wanless, University of Illinois, Urbana. Sister Joan Preising, College of St. Francis, Joliet. Percival Robertson, Principia College, Elsah. Charles J. Wideman, Loyola University, Chi¬ cago. William Marberry, Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale. SCIENCE TALENT : H. M. Smith, Chairman, Uni¬ versity of Illinois, Urbana. Lyell J. Thomas, University of Illinois, Urbana. E. F. Potthoff, University of Illinois, Urbana. R. F. Paton, University of Illinois, Urbana. E. L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State College, Charleston. F. H. Reed, State Geological Survey, Urbana. J. T. Hastings, University of Illinois, Urbana. SUSTAINING MEMBERSHIPS: Robert M. Grogan, Chairman, State Geological Survey, Urbana. Robert L. Smith, Herrin High School, Herrin. Allen R. Moore, J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero. Elnore Stoldt, High School, Jacksonville. STATE MUSEUM BUILDING: Percival Robert¬ son, Chairman, Principia College, Elsah. Clarence L. Furrow, Knox College, Gales¬ burg. Frank W. Aldrich, 1506 E. Washington, Bloomington. Ernest L. Stover, Eastern Illinois State Col¬ lege, Charleston. Frederick C. Holtz, Sangamon Electric Com¬ pany, Springfield. V. Delegates DELEGATE TO THE CONSERVATION COUNCIL: ■Verne O. Graham, 4028 Grace St., Chicago. DELEGATE TO THE A.A.A.S. : Leland Shanor, University of Illinois, Urbana. [3] VI. Junior Academy of Science GENERAL CHAIRMAN: George S. Porter, J. Sterling’ Morton High School, Cicero. ASSISTANT CHAIRMAN: Robert L. Smith, Township High School, Herrin. CHAIRMAN OF EXHIBITS: Joan Hunter, High School, Edwardsville. ASSISTANT CHAIRMAN OF EXHIBITS: Elroy Smith, High School, Galesburg. CHAIRMAN OF JUDGING: Willard L. Muehl, J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero. ASSISTANT CHAIRMAN OF JUDGING: H. W. Crall, Western Illinois State College, Ma¬ comb. AREA REPRESENTATIVES : Northern : Jean Halverson, Northern Illi¬ nois State College, DeKalb. Western : H. W. Crall, Western Illinois State College, Macomb. Eastern : A. J. Hoffman, University High School, Charleston. Southern : E. Ester Smith, Murphysboro High School, Murphysboro. SENIOR ACADEMY ADVISOR : Lyell J. Thomas, University of Illinois, Urbana. Student Officers PRESIDENT: William J. Hofman, Murphysboro High School, Murphysboro. VICE-PRESIDENT: Constance St. Clair, Im- maculata High School, Chicago. SECRETARY : Donald Honig, J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero. A.A.A.S. HONORARY MEMBERS: James Wil¬ liams, Edwardsville High School, Edwards¬ ville ; Gloria Miramonti, Township High School, Herrin. [4] CONTENTS ADDRESSES Page Deuel, Thorne, A New Approach to Studies of Culture and Society . 9 Bergendoff, Conrad, Welcome to Augustana . . 16 Leighton, Morris, M., Dedication of Lindahl-Udden Memorial . 19 Bailey. William M., The Beginning of the Illinois State Academy of Science. . . 24 PROGRAM Papers Presented at the 43rd Annual Meeting. . BOTANY Fuller. George D., The Ligneous Flora of RiclPand County, Illinois, by Robert Ridgway, an Unpublished Manuscript . Stewart. Wilson N., The Carr and Daniels Collections of Fossil Plants from IVtcizoii Crook . Kaeiser, Margaret, Microscopic Anatomy of the Wood of Three Species of Junipers . . Schuldt, Erich, and David Gottlieb, Colchicine as a Mutagenic Agent tor Streptomyces griseus . Damann, Kenneth E., A Simplified Plankton Counting Method . Hubbard, C. V., and H. H. Thornberry, Utilization of Some Organic Acids by Streptomyses griseus for Streptomycin Production and Growth . CHEMISTRY Yohe, G. R., Donald R. Hill, and Howard S. Clark, Methoxyl Determinations on Alkyl Esters of 2-Methoxybenzoic Acid . Thiessen, G. W., The Kolbe Electrochemical Synthesis . Green, Frank O., and Bernard G. Jackson, A Spherical Arrangement of the Chemical Elements . GEOGRAPHY Yailr, Charles C., Geographical Possibilities of Cork Production in the United States . . . Hudson. H. E., Water Resource Conservation in Illinois . Calef, Wesley, Slope Studies of Northern Illinois . GEOLOGY Fryxell, Fritiof, Student Projects and Their Place in Geologic Education.... 116 Chapman, Carleton A., Some Easily Constructed Models for Teaching Optical Mineralogy . 121 Henderson, Donald M., Atomic Models of the Silicates as an Essential Aid in the Teaching of Elementary Mineralogy . 127 Bretz J Harlen, Glacial Lake Merrimac . 132 Raasch, Gilbert 0., Current Evaluation of the Cambrian-Keweenawan Boundary 137 Templeton. J. S., The Mt. Simon Sandstone in Northern Illinois. . . . 151 Graf, Donald L., Petrology of Basal High-Purity Bed of the Burlington Lime¬ stone . 166 Henderson, Donald M., Metamorphic Development of the Crawford Notch Quad¬ rangle, New Hampshire . 165 Horberg, Leland, Preglacial Gravels in Henry County, Illinois . 171 Workman, L. E., The Neda Formation in Northeastern Illinois . 176 PHYSICS Page Bonvallet, G. L., Survey of City Noise . 183 Huxford, W. S., and H. N. Olsen, Spectral Characteristics of Flash Discharges 189 Roberts, Howard C., Optical and Photographic Techniques for the Small-School Laboratory . 196 PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION Kinney, Elva E., Validation by Means of the Sociogram of a Technique for Promoting Social Acceptability Among Elementary School Children . 202 Bullington, Robert A., A Study of College Science Courses Designed for Gen¬ eral Education . 209 SOCIAL SCIENCE Wray, Donald E., Sociological Problems in the Study of Industrial Relations in Illinois . 213 Jaffe, Grace M., The Relative Powers of Nature and Nurture: Monozygotic Twins . . .... . 218 Johnson, Joseph K., The Need for Corporate Research in the Social Sciences. . 224 ZOOLOGY Levine, Norman D., The Use of Horse Strongyle Larvae in Screening Compounds for Anthelmintic Activity . . 233 Foote, Charles L., and Florence M. Foote, A Comparative Study of Normal and Piebald Hamsters . 237 Balduf, W. V., Problems in the Bionomics of the Squash Bug, Anasa tristis (De Geer) . 244 Long, E. J., Ecological Notes on Thanatophilus americana L . 249 Wantland, Wayne W., Mary Ho, Mildred M. Carmichael, and Clifford Storm, An Investigation of the Occurrence of Enterobius vemicularis Ova in Dust from Homes and Public Buildings . . . 253 Wantland, Wayne W., Seije Nakada and Hubert Engel, The Incidence of Endamoeba gingivalis in a Central Illinois Community . 256 Tahmisian, Theodore N., and Austin M. Brues, A New Method for Staining Cells with Cobalt and Bal . 259 COLLEGIATE SECTION Bresingham, Dolores, The Study of Cicatrization in Plant Tissues . 261 MEMORIAL Neil E. Stevens 265 ACADEMY BUSINESS Secretary’s Report for 1949-1950 . 267 New Constitution and By-laws . 272 Illinois State Academy of Science 7 Thorne Deuel, President, 1949-1950 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 9 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS A NEW APPROACH TO STUDIES OF CULTURE AND SOCIETY THORNE DEUEL President, Illinois State Academy of Science When I began some months ago to draft an outline for this paper, I was already engaged in writing a book¬ let in the Story of Illinois series of the Museum, called “Man’s Venture in Culture ’ ’ with the subtitle ‘ ‘ Some Inventions Underlying Modern Civ¬ ilization in Illinois.” Work on this pamphlet set in motion a train of thought and raised questions that, I suppose, have always puzzled students of man. How was man launched on his cultural and social career and, once started, what kept him on the road? Is culture hap¬ hazard and erratic? Is it, as Pro¬ fessor Lowie once said, “a thing of shreds and patches”? Or does it have direction and meaning? If I seem dogmatic, I hope you will consider that my statements are always qualified by the phrases “in my opinion” or “it seems to me.” The talk you will hear is selected from a larger paper and will con¬ sist of three parts : (1) A broad hypothesis of cultur¬ al and social evolution. (2) A brief survey of man’s es¬ sential needs and his means of satisfying them as a start¬ ing point for studies in cul¬ ture and society. (3) A comparison of the means used to satisfy the same need in a simple culture and in the United States today. Cultural and Social Evolution For several hundred years, phil osophers, historians, and, more late¬ ly, scientists have observed, experi¬ mented, and amassed vast amounts of data about man, his psychological nature, his cultural and social achievements. The resulting conclu¬ sions, even where they deal with significant data, have been disap- IDointing. Consideration of this state of affairs seems to indicate a need for a new approach to the sciences concerned. It seems almost obvious after con¬ siderable reflection on the subject that man’s existence may be divided into four periods or stages of cul¬ tural and social development, each bounded or limited at beginning and end by a discovery and invention series. Whether or not the individ¬ ual should be considered as man or wild animal in the first stage is outside this presentation. Whether or not he should be con¬ sidered a man in the first stage, he did learn to stand up on his hind Jegs, to walk about in the upright position, to use his hands (instead of bis jaws) to seize food and to convey it to his mouth, to throw stones and hit with sticks in self-protection or aggression, and finally to crack rocks and break sticks so that they would better serve his purposes. 10 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Finally he hit upon a discovery — the realization that if he struck a piece of flint in a certain way with a small boulder he always got the same result, a shell-shaped (con- choidal) scar on the rock mass or core. He next visualized how to make a weapon of a certain shape by using his discovery, possibly years afterward, though I am inclined to believe the invention followed close upon the discovery. At any rate he eventually invented a chipped stone tool the type of which was copied again and again. Archaeolo¬ gists recognize some of his improved types of early stone tool as a fist axe or a chopper. I shall follow him briefly through the second stage in which he became a family man, learned to talk, and formed loosely knit societies with other men, hunted animals with groups of his fellows, until finally the woman discovered liow to grow food plants at home and the man to bring up young animals found during the hunt, to tame and breed them in captivity. This led man into the age of food production where the family raised their own grain and meat, which was thereby generally more plentiful and certain. He could support larger families than before and live in vil¬ lages, where he now needed to co¬ operate with his neighbors and to devise a means of regulating the conduct of families thus living side by side. It was probably the man who had the idea of hitching the bul¬ lock or cow to the digging stick that the woman used and thus invented the plow. Over the centuries that followed, food production was ac¬ celerated, cities grew, and govern¬ ment and religion became compli¬ cated. Man learned to hitch the ox to the mill to grind his corn, or to a wheel to lift water from the river to his fields. The latter part of this stage we usually call ancient history. Shortly before the beginning of the Christian era man made his third key discovery — that a wheel turned by the power of water could be j hitched to his mill and do more and better work than his tame animals. , lioughly this coincides with the be- : ginning of Mediaeval and Modern History. I shall not go into the changes that have taken place since that discovery; they are fully de¬ scribed in histories. And it is well known that atomic energy is the lat¬ est source of inanimate power man has attempted to harness to the machine. To summarize, there have been, if my hypothesis is correct, three key discovery-inventions : ( 1 ) the dis- j covery that stone could be regularly j chipped or flaked and thus tools be made of useful, specialized shape, | (2) that plants and food-draft ani- ' mals could be bred and raised suc¬ cessfully in artificial surroundings, j and (3) that inanimate power could be harnessed to machines to do work j man had never dreamed of doing ! before. The four stages can be called: I (1) the brute or pre-cultural stage, (2) the stage of man’s self -domesti¬ cation, (3) the stage of food produc¬ tion, and (4) the machine age or stage of mass production. Man’s Essential Needs Now let us look at some of man’s needs which we can, I believe, agree upon as essential or basic needs. We shall have to disregard, perhaps, for the time being some of our standards of value that we have learned to con¬ sider significant. Possibly some of 1 them may be the means of satisfying needs (and not very important ones A New Approach 11 at that) rather than actual needs. It may help us in our attempts to separate needs from the means of satisfying them to consider a prin¬ ciple generally accepted among so¬ cial anthropologists: a going cul¬ tural and social group continues to so exist because it provides the means of satisfying the essential needs of the individuals of that group. The basic needs of man in a cul¬ tural and social world and some of the means of satisfying those needs at one period or another of his exist¬ ence are listed in table I. Table I. Basic Needs 1. Individual security. 2. The opportunity for the individual to develop and fit himself into his surroundings. 3. Lineage and group continuation. 4. Regulation of individuals within groups, and of groups with indi¬ viduals and other groups. Means of Satisfying Needs 1. Pursuits that permit individuals to secure food, water, air, sunlight, housing, clothing. Magic, religion, ethics, science, tech¬ nology, values, law, order, philoso¬ phy and ethics. 2. Curiosity and cautiousness, play ac¬ tivities, education, experience, pro¬ fessional and technical training, clubs, societies, associations, art, lit¬ erature, theatre, and similar pur¬ suits. 3. Marriage and marriage customs. 4. Custom, law, government. The first three of these are equal¬ ly the needs of all living things, the last seems to apply to the so-called gregarious and social animals. How¬ ever, the cultural and social means of satisfying man’s needs appear to be of a different kind, possibly best expressed by saying that they exist chiefly on a cultural and social level as against the purely instinctive level of non-cultural animals. Ac¬ companying the needs and the means taken to satisfy them — in fact, the chain on which the needs (instinct or tendency to act) and the means (ac¬ tion or behavior) are strung — is the healthy activity or functioning of the nervous organization. These needs and, to a greater or lesser de¬ gree, the identification and accept¬ ance of the means to satisfy them lie in the nervous and physical struc¬ ture that offspring inherit from their ancestral lineage through then- parents. In the multiplicity of details (important to the individual on account of his standards of values concerning his cultural and social surroundings, though not necessarily significant in the eyes of his group or to cultural and social evolution), the means differ widely. You may think of other needs, but I believe you will agree that those proposed are essential to man today in his world. Individuals, of course, may exist who apparently disregard certain of the basic needs but they are overwhelmingly in the minority and are not important for our dis¬ cussion nor in cultural evolution. A Means of Social Regulation Let us now take a basic need of man and one of the means devised 12 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions or invented to satisfy it — the need and means for regulation and guid¬ ance. We could equally well have chosen another need and the corre¬ sponding means of satisfying it. Whenever the domestication of plants and/or animals was discov¬ ered or wherever the invention was learned and put to use by man, sooner or later a number of families gathered and formed communities. Man as a member of such groups found it to the advantage of himself and his family to have a simple regu¬ latory system to give security and equal rights to all families in the village and to protect them from outsiders. Without going into the history of governmental forms, I believe we can classify them all into two broad types, which may be called the rule of the majority and the ride of the minority. The gov¬ ernments of the United States, Great Britain, and Switzerland belong to the first class; the ancient oriental and mediaeval kingdoms and em¬ pires, Russia, and “dictated repub¬ lics” to the second. It is beside the point to discuss here the relative merits of the two types. From an anthropological standpoint, which¬ ever one works satisfactorily for a group is for that people at that time a healthful way of satisfying their need in this respect. On account of our interest and general acceptance of its value in the United States, we shall consider here government by the majority or de¬ mocracy. From our knowledge of man from history and ethnology, it is probable that the earliest villages were governed by a council of all the citizens meeting in assembly. Simi¬ lar communities in the same cultural stage exist today. Their citizens ’ councils bear a close resemblance to the New England town meeting. If we examine the significant features of these early third or food produc¬ tion stage democracies we find : The citizens assemble at the an¬ nouncement of messengers, or per¬ haps a town crier announces through the streets the business to come be¬ fore the assembly. The citizens meet at the appointed hour. A chairman, elected for the purpose, or possibly for the year, calls the meeting to order, puts or calls upon others to put each item of business before the gathering. All citizens are per¬ mitted to speak freely about the mat¬ ter, whether they favor or oppose the issue. At the end of the dis¬ cussion of each question, a viva voce vote is called, first those in favor saying “aye,” then those against it saying “no.” It was a simple mat¬ ter to decide, according to the vol¬ ume of response, which side had won as long as opinion was heavily weighted one way or the other. It was impossible to decide when the assemblies were large and almost evenly divided on an issue, for these early people were unable to count. When villages grew into cities or became countries with considerable outlying territory, these simple democracies were unable to survive and minority rule of the kingship type became the order in western and southern Asia and northern Africa, and later in Europe and most of Africa. If we were to study the Greek city-states, the Roman and the Swiss republics, we would see how these difficulties of regulating dense popu¬ lations and extensive territories were gradually overcome and government by the people made practicable un¬ der changed conditions. However, let us look at our own United States (table lib). We in the United States of America believe our form of regu- A New Approach 13 Table II. a. Primitive Village 1. The citizens of the village are the governing power, that is they make laws, arrange for their enforcement, punish violators and defend their community. 2. The village assembly consisting of all citizens performs the functions of an executive, legislative, and judicial nature, and elect a leader during emergencies. 3. The assembly elects a leader to act temporarily for the village in a crisis. He vacates his office and duties when the emergency is over. 4. Information is freely exchanged among villagers. Issues are dis¬ cussed on the floor of the assembly. Minority views are heard equally with all variations of opinion, with¬ out restraint or threat of injury. 5. Decisions of the assembly are ar¬ rived at by viva voce voting of qualified voters regardless of which side of the issue they take. Views of the majority are accepted by all and carried out. b. United States 1. The citizens of the country are the governing power or the source of that power. Men and women over 21 years of age and mentally com¬ petent are citizens. 2 In general the citizens elect by bal¬ lot officers and members of legisla¬ tive and judicial bodies to act for them by performing executive, legis¬ lative, judicial, and defense func¬ tions in accordance with the general wishes of the electing citizens for a definitely limited term of office. These officers and representatives are responsible to the citizens elect¬ ing them whether or not they so think and act. 3. The powers of certain offices are expanded and/or new officers are appointed in an emergency, for its duration only, after which these powers and offices are reduced again to their usual peacetime limitations. 4. Information untampered with by those temporarily exercising the governing functions is communi¬ cated to the citizens by means of newspapers, radio, books, maga¬ zines, and other means, so all sides of issues may be known, including international relationships, domes¬ tic issues and happenings, and sci¬ entific discoveries. 5. Decisions are secured in the differ¬ ent governing bodies and the elec¬ tions by viva voce voting or ballot¬ ing of all qualified voters attending the polls or duly authorized meet¬ ings. The minority votes without fear of injury or restraint and the will of majority is accepted by all and carried out. lating and guiding people’s conduct to be as good as, or perhaps a little better than, any other form of con¬ trol in the world. There are differences between the tremendously complex organization of government by the majority in the United States today and the very simple democratic form back in western Asia nine or ten thousand years ago. I believe it is not difficult to explain those differences between the two political units in terms of population density, extent of terri¬ tory, modern complexity of the technological devices and the diver¬ sities of the social organization and of thought. Comparing the corre¬ sponding features of the two democ¬ racies : (1) The first item is essentially the same in both simple and repre¬ sentative democracies (the govern¬ ing power rests with the citizens) . (2) In our United States, gov¬ ernment by representation is neces- 14 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions sary (we know no substitute) be¬ cause of the enormous number of people and the vast extent of terri¬ tory involved. How citizens are considered qualified is not very im¬ portant as long as it is done on a reasonable basis and is acceptable to the group. (3) In the primitive democracy the headman, or someone elected by the assembly of citizens, would take over in an emergency. In modern democracies it is simpler to increase the powers of officers already func¬ tioning although additional officers are also appointed for special work not considered necessary in ordinary times. (4) Methods of communicating information have changed enorm¬ ously since the early village democ¬ racies through technological inven¬ tions, but our present methods serve the same purpose of getting the news promptly to the citizens, now num¬ bering in the millions and scattered over millions of square miles. (5) Voting viva voce, by ballot or by balloting machines, today takes advantage of technological inven¬ tions to insure accuracy of results, to speed up the “returns” from millions of people over a wide area. The purpose is still to determine the will of the majority of the citizens, which is accepted by all. Let me see if I can simplify into single phrases each of the parallel items so that one statement may satisfy the essential principles of a democracy at any time. 1. The governing power resides in all the citizens. 2. The local body of citizens di¬ rects the regulatory processes either directly or through rep¬ resentatives elected by them. Issues are discussed and voting on either side of issues is done without fear of injury or threats to intimidate. 3. In times of emergency, officers with special powers may be elected and/or the powers of those in office may be expanded during the crisis only. 4. Information giving both sides of issues is circulated without being colored by officials in office. 5. Each question is decided by the majority of the voters, voting being done in a manner suit¬ able to the conditions of popu¬ lation and territory. The will of the majority is accepted by all. Summary Without wishing to belabor my point, it seems to me that a new approach, or a revised approach if you like, is in order in the social sciences. My proposal is that studies should be made of the essential needs of man and the means of satisfying them in different autonomous cul¬ tural and social groups. I suggest the studies be made in the different stages suggested above because I be¬ lieve such stages exist and are basic in cultural and social evolution. Comparison of suitable (that is, as nearly complete) examples of the means as possible in each stage will, I believe, insure determination of significant features of those means. The significant series of the means satisfying each need in all the stages should be compared again one with another. The result, I believe, in each case will be an identity or near¬ identity, provided a corresponding means has developed or continued in A New Approach 15 each stage considered. The differ¬ ences, I am confident, will be found in man’s increasing means of satis¬ fying his needs, in the changing from one means to another deemed more serviceable, in the changing, over long periods of time, of certain means into needs, and in changes in man’s natural and artificial sur¬ roundings. In pursuing the research referred to it will be necessary for the worker to strip from the means of satisfy¬ ing the essential needs any nonsigni¬ ficant features, as one who in reor¬ ganizing his attic removes the rub¬ bish. The two fields of psychology and cultural social studies are, of course, closely linked. Nevertheless, it may be possible, after clearing away some of the confusion, to study the psy¬ chological processes separately from the cultural and social processes. 16 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 WELCOME TO AUGUSTANA CONRAD BERGENDOFF President, Augustana College, Rock Island More than the historians of Ameri¬ can education have yet made clear, our schools have received stimulus and contributions from older sys¬ tems of other countries. Augustana is an illustration of this fact. Seven¬ ty-five years ago its faculty was made up almost entirely of men trained in higher schools of Sweden. In 1876 the Swedish government took part in the Centennial Exposi¬ tion in Philadelphia, and Augustana had the good fortune to secure for its faculty the secretary of the Swedish section, Josua Lindahl, who had his doctor’s degree from and had been a teacher at the Uni¬ versity of Lund. With his arrival in 1879 the foundations were laid for the natural sciences on this campus. I find in the catalogue of a decade later these statements of how the sciences then were taught here. Freshman Year: Botany — Vetegable Histology: Ex¬ amination of the various kinds of plant tissues; microscopic work; Lectures and Recitations. Vege¬ table Physiology. Vegetable Taxonomy — detailed exam¬ ination of types of respective groups. Martin’s Human Body was used as a text. Sophomore Year: Physics, General and Analytical Chem¬ istry. Junior Year: Physiology: Dissection of parts of vertebrate animals to illustrate hu¬ man anatomy and histology. Conchology : Study of the specimens in the Lindahl collection of mol- lusca with a view to identification of genera and families. Senior Year: Geology: Lectures and Recitations. Exercises in identification of the more common fossils, minerals and rocks: Four excursions to the near¬ est exposures of the Quaternary, Carboniferous, Devonian, and Silur¬ ian formations. The text was Le Conte’s Elements of Geology. I am not competent to compare such a scientific curriculum with that of other American colleges 70 years ago, but I am impressed with the emphasis laid on observation, ex¬ periment, student collecting and handling of data, and the division of the material. Still another item of interest was the building and use of the museum. Here a word may be in place concerning Josua Lin¬ dahl’s contribution, not only to Au¬ gustana but to the State of Illinois. As a student Lindahl had worked with the museum at Lund Univer¬ sity, and for three years he had served as assistant in the Royal Museum at Stockholm under one of Europe’s foremost curators. He had set up the Swedish exhibit at the In¬ ternational Geographical Congress in Paris in 1875, and the following year had the similar assignment at Philadelphia. So it was natural that one of his objectives at Augustana would be the establishment of a good collection. Here is an extract from the Cata¬ logue of 1886-7. The Curator spent two months of last summer on the Pacific Coast collect¬ ing specimens on the Farallon Islands— a number of interesting duplicates of the collections of the California Academy of Welcome to Augustana 17 Science were liberally given to him with the prospect of future returns in Illinois specimens — of the lichens collected on the FaraFones and in Southern Cali¬ fornia, which were subsequently sent to the eminent Swedish botanist, Dr. J. Hulting of Norrkoping, Sweden, for de¬ termination, a series of 16 named species was lately returned to the museum by Dr. Hulting, who had most kindly fur¬ ther increased the collection by adding 17 species of Swedish lichens — a set of fragments, comprising 350 species of minerals and rocks have been purchased from Prof. A. E. Foote of Philadelphia — a card catalogue of the contents of the museum is being prepared. Thus far only the Testudinata and Ophidia are completed, while the other vertebrates, the crustaceans and the worms, are still under operation. Notwithstanding the present crowded quarters of the mu¬ seum, it is made available for study, and besides a constant use of specimens in the regular classwork, special studies of various branches of the collections have been made by several students. In 1888 Dr. Lindahl moved to Springfield, on his appointment as Curator of the State Library and Museum. It is not my intention to impose on you a history of the sciences on this campus. But we want you to know that you come to an institution which is interested in your work. I take it that Augustana ’s origin as a church institution is known to you, and there may be some who wonder if religion and science have been friends here. May I assure you that throughout its 90 years hey have been closely related, and that there has been no controveri y between them. I have mentioned Josua Lindahl because he typifies the spirit of this campus in this matter. Him¬ self a minister’s son, he argued for a close alliance between the teachers of science and the teachers of re¬ ligion for the good of both. I like to think that there was a relationship between Lindahl and that great Swedish botanist, Lin¬ naeus, whose devotion to science none would question and whose mot¬ to was the words of Ovid, ‘ ‘ Innoque vivito, Numen adest” (Live without reproach, God is present). The tra¬ dition in which Lindahl worked — and which he transferred to this campus — gave to the facts of the physical universe a significance which derived from more than hu¬ man reason. A biographer of Pascal has described the parallel interests in the words ‘ ‘ laboratory ’ ’ and ‘ ‘ or¬ atory” — in the older sense of that word, namely prayer. To know the world in which man lives, to know the God to whom man prays, this seems to us to encompass a liberal arts education. Therefore religion and philosophy as well as the natur¬ al sciences are free on this campus to bring their own methods and in¬ sights to the complete training of American youth. In that spirit we welcome the Illi¬ nois Academy of Science to hold its 43rd Annual Meeting in our halls, hoping together with you to realize the fellowship and good will wherein truth may flourish. 18 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions The Lindaill-Udden Memorial Boulder Josua Lindahl Johan August Udden Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 43, 1950 19 DEDICATION OF LINDAHL-UDDEN MEMORIAL M. M. LEIGHTON Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey, Vrioana Address presented at the dedication of the Lindahl- Udden Memorial, Augustana College, May 5, 1950* We treasure these golden moments, set aside at the close of the day’s program of the Illinois State Acade¬ my of Science, to do honor to two great men of science, J osua Lin¬ dahl and Johan August Udden, who belong to the early days of Augus¬ tana College. These two names are indelibly written in the annals of this College and in the memories of a host of scientists throughout the nation. Josua Lindahl If Josua Lindahl were living now he would be called a zoologist by zoologists and a paleontologist by geologists. He had the breadth of interest of the natural scientist. He was the first to occupy the chair of Natural Science at Augustana Col¬ lege. It takes little imagination to rea¬ lize the problems that faced the col¬ lege authorities of that day in choos¬ ing a man to trust with the intro¬ duction and the development of a curriculum in science. From the be¬ ginning this institution has empha¬ sized the acquisition of both wis¬ dom and knowledge, a rounded value which calls for exceptional adminis¬ tration and mature teaching. * The writer acknowledges the helpful services of Professor F. M. Fryxell of Augustana College and Miss Ruth Kerr of the State Museum for mak¬ ing available much basic material for preparing this address. References consulted include History of the Swedes of Illinois, History of Rock Island County, Swedes in America, Who Was Who in America, History of Illinois State Museum of Natural History, publications of Augustana Col¬ lege and publications of the Illinois Geological Survey, American Association of Petroleum Geo¬ logists, and Geological Society of America. This was in 1878 and Lindahl was 34 years old. The Swedish govern¬ ment had sent him to the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876 as Assistant to the Commissioner- General in charge of the Swedish exhibit. For a while after the ex¬ position closed Lindahl was placed in charge of Philadelphia’s new Permanent International Exhibi¬ tion. Actually his department was the only one that was ever complet¬ ed ; the plan soon failed for lack of funds. Augustana College and Theo¬ logical Seminary saw in him an en¬ thusiastic scientist and a devoted man, and, it is said, he became the first professor at the college who was not a minister. He brought with him his bride, Sophie Pahlman, whom he had returned to Sweden to marry in 1877. Four children were born to them while they lived at Augustana ; the oldest died at an early age. A. P. Cervin, who loved botany, had already created interest in the subject at Augustana. He taught botany for a year or two in addition to his other technical subjects. It is believed that Lindahl’s decade of service at Augustana placed scien¬ tific instruction on a firm basis. Lindahl was the son of a clergy¬ man of the Lutheran State Church. His father died when Josua was 10 years old, and he was sent to live with relatives in Karlshamn. 20 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions While a student in Karlshamn, preparing for the university, he as¬ sisted a professor in compiling the flora of the Province of Blekinge, and also collected a large herbarium and made the beginning of a good collection of Swedish land and fresh water shells which he later gave to the Augustana College Museum. Throughout his stay at the Uni¬ versity of Lund, he partly supported himself by private tutorship in the Von Essen family. He received fur¬ ther assistance by being once award¬ ed the Thonander Stipend, voted once a year by the student body to the most worthy of their members. He also worked in the Museum of the University of Lund where he contacted Gwynn- Jeffreys, the Brit¬ ish conchologist, who later invited him to use his pleasure yacht in or¬ der to make zoological dredgings off the west coast of Ireland. This was followed by an expedition under the auspices of the Royal Society of London to carry out the first deep- sea explorations in the Atlantic, and later in the Mediterranean. The following year, 1871, he was zoologist of an expedition sent by the Swedish Academy of Science to make explorations in Greenland and to bring back massive blocks of me¬ teoric iron which had been discov¬ ered the previous year. He also took part in dredging expeditions the two following summers along the coast of Sweden to study the preva¬ lence and distribution of inverte¬ brates which served as food for fish. After Lindahl received his doctor¬ ate he taught zoology at the Univer¬ sity of Lund until he was sent to Philadelphia. The background shows ample reasons why he was brought to Augustana. Lindahl remained at Augustana as Head of the Depart¬ ment of Natural Science for ten years, where he built up a strong- sentiment for the study of science, .and reflected his fame upon the department. The New Main Build¬ ing for the teaching of science was completed in 1888 before he left Augustana. After the death of Professor A. H. Worthen in May 1888, who had been State Geologist of Illinois since 1858, Lindahl accepted the commission as Curator of the State Historical Li¬ brary and Natural History Museum at the State Capitol in Springfield. The State Museum had been estab¬ lished in 1877 and Worthen was made Curator. He had retained the title of State Geologist in spite of the fact that appropriations for the Geological Survey had ceased in 1872 except for publications of the work already done. The Curator was required by law to perform the duties of State Geologist. Upon as¬ suming office Lindahl, acting as State Geologist, prepared Worthen ’s last report for publication (Volume VIII of the Geological Survey of Illinois), and added a revised index and a reproduction of the geologi¬ cal map, then out of print, on a small scale. Lindahl deeply appreciated Worthen ’s magnificent work and in his letter of transmittal to Governor J oseph W. Fifer he outlined a sound program for future Geological Sur¬ vey work. This, however, was not acted upon. There was much interest in the forthcoming Columbian Exposition in Chicago and Lindahl prepared a geologic exhibit for the Illinois State Building and had charge of it until July. Lindahl devoted his entire ener¬ gies to the work of the Museum. He had never regarded his office as political, but after the election of a new State administration his resig- Lindahl-U dden Memorial 21 nation was called for and his term of office ended in July 1893, after five years of tenure. After this un¬ fortunate incident, Lindahl taught for two years in Chicago and then became Director of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History begin¬ ning in December 1895. As Direc¬ tor, he edited the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural His¬ tory until 1906 when at the age of 62, he moved to Chicago where he lived until his death in 1912. The special esteem given Lindahl was shown by the high honors he received from the Government of Sweden; he was made Officier d’ Academie in 1875 and was decorated by King Oscar II with the Royal Order of Vasa in 1877. As a biolo¬ gist he showed unusual breadth of in¬ terest, carrying membership in both the American Society of Vertebrate Paleontologists and the American Society of Invertebrate Paleontolo¬ gists. Johan August Udden Johan August Udden succeeded Lindahl at Augustana College in 1888. He was an Augustana gradu¬ ate of the class of 1881, a student of Lindahl and a member of Professor Cervin’s first class in botany. Like Lindahl, Udden was born in Sweden but was Lindahl ’s junior by 15 years. He came to Minnesota with his parents in 1861 at the age of 2 years. From his graduation at Augus- taiia, at the age of 23, he went to Bethany College, Kansas, as one of its founders and one of its first teachers. He taught many subjects there and also edited the local paper ; indefatigable work charac¬ terized his whole career. In 1882, early in his teaching assignment at Bethany, he married Johanna Kris¬ tina Davis, who was his helpmate throughout his life. One daughter and three sons were born to them. The daughter died while still very young and two sons died in manhood, Jon, the geologist, and Anton, the meteorologist and physicist. His son Svante became a businessman. Udden filled the chair of Natural History and Geology at Augustana from 1888 to 1911, a period of 23 years. He taught various courses in botany, zoology, astronomy, physiology, meteorology, and geol¬ ogy, and at times helped out in other fields. He founded a series of mono¬ graphs, Augustana Library publica¬ tions, contributing five of the vol¬ umes, He published a total of 46 papers during his professorship be¬ sides carrying a teaching burden that today would be considered un¬ feasible for a research man. This is all the more noteworthy in view of his limited professional scientific training, which in addition to what he received at Augustana included a part of the year of 1886 at the University of Minnesota. It was necessary for him to rely on his own powers of observation and rea¬ soning and to devise his own meth¬ ods of approach and technique. Throughout his life he constantly turned up something new. At Augustana he wrote fundamen¬ tal papers on the deposition of dust from the atmosphere, the mechani¬ cal composition of clastic sediments, and the sedimentary cycles of the Pennsylvanian period. He brought out, too, that much could be learned about the subsurface rocks by the minute examination of well cuttings, and he was a pioneer in that field. After he had written in the 17th annual report of the United States Geological Survey, “An Account of the Paleozoic Rocks Explored by 22 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Deep Borings at Rock Island, Illinois and Vicinity/7 had prepared a geo¬ logic section of northern Illinois in the report of the World’s Fair Com¬ missioners, and had become know for his exact and original work, he was selected by Director H. Foster Bain as one of the first geologists on the new scientific staff of the new Illinois Geological Survey in 1905. Previously he had served as special assistant on the Iowa Geological Survey from 1897 to 1903, and gave temporary service to the University of Texas in 1903-04. His reports for the Illinois Survey are held in high regard to this day. Udden developed a love for Texas during his field work in west Texas in 1903, and was persuaded to be¬ come a geologist on the staff of the Bureau of Economic Geology and Technology at the University of Texas in 1911, of which he became director in 1915. His contributions to the geology of Texas became as outstanding as they had been to Illi¬ nois and Iowa. Udden had already developed the anticlinal theory of origin of quicksilver deposits in 1904 in his study of the Terlingua depos¬ its, and he had already written a masterpiece in his “A Sketch of the Geology of the Chisos Country, Brewster County, Texas,” which he finished in 1905. Udden established the first subsurface laboratory in Texas and various oil companies fol¬ lowed his action. By studies in his own laboratory of drill cuttings from the great Permian basin of the Southwest, he discovered the occur¬ rence of potash deposits which con¬ vinced him that Texas and New Mexico probably contained workable reserves, a conclusion since confirm¬ ed by the development of a large in¬ dustry in New Mexico. It is well known that he was the j first to advise the regents of the Uni- i versity of Texas of the probable oc- ! currence of oil and gas on the lands of the University of Texas in Reagan County. This led to the discovery j of the Big Lake oil field, the forerun- j ner of other west Texas and New i Mexico fields. Revenue from its oil lands have amounted to many mil- t lions of dollars for the University. In the teens of this century, Ud- den became convinced that geophysi- | cal research would be useful in lead¬ ing to the discovery of new oil and gas fields. However, he delayed his publication until 1920. Since then these methods have proved to be of inestimable value in America and elsewhere. His “ Review of the Geology of Texas” in 1916 with the first large scale geologic map of the state became geology’s “best seller,” requiring several editions that total¬ ed more than 50,000 copies. It ap¬ peared in time to anticipate the boom in Texas oil during the First World War. Udden ’s policies as Director of the Bureau of Economic Geology were born of his own personal in¬ tegrity. The Bureau never engaged in propaganda for its own benefit nor has it lent itself to be the servant of any special interest. Along with his intellectual honesty went the modesty of a scientist and human kindliness. He gave of his mind and heart to enrich and better the world, a true criterion of the spirit that entered into the founding of his Bethany College. Udden was one of the first to be made an honorary member of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists and of the Society of Eco¬ nomic Paleontologists and Miner¬ alogists. He was a Fellow of the Lindahl-U dden Memorial 23 [Geological Society and of many I scientific academies for many years. He earned the degree of Master of Arts from August ana College in 1889 and was honored by his Alma Mater with the honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1900 and Doctor of Laws in 1929. Bethany College conferred upon him the degree of Doctor of Science in 1921, and Texas Christian University re¬ peated the honor in 1923. King Oscar II of Sweden knighted him with the Order of the North Star in 1911 when he left Augustana for his new field in Texas. And now recognizing the rare good fortune of Augustana College in having chosen Lindahl to occupy the first chair of Natural Science and in having produced and accept¬ ed Udden as her own son and dis¬ tinguished scientist, we invite with reverence Dr. Udden s grandson, Marshall Udden, to withdraw the veil from this boulder, on which is inscribed the two names, ‘ ‘ Lindahl and “Udden,” which we trust will perpetuate for the long future our tribute to them and which will al¬ ways bring honor to Augustana and inspire its students and faculty. So when a great man dies, For years beyond our ken, The light he leaves behind him lies Upon the paths of men. — Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 24 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 THE BEGINNING OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE* WILLIAM M. BAILEY Southern Illinois University, Carbondale By the middle of the nineteenth century, interest in different fields of science was growing in Illinois, as in other states. Various scientific organizations were formed, some limited to certain sciences, others to local situations. In the former group may be mentioned the first Geological Survey of Illinois (7), which began in 1851, the Illinois State Agricultural Society (6), which was organized at Springfield in 1853, the State Natural History Society of Illinois (2), which was organized at Bloomington in 1858, and the present Illinois State Geo¬ logical Survey (1), organized in 1905. In the latter group the Chi¬ cago Academy of Sciences (3), organized in 1857, was preeminent, and other local scientific organiza¬ tions may be noted. The Ottawa Academy of Natural Sciences (10) was founded in 1866. The Peoria Scientific Association (4) was or¬ ganized in 1875. From a clipping from the Peoria Journal-Transcript of May 24, 1936, the following state¬ ment was taken : “ As early as 1839 the Peoria Scientific and Historical Society was in existence.” The Peoria Academy of Science of the present time was organized in 1930. The Academy of Science of South¬ * This history of the first few years of the Illinoii Academy of Science has been written because of the great scarcity of copies of Volume I and other early volumes of the Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science, in order that the member¬ ship of the Academy may know something about how the Academy was organized and began its work The first two annual meetings are included in this sketch. The Committee will appreciate receiving any additional information or comments concerning the early history of the Academy. ern Illinois (5) was organized at Carbondale December 2, 1876. As the years passed it came to be recognized as highly desirable that there should be a unification of the scientific interests of the state, and that an organization of those en¬ gaged in scientific work throughout the state should be formed. Accord¬ ingly, an invitation was extended to all persons engaged in the teaching of the sciences in the universities, colleges, and high schools, and those employed in other lines of scientific work, to meet at Springfield Decem¬ ber 7, 1907 (8). More than 100 per¬ sons responded, among them a good representation of the leaders in the sciences in the universities. The meeting was held in the Sen¬ ate Chamber of the Capitol. The meeting was called to order by A. R. Crook, Director of the State Museum, at 10:00 a.m. U. S. Grant, of Northwestern University, was elected temporary chairman. Secretary of State James A. Rose, on behalf of the Governor of the State, welcomed the group to the State Capitol. T. C. Chamberlin, of the University of Chicago, gave the opening address. Professor Cham¬ berlin introduced his address by ex¬ tending the felicitations of the Chica¬ go Academy of Sciences, and sketch¬ ing some of the salient features of its history, covering a period of a little more than fifty years, as a means of suggesting some of the problems that the new academy Beginning of Illinois Academy of Science would have to face. He then gave an address on the subject “The Ad¬ vantages of a State Academy of Science.” Professor S. A. Forbes, of the University of Illinois, then gave an address on the subject, “History of the Former State Na¬ tural History Societies of Illinois.” On motion of S. W. Williston, of the University of Chicago, A. R. Crook was elected temporary secre¬ tary. It was voted that the Chair appoint a committee of three on or¬ ganization. This committee was au¬ thorized to add six others to its num¬ ber. These nine were directed to draw up a constitution and nominate officers. The Chair appointed S. W. Williston, of the University of Chi¬ cago, W. A. Noyes, of the University of Illinois, and C. B. Atwell, of Northwestern University. This committee added T. C. Chamberlin, of the University of Chicago ; S. A. Forbes, of the University of Illinois ; A. R. Crook, of the State Museum ; F. L. Charles, of the Northern Illi¬ nois State Normal; H. V. Neal, of Knox College; and B. B. James, of James Millikin University. While the committee was at work, there was a general discussion of the plans and aims of the organization. The meeting then adjourned until 2 p.m. The afternoon session was called to order at 2:15 p.m. by the presi¬ dent pro tempore. The draft of the proposed constitution was presented by S. W. Williston, Chairman of the Committee. It was read by the Sec¬ retary of the Committee, F. L. Charles, and was then considered section by section. After revision and discussion the constitution and by-laws were adopted. It was voted that the first annual dues should apply for the year 1908. Chairman S. W. Williston then presented the report of the Committee on nomina¬ tions. It was voted that the Secre¬ tary cast the ballot for the following nominations, and they were declared elected : President, T. C. Chamberlin, of the University of Chicago. Vice-President, Henry Crew, of Northwestern University. Secretary, A. R. Crook, Director of the State Museum. Treasurer, J. C. Hessler, of James Millikin University. Third Member of the Publications Committee, H. F. Bain of the State Geological Survey. Committee on Membership: S. A. Forbes, of the University of Illinois, chairman; T. W. Galloway of James Millikin University; J. P. Magnusson, of Augustana College; C. H. Smith, of the Hyde Park High School; B. B. James, of James Millikin University. The Membership Committee was authorized to accept as charter mem¬ bers those persons who had previous¬ ly expressed their desire to be en¬ rolled as such, but were unable to be present at the meeting. The com¬ mittee acted upon the names sub¬ mitted. The president-elect, T. C. Chamberlin, was introduced by President pro tempore Grant. B. B. James, of James Millikin University, was appointed treasurer pro tempore in the absence of the Treasurer, J. C. Hessler. A symposium upon “The Outlook for Young Men in the Various Sci¬ ences” was participated in by W. J. McGee, who spoke on “Anthropol¬ ogy,” John G. Coulter, of the Illi¬ nois State Normal University, on “Opportunities in Botany,” W. A. Noyes, of the University of Illinois, on “Openings for Chemists,” H. Foster Bain, of the Illinois State Geological Survey, on the “Outlook for Young Men in Geology,’ Henry 26 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Crew, of Northwestern University, on the “ Outlook for Young Men in Physics,” and H. V. Neal, of Knox College, on the “ Outlook for Young Men in Zoology.” Upon motion of W. E. Loomis, of Springfield, it was voted that 500 copies of the proceed¬ ings of the Organization Meeting be printed, and that one copy be fur¬ nished to each member of the society. The meeting then adjourned until 8 p.m. In the evening session Dr. W. J. McGee delivered his lecture on the subject “ Greater Steps in Human Progress, ” to an audience of about 600. The addresses given at the organi¬ zation meeting were published or reviewed in the first part of Volume I of the Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science. CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Adopted at the Organization Meet¬ ing at Springfield, December 7, 1907 Constitution ARTICLE I. NAME This Society shall be known as the Illinois Academy of Science. ARTICLE II. OBJECTS The objects of the Academy shall be the promotion of scientific research, the diffusion of scientific knowledge and scientific spirit, and the unification of the scientific interests of the State. ARTICLE III. MEMBERS The membership of the Academy shall consist of Active Members, Non-resident Members, Corresponding Members, Life Members, and Honorary Members. Active Members shall be persons who are interested in scientific work and are residents of the State of Illinois. Each active member shall pay an intia- tion fee of one dollar and an annual assessment of one dollar. Non-resident Members shall be per¬ sons who have been members of the Academy but have removed from the State. Their duties and privileges shall be the same as those of active members except that they may not hold office. Corresponding Members shall be such persons actively engaged in scientific research as shall be chosen by the Acad¬ emy, their duties and privileges to be the same as those of active members, except that they may not hold office and shall be free from all dues. Life Members shall be active or non¬ resident members who have paid fees to the amount of twenty dollars. They shall be free from further annual dues. Honorary Members shall be persons who have rendered distinguished serv¬ ice to science and who are not residents of the State of Illinois. The number shall not exceed twenty at one time. They shall be free from all dues. For election to any class of member¬ ship the candidate’s name must be pro¬ posed by two members, be approved by a majority of the committee on member¬ ship, and receive the assent of three- fourths of the members voting. All workers in science present at the organization meeting who sign the con¬ stitution, upon payment of the initia¬ tion fee and their annual dues for 1908 become charter members. ARTICLE IV. OFFICERS The Officers of the Academy shall con¬ sist of a President, a Vice-President, a Chairman of each section that may be organized, a Secretary, and a Treasurer. These officers shall be chosen by ballot on recommendation of a nominating committee, at an annual meeting, and shall hold office for one year or until their successors qualify. They shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respective offices. It shall be one of the duties of the president to prepare an address which shall be delivered before the Academy at the annual meeting at which his term of office expires. The secretary shall have charge of all the books, collections, and material property belonging to the Academy. ARTICLE V. COUNCIL The Council shall consist of the Presi¬ dent, Vice-President, Chairman of each section, Secretary, Treasurer, and the president for the preceding year. To the Council shall be entrusted the man¬ agement of the affairs of the Academy during the intervals between regular meetings. ARTICLE VI. STANDING COMMITTEES The Standing Committees of the Acad¬ emy shall be a Committee on Publica¬ tion and a Committee on Membership. Beginning of Illinois Academy of Science The Committee on Publication shall consist of the President, the Secretary, and a third member chosen annually by the Academy. The Committee on Membership shall consist of five members chosen annually by the Academy. ARTICLE VII. MEETINGS The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held at such time and place as the Council may designate. Special meetings may be called by the Council and shall be called upon written re¬ quest of twenty members. ARTICLE VIII. PUBLICATION The regular publications of the Acad¬ emy shall include the transactions of the Academy and such papers as are deemed suitable by the Committee on Publication. All members shall receive gratis the current issues of the Academy. ARTICLE IX. AFFILIATION The Academy may enter into such re¬ lations of affiliation with other organi¬ zations of appropriate character as may be recommended by the Council and be ordered by a three-fourths vote of the members present at any regular meet¬ ing. ARTICLE X. AMENDMENTS This constitution may be amended by a three-fourths vote of the members present at an annual meeting, provided that notice of the desired change has been sent by the Secretary to all mem¬ bers at least twenty days before such meeting. BY-LAWS I. The following shall be the regular order of business. 1. Call to order. 2. Reports of officers. 3. Reports of standing committees. 4. Election of members. 5. Reports of special committees. 6. Appointment of special commit¬ tees. 7. Unfinished business. 8. New business. 9. Election of officers. 10. Program. 11. Adjournment. II. No meeting of the Academy shall be held without thirty days’ previous notice being sent by the Secretary to all members. III. Fifteen members shall constitute a quorum of the Academy. A majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum of the Council. IV. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order signed by the President and Secretary. V. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for three years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the Treasurer, shall have their names stricken from the roll. VI. The Secretary shall have charge of the distribution, sale, and exchange of the published Transactions of the Academy, under such restrictions as may be imposed by the Council. VII. The presiding officer shall at each annual meeting appoint a com¬ mittee of three who shall examine and report in writing upon the account of the Treasurer. VIII. No paper shall be entitled to a place on the program unless the manu¬ script or an abstract of the same shall have been previously delivered to the Secretary. IX. These by-laws may be suspended by a three-fourths vote of the members present at any regular meeting. The first regular annual meeting of the Illinois State Academy of Science was held in the James Milli- kin University, at Decatur, Febru¬ ary 22, 1908 (8) . The meeting was called to order by the President of the Academy, Dr. T. C. Chamberlin, of the Univer¬ sity of Chicago, at 10 a.m. There were 96 persons present. The Treas¬ urer of the Academy, Dr. J. C. Hess- ler, of James Millikin University, made an announcement concerning the payment of dues, and also one concerning the plans for the meet¬ ing. Prof. S. A. Forbes, of the Uni¬ versity of Illinois, Chairman of the Committee on Membership, reported a list of names of persons properly nominated and recommended for membership. These persons were voted into the organization. The following papers were read in this session : “Biotic Zones and Districts of Illinois” — Charles A. Hart (Ento- 28 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions mology), of the Illinois State Lab¬ oratory of Natural History, Univer¬ sity of Illinois. ‘'A Case of Phosphorescence as a Mating Adaptation” — T. W. Gallo¬ way (Zoology), of James Millikin University. “Some Problems Connected With the Coals of Illinois” — S. W. Parr (Chemistry), of the University of Illinois. “The Desirability of a Systematic Ecological Survey from the Stand¬ point of Plant and Animal Associa¬ tions” — H. C. Cowles (Botany), of the University of Chicago. “A State Ecological Survey” — E. N. Transeau (Botany), of the East¬ ern State Normal School, at Charles¬ ton. “A Virgin Prairie in Illinois”— H. A. Gleason (Botany) of the Uni¬ versity of Illinois. “Occurrence of Oil and Gas in Eastern Illinois”- — H. Foster Bain, of Illinois State Geological Survey. “Illinois Trees”- — T. J. Burrill (Botany), of the University of Illi¬ nois, “Plant Pathology in Relation to Other Sciences” — Ernest S. Rey¬ nolds (Botany), of the University of Illinois. President Chamberlin spoke on the desirability of affiliating with other scientific societies in the State. He gave an account of the discussion at the meeting of the Council, held in Chicago, December 30. He in¬ vited those interested in considering plans to meet at 1 :45 p.m., before the opening of the afternoon session. Professor Forbes stated that as a result of the work of many years, a great mass of ecological material had been collected by the Natural His¬ tory Survey, named and labeled, and that this material was at the disposal of students. He spoke of his gratifi¬ cation because of the increasing en¬ thusiasm for the work. A. R. Crook, Director of the State Museum, expressed the hope that the Academy would aid the State Mu¬ seum in securing materials to illus¬ trate the mineral resources of every section of the State, and the relation of animals and plants to each other and to their environment in various parts of the State. C. C. Adams, of the University of Chicago, suggested that a definite work be taken up, so that a report could be made on some locality. The meeting was then adjourned until 2 :00 p.m. In the afternoon session, which began at 2:25 p.m., the following- papers were presented : “Relation of the State Academy to the Natural History Survey of the Chicago Academy of Sciences” — Frank C. Baker, of the Chicago Academy of Sciences. ‘ ‘ Farm Water Supplies ’ ’ — Ed¬ ward Bartow (Chemistry), of the University of Illinois. President Chamberlin made an announcement concerning the publi¬ cation of the Transactions, request¬ ing all who were taking part in the program to send copies or abstracts of their papers to the secretary for publication. He expressed the hope that means for publication would be provided by the State Legislature as was customary in other states. By the passage of a motion offered by H. F. Bain, of the State Geologi¬ cal Survey, the President of the Academy was instructed to appoint a committee of five on the collection of drill records. A motion, made by S. A. Forbes, was passed authorizing scientific organizations that enter into rela¬ tions of affiliation with the Academy each to appoint one of its members Beginning of Illinois Academy of Science University of Illinois, Chairman ; F . to be a member of the Council of the Academy, who should have the right to vote on matters specifically re¬ lated to the terms of affiliation, but not on other matters. On motion of H. F. Bain, it was voted to invite appropriate organizations each to appoint some member of the organi¬ zation to represent it on the Acade¬ my Council while an ecological sur¬ vey of the State was being made. A symposium on ‘ ‘ The Atmos¬ phere” was participated in by T. C. Chamberlin (Geology), of the Uni¬ versity of Chicago ; Albert P . Car¬ man (Physics), of the University of Illinois: H. C. Cowles (Botany), of the University of Chicago; John M. Coulter (Botany), of the University of Chicago; Wm. A. Noyes (Chem¬ istry), of the University of Illinois; Charles E. M. Fischer, of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of the University of Illinois ; and H. Foster Bain, of the State Geological Sur¬ vey. The meeting was then adjourned. At the evening session, beginning at eight o’clock, A. A. Michelson, of the University of Chicago, lectured on the subject, “Recent Advances in Spectroscopy. ’ ’ Abstracts of the papers read at the first annual meeting of the Academy, and the address of Dr. A. A. Michelson in the evening were published in the Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science, Volume I, 1908. The Council meeting of the Illi¬ nois Academy of Science was held in Chicago, in the Auditorium An¬ nex, Friday, May 8, 1908, beginning at 2 :30 p.m. On motion of Professor Crew, of Northwestern University, the fol¬ lowing committee upon the ecologi¬ cal survey of the State of Illinois was appointed: S. A. Forbes, of the C. Baker, of the Chicago Academy of Sciences ; H. C. Cowles, of the University of Chicago; H. A. Glea¬ son, of the University of Illinois; and T. L. Hankinson, of the Eastern Illinois State Normal. The Council voted to publish the “Transactions” of the Academy, which should include the transac¬ tions of the organization meeting held December 7, 1907, at Spring- field, and the first regular meeting held in Decatur, February 22, 1908, the Constitution of the Academy, and the list of members. The Council decided to hold the next meeting of the Academy at Springfield, February 20, 1909. It was decided that the program of this meeting should consist of a business meeting and the reading of papers in. the morning, a symposium on the scientific activities of the State, their history, methods, and purposes, in the afternoon, and an address by the retiring president in the evening. The Council then adjourned. The second annual meeting of the Illinois State Academy of Science was held in Springfield in the Old Supreme Court Room in the State House, February 20, 1909 (9). The meeting of the Academy was called to order by Vice-President Henry Crew at 10 :00 a.m. The minutes of the last meeting were read by Secretary Crook, and ap¬ proved. The Treasurer, J. C. Hess- ler, presented his report. This was laid on the Chairman’s table until an Auditing Committee could be ap¬ pointed to examine it. Secretary Crook requested that the members send in their correct addresses, de¬ grees, and the names of the subjects in which they are interested, in or¬ der that the records of the Academy might be as complete as possible. 30 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Professor S. A. Forbes, Chairman of the Membership Committee, then presented the report of his commit¬ tee. This was approved, and the Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the Academy for those nominated for membership. Professor S. A. Forbes, Chairman of the Committee on Ecological Sur¬ vey, made the following report on the progress of this work. One of the first tasks of an ecological survey is the recognition and descrip¬ tion of the plant and animal associa¬ tions represented. This may be reached by the detailed study and mapping of limited districts chosen from various parts of the state and representative of much larger areas. The results of this detailed work will give by com¬ parison a general idea of the structure of the associations throughout the state. It may be supplemented by a more gen¬ eral study of the entire state, showing the distribution of such association groups as forest and prairie, sand reg¬ ions, cypress swamps, etc. Both lines of work lead to the production of an ecological map of the state, showing the distribution of all the associations represented. Survey work of this nat¬ ure will give appreciable results in a comparatively short time, will indicate the general nature of the survey, will serve as a pattern to amateurs, will open a large field for the use of teachers, and will be a foundation for subsequent investigation. Work on other phases of ecology, such as the correlation of asso¬ ciations with environmental factors or their interrelations with each other, will necessarily accompany the carto¬ graphic work to some extent. Members of the committee report¬ ed the following field work under way : P. C. Baker, ecological study and map¬ ping of limited area at Shermerville, with especial reference to Mollusca. H. C. Cowles, mapping the plant as¬ sociations of portions of the South Chi¬ cago area. H. A. Gleason, a study of the vegeta¬ tion of inland sand deposits. T. L. Hankinson, the breeding habits of fish near Charleston, correlated with environmental conditions. V. E. Shelford, ponds in the dune region at the head of Lake Michigan. E. N. Transeau, plant associations in the vicinity of Charleston; studies of evaporation. After a discussion of the need of state aid for the survey, it was formally recommended by the com¬ mittee that, instead of a separate organization, the Academy cooperate with the State Lab¬ oratory of Natural History in securing funds and in carrying out the work of the proposed ecological survey. The State Laboratory has been engaged in this work for years, and is now willing to aid in the survey and to bring to¬ gether in a comprehensive plan the ecological results of the work of both institutions and individuals. The committee especially wishes to bring into its membership all persons prepared and disposed to do active work on the ecology of any part of the state. The report was approved ; and the committee was continued for another year. Chairman Crew then appointed the following committees : Committee on Nominations — W. F. M. Goss, University of Illinois ; F. L. Charles, University of Illinois; S. W. Parr, University of Illinois; T. W. Galloway, James Millikin Uni¬ versity. Committee to Audit the Treas¬ urer’s Report — F. R. Watson, Uni¬ versity of Illinois; H. 0. Barnes, High School, Springfield ; R. 0. Graham, Illinois Wesleyan Univer¬ sity; T. W. Galloway. The Secretary then stated that a committee to collect drill records was to have been appointed the preced¬ ing year. He suggested that this committee be appointed at this time, or a little later in the day. Mr. F. W. De Wolf, Acting Director of the State Geological Survey, suggested Professor J. A. Udden foi appoint¬ ment on this committee, stating that “a great deal of the work is now in his hands.” Chairman Crew sug¬ gested that, because of the import- Beginning of Illinois Academy of Science ance of the Committee and the need of further consideration, the ap¬ pointment of the Committee be post¬ poned until later in the day. This suggestion was accepted. After some discussion of the de¬ sirability of having sectional meet¬ ings, the following motion was passed: “That it is the sense of the Academy that we should not resolve our meetings into sectional meetings at this time.” After the conclusion of the busi¬ ness meeting Isabel S. Smith, of Illi¬ nois College, Jacksonville, presented a paper on the subject, “Illinois Trees.” In leading the discussion on this paper, Professor Forbes said : I think the reason the pioneers settled along the streams was because of the shelter, and because most of the earliest settlers came from forest countries. We see, in reading the records of the first explorers, that there was a general preju¬ dice against the prairies, as being hare and lonesome, and practically worthless for agriculture. Dr. Crook said : I might say that at the last session a law was passed by the State Legislature designating the ‘native oak’ as the sym¬ bolic tree of this State. If the law¬ makers had consulted with some one like Miss Smith they might have found out that there are sixteen varieties of native oaks in this State — another illus¬ tration of the fact that our laws would often be better if they were framed by men who availed themselves of the knowledge of experts. The following papers were then presented without discussion : “Some Botanical Features of Illi¬ nois Sand Dunes” — H. A. Gleason (Botany), University of Illinois, “Preliminary Report of Observa¬ tions upon a Robin’s Nest” — F. L. Charles (Zoology and Botany), University of Illinois. “Cliff Flora of Jo Daviess Coun¬ ty” — H. S. Pepoon (Zoology and Botany), Lakeview High School, Chicago. Read by title only. “The Clay Seams of No. 5 Coal Bed in the Springfield Quadrangle” — T. E. Savage (Stratigraphic Geol¬ ogy), University of Illinois. The meeting then adjourned until 2 :00 P.M. The Academy was called to order at 2:15 p.m. by Chairman Crew. S. A. Forbes, Chairman of the Membership Committee, made a report on additional names of per¬ sons proposed for membership in the Academy. The number of new mem¬ bers added at both the morning and afternoon sessions was 42. The following papers were then presented : “Hardness of Illinois Municipal Water Supplies” — Edward Bartow (Chemistry), University of Illinois. * ‘ Electrolytic Separation of Metals by Graded Electromotive Forces” — Albert Carver (Physics), Springfield High School. After the presentation of these papers, Chairman Crew called for reports of committees. F. R. Watson, Chairman of the Auditing Committee, stated that the Treasurer’s report was found to be correct. The Treasurer’s report as presented at the morning session was then adopted unanimously. On making the report of the Com¬ mittee on Nominations, W. F. M. Goss, Chairman of the Committee, expressed the appreciation of the committee for the efficient work of Vice-President Henry Crew in serv¬ ing as Chairman of the meeting of the Academy. He stated that Dr. Crew had positively declined to ac¬ cept the nomination for President of the Academy. He then presented the names of the following nominees for the ensuing year : For President of the Academy — S. A. Forbes, University of Illinois. 32 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions For Vice-President — John M, Coulter, University of Chicago. For Secretary — A. R. Crook, Di¬ rector of the State Museum, Spring- field. For Treasurer — J. C. Hessler, James Millikin University. For the third member of the Pub¬ lications Committee — H. F. Bain, State Geological Survey. For Membership Committee — T. W. Galloway, James Millikin Univer¬ sity, Chairman; F. L. Charles, Uni¬ versity of Illinois; U. S. Grant, Northwestern University; T. L. Hankinson, Eastern Illinois State Normal ; S. W. Williston, University of Chicago. The report of the Committee on Nominations was adopted unani¬ mously, and the ballot of the Acade¬ my was cast for the nominees by the Chair. Chairman Crew then announced the following Committee on Deep Drillings: J. A. Udden, of Augus- tana College ; U. S. Grant, of North¬ western University; and F. W. De Wolf, of the State Geological Sur¬ vey. In a symposium on ‘'The Scien¬ tific Activities of the State, Their History, Method and Purpose,” the following papers were presented : “State Laboratory of Natural History and the State Entomolo¬ gist’s Office” — S. A. Forbes. “State Water Survey” — Edward Bartow. “State Highway Commission”- — A. N. Johnson. ‘ ‘ State Geological Survey ’ ’ — F . W. De Wolf. “State Museum of Natural His¬ tory”— A. R. Crook. After some discussion, a motion was passed unanimously to appoint a committee to secure funds from the State Legislature for the publi¬ cation of the Transactions of the Academy. A motion was passed authorizing the appointment of a committee to make a recommendation to be pre¬ sented to the State Legislature, urg¬ ing the erection at Springfield of a building to contain the State Mu- • seum. Chairman Crew appointed ' the following committee to take < charge of whatever legislative rec¬ ommendations the Academy thought ' wise : S. A. Forbes, John M. Coul¬ ter, A. R. Crook, and J. C. Hessler. Forbes, Crook, and Hessler of this j committee met March 1, 1909, and adopted a report and resolution strongly urging that the State Leg¬ islature should take steps to provide an adequate building for the State Museum, either alone or with other appropriate State departments. The afternoon session of the Academy adjourned until 6 :00 p.m., when a banquet was given to the members of the Academy by the Chamber of Commerce of Spring- field, in the Y. M. C. A. Building. At the banquet the following addresses were given by members of the Academy : “Botany and Commerce” — Wm. Trelease (Botany), Missouri Botani¬ cal Garden, St. Louis. “Science and Transportation” — W. F. M. Goss (Steam Engineer- ing), University of Illinois. “Illinois With or AVithout Sci¬ ence” — R. 0. Graham (Chemistry), Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloom¬ ington. The Relation of Sciences to Each Other ’ ’ — Henry Crew ( Physics) , Northwestern University. All of the papers presented at this meeting of the Academy and the ad¬ dresses at the banquet were publish¬ ed in the Transactions of the Illinois Beginning of Illinois Academy of Science State Academy of Science, Volume II, 1909. The Council meeting of the Acade¬ my was held in the Botany Building of the University of Chicago, No¬ vember 1, 1909. Those present at the meeting were S. A. Forbes, John M. Coulter, A. R. Crook, and J. C. Hessler. The following decisions were made concerning the next annual meeting of the Academy. The cordial invi¬ tation of the University of Illinois to hold the meeting at Urbana was accepted. It was decided that the meeting would begin at 2:00 p.m. on Friday, February 18, 1910, and close Saturday afternoon, February 19. The Council planned for the pro¬ gram to consist of a business meet¬ ing, presentation of papers, address by the retiring president, and a symposium on “The Relation of Pure and Applied Science (A) to the Progress of Knowledge and to Practical Affairs, and (B) to Sec¬ ondary Education.” The sympo¬ sium was to be participated in by five speakers chosen by the Council to present the subject from the point of view of the biologist, the chemist, and the physicist. Isabel S. Smith, of Illinois Col¬ lege, Jacksonville, was appointed third member of the Publication Committee to succeed Dr. H. Foster Bain, elected at the last meeting of the Academy, who had resigned be¬ cause of his removal to California. The meeting of the Council was then adjourned. REFERENCES 1. Bain, H. Foster, The Initiation of the State Geological Survey. Illi¬ nois State Geological Survey Bul¬ letin No. 60: 29-33, Urbana, 1931. 2. Forbes, S. A., History of the Former State Natural History Societies of Illinois. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 1:18-30, 1908. 3. Higley, William Kerr, Historical Sketch of the Academy. Special Publication Number 1 of the Chi¬ cago Academy of Sciences, Chi¬ cago, 1902. 4. Hilderbrand, Elizabeth, Head, Gen¬ eral Reference Section, Peoria Public Library, Private Letter, April 5, 1949. 5. History of Jackson County, Illinois, with Illustrations etc.: 66-67, Phil¬ adelphia, 1878. 6. Prairie Farmer, May, 1853: 190-192. 7. Rolfe, C. W., Investigations Previ¬ ous to the Founding of the Present State Geological Survey. Illinois State Geological Survey Bulletin No. 60: 23-26, Urbana, 1931. 8. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science, Volume I, 1908. 9. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science, Volume II, 1909. 10. Whitenack, Arthur E., Librarian, Reddick’s Library, Ottawa, Illi¬ nois, Private Letter, March 18, 1949. 34 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 PROGRAM FOR THE 43rd ANNUAL MEETING PAPERS PRESENTED ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY C. C. BURFORD, Chairman Urbana 1. More Data on Sites of the Peoria, Illinois, Region: Mrs. Ethel Schoenbeck, Peoria. 2. You Can Still Find More of Them: Dr. Dan Morse, Peoria. 3. The Illinois State Archaeological Society and Its Journal: Byron W. Knoblock, Quincy, President, Illinois State Archaeological Society. 4. Symposium, The Black Hawk War Area and Background: Irving W. Hurlbut, Davenport, Iowa, presiding. Speakers— John H. Hauberg, Rock Island; Irving W. Hurlbut, Davenport, Iowa; Russell Neuwerk, Moline; E. Lee Siemon, Rock Island. 5. Birdstones: Dr. T. Hugh Young, Nashville, Tenn. 6. Bannerstones: Ben Nussbaum, Fairbury, Illinois. 7. Pictures of Archaeology of Southern Illinois: Irwin Peithman, Southern Illi¬ nois University, Carbondale. BOTANY R. A. EVERS, Chairman Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana 1. Albinism in Plants: Sister Mary Helen O’Hanlon, Rosary College, River Forest. *2. The Ligneous Flora of Richland County, Illinois, by Robert Ridgway, an Unpublished Manuscript: George D. Fuller, Illinois State Museum and Uni¬ versity of Chicago. *3. The Carr and Daniels Collections of Fossil Plants from Mazon Creek: Wilson N. Stewart, University of Illinois, Urbana. 4. The Use of C14 in Plant Studies: Norbert J. Scully, Argonne National Lab¬ oratory, Chicago. *5. Microscopic Anatomy of the Wood of Three Species of Junipers: Margaret Kaeiser, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. 6. Absorption of Antibiotics by Natural Substrates: Paul Siminoff and David Gottlieb, University of Illinois, Urbana. *7. Colchicine as a Mutagenic Agent for Streptomyces griseus: Erich Schuldt and David Gottlieb, University of Illinois, Urbana. 8. The Secondary Phloem of Heterangium americanum: John W. Hall, Univer¬ sity of Illinois, Urbana. 9. Poisonous Plants of West-Central Illinois: R. Maurice Myers and T. Dee Seely. Senior author, Western Illinois State College, Macomb; junior author, High School, Patterson, Illinois. *10. Plankton Counting Methods: Kenneth E. Damann, Eastern Illinois State College, Charleston. *11. Utilization of Some Organic Acids by Streptomyces griseus for Streptomycin Production and Growth: C. V. Hubbard and H. H. Thornberry. Senior author. Published in this volume. Program of Meeting 35 Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey; junior author, University of Illinois, Urbana. 12. Therapeutic Studies on Carnation Virus Diseases: Ralph W. Ames, University of Illinois, Urbana. CHEMISTRY F. 0. GREEN, Chairman Wheaton College, Wheaton *1. Methoxyl Determination on Alkyl Esters of 2-Methoxybenzoic Acid: G. R. Yohe, Donald R. Hill, and Howard S. Clark, State Geological Survey, Urbana. 2. Preparation of Symmetrical N,Ni-Disubstituted Piperazines and Their Quat¬ ernary Ammonium Salts: D. R. Smith and R. L. Eifert, James Millikin Uni¬ versity, Decatur. 3. Sodium in Our Present World: Elbert H. Hadley, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. 4. Oxidation Potentials of Some Phenolic Compounds: F. P. Cassaretto and C. D. Lowry, Jr., Loyola University, Chicago. 5. The Use of Isotopes in Medicine: D. L. Tabern, Abbott Laboratories, Chicago. *6. Kolbe Synthesis: G. W. Thiessen, Monmouth College, Monmouth. 7. Physical Methods in Paper Chromatography: Arthur A. Frost, Northwestern University, Evanston. 8. The Microbiological Assay of Vitamin B)2 in Impure Solutions: Thomas J. Oliver, Abbott Laboratories, Chicago. 9. Coal Oxidation: Active Oxygen and the Russell Effect: G. R. Yohe, State Geological Survey, Urbana. GEOGRAPHY WILLIAM E. POWERS, Chairman Northwestern University, Evanston 1. Europe’s Climate Owes Much to Two Small Earth Features: W. O. Blanchard, University of Illinois, Urbana. *2. Geographical Possibilities of Cork Production in the United States: Charles C. Yahr, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. 3. The Conservation of Coal for Metallurgical Coke: Walter H. Voskuil, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. 4. Distribution of Beef Cattle in Florida: H. 0. Lathrop, Illinois State Normal University, Normal. *5. Water Resource Conservation in Illinois: H. E. Hudson, Illinois State Water Survey, Urbana. *6. Slope Studies of Northern Illinois: Wesley Calef, University of Chicago, Chicago. 7. A Geographer’s Concept of Conservation: Ernest E. Melvin, Northwestern University, Evanston. GEOLOGY H. B. WILLMAN, Chairman Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana *1. Student Projects: an Experiment in Geologic Education: F. M. Fryxell, Augustana College, Rock Island. Published in this volume. 36 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions *2. Some Easily Constructed Models for Teaching Optical Mineralogy: Carleton A. Chapman, University of Illinois, Urbana. *3. Atomic Models of the Silicates as an Essential Aid in the Teaching of Min¬ eralogy: Donald M. Henderson, University of Illinois, Urbana. *4. Glacial Lake Merrimac: J Harlen Bretz, University of Chicago, Chicago. 5. Evidence of the Extension of the Labradorean Ice Sheet into Eastern Iowa, Tazewell-Wisconsin Substage: Morris M. Leighton, Illinois State Geological Survey, and Paul R. Shaffer, University of Illinois, Urbana. *6. Current Evaluation of the Cambrian-Keweenawan Problem: Gilbert 0. Raasch, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. *7. The Mt. Simon Sandstone in Northern Illinois: J. S. Templeton, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. 8. Geological Control of Exploratory Drilling: George M. Wilson, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. 9. A Type of Boghead Coal in Illinois: R. M. Kosanke, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. *10. Petrology of the Lower Burlington Limestone in Western Illinois: Donald L. Graf, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana. *11. Metamorphic Development of the Crawford Notch Quadrangle, New Hamp¬ shire: Donald M. Henderson, University of Illinois, Urbana. *f 12. Preglacial Gravels in Henry County, Illinois: Leland Horberg, University of Chicago, Chicago. PHYSICS CLARENCE R. SMITH, Chairman Aurora College, Aurora 1. A Study of Inductive Circuits: Herbert A. Johnson, Augustana College, Rock Island. 2. The Special Theory of Relativity and Electromagnetic Induction: W. J. Hooper, Principia College, Elsah. *3. Survey of City Noise: G. L. Bonvallet, Armour Research Foundation of Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, 4. Report of the New York, February, Annual Meeting of the American Asso¬ ciation of Physics Teachers: Lester I. Bockstahler, Northwestern University, Evanston. 5. Projection of Polarization Phenomena: D. L. Eaton, Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKa.lb. 6. A New Instrument for Fluorimetry: Harris M. Sullivan, Central Scientific Company, Chicago. *7. Spectral Characteristics of Flash Discharges: W. S. Huxford and H. N. Olsen, Northwestern University, Evanston. *8. Photographic and Optical Techniques Useful in the Small-School Laboratory: Howard C. Roberts, University of Illinois, Urbana. 9. The Use of Radioactive Materials in the Undergraduate Laboratory: O. L. Railsback, Eastern Illinois State College, Charleston. 10. Measuring the Solar Constant and Studying Its Influence Upon the Earth’s Climate: Albert M. Pezzuto, New Table Mountain Solar Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, Wrightwood, California. 11. Magnetic Support for Obtaining High Centrifugal Fields: William H. Lucke, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. f This paper was presented at the meeting, but was not listed on the printed program. * Published in this volume. 37 Program of Meeting PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION R. WILL BURNETT, Chairman Urbana 1. A Digest of Significant Papers Presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching: N. E. Bingham, Northwestern University, Evanston. 2. Earth Science as a Prerequisite for the Teaching of Geography: Ben H. Wilson, Joliet Township High School and Junior College, Joliet. 3. Findings from a Common Learnings Course Involving Science: Mrs. Audrey Lindsey, University High School, University of Illinois, Urbana. 4. Experiences in Educating for Human Relations: Mrs. Ruth Franham Osborne, Hinsdale Township High School, Hinsdale. *5. Validation by Means of the Sociogram of a Technique for Promoting Social Acceptability in Elementary School Children: Elva E. Kinney, Greenville College, Greenville. 6. Meeting Students’ Needs: Charlotte L. Grant, Oak Park and River Forest High School. *7. A Study of College Science Courses Designed for General Education: Robert A. Bullington, MacMurray College, Jacksonville. 8. Some Findings of a Study of Competencies Required in Successful Teaching of Science in the Schools of Illinois: T. A. Nelson, Lyons Township High School, LaGrange. 9. Experience in Program Modifications in Science: Nelson L. Lowry, Arlington Heights Township High School, Arlington Heights. 10. Findings from the “Holding Power” Study of the Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Project: Kenneth B. Henderson, University of Illinois, Urbana. 11. Educating Teachers Concerning Scientific Features of the Community: D. Elton Nelson, Hinsdale Township High School, Hinsdale. 12. The National Aviation Education Classroom Demonstration Project: Horace S. Gilbert, Civil Aeronautics Administration. 13. Science and Philosophy in General Education Programs: John H. Woodburn, Illinois Normal University, Normal. SOCIAL SCIENCE LEWIS MAVERICK, Chairman Southern Illinois University, Carl)ondale Emphasis on Sociology *1. Sociological Problems in the Study of Industrial Relations: Donald E. Wray, University of Illinois, Urbana. 2. The Swedish Theatre of Chicago and Its Social Background: Henriette Naeseth, Augustana College, Rock Island. 3. What Is So Human About Ants and Termites? George K. Plochmann, South¬ ern Illinois University, Carbondale. *4. Recent Studies of the Relative Power of Nature and Nurture, Monozygotic Twins: Grace M. Jaffe, Barat College, Lake Forest. 5. The Social Studies for Future Teachers — A Functional Major: Fritiof O. Ander, Augustana College, Rock Island. Published in this volume, 38 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Emphasis on Government and Economics 1. The Administration of the Federal Airport Act: George B. Rea, Northwestern University, Evanston. 2. Supply and Demand for Pig Iron in the United States, 1904 to 1948: Lewis A. Maverick, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. 3. Problems of Constitutional Revision in Illinois and Iowa: Stanley Erikson, Augustana College, Rock Island. 4. The Attitude of The Chicago Tribune Toward American Foreign Policy, 1939 to December 7, 1941: Marcus William Kulyan, Northwestern University, Evanston. 5. The Interdependence of the Social and Natural Sciences: G. Carl Wiegand, Loyola University, Chicago. 6. Beef Cattle Industry in Illinois, 1840-50: C. Clyde Jones, Northwestern Uni¬ versity, Evanston. *7. The Need for Corporate Research in the Social Sciences: J. K. Johnson, South¬ ern Illinois University, Carbondale. ZOOLOGY CHARLES J. WIDEMAN, Chairman Loyola University, Chicago 1. Etymological Problems in Herpetological Nomenclature: Albert G. Smith, Loyola University, Chicago. *2. The Use of Horse Strongyle Larvae in Screening Compounds for Anthelmintic Activity: Norman D. Levine, University of Illinois, Urbana. *3. Comparative Studies of Normal and Piebald Hamsters: Charles L. Foote and Florence M. Foote, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. 4. Studies of Ciliates 1 — The Encystment and State of Depression in Oxy- trichidae: Dimitri Sokoloff, Mundelein College, Chicago. *5. Field Notes on the Squash Bug, Anasa tristis (De Geer): W. V. Balduf, University of Illinois, Urbana. *6. Ecological Notes on Silpha americana: E. J. Long, Quincy College, Quincy. 7. Our Food, Our Health, and Our Future: A. J. Carlson, University of Chicago, Chicago. *8. An Investigation of the Occurrence of Enterobius vermicularis Ova in Dust from Homes and Public Buildings: Wayne W. Wantland, Mildred M. Car¬ michael, Clifford Storm, Mary Ho, Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington. 9. Cysticercus fasciolaris in the Wild Rat: Wayne W. Wantland, Kenneth E. Dye, Harold M. Kemple, Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington. *10. A Study of the Incidence of Endamoeba gingivalis in a Central Illinois Com¬ munity: Wayne W. Wantland, Hubert Engel, Seije Nakada, Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington. 11. Hunger Activity in Decerebrate Pigeon: William Sangster, University of Illinois (Navy Pier), Chicago. 12. Animal Succession in Temporary Ponds: John D. Parsons, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. *13. A New Method for Staining Cells with Cobalt and Bal: Theodore N. Tahmisian, Argonne National Laboratory, Chicago. 14. The Relationship of the Resting Potential of the Frog Eye to the Blood Sugar Level: Allyn E. Gilbert, University of Illinois, Urbana. Published in this volume. Program of Meeting 39 COLLEGIATE SECTION HARRY J. FULLER, Coordinator University of Illinois, Urbana JANE MARTIN, Chairman Monmouth College, Monmouth 1. An Alternative Separation of Copper and Cadmium Ions in Qualitative In¬ organic Analysis: Ralph Medhurst, Monmouth College, Monmouth. 2. The Preparation and Purification of 3, 4-Dibromotoluene and Their Reaction with One Mole of Magnesium in the Grignard Reagent: John R. Dyer, North¬ western University, Evanston. 3. Studies on Acephaline Gregarines of Lumbricus Terrestris: Thomas C. Hart- ney, Loyola University, Chicago. 4. Automorphisms of a Cyclic Group: Virginia Tyler, Rockford College, Rockford. 5. Refractive Index versus Concentration Curves for Aluminum and Magnesium, Chloride and Bromide: James L. Baldwin, Eastern Illinois State College, Charleston. 6. Size and Pattern Variations in Plethodon cinereus from the Indiana Dunes: Edward Kos, Loyola University, Chicago. 7. Iodine Inhibition of Photochemical Reactions: Robert Martin, Northwestern University, Evanston. 8. The Preparation of Some Dialkyl Hydroquinones: John Cessna, Augustana College, Rock Island. 9. Antobiotics as Bacteriostatic Agents for the Cultivation of Cestodes in Vitro: Janet Boles, Monmouth College, Monmouth. 10. Location of Colorless Compounds on a Resolved Chromatogram: Peter Lykos, Northwestern University, Evanston. 'll. Study of Cicatrization in Plant Tissues: Dolores Bresingham, Mundelein College, Chicago. 12. Comparative Study of the Structure of the Nuclei of Some Volvocales: Marilyn Tucker, Mundelein College, Chicago. 13. Student Chemistry Research Program at Mundelein College: Joan Haninger, Mundelein College, Chicago. 14. Observations on the Effect of Magnesium Ion in the Blood of the Golden Hamster: Edward Shinn, Quincy College, Quincy. 15. Botanical Survey of the Campus of Western Illinois State College: Norman C. Place, Western Illinois State College, Macomb. 16. Separation of Crystalline Materials from Burdock and Plantain by Chromato¬ graphy and Tests for Their Antibacterial Properties: Celine Paul and Lor¬ raine Sporar, College of St. Francis, Joliet. * Published in this volume. 40 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 BOTANY THE LIGNEOUS FLORA OF RICHLAND COUNTY, ILL., BY ROBERT RIDGWAY (AN UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPT) GEORGE D. FULLER Illinois State Museum and The University of Chicago When the home of the late Robert Ridgway, known as “Bird Haven,” at Olney, Illinois, passed into the control of the Departments of Bot¬ any and Zoology of the University of Chicago and became a Nature Sanc¬ tuary, portions of the library of this distinguished scientist were stored in the Botany Building of the Uni¬ versity of Chicago. Among other old manuscripts there was found one having the above title, and upon ex¬ amination it was found to have been written by Mr. Ridgway during the last years of his life and for which he had not succeeded in finding a publisher. In 1927, an abstract of this manu¬ script was presented at a meeting of the Illinois State Academy held at Joliet (Ridgway, R., The ligneous flora of Richland Co., Ill., Trans. Ill. State Acad. Sci. 20: 105-115, 1928) but the unpublished portions of the article contained so many details concerning the distribution of the different plant species in the county that it seemed important to preserve these details for the students of the flora of Illinois. There were three typewritten copies of the manu¬ script, in different stages of revision, and it seemed wise to deposit the three copies where they could be ex¬ amined by botanists interested in the flora of Illinois. The institutions that were selected as the depositories of the manuscripts were the Illinois State Museum, Springfield ; the Her¬ barium of the Department of Bot¬ any, the University of Illinois, Urbana ; and the Chicago Natural History Museum, Chicago. The best of the manuscripts, the only one with plates of photos of trees, has been accepted by the Di¬ rector of the Illinois State Museum who has had it bound and placed in the library of the Museum. It con¬ tains 133 typewritten pages and 43 plates (photographs). It has many handwritten notes by the author and it contains copies of letters concern¬ ing Mr. Ridgway ’s correspondence in his efforts to get a publisher. The other copies have been accept¬ ed by the curators of the herbaria of the University of Illinois and of the Chicago Natural History Mu¬ seum and have been placed on file where they may be consulted by in¬ terested botanists. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Yol. 43, 1950 41 REPORT ON THE CARR AND DANIELS COLLECTIONS OF FOSSIL PLANTS FROM MAZON CREEK WILSON N. STEWART University of Illinois, Urbana The Natural History Museum of the University of Illinois1 has had since 1920, two collections of fossil plants made up almost entirely of specimens from the now famous Mazon Creek area near Morris, Illi¬ nois. The collectors, L. E. Daniels and J. C. Carr, both resided in Mor¬ ris, Illinois, when making their re¬ spective collections. From the time these collections were procured by the University, the majority of the specimens remained in storage and for the most part in¬ accessible for study. At one time, part of the Daniels collection was in¬ vestigated by A. C. Noe (1925) who published photographs of several specimens. In order to make the material in the Carr and Daniels collections available for further study all speci¬ mens which were well enough pre¬ served were identified and cata¬ logued. The identification of speci¬ mens was done by comparing them with those previously figured and described by Zeiller (1888), White (1899), Noe (1925), Hirmer (1927), Bell (1938, 1944), and Janssen (1939, 1941). The generic and spe¬ cific names were checked with those listed by Jongmans (1913-37). The first extensive studies of the fossil flora of the Mazon Creek local¬ ity were by Lesquereux(1866, 1870). The results of his studies were later incorporated in a comprehensive ac- 1 The author wishes to thank Professor D. F. Hoffmeister, Curator of the Natural History Mu¬ seum, for making the Carr and Daniels collections available for study. count of the fossil plants of the American Carboniferous (1879, 1880). In a series of brief reports, White, while a member of the Illinois State Geological Survey, mentioned the occurrence of several genera of fossil plants from Mazon Creek. His observations on the fossil flora of the Pennsylvanian of Illinois resulted in the subdivision of this system into the Pottsville, Carbondale, and Mc- Leansboro groups. Lesquereux’s nomenclature (1866, 1870, 1879, 1880) was revised by Noe (1925), with more recent revisions of the fossil flora of Northern Illinois by Janssen (1939, 1941). The Collections The majority of the specimens are ironstone concretions with only a few compressions on shale and stem casts. Geographically, the Mazon Creek fossils are still to be found along the so-called Ox Bow of the Mazon River, 6 to 6% miles south¬ east of Morris extending from NE. % sec. 24 to NE. % sec. 25, T. 32 N., R. 7 E. Stratigraphically the con- .cretions, when found in place, lie in the Francis Creek shale just above No. 2 coal of the Lower Carbondale group. Because of the fragmentary na¬ ture of fossil plant remains the prob¬ lems of their nomenclature and clas¬ sification are more difficult than for living plants, where complete speci¬ mens are available. For this rea¬ son paleobotanists are primarily in- 42 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 1.- — Cone-bearing branch of Sphenophyllum cunei folium. Fig. 2. — Pinna of Pecopteris ( Ptychocorpus ) unita showing fertile and sterile aspect of a pinnule. Fig. 3. — Monolete spores of Codonotheca caduca in the matrix of a concretion. Fig. 4.- — Pinna of Crossotheca sagittata with fertile pinnules intercalary in position. Carr and Daniels Collections 43 lerested in those specimens which bear reproductive parts and thus indicate something of the natural affinities of the fossil plants. In the Carr and Daniels collections there are many fertile specimens of lycop- sids, sphenopsids, and pteropsids. Figures 1-4 show some of the fructifi¬ cations (see explanation of figures for more complete descriptions) which still contain spores within their sporangia (fig. 3). As is true of all fossil plant remains collected from the Mazon Creek locality, the majority is sterile leaf material of the genera Pecopteris and Neurop- teris. Many of these sterile leaf fragments are large enough to show something of the high degree of polymorphism within a frond. A critical examination of this material, not undertaken here, may show that a number of species currently recog¬ nized as distinct can be grouped in only a few species. Of the total number of specimens (4018) in the two collections, 758 belong to the Daniels collection and 3260 to the Carr collection. The combined collections have 103 dif¬ ferent species belonging to 51 genera. List of Genera and Species (Number of specimens in Carr and Daniels Collections given in parenthesis) Phylum — Tracheophyta Subphylum — Lycopsida Order — Lepidodendrales Genera and species: Bothrodendron sp? Lindley and Hutton U) Halonia sp? Lindley and Hutton (1) Knorria sp? Sternberg (1) Lepidodendron Sternberg (9) L. aculeatum Sternberg (9) L. dichotomum Sternberg (1) L. lanceolatum Lesquereux (4) L. obovatum Sternberg (25) L. rigens Lesquereux (5) L. rimosum Sternberg (2) L. veltheimi Sternberg (3) L. wortheni Lesquereux (3) Lepidophloios sp? Sternberg (5) L. acerosus Kidston (3) L. luricinus Sternberg (2) L. protuberans Lesquereux (1) Lepidophyllum longifolium Brongniart (5) Lepidostrobophyllum sp? Hirmer? (1) L. brevifolium (Lesquereux) Hirmer (1) L. intermedium (Lindley and Hutton) Hirmer (3) L. lanceolatum (Lindley and Hutton) Hirmer (2) L. lancifolium (Brongniart) (26) L. majus (Brongniart) Hirmer (12) L ovatifolium (Lesquereux) Hirmer (45) L. triangulare (Zeiller) Hirmer (7) Ijepidestrobus sp? Brongniart (3) L. brevifolium Lesquereux (16) L. brownii ? Schimper (1) L. hastatus Lesquereux (3) L. lancifolium Lesquereux (1) L. oblongifolium Lesquereux (6) L. triangularis Zeiller (2) Sigillaria sp? Brongniart (2) Stigmaria ficoides (Sternberg) Brongniart (10) Spring odendr on sp? Sternberg (4) Order — Lycopodiales Genus and species: Lycopodites meeki Lesquereux (16) Subphylum— Sphenopsida Order — Sphenophyllales Genera and species: Sphenophyllum cuneifolium 3 Sternberg (D S. emarginatum (Brongniart) Koenig (18) S. longifolium Germar (2) S. majus (Bronn) Bronn (1) Order — Equisetales Genera and species: Annularia sp? Sternberg (8) A. radiata (Brongniart) Sternberg (127) A. sphenophylloides (Zenker) Gutbier (32) A. stellata (Sclilotheim) Wood (88) Aster ophyllites sp? Brongniart (57) A. equisetiformis Schlotheim (13) A. longifolius (Sternberg) Brongniart (7) Catamites sp? Schlotheim (16) C ramosus Artis (2) C. suckowi Brongniart (6) Calamostachys sp? Schimper (8) C. germanica Weiss (1) C. magna Lesquereux (1) C. solmsi (Weiss) Weiss (2) Macrostachya sp? Schimper (2) 2 Lepidostrobophyllum. Hirmer, M. 1927 — Handbuch der Palaobotanik, Munchen und Berlin ; 231. This genus, though a useful one, does not meet the requirements of valid publication accord¬ ing to the International Rules. 3 This specimen bears two cones. (See fig. 1.) 44 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions M. infuudibuliformis (Brongniart) Schimper (1) Pinnularia Lindley and Hutton (4) Subphylum — Pteropsida Orders4 — Filicales and Cycadofilicales Genera and species: Acitheca polymorpha (Brongniart) Schimper (4) Alethopteris sp? Sternberg (2) A. ambigua Lesquereux (10) A. grandini (Brongniart) Goeppert (3) A. lonchitica (Schlotheim) Unger (3) A. serli (Brongniart) Goeppert (43) Alloiopteris sp? Potonie (1) Aphlebia sp? Presl (66) Gallipteridium sullivanti (Lesquereux) Weiss (17) Carpolithes sp? Sternberg (4) Caulopteris sp? Lindley and Hutton (16) Codonotheca caduca Sellards (27) Grossotheca sagittata (Lesquereux) Zeiller (63) Cyclopteris sp? Brongniart (105) Dactylotheca sp? Zeiller (2) Diplothmema furcatum (Brongniart) Stur (5) Eremopteris miss our iensis Lesquereux (1) Holcospermum sp? Nathorst (7) Lagenospermum sp? Nathorst (1) Linopteris muensteri (Eichwald) Potonie (4) L. neur opt er aides (Gutbier) Potonie (2) Mariopteris sp? Zeiller (4) M. decipiens ? Lesquereux (3) M. mazoniana (Lesquereux) White (1) M. muricata (Schlotheim) Zeiller (6) M. muricata var. nervosa (Schlotheim) Zeiller (5) M. sphenopteroides (Lesquereux) White (ID Mixoneura sp? Weiss (2) M. ovata (Hoffman) Weiss (10) Neuropteris sp? Brongniart (23) N. clarksoni Lesquereux (20) N. crenulata ? Brongniart (2) A. fimbriata Lesquereux (1) N. flexuosa Sternberg (26) N. gigantea Sternberg (8) N. heterophylla Brongniart (14) N. missouriensis Lesquereux (3) N. rarinervis Bunbury (32) N. scheuchzeri Hoffman (898) 4 It has long been suspected that many of the homosporus fructifications borne on fern-like leaves and now assigned to the Filicales may, in reality, be the microsporangia of heterosporous members of the Cycadofilicales. Furthermore, there are many species with fern-like foliage, now assigned to artificial (form) genera, the reproductive structures of which are unknown. For these rea¬ sons it is impossible, in most cases, to assign a species with any degree of certainty to either the Filicales or Cycadofilicales. Thus, it is necessary to group these two orders. N. tenuifolia (Schlotheim) Sternberg (26) N. plicata Sternberg (9) Odontopteris sp? Brongniart (17) O. aequalis Lesquereux (8) 0. brardleyi ? Lesquereux (1) O. schlotheimi Brongniart (2) O. subcuneata Bunbury (5) O. wortheni Lesquereux (8) Oligocarpia sp? Geoppert (1) Pachytesta sp? Brongniart (3) Pecopteris sp? Brongniart (24) P. ( Asterotheca ) abbreviata Brongniart (53) P. (Asterotheca) arborescens (Brongniart) Sternberg (214) P. (Asterotheca) candolleana Brongniart (3) P. cisti Brongniart (7) P. clintoni Lesquereux (7) P. (Asterotheca) crenulata Brongniart (13) P. (Asterotheca) hemitelioides Brongniart (4) P. (Asterotheca) miltoni (Artis) Brongniart (651) P. obliqua Brongniart (5) P. (Asterotheca) oreopterida Schlotheim (26) P. (Senftenbergia) pennaeformis (Brongniart) Sternberg (3) P. (Dicksonites) pluckeneti (Schlotheim) Brongniart (59) P. (Dactylotheca) plumosa (Artis) Brongniart (6) P. pseudovestita White (22) P. (Asterotheca) serpillifolia Lesquereux (33) P. (Asterotheca) squamosa Lesquereux (19) P. (Dactylotheca) sturi ? Sterzel (1) P. ( Ptychocarpus ) unita Brongniart (545) Schopfia sp? Janssen (1) Sphenopteris sp? Brongniart (11) 8. artemisaefoloides Crepin (23) 8. (Oligocarpia) brongniarti (Zeiller) Stur (2) 8. ( Renaultia ) chaerophylloides (Brongniart) Presl (16) 8. (Renaultia) gracilis (Brongniart) Presl (6) 8. mixta Schimper (2) 8. obtusiloba Brongniart (6) 8. spiniformis Kidston (4) 8. subcrenulata ? Lesquereux (1) Spiropteris sp? Schimper (13) Sporangites accuminata ? Dawson (1) Trigonocarpus sp? Brongniart (10) Order — Gordaitales Gordaianthus sp? Grand £ury (9) Cordaicarpus sp? Geinitz (1) Gordaites grandifolius Lesquereux (2) Undetermined specimens (61) 45 Carr and Daniels Collections LITERATURE CITED Bell, W. A. 1938 — Fossil flora of Sydney Coalfield, Nova Scotia. Canada Geo. Surv. Memoir 215. _ _ . 1944 — Carboniferous rocks and fossil floras of Northern Nova Scotia. Canada Geo. Surv. Memoir 238. Hirmer, M. 1927 — Handbuch der Palao- botanik. Miinchen und Berlin. Janssen, R. E. 1939— Leaves and stems from fossil forests. Ill. State Museum, Springfield. - . 1941 — Some fossil plant types of Illinois. HI. State Museum, Spring- field. Jongmans, W. 1913-37— Fossillum Cata- logus. 1-6. Lesqtjereux, L. 1866 — Report on the fos¬ sil plants of Illinois. Sect. Ill, Ill. Geol. Surv. 2: 427-470. - . 1870 — Report on the fossil plants of Illinois. Sect. II, Ill. Geol. Surv. 4: 377-477. - . 1879 — Atlas to the coal flora of Pennsylvania. Second Geol. Surv. Penn. P. Harrisburg. - . 1880— Coal flora of the Carboni¬ ferous formation in Pennsylvania (text). Second Geol. Surv. Penn. 1 and 2: Harrisburg. Noe, A. C. 1925 — Pennsylvania flora of Northern Illinois. Ill. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 50. Urbana. White, D. 1899 — Fossil flora of the lower coal measures of Missouri. U.S. Geol. Surv. Monographs, 37. Zeiller, R. 1888— Bassin houiller de Valencienns. (text and atlas) Paris. 46 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE WOOD OF THREE SPECIES OF JUNIPERS MARGARET KAEISER Southern Illinois University, Garl)ondale An attempt has been made to seek criteria for separating three Ameri¬ can species of junipers on the basis of the microscopic structure of their wood. Peirce (4) has a key to genera of the Cupressaceae. Phillips (5) has described the microscopic wood anatomy of certain members of the genus Juniper us and has separ¬ ated J. virginiana L. and J. lucayana Britt, from J. procera Hochst. (an East African form) on the basis of thin horizontal walls in the ray cells in the last named species (figs. 1, 5). J. virginiana L. and J. lucayana Britt, both were noted to have nodu¬ lar thickenings on the vertical end walls of the ray cells (as shown for J. monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg., fig. 4), and in this respect are unlike any other species of conifer that he reported except Libocedrus decur- rens Torr. J. virginiana L. is then separated from L. decurrens Torr. on the basis of the presence, in the former species, of intercellular spaces at the corners of the tracheids as observed in traverse section (fig. 7). He noted also that the cross¬ field pits are generally larger and are more regularly arranged in J. virginiana L. and J. lucayana Britt, than in Libocedrus. Phillips also lists abundant wood parenchyma (relatively abundant for conifers), the presence of nodu¬ lar thickenings on the transverse walls of parenchyma cells (fig. 6), and the cupressoid cross-field pits (fig. 4, 5, 6, 10) as characters serv¬ ing to delimit the three junipers he reported from most other conifer woods. All three species reported by him have the typical “cedar-like” odor of pencils. The writer has used J . virginiana L. ; J. Ashei Buchh. ; young (3-5 year old) twigs of hybrids of J. vir¬ giniana L. X J. Ashei Buchh. ; J. monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg.; and J. procera Hochst. for comparative purposes. Wood samples were pre¬ pared in the usual manner (6) and sections were cut 20-30 microns thick. Macerated wood was pre¬ pared in Jeffrey’s Solution. Acknowledgment is made to the following people for assistance in providing materials: To Dr. B. Francis Kukachka, U. S. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis¬ consin, for J. virginiana L., from Linn, Florida; J. Ashei Buchh., from Austin, Texas; and J. mono¬ sperma (Engelm.) Sarg., from Ari¬ zona. Dr. Marion T. Hall, Henry Shaw School of Botany, Washington University, St. Louis, provided the hybrid J. virginiana L. X J. Ashei Buchh. which was collected on Mc- Yey Knob in Ozark County, Mis¬ souri, the most eastern known distri¬ bution of J. Ashei Buchh. Mr. Mil- ton Scott of Miami, Florida, fur¬ nished the J. procera Hochst., from the U. S. Plant Introduction Garden. The Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu and Cheng wood specimen was collected by Dr. Ralph W. Chaney from the Hupeh Province of China Microscopic Anatomy of Wood 47 and presented to Mr. 0. A. Oakes of Wilmette, Illinois, from whom the writer procured a sample. It is used to illustrate the taxodioid type of cross-field pitting, as is also the Podocarpus Comptonii Buchh. that was collected by Dr. John T. Buch- holz on Mt. Mou, New Caledonia (figs. 11, 12). Local collections provided mate¬ rial for Pinus sp. and Picea polita (Sieb. and Zucc.) Carr. Figure 8 shows the large window-like pit found in certain of the pines, besides small pits of the pinoid type. Fig¬ ure 9 shows the piceoid type of cross¬ field pit. Table 1 summarizes the data for the species analyzed (1). The tra- cheid study from early wood dis¬ closed the ‘‘very thin” wall charac¬ ter. The size of cross-field pit aper¬ tures, on a basis of ten random measurements, showed somewhat smaller sizes, on the average, in J. Ashei Buchh. and J. monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg. than in J. virgin- iana L. or J. procera Hochst. All were of the cupressoid type, although there have been reported occasional ones of the taxodioid type (5) (figs. 11, 12). Small tangential bordered pits were noted in all species though only rarely. Tangential pits are rare in early (spring) wood of conifers (3). Tracheid length measurements from random counts of macerated wood were made of 100 tracheids for each species. The table gives means with their standard errors and standard deviations with their standard errors. Statistical treat¬ ment to measure the significance of the difference between means (2) i.e., the square root of the sum of the squares of the two standard er¬ rors of the means, was undertaken to cgmpare the species with one an¬ other. This root is the standard error of the difference between the two means. In every case the dif¬ ference between the means exceeded twice the root and is, therefore, to be regarded as significant. The hybrid was treated similarly and again showed significant difference from the parent types, as well as the other two species. However, the samples were of young wood only, the foliage of which was more like J. Ashei Buchh. than J. virginiana L. Fur¬ ther work is needed on mature wood. Tracheid length was greatest in J. virginiana L., with J. Ashei Buchh. and J. monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg. in descending order. There was less difference in tracheid length between the last two named species than when compared to J. virginiana L. Al¬ though J. virginiana L. and J. Ashei Buchh. hybridize easily, J. virgini¬ ana L. belongs to the polyspermous complex whereas J. Ashei Buchh. and J . monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg. both belong to the monospermous complex. Intercellular spaces between tra¬ cheids were present in all species (fig- 7)- Except for J. procera Hochst. (fig. 5) the horizontal walls of the ray parenchyma are as thick, or nearly as thick, as the tracheid walls in early wood cross-field views (figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6). The end walls are nodular in all species except J. pro¬ cera Hochst. (figs. 4, 5). Primary pit-fields occur in the horizontal walls of all species studied (figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5), and indentures are also con¬ sistently present (figs. 4, 5). Xylem parenchyma is more abun¬ dant than five cells per square milli¬ meter under magnification of X50 or more and is indicated as “ Abun¬ dant for Conifers” for all species (5). It is present in qll forms re- 48 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 9. Picea polita LL n /© 1 1 J 0 / ' 1 1 - n n — 12. Podocarpus Comptonii 1. From radial section of wood show¬ ing cross-field pits of Juniperus vir- giniana L. of cupressoid type; pri¬ mary pitfields in horizontal walls of ray parenchyma cells. 2. Same for J. monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg. 3. Same for J. Ashei Buchh. 4. Same for J. monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg.; also showing nodular walls of ray parenchyma cells and inden¬ tures. 5. From radial section of wood of J. procera Hochst. showing smooth end walls of ray parenchyma cells and indentures. 6. From tangential view of wood par¬ enchyma cells of J. virginiana L. showing nodules on transverse walls and primary pitfields on vertical walls. 7. From transverse section of early wood of J. virginiana L. showing intercellular spaces. 8. From radial section of early wood of Pinus sp. to show large window¬ like or primary pitfield. 9. From radial section of early wood of Picea polita (Sieh. and Zucc.) Carr, to show piceoid type of cross¬ field pits. 10. From radial section of early wood of J. virginiana L. X J. Ashei Buchh. to show cupressoid type of cross¬ field pits. 11. From radial section of early wood of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu and Cheng to show taxodioid type of cross-field pits. 12. From radial section of early wood of Podocarpus Gomptonii Buchh. to show taxodioid type of cross¬ field pits. Table 1. — Summary of Data of Wood Structure Microscopic Anatomy of Wood Microscopic Structure of Juniper Wood 49 c3 a •reppoN sipAV-P^a | + + + + + >1 ((prepunqy,, + + + + + 2 o3 Pn ^U0S0JJ I 1 + + + + + 03ubh panbaJd jsojy iO s ^3 sipo ‘°N PPX 1 ((WX SPT0M -d’H OS) 1 276 494 O t-H OO GO CO Ph soanpropui | + + + + + .reppoN stpAV P^d | + + + + c3 tf ((pajlTd,, sipAV ppozuoH I + + + + + mqj, sum pinozuoH j + (•O0S-X) sao^dg j'BinnaoJaini + + + + + UOipiA0(I pj'BpU’B^g .580+ .041 .310+ .021 .380+ .026 .214+ .015 .438+ .031 be a .0 uB0jy 2.70+ .058 1.94+ .031 1.49+ .038 .89+ .021 1.97+ .043 hj 2 ’© ■§ a a> m 3 raui 03oth -1E)ajd jsojy 2.55— 2.94 1.80— 1.99 1.25— 1.94 .85— 1.04 2 . 25 — 2.44 O O £ >> 73 uiui 03ubh 1.58— 4.10 1.38— 2.63 .65— 2.22 .51— 1.45 .78— 2.99 c3 S i spmoo jo -ox 100 100 o o o o o o S suoaoTjy | •0Ay 0jpjj0dy Jid | 6.0 4.8 3.3 4.8 6.0 o 03 e SUOJOIJ\[ aSu^a ©.mprady :pd 6.0 4. 5-6.0 3.0-3. 7 4. 5-6.0 6.0 pioss0jdno Slid PI0M-SSOJO + + + + + oxp3H 1:9.0 1:5.2 1:6.5 1:4.1 i 1:5.2 SIIOJOT J\[ PJPJ.M. noranq; © © H I FINAL pH Utilization of Acids by Streptomyces Griseus 65 pIG 3.— Effect of citric acid at varied concentrations on Streptomyces griseus in stationary culture at 26° C. Fig. 4. — Effect of malonic acid at varied concentrations on Streptomyces griseus in stationary culture at 26° C. FINAL pH 66 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 5. — Effect of glutaric acid at varied concentrations on Streptomyces grl in stationary culture at 26° C. Fig. 6. — Effect of lactic acid at varied concentrations on Streptomyces griseus in stationary culture at 26° C. FINAL pH § FINAL pH Utilization of Acids by Streptomyces Griseus 67 Fig. 7. — Effect of malic acid at varied concentrations on Streptomyces in stationary culture at 26° C. Fig. 8. — Effect of succinic acid at varied concentrations on Streptomyces griseus in stationary culture at 26° C. FINAL pH ^ FINAL pH 68 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 9. — Effect of tartaric acid at varied concentrations on Streptomyces griseus in stationary culture at 26° C. Fig. 10. — Effect of tartronic acid at varied concentrations on Streptomyces griseus in stationary culture at 26° C. FINAL dH Utilization of Acids by Streptomyces Griseus 69 considerations with respect to safe¬ guards against artifacts in the data ; it advances some speculations rela¬ tive to the role of trace elements for organic acid utilization, to organic acids influencing metabolic mechan¬ isms, and to lactic acid in streptomy¬ cin synthesis. The speculations are included for the sole purpose of at¬ tempting to keep the small sector represented by this study oriented at least toward the composite picture of microbial metabolism. The results from this study extend the information relative to the as- simulative and dissimulative capa¬ city of Streptomyces griseus for sources of carbon beyond some sug¬ ars (17). Although the results are based upon indirect criteria for util¬ ization, they contribute to a prelim¬ inary qualitative survey of carbon sources. In addition, the results es¬ tablish certain basic information by designating some growth inhibitive acids and by indicating differences among utilizable acids. The three measured responses (pH, growth, and streptomycin pro¬ duction) associated with the meta¬ bolism of the organism appear to show a maximum at some range of concentration of each organic acid except for (a) pH in the medium containing glutaric, tartaric, and tartronic acids and (b) streptomycin production in media containing glu¬ taric acid. In the case of glutaric acid, the highest concentration used may have been inadequate to indicate an optimal concentration. An opti¬ mal concentration is apparent for each of the other organic acids in the medium as has been found for sugars (17) and for various constituents of the synthetic medium (28, 31). Since these respective optimal con¬ centrations for the three responses occur, for the most part, at different amounts of the acids, they suggest that different metabolic mechanisms are involved in these responses. Sim¬ ilar unparalleled responses are evi¬ dent in connection with the optimal concentrations of sugars (17) and constituents of the original syn¬ thetic medium (28, 31). They have been noted under some other condi¬ tions (9, 12). However, the three responses were somewhat parallel with lactic acid, the optimal concen¬ tration of which was 0.1 molal for each response. The H-ion concentration of the medium being related to the balance among ionizable acidic and basic substances at the time of the pH measurements would result from the accumulation of either the residual materials following the assimulation of original constituents of the me¬ dium or the end products of meta¬ bolism. Metabolites that are con¬ sumed as they are produced by the organism would not appreciably af¬ fect pH. Thus, the measured in¬ crease in alkalinity apparently origi¬ nates from the accumulation of basic sodium ions or basic end products in the medium. Either of these ac¬ cumulations would indicate utiliza¬ tion of the acids since the alkalinity is relative to the original concentra¬ tion of nutritive acid in the medium. It is doubtful whether tartaric and tartronic acids are utilizable (figs. 9, 10). This agrees with another report claiming non-utilization of tartaric acid (23). It is apparent that all the other acids tested at varied concentrations are utilizable (figs. 1 to 8). If organic acids are produced during metabolism, it would appear that these are in turn utilized. It has been reported that organic acids are not produced by Strain No. 4 of S. griseus (6) and that the end product of metabolism 70 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions of this organism in submerged cul¬ ture is C02 rather than organic acids (8). By escape of this gaseous end product there would be a tendency for any basic non-volatile residues and end products to overbalance the acidic residues and metabolites in the medium. Such could account for the rise in alkalinity usually encoun¬ tered with this organism. However, if the concentration of glucose is particularly high in a synthetic me¬ dium, the reaction does not become more alkaline but becomes acid dur¬ ing fermentation for a period of time (31). Growth responses of the organism, since they are affected by concentra¬ tion of the acids, appear to be satis¬ factory evidence of utilization of these substances. By combining these responses with the somewhat paral¬ lel responses in alkalinity changes, these criteria for utilization become more reliable. Growth is better on lactic, malic, and succinic acids than other acids. Streptomycin production accord¬ ing to the activity detected by the assays is not appreciably increased by any of the acids except lactic acid, a constituent of the original synthetic medium (28,31). Al¬ though production from the other acids was not great, there appears to be some relationship of streptomycin yield to concentration of the acids (figs. 1 to 10). Because these op¬ tima for streptomycin production with the exception of lactic acid are not the same as those for growth, it appears that the optimal concentra¬ tion of such nutrients for growth may be “out of balance” for strepto¬ mycin production. Along this rea¬ soning, lactic acid at 0.1 molal is “in balance” with other nutrients for growth and streptomycin production simultaneously. As lactic, malic, and succinic acids contributed marked responses in pH and growth, with streptomycin being produced in any appreciable amount only from lactic acid (figs. 6, 7, 8), it appears that lactic acid may specifically contrib¬ ute to the production of streptomy¬ cin by this organism. Mechanisms of metabolism or nutrition favoring the production of lactic acid might conceivably stimulate growth of the organism with appreciable produc¬ tion of strepton^cin, whereas good growth without lactic acid being supplied or produced in the medium might result in low yields of strepto¬ mycin. Neither the assay of streptomycin nor the growth of the assay organism on the assay plates was appreciably affected by any of the organic acids at 0.1 molal. However, it has been reported that salts of some of these acids antagonize the action of strep¬ tomycin (3, 4, 7, 10, 13, 14, 16) and also effect the growth of test organ¬ isms for assay (7, 18, 36). These discrepancies may be explainable in differences among the test organisms used or conditions of the assays. In the paper-disc assay plate method only substances that would diffuse faster than the streptomycin would be able to affect the test organism. In addition, the method is insensi¬ tive to substances such as alcohol that might affect the test organisms suspended in a liquid culture (30). The osmotic concentrations of the various media do not solely influence the optimal concentrations of acids since the optima did not occur at any one concentration. However, the physical effect of the higher concen¬ trations (0.615 molal for 0.5 molal acids) would be expected to influ¬ ence the functions of the organism (physiological salt solution being 0.155 molal NaCl although based Utilization of Acids by Streptomyces Griseus 71 upon human red blood cells). Since abrupt changes in the responses oc¬ curred generally at 0.1 molal (0.215 total molal concentration), the iso¬ tonic concentration of the organism (although undetermined) would be expected to be slightly above this total molal concentration. It has been reported that a reduction of NaCl concentration in the medium accounts for a relatively greater amount of streptomycin recoverable from the mycelium than from the medium (9). According to this, the higher concentrations of sodium salts of the organic acids where re¬ duced streptomycin production oc¬ curred should favor the release of streptomycin into the medium and thus permit adequate assay of the streptomycin actually formed. Sod¬ ium chloride has been reported to stimulate the production of strep¬ tomycin in a soybean medium (25). The relation of trace elements in the medium to the utilization of or¬ ganic acids is not apparent from the observations and data of this study. However, in other studies trace ele¬ ments in a medium containing both glucose and lactic acid influenced growth and streptomycin production (28, 31). Also the minerals remain¬ ing in the ash of some animal and plant products stimulated growth and streptomycin production (29). In addition to influencing the growth of microorganisms, trace ele¬ ments are known to alter the metab¬ olism of microorganisms so as to favor the accumulation of commer¬ cially desired end products of metab¬ olism such as citric acid (22). Even without the presence of organisms, they can catalyze the oxidation of sugars to organic acids in acid or alkaline solutions when molecular oxygen is supplied (11). They also increase the ionization and reactiv¬ ity of sugars as acids (11). These phenomena and the fact that some organic acids are utilized by 8. griseus and other actinomycetes (2, 33) suggest that this organism may utilize organic acids through some mechanism involving metallic trace elements. Lactic acid appears to play a role in streptomycin production by 8. griseus. The acid is known to func¬ tion in C02 fixation by Clostridium butylicum (5). Carbon dioxide ap¬ pears to be necessary for some ac¬ tinomycetes in synthetic media (1) and either C02or the carbonate radi¬ cal appears to influence streptomycin production by S. griseus (31). A lactic acid forming enzyme is inac¬ tivated at 37° C. (20), the tempera¬ ture at which 8. griseus does not produce streptomycin even though good growth continues (31). Since lactic acid is rapidly consumed by 8. griseus (31) and is unique among the acids studied for streptomycin production, the synthesis of strepto¬ mycin by this organism might con¬ ceivably be dependent upon lactic acid which may be supplied to the medium or produced by the organ¬ ism itself for assimulation or dissim¬ ulation (31). Any effect of streptomycin upon the metabolism of 8. griseus which produces it is not directly revealed by the data. However, the data do suggest some presumed evidence and inferences for streptomycin effects. Since streptomycin appears to affect the oxidation of acetate by Escher¬ ichia coli (21) and animal tissue homogenates (32), streptomycin might conceivably influence the oxi¬ dative system of 8. griseus with re¬ spect to organic acids if these acids should be broken down to a two- carbon acid such as acetic (15) . Such an influence might retard further Illinois Academy of Science Transactions synthesis of streptomycin even though growth is excellent when the medium contains nutrients o ^par¬ ticular substances such as malic and succinic acids. If lactic acid should afford other or additional mechan¬ isms, the synthesis of streptomycin might not be retarded when lactic acid is available. This would ex¬ plain the occurrence of higher pro¬ duction of streptomycin from lactic acid than from other acids when growth is approximately equal on the acids concerned. Another possible explanation is that the acids other than lactic may channel the mechanisms of the or¬ ganism away from streptomycin syn¬ thesis or may direct the mechanisms into streptomycin utilization. Lac¬ tic acid, on the other hand, may channel the mechanisms away from streptomycin utilization and toward streptomycin synthesis. Streptomy¬ cin is utilized by some microorgan¬ isms (24) but no report was found where an organism could produce streptomycin or an antibiotic under some conditions and under certain other conditions could utilize it. It should be kept in mind that a supposedly pure culture of this or¬ ganism may mutate into strains (27) or carry strains that possess quite distinct functional characteristics. Such inductions or selections might be brought about by the organic acids in the medium, as growth in these experiments involves successive generations from a small quantity of the inoculum. Organic acids in certain respects might be considered as metabolites which could be more effective than the less oxidized alde¬ hydes (sugars as conventional car¬ bon sources) in influencing metab¬ olic mechanisms. Organic acids are end products of metabolism of many microorganisms (22, 37) and even species of Streptomyces (6). The absence of organic acids detectable as end products (6) does not neces¬ sarily mean that S. griseus is in¬ capable of producing organic acids. It has been reported that S. griseus forms very little acid from glucose and no succinic acid during active growth although traces of succionate appear in later stages of growth (6). Organic acids might be formed but if they are fapidly utilized they would not become concentrated suf¬ ficiently for detection by usual meth¬ ods of analysis. The evidence for utilization of organic acids reported herein and mentioned above (6) sug¬ gests that organic acids may be sig¬ nificant nutrients or metabolites that influence streptomycin production. REFERENCES 1. Aristovskaia, T. V. Utilization of CO, and the possibility of carbo¬ xyl reduction by heterotrophic or¬ ganisms. Mikrobiology (U.S.S.R.) 10: 701-714. 1941. (Biol. Abstracts 17: 5304, 1943.) 2. Baldacci, Elio. Attack of paraffins by microorganisms. Olearia 194 7: 90-95. 1947. (C. A. 1,3: 2318a. 1948.) 3. Berkman, S., R. J. Henry, and R. 0. Housewright. Studies on strep¬ tomycin. I. Factors influencing the activity of streptomycin. Jour. Bact. 53: 567-574. 1947. 4. Bondi, A., Jr., Catherine C. Dietz, and E. H. Spalding. Interference with the antibacterial action of streptomycin by reducing agents. Science 103: 399-401. 1946. 5. Brown, R. W., H. G. Wood, and C. H. Werkman. Fixation of carbon dioxide in lactic acid by Clostridium butylicum. Arch. Biochem. 5: 423-433. 1944. 6. Cochrane, V. W. and Isabel Dim- mick. The metabolism of species of Streptomyces. I. The formation of succinic and other acids. Jour. Bact. 58: 723-730. 1949. Utilization of Acids by Streptomyces Griseus 73 7. Donovick, R., A. P. Bayan, P. Canales, and F. Pansy. The in¬ fluence of certain substances on the activity of streptomycin. III. Differential effects of various electrolytes on the action of streptomycin. Jour. Bact. 56: 125- 137. 1948. 8. Dulaney, E. L. and D. Perlman. Observations on Streptomyces griseus. I. Chemical changes oc¬ curring during submerged strep¬ tomycin fermentations. Bull. Tor- rey Botanical Club 74' 504-511. 1947. 9. Eiser, H. M. and W. D. McFarland. Metabolism of Streptomyces griseus in relation to the produc¬ tion of streptomycin. Can. J. Re¬ search 26C: 164-173. 1948. 10. Geiger, W. B., S. R. Green, and S. A. Waksman. The inactivation of streptomycin and its practical application. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol, and Med. 61: 187-192. 1946. 11. Gortner, R. A., R. A. Gortner, Jr., and W. A. Gortner. Outlines of Biochemistry, 3rd Ed. 1078 pp., 125 figs. 1949. New York. 12. Gottlieb, D. and H. W. Anderson. Morphological and physiological factors in streptomycin produc¬ tion. Bull. Torrey Botanical Club 74: 293-302. 1947. 13. Green, S. R. and S. A. Waksman. Effect of glucose, peptone, and salts on streptomycin activity. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med. 67: 281-285. 1948. 14. Green, S. R., W. P. Iverson, and S. A. Waksman. Effect of organic acids on streptomycin activity. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med. 67: 285-288. 1948. 15. Gurin, S. and D. I. Crandall. The biological oxidation of fatty acids. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia Quant. Biol. 13: 118-128. 1948. 16. Henry, R. J. and Gladys L. Hobby. The mode of action of streptomy¬ cin, Chapter 12, “Streptomycin” edited by S. A. Waksman, pp. 197- 218. 1949. Baltimore. 17. Hubbard, C. V. and H. H. Thorn- berry. Utilization of various car¬ bohydrates by Streptomyces griseus for production of strep¬ tomycin and growth. Ill. State Academy Science Transc. 39: 57- 64. 1946. 18. Keeney, E. L., L. Ajello, and Elsie Lankford. Studies on common pathogenic fungi and on Actino¬ myces t)ovis. I. In vitro effect of fatty acids. Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 75: 377-392. 1944. 19. Loo, Y. H., P. S. Skell, H. H. Thorn- berry, John Ehrlich, J. M. Mc¬ Guire, G. M. Savage, and J. C. Sylvester. Assay of Streptomycin by the Paper-Disc Plate Method. Jour. Bacteriology 50: 701-709. 1945. 20. Meyerhof, O. fiber die Abtrennung des Milchsaure bildender Fer¬ ments vom Muskel und einige seiner Eigenschaften. Naturwis- senschaften 14: 196-198. 1926 (Separation of the lactic-acid- forming enzyme from the muscle; some of its properties. C. A. 20: 1635-1636. 1926.) 21. Oginsky, E. L., Patricia H. Smith, and W. W. Umbreit. The action of streptomycin. I. The nature of the reaction inhibited. Jour. Bact. 58: 747-760. 1949. 22. Perlman, D. Effect of minor ele¬ ments on the physiology of fungi. Bot. Reviews 15: 195-220. 1949. 23. Pridham, T. G. and D. Gottlieb. The utilization of carbon com¬ pounds by some Actinomycetales as an aid for species determina¬ tion. J. Bact. 56: 107-114. 1948. 24. Rake, G. Streptomycin as an essen¬ tial nutrilite. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med. 67: 249-253. 1948. 25. Rake, G. and R. Donovick. Studies on the nutritional requirements of Actinomyces griseus for the formation of streptomycin. Jour. Bact. (Abstract) 51: 596. 1946. 26. Schatz, A., Elizabeth Bugie, and S. A. Waksman. Streptomycin, a substance exhibiting antibiotic ac¬ tivity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 55: 66-69. 1944. 27. Schatz, A., and S. A. Waksman. Strain specificity and production of antibiotic substances. IY. Vari¬ ations among Actinomycetes, with special reference to Actinomyces griseus. Proc. Nation. Acad. Sci. USA 31 : 129-137. 1945. 28. Thornberry, H. H. Nutrient re¬ quirement of an antibiotic soil fungus, Streptomyces griseus. Phytopathology (Abstract) 36: 412. 1946. 29. Thornberry, H. H. The role of minerals in production of strep¬ tomycin by Streptomyces griseus. Phytopathology (Abstract) 38: 26. 1948. 30. Thornberry, H. H. A paper-disc plate method for the quantita¬ tive evaluation of ^fungicides and bactericides. Phytopathology 40: 419-429. 1950. 74 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 31. T'hornberry, H. H. and H. W. Ander¬ son. Synthetic medium for Strep- tomyces griseus and the produc¬ tion of streptomycin. Archives Biochemistry 16: 389-397. 1948. 32. Umbreit, W. W. and N. E. Tonhazy. The action of streptomycin. III. The action of streptomycin in the tissue homogenates. Jour. Bact. 68: 769-776. 1948. 33. Waksman, S. A. Cultural studies of species of Actinomyces. Soil Science S: 71-215. 1919. 34. Waksman, S. A. Standardization of streptomycin. Science 102: 40-41. 1945. 35. Waksman, S. A. and A. T. Henrici. The nomenclature and classifica¬ tion of the Actinomycetes. Jour. Bact. Jt6: 337-341. 1943. 36. Waksman, S. A. and A. Schatz. A review, Streptomycin. Jour. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. Practical Phar¬ macy Edition 6: 308-321. 1945. 37. Walker, T. K. Pathways of acid formation in Aspergillus niger and in related molds. Advances in Enzymology 9: 537-584. 1949. 38. Wyss, 0. The bacteriostatic ac¬ tion of short chain fat acids. Jour. Bact. (Abstracts) 51: 601. 1946. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 43, 1950 75 CHEMISTRY METHOXYL DETERMINATIONS ON ALKYL ESTERS OF 2-METHOXYBENZOIC ACID* G. R. YOHE, DONALD R. HILL, and HOWARD S. CLARK Illinois State Geological Survey , TJrbana In the course of another investiga¬ tion it became desirable to ascertain to what extent certain alkyl ester groups would interfere with me- thoxyl determinations made on de¬ rivatives of methoxy-aromatic acids. The Zeisel method in its various modifications has long been used, on both macro and micro scale, for the determination of methoxyl and ethoxyl groups; with certain changes in apparatus and technic, it has been recommended for propoxyl and bu- toxyl determinations* 1. It might be inferred, therefore, that a methoxyl determination by the usual proced¬ ure could be carried out without in¬ terference by pentoxyl groups. That this is not the case is shown here. The ready availability of salicylic acid made it convenient to use as a starting material for the preparation of suitable test com¬ pounds. This paper reports the preparation and properties of the n-propyl, n-butyl, and n-pentyl es¬ ters of 2-methoxy benzoic acid, and results of methoxyl determinations made upon them by the micro Zeisel method. Of the simple alkyl esters of 2- methoxybenzoic acid, only the me¬ thyl2 and ethyl3 esters have been de¬ scribed in the literature. ^Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. 1 See, for example, Sidney Siggia, “Quantitative Organic Analysis via Functional Groups,” p. 30, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1949. 2 See Beilstein, “Handbuch der Organischen Chemie,” 4th Edition, Vol. X, p. 71 ; 1st Supple¬ ment X, p. 32. 3 Ibid. Vol. X, p. 74 ; 1st Supplement X, p. 34. Experimental 2-Methoxybenzoic acid. This com¬ pound was prepared by methy¬ lating salicylic acid with dimethyl sulfate and purifying the product according to the method of Graebe4. One mole (138 g.) of salicylic acid yielded 95.3 g. of 2-methoxybenzoic acid (62.7% of theoretical) ; recov¬ ery of salicylic acid was 32.8 g., mak¬ ing the yield of desired product 81.8% based on salicylic acid actu¬ ally used. The melting point was 101.5-103.5° C. after recrystallization from water. Esters of 2-methoxybenzoic acid. As typical of the method used, the preparation of n-butyl 2-methoxy- benzoate is described here. The pro¬ cedure was essentially that used by Cavill and Gibson5 for making n-butyl 4-methoxybenzoate. A solu¬ tion of 30.4 g. (0.2 mole) of 2-meth¬ oxybenzoic acid in 100 ml. of n-butanol and 100 ml. of toluene was treated with 10 drops of concentrat- trated sulfuric acid, and refluxed until no more water accumulated in the graduated trap which was inter¬ posed between the flask and the con¬ denser. In about three hours 4 ml. of water were caught (theoretical 0.2 mole = 3.6 ml.). The reaction mixture was cooled, washed with water, sodium carbonate solution, water, dried over anhydrous sodium 4 Ann. 3JfO , 210 ; 139, 137 ; cf. Beilstein X. p. 64. 5 G. W. K. Cavill and N. A. Gibson, J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 66, 274, 1947. 76 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions ' Table I. — Methoxyl data for 1, 2-C,;H4 (COOR) (OCH:;). - - - 7 — OR found Flushing time Number of R Theoret. OCH3 (as — OCH3) (Minutes) alkoxyl groups n-CaHr . 15.98 30.16 45* 1.89 11-C4H9 . 14.90 28.28 45* 1.90 n-CsHn . 13.96 17.64 20 1.26 n-CsHn . 26.72 80 1.91 n-CsHn . 27.16 90 1.95 * Approximate. sulfate, the butanol and toluene dis¬ tilled off, and the product distilled at diminished pressure. The yield was 38.3 g. or 92% of the theoretical. This was redistilled through a short column prior to analysis. Boiling point, 112°C. at 1.2 mm. ; f.p., — 23° to —25°; nD20, 1.51125; d420, 1.062. Analysis: Caled. for C12H1603 : C, 69.21 ; H, 7.74. Found : C, 69.22 ; H, 7.68. The n-pentyl ester, prepared in a similar manner from 15. 2 g. (0.1 mole) of 2-methoxybenzoic acid, 25 g. of pentanol-1, 75 ml. of toluene and 3 drops of sulfuric acid, was isolated in 69% yield. B.p., 112-13° at 0.8 mm. ; ni)20, 1.50668 ; d420, 1.045. Anal.: Caled. for C13H1803 : C, 70.24; H, 8.16. Found: C, 70.03; H, 8.19. In the preparation of the propyl ester, 150 ml. of benzene were used in place of toluene, with 30.4 g. of the acid, 60 ml. of propanol and 2 ml. of sulfuric acid. The crude ester, 37.1 g. or 95.6% of theoretical, re¬ quired several redistillations before it was sufficiently pure for analysis. B.p., 114.8-115.5° at 1.5 mm. ; nD20, I. 51566; d420, 1.08 5. Anal.: Caled. for C14H1403: C, 68.02; H, 7.26. Found: C, 67.88, 68.10; II, 7.44, 7.44. A small sample of each of the es¬ ters was saponified and the 3, 5-dini- trobenzoate was prepared from the alcohol formed. The derivatives thus produced were those of the normal alcohol proving that no rear¬ rangement of the alkyl groups had occurred during esterification. Methoxyl determinations were run essentially as described by PregF, with variations in the length of the flushing period. Table I gives the results of these determinations, and shows the effect of varying the fush- ing period in the case of the pentyl ester. It is thus shown that even with the normal 20-minute flushing pe¬ riod, the presence of n-pentjd ester groups results in a high value for methoxyl, and that with longer flushing periods, both ether and ester alkoxyl groups in these compounds can be determined with a fair degree of completeness. Summary Three new compounds have been described and their physical con¬ stants reported. These are the n-propyl, n-butyl, and n-pentyl es¬ ters of 2-methoxybenzoic acid. In all cases the alkoxyl groups present as esters have been split off with hydriodic acid, and the result¬ ing alkyl iodides have distilled over along with methyl iodide from the ether group in the micro Zeisel methoxyl procedure. 6 Pregl-Grant, “Quantitative Organic Analysis,” p. 146, The Blakiston Co., 1946. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 43, 1950 l I THE KOLBE ELECTROCHEMICAL SYNTHESIS: AN ACADEMIC TOPIC GARRETT W. THIESSEN Monmouth College , Monmouth The electrolysis of organic-acid salts initiated by Kolbe in 1849 re¬ mains one of the most direct ap¬ proaches to the study of free radi¬ cals. The concentrated potassium acetate which he first used is excel¬ lent for demonstrating this experi¬ ment. This solution is made by sat¬ urating water with solid potassium acetate and adding about five per¬ cent of the volume of glacial acetic acid. It is both anolyte and catho- lyte. The cathode is copper wire gauze. The anode is platinum foil, secured through a rubber stopper in a porous cup. A glass tube through this stopper permits the gaseous products of the electrolysis to escape from the reaction chamber. They pass through a U tube con¬ taining glass beads and 6 N. aqueous NaOH solution, then through an¬ other U tube containing glass beads and cone. H2S04; thence they are led to a pneumatic trough for col¬ lection. Neither dimensions of the apparatus nor concentrations of the solutions are critical. Also the elec¬ trolyzing voltage may vary within rather wide limits. It may be as lit¬ tle as 8 volts or even less if the ex¬ periment may be started some hours ahead of class time; but if 15 to 20 volts1 are available, the experiment may be started with the start of the lecture, and will in a few min¬ utes yield sufficient ethane for a burning test. It is one of the few organic chemistry experiments well- adapted for lecture demonstration. 1 External cooling is advisable with higher voltages. To interpret it from the free-radi¬ cal viewpoint is a fine exercise in visualization of molecular behavior. The starting material is acetic acid ; the products are cathodic hydrogen, and anodic carbon dioxide and ethane, mainly; though some ethyl¬ ene, methanol, and methyl acetate are also formed at the anode. The following sequence of events is pre¬ sumed to explain these results : (a) Before electrolysis — ioniza¬ tion of solvent and salt, the former only slight. (b) At cathode — arrival of ca¬ tions K+ and H,0+, with selective discharge of latter (see activity series) with production of H2. (c) At anode — arrival of anions CH3 • COO“ and OH-, with selective discharge mainly, but not exclusive¬ ly, of the former, producing the free radicals CH3 • COO and OH2. Each of these contains an odd number of electrons. (d) Decomposition of some CH3 ■ COO into CH3 and C02, (and some OH into 02 and H20). The new free radical thus formed con¬ tains also an odd number of elec¬ trons. (e) The formation of all possible stable combinations of the three free radicals present. The radicals are (1) CH3-COO, (2) CH3, (3) OH. The stable products predicted and found are : CH3 ■ CH3, CH3 ■ COO ■ CH3, and CH3OH, besides the C02. In the demonstration, the NaOH in 2 The CH3.COO.OOC.CH3 and HO. OH postulated as intermediates in current theories of this syn¬ thesis would be in equilibrium, theoretically, with the two prime free radicals. Percent 78 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 1. — Current yields vs. number of C’s in R. Kolbe Electrochemical Synthesis 79 the first U tube removes the C02. All the stable products have even num¬ bers of electrons. (f) The loss of H atoms from some of the CH3 radicals. Since each H atom carries an electron, this leaves the new CH2 radical with an even number of electrons, so it is a reaction which should tend to occur. The methylene dimerizes to CLH4, which is removed from the ethane by the H2S04 in the second U tube. It is also helpful to visualize this electrolysis of acetic acid in relation to two very familiar pyrolyses of the same substance. Thus, (a) acetate ion + alkali ion + thermal energy — > methane + carbo¬ nate. (b) acetate ion + alkali ion -j- electrical energy — » ethane + carbon dioxide + hydroxide ion (formed at cathode when H2 is liberated). (c) acetate ion -j- alkaline-earth i o n + thermal energy — » acetone + carbonate. Since, of course, the carbonate or hydroxide can be converted to the starting salt by adding more acetic acid, with evolution of C02 if the carbonate was formed, all three pro¬ cesses are decarboxylations of acetic acid; and the effect of the different metals, together with the directive action of the electrical field, may be compared as a study in catalysis. Further, the Kolbe synthesis is the basis of interesting speculation. By analogy to the first example, R • COOK should yield R • R abund¬ antly, whatever the nature of R ■, with a little (R minus H), ROH, and R ■ COO ■ R. This is not true. Even when R contains nothing but C and H, and is saturated, the pro¬ portions of the products are highly variable. Thus, potassium propion¬ ate yields very little n-butane, but produces ethylene (R minus H) copiously. As the homologous series is pursued, results intermediate be¬ tween these two extremes appear. This is shown graphically in figure 1, in which the number of carbon atoms in R is plotted against percent current3 yield. (The data here plotted are taken from table VIII, p. 43 of item (2) of the biblio¬ graphy.) Solid circles designate R-R; open circles (R minus H). The roman numbers designate the type of carbon atom attached to the carboxyl group. In acetic acid, it is primary (I), being attached to only one other carbon. In the straight-chain acids propionic to stearic,4 it is secondary (II). For this series most data were available. Only a pair of tertiary acids were tabulated, and only one quaternary. The following generalizations can be deduced from figure 1 : (a) The yield of R • R is an in¬ verse function of the yield of (R minus H ) . (b) The type of carbon atom at¬ tached to the carboxyl determines the family to which an acid belongs in this synthesis. (c) The extra CH2 group acquir¬ ed in converting a secondary carbon atom to a tertiary does not greatly alter the yield, since curves III could nearly be superimposed on curves II by shifting the abscissa one unit to the left. (d) The maximum yield of R ■ R might be expected in about the 3 The current yield is chosen rather than the material yield because it is more easily defined. This is because the cathode action forms ions equivalent to KOH in its vicinity, and the solution tends to become alkaline as electrolysis progresses ; and when the hydroxide ion concentration reaches the anode, hydroxide discharges ever more readily and production of CH3.COO radicals falls off. To prevent this, excess of the free acid whose potassium salt is being electrolyzed is maintained in the system. 4 Off the scale of figure 1, but on the curve. 80 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions region of octanoic acid, where the data fail. (e) Acetic acid is an isolated, rather than a typical, case. (f) The production of (R minus II) is about as typical as the produc¬ tion of R • R. More speculation may be centered about the role of unsaturation in this synthesis. As a product, it is com¬ mon. When it is initially present, it inhibits the synthesis. It does this by raising the discharge poten¬ tial of the organic anion, making it relatively easier to discharge hy¬ droxyl. Straight-chain double bonds, if nearer to the carboxyl than the delta atom, usually prevent the syn¬ thesis from occurring. Benzenoid double bonds have a similar action. Fichter and Stenzl used pyridine, alone or with methyl alcohol, as a solvent for this synthesis, and thus provided solvent anions much more difficult to discharge than hydroxyl. In these solvents they were able to convert benzoic acid to diphenyl, and phenylacetic acid to dibenzyl. It is interesting to note that some 4-phenylpyridine was recovered in the electrolysis of benzoate in pyri¬ dine. This is for this system analo¬ gous to ROH in water, and suggests that pyridine ionizes by disengaging a hydrogen atom at the point most remote from the nitrogen, and that if other ions are also produced, this is the one most easily discharged. As a rough approximation, unsatura¬ tion is a fairly typical product; its initial presence operates against the formation of more, according to Le Chatelier’s theorem. Since the ethylenic double bond is a ring system of two atoms, the be¬ havior of larger ring systems is of interest. Such systems with three, four, and five carbon atoms in the ring, and the ring adjacent to the carboxyl group, have been investi¬ gated. Only R • COO ■ R and ROH seem to e v o lv e in significant amounts. This suggests: (a) the organic discharge potential is some¬ what raised, so that it is about com¬ parable to that of hydroxide, so that liberal amounts of both R ■ COO and OH are present together; (b) the rate of decomposition of R • COO in¬ to R and C02 is lowered, so that considerable R and R ■ COO exist to¬ gether. Finally, the synthesis offers a wide field for investigation. Decomposi¬ tion potentials, material yields, and gas analyses are largely unrecorded, except for the first three members. Other solvents besides pyridine, methyl alcohol, and water might be investigated. The effect of the alicy- clic ring more remote from the car¬ boxyl appears to be unknown. The effects of temperatures and pres¬ sures much greater than atmospheric have not been studied. Much may possibly be done by a careful litera¬ ture search ; the earliest work is so old that copies or direct abstracts of it are not available in the smaller chemical libraries. For many ex¬ perimental studies no especially difficult apparatuses or techniques are needed. A study of the electro¬ lysis of mandelate ion, C0Hg ■ CHOH ■ COO", is offered as an example. Since this is a substituted acid, it might be well to note these recorded results for such ; R is listed : (a) Forms RR- abundantly: acetyl, o-nitrophenyl. (b) Forms (R minus H) abund¬ antly : oc -hydroxy ethyl, oc -hydroxy proply, /3-hydroxy propyl, 0-glu- conyl, allo-camphoryl, phenyl hy¬ droxy methyl (which is the R of the mandelate ion). The case of R being CGH5 ■ CHOH was investigated by Walker in 1896, Kolbe Electrochemical Synthesis 81 using an aqueous solution.5 He re¬ cords the production of only small amounts of hydrobenzoin C6H5- CHOH ■ CHOH ■ C6H5, but a con¬ siderable amount of benzaldehyde, C6H5CHO. Since the former is the RR product and the latter is (R minus H), it is evident that mande- lic acid, C6H3 ■ CHOH • COOH, re¬ sembles propionic acid rather than acetic acid in regard to behavior of its ion in a Kolbe electrolysis. Walker suspected that the hydrobenzoin re¬ sulted from the cathodic reduction of the benzaldehyde. It is, of course, possible to take the converse view and assume that the benzaldehyde results from the anodic oxidation of the hydrobenzoin. Oxygen thus used would come from discharged hy¬ droxyl ions from the solvent water. This proposition was tested by using the technique of Fichter and Stenzl to electrolyze the mandelate ion in non-aqueous solvent. The potassium salt in methanol-pyridine, and the diethylammonium salt in pure pyri¬ dine, were both tried. An undivided cell was used. A small copper beaker held the electro¬ lytic solution and served as a cath¬ ode. A platinum anode was sup¬ ported by a glass tube led through a three-hole rubber stopper into the cell. Gas was led to a Burrell ana¬ lyzer from a tube inserted in another bore of the stopper. The tempera¬ ture of the mixture was maintained at 24° C. by external cooling with ice water. A typical reaction mix¬ ture Was 51 ml. of 1 N. methanolic potassium hydroxide, 38 gms. of mandelic acid, and 51 ml. of pyri¬ dine. About 40 volts were used to maintain about 0.7 amperes of cur¬ 5 It is surprising that C«H5 * CHOH • COO- ion discharges in aqueous electrolysis, since C(iHr> 'CHa • COO- does not. Apparently, although the double bonds in the molecule tighten the terminal elec¬ tron, the hydroxyl oxygen loosens it. rent. When a gas analysis was not desired, a larger electrolysis vessel, consisting of a 400 ml. tail-form beaker, was used. A spiral copper tube carrying water was the cathode, and a rotating platinum spiral was the anode. Coulombs would be passed in excess of the theoretically required amount. Several runs from the large cell would be com¬ bined for isolation of the organic products, by usual techniques, sub¬ stantially as outlined by Fichter and Stenzl. Again much benzalde¬ hyde was found, and very little hy- drobenzoin. That some of the latter was present was proved by the pre¬ cipitation of silver iodate from a so¬ lution of silver ions and periodic acid, a test quite specific for 1, 2 dialcohols. Moreover, by working- up the material from the proper point in the organic separation scheme, a small amount of substance was prepared by reaction with ben¬ zoyl chloride, which gave the proper melting point for the dibenzoate of hydrobenzoin. Since pyridine alone gave no appreciable amount of hy¬ drobenzoin, and since pyridine could not possibly release anode oxygen since it contains none, it could not be argued that the benzaldehyde resulted from the oxidation of the hydrobenzoin. Rather, the prime stable compound formed from the free radicals was of the (R minus H) type. The average of several gas-analy¬ sis experiments was expressed as a ratio of H2 to C02 equal to 0.8, the individual values varying from 0.763 to 1.075. Remembering that both cathodic and anodic H2 is reg¬ istered and that 2 faradays make 1 gram-molecular volume of cathodic hydrogen and 2 g.m.v. of anodic C02, we see that this ratio should be 82 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 0.500 for a perfect RR synthesis; but if each radical that furnished a C02 furnished addionally %H2, the ratio should be 1.00. Also, any dis¬ charge of solvent anions would in¬ crease this ratio by cutting down its denominator more extensively than the numerator. The picture supported by the gas analysis there¬ fore is that of extensive (R minus H) synthesis, accompanied by some R • R formation. BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) Lob and Lorentz, Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds, Wiley, 1905. (2) Brockman, Electro-Organic Chem¬ istry, Wiley, 1926. (3) Weissberger-Swann, Technique of Organic Chemistry: Electrolytic Reactions, Interscience, 1948. (4) Ralston, Fatty Acids and Their Derivatives, Wiley, 1948, pp. 877-8. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 83 A SPHERICAL ARRANGEMENT OE THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS* FRANK O. GREEN and BERNARD G. JACKSON Wheaton College, Wheaton Chemical literature includes many periodic tables, charts, or other means of classifying the chemical ele¬ ments. Some have involved a great deal of work. Others may not have been so laboriously prepared. But the purpose in them all has been to establish a satisfactory correlation of chemical knowledge as related to the physical and chemical properties of the elements. A study of these various periodic arrangements will show common fail¬ ings to be either that of placing different elements on the same posi¬ tion in the chart or placing a group of elements outside the chart, as is commonly done with the rare earths. A few authors have attempted to overcome these difficulties. The spherical arrangement suggested by Friend (1) and the helical form pro¬ posed by Harkins (2) are outstand¬ ing. We have found, however, that a more desirable organization is ob¬ tained by using both helical and spherical arrangements together in the same system. This arrangement is outlined be¬ low and takes the form of a sphere. The upper hemisphere includes most of the known elements. Only a few elements at the begining of the lower hemisphere are known, and thus it is largely theoretical and extrapo¬ lated on the basis of the following reasonable assumptions. Assumptions. — The two assump¬ tions on which the construction of the complete sphere is based are : * Presented before the Chemistry Section of the Illinois Academy of Science at Galesburg, May 6, 1949. first, that the actinide series, when completed, will resemble the lantha¬ nide series (3) ; and second, that the pattern outlined in the upper hemis¬ phere of the system will repeat it¬ self, decreasing the way it built up, to an end. Here a hypothetical ele¬ ment with an atomic number of 172 would come in as the last element. This element would have an elec¬ tronic configuration of : 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32, 32, 18, 18, 8, 8, 2. The equator of the sphere would arbitrarily come between the sixth and seventh peri¬ ods. The pattern. — The following des¬ cription outlines the organization of the complete sphere, including both the top hemisphere containing the known elements and the extrapo¬ lated theoretical lower hemisphere. The sphere is divided into twelve latitudes, six in each hemisphere. The first seven latitudes compose the seven known periods, the seventh being incomplete at present. The re¬ maining five latitudes are theoreti¬ cal and serve to complete the pattern on the sphere. There are eight longi¬ tudinal bands (groups), two of which originate and terminate in the first and last latitudes ; these are groups I and VIII (the inert gases) 3 1 Since the elements in the various groups hold group numbers corresponding to the number of electrons in their outermost shell, it seems reason¬ able to label the inert gas group as group VIII, for helium is the only inert gas without eight elec¬ trons in its outermost shell, having but two elec¬ trons ; this eliminates the designation “zero.” For simplicity, the nine elements of the so-called group VIII may be designated the “Triad System,” of group VIIIB, for they lie between groups VIII and I, are not inert, and range in valence from one to eight. If C and D groups were attached to the triads, it would indicate that they are inert elements; and, of course, group VIII is the only group that can have inert elements in it. 84 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 1. — A polar projection. The other groups originate and terminate in the second and eleventh latitudes. These eight longitudinal bands comprise the eight groups of representative elements. Group I, which cuts twelve latitudes, is im¬ mediately followed by groups II through VII, which cut ten latitudes, and then group VIII, which cuts twelve latitudes, as the first group. Between the eight main groups lie the ten B groups, originating in the fourth and ending in the ninth lati¬ tude, B groups eight, nine, and ten forming the triad system and lying between the main groups VIII and I. In each case the B group is placed after the main group to which it is related. Attached to the B groups (with the exception of the triad sys¬ tem) will be found the C and D groups on the left and right, re¬ spectively. These short groups, C and D, start in the sixth latitude and Sph erical Arrange men t end in the seventh latitude, the lati¬ tudes on either side of the ‘‘equa¬ tor.'’ Each period has its beginning in group I with the elements placed in a counterclockwise order. The last element in each period is found in group VIII, with the inert gases. The elements with atomic numbers 21 through 30, inclusive, might be thought of as the calcium series, since it is from that element in peri¬ od four that there is the deviation into the B groups, even as the ele¬ ments deviating from lanthanum are known as the lanthanide series. The rare earth elements fill the C and D groups of the sixth period. Going backwards one element from lan¬ thanum, one finds barium, from which the twenty-four succeeding elements deviate from the main group. Hence, this could be consid¬ ered the barium series, which would be composed of the lanthanide series and the ten elements in the B groups that are part of this period. The deviations in latitudes six and seven are the same, and the deviations in latitudes, or periods, four, five, eight, and nine would be the same. The transition points. — The sys¬ tem starts with hydrogen in group I, period (and latitude) one, and ro¬ tates counterclockwise until it reaches helium, the first inert ele¬ ment and the end of the first period. From the end of a period the transi¬ tion is consistently to the element in group I in the next lower latitude. When period four is reached, the transition is not so simple, involving a total of five types of transition points. The first transition point is from helium to lithium, period one to peri¬ od two. The second and third tran¬ sition points are the connections be¬ tween the representative elements and the related elements of group A of Chemical Elements 85 and group B. In period four, group II is the first transition point of this type : from calcium to scandium, and returning to the main groups from zinc to gallium. Once transition is made into the B groups from the representative elements, only the B groups are touched in the counter¬ clockwise rotation until group IIB is reached, where the normal transi¬ tion is to the main group III and the period is completed with an inert gas. The fact that an element is in a B group would indicate inner building in the second from the outermost shell. (See fig. 2, cross-cut view of period five.) These transi¬ tion points are involved in periods four through nine, inclusive. Start' Fig. 2. — Period five, cross-cut view. However, the transition points previously mentioned, although they apply to periods six and seven, be¬ come a little more complex with the introduction of transition points four and five. These transition points involve the departure from the B groups in group IIIB, period six, and the return from IIID to IVB. To illustrate : from lanthanum (IIIB, period six) to cerium (IVC, Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 86 Fig. 3. — Period six, cross-cut view. period six), and from lutecium (HID, period six) to hafnium (IVB, period six). It is pointed out here that the transition from gadolinium (IIIC, period six) to terbium (IVD, period six) is not considered a tran¬ sition point, since it is merely com¬ pleting the lanthanide series. (See 3.) The fourth and fifth transition points form a system similar to the transition system involving the B groups, except that this group of the elements, C and D groups, gain elec¬ trons in the third from the outer shell. The last element in the lan¬ thanide series ends with element number 71, and this element is in HID, where both C and D groups are filled. The building in the third from the outermost shell is almost completed in this element. Next the B groups are filled and finally the main groups. Period seven, just across the equator of the system, is assumed to be similar to the sixth period. From period seven to twelve, the number of elements in each period decreases in the same manner in which they reach the max¬ imum. The transition points of all periods of the same length are the same throughout the entire system. Theoretical basis for the treat¬ ment of the lanthanides. — A cer¬ tain degree of periodicity in valence is found when the lanthanides are plotted as they are in figure 4. This is in agreement with the periodicity brought out by Moeller’s (4) atomic volume plot of the lanthanides, and in Van Rysselberghe ’s “New Peri¬ odic Table” (5). The circled val¬ ences in figure 4 indicate valence states either of minor importance or of those unobtainable in the presence 87 Spherical Arrangement of Chemical Elements of water. These pairs of lanthanides were attached as C and D groups to the B groups in period six, ex¬ cluding the triad system. Their vari¬ ance in valence is generally similar to that of the B group to which they were attached; this is part of the basis for attachment to the B groups. The lanthanides are thus included in period six, which has 32 elements. Position in the C and D groups shows relation to the B groups and more or less remote relationship to the elements in the main groups. Attention is called to gadolinium and lutecium, attached to lantha¬ num, because they gain an electron in the second from the outermost shell as does lanthanum. Lutecium is more closely related and similar to lanthanum because of the fact that its third shell is complete like that of lanthanum (6). A letter in Nature (7) points out that divalent compounds of both europium and ytterbium exhibit a strong blue fluorescence when ex¬ posed to ultra-violet light ; these ele¬ ments are attached to group IIB in period six and are one of the pairs formed in figure 4. Theoretical basis for the treat¬ ment of the actinides. — Certain of the actinides, attached immediately below the lanthanides and on the op¬ posite side of the equator of the spherical system, have for some time been considered as properly belong¬ ing to the B groups of the related elements (8). For example, thorium has been considered to belong to group IVB. In the spherical system this element is appropriately at¬ tached in a C group, maintaining its relationship to group IV, and also in accord with the modern concept of thorium as part of the actinide series (9). This same relationship is observed in the case of protactin¬ ium, in group VC, and of uranium, in VIC, which are attached to their respective B groups. The lanthanides and actinides are thus attached to the B groups in such a way that their relationship to the other elements is evident, and yet their individuality is retained by their placement in C and D groups. Interpretation of the diagrams. — Figure 1 is a polar projection of the sphere. A study of it will show that the equator of the system lies between periods six and seven. The 88 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 5. — A Mercator projection. Spherical Arrangement pattern of the lower hemisphere is extended in a manner similar to the way in which the upper hemisphere built up to period six with its 32 elements, but in reverse : starting with the seventh period filling out to 32 elements and the following periods having 18, 18, 8, 8, and 2 elements. The key is the same in all the diagrams. A white background denotes the representative or main elements (A groups). A vertically lined background denotes the related elements (B groups), and slant-lined and stippled backgrounds denote the C and D series respectively of the “rare” elements, the lanthanide and actinide series. The heavy black line indicates the equator of the system. In figure 1, the theoretical, extrapo¬ lated periods eight, nine, ten, and eleven are reduced in size so that they may be included. Figure 2 gives a cross-cut view of period five, and figure 3 of period six. These two diagrams show how the elements build up in the spheri¬ cal system, and suggest analogous positions of electrons in the particu¬ lar latitude of electrons building up. Figure 4 shows the periodicity in the lanthanides in regard to valence ; and the electrons in the various shells as well as the valence states are included in the diagram. Figure 5 is a Mercator projection of the spherical system. Advantages. — a. The number of elements in each period is easily as¬ certained, since it is known that the periods contain respectively 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, and 32 elements. b. The inert gases, elements which have all their electron shells filled, are placed at the end of their respective periods. c. The representative elements, those with all but the outer shell filled, stand out clearly. of Chemical Elements 8f) d. The related, or B group, ele¬ ments are placed adjacent to and following the group to which they are related. e. The “rare” elements, the lan¬ thanide and actinide series, are placed in C and D groups showing three incomplete electron shells and showing their relation to the B group elements and through these to the representative elements. Ele¬ ments in B groups show building in the second from the outer shell, and those in C and D groups show build¬ ing in the third from the outer shell. f. Interpretation of the period¬ icity of the elements, in terms of electronic configuration, is greatly facilitated, position in the sphere being directly related to electronic configuration. g. Erroneous analogies between A and B group elements are avoided, and family relationships are clearly emphasized. h. Elements of any s p e c i fi c group retain their distinctive char¬ acteristics, and at the same time show their relationship to the other elements in the group, as B, C, and D group elements. i. The lanthanide series is in¬ cluded in the system in a satisfactory way, and its relation to the other ele¬ ments and the periodic table is clearly shown. j. There is a logical continuity within the system. Summary. — A new arrangement of the atoms is described which has a combined helical and spherical or¬ ganization. The system incorporates the representative, the related, and the rare earth elements in one se¬ quence and in correct relationships to the other atoms. A theory concern¬ ing the electronic configuration of the undiscovered elements is pre¬ sented. 90 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions REFERENCES (1) Friend, J. Newton, Chem. News, 130, 196 (1925). (2) Harkins, W. D., and R. E. Hall, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 38, 169 (1916). (3) Seaborg, G. T., Chem. & Eng. News, 23, 2190-3 (1945). (4) Moeller, T., J. Chem. Ed., 17, 442 (1940). (5) Van Rysselberghe, P., J. Chem. Ed., 12 (1935). (6) Pearce, D. W., and P. W. Selwood, J. Chem. Ed., 13, 224-30 (1936). (7) Prizbram, K., Nature, 135, 100 (1935). (8) Sneed, M. C., and J. L. Maynard, “General College Chemistry,” D. Van Nostrand Company Inc., New York, 1944, 761-8. (9) Seaborg, G. T., and A. C. Wahl, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 70, 1128-34 (1948). Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 91 GEOGRAPHY GEOGRAPHICAL POSSIBILITIES OF CORK PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES CHARLES C. YAHR Illinois State Normal University, Normal Scattered cork oaks growing in southern and southwestern states may prove to be the forerunners of an important cork production indus¬ try in the United States. The cork oak is indigenous to the Mediter¬ ranean region, the present center of world cork production, and trees from that region have been intro¬ duced into the United States. They represent various spasmodic at¬ tempts by the government, educa¬ tional institutions, and interested individuals to establish the cork oak in this country. Need for Cork The need for cork in American industry was shown when the War Production Board listed it as one of fifteen critical materials essential to keeping the wheels of production turning. Even before the attack on Pearl Harbor, American supplies of cork were placed under strict regu¬ lation to channel them into defense and essential civilian usage. Cork gaskets and washers are “must” parts in keeping grease and oil at work lubricating machines. Among other uses of cork are insulation, corkboard, bomb parts, submarine linings, and life preservers. Cork is one of those versatile natural materials, like leather, that can do a lot of jobs well, and for which there is no single acceptable substitute . . . . The freeing of North Africa, and the bettering of the shipping situation to Mediterranean ports on the European side have relieved the cork situation considerably. Nevertheless, our recent unpleasant experience has taught us a sharp lesson and it will be far bet¬ ter, no matter what kind of improved world the peace may usher in, not to leave ourselves in a position to be caught in the same fix again.1 The exigencies of the early years of World War II plainly showed that cork production in the United States would be economically desi¬ rable if it could be proved geographi¬ cally possible. Present Distribution The world cork supply comes from a region about the size of New Jer¬ sey. This region of intensive produc¬ tion lies within an area stretching for more than 1000 miles along the western part of the North African coast. In Europe the region stretches from the Landes area of France around the Iberian Peninsula in a narrow fringe along the Mediter¬ ranean to the toe of the Italian boot. Figure 1 shows the location of the Mediterranean region cork producing areas, for which the 1936 production statistics are given in table 1. This is the latest year for which full statistics for all countries are available. Incomplete figures for 1941 show small increases in produc¬ tion, but the only available postwar information indicates a small reduc¬ tion following wartime peaks in Portugal and Spain.2 1 Frank Thone, “Cork in Bottleneck,” Science News Letter , XLIV (October 16, 1943), p. 247. 2 Private communication with Spanish and Portu¬ guese Embassies. 92 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Table 1. — Cork Oak Acreage and Cork Production, Mediterranean Region — 1936:1 Area Country Annual Production %of total Acres (000’s) Short tons (000’s) %of total Yield lb. /acre 33.8 1,720 Portugal . 130.0 46.2 151 12.2 622 Spain . 66.0 23.1 212 21.6 1,100 Algeria . 38.5 13.8 70 14.6 741 French Morocco . 17.6 6.3 48 6.9 350 France, Corsica . 13.2 4.8 75 4.9 247 Italy, Sardinia, Sicily . 8.8 3.2 71 4.6 235 Tunisia . 7.4 2.6 63 1.4 74 Spanish Morocco* . 100.0 5,089 Mediterranean Region . 281.5 100.0 112 * Included as a potential producer. Geographic Factors in Cork Growth The geographical possibilities of cork production in the United States are intimately related to tempera¬ ture, rainfall, and soil. It was found that the cork oak grows: (1) equa- torward of a composite line based on the 37° F. January and the 50° F. annual surface isotherms; (2) at annual surface temperatures be¬ tween the limits of 50° F. and 70° F. ; (3) under an annual rainfall between the limits of 10 and 60 inches; and (4) in a variety of soils ranging from semi-arid brown steppe soils to the moist tropical and sub¬ tropical red and yellow soils. To translate these facts to the American scene, a map was con¬ structed, showing the portion of the United States which met the above qualifications. Figure 2 shows this area, plus the areas too dry, too wet, or too hot. The unruled section of the United States lies beyond the poleward limit of growth for the cork oak. Victor A. Rviin, Some ( leoyraphic und Economic Aspects of the Cork Oak (Baltimore: Crown Cork & Seal Co., Inc., 1948), p. 19. Distribution of American Cork Oaks With this picture of climatic and soil factors, our attention can be di¬ rected to the introduction and spread of the cork oak in the United States. Thomas Jefferson seems to have been the first American inter¬ ested in the cork oak, but his at¬ tempts at establishing a cork pro¬ duction industry proved futile. The government was successful in 1858 and again in the eighties in having a few trees survive in the southeast¬ ern states and California. A sub¬ stantial planting at Chico, Cali¬ fornia, was made in 1904, and state and local plantings have resulted in a distribution of cork oaks in the United States as shown in figure 3. It is interesting to note that they are not limited to the area usually clas¬ sified as typically Mediterranean. In 1940, over five tons of bark were stripped from California trees, marking the first time that cork oaks outside the Mediterranean region had been stripped of commercially marketable cork. Tests by the Crown Cork and Seal Company of Balti¬ more showed this bark to be equal Possibilities of TJ. S. Cork Production 93 30 -SO -40 WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN CORK PRODUCING AREAS MAJOR PORTUGUESE CORK PRODUCING PROVINCES MAJOR SPANISH CORK PRODUCING PROVINCES OTHER CORK PRODUCING AREAS BASE MAP FROM McKNIGHT A Mo KNIGHT, BLOOMINGTON, ILLINOIS. DATA FROM VICTOR A. RYAN, SOME GEOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS Of THE QQM OAJt ]_ I o* 10* Fig. 1. 94 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions in quality to Old World cork. When considering that the United States imports some 150,000 tons of cork annually, it is readily seen that it was the fact rather than the amount of production that was of chief sig¬ nificance. Production and Marketing Problems In order to develop an overview of the industry, we may turn our attention to how the industry is conducted, what marketing practices may be developed, what competition in land use may be encountered, how competition by other products and by foreign countries is met, and what other problems cork producers may face. Conduct of Industry Cork production is a forest indus¬ try, the commercial product, cork, being the outer layer of the Quercus suber and Quercus suber occidentalis species of evergreen oak. The inner layer of bark, or phellogen, is alive and acts as a base on which each year the tree adds a new layer of cork. As these succeeding new inner layers are added, the outermost lay¬ ers cease to be a living part of the tree and serve only as an insulating wrapper protecting the tree against loss of moisture and against the hot winds known as siroccos in the West¬ ern Mediterranean region. It has apparently been known since Greco-Roman times that this outer bark could be removed without injury to the tree. The process of bark removal is known as stripping, and the same methods are being used in the United States that have been successful in Europe and North Africa. Two cuts are made around the tree with a sharp two-bladed hatchet, one cut at the ground level and the other just below the main branches (or at the height pre¬ scribed by law in most of the Old World cork-producing countries). Two vertical cuts following natural crevices in the bark are made, join¬ ing the horizontal cuts. The wedge- shaped hatchet handle is then insert¬ ed under the loosened bark and the whole sheet is pried off. The larger lower branches may be stripped in the same manner. Care must be taken not to injure the inner bark, and stripping should not be under¬ taken while a hot wind is blowing as the newly exposed phellogen will be dried out too rapidly. Neverthe¬ less, the middle of the summer is the accepted stripping season. The first stripping produces cork with a rough, grayish, uneven sur¬ face, known in the United States as “virgin” cork, suitable only for grinding for cork insulation and cork composition products. The sec¬ ond stripping is considerably better and, with the third stripping, fine quality cork is obtained. The trees are first stripped when 15-20 j^ears of age and every 9-12 years there¬ after during the productive life of about 100 years. The stripped bark is piled and allowed to dry a few days in the forest. It is then ready for boiling, a process which softens the cork and increases its elasticity so that it can be flattened for baling. Boiling removes dirt, sap, and tannic acid, and also softens the useless woody outer layer which is scraped off. The cork is dried, roughly sort¬ ed according to quality, and baled, ready to be taken from the immedi¬ ate area of production. Marketing Practices American cork production has been so limited and so intimately Possibilities of TJ. S. Cork Production 95 XI <\ ol X v. An arrangement like figure 4 illustrates crossed axial plane dispersion where the optic plane for red light is paral¬ lel to (100) and that for violet light is parallel to (010) . The yellow stick in the position of the acute bisec¬ trix indicates a uniaxial character for yellow light. Figure 5 illustrates the monoclinic model for representing dispersion of 2V combined with dispersion of orientation. The principles of con¬ struction of this model are the same as those for figure 2. It is recom¬ mended, however, that there he a greater number of holes in each row and that the number of rows be re¬ duced to seven. Figure 5 illustrates a condition in which Bxa = b, crossed dispersion, and r > v. Fig¬ ure 6 shows Y = b, inclined disper¬ sion, and r > v. Figure 7 shows Bx0=b, horizontal dispersion, and r < v. Figure 8 illustrates the type of relationship which exists in some minerals like epidote. If one optic axis only is observed in the interference figure, the dispersion appears r > v. If the other axis is observed, however, the dispersion appears reversed. Actually the dis¬ persion of 2V is r > v. In figures 6 and 8 an extra hole is shown for the acute bisectrix for yellow light (Bx/). A model may also be constructed to illustrate several general exam¬ ples of dispersion in triclinic crys¬ tals. Permanent Reference Models A very helpful set of models may be prepared for student study or reference work by employing the well-known Krantz pearwood mod¬ els. After selecting the desired mod¬ els, small holes are carefully drilled and long wire brads inserted to simu¬ late the optic axes and the principal optic directions in each mineral rep¬ resented. If desired, extra holes may be drilled and extra brads inserted to represent crystallographic axes as well. If the brads representing crystal axes are painted one color, those representing optic axes an¬ other color, and those representing the principal index directions a third color, each set will stand out more clearly. To produce a more finished model, the heads of the wire brads may be clipped and the rough ends filed smooth before painting. Problem Models Instructive problems and exer¬ cises may be undertaken by the stu¬ dent with the aid of inexpensive and easily acquired materials. Each stu¬ dent is provided with three small blocks, an inch or so long, cut from pieces of balsa wood, and roughly formed to represent the three pina- Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 126 coids of the orthorhombic, monoclin¬ ic, and triclinic systems. Substitutes for balsa wood might include any soft material like cork or art gum. In addition the student should have a supply of straight pins with dif¬ ferent colored heads. Different col¬ ors may be designated to represent the optic axes, crystal axes, and prin¬ cipal index directions. By inserting the round-headed pins into the balsa wood block an unlimited variety of problems may be worked out. In order to reproduce a given op¬ tic angle, for example, the center of the model is held directly over the index mark of a small protractor placed on the table. By sighting down upon the protractor the pins are inserted to give the proper angle. The student should be in¬ structed to insert all pins in such a fashion that if extended inward the pins would all intersect the model’s center. Inserting pins at the proper angle may be facilitated by use of a simple type of protractor. From a point at the center of the long edge of a 3 x 5 inch filing card, draw a series of radial lines spaced at in¬ tervals of 5°. If each pin is aligned with the proper radial line of this protractor before it is inserted into the balsa wood, it will point directly to the center of the model and angles will be more correctly duplicated. Just a few types of problems and exercises are suggested here. A list of optical data for a theoretical min¬ eral might be given the student who is required to build up a model to illustrate as many of these data as possible. Again, the instructor might prepare a model and request the stu¬ dent to tabulate the optical data illustrated by this model. Starting with a given model, the student might be required to predict the type of interference figure which would be obtained for a specified orienta¬ tion. Even crude models prepared of common pins and pieces of pencil eraser may be employed to good ad¬ vantage by the student in his mi¬ croscopic work. A simple model of a biaxial crystal with the principal index directions and the optic axes may be used to help visualize the orientation of various grains under the microscope. It will enable the student to correlate the interference figure on a particular grain with the optical orientation of that grain. Simple models of this type will per¬ mit him to visualize more intelligent¬ ly the relationship between extinc¬ tion angle and grain orientation. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 127 ATOMIC MODELS OF THE SILICATES AS AN ESSENTIAL AID IN THE TEACHING OF ELEMENTARY MINERALOGY DONALD M. HENDERSON University of Illinois, Urbana Most present-day courses in ele¬ mentary mineralogy are actually im¬ pediments to the progress of min¬ eralogy and geology, and are not even introductions to a science. The most serious defect is the lack of logical development and presenta¬ tion of fundamental unifying prin¬ ciples. A dogmatic approach results in the emphasis falling almost en¬ tirely upon the memorization of a vast amount of miscellaneous and apparently unrelated information concerning minerals — much of it er¬ roneous. Heretofore, such a state of affairs may have been somewhat ex¬ cusable because of insufficient fun¬ damental information. Today, how¬ ever, there is sufficient information about the behaviour and arrange¬ ment of atoms in crystals so that an attempt can be made to present some of the controlling principles neces¬ sary for an understanding of miner- Fig. 1. — Common arrangements of silicate tetrahedra: a = independent tetra¬ hedron characteristic of olivine; b = geometric tetrahedron for comparison with a, c = double tetrahedra characteristic of the melilite group; d = tetrahedral chain characteristic of pyroxene; e = three-membered tetrahedral ring character¬ istic of wollastonite and rhodonite; f = six-membered tetrahedral ring; g = double tetrahedral chain characteristic of amphibole; h = tetrahedral sheet characteristic of the micas. Tetrahedral three-dimensional framework characteristic of the silica minerals and feldspars not shown. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 128 Fig. 2. — Method of assembling models: a = pyroxene showing arrangement of calcium and magnesium-iron atoms in parallel double rows (note isomorphism of magnesium and iron); b = index of atoms in pyroxene model a; c = method of assembling tetrahedral chains in model a; d = method of assembling tetrahedral double chains in model e; e == partly assembled model of amphibole, hydroxyl ions (gray) occupy large holes in double chains, arrangement of cations (not shown) like that in pyroxene model a. als even on an elementary level. The purpose of this paper is not to present a complete elementary treatment of snch principles but simply to call attention to them and to show how readily they may be illustrated by atomic packing models of minerals. The value of this ap¬ proach is particularly well demon¬ strated by the insight which it gives into the relations of the extremely complicated silicate group of miner¬ als. However, before describing the atomic packing models, several high¬ ly simplified principles will be given first so that the significance and use of the models can be fully appre¬ ciated : (1) The constituent elements oc¬ cur as spherically shaped ions. (2) Each kind of ion (Fe2+, 02“, Fe3+, etc.) has a characteristic size (in general anions are larger than cations). (3) Anions are attracted so as to touch neighboring cations and vice versa. (4) The number of anions that can surround a cation (and vice versa) is controlled by the relative sizes of the re¬ spective ions. (5) Different kinds of ions that have similar sizes (e.g. Fe2+ and Mg2+) can equally well occur in the same kind of po¬ sition in a crystal structure (isomorphism) . The most important conclusions to be derived from these principles are that most minerals, including sili¬ cates, can be considered as composed Atomic Models of the Silicates 129 Fig. 3. — Method of making models with interchangeable parts that can be easily assembled and disassembled: a = silicate sheet with large potassium atoms (dark) resting in holes in sheet, b = strings of hydroxyl ions (large gray spheres) and magnesium-iron atoms which form a layer between silicate sheets a and c. Threefold arrangement of magnesium and/or iron atoms is characteristic of biotite and talc. c = silicate sheet, d = potassium atoms. e = silicate sheet iden¬ tical to rectangular sheet a but with tetrahedra at corners removed in order to show hexagonal symmetry of sheet, f = strings of hydroxyl ions and aluminum atoms (small white spheres) which form a layer between silicate sheets e and g. Two¬ fold arrangement of aluminum atoms is characteristic of muscovite, pyrophyllite and kaolin, g = silicate sheet identical to c but with corner tetrahedra removed in order to show hexagonal symmetry of sheet. of ion spheres of different sizes, and that many of the properties of min¬ erals depend upon the relatively simple geometric ways in which these spheres can be packed repetitively. An elementary account of these prin¬ ciples can be found in Stillwell (1938). Data on the sizes of ions can be found in Evans (1948). It should be possible, therefore, to show the application of these prin¬ ciples by means of models of miner¬ als constructed with spheres of dif¬ ferent sizes representing the differ¬ ent atoms. Spheres of cork proba¬ bly are the easiest to use. The Arm¬ strong Cork Company makes cork spheres in any size from % to 3 inches in diameter. Entirely satis¬ factory models can be made with relatively few sizes. The following sizes have been found to be suitable : 1!4"= oxygen, hydroxyl, fluor¬ ine, and potassium (1%" has been found to be more satisfactory for potassium in the micas) 1"= calcium, sodium %"= magnesium, iron, alumin¬ um (%" would be more ac¬ curate for aluminum) 9/32"= shot or ball bearings for silicon 130 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions The use of different colors for the different kinds of atoms adds to the effectiveness of the models. The spheres can easily be joined together by means of heavy pins or brads from which the heads have been cut off. Models of particular minerals can be constructed from the data in Bragg (1937). The fundamental unit of construc¬ tion of the silicates is the so-called silicate tetrahedron which consists of a silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms. This unit well illus¬ trates the control on arrangement of atoms by their relative sizes because the sizes of silicon and oxygen are Fig. 4. — Composite model of mica made by assembling units shown in fig¬ ure 3. Lower half represents biotite as¬ sembled from units a, &, and c in figure 3. Upper half represents muscovite as¬ sembled from units d, e, f, and g in figure 3. such that four oxygen atoms can just fit around each silicon atom (figure 1). One of the most im¬ portant causes of the complexity of the silicate minerals arises from the variety of ways in which the silicate tetrahedra can be arranged (figure 1 ) . In fact, the simplest and proba¬ bly the most instructive method of making a model of a particular sili¬ cate mineral is to assemble several of the tetrahedral groups that com¬ pose the major part of that mineral, such as independent tetrahedra for olivine, single chains for pyroxene, or sheets for mica. In general, it will be found that these groups pack together rather snugly and that the other atoms in the crystal fit in the interstices. Large atoms fit in the large interstices and small atoms in the small interstices. Examples are shown by figures 2, 3, and 4. The models are particularly in¬ structive if the groups can easily be disassembled and reassembled by students. Figure 3 shows an ex¬ ample in which the groups are inter¬ changeable and can be assembled in various combinations to illustrate almost all the sheet minerals. Models such as those that have been briefly described illustrate viv¬ idly and fundamentally many of the varied properties of the silicates, such as isomorphism, derivation of the chemical formulae, cleavage, hardness, many of the optical prop¬ erties; why certain alteration prod¬ ucts may be favored ; and why melts of certain silicates are viscous where¬ as others are fluid. Grateful acknowledgment is made to Dr. Ralph E. Grim of the Depart¬ ment of Geology and the Illinois State Geological Survey, who has long recognized the value of atomic models in his researches on the clay minerals and who called to my atten¬ tion the convenience of cork spheres. Mr. Merle Williams, a student in the Department of Geology, assembled the excellent models shown in the illustrations. Atomic Models of the Silicates 131 REFERENCES Bragg, W. L. (1937), Atomic structure of minerals, Cornell University Press. Evans, R. C. (1948), An introduction to crystal chemistry, Cambridge Univer¬ sity Press. Stillwell, C. W. (1938), Crystal chemis¬ try, McGraw-Hill. 132 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 GLACIAL LAKE MERRIMAC J HARLEN BRETZ University of Chicago, Chicago Named for a town at the crossing of Wisconsin River by the Elroy di¬ vision of the Chicago and North¬ western Railway, Lake Merrimac came into existence in this part of the Wisconsin valley when the Green Bay lobe began to retreat from its terminal (Johnstown) moraine. The moraine and its outwash, blocking the valley, served as an effective dam, and the lake lengthened northeast¬ ward as the retreat continued. Its level appears to have stood at 850 to 860 A.T. during this time. Overlooking the lake on the north was the southern of the two Baraboo Ranges which, 18 miles northeast of the drift dam, terminates abruptly where joined by the converging North Range. Here the upland sur¬ face drops off from 1200 to altitudes below that of the lake. Had there been no drainage into Lake Merri¬ mac other than that of the adjacent retreating glacial front, and had no lowering from outlet erosion oc¬ curred, the lake would have con¬ tinued to lengthen and expand as the glacier retreated north and east of this end of the Ranges and would have flooded the low country about Portage and north down the Pox River valley. Indeed, the upper Wisconsin River would today be a part of the St. Lawrence drainage system. The possibility of such continued enlargement, however, was denied because that same ice front had been confining a higher and far larger lake on the north side of the Ranges, which abruptly began discharging southward into Lake Merrimac when ; the eastern end of the Ranges was freed by the retreating ice front. Lake Wisconsin, largest of all such water bodies within the state, < was formed when the advancing ; Green Bay lobe closed the Devils j Lake gap in the South Range. Gla- 1 cial ice and glacially ponded water J then largely replaced the former free c drainage of the upper Wisconsin River through this gap. This large lake found an outlet down Black I River to the Mississippi north of LaCrosse. Because the ice built a bulky moraine (Johnstown) in two places across the Devils Lake gap, effectively blocking it against re-use ! by Wisconsin River after retreat from this position, Lake Wisconsin continued to exist and was enlarged eastward as the ice edge shrank back, until the abrupt east-pointing prow where the Ranges join and terminate was ice-free. With lower surfaces thus exposed * the glacial damming of Lake Wiscon¬ sin came to an end. The level of the new outlet around the east end of the upland was about 120 feet lower than that leading to Black j River. The first 80 feet of this marked drop in level involved the entire lake. There then emerged a high place in the lake bottom, a group of submerged hills of sand¬ stone in the region of The Dells, 20 miles northwest of the new outlet. Thejr became a far more durable dam than glacial deposits could be and held back a large portion of the lake from further abrupt lowering. The Glacial Lake Merrimac 133 Fig. 1. — Glacial Lake Merrimac 134 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions postglacial Wisconsin River is still at work incising this barrier on which it found itself superposed. The southern and southeastern part of the dismembered lake, how¬ ever, continued to lower rapidly as obstructing drift deposits were eroded by the new outlet. The de¬ tails of lowering involved the exist¬ ence of Lake Merrimac, into which the discharge poured at the time the glacial dam failed, the building of a torrential delta at the head of that lake by the rapid lowering of Lake Wisconsin, followed immediately by the trenching of this delta as Lake Merrimac ’s own outlet near Prairie du Sac was rapidly deepened and its level lowered by the greatly in¬ creased volume of its discharge. The details are as follows : When retreat south of the Ranges began, an extensive valley train heading at the terminal moraine reached down the Wisconsin valley across the Driftless Area. Where it rested against the outer face of the Johns¬ town moraine its altitude ranged between 860 and 880 feet A.T., and its gradient thence down-valley was gentle. Rather than the moraine, this valley train was the effective dam for Lake Merrimac. Two chan¬ nels were promptly cut into the mo¬ raine to the level of the outwash apron in front, one now deeply in¬ cised by later use and carrying Wis¬ consin River today, the other a nar¬ row abandoned trench somewhat more than a mile long, exceeding 80 feet in depth and its floor 30 to 40 feet lower than the 850-860 level of the lake. No shore lines of Lake Merrimac are known, and the only record of the lake ’s level is the torrential delta east of Alloa and just south of the east end of the Ranges. Its surface is somewhat undulatory, its southern or frontal slope is rudely parallel with the foresets revealed in excava¬ tions and its back slope is steep and irregular as befits an ice contact. An alluvial fan stands on the northern part of the delta top, sloping south¬ ward and truncated on the north by the same ice contact slope. Topography alone would hardly establish the interpretation given this hill. There is no denying it, however, when the sections in the gravel pit on the south slope are examined. For 40 or more vertical feet, unbroken foresets of extraordi¬ narily open-work coarse gravel dip southward. Except for one growing delta at the head of Franz Josef fiord, East Greenland, the writer has never seen a more bouldery delta deposit. Most of the boulders are crystallines up to 3, 4, and even 5 feet in maximum diameter. Most of them lie in a cobble gravel; a few are imbedded in pebble gravel. No foresets composed dominantly of boulders were seen, nor any foresets largely of sand. Subordinate to the crystallines are sandstone and dolo¬ mite boulders, and still less common but highly significant are widely dis¬ tributed cobbles and boulders of a pink clayey till. The largest till boulder seen was 3 feet in diameter. Although all these boulders must have been rolled across the top of the delta to reach the foresets where they rest, there is no channel leading to this delta, no adequate^ extensive drift surface high enough to have carried a free-surface stream to the delta head. The ice contact slope, if correctly interpreted, records the debouching of the torrential stream directly from the retreating ice front. The very brief episode of dis¬ charge was neither preceded nor fol¬ lowed by any noteworthy outwash Glacial Lake Merrimac 135 deposition. It therefore appears to record unusual and short-lived con¬ ditions that developed just before the ice withdrew from contact with the Ranges. There is strong sugges¬ tion that the discharge initiated fail¬ ure of the ice barrier between lakes Wisconsin and Merrimac, that the hydrostatic head of 120 feet caused a leakage under and through crevasses in the decaying glacial front. The till cobbles and boulders are difficult to explain unless they record quarry¬ ing beneath the ice and a very short transportation upgrade downstream. Comparison with the Gregory Val¬ ley delta at the head of Franz Josef fiord is interesting although the ar¬ gument derived is only by analogy. The observed boulders of this Green¬ land deposit lie on the delta top, ex¬ tending to the very edge, and ob¬ viously indicating that others have gone over the edge to become a part of the foreset structure. Slabby boulders lie in imbricate positions despite their diameters of several feet, a relationship which the exist¬ ing Gregory stream is wholly incom¬ petent to produce. These boulders were traced back to the fairly recent breaking of a glacial dam several miles up the Gregory Valley, behind which was impounded a lake*. Velocity for their transportation was provided by the valley’s gradient instead of a hydrostatic head, and they were doubtless swept all along the lower valley by the brief torrent when the dam broke. The delta itself is a normal deposit and only the surface boulders are to be compared with those composing so much of the Alloa deposit. Although no channel leads to the top of the Alloa delta, there is a * Boyd, L. A. “The Fiord Region of East Green¬ land,” Am. Geogr. Soc. Spec. Publ. No. 18, pp. 185-193. glacial river channel trenched some 30 feet deep into its eastern part. This was noted by Thwaites,f who interpreted it as the initial outlet when ‘‘the ice margin cleared the east end of the Baraboo Bluffs” and “the level of waters impounded in front of the ice fell from about 980 . . . to about 840 feet.” According to the present writer, it is the Alloa delta which records initial discharge, and the channel was made after the ice had been cleared away sufficiently to allow standing water at the sub¬ siding Lake Wisconsin level to reach the ice-contact head of the delta. Thus, although the lower portion of dismembered Lake Wisconsin dropped 120 feet to Lake Merrimac ’s level during the growth of the Alloa delta, no debacle occurred during this failure of the ice barrier at the east end of the Ranges. Excavation of the channel was completed while the retreating gla¬ cial front stood less than three miles to the east. At that distance, the drift surface beneath the glacier was close to 800 feet A. T., and when it became exposed, the channel was abandoned and lakes Merrimac and Wisconsin came to the same level, connected by a strait 4 to 5 miles south of Portage. But Lake Merrimac was lowered about 30 feet during the channel’s life, by reason of the great increase in its discharge volume across the moraine and outwash near Prairie du Sac. The time involved was only that required for about three miles of glacial retreat, a few centuries at the most. In the fact that the delta records none of this lowering, we find additional support for the con¬ cept that the extraordinary condi¬ tions (penetration of the glacial bar- f Thwaites, F. T. “Pleistocene of part of north¬ eastern Wisconsin,” Geol. Soc. America, Bull. Vol. 54, 1943, p. 120. 136 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions rier by water under high pressure) produced an extraordinary volume of discharge for an extraordinarily short time. The two competing transmorainic channels near Prairie du Sac con¬ tinued to be deepened after lakes Wisconsin and Merrimac became confluent, but the northern one was shortly abandoned and all subse¬ quent drainage, including that from both Early and Late Oshkosh in Fox River drainage, has continued to deepen the winner in the contest, the present Wisconsin River route past Prairie du Sac and Sauk City. Lake Merrimac slowly dwindled to a series of extensive marshes which now are largely submerged beneath an artifi¬ cial lake back of the power dam at the moraine transection north of Prairie du Sac. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 137 CURRENT EVALUATION OF THE CAMBRIAN- KEWEENAWAN BOUNDARY1 GILBERT 0. RAASCH Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana In the Lake Superior region the youngest of pre-Cambrian sequences is the Keweenawan system, 30,000 to 60,000 feet thick; of this system the youngest unit which appears uni¬ versally recognized as undoubtedly Algonkian is the 12,600 foot Freda sandstone of the Upper Keweenawan Oronto group. South of the Lake Superior region in the Upper Mississippi Valley, the oldest of recognized Paleozoic se¬ quences is the Upper Cambrian, Croixan Series; of this, the oldest unit universally conceded to be Pale¬ ozoic in age is the Mt. Simon sand¬ stone member2 of the Dresbach formation. In a kind of no-mans-land of con¬ troversy between the obviously Ke¬ weenawan units and obviously Cro¬ ixan units is a group of redbed sandstones and shales ranging up to 2600 feet in thickness, to which Thwaites (1912) applied the term Bayfield group. It now seems high¬ ly probable, especially as the result of the heavy mineral studies by Ty¬ ler and Thiel (1940), that the Wis¬ consin Bayfield is represented in Minnesota by similar sediments, there referred to as Red Clastics, Fond du Lac, or Hinckley, and in Michigan by the Jacobsville sand¬ stone. It is the age relations of these units, then, that come into question. The term Bayfield, when used below, is employed as embracing all of them. 1 Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. 2 The Illinois Geological Survey regards the Mt. Simon as a separate formation rather than a member of the Dresbach formation. Broader regional relations. — The problem fundamentally is whether the Bayfield group is structurally, stratigraphically, and in time more closely associated (1) with the Ke¬ weenawan, Oronto group, (2) the Cambrian, Croixan series, or .(3) in¬ dependent of either. The distribution of strata belong¬ ing to the Oronto group, as indicated in figure 1, is confined to the inner portion of the Lake Superior Basin. The distribution of Bayfield strata areally is much more extensive and not necessarily related to the distri¬ bution of the Oronto group. The two groups occur together only in the Lake Superior region, and it is this writer’s opinion that the occur¬ rence is coincidental. The two se¬ quences occur together in the same outcrop at only two localities (Thwaites, 1912) 1 on the south fork of Fish Creek, near Ashland Junc¬ tion, Bayfield County, and on Middle River in eastern Douglas County, both in Wisconsin. In both instances they occur in the drag zone along the Douglas thrust fault, and/or its eastern extension (fig. 8). The basal contact of the older, Oronto group is in all cases with the immediately preceding Middle Ke¬ weenawan eruptives. The upper contact of the Oronto group is known only from the two localities cited and probably also from deep wells at Ashland, Wisconsin (Thwaites, 1912, p. 65), and Stillwater, Minnesota (Hall et al., 1911; Thwaites, 1931, etc.). At the two outcrops conformabil- ity has been claimed, but since the 138 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions U7\ PRE-BAYFIELD DISTRIBUTION OF ORONTO SEDIMENTS S3 DEPOSITION AREA OF BAYFIELD SEDIMENTS E3 INDEFINITE Pig. 1. — Regional Distribution of Oronto and Bayfield Sediments. strata stand nearly vertical, this ap¬ pearance of conformability can be misleading, as pointed out by Van Hise and Leith (1911) in connection with Keweenawan-Huronian rela¬ tions under similar conditions. Fur¬ thermore, in the area of the two out¬ crops and the Ashland well, the atti¬ tude of the Oronto beds, lying as they did in the center of the broad Lake Superior syncline, should have been nearly horizontal at the time the Bayfield sediments were depos¬ ited on them. Such concordance of strata does not necessarily imply close age relations. Furthermore, when we consider the regional relations of the Bayfield group, we find that, whereas in a very limited area it is in basal con¬ tact with the Oronto sandstone, over a far greater extent it rests noncon- formably and in a relatively horizon¬ tal attitude on a basement complex of pre-Keweenawan gneisses, schists, and slates, cut by acid and basic plu- tonics and dike rocks of both Ive- weenawan and pre-Keweenawan age. The upper contact of the Bayfield, on the other hand, is everywhere with the white sandstone of the Mt. Simon member of the Dresbach formation and the Dresbach and Bayfield main¬ tain conformable relations over all the Upper Mississippi Valley3 and Upper Great Lakes regions. The dif- 3 In Illinois no basis has been found for separat¬ ing the Bayfield and Mt. Simon sandstones, and the Illinois Geological Survey classifies all the sand¬ stone between the pre-Cambrian crystallines and the Eau Claire formation as the Mt. Simon forma¬ tion of Upper Cambrian age (Templeton, 1950). Cambrian-Keweenawan Boundary 139 After R. D. Irving - modified by Gilbert 0. Raosch, 1950 Fig. 2— Salient Structural Features Affecting the Keweenawan in the Lake Su¬ perior Region. Acuities indicated b y Schwartz (1936, pp. 24-25) and others in drawing Red Clastic and Hinckley and Mt. Simon boundaries in the subsurface suggest a high probabil¬ ity that the three units are grada¬ tional as well as conformable. These broad and simple relations might seem to leave no doubt that the age relations of the Bayfield group are with the Cambrian but for the troublesome intervention of seemingly local phenomena, some of which at first glance appear to pre¬ clude a Cambrian age. A reassess¬ ment of these seeming anomalies is the primary objective of this paper. Anomalies Opposing Cambrian Assignment of Bayfield Pre-Cambrian faults. — Those fav¬ oring a pre-Cambrian age for the Bayfield stress the fact that in Wis¬ consin, Minnesota, and Michigan, the Bayfield along with the Oronto is cut by great thrust faults which moved parallel to the dip of the fault plane. They interpret these movements as a part of the orogeny which closed the Algonkian. That the Bayfield and Oronto are jointly cut by extensive faulting along the Douglas Fault in Wiscon¬ sin cannot be denied (see Thwaites, 1912). However, the requirements 140 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 3. — Pre-Bayfield Bedrock Surface in West Part of Lake Superior Region. to account for the type of late pre- Cambrian movements which sheared and disrupted the Lake Superior syncline are, not movements parallel to the dip of the fault plane, but ex¬ tensive horizontal displacements, north of east, measurable in miles along the Douglas thrust, with only a moderate degree of vertical com¬ ponent. The accompanying map (fig. 2) shows that this latter type of movement must have taken place, and that a thrust block, bounded laterally by the Douglas and Lake Owen faults, respectively, did so move in pre-Bayfield time. How¬ ever, the present attitude of the Bay- field beds along the fault (and of the Camlrian-Keweenawan Boundary 141 Fig. 4— Croixan ( Bayfield )-Keweenawan Areal Relations in West Part of Lake Superior Region. Oronto beds dragged up along with them) indicates an extensive thrust movement parallel to the dip of the fault plane with a vertical compon¬ ent of close to 3000 feet of displace¬ ment. That there have been two move¬ ments, one pre-Bayfield and one post-Bayfield, seems clear from both regional and local considerations. In Wisconsin, no evidence is at hand that will permit the dating of the second (post-Bayfield) move¬ ment along the old thrust plane. Like the Douglas fault, the Keweenaw fault in Michigan appears to have been pre-Bayfield in origin with pos¬ tulated secondary movement that, on the downthrust southeastern side, visibly cuts only Jacobsville (Bay- field) beds. But at Limestone Moun¬ tain, only a few miles southeast, an isolated outlier of Ordovician, Silur¬ ian, and possibly Devonian beds 142 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 1 1 Bayfield Croixan Fig. 5. — Cross Sections Along Lines A-B and C-D of Figure 4. (Case and Robinson, 1915 > Thwaites, 1943) is profoundly shattered by structural movements that can most logically be assumed to be simultane¬ ous with the second period of move¬ ment along the Douglas and Kewee¬ naw fault planes. Douglas fault in Minnesota. — In Minnesota, the structural evidence is less clear and the seeming anomalies more numerous. It has been rather generally assumed that the Douglas fault swings southerly soon after en¬ tering Minnesota and continues until lost under glacial drift and/or Paleo¬ zoic cover. Unfortunately, the trap- sandstone contact, clearly shown by numerous exposures to be a fault in Wisconsin, is not exposed in Minne¬ sota. Indirect evidence supporting a fault relationship between Bay¬ field-type sandstone and Kewee- nawan extrusives seems less than conclusive to the writer. This evi¬ dence revolves around two localities, Kettle River and Pine City. On Kettle River, both Irving (1883, pp. 244-246, figs. 8 and 9, pi. 14) and Upham (1888, pi. 55) de¬ scribe, map, and illustrate the Hinckley-trap contact in a manner to indicate a nonconformity and a sedi- mentational contact of horizontal sandstone on steeply dipping lavas. But C. W. Hall (1901, pp. 324-325) states: “Along the entire distance of the contact, the attitude of the sandstone is that of a greatly dis¬ turbed formation; it is broken in places in blocks, some of them of huge dimensions lying in many dif¬ ferent directions. They have every appearance of being shattered by profound crustal movements.” Here is obviously an area calling for fur¬ ther detailed study. At the Pine City locality, very steeply eastward-dipping lavas out¬ crop in Snake River at the outlet of Cross Lake, whereas a well drilled scarcely a mile to the west encoun¬ tered no lava and terminated at a depth of 700 feet in red sandstone. This relationship, plotted on a twen- Cambrian-Keweenawan Boundary 143 Fig. 6.— Postulated Bayfield-Keweenawan Relations in the Pine City-Mora Area. a Actual Pre-Croixan Erosian Surface Profile at Taylors Falls, Minn, b. Postulated Pre-Bayfield Erosion Surface Profile in Pine City Area, on Scale 1:1. ty-to-one exaggeration by Thiel (1947, p. 194) gives thus a relief that seems to demand a fault postulate. However, the same relationship plot¬ ted on a one-to-one scale by the writer (fig. 6b) compares very close¬ ly with the slope of the trap-sand- istone contact exposed at Taylors Falls, Minnesota (fig. 6a), a place where the sedimentational nature of the contact is demonstrable and the Cambrian age of the sandstone un¬ questioned. Gravity-meter evidence. — G. I. Welch (1941) published the result of a gravity-meter traverse across the lava-sandstone contact a short dis¬ tance south of the Pine City well. The observed anomaly he interprets as indicative of a fault of about 11,000 foot displacement. Actually Welch’s data do not con¬ stitute proof of the existence of a fault at this place. According to his interpretation, which assumes (1) that there is a fault and (2) that the upthrown side of the fault is all trap and the downthrown side is sand¬ stone on trap, then the anomaly shows that 11,000 feet of sandstone is present on the downthrown side of the postulated fault. If, on the other hand, there be postulated a situation as illustrated in figure 6, the recorded gravity ano¬ maly reflects quite different condi¬ tions which do not necessarily in¬ volve faulting. Let us assume the sandstone sequence to be approxi¬ mately 2000 feet thick, normal for the Hinckley-Red Clastic succession. Let us further assume that to the east the sandstone abuts the Kewee- nawan lava along a steep pre-Bay¬ field erosional slope similar to the pre-Croixan erosional slope at St, 144 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Croix Falls. Finally, concealed be¬ neath the sandstone is a steeply dip¬ ping contact between the highly in¬ clined lavas to the east which repre¬ sent the west limb of the Lake Supe¬ rior syncline and the pre-Keweena- wan complex of granites, gneisses, schists, slates, etc., to the west. The gravity anomaly may thus be a con¬ sequence of a line between a western belt of sandstone on various crystal¬ lines of lesser density than diabase and an eastern belt of dense diabase extrusives. The steep westerly slop¬ ing contact between lava and sand- \ stone and the steep easterly sloping contact between lava and basement complex might well combine to re¬ solve a sharp line of gravitational anomaly. This is not to say that faulting of limited extent may not incidentally be associated with this zone. Tilting of Bayfield strata. — The facts that the Red Clastics in Minne¬ sota dip at angles up to 10° and the Cambrian-Keiveenawan Boundary 145 Fig. 8. — Postulated Pre- and Post-Bayfield Fault Patterns in the Bayfield Type Area. overlying Hinckley sandstone dips commonly from l°-2°, whereas the St. Croixan beds to south and east are essentially flat-lying, have been cited (Atwater and Clement, 1935) as evidence for the pre-Cambrian age of the Hinckley-Red Clastics (fig. 7). The increase in dip down¬ ward in the sequence may be a re¬ flection of initial dip of the basal beds close to the contact with the basement complex ; but the writer in¬ terprets it to be a consequence main- ly of regional uplift of the country lying to the northwest and north of the Hinckley-Red Clastic belt of out¬ crop (figs. 3, 4, and 5). That such a regional rise did take place is suggested by the contrast be¬ tween Bayfield relations in southern Minnesota and in east central Min¬ nesota. In the former area, the Bay- field equivalents in the subsurface are flat-lying, uniform in thickness over a wide area, and conformably overlapped westward by the Dres- bach against the granite basement (Hall et al., 1911, pi. V; Couser, C. W., 1935). In the latter area, on the other hand, observable dips are present in sandstones of Bayfield age, outliers occur well beyond the main outcrop belt, and the strata, along with the overlying Croixan beds, have been truncated by erosion (figs. 5, 6, and 7). Light mineral data. — Atwater (1935, p. 318) considered that the Hinckley sandstone could be distin¬ guished from the Mt. Simon (Croixan) on the basis of secondary enlargement of quartz grains in the latter formation. However, second¬ ary enlargement of quartz has been noted in some Croixan sandstones as well. Association with diabase. — Hall et al, (1911, p. 48) cite the association 146 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions of diabase with red sandstones in a well at Stillwater, Minnesota, as evi¬ dence for the Keweenawan age for the Red Clastics of the Minnesota subsurface. Yet of ten Minnesota wells which passed through the red- beds and into pre-Cambrian crystal¬ lines (Hall et al., 1911), only this one encountered diabase. Of the re¬ mainder, one penetrated quartzite, one “crystalline rock,” and seven granite. Except for the Stillwater well, the greatest thicknesses of Hinckley-Red Clastic strata reported in the Minnesota subsurface are at Minneapolis (1200 feet) (Schwartz, 1936, p. 222) and at Mankato (over 1289 feet) (Hall et al., 1911, p. 141). In the Stillwater well, over 2000 feet of redbeds are reported to have been penetrated, above nearly 500 feet of diabase (Hall et al., 1911, p. 366; Thwaites, 1931, pp. 740-742, fig. 3; Stauffer et al., 1935, p. 638). The Stillwater locality is evidently the one place in Minnesota where drill¬ ing has encountered Red Clastics underlain by Keweenawan Oronto sandstone, as indicated by the exces¬ sive local thickness of the redbeds and association with Middle Kewee¬ nawan diabase. This area is in line with the axis of the Lake Superior syncline, and Keweenawan rocks are here to be expected (figs. 1 and 2). This interpretation removes a ser¬ ious anomaly from Meinzer’s map (Hall et al., 1911, pi. Ill) showing the elevation of the “pre-Cam¬ brian ’ ’ : that is, the crystalline floor beneath the sediments in Minnesota. In regarding all redbeds as one unit, (pre-Cambrian in age but mapped with the Paleozoic), Meinzer (Hall et al., 1911, pi. Ill) is forced to con¬ tour a deep 2000-foot hole at Still¬ water. The writer ’s reinterpretation of the composite nature of the red- bed section here eliminates this pe¬ culiar anomaly. Ordovician- J acobsville uncon¬ formity. — In the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, another seeming anom¬ aly presents itself at the isolated out¬ lier, Limestone Mountain. Here Middle Ordovician Platteville stra¬ ta lie in concordant dip not far above layers of Jacobsville sandstone with a short concealed belt inter¬ vening (Case and Robinson, 1915; Thwaites, 1943). This extensive un¬ conformity has been interpreted to lie between pre-Cambrian and Pale¬ ozoic, to indicate the nondeposition of Cambrian and Lower Ordovician rocks in this region, and thus to es¬ tablish the pre-Cambrian age of the Jacobsville. However, an examination of rela¬ tionships in the eastern part of the Upper Peninsula and southward along the west shore of Lake Michi¬ gan reveals that the time of erosion was not between the Bayfield and the Croixan, but between Middle and Lower Ordovician (Thwaites, 1923, 1927, 1934, 1943). Truncation of the pre-Chazyan beds cuts progres¬ sively deeper as one goes westward from the upper end of Lake Michi¬ gan, and also as one goes northward. The extreme case of depth of pre- Middle Ordovician erosion in Wis- consin-Michigan is at Limestone Mountain where Mohawkian strata rest on the Bayfield. Lack of Chequamegon equivalent in Minnesota. — The problem of the correlation of Thwaites’ Chequame¬ gon formation constitutes another seeming anomaly. To recapitulate, Thwaites (1912) divided the Wis¬ consin Bayfield group into three for¬ mations in descending order as fol¬ lows : Cambrian-Keweenawan Boundary 147 Chequamegon sandstone . 1000 feet Devils Island sandstone . 300 feet Orienta sandstone . 3000 feet Total . 4300 feet Tyler and Thiel (1940) have shown that the Red Clastics of Min¬ nesota correlate with the Orienta sandstone and the Hinckley corre¬ lates with the Devils Island sand¬ stone. But, on top of the Hinckley in Minnesota rests the white Mt. Simon sandstone of Croxian age and upon the Devils Island rests the pre- Croixan, redbed Chequamegon sand¬ stone. Writers accepting the Wisconsin Bayfield succession at face value (see Thiel, 1940, p. 1516) have re¬ garded this as evidence of a pre-Mt. Simon unconformity involving the loss in Minnesota of 1000 feet of strata. Yet, an abundance of deep well data from that state also seems to indicate that Hinckley-Mt. Simon relations there are clearly grada¬ tional. A critical examination of the evi¬ dence on which Thwaites (1912) es¬ tablished his Chequamegon forma¬ tion reveals a probable resolution of this paradox, namely that Thwaites’ Chequamegon brownstone formation is none other than the Port Wing brownstone member of the Orienta formation, repeated by faulting (fig. 8). The contact of the Chequamegon formation with the supposedly un¬ derlying Devils Island formation is reported by Thwaites only from the type locality, Devils Island. The beds here that he considers to be Chequamegon, he assigns to the “basal Chequamegon” and des¬ cribes (1912, p. 38) as follows: At the south end of Devils Island, which is entirely surrounded by a rock cliff, the light-colored basal layers of the Chequamegon sandstone are seen. These are interbedded layers similar to the main body of underlying Devils Island sandstone, so that no very sharp line of demarkation can be seen. The writer suggests that these layers are a part of the Devils Is¬ land formation rather than the Che¬ quamegon brownstone and that a fault contact lies off-shore to the south and there separates the Devils Island from the brownstone that forms the southern islands of the Apostle group. Thwaites’ detailed description (1912, pp. 34-35) of the “Quarry” or “Brownstone Beds” of the Chequamegon on the main¬ land is essentially identical with that of the “Port Wing Brownstone” of the Orienta, while the upper or “Washburn Beds,” especially those from the well of the Barksdale Powder Works, are described in much the same terms as his “upper member” of the Orienta formation. Reinterpretations by the writer reduce the total thickness of the Bay- field group from Thwaites’ figure of 4300 feet down to a maximum of 2600 feet, mainly through the drop¬ ping of the Chequamegon formation. This gives a figure more in accord with the average regional thickness of the subsurface Bayfield. The Bayfield and the pre-Camb¬ rian peneplain. — There remains one more point of issue which is in the nature of an argument rather than an anomaly. Proponents of a Ke- weenawan age assignment for the Bayfield stress the fact that the structural elements that affected it and related sandstones were truncat¬ ed by the pre-Cambrian peneplain. The writer maintains that beyond the areas of Paleozoic cover, there is 148 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions no means of determining the age of the present bedrock surface on the crystallines. It may be close to the pre- Cambrian erosion surface, but may be of later origin or origins. Within the Lake Superior region itself, there is evidence not only of pre-Middle Ordovician, but also of pre-Cretaceous and post-Cretaceous, erosion surfaces (Van ILise and Leith, 1911, p. 178, p. 616, p. 625). The Silurian beds at Limestone Mountain lie below the postulated pre-Cambrian peneplain surface, as do the Jacobsville and Bayfield strata. There is reason to believe that Silurian strata may formerly have extended widely in the Lake Superior Basin and over much if not all of the Wisconsin Arch, and that the Devonian clearly extended over the latter at least in part. It is not plausible to infer that the erosion which removed these thousands of cubic miles of rock stopped com¬ pletely when the pre-Cambrian bed¬ rock surface was reached. Supporting the idea that the orig¬ inal pre-Cambrian erosion surface developed before, not after, the dep¬ osition of the Bayfield group is Ty¬ ler’s (1940, p. 1481) conclusion that the Bayfield sediments differ from those of the Oronto group in such a way as to indicate a marked differ¬ ence in time and a partial difference in source. Tyler states as follows : The quartzose character of the Bay- field indicates that these sediments were subjected to more mature weathering than those of the Oronto group, and that the Bayfield group may have been derived from previously existing sedi¬ ments. The most likely sedimentary source for the Bayfield would be the older Oronto series. Their derivation from this source, however, would neces¬ sitate almost complete elimination of feldspar, epidote, and garnet of the Oronto sediments and a large decrease in the quantity of ilmenite. It seems more likely that the Bayfield sediments w^ere derived from the Keweenawan sediments or acidic igneous rocks which did not contain large amounts of epidote or ilmenite and that the region from which the garnet was derived during Oronto time had ceased to contribute sediments to this basin of deposition during Bayfield time. It seems to the writer that Tyler’s evidence does not necessarily indi¬ cate a bedrock source low in epidote and ilmenite. Rather it seems to in¬ dicate a cycle of deposition inde¬ pendent of and much later than that of the Oronto sedimentation. The latter derived its material from fresh bedrock whereas the Bayfield mate¬ rial seems to have been derived from a mature erosion surface on which the epidote and much of the feldspar was eliminated, and a substantial portion of the ilmenite was altered to leucoxene. Factors Opposing Keweenawan Age Assignment of Bayfield Study of the broad field relations has inclined the writer to the opinion that the Bayfield group and its equi¬ valents are more closely related to theCroixan than to the Keweenawan. The present paper has been devoted largely to a review and reduction of the “strong points” which appear to resist a Cambrian assignment for the group. Although a full discussion of the case against a Keweenawan age assignment is not within the scope of this paper, it is appropriate to state that, in the opinion of the writer, the sum of the evidence op¬ posing such an assignment is in¬ superable. In brief, the following are items of cardinal import to this effect. 1. In places Bayfield equiva¬ lents demonstrably rest on pre-Ke- weenawan strata, as in east-central Minnesota, the Michigan Upper Peninsula, at the east end of Lake Cambrian-Keweenawan Boundary 149 Superior in Ontario, and almost uni¬ versally in the subsurface ; those who would assign a Keweenawan age to the Bayfield must account for the absence by unconformable overlap of from 30,000 to 60,000 feet of pre- Bayfield Keweenawan section. The fact that the 30,000-60,000 feet of earlier strata is so generally missing, with only the “terminal” 2,000- 3,000 feet of strata present, fosters the suspicion that we are dealing with two independent sequences. Whether this absence of 90 to 95 percent of the Keweenawan section at these places be explained as a re¬ sult of unconformable overlap (Thwaites, 1912; Atwater, 1935, etc.), of faulting (Schwartz, 1949, etc.), or of deposition in postulated grabens (Thwaites, 1943), the mini¬ mum local relief involved in any case exceeds the altitude of Mt. ; Everest (29,002 feet). The accommodation of the latter concepts becomes most difficult at the west end of Lake Superior. Here, ; to assign a Keweenawan age to the Fond du Lac, where it rests on the Lower Huronian Thomson Slate ! complex, it is necessary to account I for the disappearance of roughly 55,000 feet of strata (over 10 miles ! thick) in a narrow gap 10 miles wide, between the North Shore Ke¬ weenawan sequence and the South Shore Keweenawan sequence. Either a 55,000 foot mountain ten miles | wide, a fault with a 55,000 foot verti- ! cal displacement, or pre-Keweena- wan grabens 55,000 feet deep must be postulated here to maintain con- formability of the Bayfield with the Keweenawan. If it be necessary to mention addi¬ tional adverse factors to the Kewee¬ nawan age assignment of the Bay- field, there are the following : 2. If, as has been generally cred¬ ited (Schwartz, 1949, p. 33), the dia- basic and basaltic dikes cutting the Huronian complex west of the Hinckley-Red Clastic belt in east- central Minnesota are the dike-roots of eroded Middle Keweenawan flows, then neither the postulate of uncon¬ formable overlap nor that of pre- Keweenawan grabens can be main¬ tained; and to maintain the simple fault hypothesis, it is necessary to postulate the removal by erosion of strata considerably in excess of 55,000 feet, west of the fault. 3. Cases where essentially flat- lying strata of Bayfield age sur¬ round or lie up-dip from inclined Middle Keweenawan extrusive strata have never been satisfactorily ac¬ commodated within a Keweenawan age hypothesis for the Bayfield. Among such cases is Silver Moun¬ tain, reported by Irving (1883, p. 202), which is composed of diabase, dipping northwestward 30°, and ap¬ parently surrounded by horizontal Jacobsville sandstone. Another which has not been described in de¬ tail, is mapped in the Batchawana Bay area of Ontario (Van Hise and Leith, 1911, pi. I). 4. The evidence of the heavy minerals, as reported by Tyler and Thiel (1940), indicates that out¬ standing differences exist between the suites of the pre-Bayfield and the Bayfield sands. In general the Bay- field suites are more closely compar¬ able with those prevailing in the Mt. Simon and Galesville members of the Croixan Dresbach formation, than with the Keweenawan, and unlike the latter, imply a mature erosion surface at the source. Interpretation of Bayfield Environment The writer suggests that the Bay- field sediments are continental de- 150 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions posits of Middle and quite possibly also of Early Cambrian age laid down in structural basins formed at or after the close of the Algonkian. The basins in the Lake Superior region were narrow and a conse¬ quence of down-faulting along one side, whereas those in southeast Minnesota, in the Lake Michigan re¬ gion and southward, seem to have been the result of gentle down¬ warping. Deposition appears at first to have been largely fluviatile ( Thwaites, personal communica-i tion), passing with increased re¬ gional subsidence probably through lacustrine and estuarine conditions (Hinckley and Mt. Simon) with the eventual arrival of marine waters, bringing the Eau Claire faunas to parts of the region. REFERENCES Atwater, G. I., 1935, The Keweenawan- Upper Cambrian unconformity in the upper Mississippi Valley: Kansas Geol. Soc. 9th Ann. Guidebook, pp. 316-9, fig. 214. Atwater, G. I., and Clement, G. M., 1935, Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian re¬ lations in upper Mississippi Valley: Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., vol. 46, no. 11, pp. 1659-1686. Berkey, C. P., 1897, Geology of the St. Croix Dells: Am. Geologist, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 345-383. Case, E. C., and Robinson, W. I., 1915, The geology of Limestone Mountain and Sherman Hill in Houghton Co., Michigan: Michigan Geol. Surv., Pub. 18, pp. 165-181. Couser, C. W., 1935, in Kansas Geol. Soc., 9th Ann. Guidebook, p. 168, fig. 152. Hall, C. W., 1901, Keweenawan area of Eastern Minnesota: Geol. Soc. Am., Bull. vol. 12, pp. 313-342. Hall, C. W., Meinzer, D. E., and Fuller, M. L., 1911, Geology and underground waters of southern Minnesota: U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper No. 256. Irving, R. D., 1883, The copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior: U. S. Geol. Surv., Mono. 5. Schwartz, G. M., 1936, The geology of the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area: Minnesota Geol. Surv., Bull, vol. 27. - , 1949, The geology of the Duluth metropolitan area: Minnesota Geol. Surv., Bull. no. 33. Stauffer, C. R., Burch, E. P., and Schwartz, G. M., 1935, A reinterpre¬ tation of the Stillwater deep-well rec¬ ords: Jour. Geol. vol. 43, pp. 630-638. Thiel (1940), see Tyler (1940). Theil, G. A., 1947, The geology and un¬ derground waters of northeastern Minnesota: Minnesota Geol. Surv., Bull., vol. 32. Thwaites, F. T., 1912, Sandstones of the Wisconsin coast of Lake Superior: Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv., Bull. vol. 25. - , 1923, The Paleozoic rocks found in deep wells in Wisconsin and north¬ ern Illinois: Jour. Geol. vol. 31, no. 7, pp. 529-555. - , 1927, Stratigraphy and geologic structure of northern Illinois with special reference to groundwater sup¬ plies: Illinois State Geol. Surv., Rep. of Inv. no. 13. - , 1931, Buried pre-Cambrian of Wisconsin: Geol. Soc. Am., Bull. vol. 42, pp. 719-750. - , 1934, Well logs in the northern peninsula of Michigan, showing the Cambrian section: Michigan Acad. Sci. Papers, vol. 19, pp. 413-426. - - , 1943, Stratigraphic work in northern Michigan: Mich. Acad. Sci. Papers, vol. 28, pp. 487-502. Tyler. S. A., Marsden, R. W., Grout, F. F., Thiel, G. A., 1940, Studies of the Lake Superior pre-Cambrian by acces¬ sory-mineral methods: Geol. Soc. Am., Bull. vol. 40, pp. 1429-1537. Upham, W., 1888, The geology of Pine County in The geology of Minnesota, Vol. II of the Final Report by N. H. Winchell, pp. 629-645, pi. 55. Van Hise, C. R., and Leith, C. K., 1911, The geology of the Lake Superior region: U.S. Geol. Surv., Mono. 52. Welch, G. I., 1941, Geophysical study of the Douglas fault, Pine County, Min¬ nesota: Jour. Geol. vol. 19, pp. 408-13. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 43, 1950 151 THE MT. SIMON SANDSTONE IN NORTHERN ILLINOIS1 JUSTUS STEVENS TEMPLETON, JR. Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana Wells in northern Illinois pene¬ trate from 1600 to 2100 feet of upper Cambrian Mt. Simon sandstone be¬ tween the Eau Claire formation and pre-Cambrian crystallines. In most of the region the sandstone is pure and light colored, but in the vicinity of Boone County all but the upper¬ most beds are silty, argillaceous, and dark red. The light-colored sand¬ stone long has been correlated with the Mt. Simon formation of north¬ western Wisconsin, but recently the red elastics were assigned provision¬ ally to the pre-Cambrian and cor¬ related with the Fond du Lac forma¬ tion of eastern Minnesota. The pres¬ ent study shows that the red elastics of northern Illinois are a local fa¬ cies of the light-colored Mt. Simon sandstone. On the basis of differ¬ ences in grain size, the formation is divisible into seven regionally per¬ sistent members. Evidence is pre¬ sented which suggests that the Mt. Simon sandstone of Minnesota and the upper part of the Mt. Simon at the type locality belong to the Eau Claire formation. Previous and present studies. — Early subsurface studies in northern Illinois referred all sandstone be¬ neath Eau Claire dolomitic strata to the Mt. Simon, although a pos¬ sible Keweenawan age for the red elastics at Dixon was suggested (Thwaites, 1923, pp. 534, 553-555). Thwaites’ tentative Keweenawan correlation at Dixon was rejected by Knappen (1926, pp. 34-36). In lat- 1 Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois Geological Survey. er studies the red elastics of north¬ ern Illinois and similar strata in eastern Wisconsin were stated to be of unknown age but were not sepa¬ rated from the Mt. Simon formation (Thwaites, 1931, p. 742; Twenhofel, Raasch and Thwaites, 1935, p. 1693, pi. 151). Possible correlation of the arkosic basal Mt. Simon strata of southern Lee County, Illinois, with the supposedly Keweenawan Hinck¬ ley sandstone of eastern Minnesota has been suggested (Payne, 1942, p. 54). Recently the red elastics of northern Illinois were correlated ten¬ tatively with the supposedly pre- Cambrian Fond du Lac formation of eastern Minnesota (Bays and others, 1945, p. 1146; Weller and others, 1945), and the regional lith¬ ology and thickness of the “Mt. Si¬ mon-Fond du Lac ( ? ) ’ ’ sandstones were summarized (Workman and Bell, 1949, pp. 2041-2043). In the present study all available cuttings from wells in central northern Illi¬ nois which penetrated the Mt. Simon and “Fond du Lac ( ?) ” formations were carefully examined, as well as samples from deep borings in part of northeastern Illinois. Name and definition. — At the type locality the Mt. Simon formation, named from exposures on and near Mt. Simon at Eau Claire, northwest¬ ern Wisconsin (Ulrich, 1914, p. 354), consists mainly of coarse¬ grained, partly conglomeratic, thick- bedded sandstone 234 feet thick, which overlies pre- Cambrian granite and underlies fine-grained thin-bed¬ ded Cedaria- bearing Eau Claire 152 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions - - - , - jlpeloit City IMo.2 WISCONSIN HENSON | WINNEBAGO TroonTf - - ILLINOIS' KEY 3* Index number of well I 2120 • Well giving thickness of Mt. Simon; formation I /800 — Isopach showing thickness; interval 100 feet ( Dashes indicate doubt)! 's‘\Momencel Parif55 ?A'^ton Fig. 1. Isopach and reference map of the Mt. Simon formation in northern Illi¬ nois. (Modified from Workman and Bell, 1948, fig. 4.) sandstone (Twenhofel, Raasch and Thwaites, 1935, pp. 1693, 1739-1740). In this report the name Mt. Simon is applied to all sandstone between pre- Cambrian crystallines and sediments which are classed as Ean Claire but probably underlie the Cedaria zone. Thickness. — In northern Illinois only four wells (fig:. 1, wells 5, 7, 10, 11) have completely penetrated the Mt. Simon sandstone, although two other wells (6, 9) are believed to have passed almost through the for¬ mation. The sandstone is thickest in a basin extending from DeKalb to Cook counties in northeastern Illi¬ nois and attains a maximum known thickness of 2120 feet in northeast¬ ern DeKalb County. From this area it thins rapidly to thicknesses of 400 feet or less in most of the states sur¬ rounding Illinois, and lenses out in northeastern Wisconsin and south¬ western Ontario (Cohee, 1945, 1948). Lithology. — In northern Illinois the Mt. Simon sandstone is divisible into a light-colored facies, which con¬ stitutes the bulk of the formation in most of the region, and a red facies, which is best developed at Belvidere, Boone County. Much gradation and interfingering characterize the trans¬ ition zone between the two facies, which in places is less than 6 miles wide (fig. 2, wells 4, 5). Both facies are nonfossiliferous. Light-colored facies. — The light- colored Mt. Simon facies is white, yellow, or pink to light brown. The sandstone ranges from very fine to very coarse grained and locally is silty. Much of it is conglomeratic, containing quartz granules from 2 to 4 mm. in diameter and quartz peb- Mt . Simon Sandstone in Northern Illinois 153 r CH A FLT.E-R Fig. 2. — Northwest-southeast cross section of the Mt. Simon formation from Beloit, Wisconsin, to Momence, Illinois. (Line A-A', fig. 1.) OOOOOOCOOOOOOO O O O o O O o o o M B RJNilllllllllllll: bles from 4 to 8 mm. in diameter. As , a whole the sandstone is coarser grained than any other in northern Illinois. Sorting generally is poor, but some well-sorted beds are pres- ! ent. Although the grains range from i angular to well rounded, they are i chiefly subangular. The granules and pebbles are well rounded. Most of the sandstone is incoherent, but thin layers have been cemented by iron oxide or silica. A zone varying j from 15 to 249 feet thick at the base of the formation is arkosic and local¬ ly contains biotite and muscovite flakes as well as granite grains and pebbles. Occasional grains of feld¬ spar and granite and very rare gab- bro and quartzite pebbles have been r observed in higher beds. Thin layers ; of dark-red or variegated, partly micaceous shale and siltstone occur at different horizons. Bed facies. — Where best developed | the red facies is characterized by large amounts of disseminated dark- red hematitic clay and silt and by the presence of relatively thick in¬ terbeds of dark-red, partly micac¬ eous, partly sandy shale and silt- stone. Where weakly developed, as in southern Lee County, the facies is distinguished mainly by hematitic films on the sand grains. Subdivision into members. — Throughout northern Illinois the Mt. Simon sandstone consists of a cyclic alternation of relatively fine¬ grained units and coarse-grained, granule-bearing units (figs. 2, 3). Although to the southeastward and westward granules become scarcer and smaller, and the entire forma¬ tion grows more silty and finer grained, the sequence still is clearly distinguishable. Some lateral grada¬ tion or interfingering may take place along the contacts between the units. The seven major units present are herein regarded as members, and are 154 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 3. — Cross section of the Mt. Simon formation from the vicinity of Amboy, Illinois, to the vicinity of Sycamore, Illinois. (Line B-B\ fig. 1.) named and described in ascending order. The members are made np of numerous subordinate units, many of which extend practically through¬ out the region. The type well for the four lower members is Wyman No. 1 (well 7), a cable-tool well in the NE^4 NE1/^ SE % Sec. 35, T. 41 N., R. 5 E., De- Kalb County, Illinois, sample set 1301. 2 The type well for the three upper members is McQueen No. 1 (well 6), a cable-tool well in the SWi/4 NE% NEi/4 See. 27, T. 42 N., R. 3 E., DeKalb County, Illinois, sample set 1466. Crane member. — For the relative¬ ly fine-grained basal member of the Mt. Simon formation the name Crane member is proposed. The name is 2 Number of sample set in subsurface files of Illinois Geological Survey. Most samples in both sets represent five- or ten-foot intervals. derived from the Crane School, NW% NEi/4 NWy4 Sec. 22, T. 40 1 N., R. 5 E. DeKalb County, 4 miles ; south of the type well. The “type section” consists of samples 387 through 491 in sample set 1301, ex¬ tending from depths of 3105 to 3845 | feet. The member ranges from 620 , to 740 feet thick (figs. 2, 3). The grains range from very fine to very i coarse, and a few granules are rarely . present, but the predominant grades \ are fine and medium. The lower por- i tion of the member generally is j more or less shaly, silty, and arkosic. j Kenyon member. — For the thin conglomeratic sandstone overlying ^ the Crane member the name Kenyon member is proposed. The name is derived from Kenyon school, NE^ ! NW14 NW14 Sec." 17, T. 40 N., R. j 6 E., Kane County, 3% miles south- 1 Mt. Simon Sandstone in Northern Illinois 155 ,east of the type well. The “type sec¬ tion’’ consists of samples 367 through 386 in sample set 1301, ex¬ tending from depths of 2975 to 3105 feet. The member ranges in thick¬ ness from 34 to 130 feet. Where less than 80 feet thick, it is composed chiefly of coarse-grained sandstone containing quartz granules, but where thicker it consists of conglo¬ meratic sandstone interbedded with nonconglomeratic layers. Lovell member. — The succeeding relatively fine-grained unit is here named the Lovell member for Lovell School, :SWy4 NW% NE1/4 Sec. 2, T. 40 N., R. 5 E., DeKalb County, three-quarters of a mile southward from the type well. The “type sec¬ tion” consists of samples 348 through 366 in sample set 1301, ex¬ tending from depths of 2850 to 2975 feet. In thickness the member varies from 65 to 190 feet. Although grain sizes range from very fine to very coarse, the predominant grade is fine or medium. In the McElroy well (11) the member is partly coarse grained to conglomeratic but is clear¬ ly separable from the adjacent coarser-grained units. Mayfield member. — Overlying the Lovell member is a thick sequence of interbedded conglomeratic and nonconglomeratic sandstones for which the name Mayfield member is proposed. The name is obtained j from Mayfield Township, T. 41 N., R. 4 E, DeKalb County, Illinois, 5 I miles west of the type well. The “type section” consists of samples 300 through 347 in sample set 1301, ' extending from depths of 2495 to 2850 feet. The thickness of the mem¬ ber ranges from 145 to 390 feet. The units composed of very coarse- I grained to conglomeratic sandstone are from 5 to1 125 feet thick ; those made up of finer-grained nonconglo¬ meratic sandstone are from 10 to 90 feet thick. In the McElroy well (11) most of the sequence is conglomer¬ atic, but in the Taylor and Parish wells (5, 9) granule beds are very subordinate. Lacey member. — The fifth Mt. Si¬ mon member consists principally of conglomeratic sandstone. It is here named the Lacey member from La¬ cey School, NWy NW^ NW14 Sec. 31, T. 42 N., R. 4 E., DeKalb County, 21/2 miles east of the type well. The “type section” consists of samples 257 through 278, in sample set 1466, extending from depths of 1880 to 2070 feet. The thickness of the unit ranges from 176 to 230 feet. In most wells a bed or beds of com¬ paratively fine-grained nonconglo¬ meratic sandstone are present in the middle of the member, and in the Parish and McElroy wells (9, 11) interbeds of fine-grained sandstone occur in the lower part of the unit. Red shale layers commonly are more abundant in the Lacey and higher members than in the underlying strata. Gunn member. — The Lacey mem¬ ber is overlain by a relatively fine¬ grained unit here named the Gunn member from Gunn School, NW1^ NW% NWy4 Sec. 16, T. 42 N., R. 3 E., DeKalb County, 2% miles northwest of the type well. The “type section” consists of samples 234 through 256 in sample set 1466, extending from depths of 1648 to 1880 feet. In thickness the member varies from 71 to 260 feet. The grain size ranges from very fine to very coarse, and a few thin beds of gran¬ ule conglomerate generally are pres¬ ent. However, the grain size is con¬ spicuously finer than in the adjacent members, and in several wells the dominant grade is fine. 156 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Charter member — The coarse¬ grained to conglomeratic uppermost member of the Mt. Simon formation is here named Charter from Charter Oak School, SE% &E% SE% Sec. 2, T. 42 N., R. 3 E., DeKalb County, 3y2 miles north of the type well. The “type section” consists of samples 204 through 233 in sample set 1466, extending from depths of 1381 to 1648 feet. The member ranges from 145 feet to 315 feet thick. In some wells it is composed almost entirely of very fine- to very coarse-grained sandstone which is mainly coarse grained and has one or more thin layers of granule conglomerate. In other wells conglomeratic sandstone makes up most of the member. Stratigraphic relations. — The Mt. Simon sandstone rests unconformab- ly on a pre-Cambrian basement com¬ plex. Where it has been penetrated by wells in northern Illinois, the complex consists of granite with lo¬ cal felsite dikes (Grogan, 1949). The Mt. Simon is overlain by the Eau Claire formation with apparent conformity in both Wisconsin and Illinois (Twenhofel, Raasch and Thwaites, 1935, pp. 1693-1696, 1714- 1715). Correlation. — In Kane County, northeastern Illinois, the basal two- fifths of the Eau Claire formation is composed mainly of sandy dolo¬ mite and shale which contains obo- loid brachiopods in the lower half (fig. 2). Westward these beds grade laterally into gray, very fine- to coarse-grained sandstone which is given a sooty aspect by encrusting particles of black pyrite (Workman and Bell, 1949, pp. 2043-2049). The sooty sandstone extends into west¬ ern Illinois and northward to Win¬ nebago County. However, before reaching Beloit, Wisconsin, it passes laterally into light yellow sandstone which is distinguished from the un¬ derlying Mt. Simon sandstone by its finer grain-size and the absence ol granules. Both the sooty and the yellow sandstone locally contain obo- loid brachiopod fragments. At the type section in Wisconsin the Mt. Simon sandstone shows the following sequence from the base - upward: (1) granule-bearing, 3 feet,! (2) without granules, 28 feet, (3)j granule-bearing, 108 feet, and (4) without granules and containing1 oboloid brachiopod fragments, 95, feet (Twenhofel, Raasch and. Thwaites, 1935, pp. 1739-1740). It is thought most likely that units 1 through 3 correspond, respectively, to the Lacey, Gunn, and Charter members and that unit 4 is equiva¬ lent to the basal Eau Claire sand-, stone of northern Illinois. Definite correlations must await detailed sur- ; \ face and subsurface tracing between i Beloit and Eau Claire, Wisconsin. ] However, if this interpretation is correct, it would appear desirable to include unit 4 of the Mt. Simon type section in the Eau Claire for¬ mation because this unit (1) can be distinguished lithologically by the lack of granules, (2) is said to con¬ tain marine fossils, in contrast to the barren, presumably fresh-water beds beneath, and (3) grades east- ] ward into dolomite which is entirely similar to the dolomite facies of the Eau Claire formation. The sandstone termed “Mt, Si¬ mon” in eastern Minnesota directly Lj underlies the Eau Claire Cedaria | zone and in places contains much glauconite and glauconitic shale and siltstone (Atwater and Clement, * 1935, pp. 1674-1676), which in Illi¬ nois is entirely confined to the Eau Claire formation. Most of this sand¬ stone probably corresponds to the basal Eau Claire sandstone of north- Mt. Simon Sandstone in Northern Illinois Table 1. Typical Heavy Mineral Analyses in Percentages 157 Anatase Apatite Epidote Garnet Ilmenite Leucoxene Magnetite | Rutile | Titanite | Tourmaline | Zircon | Opaques | Unknown TT1™ , P101'yid GQ T) fl Cjf DTI P ' hQSP^ 0 4 31 59 H,au vviairG bouiy kdiiuoLuiioj . TV /f 4- Qim au li rrV»4 Pnlr\T*Prl PIPS ' 1 1 3 27 68 lVib. Dim Oil llgll L-LUIUI CU lauicoj uwp . Mt. Simon light-colored facies; lower3. . . . 1 Tr. 9 28 62 tv /T -4- Qim ati li rrbt_pnl nrPfl PIPS ' 9a 11 11 69 |ylL. DlIIlOIl llgllt-LUlUi CU. . A/T+ Cl, tv*, nn lin-hf r»r>lr»rprl fflPIPS* ORSP3 20a Tr. 40 20 20b lVlb. DlIIlOIl llgll l-UUIUl CU . A/If Qimnn rprl fnPl'p«!‘ llOOPr6 5 1 19 76 jyH, DlIIlOIl loll lailoO j urrcl . HinpVlpv spHidstoTip at SandstoiiB^ . 2 3C 18 Tr.d 2 12 63 Tr. ilinplrlpv 3 . 0.94 0.33 0.63 1.17 0.90 0.55 0.9 0.5 FeO . 6.63 6.32 6.90 6.94 4.98 6.67 6.5 4.0 MnO . 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.12 Tr. 0.23 Tr. Tr. MgO . 3.24 3.41 2.10 2.21 1.42 2.71 2.5 1.2 CaO . 0.48 0.32 0.90 0.26 0.76 * 0.59 0.7 1.5 Na20 . 1.49 1.10 1.30 1.14 0.74 1.71 1.7 2.9 K20 . 3.74 3.85 3.74 4.53 2.89 4.08 4.0 4.2 h2o+ . 3.90 4.47 2.89 2.75 1.75 2.10 2.0 0.6 H20- . 0 11 n.d. 0.06 0.09 0.40 0.08 C02 . 0.25 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.02 P205 . 0.14 0.00 0.08 0.18 Tr. 0.11 s . 0.17 0.09 0.08 0.02 0.05 0.04 Zr02 . n.d. 0.04 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. c . n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.29 n.d. O-S corr. . . , -0.06 -0 . 03 -0.02 Total . . . 99.51 99.78 100.09 99.90 99.90 100.09 100.0 100.0 1. Slate, Littleton formation, Littleton quad¬ rangle (Billings, 1941, p. 902). 2. Slate, Littleton formation, Littleton quad¬ rangle (Billings, 1937, p. 556). 3. Fine-grained pseudo-andalusite schist, Little¬ ton formation, high-grade zone, Mt. Wash¬ ington quadrangle (Billings, 1941, p. 902). 4. Coarse pseudo-andalusite schist, Littleton formation, high-grade zone, Mt. Washington quadrangle (Billings, 1941, p. 902). 5. Sillimanite schist, Littleton formation, high- grade zone, Franconia quadrangle (Billings, 1938). 6. Banded gneiss, composed of approximately equal amounts of dark and light bands, Little¬ ton formation, Mt. Washington quadrangle (Billings, 1941, p. 902). 7. Approximate average composition of gneiss and schist in the Littleton formation, Craw¬ ford Notch quadrangle. Calculated from the average mode. 8. Approximate average composition of quartz monzonite in the Crawford Notch quadrangle. Calculated from the average mode. complexity and irregularity, the in¬ tense metamorphism, and the lack of outcrops in many critical places. Most of the major folds probably trend approximately northeast- southwest. Minor folds rarely show systematic relations to one another or to major folds. Irregular minor folds are particularly conspicuous in areas of gneiss and schist which contain abundant ‘ ‘ granitic ’ ’ ma¬ terial. Much of the quartz monzonite oc¬ curs in irregular discordant bodies which are less than 50 feet across. It is so abundant in most of the gneiss and schist that it cuts these highly contorted rocks into extreme¬ ly coarse breccias with blocks rang¬ ing from an inch to several hundred feet across. The large bodies of quartz mon¬ zonite are irregularly shaped, essen¬ tially cross-cutting and gradational into the surrounding gneiss and schist. The foliation of the quartz monzonite and the foliation of the abundant bands of gneiss and schist within the quartz monzonite are essentially parallel to that of the sur¬ rounding gneiss and schist. Metamorphism Original nature of the Littleton formation. — Local preservation of sedimentary bedding, the chemical composition, and correlation with rocks of unmistakable sedimentary origin in the Littleton-Moosilauke area indicate that the gneiss, schist, 168 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions fine-grained gneiss and lime-silicate grannlite originally were sediments. Lithologic correlation and compar¬ ison of the chemical composition of the high-grade metamorphic rocks in the Crawford Notch area with those of the low-grade shales and slates in the Littleton quadrangle indicate that the original sediments in the Crawford Notch region were predominantly shales and sandy shales. Analyses and calculated an¬ alyses of such rocks may be com¬ pared in table 2. The mineralogic compositions of the fine-grained gneiss and lime-silicate granulite (table 1) indicate that small amounts of impure sandstone, ar- kose, and dolomite were interbedded with the shale. Stage of recrystallization. — The first major change during metamor¬ phism of the shaly sediments prob¬ ably was simple recrystallization with essentially no differential move¬ ment of chemical constituents over distances greater than a few milli¬ meters. The resulting products were schist and gneiss which probably con¬ tained no intermixed ‘ ‘ granitic ’ ’ material. Although most of the re¬ crystallized rocks were subsequently greatly modified, local remnants have survived. The rocks were re¬ crystallized in response to increase in temperature and pressure, par¬ ticularly differential pressure. The generally coarse grain-size and the widespread occurrence of sillimanite indicate that high-grade conditions were reached throughout most of the quadrangle. Stage of reconstitution. — Through¬ out most of the quadrangle simple recrystallization was followed by a stage of reconstitution which in¬ volved widespread movement of ma¬ terial. The resulting product was gneiss and schist containing abun¬ dant intermixed “granitic ’’material. Movement of material is clearly indi¬ cated by the occurrence of all stages of destruction of the original sedi¬ mentary features which survived the stage of recrystallization. Further¬ more, all steps in the regrouping of constituents into light and dark bands can be observed. Although movement of material was wide¬ spread the similarity in composition (table 2) of the reconstituted rocks and the original and recrystallized rocks indicates that the distance of movement of the individual consti¬ tuents probably was less than a few feet or tens of feet. The reconstitution of the schist and gneiss into rocks with segregat¬ ed dark and light bands is believed to have taken place by a process of metamorphic differentiation essen¬ tially like that proposed by Eskola (1932) . The process depends chiefly upon the greater solubility of the light-colored minerals and a tend¬ ency for the constituents of such minerals to collect and crystallize along the foliation. Metamorphic differentiation was favored by con¬ tinuation and increase in tempera¬ ture conditions from the preceding stage of recrystallization. The move¬ ment of constituents in metamorphic differentiation probably was chiefly in solution by flow and diffusion through inter-granular and larger spaces. Solid diffusion through crys¬ tal structures probably was not im¬ portant because the larger atoms or ions such as K, Na, and Ca appar¬ ently moved as easily as the smaller Fe, Mg, and A1 atoms. Stage of metasomatism. — A stage involving differential movement of material followed the stage of recon¬ stitution and resulted in the forma¬ tion of the typically discordant quartz monzonite. The stages prob- Crawford Notch Quadrangle 169 LEGEND 1 Wms I ROCKS OF THE WHITE MOUNTAIN MAGMA SERIES FW7] QUARTZ MONZONITE =DTs= Dig DiiT schist gneiss fine-grained gneiss and lime-silicate granulite LITTLETON FORMATION 60* Accurate contacts Approximate contacts Gradational contacts Dip and strike of bedding Dip and strike of foliation Vertical foliation (symbols give average values for many measurements) I 2 3 MILES Location of the Crawford Notch quadrangle (shaded) and neighboring quadrangles men¬ tioned in text ( I ■ Mt. Washington, 2»Franco- nia, 3- Littleton). ’ 25? 2CT 7|* PLATE I. GEOLOGIC MAP OF THE EASTERN PART OF THE CRAWFORD NOTCH QUADRANGLE, N.H. 170 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions ably were transitional because com¬ plete gradation exists between the composition and structural occur¬ rence of the “granitic” material in gneiss and schist and those of the quartz monzonite. Comparison of the composition of the average quartz monzonite with that of the older rocks (table 2) in¬ dicates an introduction of CaO, Na20, K20, and Si02 and a removal of FeO, MgO, and A1203. The dif¬ ferential movement of material caus¬ ing the changes in composition prob¬ ably was aided by widespread frac¬ turing of the previously formed rocks which allowed easier move¬ ment of material over distances of many feet. The formation of the large bodies of quartz monzonite may have been favored by localized extreme fracturing. Intermediate steps in the formation of the larger bodies are apparent in many places. Metasomatism or intrusion of melts appear to be the major alterna¬ tive mechanisms for the production of the quartz monzonite. Metaso¬ matism by solutions contributing CaO, Na20, K20 and Si02 and re¬ moving FeO, MgO, and A1203 is be¬ lieved to be the most probable me¬ chanism because of abundant evi¬ dence of replacement and because of the large amount of heat necessary to produce a silicate melt. Retrograde stage. — The preceding stages produced under conditions of increasing temperature and pressure were followed in many places by changes apparently in response to conditions of decreasing intensity. The changes were similar to those in many other areas. The most con¬ spicuous were chloritization of bio- tite and sericitization of sillimanite, andalusite, and plagioclase. Acknowledgment Grateful acknowledgment is made to the Department of Mineralogy and Petrography, Harvard Univer¬ sity, for funds to carry out field work in the Crawford Notch quad¬ rangle and for thin sections. REFERENCES Billings, M. P. (1937), Regional meta¬ morphism of the Littleton-Moosilauke area, New Hampshire, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., vol. 48, pp. 463-566. - (1938), Introduction of potash during regional metamorphism in western New Hampshire, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., vol. 49, pp. 289-302. - (1941), Structure and metamor¬ phism in the Mount Washington area, New Hampshire, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., vol. 52, pp. 863-935. Billings, M. P., Chapman, C. A., Chap¬ man, R. W., Fowler-Billings, K., and Loomis, F. B., Jr. (1946), Geology of the Mount Washington quadrangle, New Hampshire, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull, vol. 57, pp. 261-274. Eskola, Pentti(1932) , On the principles of metamorphic differentiation, Comm. Geol. Finlande, Bull., no. 103, pp. 68-77. Johannsen, Albert (1939), Petro¬ graphy, vol. 1, Univ. Chicago Press. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 171 PREGLACIAL GRAVELS IN HENRY COUNTY, ILLINOIS LELAND HORBERG University of Chicago , Chicago Preglacial deposits of iron-stained chert gravels underlie the glacial drift at a number of localities in the Mississippi Valley region (fig. 1). These gravels, which generally have been referred to the late Tertiary Lafayette formation, are significant in recording geologic events during closing stages of the lost interval between Pennsylvanian bedrock de¬ position and Pleistocene glaciation. It is the purpose of the present Kewanee, Henry County, Illinois (400 feet N. of S. W. cor. sec. 3, T. 15 N., R. 4 E.), in the section de¬ scribed below. The Tertiary gravels differ from all known glacial deposits in the area in their degree of surface alteration, polish, and uniform siliceous compo¬ sition. Their lithology, based on a count of 120 pebbles, is 79% chert, 18% vein quartz, and 3% quartzite. Crystalline rocks and local bedrock Wisconsin drift Thickness Peorian loess Ft. In. Soil, gray . 0 6 Loess, tan, mottled gray, non-calcareous . 3 0 Loess, tan to gray, calcareous, concretions . 2 0 Farmdale loess Silt, carbonaceous, peaty, gray with black humus streaks, abundant gastropods in pockets, non-calcareous . 0 4 Loess, maroon-brown, compact, non-calcareous, gastro¬ pods . 2 0 Illinoian drift Gumbotil, gray-brown, siliceous residuals, non-calcare¬ ous except for some secondary enrichment at top . 2 6 Till, yellow-brown, abundant chert mixed with other rock types, non-calcareous . 1 0 Sand, brown, in local channel . 1 0 Tertiary gravel Gravel, 80% brown fossiliferous chert, iron oxide patina- tion, rounded to angular, average 1 to 2 inches, ir¬ regular basal contact . 3 0 Pennsylvanian (Canton) shale Shale, yellow-buff, micaceous, clayey, broken down by weathering . 3 6 Shale, buff-gray, stratified . 5 0 Depth Ft. In. 0 6 3 6 5 6 5 10 7 10 10 4 11 4 12 4 15 4 18 10 23 10 paper to describe gravels from a new locality in western Illinois and to in¬ dicate their bearing on late Tertiary geomorphic events. Description The gravels are exposed in a high¬ way cut (fig. 2) 7 miles northwest of appear to be completely absent. Nearly all the cherts have a yellow- brown iron oxide patina 1-3 mm. thick which is as hard and dense as the interior of the pebbles. A few cherts have a whitish surface altera¬ tion and the quartz and quartzite pebbles show surficial iron-staining. 172 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 1. — Occurrences of preglacial Lafayette-type gravels in the Mississippi Valley region. The Henry County locality is circled. The eastern boundary of Cretaceous deposits in Iowa and Minnesota is shown by a dashed line. Based on references cited and field notes on south-central Missouri by J H. Bretz. Preglacial Gravels in Henry County , Illinois The brown chert pebbles, which make np 70% of the deposit, con¬ tain fossil corals, crinoids, and bra- chiopods of Lower and Middle Silur¬ ian age (Heinz Lowenstam, personal communication, 1950). The pebbles range in diameter from a fraction of an inch to 7 in¬ ches, the average being between 1 and 2 inches. The brown chert peb¬ bles are larger than the other types and there is a distinct variation in average size from one part of the ex¬ posure to another. All the cherts are angular. Many pebbles are broken rounds, some are chipped, and a few have percussion mark¬ ings. The gravels are unconsolidated, and the matrix, if it was ever pres¬ ent, has been removed by weather¬ ing. The basal contact of the gravel is irregular and slopes to the south and west. Since the low ridge crest on which the gravels occur slopes north¬ east, it is clear that the gravels were laid down on a land surface unre¬ lated to the present topography. The upper part of the Canton shale underlying the gravels is oxi¬ dized and mechanically weathered to a depth of about 3 feet. Under the microscope the weathered shale is seen to differ from the unaltered shale in its lack of stratification, disaggregation into silt and clay-size particles, oxidation, and content of limonitic aggregates. The gravels occur at an elevation of 730 feet near the northern margin of a buried bedrock upland, which locally has an average elevation of about 750 feet and lies 450 feet above the buried bedrock valley of the ancient Mississippi river some 15 miles to the north. The upland surface has been correlated with the Lancaster peneplain of the Driftless Area (fig. 1) (Horberg, 1946, pp. 186-188.) Farther south in western and southern Illinois nearly all oc¬ currences of preglacial gravel are on this surface or equivalent surfaces correlated with the Ozark and Cal¬ houn peneplains. Correlation and Age Although it is probable that simi¬ lar deposits of different ages are rep¬ resented and that some gravels are reworked, the deposits in the Missis¬ sippi Valley region can be correlated in a general way by lithology and physiographic position. On this basis the gravels in Henry County appear to be equivalent with the Windrow formation of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota (Thwaites and Twenhofel, 1921) ; the “Tertiary” gravels of LaSalle County (Will- man, 1942, pp. 140-141), Peoria County (Udden, 1912, p. 50) and other counties in western Illinois (Worthen, 1866, p. 330; 1870, p. 37 ; Bannister, 1870, p. 179; Salisbury, 1891, pp. 252-253) ; the Grover gravel of the St. Louis region ( Salis¬ bury, 1892, pp. 183-186; Rubey, 1931) ; and the Lafayette gravel of southern Illinois and southeastern Missouri (Lamar and Sutton, 1930, pp. 857-859). Correlation with the Rockville conglomerate at Dyers- ville, Iowa (McGee, 1891, p. 304) and the Pine Creek conglomerate near Muscatine, Iowa (Udden, 1899) is questionable because of the high proportion of crystalline rocks in these deposits. Also it is uncertain whether the two occurrences at lower elevations within the area of the Central Illinois peneplain (fig. 1) are primary or reworked. A Tertiary age for the gravels farther south is evidenced by their presence on truncated Eocene form¬ ations at the head of the Gulf em- 174 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 2. — Highway cut 7 miles northwest of Kewanee, Illinois. Wp — Peorian loess; Wf — Farmdale loess; It — Illinoian gumbotil and till; Tg — Tertiary gravel; Pc — Pennsylvanian (Canton) shale. bayment and by the occurrence of Tertiary wood in the gravels near Grover, St. Louis County, Missouri (Rubey, 1931). Because the Eocene formations were beveled by the Ozark peneplain before deposition of the gravels, a late Tertiary age is indicated. A similar age for the gravels in western Illinois is evi¬ denced by their occurrence on a buried bedrock surface which ap¬ pears to be the northward continua¬ tion of the Ozark peneplain (Hor- berg, 1946, pp. 186-188). Interpretation The gravels in Henry County probably were derived largely from residual accumulations on Silurian formations, which occur less than 20 miles to the north, and were depos¬ ited, along with pre-Cambrian mate¬ rials from farther north, by a south¬ flowing stream. This is evidenced by the composition of the gravels and their angularity and poor sort¬ ing. The absence of locally-derived Pennsylvanian rocks in the gravels further suggests that they represent a widespread aggradational deposit rather than a channel fill and also that they are primary rather than locally re-worked from older gravels. The physiographic position and character of the gravel in Henry County are in full accord with other occurrences in the Mississippi Val¬ ley region and suggest that the fol¬ lowing major geomorphic events were contemporaneous over a wide area : 1. Development of the Lancaster- Calhoun-Ozark peneplain in middle to late Tertiary time. Weathering of the Canton shale in Henry County. 2. Uplift of gravel-source areas to the north and initiation of a new cycle marked by gravel deposition. Removal of the upper part of the weathered zone on the Canton shale and deposition of gravel in the local area by a south-flowing stream. 3. Development of the Central Illinois peneplain and Havana strath in central Illinois (Horberg, 1946). Weathering of gravels and Preglacial Gravels in Henry County, Illinois 175 probably some subsequent erosion and redeposition in western Illinois. 4. Erosion of deep bedrock val¬ leys and removal of gravels except for patches on remnants of the Lan¬ caster surface. 5. Pleistocene glaciation result¬ ing in further stripping of gravels and their final burial. Henry County probably was glaciated dur¬ ing the Nebraskan and Kansan stages, as well as the Illinoian, al¬ though the record at the gravel local¬ ity is incomplete. REFERENCES Bannister, H. M. (1870), Geology of Tazewell, McLean, Logan and Mason counties: Geol. Survey of Illinois, vol. 4, pp. 176-189. Horberg, Leland (1946), Preglacial ero¬ sion surfaces in Illinois: Jour. Geol¬ ogy, vol. 54, pp. 179-192. Lamar, J. E. and Sutton, A. H. (1930), Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments of Kentucky, Illinois, and Missouri: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., vol. 14, pp. 845-866. McGee, W J (1891), The Pleistocene history of northeastern Iowa: U. S. Geol. Survey Eleventh Ann. Rept., pp. 189-577. Rubey, W. W. (1931), Geology and min¬ eral resources of the Hardin-Brussels quadrangles, Illinois : unpublished manuscript. Salisbury, R. D. (1891), A further note on the age of the Orange sands: Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 42, pp. 252-253. - (1892), On the northward and eastward extension of the pre-Pleis- tocene gravels of the Mississippi basin: Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., vol. 3, pp. 183-186. Thwaites, F. T. and Twenhofel, W. H. (1921), Windrow formation, an upland gravel formation of the Driftless and adjacent areas of the upper Missis¬ sippi Valley: Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., vol. 32, pp. 293-314. Udden, J. A. (1899), The Pine Creek con¬ glomerate: Iowa Acad. Sci. Proc., vol. 6, pp. 54-56. - — (1912), The geology and mineral resources of the Peoria quadrangle, Illinois: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 506, pp. 1-103. Willman, H. B. AND Payne, J. N. (1942), Geology and mineral resources of the Marseilles, Ottawa, and Streator quad¬ rangles: Illinois Geol. Survey Bull. 66, pp. 1-388. Worthen, A. H. (1866), Geology of Han¬ cock County: Geol. Survey of Illinois; vol. 1, pp. 327-349. - (1870), Geology of Pike County: Ibid, vol. 4, pp. 24-52; Geology of Fulton County: Ibid, pp. 90-110. 176 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 THE NEDA FORMATION IN NORTHEASTERN ILLINOIS1 2 L. E. WORKMAN- Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana In the vicinity of Mayville, Wis¬ consin, an “ oolitic hematite” called “seed ore,” “flaxseed ore,” or “shot ore,” was originally designated by Chamberlin3 as the ‘ ‘ Clinton iron ore deposit.” He described the grains of iron ore as “little lens-shaped con¬ cretions” composed of hydrated hematite averaging 1/25 inch (1 mm.) in diameter, but varying from 1/10 inch (2.5 mm.) to those that are very minute. Cross sections indi¬ cated that the ore occurs between the Cincinnati shale and the “Niagara limestone.” He stated that, although a few fossils of Cincinnatian age were reported to have been found in ore enclosed in a mass of glacial drift, an obvious unconformity at its base in outcrop and a less appar¬ ent break at the top indicate the de¬ posit to be Silurian. He suggested that it was made in detached shallow basins over which the succeeding Sil¬ urian sea spread more widely. Fig¬ ure 1 is a photograph of ore recently obtained at Mayville. Thwaites4 further described the deposits of “Clinton” ore as occur¬ ring in eastern Wisconsin in broad lenses varying in thickness up to a known maximum of 55 feet. He pointed out that at many places where the iron ore is not present there are nevertheless beds of red rock at the same horizon, and pre¬ 1 Published by permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey. (Presented at the 1949 meeting of the Academy.) 2 Geologist and Head, Subsurface Geology Divi¬ sion. 3 Chamberlin, T. C., Geology of Wisconsin, Wis¬ consin Geol. Sur., vol. 2, 1878, pp. 327-335. 4 Thwaites, F. T., Recent discoveries of “Clinton” iron ore in eastern Wisconsin, U.S.G.S. Bull. 540, 1914, pp. 338-342. sented a map (fig. 2) showing the known occurrences of iron ore and red rock. He reported also that in the Green Bay region the ore is in- terbedded with shale, and in an area Fig. 1. — Neda Iron Ore from Mayville, Wisconsin (X6). about 15 miles southeast of Mayville it appears from well cuttings to be broken up and mixed, or perhaps interstratified, with limestone. Savage and Ross5 pointed out that the relations of the iron ore to for¬ mations both above and below are unconformable, but that fossils col¬ lected from the ore in place indicate it to be of Maquoketa (Cincinna¬ tian) age. They described the de¬ posit as containing pebbles of shale, iron ore, and iron-oxide-replaced fossil fragments and suggested that the deposit is a formation laid down in local basins that, because of the presence of marine fossils, probably were connected and remained after the main portion of the normal ma¬ rine Maquoketa sea had withdrawn from the greater part of the region 5 Savage, T. E., and Ross, C. S., The age of the iron ore in eastern Wisconsin, Am. Jour. Sci., Fourth Series, vol. 41, 1916, pp. 187-193. Neda Formation in Northeastern Illinois 177 farther south in the Mississippi val¬ ley. They named it the “Neda Iron Ore” formation. Hawley and Beavan* 6 made a de¬ tailed analysis of the minerals of the Neda Iron Ore formation. They de¬ termined that nuclei observed in the oolites consist of : (a) fragments of reworked ore, (b) fossil fragments, (c) mineral or rock fragments, and (&) cross-shaped objects. They em¬ phasized, however, that most of the oolites show no central nuclei. They showed that the spheroids are com¬ posed of at least 26 varieties of min¬ erals, chief of which are goethite 6 Hawley, J. E., and Beavan, A. P., Mineralogy and genesis of the Mayville iron ore of Wisconsin, Amer. Mineralogist, vol. 19, 1934, pp. 493-514. (Fe203,H20), calcite, and lialloysite (Al203.2Si02.nH20). Halloysite is a clay that was found to compose most of the insoluble residue after treatment with acid and that looked under the binocular microscope like finely granular unglazed porcelain, making up the fragile spheroidal shells of the spheroids. There are ten varieties of phosphates, and 50% of all phosphorus is contained in the outer shells of the spheroids. The non-oolitic portion of the ore is largely pore space. Crystalline hem¬ atite has grown from the spheroids into part of the space, and there are a number of sedimentary minerals such as quartz and materials from the weathering of igneous rock. The most abundant transported material consists of angular grains of scoria- ceous lava largely altered to iron oxide. There are rounded fragments of reworked ore and nodules of cal¬ cite and dolomite. The authors state that the source of the predominant ore minerals is a baffling problem. The Neda iron-bearing formation is reported in the same stratigraphic position in eastern Iowa7, eastern Kansas8, and northwestern Mis¬ souri9. Athy10 very fully described the Neda deposit in Illinois but called it the Noix Oolite of basal Alexand¬ rian (Silurian) age. The outcrops which he described, situated in sec¬ tions 26, 27, and 35, T.32 N., R.10 E., Kankakee County, are the only ones known in Illinois. He reports the iron ore spheroids as occurring in a 1 7 Howell, J. V., An outlier of the so-called Clinton formation in Dubuque County, Iowa, Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., Yol. XXIII, 1916, pp. 121-124. 8 Lee, Wallace, The stratigraphy and structural development of the Forest City Basin in Kansas, Geol. Sur. Kan., Bull. 51, 1943, p. 42. 0 Crane, G. W., The iron ores of Missouri, Mis¬ souri Bur. Geol. and Mines, 2nd Series, Vol. X, 1912, pp. 148-149. 10 Athy, L. F., Geology and mineral resources of the Hersher quadrangle, Ill. Geol. Sur. Bull. 55, 1928, pp. 33-38. 178 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 3. — Graph of insoluble residues from Neda formation and associated strata in outcrop above spring in NW. XA SE. *4 NE. 14 sec. 27, T. 32 N., R. 10 E., Kankakee County, Illinois. matrix of reddish brown, purplish, and green ferruginous shales and shaly dolomite reaching a thickness of 8 feet, 2 inches, and resting un- conformably on olive-green Rich¬ mond (Maquoketa) shale. The spheroids are generally the size of fine to coarse sand averaging .5 mm. across. The shale was reported to contain much silt and fine quartz sand (up to .25 mm. diam.) and some medium sand (.25 to .50 mm.). The writer obtained insoluble res¬ idues from samples, taken at one- foot intervals or less from several of the outcrops along Kankakee River, by treating the rock samples with weak hydrochloric acid. The graph of the most complete section (fig. 3), taken at the locality figured b}^ Athy on page 32 and described on page 33 (see footnote 10), shows 10% feet of Neda ore-bearing mater¬ ial on top of the Maquoketa shale and under the Edgewood formation. The insoluble material of the Neda deposit consists of: (a) silty shales to siltstones variously colored brown, yellow, greenish, and purplish by iron oxide cement; (b) some very fine sand that grades in the middle of the deposit to very fine sandstone ; (c) iron-ore spheroids scattered in i variable proportions but nowhere composing most of the deposit as in Wisconsin. The total residue varies from 54 to 93 percent. These pro¬ portions are not essentially different from the proportions in the Maquo¬ keta shale below, which in the single sample taken amounted to 85 per¬ cent. Neither is the silty shale to siltstone matrix greatly different, ex¬ cept for some sand content, from the Neda Formation in Northeastern Illinois 179 NEDA IRON KEY - OUTCROP FLAXSEED ORE WELL PENETRATING FLAXSEED ORE ^ UPPER MAQUOKETA RED SHALE WELL PENETRATING RED SHALE WESTERN BORDER SILURIAN DOLOMITE SCALE IN Ml 0 5 10 15 L E. WORKMAN 1949 ILLINOIS STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Fig. 4. 180 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Maquoketa silty shale. On the other hand, the residue proportions are quite different from the 25 percent residue of the overlying Edgewood and there is an abrupt change from the silty sandy shale below to a sandy conglomeratic dolomite above. The pebbles of the conglomerate con¬ sist of grains of underlying shale and a few weathered iron ore spher¬ oids. Were it not for the pebbles the proportion of insoluble residue of the lowest sample of Edgewood would be similar to that of the next sample above, that is, less than 10 percent. In the subsurface of the Chicago region (fig. 4) the spheroids of iron ore are found in a variety of sedi¬ ments. Like those along Kankakee River, they occur in silty shales hav¬ ing various iron-oxide colors. As in the Wisconsin outcrops, they occur as spheroids loosely cemented with crystalline hematite, though the beds are so thin that only a relatively small part of a 5-foot well sample consists of such material. They are commonly associated with red to green weak silty clay that contains small pebbles and grains of weath¬ ered Maquoketa dolomite. In some samples they appear to occur in a yellowish brown silty clay which has a starch-like fracture and con¬ tains brown flakes, suggesting a soil zone. In one sample the spheroids occur in a very fine sandstone con¬ taining grains of dolomite, hematite, and a hematite-replaced spicule. All occurrences are in the midst of more extensive areas where the top of the Maquoketa is represented by red clay shale containing weathered dolomite fragments. Such red shale areas are present only where the Maquoketa reaches its maximum thickness of 190 to 250 feet, as may be noted by comparison with Du- Fig. 5. — Thickness of Maquoketa forma¬ tion in the Chicago region; isopach interval 25 feet (after DuBois). Bois’11 isopach map of the Maquo¬ keta (fig. 5). Elsewhere in Illinois Neda spher¬ oids have been noted in two wells in eastern Whiteside County and in another in eastern Peoria Couifly where the Maquoketa thickness is near a maximum for the region of a little more than 200 feet. All these conditions are interpreted as indi¬ cating that the Neda was deposited on a relatively flat surface of the Maquoketa and was eroded widely along with the Maquoketa formation in an interval previous to Edgewood deposition. The iron-oxide spheroids in the matrix of silty shale of the Neda de- 11 DuBois, E. P., Subsurface relations of the Maquoketa and “Trenton” formations in Illinois, Illinois Geol. Survey Rept. Inv. 105, fig. 1, p. 8., 1945. Neda Formation in Northeastern Illinois 181 Pjq 6 — (Left) Thin section of Neda Fig. 8. — (Right) Thin section of Neda iron oxide spheroids in matrix of deposit showing spheroids replaced by silty shale from Illinois (X18). calcite (X18). Fig. 7. — (Middle) Broken surface of Neda silty shale showing spheroids altered to clay (X18). posit in Illinois are generally small¬ er than those in Wisconsin, ranging up to 1 mm. in larger diameters, only a few reaching 1.25 mm. dia¬ meter, and averaging .75 mm. or less. They are similar in appearance to those in Wisconsin, being generally spheroidal and having smooth sur¬ faces not only on the outsides of grains but on secondary surfaces made by breaking off the oolitic shells. Many of the spheroids in thin section show no nuclei, but the most common nuclei observed are frag¬ ments of other spheroids, especially fragments of the outer shells (fig. 6). A few were observed that were fragments of the matrix of silty shale, and a very few contained single silt grains or other material at the center. Most of them show a slightly darker brown outer hull. Some observations of interest in considering the composition and geo¬ logic history of the oolites are as follows : 1. In the upper portions of out¬ cropping Neda beds, varying in ob¬ served thickness from a few inches to as much as eight feet, the former oolites which were subjected to weathering previous to Edgewood deposition lost their iron-oxide con¬ tent, leaving a residuum of clay (fig. 7). This clay has been identi¬ fied by Grim12 as illite. Usually its texture is dense and porcelaneous, showing only faintly or not at all the former concentric rings of the oolites. The dull olive-green color disappears on treatment of the sample with acid, leaving the clay almost white. These clay masses ap¬ pear slightly smaller than the aver¬ age iron-ore spheroid, and the shapes of the cavities in which they occur, though roughly spheroidal, are somewhat distorted, indicating that the sediments have been some¬ what compacted to fill partly or en¬ tirely the former oolite spaces. How¬ ever, it becomes evident that, be¬ cause of the large amount of resi¬ dual clay, some original spheroids were not highly iron-bearing. Some clay masses are soft and porous, and occupy proportionately less space than the dense variety in the cavity left by solution of the iron oxide. Some consist only of flat round blebs of green clay in sizes typical of the oolites. Evidently these last formerly contained high 12 Grim, Ralph E., personal communication. 182 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions proportions of iron oxide before the iron was dissolved and the sedi¬ ments collapsed. 2. Some of the former oolites contain partial replacements of gray crystalline calcite (fig. 8). The cleavage faces of the calcite are so oriented as to indicate that each oolite replacement developed as a single crystal. Surrounding the crystal mass is the residual clay. Some of the calcite masses occupy practically all the former oolites except the outer hulls, whereas others are smaller and the residual clay masses seem to be larger ac¬ cordingly. It is suggested that cal¬ cite formation took place only after the cavities had been left by iron- oxide solution and that the sizes of the crystals were governed by the available space. Thus it would ap¬ pear that the calcite deposited after the beginning of Edgewood time, possibly long after that time. 3. Some of the residual material enclosing the calcite grains has the appearance of perfect fragments of outer hulls of iron-ore spheroids except that they are dark brown to black, suggesting the presence of organic material. Kosanke13 ex¬ amined some of these and reported that they show no cellular structure but appear rather to be composed of amorphous material. Upon be¬ ing heated in a test tube the black color disappears, leaving light- brown amorphous clay suggestive of that described by Hawley and Beavan as halloysite in the hulls of oolites in Wisconsin and of a some¬ what different chemical character than the materials making up the remainder of the oolite. The considerable variety of sedi¬ mentary materials in which the iron-ore spheroids are found, the oc¬ currence of the spheroids in north¬ eastern Illinois and elsewhere only where the Maquoketa is thickest, and recognition of the same type of iron-ore spheroids at about the same geologic horizon in widely separated areas from Kansas to Wis¬ consin and Illinois, suggest that the Neda formation was a widespread deposit of variable character lying upon known Maquoketa (Cincin¬ natian) shale, and was to a great extent eroded away during pre- Edgewood (pre-Lower Alexand¬ rian) uplift. It appears significant for considerations of correlation that the Neda type of oolite occurs elsewhere in the eastern half of the United States in Silurian strata only, that is, the Red Mountain for¬ mation of Upper Alexandrian and Lower Niagaran ages in the Birm¬ ingham District, and the Clinton group of Lower Niagaran age in New York. There is no difficulty in assuming that conditions of deposition favor¬ able to the formation of Neda oolite recurred at intervals from late Cin¬ cinnatian to early Niagaran times, but in order to be sure that these conditions prevailed across the Ordovician-Silurian boundary the possibility should be examined that the Maquoketa fossils found in the Neda in both Wisconsin and Iowa may have attained their position by being reworked by an early Silur¬ ian sea. 13 Kosanke, R. M., personal communication. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 183 PHYSICS SURVEY OF CITY NOISE G. L. BONVALLET Armour Research Foundation of Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago A survey of city noise has been in progress in Chicago for over two years. The program covers noise of transportation vehicles, and noise in traffic lanes, industrial, and resi¬ dential areas. The study is spon¬ sored by Armour Research Founda¬ tion of Illinois Institute of Tech¬ nology and the Greater Chicago Noise Reduction Council, and has the cooperation of the City of Chi¬ cago and the National Noise Abate¬ ment Council. The work was undertaken as a public service and to stimulate fur¬ ther interest in the subject. Not only has the noise problem become more acute with the passing of time, but the public has become recon¬ ciled to noise as a necessary condi¬ tion of present-day living. Further¬ more, good methods of simply, rapidly, and reliably measuring in¬ dustrial noise have not been avail¬ able to the engineer. Equipment is available for measuring sound in¬ tensity, but acousticians agree that there is little correlation between sound levels, which are a measure of the physical condition in the med¬ ium, and loudness as adjudged by the human ear. It is hoped, there¬ fore, that the results of the survey will create interest in further work, and will, in addition, establish a preliminary basis for tolerable noise levels which will be useful in writ¬ ing or revising anti-noise legisla¬ tion. A study of city noise was made in New York City in 1930A The re¬ sults of this work were far-reaching and beneficial. Other surveys on a smaller scale have been made by a number of workers. An important part of the present study has been that of taking octave band levels in addition to over-all levels. The over-all level is that in¬ dicated by a standard sound meter which responds to the entire audible spectrum within the limitations of the meter. The octave band levels are those read on the sound meter which has been modified by switch¬ ing in various band pass filters. The meter then indicates the level with¬ in the particular band. The bands referred to in this paper are one octave wide. Many acoustical measurements of mechanical noises have indicated the unreliability of the single over¬ all measurement to represent the objectionable degree of the noise. It is well known that levels in the various octave bands are more valu¬ able in describing the noise than the single over-all level. As a re¬ sult of numerous listening judg¬ ments on noises similar to these, it has been found that the loudness and objectionable nature of such noises could be correlated better with one of the octave measure¬ ments, such as the 400-800 cps band, * City Noise, published by the Noise Abatement Commission of the City of New York, The Academy Press, New York, 1930. 184 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions than with the single over-all level. This particular band represents a good compromise between lower frequency octave levels with high energy content and higher octave band levels with reduced energy, because of the absorption by inter¬ vening structures and air. Noise of Vehicles The phase of the survey concerned with noise of common transporta¬ tion vehicles was started first be¬ cause vehicle and traffic noise was believed to be more objectionable and more prevalent than industrial noise. The work has been completed, and with curves and tables is rather comprehensively reported in the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America , Vol. 22, Number 2, March 1950. Inside vehicles, the highest aver¬ age levels were measured in subway cars. These were 95 db over-all and 91 db in the 400-800 cps band. All measurements are on the flat net¬ work. The lowest average levels were 85 db over-all in a new “L” car and 68 db in the 400-800 cps band meas¬ ured in a relatively new seven-pas¬ senger sedan. Levels for such ve¬ hicles as old “L” cars, old street cars, trolley buses, PCC cars, motor buses, and suburban steam and elec¬ tric railroad cars were between these maximum and minimum values. Outside vehicles, the noise was measured at 20 feet in all cases ex¬ cept for railroad trains, in which case a distance of 100 feet was be¬ lieved to be more practical for the purpose. The highest average levels were for subway trains and the levels were 94 db over-all and 87 db in the 400-800 cps band. The lowest average over-all level was 79 db for trolley buses. The lowest average level in the 400-800 cps band was 66 db for automobiles. Traffic Noise Although traffic noise generally is more intense than industrial noise, in many cases it may be adjudged less objectionable. This follows be¬ cause : (a) the public may tolerate public transportation noise on the incorrect basis that it cannot be re¬ duced, and (b) vehicle noise, aside from automobile horns, squealing brakes, and clanging street car gongs, when close to a listener, increases slowly as the vehicle approaches and then decreases. Industrial noise, on the other hand, often changes ab¬ ruptly. Generally it stops and starts suddenly and may be objectionable because of its characteristic quality which identifies it as a forging ham¬ mer, steam exhaust blast, a travel¬ ing crane, a whistle, metal handling, or the like. Measurements have been made at intersections and in thoroughfares to ascertain levels due to traffic. In¬ sufficient data have been taken for a complete picture of the range of over-all and octave band levels. Based on the meager data, the over¬ all levels ranged from about 65 to 85 db, and the levels in the 400-800 cps band from 45 to 70 db. These figures are for places where a reason¬ able amount of city traffic, such as automobiles, trucks, and mass trans¬ portation vehicles, passes. Industrial Noise Another phase of the survey con¬ cerns noise in industrial areas. Over a hundred different places in the many Chicago industrial zones were visited and data taken during the usual business hours. Measurements were taken from the sidewalk, street, Survey of City Noise 185 Fig. 1. — Data and curves of noise in industrial areas. Measurements (flat network) are on the sidewalk or street about 25 to 30 feet from buildings or plant boundaries and during usual daytime business hours. or other public thoroughfare on the outside of each plant or industrial area. Distances generally were about 25 to 30 feet from a building or boundary. In many cases it was difficult to establish a meaningful sound level because of the intermit¬ tent nature of the noise. Informa¬ tion on whether the noise was above or below the general background noise also was noted. Preliminary study of the data in¬ dicates a range in over-all levels of about 60 to 90 db. Measurements in the 400-800 cps octave band ranged from 45 to 80 db. Typical levels are shown in figure 1. This figure also shows the value of octave band data in describing the noise as compared to the single over-all level. Despite the incompleteness of these data, they have been used to make pre¬ liminary curves and draw prelimin¬ ary conclusions. Figure 2 shows the distribution of noise levels measured in the 400-800 cps band. The curve shows that about 95 percent of the levels fall below 70 db. Assuming that these data are confirmed after complete analysis of the measure¬ ments, a preliminary conclusion might be drawn that 5 percent of the cases should be considered ob¬ jectionably loud. Figure 3 might be termed a pre¬ liminary limiting curve for indus¬ trial noise. It has the same general shape as industrial noise curves and passes through the previously men¬ tioned 70 db level in the 400-800 cps band. It would define a noise spec¬ trum such that industrial noise with higher components than those shown might be considered legally objec¬ tionable. Such measurements and curves require complete and careful analysis before conclusions can be made. 186 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions The study indicates one important observation even at the present stage. Industrial noise outside plants and factories is not so loud as it is reputed to be. The few fac¬ tories that make intense noise prob¬ ably have given a bad reputation to industry in general. Many cases were found where the plant noise could not be measured in the back¬ ground of unidentifiable sounds or of transportation vehicle or traffic noise. Fig. 2. — Curve showing the percentage distribution of industrial noise levels measured in the 400-800 cps band. From these data it can be seen that about 95% of the cases are below 70 db in the specified octave band. Residential Area Noise The data on residential noise are rather meager at the present time. The background levels are caused by industrial or traffic noise at different distances. Nearby vehicles, children at play, vendors, and other local sources generally do not contribute much to the ambient background, although they often are objection¬ able. Again, with incomplete anal¬ ysis, the data indicate a range of from 50 to 80 db over-all and 35 to | 70 db in the 400-800 cps band. As be- ij fore, compromises are required in associating a single level with com- plicated noise conditions such as | these. Automobile Horns An investigation of automobile ; horns is being conducted as a part of the survey. It was felt that such a i study was of value because of the \: necessity for horns on vehicles and the objectionable nature of some of them. It is necessary that a horn be louder than the ambient background noise and even loud enough to warn nearby motorists in totally enclosed automobiles operating at noisy high speeds. Such warning signals, there¬ fore, are required to be compara- \ tively intense sound sources. On the i; other hand, many such horns are : unduly loud. It is believed that horns can be effective without being ; raucous despite their relatively high levels. The work in progress con- i sists in part in measuring the levels and in investigating the overtone structures to determine the charac¬ teristics of pleasant and effective signals on the one hand and charac- j teristics which are objectionable and | which possibly identify the horns as j dangerous because of their frighten- I ing effect. Again it must be reported that the I work is not yet completed and only a report of progress can be made here. The modern automobile for j the last five years has emploj^ed horns in pairs. The present work is simplified because most of the auto¬ mobiles now on the streets employ only about half a dozen types of horns. The fundamental tones of the two horns in the pair are usually a musical major third apart. The more ' Survey of City Noise 187 _ — i — > 1 - 1 i — 1 | CHICA6C - 1 ) NOISE SUR\ /EY Pf ^ELIfV 1INAR Y LIN flITINC 5 SPE iCTRl JM ’ o 50 75 100 150 200 300 4 0 0 600 800 1200 1600 240 0 480# 50 100 150 200 300 400 600 800 1200 1600 2400 3200 4800 °° OCTAVE BANDS, CPS jtjg 3 — Curve showing a preliminary limiting spectrum. The curye *s similar to others for industrial noise and passes through 70 db in the 400-800 cps band. Industrial noise data which are higher than this curve might characterize the source as legally objectionable. pleasant sounding devices have har¬ monic overtones, whereas the objec¬ tionable sounding horns have inhar¬ monic overtone structures. Measured at three feet in front of ' the units, these horns have levels of from 105 to 125 db, so far as they have been measured. The funda¬ mental tones for the different horns are in the range of about 150 to 400 cps. An important feature of the work | is that, in addition to the levels in decibels, the information in phons and sones also is being determined. There has been too little work done in the industrial field in the way of obtaining loudness and loudness levels. This has been due, at least in part, to the difficulty and the labor involved in determining these from decibel levels. As an example, the range of 105 to 125 decibels is a range in loudness level of approxi¬ mately 125 to 140 phons and range in loudness of about 600 to 2000 sones. It is desirable to define these units here. The loudness of a sound is the magnitude of sensation in the ear. It depends on sound pressure and on the frequency spectrum. The unit is the loudness unit or the sone. A 1000-cycle tone 40 db above the nor¬ mal threshold has a loudness of one sone or 1000 millisones or loudness units. The loudness level of a sound is numerically equal to the sound pressure level in decibels of the sim¬ ple 1000-cycle reference tone which 188 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions is judged to be equally loud. The unit of loudness level is the phon. The program includes the process¬ ing of these horn noises in several ways, such as filtering the output to cut off at around 1000 cps. Again in a preliminary way, it has been found that such filtering removes a rea¬ sonable amount of the sound which is objectionable, and apparently does so without sacrificing the necessary warning characteristics. Conclusion The survey is proceeding at the present time with analysis of avail¬ able data and with plans for the incomplete phases referred to above. Of more importance, further thought is being given to the problem of using these results beneficially. As the work becomes completed the re¬ sults will be made available in the most useful way. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 189 SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FLASH DISCHARGES W. S. HUXFORD AND H. N. OLSEN Northwestern University, Evanston A “flash” discharge may be de¬ fined as an electrical breakdown produced by the discharge of a con¬ denser through a gas at pressures of the order of 100 mm of mercury. It is characterized by a high current pulse of short duration accompanied by a brilliant white flash of light. The duration of the current pulse is of the order of 10 microseconds while the period of the light flash may be considerably longer, persist¬ ing for 100 microseconds or more in heavy discharges. Many practical uses have been found for such lamps. Originally developed for high-speed photog¬ raphy and stroboscopic uses, they have more recently been employed in aerial photography, as a source of artificial sunlight in making moving pictures, and for emergency lighting of landing fields. Figure 1 shows several types of flash lamps. A, B, C, and G are forms of commercial photo-flash lamps; D, E, and F are examples of experimental models of flash tubes. The maximum brightness of these lamps when used to produce single heavy discharges may exceed the brightness of the sun by a factor of ten with a peak flux output of a hundred million lumens. Currents of several thousand amperes are pro¬ duced with instantaneous rates of energy input of several megawatts. The physical characteristics of the emitted radiation are of considerable scientific interest. In the first place, the main component of the radiation is an intense continuum in the case of discharges where the current den¬ sity is 20,000 amp/cm2 or higher. This in itself is unusual, since norm¬ ally a gas is expected to radiate chiefly bright lines characteristic of the excited atoms and molecules present in the discharge. In the second place, the line spec¬ tra which appear superimposed on the continuous background exhibit many anomalies when compared to the lines emitted by low intensity arc discharges in the same gas. A study has been made of these anomalies, both with reference to the energy in¬ put per flash, and also as a function of time during the various phases of the flash. This paper attempts only a very brief summary of the results of this study. The Continuum When measurements are made of the energy distribution of the con¬ tinuum in the “integrated” flash, a broad distribution is found as a function of wave length. In the case of intense discharge a maximum oc¬ curs at about 4500 AU, correspond¬ ing to a black body temperature of roughly 10,000°K. The radiation density values, however, indicate much higher temperatures. Most theories agree in ascribing the origin of these continuous wave lengths to “free-free” electron transitions with ions in the high den¬ sity plasma existing in these dis¬ charges, and also to electron-ion re¬ combination, or “free-bound” trail- 190 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions COMPARISON OF XENON ARC AND FLASH SPECTRA (3,500 to 6,200 A.U.) MA.U. ) Spectrum I II Transition Arc “45 Watt Flash 720 Watt Flash 4 Is Xe 6098 X (3P) 5d - (3P) 6p X II 6036 X (3P) 5d ^ - ,(3P) 6p X II 5976 X (3P) 6s :pK - (3p) 6p X II 5824 z X 5668 X ( 3p) 5d - i3p) 6p 4p^ X II 5473 X (3P) 5d - (3P) 6p 4°% X II 5419 X (3P) 6s 4P^ - (3P) 6p 4% X X II 5372 X ( 3P ) 6s 4P^ - (3P) 6p p0^ X II 5339 X (3P) 6p 4D^ - (3P) 6d 4^ X X II 5292 X (3P) 6s 4p^ - (3P) 6p 4pk X X II 5191 X (3P) 6s 4po*r (3P) 6p 4D«V* X II 5122 X (3P) 6p 4P«H- (3P) 7s 4p^ X II 5081 X (3P) 6p 4D^ - ( 3p) 7s 4p^ X II 5028 X ls4 “ 3pio X 4923 X ls4 - 3pe X X X I 4917 X ls4 - 2p4 X X 4884 X (3P) 6s 4P°H" 6p X II 4844 X ( 3P) 6s 4P^f- (3P) 6p Dfi X X II 4843 X ls4 - 3p8 X X 4830 X ls4 - 3P7 X X 4807 X ls4 - 3pb X X 4734 X 134 " 2P3 X X X I 4671 X lsB - 3pa X X X I 4624 X l88 - 3pa X X 4603 X ( 3p ) 6s 4P^ - (3P) 6p lDk X II 4545 X (3P) 6p - ( 3p) 6d X II 4525 X ls6 - 2p3 X 4501 lsB - 2p2 X 4481 X (3P) 6p tDk - ( p) 6d X II 4415 X (XD) 6s 2dJ - (*D) 6p X II 4393 (3P) 6p - (3P) 6d X II 4386 X ls4 - 4X X 2584 X or 184 - 4Y A ' 4331 X (3P) 6p X - (*» 6d X II 4194 X lsB - 4U X 3968 X ls6 - 4pe X Table 1. sitions. The latter mechanism would be expected to be the predominant cause of continuous radiation in the “afterglow, ” or decaying portion of the light flash which persists after current ceases to flow in the arc. To obtain a complete analysis of the electrical and radiation proper¬ ties of these discharges it is neces¬ sary to make measurements as a function of time during the very short period of the flash. This is difficult in the case of the ordinary spark discharge across a gap at at¬ mospheric pressure because of the extremely erratic behavior of the spark. However, by employing rare gases to avoid chemical reactions, and pressures of from 25 mm to 100 mm Hg, it is possible to obtain highly reproducible flash discharges in rep¬ etitive operation. The flash can be in¬ itiated with great precision, and ac¬ curate reproduction of current, po¬ tential, and photo-current showing the change of radiation intensity with time can be obtained on the oscilloscope screen. Flash Discharges 191 Fig. 1. — Types of commercial and experimental flash tubes. Figure 2 illustrates how the cur¬ rent and the continuous radiation change with time for flash dis¬ charges in argon and neon tubes. These discharges are “triggered” by means of a sharp voltage pulse ap¬ plied to an auxiliary electrode which causes enough ionization for a heavy arc current to form and discharge a condenser attached to the elec¬ trodes. These traces are taken from the oscilloscope screen. Three types of phototube multi¬ pliers were used to register the in¬ tensity of radiation in three spectral regions: the ultraviolet (2400 to 4200 AU), visible (4600 to 7000 AU) and the near infrared (7000 to 12,000 AU). In obtaining these results the amplitude of each photo¬ current plot was arbitrarily adjust¬ ed, so they cannot be intercompared. The total radiation in the visible and ultraviolet regions is much greater than in the infrared. It is noted that in all cases the peak light oc¬ curs much later than peak input current (or power), this lag being greatest for the longer wave lengths. Variation of Characteristic Line Spectra A study of the line spectra is of particular interest to the physicist who desires information concerning fundamental processes occurring in this type of discharge. He wishes to determine the processes leading to breakdown of the gas, the current conduction mechanism, tempera¬ tures and ion densities in the col¬ umn, the cause of the lag of radia¬ tion behind current, and the nature of the processes occurring in the gas plasma during the afterglow period. In general, our knowledge of the de¬ tailed processes occurring in the flash and spark discharges is quite incomplete compared to our 192 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 TIME IN MICROSECONDS Fig. 2. — Oscillographic traces of current and radiation in argon and neon quartz flash lamps. understanding* of other types of steady discharges. Spectrograms were made of dis¬ charges in xenon for the total flash period, and compared with the lines appearing in a low current steady arc discharge in the same gas. Table 1 gives a summary of results for the strong lines observed in the visible region. In the d-c low cur¬ rent arc only arc lines (Xe I) are ob¬ served. For low energy flashes a number of these same arc lines are observed, and in addition several spark lines (Xe II) appear, lines which are due to excitation of xenon ions. Lines appearing superimposed on the strong continuum in the high energy flash discharge are shown in the column on the right. Here only Flash Discharges 193 Fig. 3. — Variation in line spectra at various phases of a flash discharge in argon. 194 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions three arc lines show strongly, while twenty intense lines of the xenon ionic spectrum are identified. Simi¬ lar results were obtained using other gases. The question now arises as to how the spectrum varies with time over the entire flash period. A large num¬ ber of observations were carried out using flash tubes filled with neon, argon, krypton and xenon. An ex¬ ample of such an analysis will be shown only for an argon-filled tube. A method was developed for ob¬ serving through a fine slit in a ten- inch disc driven by a synchronous motor, the light from the discharge at a given phase of the flash period. The particular instant in the flash when a spectrogram was taken could be varied by means of a phase changer which varied the time when the discharge was triggered with ref¬ erence to the time of observation. The slit was of such a width that the observation interval was about three microseconds. Thus the emit¬ ted radiation could be photographed at any phase of the flash period in steps each three microseconds long. Figure 3 is a chart of the results obtained using a quartz prism spec¬ trograph. Relative photographic in¬ tensities for a given exposure are in¬ dicated by the height of the plotted lines. Solid lines are for atomic spectra (A I) ; dotted lines repre¬ sent spark spectra (A II). The rate of synchronous flashing was one per second. However, for the weak light emitted by the trigger pulse, which occurs about 2 microseconds before the main current of the dis¬ charge begins, a higher rate was used with the discharge condensers disconnected. Thus, the exposure time for the upper section of the chart was about 300 times longer than for the other pictures. For the afterglow the exposure time was about 10 times longer than for the main flash. The changes in relative intensities of the lines is very striking. Very few strong spark lines occur in the trigger pulse at high potential. At current peak (early flash) and at, peak radiation intensity the line! spectrum is predominately that of the spark, or second spectrum (II),; of argon ions: some 44 relatively; weak arc lines, compared to 71 spark i lines of high average intensity. Late in the discharge only a few weak arc lines appear, the relative inten¬ sities of which are quite different from those appearing in the trigger pulse spectrum, or in the main dis¬ charge. The strongest set of four arc lines in the afterglow have very low intensities in the main flash relative to other lines appearing at the same time. Conclusions From this study of the spectral characteristics of synchronized flash discharges in rare gases the follow¬ ing conclusions may be drawn : (1) The overall integrated line spectrum constitutes a small fraction (<10%) of the useful light emitted by the discharge, the main radiation flux in the visible and ultraviolet regions being an intense continuum. (2) In the short wave infrared region, measurements show that for heavy rare gases (argon, krypton, and xenon) the line spectra, consist¬ ing largely of arc lines, contributes about half the total light flux. (3) The characteristic lines ob¬ served at the instant of peak radia¬ tion intensity are predominately those of excited ions, indicating the existence of a plasma having a high degree of ionization. Calculations Flash Discharges 195 show that in the discharge column from 80 to 90% of the atoms may be ionized. (4) The spectrum of the trigger pulse, excited when a 10,000 volt potential is suddenly applied to an external electrode, shows that high fields do not necessarily excite a strong spark spectrum. Rather, a strong spark spectrum is character¬ istic of the high current, low voltage arc phase of the spark discharge. Recent observations in high current steady arcs verify this conclusion. (5) The presence of only atomic spectral lines in the afterglow in¬ dicates the absence of impact excita¬ tion at low electron temperatures. Here the lines arise from electron- ion recombination only, the relative intensities being characteristic of this process and quite different from those shown during the high-temp- erature phase of the discharge. 196 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 OPTICAL AND PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES FOR THE SMALL-SCHOOL LABORATORY HOWARD C. ROBERTS University of Illinois, Urbana Most small schools and labora¬ tories have more problems than money; this is often true of the large universities as well, hut the small school is more handicapped when some special problem comes along because there is usually less likelihood of procuring equipment by interdepartmental exchange or loan. It is for this reason that the methods to be described are direct¬ ed principally at the small school or laboratory. It is rather remarkable that pure¬ ly photographic measuring methods have not been more widely applied in research. Of course, there are many applications of photography in common use — to record images with the camera, shadowgraphs with the X-ray, spectrograms, and the like. However, the use of the photographic emulsion as a meas¬ uring element is still not extensive. Yet it can measure light-intensity, color, or any magnitude which can be expressed as either of these. It can measure things that the eye can¬ not see ; and it can be applied to observe and record more closely, more accurately, and for longer periods than any individual ob¬ server. The more flexible techniques of photographic measurement have been largely neglected; it is these that I want to describe today. There are a great many of them, and in the time allotted to me I can mention only a very few. I have chosen some which are more than usually varied, and which are especially susceptible to modification to other uses. The motion-picture camera is often used to observe and to record the deflections of instrument point¬ ers during tests ; it is especially con¬ venient for such things as aircraft tests, where the camera periodically records the indications of the entire instrument panel, and the films are later read visually. Prosperous lab¬ oratories often use recording oscillo¬ graphic cameras to take down the data on electrical circuits. An early method of recording quantities with photographic means is shown in figure 1 : a pointer-type instrument (which might be an electrical in¬ strument, a pressure gage, or any instrument with an indicating pointer) which has had an opaque vane attached to its pointer and a light source so placed that the band of light passing through a slot in the dial is obscured by the vane as the pointer moves. The type of rec¬ ord produced is indicated on the slide — although of course the pat¬ tern does not show until the photo¬ graphic paper or film is developed. A record of this kind, or any variable-width record, is easily sub¬ jected to frequency or harmonic analysis. In many problems the periodicity of the magnitude being measured is important ; the daily variation in earth-currents, the be¬ havior of the tides or waves, the temperature variations in organ¬ isms, and many other phenomena are most interesting because of Optical and Photographic Techniques 197 Photocell \ To vibration __ galvanometer^/^ r^- Drum & Light Fig. 2 198 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions their time-rate of change. Such a film record, taken over a period of days or even weeks, can easily be analyzed to determine what periodic variations may be present. It is only necessary to attach the strip of record to the edge of a cylinder which can be rotated (see fig. 2) while a light shines through the record and upon a photoelectric cell. The output of the photocell is then applied to some frequency-sen¬ sitive device ; a tuned vibration gal¬ vanometer is ideal. When the speed of rotation of the cylinder is such that some component of the record comes by at intervals corresponding to the period of the galvanometer, a deflection will occur, and simple arithmetic is enough to determine the period of the phenomenon. Then other speeds of rotation can be tried until all frequency com¬ ponents desired are measured. Vi¬ bration galvanometers are not so common as they once were, but good results can be had with a simple tuned circuit and a vacuum-tube voltmeter or a cathode-ray oscillo¬ scope, and these are becoming quite common in our physics laboratories. \ This simple system is capable of . many applications ; there is a modi¬ fication by which the periodic com¬ ponents may be evaluated by purely photographic means, but it is usual¬ ly less convenient than the one men¬ tioned. These systems, however, are only simple forms ; they do not use the photographic materials in their most favorable manner. In the following figures, there will be shown two sets of apparatus for recording sunlight and its char¬ acteristics ; one records the average effective intensity, and the other both the intensity and the spectral composition or the color. The two pieces of apparatus were originally ( intended for use together, but can be used as individual items for their j own purposes. The first of these units (fig. 3) is for recording the effective intensity of daylight, continuously. It em¬ ploys a clock-motor which moves a strip of 35 millimeter film at a rate of about 2 inches per day. Light j Optical and Photographic Techniques 199 from the sky falls on the surface S, which is of magnesium oxide, a neu¬ tral reflector; this light is reflected through the lens and through the gray wedge Px to where it falls on the film. The amount of light reach¬ ing the optical system depends of course on the intensity of the day¬ light, but the amount reaching the photographic film depends not only on that intensity but also on the density of the gray wedge. The over-all effect is that at some point along the length of the wedge the light intensity will be just enough to cause the beginning of darkening of the film. On one side of this point there will be perceptible dark¬ ening ; on the other there will be no darkening. If a high-contrast film is used, this point is quite definite. A time-scale may also be applied to the film if that is desired. Some of these things should per¬ haps be amplified before we go on to the next item. As most of us know already, the density of a photographic film (within its nor¬ mal working range) is roughly pro¬ portional to the logarithm of the exposure. Below the working range there is an area where not enough light has fallen to produce a useful image. Actually, a certain amount of light must be received before any effect at all is produced; above this value the effect is proportional. This is called the “ inertia effect” of the film, and it is this inertia or threshold point which is seen on the variably exposed film. In figure 4 there is a curve showing the general shape of a density-ver- sus-exposure curve for a film. What this means on the record is that the threshold point wanders across the film as the light intensity changes, and the boundary between clear film and gray film shows by its po¬ sition the light intensity. It would be possible, of course, to permit the film to darken uniformly across its wudth, and to read its density with a microphotometer, except that most of us cannot afford a micro¬ photometer. This system, in any case, makes a longer range of meas¬ urement possible. The gray filter wedge used here is usually a piece of photographic film which has been partially ex¬ posed and developed; the exposure 200 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions is varied so that at one edge the wedge is clear and at the other edge quite dark. A density range of 0 to 3 corresponds to a range of 1000 to 1 in the amount of light trans¬ mitted. These filters can be made of gelatin, by squeezing a wedge of dyed gelatin between two thin glass plates, if neutral dyes are available. It is not difficult to make photographic wedges, but it is necessary first to prepare a curve like that in fig. 4, and then take data from it to calculate the expos¬ ures for the wedge. In all these procedures, conditions of exposure and of development must be con¬ trolled with some care. The equipment for recording the color of sunlight is a little more complex. Again a clock-motor is used to drive the film, at about 2 inches per hour, but here a prism is used to spread a spectrum across the film, which must be panchro¬ matic — approximately equally sen¬ sitive to all colors. The density of the various parts of the resulting band indicates the spectral compo¬ sition. To read this record, some device for measuring film density is re¬ quired. The wedge method can be applied here ; an easy way is to place a circular wedge over the lens, and rotate it about 10 revolutions per hour. This causes a uniform variation of intensity from very low to high, repeated every 6 minutes. The result is a series of repeated patterns along the film; the length along the film of the various ele¬ ments of the pattern indicates the various intensities. The kind of pattern produced is shown in the figure ; the actual films are easily read, but do not project well. For ease in reading these records, it is desirable to equalize the fre¬ quency response, or the color sen¬ sitivity, of the film used. In figure 5 there is indicated a “ correction plate” near the film plane. This plate equalizes the color response of the film. It can be made to match almost any commercially available film. The actual response of a film to color is seldom uniform. Figure 6 shows a typical response curve ; it is more sensitive to blue than the nor¬ mal eye, and is also more sensitive to red. But within this range, the response may vary as much as 40 Optical and Photographic Techniques 201 % Correction P/atc Data Position a Jong *5ptctru/ri % * Color Sensitivity of P/im i - - - 1 - - - - -» - - - - Wave Lenqth - millimicrons 6 percent. This variation in response can be equalized by preparing a neutral density plate which matches the color curve for the film — that is, in the green, where the film is least sensitive, the correction plate permits most light to pass, but in the red range where the film is most sensitive, it cuts down the intensity. At any point, the sum of the two curves should equal the sum at any other point. The correction plate is placed close to the film; it is a neutral density filter, and its den¬ sities are adjusted according to the position of the color in the spec¬ trum produced by the prism. The optical quality required in these instruments is not very high ; good results may be had with sur¬ prisingly crude optical systems. Reasonable care is required to avoid diffraction and reflection in un¬ wanted places. The diagrams shown in the figures do not contain all the desirable operating details, such as the cylindrical lens just in front of the film in every case, but these de¬ tails are obvious when construction is attempted. The final accuracy to be expected from an instrument of this kind is not especially high, perhaps 5 to 10 percent. This is adequate for many purposes, particularly biological and agricultural studies. The range of intensities which can be recorded is extremely large; it is easy to handle a ratio of 10,000 to 1 because of the logarithmic scale. The actual method must of course be matched tc the problem. There are many other methods which might be described, such as force measurement either by New¬ ton’s rings or by the total-reflection method; the use of the Dove prism +c extend the time range for record¬ ing with the cathode-ray oscillo¬ scope ; the photographic record from liquid-filled thermometers or manometers; and other types and classes of measurement. But these cannot be discussed in this paper: the few which have been selected will have to serve as examples of instances flexible enough to be ap¬ plied in many other problems. 202 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION VALIDATION BY MEANS OF THE SOCIOGRAM OF A TECHNIQUE FOR PROMOTING SOCIAL ACCEPTABILITY AMONG ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN ELVA E. KINNEY Greenville College, Greenville There is a growing emphasis both in educational literature and in prac¬ tice upon social adeptness as a pri¬ mary objective of education. Pres- sey and Robinson express this point of view in Psychology and the New Education when they say that “the guidance of social development along healthy and desirable lines might well be considered the first concern of modern education and the almost complete neglect of this problem the outstanding weakness of the tradi¬ tional school.” All development is, of course, con¬ tinuous, and social development is no exception to the rule. Yet the study of the child has clearly shown that certain developmental tasks be¬ long specifically to certain age ranges. In fact, without the success¬ ful completion of these various developmental tasks sequentially, whether they are physical, emotional, or intellectual, the child is tremend¬ ously handicapped in the process of growing into a balanced adult. One of these developmental tasks that ideally is spread over the period of time from the entrance to school at the age of six till adolescence is the emancipation of the child from the circle of the family and his entrance into his peer group. In this new world to which the child goes it becomes increasingly important to him to find a place for himself where he belongs. In fact, it is a corrolary of the social adeptness objective of! elementary education that the child' can develop social adeptness only1 in a group where he is an accepted? and contributing member. For the psychologist believes that the psy¬ chological environment of the child I — the reaction to him of individuals' and groups with whom he is in con-, tact — is of infinitely more import-; ance as a factor in his development than the physical environment in which he lives. Grouping has generally been a tool » that the elementary school of our age - uses to promote its intellectual pur-, poses and to aid in reaching such goals. But whether or not grouping is a tool for the school to use in achieving its social goals and es¬ pecially whether the type of group is a major factor in the degree of success the individual achieves as [ he strives to attain status are prob- . lems not yet thoroughly investigated. It is the hypothesis of this study that through considerable use of 1 small informal flexible groups the child who is a fringer or an isolate can most easily be helped to gain in social acceptability and, as he does i this, it is believed that he will be a better achiever intellectually. This study makes no pretense at being a controlled educational ex¬ periment. It is rather a problem in teacher education in which all the teachers at a given grade level in Social Acceptability Among School Children 203 a small city in southern Illinois co¬ operate in an attempt to help chil¬ dren in their groups who lack social status to attain a higher degree of social acceptability. It is an attempt, likewise, to put in the hands of the teachers a tool by which each may discover for her¬ self whether or not she is succeeding in helping children who have not yet attained and do not know how to attain status in their peer group. Also, we believe it will throw some light on the effect of different types of groups on growth in social accept¬ ability. However, since the emphasis was to be teacher education, no attempt was made to force consideration of this problem until attention turned there naturally. As it happened, for several weeks other problems occu¬ pied the focus of attention. The background for this study is laid in the work of J. L. Moreno and dates back about fifteen years. It was in 1934 that Dr. Moreno pub¬ lished his epochal book, Who Shall Survive t In this work he developed a science of sociometry — a way of measuring interpersonal relation¬ ships in a group — and used the so¬ ciogram as a way of recording and making graphic these relation¬ ships. Since that time Helen Hall Jennings and others have used the same technique to measure social re¬ lationships within a schoolroom. Dr. Moreno used his new discov¬ ery not only as a means of measure¬ ment but also for therapeutic pur¬ poses. In his book he described the use of it in grouping girls in cottages in the New York State Training School for Girls at Hudson, N. Y., and reported substantial reduction in number of problem cases when groups were formed on the basis of information obtained by a sociomet¬ ric test. Fifth grade children were used in this study, since previous studies have shown that social relationships among younger children are very unstable. Heading was chosen as the special field for study because the capacity of social and emotional fac¬ tors to affect a child’s performance, while evident in most learning situ¬ ations, is especially evident in the acquisition of reading ability. This is true at least partially because the attainment level in reading signifi¬ cantly affects every other type of subject matter. It is also true that society puts an especially high pre¬ mium on reading skill in the child. In the small city where this study has been carried on there are seven fifth grades with an average enroll¬ ment of thirty pupils each. All teaching, heretofore, had been con¬ ducted with an entire grade group with uniform assignments for every child. The superintendent stated in a meeting of fifth grade teachers be¬ fore the opening of school that the director of the study would be at the service of the teachers as consultant, that she would teach classes when requested to do so, and work with teachers either as individuals or groups in their attempts to meet pupil needs. Such supervision as would be given would be unofficial and would be actually educational leadership emphasizing in-service training of teachers. From the be¬ ginning, largely perhaps because of the confidence of the teachers in the superintendent and because of his evident interest in, and wholeheart¬ ed backing of, the study, they ac¬ cepted the offer of unofficial assist¬ ance in teaching problems with 204 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions little evidence of the resistance or even resentment with which super¬ vision is sometimes met. When the California Mental Ma¬ turity Test was given to all fifth grade children at the beginning of the school year, it showed a wide range of ability from school to school and within schools. Two groups had median IQ’s of 110 and a range of points that exceeded 60. Four had median IQ’s of 102-104 and a range of 50 points, and the seventh school had approximately the same range as the last four but a median from 13-15 points lower (89) than the four average schools. On the basis of this wide spread of abilities the seven fifth grade teachers discussed individual differ¬ ences and ways of meeting them. At this stage it was evident that most teachers were primarily ab¬ sorbed with intellectual differences, but it appeared even then that at least one teacher was greatly con¬ cerned about emotional and social differences in her group. When grouping was proposed as a way of meeting differences, it was decided to make a study of some at¬ tempts in this direction to see what light they might throw on the situ¬ ation. Ability grouping and inter¬ est grouping both had advocates, but some teachers showed reluctance to shift from their old one-group procedure. It was agreed that each teacher in conference with her prin¬ cipal would decide which procedure to follow and report at the next meeting. The report was as follows: Two teachers — one of a superior group and one of a near average group — decided to continue to use the grade group only, with uniform assign¬ ments for all, and attempt to provide for individual differences with di¬ rected out-of -school reading. Two;! other teachers — one of an average group and the other of the low group — felt that ability grouping in read¬ ing with material selected for eachi level so that each group would be able to read without strain would best help children to develop in reading skill. The remaining three, while not experienced in interest grouping, ; were eager to try a procedure in which small informal flexible groups . would function frequently. By this time the Progressive Achievement Tests had been given to fifth grades and the results were available for all teachers. Teachers of ability groups had decided to use only two groups. Children with a reading grade score of 4.5 or less would be provided with material with a simple vocabulary but with a high interest level. Others would read the basal text. Teachers 1 using the single grade group only made use of the results to guide their 1 children in selecting books for out- of -school reading. Those using inter- 1 est groups likewise had the results i of the tests at hand to help in wise selection of books. The general plan followed by the teachers using interest groups in reading was : ( 1 ) the selection of a general subject by the group in co- i operation with the teacher, (2) the division of the subject into its vari- i ous phases, (3) the listing of ques- ' tions to which the children wished to find answers on each phase of the subject to be investigated, (4) the election of student chairmen by the i group, each to lead his group in re- search on one phase of the subject, (5) division into groups according to interests, (6) work in groups, : Social Acceptability Among School Children 205 each child reading at his own level to help to answer the questions that had been listed earlier, (7) occasion¬ al meetings of the entire group to discuss problems of the grade as a whole, see a movie pertaining to the general subject, or evaluate prog¬ ress, and finally, (8) some kind of pooled summary of the results of the research. As each teacher followed her own procedure there developed a grow¬ ing concern for the social develop¬ ment of pupils. Some study of Moreno’s sociogram was made and the teachers decided to try a special modification of it as a means of measuring social status. The three questions finally select¬ ed for the sociometric test to be used were by no means the only ones that might have been used and not neces¬ sarily the best ones. It was decided to use one question of a purely social character. “If your mother told you you might invite a child from your room home with you to dinner on Friday night and then to a bas¬ ketball game, whom would you ask?” First choice, second choice, and third choice were called for. The second question was on an academic basis, but called for coop¬ eration between two people. “If you need help in arithmetic and the teacher, being busy, tells you you may ask a child in the room to help you, whom would you ask ? ’ ’ — again, first choice, second choice, third choice. The third question had to do with ability to fit into a group and contribute to the cooperative think¬ ing and effort of the group. “Whom do you like best to have working on a committee with you?” In each case, as above, the child was asked to give first choice, his second if the first were absent, and his third if both the first and second should be absent. There are some respects in which it may seem regrettable that the so¬ ciometric test results could not have been procured earlier in the year. However, since this study has been conceived as primarily one of teacher education, it has been a guiding principle not to use any pro¬ cedures with the groups until the teachers were ready for them. Con¬ sequently school had been in session more than three months and each teacher had had in operation her chosen plan of grouping in reading for from 6 to 10 weeks before the first sociometric test was given. The serious approach of the chil¬ dren themselves to the test and their whole-hearted cooperation in an¬ swering the questions was a matter of note. All seven groups had been taken into confidence as to the year ’s work to the extent that they knew their teachers and the director of the study were working together to try “to find out some better ways to work with boys and girls ’ ’ and they referred to the sociometric test in that connection in discussing it, though they had been told that their teacher hoped that the answers would help her in trying to make them happy in their school home. The teachers’ meeting in which each teacher studied the sociograms showing interpersonal relationships in her own group was the most in¬ teresting of the year. Varying teacher attitudes were plainly evi¬ dent. At least one showed a defens¬ ive attitude at first — “Some chil¬ dren just don ’t have what it takes. ’ ’ Another teacher noticed one girl, who showed up distinctly as a fring- er, who she felt could be helped to attain status with her peers if given 206 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions a chance to help others in arithmetic. Another commented that she believ¬ ed one boy would have been either an isolate or a fringer before he worked in a small group that pre¬ pared an Indian play to show the large group what they had found out about how the Indians of the Southwest lived. Each teacher studied with interest the group of children who were low¬ est in social acceptability to try to decide what the cause was and what direction remedial work should take in each case. Each teacher agreed to try to find something each isolate or fringer could do well and see that he got praise for it. Each teacher also agreed to try to build up the ego of neglected children by giving each some responsibility. The question at this point was, “Would a child rise in social acceptability with his peer group as he appeared to rise in acceptability with the teacher ? ’ ’ A survey of the sociograms taken showed that there was great differ¬ ence in interpersonal relationships within the different groups at that time. The only sociogram showing a group where no child was com¬ pletely neglected was one of the schoolrooms where small-group work had been frequently used in the en¬ tire program for ten weeks. Perhaps it should be noted that this school had at least one problem in social acceptability that no other school in the city faced. A chil¬ dren ’s home that had operated in the city for years moved the first of October so that it was within the bounds of this last mentioned school district and four children joined the group from the Home. This teacher used considerable ingenuity in creat¬ ing situations that would help the rest of the group to realize that boys and girls from the children’s home were perfectly normal children like themselves. She arranged with the director of the Home to have some committees meet there on Saturdays. Since no child was allowed to leave the Home after dinner at night ex-, cept by special arrangement with a responsible adult, she arranged at different times to have a parent of1 one of the children in the room call for one of them and take him along with his own child to a school pro¬ gram or basketball game. It is prob¬ ably not assuming too much to say that the very satisfactory showing of these children on the first sociomet¬ ric test can be attributed to these wise procedures, for there were many indications in the first days after these children joined the group that the others did not accept them without reservations. The second sociometric study was made April 20. In order to be able to draw conclusions about changes in degree of acceptability, it was decided to weight the choices, giving six points for a first choice, three points for a second choice, and one point for a third choice. The small amount assigned to a third choice is justifiable because experiment has shown that the third choice is far less reliable than the other two. Most children will repeat their first and second choices if given a chance to choose again soon after the first op¬ portunity, but will vary the third , choice. The short period of time since the last sociograms were made does not permit a full analysis of results, but such analysis as has been made indi¬ cates that there is a distinct differ¬ ence in the changes in acceptability in the different groups. Rather arbitrarily we have accept¬ ed ten as the dividing point among the scores of social acceptability. 1 Table 1. — Number of Isolates and Fringers in Each of Seven Fifth Grades in Which Varying Group Procedures Had Been Used Throughout the Year. Social Acceptability Among School Children 207 G <1 as -g 02 O H o os oo so 05 ?H o b£ a Tl o > o ao o §.£ H0 lOCO so SO 00 CO 00 CO o -3 -3 . G . G • i G £ S'g g‘g O « § O m bD bjo^ c rg R ^ GrS K . G a) .15 g^ a .Th o ^ Kr ^ r"r\ *"5 S^ S' HHcc cg m bC 02 bJO „ § og pi ,p3 O* 02 »— 1 SO 1> 00 05 SO o 00 CO rH "5frl ^ cq cq T— 1 rH T— 1 i—i CO 00 CO ci CO co I> OM TjH o 05 CO tJH hOO 00 o O rH 1- 1 y— i 02 S 'o a S £ 8 Ol t''- CO o CO sciences is motivated by this hope ; rather than by an insatiable thirst j for knowledge. Consider, for ex- i ample, how many academic persons [ find that their thirst has been perma¬ nently slaked after their Ph.D. dis- , sertation has been accepted! The shortcomings of individual research were indicated recently by Professor f Harold W. Saunders, in reporting | on a census of sociological research in Midwestern colleges and univer¬ sities, when he declared that “most of the research is still highly indi¬ vidualized endeavor, carried on as subsidiary to the function of teach¬ ing, is short run and piecemeal in organization, and is poorly financed, if financed at all, by funds specifi¬ cally allocated for that purpose. ’ n Professor Philip M. Hauser, writ¬ ing at a time when it seemed likely that basic social science research would be provided for bj^ Congress \ under a National Science Founda- 1 “The Status of Research in the Midwest Socio¬ logical Society,” The Mid-West Sociologist, v. 12, No. 2, pp. 15-16 (Spring, 1950). 225 Corporate Research tion, asks the question, 4 ‘ Are the So¬ cial Sciences Ready? ’’and gives a qualified negative answer when he declares that “new research perspec¬ tives are badly needed — perspectives not restricted to projects forced into the molds of the spotty and limited financial support of the past.” He goes on to express the hope that “adequate financial resources will increase the necessity for, and should increase greatly the number of studies made by competent groups rather than by individual investi¬ gators. ’ ’2 Corporate research should not be confused with joint research, nor even with cooperative research in the usual sense of the latter term. J oint i research in science is the equivalent of the partnership in business. It is the situation where two or more in¬ dividual workers, usually represent¬ ing the same discipline and often the same field of specialization, pool their efforts and results. The type of project undertaken by joint re¬ searchers is generally little different from the individual research proj¬ ect, and while the scope of investiga¬ tion may be broadened considerably and the amount of data amassed may be more imposing, joint research nevertheless has most of the charac¬ teristics, and limitations, of individ¬ ual research. All scientific research is coopera¬ tive in the sense that every inves¬ tigator makes use of and builds upon ; the work of others. In the narrower ! sense in which the term is ordinarily f used, however, cooperative research denotes a certain loose cooperation between individuals or institutions (especially the latter) involving, among other things, exchange of in- 2 “Are the Social Sciences Ready?” American I Sociological Review , V. 11, pp. 381, 382 (Aug. 1946). in the Social Sciences formation about projects being worked on, conferences on methodol¬ ogy, mutual exchanges of personnel, and in some cases a pooling of data. An example of cooperative research in which data are pooled would be a series of parallel surveys undertaken in different communities by different investigators, but employing a com¬ mon schedule so that data collected will be more or less comparable. If joint research is comparable to the business partnership, cooperative re¬ search may be compared to the trade association in its looser forms. This is not to disparage cooperative re¬ search, or cooperation in research. There is need for much more coop¬ eration than now exists in the social sciences and it is not contended that the development of corporate re¬ search would reduce the need for co¬ operation in research. Social Science Abstracts, which perished during the depression and which certainly should be revived, was a cooperative enterprise involving interdisciplin¬ ary and inter-institutional coopera¬ tion in reporting research. Carrying to its logical conclusion the scheme of analogy we have used in comparing joint research to the business partnership, and coopera¬ tive research to the trade association, we may say that corporate research is just what its name implies — the application of the principles of corporate organization to scientific research. As implied in the defini¬ tion at the beginning of this paper, it involves (1) division of labor, as distinguished from parallel effort, (2) maximum utilization of special¬ ized training and talent, (3) inter¬ disciplinary team work, (4) integra¬ tion of effort under leadership, and (5) a research plan providing for continuity of effort and the focusing 226 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions of diverse viewpoints upon a single problem or problem complex. Though not implied in our original definition, and not essential to the basic concept, it is important to note also that corporate research, like the business corporation, may make pos¬ sible a better utilization of available economic resources and also bring to the support of scientific research larger aggregates of capital than are likely to be made available to the less organized forms of research. 1. Division of labor. — Adam Smith, in Wealth of Nations, pointed out that in his time (c. 1776) it was not uncommon for an English “fac¬ tory” to consist simply of a ware¬ house in which a number of skilled workers pursued parallel enter¬ prises, each one performing all the successive operations involved in converting raw material to finished products, and that the output of such a factory was simply the sum of the individual outputs. But he went on to show that a transition was in progress, and that in one industry, the manufacture of the common pin, the manufacturing process had been broken down into separate and suc¬ cessive operations, with the use of teams of workmen in which each worker performed only a single op¬ eration ; and he pointed out that, as a result of this division of labor, a team of workers was able to produce several times as much as the sum of the outputs of a similar number of workers working as individuals. In the twentieth century, the advant¬ ages of division of labor in industry are universally accepted, but scien¬ tific research with few exceptions has not yet reached even the stage of the warehouse “factory.” It reposes in a still earlier stage — that of cottage industry and the individ¬ ual craftsman ! In defense 93 443 4.76 2.72 253 57.12 Piebald female X Piebald male . f Normal male X Piebald female . 241 5.60 3.14 135 56.01 Normal female X Piebald male . Entire Colony . 155 858 5.54 3.57 553 64.44 The young from piebald parents are smaller and weaker than normal young and as a result the mother animals, whether normal or piebald, are prone to destroy them. In addi¬ tion to this factor, piebald mothers are more nervous and do not care for their young as well as normal moth¬ ers. The young of piebald mothers are more likely to starve and die from neglect. Reproductive tract abnormalities. — In piebald animals a condition of either partial or total sterility may exist, especially in females. No de¬ tailed study has been made of the cause of sterility in the male piebald animals, but in the case of one male, graded P-10, who was mated num¬ erous times to both piebald and normal females, no young were born. Cases of non-fertile matings are more common among piebald ani¬ mals than in normals. Such non- fertile matings may be due to a con¬ dition of sterility in the male, the female, or both. In a group of 42 piebald females that were sacrificed the reproductive tracts of 7 were abnormal. Among normal females, one with an abnorm¬ al reproductive tract was found in a total of 165 females sacrificed. The abnormalities observed were in the horns of the uteri. Of the 7 piebald females with abnormal tracts, 4 had no left uterine horn, one had a right uterine horn missing, and one had no uterine horns. In one instance the right horn was absent, but the left horn had been pulled across the body cavity and attached near the right ovary. Two of the 7 females had no left kidneys. In the normal female the left uterine horn was absent. In all of these cases the ovaries, fallopian tubes, and lower portions of the reproductive tracts appeared intact. All females with reproductive 242 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions tract abnormalities had at some time been in estrus, exhibited the usual sexual behavior, and had copulated. Each had mated at least twice and some as many as 6 times. In only one case were young known to have been born and that female had a record of four matings, three of which had been non-fertile. After the fourth mating she gave birth to a single animal. After the mother animal had been sacrificed it was found that she had only one uterine horn, the right. The investigation of these repro¬ ductive tract abnormalities is incom¬ plete and more detailed study is in progress. Discussion Coat-color changes in hamsters ( Cricetus auratus) similar to the one described in this paper have oc¬ curred in other hamster colonies in this country. Dr. Margaret Ward Orsini, in a recent personal commu¬ nication, stated that piebald animals which appeared in her colony and were then inbred for several genera¬ tions, developed a greater degree of whiteness than have these animals in the colony here. Hayner (1949) reported a white-faced hamster mu¬ tant appearing among the animals in his hamstery. As far as is known no studies of the genetics of this pie¬ bald mutation in the hamster have appeared in the literature. Data presented in this paper sug¬ gest that there are certain morpho¬ logical variations and possible dif¬ ferences in maternal behavior be¬ tween piebald and normal hamsters which may be related to the coat- color modification of the piebald ani¬ mals. Keeler (1947a) has advanced the hypothesis that such differences, in many mammalian forms, are due to a relationship between a mutant coat-color gene and its correlated modifications of morphology, phy¬ siology, and behavior. Even though results obtained from these studies of the piebald mutant suggest that there is such a relationship, no defi¬ nite statement should be made until the genetics of this strain of ham¬ sters is more fully understood and other studies completed. Results presented here for the normal hamster vary little from those reported by Bond (1945). Body weights of normal animals in this colony show a slightly higher mean body weight up to the time the animals are 100 days of age. After that age the weights are approxi¬ mately the same as those given by Bond, with normal males being heavier than normal females. Bond found that the mean litter size in her colony was 6.93, as com¬ pared to a mean litter size of 6.69 reported here. Summary 1. Normal hamsters (grades P-0 to P-2) show a greater body weight than do piebald hamsters (grades P-3 to P-10). 2. The sex ratio is 1 :1 among normal and piebald animals. 3. Normal hamsters have larger litters than do piebald hamsters, and more young survive in litters pro¬ duced by normal animals. 4. Reproductive tract abnormali¬ ties occur more frequently in pie¬ bald females. 5. The differences in morphology and behavior of piebald hamsters may have a relationship to the mu¬ tant gene or genes producing the coat-color change. 6. Those animals considered Normal and Piebald Hamsters 243 normals in this study have body to those given for a different ham- weights and young per litter similar ster colony. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bond, Charlotte R., 1945, The golden hamster (Cricetus auratus) : care, breeding and growth. Physiol. Zool. 18:52-59. Foote, Charles L., 1949, A mutation in the golden hamster. J. Hered. 60: 100-101. - and Harrison E. Bullock, 1949, Weight variation between piebald and normally colored hamsters. Anat. Rec. 105:108. Hayner, Albert, 1949, Who Knows — and What. 1st Ed.: 275. A. N. Marquis Co., Chicago, Ill. Keeler, Clyde E., 1947a, Modification of brain and endocrine glands, as an ex¬ planation of altered behavior trends, in coat-character mutant strains of the Norway rat. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 22: 202-209. - , 1947b, Coat color, physique, and temperament. J. Hered. 38:271-277. 244 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 PROBLEMS IN THE BIONOMICS OF THE SQUASH BUG, ANAS A TRISTIS (DeGEER) (COREIDAE, HEMIPTERA) W. V. BALDUF* University of Illinois, Urbana Although numerous articles have been published on the squash bug, the bulk of the material concerns methods of control, and many ques¬ tions in the area of its bionomics have either remained untouched or received insufficient consideration. The squash bug has several charac¬ teristics that favor it for observation and experimentation: (1) it is large — about % inch in length; (2) it is common ; ( 3 ) the sexes are readily distinguished; (4) all the stages are passed in full view above ground and can be reared in captivity ; and (5) while capable of flight, the adults tend to remain on foot if food is adequate and the temperature moderate. In view of its suitability for research, a brief summary of its essential bionomics is desirable. The squash bug appears to confine its feeding to members of the family Cucurbitaceae, favoring certain varieties of squash and pumpkin. The coppery brown eggs are attach¬ ed in loose groups to the underside of leaves, and the five instars of greyish nymphs and the brown adults appear on foliage and vines during the growing season. When frost kills the leaves, both nymphs and adults may accumulate, some¬ times in large numbers, on the cu¬ curbit fruits left in garden or field after harvest. The nymphs, while small, tend to remain congregated about the site of the eggs, but they become isolated as they grow larger. * Of the Entomological Laboratories of the Uni¬ versity of Illinois. Only the unmated adults live through the winter, sheltered under rubbish, boards, stone piles, and similar cover. In the northern states, the wintered adults return to cucur¬ bits in June, mate and deposit eggs largely in June and July. The nymphs grow through their five stages from midsummer to October, the old adults die by the late sum¬ mer and the number of new adults increases from July to October. In this latitude and northward, there appears to be only one generation a year. The eggs are subject to attack by minute endoparasitic Hymenop- tera of the families Scelionidae and Encyrtidae while the larva of a tachinid fly, Trichopoda pennipes Fabr., inhabits and destroys both the adults and nymphs (Beard). Notes on Problems Sex ratio. — While observing the behavior of confined squash bugs, Girault found that males mated re¬ peatedly and with different females. From this polygamy, he inferred that the males are numerically in¬ ferior to the females. However, this inference is shown by the data cited below to be incorrect. In his study in Connecticut, Beard collected 1000 adults in August and September, 1935, which “showed 449 males and 501 females, indicating that the new¬ ly matured bugs have a sex ratio of .5. . . . Tabulations made during June and July, 1936, of 1430 over¬ wintered bugs, gathered at random -Lengths and Sex Ratios of Anasa tristis 0 c £ Pi i Percent Bionomics of the Squash Bug g 8 § 3 J2 S 3 - 245 oo 5 Number Collected 498 434 398 946 626 34 91 25 4 3,056 Males Percent 49.80 56.38 49.04 52.86 51.25 48.48 44.51 41.86 42.86 51.79 Number Collected 494 561 383 1,061 658 32 73 18 3 3,283 Total Bugs Collected 992 995 781 2,007 1,284 66 164 43 7 6,339 Length in Millimeters Females Average Lengths 15.36 15.00 14.80 14.83 14.46 14.47 13.94 13.93 14.07 Extreme Lengths 13.0 16.6 13.7 16.5 13.3 16.3 13.3 16.5 13.1 15.3 13.2 16.0 12.5 15.3 12.6 15.7 13.5 14.7 Number Measured (©COQOC^ 567 Males Average Lengths 13.65 13.36 13.22 13.34 13.05 12.71 12.54 12.23 12.93 Extreme Lengths 12.4 15.2 12.0 14.8 12.3 14.5 11.6 14.7 11.5 15.0 12.0 13.4 11.2 13.6 10.8 13.0 12.8 13.0 Number Measured ^l>O0005(NC000C0 544 Date of Collection October 6 . October 8 . October 9 . October 10 . October 13 . October 15 . October 21 . October 28 . November 6. . . . Totals . I 246 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions in the field, included 653 males and 677 females, the difference being of no significance as tested by the Chi- square. ’ 7 In the fall of 1942, I discovered a fine population of nymphs and adults in a one-eighth acre of squash and pumpkin at Urbana, and used it to secure data on the relative num¬ bers of the sexes. Nine separate col¬ lections were made, at times stated in the accompanying table, in the period October 6 to November 6. The numbers taken per day do not represent the total bugs then pres¬ ent, but reflect merely the intensity and duration of the periodic searches. However, all but a very few of the individuals that consti¬ tuted the population were, I believe, secured by November 6. And be¬ cause the bugs showed no inclination to fly when pursued, no significant part of the population was omitted through emigration, nor the number present supplemented significantly, if at all, by immigration from other areas. Only the obviously more ma¬ ture dark-brown adults were taken on any date, to avoid prejudicing the measuring of lengths by the inclu¬ sion of smaller, newly molted unfed individuals. The daily lots were assembled alive in a ventilated half-gallon fruit jar, the cover having a hole just large enough to receive a bug inserted lengthwise, in order to pre¬ vent escape. After asphyxiation in ether, the individuals were segre¬ gated as to sex and a sample of each sex measured. The ventro-caudal area of the male abdomen is trans¬ versely convex and entire, excepting a small median genital “button,” while that of the female tends to be flat and is subdivided into small genital sclerites. Reference to the table will reveal that 51.79 percent of the 6339 bugs that made up the collections were males and 48.21 percent were fe¬ males. It seems likely that each sex would be found to constitute 50 per¬ cent of the population or species if much larger samples were taken over a succession of years and from a number of separate fields. The vari¬ ations in the percentages of males and females taken on the 9 dates are probably to be attributed to chance, and do not indicate an actual or normal fluctuation in numerical pre¬ ponderance of one sex over the other. Moreover, Beard found no evidence to indicate a differential mortality that alters the 50-50 ratio of the sexes throughout the year. The females of this sample ex¬ ceeded the males in length of body by 1.39 mm. The 567 females meas¬ ured averaged 14.53 mm., the 544 males averaged 13.14 mm. in length. The largest female measured 16.6 mm., the smallest 12.5, while the largest male had a length of 15.2 mm., the smallest 10.8 mm. More¬ over, the size of both males and fe¬ males lessened perceptibly and some¬ what gradually as the period of col¬ lecting progressed. Since nymphs were always purposely left in the field in order to permit them to be¬ come adults, it is probable that the later collections contained a high proportion of newly transformed adults. And because late-maturing individuals were obliged to feed on the old fruits, the leaves and vines having been killed by frost early in October, the phenomenon of dimin¬ ishing size appears to reflect an in¬ adequacy of food. Also the progres¬ sive shortening of the days and low¬ ering of temperatures as October progressed maj^ have contributed to this reduction. The life cycle. — Gould, Beard, Bionomics of the Squash Bug 247 Worthley, and Weed and Conradi report one generation in a year in Indiana, Connecticut, Massachu¬ setts, and New Hampshire, respect¬ ively. By inference, some writers suppose the squash bug completes one cycle annually also in other northern states, but this point needs to be checked by studies in the field. Moreover, this bug has two genera¬ tions per year in Missouri (Hase- man) and three in southern Kansas (Wadley), and may produce even more cycles still farther south. Such additional cycles, are, it appears, commonly presumed to result from the higher average temperatures pre¬ vailing at more southerly latitudes. However, these supernumerary cy¬ cles may be even more directly as¬ sociated with the long occurrence of succulent growing cucurbit tissues that is made possible by the pro¬ tracted warm period. Diapause. — -New adult squash hugs develop as early as July in the northern states. Although they ex¬ ist at temperatures favorable to re¬ production from July to September, they are known not to mate and pro¬ duce eggs until the subsequent sum¬ mer. Such failure to advance the life cycle at summer temperatures is a characteristic of diapause. The problem here concerns the identity of the presumed non-climatic factor that inhibits sexual activity in J uly- September, and limits the squash bug to one generation in the north. Some studies on diapausing insects point to the low water content of drying or aging plants as the dia¬ pause-producing factor. It is said to lower the water content in the insect. This suggests that nymphs and adults fed only on succulent seedling cucurbits may not be sub¬ ject to a diapause. Simple laboratory tests embodying this suggestion can probably be easily carried out. How cucurbits are injured. — Be¬ ing equipped with piercing-sucking mouthparts, Anasa tristis removes sap from its food plants. However, such mechanical removal of sap, in itself, seems inadequate to explain the sometimes extensive wilting, searing, and dying of cucurbit crops. Various writers have called atten¬ tion to this wilting, and Robinson and Richards (1930, 1931) state from their investigations that the wilt, for which they propose the name (< Anasa wilt of cucurbits,” is not caused by any parasitic form of bacterium, fungus, or virus. These and other observers suggest that the wilting results from a toxic sub¬ stance injected by the bug while feeding. If so, the toxin is probably contained in the saliva, or salivary glands, and quantities of it might be analyzed by modern microchemical techniques and also injected artifi¬ cially into potted, disease-free cucur¬ bits to note whether it produces the symptoms of wilt as it occurs in the field. If the results prove to be posi¬ tive, the substance might be injected into non-cucurbit plants to note whether it has the power to produce wilt in these also. Why the preference for cucurbits t —The fact that the squash bug chooses cucurbits over numerous other plants present in its environ¬ ment, and moreover, prefers certain varieties of squash and pumpkin over other species and varieties of the family, indicates it is capable of making fine distinctions, presumably through a keen sense of smell resid¬ ing in the antennae or proboscis. This predilection also raises the question whether cucurbits contain a certain combination of nutrients 248 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions essential to the growth and repro¬ duction of the squash bug. Two ex¬ periments are indicated above. First, to find what organ is the seat of se¬ lective sense. Second, to find whether the squash bug can be induced to feed on non-cucurbit plants, e.g. soy¬ beans or corn grown in pots, when such plants are sprayed with ex¬ tracts or decoctions from favored varieties of squash and pumpkin. If nymphs can be reared and adults maintained on such plants, it would be of interest further to note the effects on size, vigor, rate of growth, and capacity for reproduction. It is conceivable that the species might fare better on some non-cucurbits than on the preferred varieties of its chosen family of food plants. REFERENCES Beard, R. L., The biology of Anasa tristis DeGeer, with particular refer¬ ence to the Tachinid parasite, Tri- chopoda pennipes Fabr. Bui. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta., 440, 593-679, 1940. Girault, A. A., Anasa tristis DeG. His¬ tory of confined adults; another egg parasite. Entomol. News, 15, 335- 337, 1904. Gould, Geo. E., Insect pests of cucurbits in Indiana. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 53, 167, 1944. Haselman, Leonard, Controlling insect pests of melons, cucumbers and re¬ lated crops. Bui. Mo. A.E.S. 391, 9-12, 1937. Richards, B. L. and Robinson, L. R., Western squash wilt, Proc. Utah Acad’ Sci. 7, 58, 1930. Robinson, L. R. and Richards, B. L., Anasa wilt of cucurbits, Phytopath¬ ology 21, 114, 1931. Wadley, F. M., The squash bug, Jour. Econ. Entom. 13, 416-425, 1919. Weed, C. M. and Conradi, A. F., The squash bug, Bui. New Hamp. Agr. Exp. Sta. 89, 15-28, 1902. Worthley, H. N., The squash bug in Massachusetts, Jour. Econ. Entom. 16 73-79, 1923. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 43, 1950 249 ECOLOGICAL NOTES ON THAN ATOPH1LTJS AMERICANA L. E. J. LONG, 0. F. M. Quincy College, Quincy Thanatophilus americana L. is a carrion beetle of the family Silphi- dae, tribe Silphini, and subgenus Oiceoptoma Leach. This species is broadly oval and, like the rest of its tribe, strongly depressed. It is about five-eighths of an inch long. The prothorax is yellow with a cen¬ tral black area, and the rest of the body is black or brownish black. Blackburn (1936) describes the morphology of this beetle in detail, including the sexual dimorphism of the apices of the elytra. The campo- deiform larvae are entirely black, very active, have an amazing capac¬ ity for food, are cannibalistic when food is scarce. The larvae of T. americana and related species have been described by Dorsey (1940). T. americana has some advantages as the subject of field and laboratory studies. First, it is abundant in sea¬ son and can be easily collected in baited traps. Second, the adults brought in from the field will live for long periods of time under suit¬ able laboratory conditions. Third, the adults will lay eggs in the labora¬ tory, the eggs can be hatched, and the young raised to the imago stage. Finally, Purina Lab Chow can be substituted for decaying meat as a diet for the beetle, thus eliminating offensive odors. The disadvantages are chiefly these : T. americana cannot be collected, at least in large numbers, except by rather smelly traps ; it is available only during the warmer months; it is a large beetle and thus experiments with large numbers require much space. In spite of these disadvantages, however, T . americana seems to be well adapted to certain types of lab¬ oratory work. This paper is intend¬ ed to introduce T. americana to scientific society as a laboratory ani¬ mal of sorts. Although the collect¬ ing of this beetle still involves malo¬ dorous bait, the odor is mitigated by fresh, outdoor air. And since the objectionable odors of decaying flesh have been eliminated from the process of maintaining this beetle in the laboratory, T. americana’ s debut may be moderately successful. Collecting Methods Cans sunken into the ground and baited with meat have probably been used from time immemorial for traps. But open cans are subject to the depredations of local carnivores, bait lying loose in the can quickly becomes messy, and rainwater may drown the trapped beetles. Certain precautions will avoid these mishaps. Cans with tight-fitting covers should be selected, preferably gallon paint cans, since the covers can be pried off easily after the cans have been sunk into the ground. A cross¬ shaped slit should be cut into the lid and the free ends of the triangles thus formed bent slightly inward. The jagged edges thus formed effect¬ ively prevent any purloining of the bait but do not interfere with the entry of the beetles. The bait should 250 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions be wrapped in gauze, tied with a string, and suspended from a heavy wire bar fastened across the diame¬ ter of the can near the top. If the bait is suspended with a bent paper clip, it can be taken out of the trap easily while the catch is being re¬ moved. Finally, the can should be located so that rainwater will not drain into it and a sizable hole left under it into which water can drain from holes punched through the bot¬ tom of the can. When these precau¬ tions are observed, ground traps prove to be very successful. The disadvantages are chiefly the immo¬ bility of the traps and the inconven¬ ience of removing the beetles with the hand or long forceps. More elaborate hanging traps can be constructed which eliminate the necessity of digging holes in the ground, and which can easily be moved from place to place. This pro¬ vides for easy renewal of the bait, and the beetles can be removed mere¬ ly by screwing off a glass jar and dumping them into a container. A plan for such a trap has been pub¬ lished by the Chicago Museum of Natural History. A modification of this trap was constructed by a local sheet metal shop in Quincy. Wide- mouth, self-sealing fruit jars were used. The center of the cap is dis¬ carded, leaving a metal ring which will screw onto either a quart or pint jar. The metal rims were sol¬ dered to a galvanized metal funnel. Three baffles were soldered to the funnel and screwed to a conical metal roof. A wire cloth capsule for the bait can be inserted easily into the central area of the baffles. This trap has been quite successful. A study of the relative efficiency of the ground and hanging traps and the effect of height will be undertaken during the coming summer. Decaying fish has been used very successfully in the past as a bait in both ground and hanging traps, but there is a tendency for the bait to dry instead of putrifying in the hanging traps. Plans for testing chemical attractants are being made, since a constant lure would be in¬ valuable in field studies. Dethier (1947) mentions some attractants for the Nicrophorini but none for the Silphini, except those generally attracting this type of insect. Habitat In the Quincy area, T. americana has been trapped in sparsely wooded, humid bottomland and along upland streams in wooded areas which remain moist during the summer. In this area, however, it is impossible to study habitats of fly¬ ing insects accurately by trapping, since open fields, scantily wooded areas, and dense woods are inter¬ spersed and no type of habitat is very extensive. During July 1947, eighteen days of trapping in the Chicago area yielded interesting results. Traps were placed in a parkland area near a stagnant pond, in oak forest, and in prairie. In the dunes area several traps were scattered through the black oak, cottonwoods, and fore¬ dunes. Each of these areas was very extensive, covering many square miles. Thus the catch gives some indication of the species present. The parkland traps yield¬ ed 460 T. americana , the prairie traps only one pair, and the traps in the oak forest one single specimen. T. americana was not found in the dunes area. These collections seem to indicate that T. americana is a parkland species, inhabiting open woods or semi-denuded areas where Ecological Notes on Thanatophilus Americana L. 251 water is available. It is absent from other environments, at least during the summer. At Quincy it has been collected from similar areas. T. laponica was the only species present on the prairie in numbers and thus seems to be a prairie spe¬ cies, having been collected from no other area. It has not been taken in the Quincy area, a fact in favor of its being a native of the prairie. T. inaequalis was abundant in the for¬ est of oak on upland areas and show¬ ed up in the black oak forest in the dunes area. T. novel oracensis was not notably abundant anywhere, but 27 specimens were taken in forest traps. Observations indicate that this species breeds early in spring. Recently, April 15, 1950, breeding individuals were observed on a car¬ cass in upland woods, and shortly afterwards hundreds of larvae ap¬ peared. In the spring of 1947 traps were visited almost daily from April 8 to May 29. T. americana appeared later than the other species and was not taken at all or only in small numbers when the night tem¬ perature fell below about 50 °F. Seasonal studies might show an in¬ teresting avoidance of competition between these species in terms of habitats and breeding seasons. Husbandry Laboratory observations and ex¬ periments have indicated the needs of T. americana for survival under domestication. Adult beetles will live for long periods of time in any type of container if provided with food and water. The bottom of the container should be covered with ab¬ sorbent paper or soil. Water may be furnished in small glass dishes. Pieces of gauze or paper should be placed in the dishes so that the beetles can escape drowning by climbing out after falling or crawl¬ ing into the dishes. Meat (cooked or raw), fish, and Purina Lab Chow have been used successfully for food. For life history studies, paired adults may be kept in wide-mouth fruit jars and covered with the origi¬ nal caps in which screen has been substituted for the removable center. Moist soil, water, and food must be provided. The lack of any of these items will stop egg production. The eggs are deposited in the moist soil in cavities excavated as the beetles burrow through the soil. The neces¬ sity of using moist soil usually ex¬ cludes sifting for the eggs since most available soils do not sift well when moist. The eggs can be recovered by searching through the soil with brush and section lifter. The eggs are large and cream- colored and enclosed in a pliable but tough outer cover. They will hatch successfully if placed in petri dishes on moist pieces of paper towel. The eggs quickly swell to about twice the size of a newly laid egg. If they are not kept moist they quickly dry and shrivel up. In this connection it is interesting to note that the adult beetles will not oviposit in dry soil, as shown by an experiment involv¬ ing about four dozen pairs of T. americana. All of 409 eggs, laid over a period of two weeks, were laid in moist soil, although dry soil was equally available and convenient. The larvae can also be maintained in petri dishes, but a wad of wet gauze to supply water and food must be added. During the third instar the larvae eat for the first few days and then become extremely restless unless placed in a container of moist soil where they hollow out a cell with¬ in which they pupate. The soil must be kept moist in order to insure sue- 252 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions cessful pupation and ecdysis. This latter point has the support of ex¬ perimental evidence. Of a total of 56 third instar larvae which were ready to construct their earthen cell, 27 were placed in moist containers and 29 in dry containers. Of the 27 in moist containers, 24 pupated, 21 reached the adult stage. Of the 29 individuals placed in dry containers, 6 pupated and 2 reached the adult stage. Thus 77.8% pupated success¬ fully in moist containers and only 6.9% in dry containers. Life Cycle The eggs hatch in from one to four days, the mean time necessary being about three and a half days. The time spent in the first instar varies from less than one day to about three and a half days. The mean time is slightly less than two days. The second instar is very similar in length to the first. The third instar is the longest stage in the development of this beetle. It varies in length from about 8 days to 14 days, the mean being about 11 days. The third instar larvae are very active for a few days, feeding and then constructing their earthen cell. A few days after the cell is complete, they turn over on their backs and become immobile, except for twitching the abdomen. The pupal stage varies in length from 8 to 13 days, the mean time required being about 8 days. The pupae are extremely sensitive to light and me¬ chanical stimulation of any kind. Towards the end of the pupal stage they are less sensitive but still react easily to slight jarring and strong light. Hence it is difficult to exam¬ ine them closely while alive. The pupae are almost pure white at first but soon develop a light brown col¬ oration on spines, appendages, and peripheral areas. The adult beetles are very light in color at first. The elytra are a semi-transparent white whereas the body is a light brown. Full coloration is developed after two or three days. The mean length of time from egg to adult is about 26 days and varies from 25 to 27. These studies of the life cycle were carried out at a constant tempera¬ ture of 25° C. They will be describ¬ ed in greater detail in another paper. Discussion The study of the complete ecology of T. americana and its relatives promises to reveal interesting inter¬ specific adjustments. T. americana and probably also other species can be used in the laboratory for the study of the effect of temperature and food on the rate of development. Since this beetle will eat and do well on an artificial diet its nutritional requirements can be studied in de¬ tail. The adults are not overly sen¬ sitive to handling and thus make good subjects for behavior studies. Exploratory work along this latter line has been done. It must be said, however, that the usefulness of T. americana as a laboratory animal is still to be proved. REFERENCES Blackburn, 1936. Silpha americana, ex- Attractants and Repellents. Blakiston. ternal anatomy. Ohio Jour. Sci. 36; Dorsey, C. K., 1940. A comparative study 284-299. of the larvae of six species of Silpha. Dethier, V. G., 1947. Chemical Insect Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 33; 120-139. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 43, 1950 253 THE OCCURRENCE OF ENTEROBIUS VERMICULARIS OVA IN DUST FROM HOMES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS WAYNE W WANTDAND, MARY HO, MILDRED M. CARMICHAEL and CLIFFORD STORM Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington In recent studies, a theory has been proposed concerning the occur¬ rence of ova of the pinworm Entero- t)ius vermicularis in household dust. Lentze (1935) showed that eggs were liberated into the air when sheets and clothing contaminated with them were shaken, and sug¬ gested that the ova might be inhaled to produce infection. In studies by Noland and Reardon (1939) (see table 1) and Schuffner and Swellen- grebel (1944), ova were found in dust at all levels of rooms examined, on the floor, upholstery, light fix¬ tures, and on the moulding of doors and windows. The conclusion drawn from their experiments was that vi¬ able ova may be present in the air throughout an infected household and that the possibility of reinfec¬ tion by inhalation of the ova must be considered in prophylaxis and in the therapy of individuals in such households. Our investigation was made to check further this possibil¬ ity and to ascertain the occurrence of Enterol)ius vermicularis ova in the dust of institutions and homes in the Bloomington-Normal, Illinois, area. In the study by Noland and Rear¬ don (1939) of the incidence of En- teroMus vermicularis in persons re¬ siding in or near Washington, D. C., the method of procedure consisted of collecting dust samples from various parts of the houses studied and sub¬ sequent microscopic examination. Pinworm ova were demonstrated in 221 of 241 samples studied (91.7 percent). Schuffner and Swellen- grebel (1944) found enormous quan¬ tities of pinworm eggs on two-meter high window seats of school lava¬ tories, in schoolrooms and in dining rooms where children stayed only for short periods. In the work here reported 3 house¬ holds and 24 public buildings were examined (see table 2). The 3 homes consisted of families with children. Two of them were not clean according to cleanliness stan¬ dards. In the third home, the entire family was being treated for pin¬ worm infection. Twenty-two samples of dust were obtained from these homes. Of the three samples of dust from the home where infection was known to be present, two positive findings were obtained. The 19 samples from the other two homes were all negative. A 9.09 percent positive finding resulted from exam¬ ination of the 22 dust samples from the three homes. The public institutions examined included: 8 schools, 2 orphanages, a children’s ward in a hospital, 3 theaters, 4 hotels, 2 cafes, and 4 other public buildings. A total of 149 samples of dust were obtained from these buildings. Of these, 101 were from the orphanages. Only samples taken from the dormitories and restrooms of the orphanages gave positive results. An 8.1 per¬ cent positive finding for public in¬ stitutions and a 11.8 percent positive 254 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Table 1. — Comparison of Incidence of Enterobius vermicularis Ova in Household Dust of Washington, D. C., and Bloomington-Normal, Illinois, Area. Washington, D. C. (Nolan & Reardon) Bloomington-Normal Illinois Area No. of Homes . 7 3 Households of Known Infection . 7 1 No. of Samples . 241 22 No. of Positives . 221 2 Percent of Positives . 91% 9.09% finding for Bloomington-Normal or¬ phanages was obtained. Most samples from the three homes and the two orphanages were taken from bedrooms or dormitories. A few were taken from the toilet rooms. Samples were taken from all levels of the rooms, especially the framework of beds and places where linen and bed clothing were shaken out, and where night clothing and undergarments were located. In the toilet rooms, dust samples were taken from seats, ledges around the toilet, and the floor. It seems signi¬ ficant that ova were found in only one instance near the floor. They were usually found at levels of from two to five feet from the floor. Two methods of dust sampling and study were employed: (a) the deep-well slide method as described by Noland and Reardon, and (b) the scotch-tape method as used by Schuffner and Swellengrebel for anal smears. The deep-well method consisted of the collection of dust samples with a small camel’s hair brush which had been inserted into a perforated rubber stopper and fitted into a test tube. The brush was moistened with water, passed over a surface, replaced in the test tube, and brought back to the lab¬ oratory for examination. The exam¬ ination consisted of dipping the brush into a few minums of deci- normal sodium hjMroxide solution Table 2. — The Incidence of Enterobius vermicularis Ova in Dust of Public Buildings in Bloomington-Normal, Illinois, Area. Public Buildings Areas Studied No. of Samples No. of Positives Percent 1. Schools . Cloak Rooms Rest Rooms 23 0 0 Halls 2. Hospitals . Childrens Ward 8 0 0 3. Orphanages . Dormitories Toilet Rooms 101 12 11.8 4. Theaters . Auditorium Rest Rooms 3 0 0 5. Other Public Buildings .... Con jested Areas 14 0 0 Total . 149 12 8.1 Entehobius Vermicularis Ova in Dust 255 on a deep-well slide and study of contents under a compound micro¬ scope. The ova having a lower den¬ sity than that of the decinormal sodium hydroxide solution tended to float to the top. A few drops of the solution placed at the hilt of the brush and allowed to flow across it on to the slide seemed to be most effective as a means of cleansing the brush of the dust deposits. Each dust sample was examined three times. No attempt was made to de¬ termine the total number of ova present in any sample. In the scotch- tape method, a one and one-half inch strip of tape was placed over a sur¬ face and then carefully transferred to a clean slide. The slide was then examined under a compound micro¬ scope for ova. Enterobius vermicularis ova were found in all stages of development from those of clear formative proto¬ plasm with many vacuoles to full- grown embryos. Many of the em¬ bryos were in a partially disintegrat¬ ed condition and their viability ques¬ tionable. The eggs were clear and plain and were easily identified without staining. They measured from 50 to 60 microns by 20 to 30 microns and in general, were flat on one side with a distinct membran¬ ous covering. The evidence from this study indi¬ cates that ova of the internal para¬ site, Enterobius vermicularis, are carried by air currents and may be inhaled, and thus be a source of in¬ fection and reinfection. BIBLIOGRAPHY Lentze, F. A., Zur Biologie des Oxyuris vermicularis, Centralbl. Bakt., I Abt., Orig., 135: 156, 1935. Noland, M. 0. and Reardon, L., “Studies on Oxyuriasis: The Distribution of the Ova of Enterobius vermicularis in Household Dust,” Journal of Para¬ sitology, 25: 173-177, 1939. SCHUFFNER, W., AND SWELLENGREBEL, N. H., Eine zweizetige Methode zum Nachweis von Oxyuris Eiern. Ihre Leistung gegenuber dem amerikanis- chen N. I. H. — Wischer. Zentralbl. Bakt. I Abt. Orig. 151 (1) : 71-80, 1943. SCHUFFNER, W., AND SWELLENGREBEL, N. H., “The Demonstration of Eggs of Oxyuris vermicularis in the Anus, in the Dirt of Fingernails and in the Dust of Rooms.” II Zentralbl. Bakt. I Abt. Orig. 151 (2) : 114-122, 1944. 256 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 THE INCIDENCE OF ENDAMOEBA GINGIVALIS IN A CENTRAL ILLINOIS COMMUNITY WAYNE W. WANTLAND, SEIJI NAKADA and HUBERT ENGEL Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington It was believed at one time that Endamoeba gingivalis was the causa¬ tive organism of, or at least associat¬ ed with, the condition known as py¬ orrhea. With the work of Dobell (1919), Craig (1926), and others who denied this claim, the organism has more recently been given a posi¬ tion of less importance as an etio- logic factor in oral cavity disease. Investigators have repeatedly ob¬ served this protozoan in the mouths of humans, particularly at the base of the teeth. The present study was made on a group of dental patients (1) to supply further data relative to the occurrence of this organism in man and (2) to note further its relationship to different conditions of oral hygiene in persons of vary¬ ing age levels. According to Kofoid (1929) at least 75 percent of persons over for¬ ty harbor the organism Endamoeba gingivalis. The incidence of this organism found by L. W. Ritchie (1932) in the Chicago area ran as high as 80 percent in older age groups. Samples for the present study were obtained from 110 pa¬ tients with the cooperation of a practicing dentist1 in the city of Bloomington. Of the 110 samples examined, the following percentages of infection were obtained : Adults, 41.8 percent; teen-age, 11.1 percent; and children, 13.3 percent. The in¬ cidence of Endamoeba gingivalis in different types of mouths was: 100 1 We are indebted to Dr. D. L. Winquist for his cooperation in providing us with samples for study. percent in pyorrhea mouths, 78.3 percent in dirty mouths,2 and 25.8 percent in mouths that showed evi¬ dence of good daily oral hygiene. The dentist was supplied with sterile cotton swabs, and scrapings were taken from the spaces between the teeth, around the region of the gum, and pyorrhetic absesses. The condi¬ tion of the mouth was classified as clean, dirty, or pyorrhetic. The pa¬ tients were divided further into child, teen-age, and adult groups. Since the examination of the scrap¬ ings could not always be undertaken immediately, the swabs were placed in small vials containing 1% cc. of 0.85 percent physiological saline so¬ lution. To insure against change of temperature the vials were kept in an incubator at body temperature. In most cases examinations were made from 3 to 24 hours after the specimens were collected. Most active forms of the organism were found when the examination was made within 12 hours after the sample was obtained. In one instance a very active organism was found after the specimen had been in the incubator for 72 hours. In the microscopic examination of the samples, oil immersion was used. The slides as well as the cover slips were placed in the incubator to pre¬ vent sudden shock due to changes of temperature. The swabs were taken from the vials and smeared on slides. The size of active organisms var- 2 Mouths which indicated poor daily oral hy¬ gienic care — decaying food particles between teeth ; yellow film deposits and stains on teeth. Incidence of Endamoeba Gingivalis 257 T4ble 1 — Incidence of Endamoeba gingivalis Found in This Study of the Bloom¬ ington, Illinois, Area and Ritchie’s Finding of This Organism in Chicago, Illinois. Age Group No. Exam. Sex Pyorrhea Dirty Clean Percentage in Age Group Age Ritch¬ ie’s 07 % 70 Adults . 86 Male. Pos. 4 6 7 41.8 50 and over 41-50 83.4 89.9 Neg. 0 2 23 Female Pos. 1 11 8 31-40 80.7 Neg. 0 2 23 21-30 72.8 Teen-age . . . 9 Male Pos. 1 111 16-20 50 Neg. 5 Female Pos. 0 Neg. 3 Children .... 15 Male Pos. 1 1 13.3 5-15 46.5 Neg. 1 5 Female Pos. 0 Neg. 6 Percentage ii i type of mouth . 100 78.3 25.8 iecl from 12 to 37 microns. The size may double in a matter of minutes and the shape varies constantly, at times being just an amorphous mass. The inactive organisms measured on the average 17 microns. In appearance the endoplasm is usually crowded with food particles and granular material which seems to float in the center of fluid cavi¬ ties. The ectoplasm is crystal clear. The pseudopodia are rounded and blister-like and flow out in the direc¬ tion of movement, at times explo¬ sively and at other times very slow¬ ly. The granular endoplasm then flows into the transparent area. In active forms bacteria seem to adhere to the side opposite the pseudopodia, but in dead forms this adhesive force is lost. Bacteria were also noticed within the cytoplasm. On the slides containing numerous organisms there were fewer free bacteria pres¬ ent. This gives support to the theory that the organism ingests bacteria. Active forms were fixed in Bouins’ solution, stained in haemotoxylin, and permanently mounted. Table 1 shows percentages of in¬ fection found in this study in differ¬ ent types of mouths, age groups, and sex groups with Ritchie’s findings listed for comparison. Since the patients studied represent a cross section of the area with respect to occupation as well as economic status, we feel that the data are highly indicative of the incidence of Endamoeba gingivalis in the mouths of persons in this central Illinois community. 258 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions BIBLIOGRAPHY Cable, Raymond M.: An Illustrated Lab¬ oratory Manual of Parasitology: Min¬ neapolis. 112 pp., 1948. Chandler, Asa C.: Introduction to Para¬ sitology: New York and London. 716 pp., 1948. Craig, C. F. : A Manual of the Parasitic Protozoa of Man: Philadelphia and London. 569 pp., 1926. Dobell, C.: The Amoebae Living in Man: London and New York. 155 pp.. 1919. Hegner, R., Root, F. M., Augustine. D. L. and Huff, C. G.: Parasitology: New York and London. 812 pp., 1938. Ritchie. Lawrence S.: Relation of Endamoeba Gingivalis to Condition in the Oral Cavity: Master’s Thesis, Dept. Zoology, Northwestern Univ., Evanston, 1932. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions, Vol. 43, 1950 259 A NEW METHOD FOR STAINING CELLS WITH COBALT AND BAL THEODORE N. TAHMISIAN and AUSTIN M. BRUES Biology Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Chicago Cobaltous ions when used as a mordant form a colorless complex salt with the tissue constituents. The loci of cobalt complexes are ren¬ dered visible by developing: them to a dark brown with BAL (2-3 mer- captopropanol) .* Since a large amount of sulfur is present in the protoplasm and since cobalt has a high affinity for sulfur, we believe that the original complex formed when the tissue is mordanted in co¬ balt is a cobalt-sulfur complex. An¬ other reason for believing that a co¬ balt-sulfur complex is formed is that a tissue treated as though prepared for an — SH test renders a better color.1 Compounds containing one — SH group do not form any color when cobalt is added unless the pH of the compound is 8.5 or higher. When a compound containing two or more — SH groups is added to cobalt a brown color is immediately obtained. H2S and cobalt form a black sulfide. This staining method is very use¬ ful for the fibrillar portions of the cytoplasm, especially for the stain¬ ing of the mitotic spindle and cen- trioles. We wish to state that this is not a method for testing for the pres¬ ence of — SH groups. Fixation of material with trichloro¬ acetic acid, 10 percent; formalin, 10 percent; Bouin’s solution; Flem¬ ming-Strong solution; Allen’s B-15 * We are indebted to Hynson Wescott and Dun¬ ning, Inc., Baltimore, Maryland. l Rapkine nitroprusside test for — SH groups. Techniques of Histo and Cytochemistry, Inter¬ science Press, New York, 1949. solution; Allen’s B-20 solution; or Zenker’s solution gives good results when stained by the cobalt-BAL method. Blood for staining white cells is fixed in 100 percent alcohol 1 min¬ ute, dried quickly in air, and fixed in 10 percent trichloroacetic acid. The hot method of blood fixation by ig¬ niting the alcohol does not allow staining. The procedure in general is as follows : 1. Fix and embed sections, mount material on slides (bleach if necessary with H202 as in Flemming-Strong technique). 2. Remove paraffin. 3. Hydrate to H20. 4. Place in 5 percent Zn (Ac)2 10 minutes. 5. Rinse 3 minutes. 6. Place in 3 to 5 percent Co (N03)2 or any other cobalt¬ ous salt from 30 minutes to 12 hours. 7. Wash 1 to 30 minutes in run¬ ning tap water. 8. Place in 35 percent alcohol containing 0.5 percent 2-3 mer- captopropanol. ( Note : place the mercaptopropanol into 85 or 95 percent alcohol, then di¬ lute to 35 percent alcohol and 0.5 percent BAL.) 9. Wash, dehydrate, clear, and mount. If the material is placed alter¬ nately into cobalt and BAL, washing in water between cobalt and BAL 260 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Fig. 1. — Metaphase spindle, tissue culture, chick heart fibroblasts. Fig. 2. — Late anaphase, tissue culture, chick heart fibroblasts. Fig. 3/ — Late maturation division, grasshopper testis. Fig. 4. — White cells, human blood. and BAL and cobalt each time, the this technique. The pictures were stain is strengthened infinitely. made using a micro-ipso attachment Figures 1-4 are representative of and 35-mm film. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 43, 1950 261 COLLEGIATE SECTION* THE STUDY OF CICATRIZATION IN PLANT TISSUES DOLORES BRESINGHAM Directed by Dimitri Sokoloff, Ph.D. Mundelein College, Chicago The purpose of this study was to observe the processes by means of which plants heal their wounds and protect the tissues in the vicinity of such wounds from harmful factors. The comparison was made of such processes in a small herbaceous land plant, Oxalis, and the water plant, Elodea. The leaves of the said plants were either cut with scissors or pierced with a needle so that the perforation passed entirely through the leaf. Then the operated leaves were cut off and fixed 10 minutes after the operation, 20 minutes, half an hour, one hour, two hours, and so on up to 24 hours, and then one day, two days, three days, and so on. The fixative used was almost exclu¬ sively acetic alcohol. However, in some cases the sublimate acetic was also used, as intended preparation to the Feulgen reaction. The stain used was exclusively the Harris Modification of Hematoxylin of Delafield. The leaves of both plants were thin enough to allow the total preparation, especially in the case of Elodea. In the case of Oxalis, which is less transparent, the method of microtome sections was sometimes used, the sections being prepared from 7 to 15 microns thick. These sections were also stained with Hematoxylin of Delafield, sometimes after sectioning, sometimes previous- * The second paper in the Collegiate Section chosen for publication by the Committee was withdrawn too late for a replacement to be selected. — Editor. ly, staining the leaf in total and then preparing the sections. In all cases the stain was differentiated by means of alcohol acidulated with hydro¬ chloric acid (2 drops per 100 cc.). Another purpose of this study was to see if some kind of regeneration or new formation would take place at the operated points of the leaves as has been described in some cases, in Begonia and some other plants. Dur¬ ing these experiments, no regenera¬ tion took place either in Oxalis or in Elodea, the process reducing itself to the formation of a protec¬ tive layer. This process proved to be completely different in the land plant and in the water plant. In the land plant, Oxalis, from the biological standpoint, showed nothing but rapid dying away of the cells surrounding the wounds owing to the rapid loss of water because the epidermis was destroyed on both sides of the leaf. The cells thus ex¬ posed to drying rapidly shrank, the protoplasm condensing while the central vacuole containing the cellu¬ lar sap, and normally occupying the greater part of the cell, diminished and finally disappeared. The dimin¬ ishing of protoplasm in volume caus¬ ed the chlorophyll grains to be brought together and to become con¬ centrated. Then the cell became an irregular body containing the nu¬ cleus, which also began to shrink in its central portion, but no process of any kind took place in them. Finally, Fig. 1. — Partly schematized drawing of the perforated wound in a leaf of Oxalis. Fig. 2. — Schematized drawing of the preceding. Figs. 3. and 4. — Parenchyma cells of Oxalis at different stages of contraction owing to evaporation through the wound. Fig. 5. — Drawing of a portion of an incised edge of an Elodea leaf. Fig. 6. — Normal cell of Elodea. Fig. 7. — Elodea cell with part of membrane thickened because of contact with water. Fig. 8. — Normal nucleus of parenchyma cell of Elodea. Fig. 9. — Beginning of degeneration of same. Fig. 10. — Nucleus in advanced stage of degeneration. Cicatrization in Plant Tissues 263 the nucleus was completely crushed by the hardening protoplasm and the whole cell became a small irregu¬ lar clot. The adjacent cells, under¬ going a similar change, fused with it and all together formed a continuous layer of substance in which the in¬ dividual cells could no longer be distinguished. However, for some time the remainder of the nuclei were still seen in stained preparation as irregular granular masses. This layer of substance, mostly proteic in nature, was nothing but coagulated protoplasm, which also contained cellular walls and there¬ fore was partly cellulose. Then it dried up and formed a hard crust completely covering the surface of the wound. Nevertheless, this pro¬ tective layer seemed to be not quite adequate to stop the evaporation un¬ til it became thick enough. The whole process was very rapid, taking only 10 to 20 minutes. A few days following the operation, the protec¬ tive layer extended itself over a few more layers of cells which under¬ went the change described. Here the process stopped, because of the sufficient thickness of the protective layer which prevented the further evaporation of the water. Figure 1 is a drawing of the wound as it appeared in the leaf of Oxalis when pierced with a thin needle. Figure 2 is a schematic rep¬ resentation of the same wound. The first layer of substance which can be seen surrounding the opening is simply a mass of cells crushed by the needle. Outside of this is a layer of cells wdiich died because of the loss of water due to evaporation, and which form a protective layer. Adjacent to the latter layer appear the cells which have already shrunk but still can be distinguished indi¬ vidually. Each nucleus is seen as an irregular stellate body in the center. The outside layer contains living cells not yet affected by the process. The formation of the first protective layer was exceedingly fast, taking place in 10 to 20 minutes; then the only change observed during an in¬ terval of time varying from several hours to several days was growth of the layer. No reproduction of the surrounding cells was observed nor any tendency toward the regenera¬ tion. As a conclusion it can be stated that the healing process of the wound in this small herbaceous plant is not biological in nature and cannot be termed as a true cicatriza¬ tion process because it is simply a physical one consisting of loss of water due to evaporation through the wound, accompanied first by coagulation and then drying up of the protoplasm of the affected cells. However, the fact that these cells fused together allows the formation of a quite adequate protective crust which prevents further evaporation on one hand and on the other gives an adequate protection against the penetration of bacteria and fungi. The only biological phenomenon which takes place is of a necrotic nature. It is a rapid dying away of the cells directly or indirectly affect¬ ed by the lesion. The extreme rapid¬ ity of the formation of the protective layer permits a comparison of it to a certain degree with blood coagula¬ tion rather than with cicatrization. However, the elements involved and the nature of the process are entirely different. A control experiment was carried on by submerging and perforating the plant in water. No formation of a protective layer took place un¬ der these conditions, while the ex¬ posed cells suffered the process of 264 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions gradual disintegration. Therefore, it may be concluded that the principal factor in the formation of the protective layer is the evapora¬ tion of water through the wound. The second part of this work was directed to the study of the same process in a water plant, Elodea. The technique was essentially the same. The young leaves of Elodea were either cut or prickled and then fixed after regular intervals of time. The fixative and the stain was the same as for Oxalis. The process of the wound healing in this case proved to be entirely different than the one observed in the land plant, taking a considerably longer time, and being purely biological in nature and jus¬ tifying the term “ cicatrization.’ ? The cells adjoining the wound and exposed to direct contact with water did not die in most cases, but re¬ sponded to the water stimulus by the thickening of that part of the cell wall which is exposed to such contact. In some cases, as can be seen on the illustrated figures, the cell wall became two or even three times thicker and also stained much more intensely than the ordinary cells. In some cases, it was also ob¬ served that the membrane became multilayered. This process of thick¬ ening or reinforcement of the mem¬ brane implies the local process of secretion, the whole response of the plant in this case being of a purely biological nature. Nevertheless, it must be observed that some cells ap¬ parently are unable to respond quickly enough and die away. Then the adjoining cells reinforce their walls and in this way stop the pro¬ cess of destruction. The nuclei of the cells which could not respond become more compact and refring- ent, later acquiring an irregular out¬ line and finally being destroyed. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 43, 1950 265 MEMORIAL NEIL EVERETT STEVENS 1887-1949 In the death of Neil E. Stevens on June 26, 1949, at the age of 62, the Illinois State Academy of Science lost a supporter and friend whose in¬ terest in our organization was con¬ sistent and helpful during his thir¬ teen years of residence in Illinois. Born in Portland, Maine, in 1887, he was educated at Bates College and at Yale University, which awarded him the Ph.D. degree in 1911. His professional career in¬ cluded one year of teaching at Kan¬ sas State College, 24 years in the Bureau of Plant Industry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture as plant pathologist, and 13 years at the University of Illinois as Profes¬ sor of Botany, Head of the Depart¬ ment, and Professor of Plant Pathol¬ ogy in the Department of Horticul¬ ture. During his professional career, he was active in a number of scien¬ tific organizations, including the American Association for the Ad¬ vancement of Science, the Botanical Society of America, the Mycological Society of America, and the Ameri¬ can Phytopathological Society. He was president of the American Phy¬ topathological Society in 1934 and of the Botanical Society of America in 1947, and served for a number of years on the council of the A.A.A.S. Professor Stevens’ most intensive research centered upon diseases of corn and cranberries, and his publi¬ cations on these diseases are widely recognized and valued for their high scientific quality and their precise writing. His many-faceted person¬ ality and his extensive interests are 266 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions reflected in the numerous papers which he wrote on topics other than his major research interests. His friends and students, as well as those who never had the privilege of per¬ sonal contact with him, will continue to gain mental stimulation and gen¬ tle amusement from his papers on the excessive politeness of American botanists, brevity at botanical ban¬ quets, scientific fads, bureaucracy as a way of life, the re-education of educators, and fun in research. His scientific interests, although center¬ ing upon plant diseases, were not limited to that field, for he published several papers on geology, paleo¬ botany, and the history of American botanists and their works. His total bibliography comprises 176 papers, of which five were published in the Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science. Those who knew Neil Stevens will remember him for his sparkling wit, his intense interest in students and in problems of teaching, his facile pen, his great human sympathies, and his abiding interest in science at all levels, in the high schools and small colleges, as well as in the great universities and scientific founda¬ tions. Though his contributions to American botany and to scientific education in general were extensive and fundamental, he was extremely modest and self-critical. The key to his philosophy of life is found in this gentle and moving inscription carved at his request upon his grave¬ stone : “To travel hopefully is a better thing than to arrive, and the true success is to labour. ’ ’ — Robert Louis Stevenson. Harry J. Fuller Illinois Academy of Science Transactions , Vol. 43, 1950 267 ACADEMY BUSINESS SECRETARY’S REPORT OF THE BUSINESS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE FOR THE YEAR MAY 7, 1949 TO MAY 6, 1950 Compiled by Leland Shanor, Secretary The 43rd annual meeting of the Illi¬ nois State Academy of Science was held at Rock Island on the campus of August- ana College May 5 and 6, 1950. Attend¬ ance at this meeting was somewhat over 500, of whom 319 registered officially, and approximately 400 attended the com¬ plimentary Smorgasbord provided by Augustana College to replace the usual Academy banquet. The sectional pro¬ grams included 105 papers and over 480 people were in attendance at the sec¬ tional meetings. At the general session in the morning, Mrs. Jennie N. Smythe delivered an address on “A National Policy on Television” which was pre¬ pared for the Academy by her husband, Dr. Dallas W. Smythe, Institute of Communications Research, the Univer¬ sity of Illinois, who at the last minute was unable to be present. Following the traditional Swedish Smorgasbord in the evening, the Augustana Choir, under the direction of Mr. Henry Veld, pre¬ sented a very excellent program which contributed much to the pleasure of all attending the meeting. This concert was followed by a lecture on “Aboriginal Australia,” illustrated with Kodachrome movies, by Mr. Frank M. Setzler, Head Curator of the Department of Anthro¬ pology, U. S. National Museum. The auditorium of the College Chapel was completely occupied for the concert and the annual lecture, except for a few seats in the balcony. Those attending the annual meeting this year seemed to be in general agree¬ ment that, through the very gracious hospitality of Augustana College, the Rock Island High School, and the vari¬ ous other organizations in the tri-city area which contributed, the 1950 meet¬ ing can be regarded as one of the out¬ standing annual meetings of the Academy. The past year, in many respects, has been a very good one for the Academy. Our membership has increased by ap¬ proximately 150 new members. The Constitution and By-laws were care¬ fully studied and a revision was passed unanimously by the Academy at the afternoon business meeting on May 5, attended by approximately 125 members. The revised Constitution and By-laws are attached as a part of the Secretary’s report on Business of the Academy. COUNCIL MEETINGS The Council held four meetings dur¬ ing the past year. Dr. Thorne Deuel, newly elected President of the Academy, presided at the first meeting which fol¬ lowed the Council Breakfast, Saturday, May 7, 1949, in Galesburg. The invita¬ tions extended by Navy Pier and Au¬ gustana College to hold the annual meet¬ ing in May 1950 on their campuses were considered. The Council decided to ac¬ cept the invitation of Augustana Col¬ lege and the Rock Island community, and Professor F. M. Fryxell, of Augus¬ tana College, was designated Second Vice-President of the Academy, to be in charge of local arrangements. It was suggested that the Academy establish a registration fee and provide such things as identification badges, etc., for mem¬ bers attending the meeting. The fee was left to be considered at a later council meeting, but the matter of items, such as badges, to be provided at the meeting was approved by the Council. The 268 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions Council passed a motion that the two best papers, or abstracts of papers, pre¬ sented at the Collegiate Section, be in¬ cluded in the TRANSACTIONS. The general concensus of the Council seemed to favor the publication of two papers, if such papers were deemed worthy of publication when considered by the Committee on Publications. The second meeting of the Council was held in Springfield, on October 22, 1949, with President Thorne Deuel pre¬ siding. The Council voted that a regis¬ tration fee of 50c be charged those at¬ tending the meeting and that, at the time of registration, registrants be given copies of the program, information about the local community, and other mate¬ rials that might be appropriate for the meeting. The Council also voted to print the names of sustaining members on the program of the annual meeting and urged the committee on sustaining memberships to endeavor to increase sustaining memberships to make addi¬ tional funds available for Junior Acade¬ my activities. The Council considered a suggestion that the Constitution and By-laws needed revision and a commit¬ tee was appointed to make such a study and to report the suggested revisions for Council approval at its next meeting in time to have a revision ready to sub¬ mit for the action of the membership at the annual meeting in May at Augus- tana College. Following the report of the Chairman of the Conservation Com¬ mittee, the Council approved a motion to go on record as favoring conservation of small areas and that the Academy might actively participate, as far as it could, in such projects. The attention of the Council was called to the severity of a disease of oaks, known as Wiscon¬ sin Oak Wilt, which is spreading into Northern Illinois, and is becoming an increasing menace to our native oak stands. The Council approved a motion that a letter, drawn up by Dr. L. R. Tehon and expressing the Council’s feeling in the matter, be sent to certain government agencies, urging that ad¬ ditional funds be made available for the study of the disease and possible meth¬ ods of controlling it. President Thorne Deuel presided at the third meeting of the Council, held in Springfield on January 14, 1950. Reports of sectional chairmen on the progress being made in arranging the program for the annual meeting, a re¬ port by Dr. Fryxell on arrangements at Augustana College in Rock Island, and reports of chairmen of certain of the standing committees were presented. A preliminary report of the actions of the committee on the revision of the Constitution and By-Laws was given and several suggestions by members of the Council were incorporated in the draft which had been prepared. With these suggestions incorporated, the com¬ mittee was directed to prepare copies of the revision to send to the member¬ ship, along with the program of the annual meeting, so that it could be acted upon at Rock Island. Because of the continued growth of the Junior Acade¬ my, certain problems have developed. Mr. George S. Porter, the General Chairman of the Junior Academy, sug¬ gested a plan whereby the State might be divided into regions for the purpose of holding regional exhibits prior to the annual meeting. Winners of these re¬ gional fairs then would bring their ex¬ hibits to the annual meeting. The General Chairman of the Junior Acade¬ my was authorized by the Council to proceed immediately with this plan, since similar plans have worked very well in other areas, such as music, de¬ bate, and similar activities. The fourth meeting of the Council was held in Rock Island following the an¬ nual Council Dinner. President Deuel presided, and 24 people were present for this Council meeting. Sectional chair¬ men presented their final reports and the General Chairman of the Junior Academy reported on the program of that group. He pointed out that the proposed regional exhibits could not be initiated this year but would be at¬ tempted for 1951. Dr. Fryxell reported on local arrangements and called atten¬ tion to certain changes that were neces¬ sary at the last minute. Dr. O. B. Young Academy Business 269 presented a report to the Council for the Committee on the History of the Illi¬ nois State Academy of Science and had, for the approval of the Council, a manu¬ script on the early history of the Acade¬ my prepared by the chairman of the committee, Mr. W. M. Bailey. He asked that it be published in the Trans¬ actions of the Academy, since this early history of the Academy is no longer generally available. The Council ap¬ proved the publication of this paper in the forthcoming issue of the Transac¬ tions. The Council went over the re¬ vision of the Constitution and By-laws as presented to the membership and had further changes to suggest before the revised copy was to be presented at the business meeting on Friday afternoon for Academy action. REPORT OF THE TREASURER For the Year May 1, 1949 to April 30, 1950 Balance on hand April 30, 1949 Less outstanding checks . $ 1,051.53 4.81 True Cash Balance 1,046.72 Receipts Annual members . $ 1,449.50 Affiliated societies . 4.00 Interest on Meyer real estate . Interest from U. S. Savings Bonds, Series G Libraries . Sales of Transactions . Sales of Reprints . Research Grant by the A.A.A.S . Junior Academy— Sustaining memberships. 1,453.50 9.00 37.50 2.00 14.00 110.40 245.00 270.00 Total Receipts 2,141.40 3,188.12 Expenditures Council Dinner and Breakfast — Galesburg . Local Chairman’s Expenses . Council Expenses During Year . Treasurer’s Office Expenses . Secretary’s Office Expenses . Librarian’s Expenses . Section Chairmen’s Expenses . Science Talent Search Expenses . Conservation Council . Corporation Registration . Secretary, Honorarium . Editor, Honorarium . . . Research Grants . Junior Academy . 73.19 45.49 77.06 25.50 23.61 104.56 8.04 19.12 3.00 3.00 150.00 150.00 245.00 419.71 Total Expenditures $ 1,347.28 Balance in Commercial National Bank of Peoria 1,840.84 $ 3,188.12 Statement of Resources, April 30, 1950 Balance in Commercial National Bank of Peoria . $ 1,840.84 Certificate of Interest for Meyer Block Leasehold . Value Unknown United States Savings Bonds, Series G . 1,500.00 Total Resources . $ 3,340.84 (Signed) W. W. Grimm, Treasurer 270 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON AUDITING To The Illinois State Academy of Science: Your committee on auditing respect¬ fully submits the following report: We have examined the records of the Treasurer, W. W. Grimm, for the year May 1, 1949 to April 30, 1950, and find them correct. The present financial status of the Academy is as follows: Cash on deposit with the Com¬ mercial National Bank of Peoria . $ 1,840.84 Series G, U. S. Savings Bonds, fifteen (15) . 1,500.00 Meyer Block Leasehold Certi¬ ficate No. 15 . (Value Unknown) Assets . $ 3,340.84 (Signed) F. W. LUTTEY, Chairman ALLAN K. SMITH L. P. ELLIOTT REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Your Committee on Resolutions wishes to submit for your consideration the following resolutions: I. The Illinois State Museum Be it resolved , that the Illinois State Academy of Science hereby reaffirms its interest in the Illinois State Museum and the construction at the earliest pos¬ sible date of a suitable and adequate State Museum building. II. Junior Academy Whereas — For several years Mr. George S. Porter has served as General Chairman of the Junior Academy of Science, with the full approval and co¬ operation of the J. Sterling Morton High School, of Cicero, and has achieved not¬ able results in the stimulation of student interest and participation in science; therefore, Be it resolved, that the Illinois State Academy of Science on the occasion of its 43rd annual meeting does express to Mr. Porter personally and to the J. Ster¬ ling Morton High School its appreciation for an outstanding contribution to the education of the youth of Illinois. III. Rock Island Arsenal Be it resolved, that the Illinois State Academy of Science expresses to Col. W. W. Warner, commandant of the Rock Island Arsenal, and to the Army En¬ gineers its appreciation of the unusual opportunity to visit and inspect the Arse¬ nal, during the occasion of the 43rd an¬ nual meeting of the Academy. IV. Deere and Company Be it resolved, that the Illinois State Academy of Science expresses to officials of Deere and Company its appreciation of the unusual opportunity afforded the Academy, on the occasion of its 43rd an¬ nual meeting, to visit and inspect the Company’s plant at Moline, Illinois. V. Davenport Museum Be it resolved, that the Illinois State Academy of Science expresses its ap¬ preciation to Mr. Fred Hall, Director of the Davenport Public Museum, for cour¬ tesies to the Archeological Section, on the occasion of the 43rd annual meet¬ ing of the Academy. VI. Mr. Carl Gamble Be it resolved, that the Illinois State Academy of Science extends sincere thanks to Mr. Carl Gamble for courte¬ sies rendered the Academy and especi¬ ally for the opportunity to visit his astronomical observatory on the occa¬ sion of the 43rd annual meeting of the Academy. VII. Rock Island High School Be it resolved, that the Illinois State Academy of Science expresses its ap¬ preciation to the Principal, Mr. Owren B. Wright, of the Rock Island High School, to Mr. George McMasters, Biology Teacher and local chairman for the Junior Academy, and to their collabora¬ tors for many labors contributing to the success of the Junior Academy exhibits and other sessions on the occasion of the 43rd annual meeting of the Illinois State Academy of Science. Academy Business 271 VIII. Chamber of Commerce Be it resolved, that the Illinois State Academy of Science expresses its appre¬ ciation to Mr. W. L. Keepers, Secretary of the Rock Island Chamber of Com¬ merce, for many courtesies rendered during the 43rd annual meeting of the Academy at Augustana College. IX. Junior Academy Banquet Be it resolved, that the Illinois State Academy of Science expresses its grate¬ ful appreciation to the ladies of St. John’s Lutheran Church, who under the leadership of Mrs. George Myer provided the banquet for the Junior Academy on the occasion of the 43rd annual meeting of the Academy, at Augustana College. X. Augustana College Whereas: Augustana College, through its Board of Directors, its President, Dr. Conrad Bergendoff, Professor F. M. Fryxell, Chairman, and the several and individual members of the Committee on Local Arrangements, has so cordially in¬ vited the Illinois State Academy of Science to hold its present and 43rd annual meeting on the Augustana Col¬ lege campus during the 75th anniversary of the founding of the College, and Whereas: the College, Dr. Fryxell and his committee, and many faculty members and students have labored dili¬ gently to provide necessary facilities and make needed arrangements, and have given generously in time and effort to bring about an outstandingly successful meeting; therefore, Be it resolved, that the Illinois State Academy expresses its sincere thanks for all efforts in its behalf, adds its compliments on arrangements especially well planned and carried out, and ex¬ presses its deep appreciation of the exceptionally cordial and gracious hos¬ pitality that has been offered. XI. Smorgasbord Be it resolved, that the Illinois State Academy of Science extends hearty and appreciative thanks to Mrs. David Beck- strom and her assistants for planning preparing, and serving the traditional Swedish Smorgasbord, an outstanding and happy feature of the 43rd annual meeting of the Academy at Augustana College. XII. Augustana Choir Be it resolved, that the Illinois State Academy of Science, on the occasion of its 43rd annual meeting, expresses its grateful appreciation to Mr. Henry Veld, conductor, and the Augustana Choir for an outstanding musical contri¬ bution to this meeting of the Academy. XIII. Augustana College Band Be it resolved, that the Illinois State Academy of Science, on the occasion of its 43rd annual meeting, expresses its grateful appreciation to Mr. Robert D. Gaskill, conductor, and the Augustana College Band for an outstanding musical contribution to this meeting of the Academy. XIV. Secretary Be it further resolved, that the Secre¬ tary is instructed duly to enter the fore¬ going resolutions on the minutes of the Academy and to transmit copies of the several resolutions to the parties concerned. (Signed) LEO R. TEHON, Chairman HARRY J. FULLER CLARENCE R. SMITH REPORT OF THE NECROLOGY COMMITTEE Whereas: During the past year the Illinois State Academy of Science lost, by death, the members listed below: A. J. Demster R. E. Harris C. R. Moulton Clarence 0. Sappington Emil A. Siebel A. M. Simpson Neil E. Stevens L. O. Trigg Be it resolved: (1) That the Academy expresses its grief over their passing, and (2) That it extends its sincere sym¬ pathy to their families, to whom the Secretary is directed to write letters indicating our sense of loss while we ex¬ tend our sincere sympathy. (Signed) A. GILBERT WRIGHT GEORGE D. FULLER 272 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE (Revised through May 5, 1950) CONSTITUTION Article I. Name This Society shall be known as The Illinois State Academy of Science. Article II. Objects 1. The objects of the Academy shall be the promotion of scientific research, the diffusion of scientific knowledge and scientific spirit, and the unification of the science interests of the state. Article III. Members 1. Active members have the privilege of: Attending meetings, voting, holding office, presenting papers at meetings of the Academy, having such published if they are accepted by the Committee on Publication, and receiving copies of all publications of the Academy. Active members of the Academy shall be as follows : a. Life members shall be those who have paid fifty dollars to the Academy as life membership dues, or have com¬ pleted the payment of the stipulated requirement for life membership be¬ fore May 6, 1950. Life membership dues shall be placed as a permanent fund and only the income is to be used. b. Annual members shall be those who pay the annual membership dues. 2. Student members shall be those undergraduate college students who are elected to membership on recommenda¬ tion of a college faculty sponsor who is a member of the Academy. Student members shall have the privileges of active members except they may not hold elected office in the Academy. 3. For election to active or student membership, the candidate’s name must be proposed by two members, be approv¬ ed by a majority of the Committee on Membership, and be acted upon favor¬ ably by a majority vote of the Council. 4. The dues for annual membership in the Academy shall be two dollars per year. Annual dues for student members shall be one dollar. 5. Sustaining members shall be those individuals or affiliated societies or other organizations who pay an annual dues of ten dollars or more. Funds derived from sustaining memberships are to be used by the Academy to help further the program of the Junior Academy in such manner as the Council of the Academy shall determine by majority vote. 6. Charter members are those who attended the organization meeting in 1908, signed the Constitution, and paid dues for that year. Article IV. Officers 1. The elected officers of the Acade¬ my shall be a President, a First Vice- President, a Secretary, and a Treasurer. These officers shall be chosen by ballot at the time of the annual meeting and shall hold office for one year, or until their successors qualify. 2. The above officers shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respective offices. 3. Ex-officio and appointive officers shall be a Second Vice-President, a Li brarian, and Delegates to the A.A.A.S. and to the Conservation Council. 4. The Second Vice-President , who may be a resident of the community in which the next annual meeting is to be held, shall be appointed by the Coun¬ cil each year when the place of the next meeting has been decided upon, in order that he may serve as the ex-officio chairman of the Committee on Local Arrangements. 5. The Chief of the State Museum Di¬ vision of the Department of Registration Constitution and By-Laws 273 and Education of the State of Illinois shall be the Librarian of the Academy. 6. The Librarian shall have charge of all the books, collections, and mate¬ rial property of the Academy, and shall serve as archivist of all official records and documents of the Academy. The Librarian shall have charge of the dis¬ tribution, sale, and exchange of the published Transactions of the Academy under such restrictions as may be im¬ posed by the Council. 7. Auditing Committee. The presid¬ ing officer shall, prior to each annual meeting, appoint a committee of three who shall examine and report in writ¬ ing upon the accounts of the Treasurer. 8. Three recent past officers of the Academy shall be elected to serve as active members of the Council of the Academy. Article V. Council 1. The Council shall consist of the elected officers of the Academy, the Sec¬ ond Vice-President, the Librarian, three recent past officers of the Academy, the General Chairman of the Junior Acad¬ emy, and the Coordinator of the Collegi¬ ate Section. It shall be the duty of the Council to plan the annual meetings. To the Council shall be entrusted the man¬ agement of the affairs of the Academy during the intervals between regular meetings. 2. The Council shall meet on call by the President of the Academy. 3. The Council shall ordinarily hold four meetings during the year, one just prior to the annual meeting of the Academy, one as shortly after the an¬ nual meeting as is convenient, and two others, normally in November and January. Article VI. Meetings of the Academy 1. The regular meetings of the Acad¬ emy shall be held at such time and place as the Council may designate. Special meetings shall be called by the President upon written request of twenty mem¬ bers. Article VII. Publications 1. The regular publication of the Academy shall be the Transactions of the Academy. 2. The payment of dues entitles all members, except in the case of emer¬ gency, to receive the currently published Transactions of the Academy, but no member in arrears shall receive the published Transactions of any year for which he is or remains in arrears. Article VIII. Foundation Fund The Treasurer shall maintain a per¬ manent fund for the Academy, only the interest on which may be used. This permanent fund shall consist of (1) life membership dues, (2) dona¬ tions, and (3) funds as the Council may see fit from time to time to add from accumulations in the treasury. Article IX. Affiliation The Academy may enter into such relations of affiliation with other organi¬ zations of appropriate character as may be recommended by the Council, and may be ordered by a three-fourths vote of the members present at any regular meeting. Article X. Amendments This constitution may be amended by a three-fourths vote of the membership present and voting at an annual busi¬ ness meeting, provided that notice of the proposed change has been sent by the Secretary to all members at least twenty days before such meeting. BY-LAWS I. Order of Business The regular order of business shall include the following: 1. Call to order 2. Reports of officers 3. Reports of standing committees 4. Election of members 5. Reports of special committees 6. Appointment of special commit¬ tees 7. Unfinished business 8. New business 274 Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 9. Election of officers 10. Program 11. Adjournment II. Notice of Meetings No meeting of the Academy shall be held without thirty days previous notice by the Secretary to all members. III. Quorum Fifteen members shall constitute a quorum of the Academy. Six members of the Council shall constitute a quorum of the Council. IV. Incurrence of Bills No bill may be incurred against the Academy by officers or committees in excess of twenty-five dollars, except as provided for in By-law X, unless ap¬ proved by the President and the Secre¬ tary. V. Dues 1. Dues are payable on or before the date of the annual meeting. 2. Members who, after having been duly notified by the Treasurer, shall fail to pay their dues on or before the date of the annual meeting of any year shall be considered in arrears and if they re¬ main so shall have their names stricken from the membership roll on December 31st of that year. VI. Standing Committees 1. The standing committees of the Academy shall be a Committee on Budg¬ et, a Committee on Affiliations, a Com¬ mittee on Conservation, a Committee on Membership, a Committee on Publi¬ cations, a Committee on the Junior Academy, and such others as the Acad¬ emy shall from time to time deem de¬ sirable. 2. These standing committees shall consist of members chosen annually by the Academy, except for the Committee on Publications. 3. The Committee on Publications shall be appointed by the Council of the Academy and shall consist of six mem¬ bers representing several Sections of the Academy. Two members of this committee shall be appointed for terms of three years, two members for terms of two years, and two for a term of one year. As terms of these members expire, the Council at its meeting just prior to the annual meeting of the Academy, shall make appointments for three year terms. In case of a vacancy the Council shall appoint someone to fill the unex¬ pired term. 4. The Committee on the Junior Academy shall manage the affairs of the Junior Academy with the advice and approval of the Council of the Academy. 5. The Coordinator of the Collegiate Section, who is elected by the Acad¬ emy, with the assistance of a committee if it seems desirable, shall cooperate with the officers elected by the Colleg¬ iate Section in conducting the affairs of that body, subject to the advice and approval of the Council. VII. Sections of the Academy 1. For the annual meeting of the Academy, there may be Sections for the presentation of programs as follows: Anthropology, Botany, Chemistry, Geog¬ raphy, Geology, Physics, Psychology and Education, Social Sciences, Zoology, Collegiate. 2. Other sections may be added on request by ten active members of the Academy and with the approval of the Council. 3. Members of the Academy shall indicate in which section or sections they are particularly interested. 4. Those members present at any section meeting during the annual meet¬ ing of the Academy shall constitute a quorum of the section. 5. They shall elect a chairman for the ensuing year. VIII. Editing of Publications 1. The editing of the Transactions and of any other publications which the Academy may authorize shall be a re¬ sponsibility of the Committee on Publi¬ cations. It shall be the duty of this committee to pass on the merit of papers submitted for publication, select a tech¬ nical editor, and establish, with the ap¬ proval of the Council, editorial policy. Constitution and By-Laws 275 2. A Technical Editor of the Trans¬ actions shall be appointed by the Coun¬ cil upon recommendation of the Commit¬ tee on Publications. The Technical Edi¬ tor shall receive a small honorarium, the amount to be determined by the Council and approved by the Academy. The Technical Editor shall carry out policy determined by the Committee on Publications. IX. Regulations Regarding Papers No paper shall be entitled to a place on the program unless the manuscript or an abstract of the same shall have been previously delivered to the Secre¬ tary. No paper shall be presented at any meeting by any person other than the author, except on vote of the members present at such meeting. Manuscripts of papers intended for publication must be handed to the Secretary at the time of the annual meeting. Except by in¬ vitation of the Council, no paper can be accepted for publication unless the au¬ thor is a member of the Academy or an applicant for membership. No paper shall be accepted for publication which has already been published elsewhere. X. Officers’ Expenses The Secretary and the Treasurer shall have their expenses paid from the treas¬ ury of the Academy while attending Council meetings and annual meetings. Other members of the Council may have their expenses paid while attending meetings of the Council, other than those in connection with annual meetings. XI. Robert’s Rules of Order Robert’s Rules of Order shall cover all situations not specifically provided for in the Constitution or By-laws of the Academy. XII. Suspension or Amendment of By-laws These by-laws may be amended or suspended by a majority vote of the members present and voting at any business meeting. -